Issues in English Education in the Arab World [1 ed.] 9781443871501, 9781443868112

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Issues in English Education in the Arab World

Issues in English Education in the Arab World Edited by

Rahma Al-Mahrooqi and Christopher Denman

Issues in English Education in the Arab World Edited by Rahma Al-Mahrooqi and Christopher Denman This book first published 2015 Cambridge Scholars Publishing Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Copyright © 2015 by Rahma Al-Mahrooqi, Christopher Denman and contributors All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. ISBN (10): 1-4438-6811-6 ISBN (13): 978-1-4438-6811-2

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction ................................................................................................. 1 Rahma Al-Mahrooqi and Christopher Denman Chapter One ................................................................................................. 6 A Conflict of Desires: English as a Global Language and its Effects on Cultural Identity in the United Arab Emirates Sarah Hopkyns Chapter Two .............................................................................................. 37 Unravelling Failure: Belief and Performance in English for Academic Purposes Programs in Oman Thomas Roche, Yogesh Sinha and Christopher Denman Chapter Three ............................................................................................ 60 Adaptation and First-Year University Students in the Sultanate of Oman Rahma Al-Mahrooqi, Christopher Denman and Buthaina Abdullah Ahmed Ateeq Chapter Four .............................................................................................. 83 Challenges of Teaching and Learning English in the Albaha Region of Saudi Arabia: A Diagnostic Study Abdelrazak Mohamed Elsagheer Chapter Five ............................................................................................ 110 Mixed Ability Classes in English Language Teaching: Challenges and Opportunities Shaker Ali Al-Mohammadi Chapter Six .............................................................................................. 125 From Small ‘r’ to Big ‘I’: The Impact of Classroom-Based Action Research in Pre-service Teacher Education Kay Gallagher

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Chapter Seven.......................................................................................... 143 The Effect of Graphic Organizers on the Writing Performance and Attitudes of Omani Grade Eight EFL Students Badria Abdul-Aziz Al-Bulushi Chapter Eight ........................................................................................... 165 Types of Questions Omani Teachers Use in Cycle One and Two Basic Education and Their Effectiveness on Communicative Language Use Shaikha Rashid Sa’eed Al Shabibi Chapter Nine............................................................................................ 192 An Evaluation of Alternative Assessment Tools Used in Grades 5-8 of Omani Basic Education Schools as Perceived by EFL Teachers Maimona Al Ruqeishi Chapter Ten ............................................................................................. 216 Integration of Language Skills and Culture in English Language Teaching: Rationale and Implications for Practice Emira Derbel and Shaker Ali Al-Mohammadi Chapter Eleven ........................................................................................ 233 Teachers’ Views on Learner Autonomy in the Omani Context Alina Rebecca Chirciu Chapter Twelve ....................................................................................... 257 Looking through the Crystal Ball: Exploring Learner Autonomy within the Classroom Dynamic Interrelational Space Alina Rebecca Chirciu and Tulika Mishra Chapter Thirteen ...................................................................................... 283 Checklist Analysis of Oman’s Basic Education EFL Textbooks Series Rahma Al-Mahrooqi, Christopher Denman and Faisal Al-Maamari Chapter Fourteen ..................................................................................... 306 The Changing Status of English in Sudan: A Historical Review Hala Nur Chapter Fifteen ........................................................................................ 318 Problems of English Language Acquisition in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia Khadijah Bawazeer

INTRODUCTION RAHMA AL-MAHROOQI AND CHRISTOPHER DENMAN

As European powers increasingly asserted their influence over the Arab world towards the end of the eighteenth century, many in Arab countries began looking towards the West to learn more about its military, economic, and technological resurgence. Of all the Western-inspired reforms that Arab leaders were to adopt over the coming centuries in the name of social and economic modernisation, it was perhaps those related to education that were to have the most far-reaching effect. In the wake of the Allied occupation of Constantinople in 1918 and the carving up of the Ottoman Empire, education in the English-, French- and Italian-medium schools that already dominated a number of Arabcontrolled towns and territories from Muscat to Stone Town and Cairo to Algiers, came to be complemented by tertiary institutions and universities established in the European model. Well-known examples include the transformation of the Syrian Protestant College into the American University of Beirut towards the end of 1920, the American University in Cairo founded by protestant missionaries in 1919, and the University of Rome supervised post-secondary institutions established after the Second World War in the Italian Trust Territory of Somaliland. The importance the colonial powers and, to an extent, Arab leaders placed on promoting Western-style education systems that offered instruction in European languages for at least that part of the local population considered necessary to act as mediators between the rulers and the ruled, was not seriously challenged with the advent of Arab independence. In fact, while countries such as Somalia and Libya did seek a policy of Arabisation across their public services and education systems, education in French and English remained as sought-after as ever, at least for the children of local elites. A similar situation was also witnessed in the Arab Gulf with the discovery and exploitation of vast oil resources that allowed for the rapid introduction of government-funded education systems including public universities where English continues to operate

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Introduction

as the dominant medium of instruction. In short, English and, to a lesser extent, French, are still viewed by many across the Arab world as keys to modernisation and engagement with the international community. However, despite the clear and important role English has continued to play across many of the nations of the Arab world, it does, nonetheless, pose a number of significant challenges. Many of these can be conceived of as involving reconciling post-colonial identity with the position the languages of former colonial rulers continue to play in the academies, media, businesses, and, quite often, ministries of Arab countries. These include issues of cultural preservation and identity, access to education, employment and social mobility, the heightened risk of individuals without access to the English language becoming marginalised within their own societies, and the potential for loss of native languages and cultures. For example, proponents of the continuing role of English within postcolonial societies such as those found across the Arab world may quote Chinua Achebe’s succinct account of linguistic appropriation and transformation: I feel that the English language will be able to carry the weight of my African experience. But it will have to be a new English, still in full communion with its ancestral home but altered to suit its new African surrounding.

From this perspective, English is not so much a threat to a speaker’s sense of cultural identity as a tool that can be employed in the assertion of that identity. On the other hand, there are those who highlight the language’s potential to alienate people from their own cultures and beliefs while simultaneously defining those who have access to education and, therefore, to social, economic, and political power. With reference to the Arab world, the central role Islam and, by extension, Arabic play in the region may operate as a foil to the realisation of such eventualities. Despite the supposed “buffer” religion may provide against the potential for cultural deracination often evident in other expanding circle countries, the very centrality of religion to life across much of the Arab world does, in itself, open many of these societies to a different, and perhaps in some ways more problematic, set of challenges. The dominance of English in the private and public universities of many countries of the Arab world raises a number of important issues for students, instructors, and policy makers. Among these is the possibility of incongruence between traditional Arab cultural and religious values and the Western values often assumed to be encountered when studying English. Hopkyns looks at the complicated nature of this relationship in

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her exploration of the effects of English as a global language on learners’ sense of cultural identity in the United Arab Emirates. In examining the “two sides to the English coin”, the author offers some of the many benefits and potential pitfalls associated with the language’s increasing centrality to higher education in the Arab Gulf. As Hopkyns describes, English is often employed across the Arab world as a high stakes gatekeeper of educational and social success in contexts where the language itself is not used, outside of a handful of cities, for everyday communication. In this environment, it is conceivable that students of English might find it challenging to learn and retain a language that does not have a great deal of currency beyond their classroom walls. This challenge assumes greater importance when students from predominantly Arabic-medium secondary schools enter English-medium universities. Roche, Sinha and Denman examine the nature of this challenge from the perspectives of students and their teachers in foundation programmes in two Omani universities. AlMahrooqi, Denman and Ateeq then look at the struggles of a similar set of learners in their investigation of the factors influencing the adaptation of first-year foundation students in Oman to their new university surroundings. Recent educational reforms in many countries of the Arab world have sought to promote learner autonomy and to make English classrooms more student-centred. However, for teachers and students often familiar with more traditionally teacher-centred classes where the learner is positioned as a passive recipient of knowledge, this transition raises a number of concerns in terms of educational expectations, suitable teaching methods, and even appropriate forms of assessment. Elsagheer takes a broad view of the nature of these challenges in his diagnostic study of the demands of teaching and learning English in the Albaha region of Saudi Arabia. AlMohammadi then builds upon this work by focusing on one specific aspect of these challenges – the demands of mixed-abilities classes in English language teaching in Oman. With every challenge, however, comes opportunity, and a number of contributors highlight ways in which teachers of English in the Arab world can respond to some of the many demands placed upon them by developing their professional understandings and pedagogical practices. Kay Gallagher, for example, highlights the positive impact that classroombased action research can have on the professional development of preservice teachers in the United Arab Emirates, while Al-Bulushi discusses how the use of graphic organisers in an Omani grade eight English class

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not only enhances learners’ writing performance, but also improves their attitudes towards the writing process. Enhancing students’ English communicative skills was one goal of Al Shabibi’s examination of question types used by teachers in the Omani primary education system. Al Shabibi argues for teachers to focus on the types of questions they use to increase the amount of genuine communicative language available in the classroom. Still within the primary classroom, Al Ruqeishi looks at teacher perceptions of alternative assessment tools for grades 5-8 and finds that these have the potential to develop teachers’ sense of reflection and students’ awareness of their learning, even if there are some major hurdles to implementing these forms of assessment in Oman. Derbel and Al-Mohammadi then offer support for adopting an integrated skills approach to teaching English in the Arab world that incorporates strands of the four core language skills, the target culture, and the cultural backgrounds of students. Encouraging learner autonomy is one way in which students can be empowered to develop their English-language proficiency and to eventually participate in an increasingly globalised workforce. Chirciu examines teachers’ views on the value and means of promoting learner autonomy in Oman, with the conclusion that both teachers’ cultural backgrounds and exposure to professional teaching discourse influence these perspectives. Chirciu and Mishra next take a broader view on learner autonomy that encompasses the ways in which it is realised in the interrelational space of the classroom. Their “crystal ball” calls attention to the complex dimensions of learner autonomy, learner-centeredness, and the nature of the teacher-learner relationship within a local Omani university. Al-Mahrooqi, Denman and Al-Maamari then examine the value of textbooks in the government school system. Their analysis of the government-produced books used in Omani public schools offers a number of suggestions for improving these books to help them more fully contribute to the development of higher levels of English language proficiency among Omani school students. Finally, Nur’s overview of the changing status of English in Sudan both explores the ways in which the language was introduced by the colonizers as a bridging language between the rulers and the ruled and, in the south, was employed in missionary schools as a tool of “enlightenment”. Within this social and historical setting, Nur explores what the new policies towards English in both Sudan and newly-formed South Sudan mean for the people of these countries, and how these policies may affect social cohesion, cultural values, economic development, and interaction with the outside world in the future. A similarly broad

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perspective is taken by Bawazeer in her examination of issues related to the learning and teaching of English in Saudi Arabia. The questions posed by these two authors, in many ways, permeate throughout the entirety of this book, and remain ones that, to this day, elicit no easy response.

CHAPTER ONE A CONFLICT OF DESIRES: ENGLISH AS A GLOBAL LANGUAGE AND ITS EFFECTS ON CULTURAL IDENTITY IN THE UNITED ARAB EMIRATES SARAH HOPKYNS ZAYED UNIVERSITY, UAE [email protected]

Abstract The unique status of English as a global language leaves little choice but to learn it to some degree. However, the question arises as to whether this, consciously or subconsciously, also involves learning about English native-speaker culture and, if so, how this affects learners’ culture and identity. The Arab world’s long and complicated history with Englishspeaking nations, its unique culture and native language, its currently extremely large expatriate community, its youthfulness, and the fact that it is a region undergoing rapid change, make the issue of cultural identity particularly relevant and pressing in this part of the world. This chapter discusses the above issues in detail before presenting female Emirati university students’ attitudes and beliefs regarding learning English and its effects on their culture and identity. These perspectives were gained through a qualitative study using an open-response questionnaire with thirty-five students and a focus group with a further five students. Following content and thematic analysis of the data and discussion of the findings, suggestions are given in order to address issues highlighted by the study. Keywords: English as a Global Language, Arab learners, cultural identity

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1. Introduction – Two Sides to the English Coin One only has to open one of the many local Gulf region newspapers from the UAE to Qatar, from Saudi Arabia to Oman, to see a consistent theme running through the headlines with regard to the English language. ‘Cultural identity in danger in the GCC’ declares the Gulf News (Khamis, 2013), ‘Forum to promote the Arabic language’ announces the Khaleej Times (2014), ‘Teach us English but without its cultural values’ states the Saudi Gazette (Al-Seghayer, 2013) to name just a few. It is clear from local media and public discourse that the relationship between local cultural identity and English as a global language is far from harmonious. Whereas, in the past, English was but one language among others, it is now, without dispute, in a category of its own. The success of the British colonial empire and the subsequent rise of American industrial and technological power have combined to create a situation in which English, uniquely, has come to be accepted as the symbol of a modern technologically advanced society. It is true to say that “whereas once Britannia ruled the waves, now English rules them” (Phillipson, 1992a, p. 1). As a result, English now boasts fluent and semi-fluent speakers of around 1.35 billion people (Payack, 2008, pp. 150-157) making it, as Morrow and Castleton (2014) say, “the Walmart of the language universe” (p. 313). It is the only language spoken on all populated continents, and fifty-two countries have English as their official language. As English plays an important position in many educational systems around the world, with the Arabian Gulf being no exception, “it has become one of the most powerful means of inclusion into or exclusion from further education, employment, or social positions” (Pennycook, 2001, p. 81). This globalization of English does not appear to be slowing down, in fact quite the opposite. In the future, the English language “seems set to play an ever more important role in world communications, international business, and social and cultural affairs” (Graddol, 2001, p. 26). Such a powerful language cannot fail to affect its speakers on multiple levels. Although the waves of English that are currently sweeping over the world in varying dimensions bring a rush of opportunity, progression and excitement in one sense, there is also a recognized “dark side of English” (Karmani & Holliday, 2005, p. 165). Considered by some to be a lingua frankensteinia (Phillipson, 2008, p. 250), or a “killer language” (Fishman, 1999, p. 26), English threatens to drown other languages and cultures in its path. Known as yingyu weixie, meaning “English language threat discussion” in China (Pan & Seargeant, 2012, p. 60), similarly themed discussions are also very much alive in countries such as Turkey (Atay &

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Ece, 2009), Malaysia (Mohd-Asraf, 2005), Saudi Arabia (Alabbad & Gitsaki, 2011) and the United Arab Emirates (Findlow, 2006; O’Neill, 2014; Randall & Samimi, 2010) to name just a few. To many, globalization, and the spread of English that accompanies it, is seen as a new form of “western cultural colonialism” (Ahmed, 2011, p. 120) or “mental colonialism í the subtle push to emulate everything Western including the English language” (Suzuki, 1999, p. 145). As Qiang and Wolff (2005) powerfully describe, English in the eyes of many is “a modern day Trojan horse filled with EFL teachers/soldiers or missionaries, armed with English words rather than bullets, intent upon re-colonizing the world to remake it in the image of Western democracy” (p. 60). Rather than being a neutral language owned equally by all its speakers, Pennycook (2001) argues that “English is deeply embedded in a set of social, cultural, political and economic relations” (p. 158). In this sense, it is difficult to disentangle these elements from each other. Although the “English threat” discussion is worthy of exploration in many areas of the world, it could be argued that, at this point in time, there is no region where attention to the growing disparity between English as a global language and cultural identity is more pressing than in the Arabian Gulf. This is due to a combination of distinct factors including the Arab world’s long and complicated history with English-speaking nations, its unique culture and native language, its current extremely large expatriate community, its youthfulness, and the fact that it is a region undergoing rapid change. This is especially true given the dramatic spread of English in the sphere of education and everyday life in recent years. This chapter will look at the complexity of English in the context of the Arab world both past and present. The concept of cultural identity in the age of globalization will then be explored before discussing the conflict of desires that can often be found when combining these factors. The study, which takes place at a large government-sponsored university in the United Arab Emirates, aims to explore four key research questions. x x x x

What do the languages English and Arabic represent to Emiratis? How does English being a global language affect attitudes towards it? How does learning English affect cultural identity in the UAE? How can the teaching of English in the UAE be adapted to minimize its effect on cultural identity?

The methodology for the study, which involves forty female Emirati university students voicing their perceptions and beliefs through an openresponse questionnaire and a focus group interview, will be explained in

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detail. The data, which was analyzed through content and thematic analysis, will be presented before going on to a discussion of the implications for language teaching and learning in the region. The conclusion will summarize and reflect upon the findings in relation to the above research questions.

2. Literature Review 2.1 English in the Context of the United Arab Emirates – A Bubbling Volcano Today’s Arabian Gulf in general, but especially the UAE, could be described as the ultimate parallel universe compared to how it was less than five decades ago. These dramatic changes are a result of industrialization, urbanization, modernization, and perhaps most strikingly, globalization in terms of the English language and all that accompanies it. Looking back in time, the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries of the United Arab Emirates, Oman, Kuwait, Bahrain, Saudi Arabia and Qatar all share similar but not identical histories with regard to the English language. Nineteenth century British interests in the region due to its convenient location for trade routes to India led to British rule for over 150 years (1820-1971) of what, at the time, was a mainly poor, thinly dispersed and disunited population of Bedouin tribes, pearl divers and traders. Over time, resistance to British presence in the Gulf started building, intensifying after World War II and the creation of the state of Israel by the United Nations. Support for Palestine led to a distinct sense of Arab nationalism, or “pan-Arabism” (Darraj & Puller, 2009, p. 31). When oil was discovered in Abu Dhabi í then known as part of the “Trucial Coast” í in 1958, the atmosphere in the Arabian Gulf changed further. The post-oil Gulf began developing at a staggering pace. As Bristol-Rhys (2009) states, “Buildings seemed to appear magically, towns arose out of the desert, dangerous tracks through the desert were paved, schools and hospitals opened, and the people, scattered throughout separate territories that would soon coalesce into a nation-state, were suddenly catapulted into new lives with new expectations” (p. 107-108). Resentment towards the British intensified and, with the dizzyingly fast influx of petrodollars fuelling the economy, there was no need to prolong relations with Britain, which many perceived as exploitative (Al-Fahim, 1995, p. 42). By the time the British officially left the Trucial Coast in December 1971, “they left behind a jewel, glittering in the desert, which had just begun to transform itself into one of the most innovative,

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successful regions in the world” (Darraj & Puller, 2009, p. 35). However, very few shiny success stories are without problems, and these problems often only become apparent with time. Alongside such dynamic change came the need for a huge number of workers to make such a transformation possible. Workers from Western English-speaking countries, Asia and other Arab nations, were needed for construction, shop work, teaching and business. These workers, mostly using English as a lingua franca, quickly outnumbered the native population to the point where Emiratis now only make up approximately 10% of the population (Findlow, 2006, p. 23). As the workers tend to be on relatively short contacts, there is a constant influx and efflux of this population resulting in Emiratis living amongst constant demographic change. Al-Kitbi (2008) states in the Gulf News article, ‘Prevent being side-lined’, “Demographically speaking, we have become a minority in our homeland. This has seriously threatened the stability of our society, while its values and mother tongue are adversely influenced by these demographic shifts” (p. 3). There is a sense that the situation as it is cannot continue. Khondker’s (2010) article ‘Wanted but not welcomed’ sums up the conflicting attitude towards expatriate workers that is felt in today’s Gulf. In conjunction with the mounting discomfort associated with being a minority in one’s own country are the negative feelings surrounding the highly publicized and distressing events of 9/11/2001 and its aftermath which have caused a deep rift between the Muslim and non-Muslim worlds which, although diffused significantly, is still felt over ten years later. This reality has created what Findlow (2005, p. 285) describes as “a schizophrenic cultural climate”. At the same time as English is gaining more and more ground in the Gulf, so, Findlow continues, is “sensitivity and mixed feelings about the pace and direction of modernization and globalization and resentment at the sheer numbers of foreigners on Emirati soil” (p. 296). English has now become standard in both the formal realms of education and non-formal realms of leisure, tourism and daily life in the Gulf leading to serious concerns about the future of Arabic and local culture. As Said (2011) states, “Some quarters are claiming that the Arabic language is at the beginning of its death and will soon have no speakers, if English continues to be promoted over Arabic, in the media, through domestic South Asian maids and nannies, and in the education system” (p. 179). Ahmed (2011) adds that “the imported education and rampant spread of, and emphasis on, English, accompanied by a relatively American pop culture, is beginning to sideline Arabic resulting in the linguistic and

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cultural loss of those who identify with it” (p. 120). This loss is perhaps felt more deeply due to the contrast between Arabic and English in terms of what the languages represent. As Harris (1991) states, “English is not just a language, any more than Islam is just a religion” (p. 90). MohdAsraf (2005) adds that Islam is “a way of life, with its own worldview; a way of looking at the world that is different í on some fundamental issuesí from that of the Western world” (p. 104). The above factors combined serve to exacerbate the fragility of cultural identity in the region. The question which can be heard over and over again in formal and informal discussions across the Arab World is, as English grows and grows, will there be a point where it takes one step too far? Is there a tipping point, so to speak? Is English turning into a bully rather than a friend? If so, as Fishman (1999) warns, “A bully is more likely to be feared than popular” (p. 31). As Morrow and Castleton (2011) point out, “Each of us has drawn a line in the sand at one time or another, saying, ‘This far and no further’ with regard to the retention of something we cherish” (p. 331). If and when this will happen in the Gulf remains to be seen. In the meantime, the volcano continues to bubble. Although far from showing full resistance, reactions to these concerns can be seen across the Gulf. For example, there are now calls in the UAE to revive Arabic and reduce the effect and impact of English, not only in the education system but in the everyday lives of Gulf Arabs. The UAE government’s high-profile “Emiratization” campaign aiming to reduce its reliance on foreign workers by training and encouraging Emiratis to enter the work force in the private as well as public sector is one such motion (Kirk, 2010, p. 11). Also, in 2008, the UAE government felt it necessary to reaffirm that Arabic is the “official language of all federal authorities and establishments” (Al Baik, 2008, cited in Badry, 2011, p. 91), which highlighted feelings of linguistic insecurity. In addition to this, 2008 was declared “the year of national identity” by the president of the UAE while several conferences and symposia were organized to discuss ways to reaffirm cultural security. The 2012 Qatar University conference on Arabic and identity and the 2014 Gulf Comparative Education Society (GCES) symposium entitled “Locating the National in the International” raised awareness of the issue. Certainly the “English threat” seems to be felt more intensely as English gains more and more strength in the region.

2.2 Cultural Identity in Today’s Globalized World Before further exploring the relationship between English as a global language and cultural identity in the Gulf, it is important to be clear on the

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definitions of the terms involved. Although language is a relatively easy concept to define, culture and identity certainly are not. According to Williams (1976, cited in Hawthorn, 2000, p. 63) culture is “one of the two or three most complicated words in the English language”, making it “notoriously difficult to define” (Spencer-Oatey & Franklin, 2009, p. 13). One can talk about high culture (intellectual and artistic achievements) and anthropological culture (the whole way of life of a people including artifacts, practices, social structures, technologies, languages, myths, rituals, stories and economic systems (Young, 1996, p. 37) or, like Lado (1986, p. 52), “the ways of people” . Popular culture, which refers to something “belonging to and reflecting the interests of a dominant group or class” (Hawthorn, 2000, p. 64), is a third type. True to the complicated nature of culture though, we find that even the three seemingly clear definitions above are still far from ideal. Most of the controversy is centered on the second of the above definitions (people who share “a whole way of life”). As the world becomes increasingly globalized and cosmopolitan, it is becoming less and less common to see groups of people sharing an identical way of life, but rather, as Spencer-Oatey (2000) points out, members of cultural groups tend to show “‘family resemblances’ with the result that there is no absolute set of features that can distinguish definitively one cultural group from another” (p. 4). For this reason, a broader less definitive or confining definition of culture is now more relevant. We must, therefore, move away from essentialism or the “tired old notion of culture” as Latour calls it (2008, cited in Dervin & Liddicoat, 2013, p. 4), and focus on a “small culture” or a non-essentialist view of culture where “culture is not a geographical place which can be visited and to which someone can belong, but a social force which is evident wherever it emerges as being significant” (Holliday, 2005, p. 23). As Dervin and Liddicoat state, “The focus has shifted from cultures as things to human beings as the social enactors of culture” (p. 6). Culture is constantly changing and leaking at the boundaries, it is not a static or neatly packaged block. When we talk of “Western culture” or “Emirati culture”, for example, we must do so with the understanding that there are variations and fluidity within these categories. As with culture, identity is also a complex concept. Identity can be defined as “how a person understands his or her relationship to the world, how that relationship is constructed across time and space, and how the person understands possibilities for the future” (Norton, 2000, p. 5). There are many strands to a person’s identity, which change due to social, linguistic and personal factors, making identity also fluid, dynamic, and

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ever changing over time and space (Block, 2007; Kramsch, 1998; Norton, 2000; Pierce, 1995; Scotland, 2014; Suleiman, 2003). If we specifically look at “cultural identity”, it can be defined as “the relationship between individuals and members of a group who share a common history, a common language and similar ways of understanding the world” (Norton, 2000, p. 19). The intertwined nature of language, culture and identity is well recognized by scholars in the field (Al Dabbagh, 2005; Jenkins, 2007; Karmani 2005; Kramsch, 1998; Suleiman, 2003). As Kramsch (1998) states, “Language is the principle means whereby we conduct our social lives. When it is used in contexts of communication, it is bound up with culture in multiple and complex ways” (p. 3). In this sense, it could be said that “language captures culture” meaning “losing a language is losing culture and losing culture is losing one’s identity” (Said, 2011, p. 191).

2.3 Conflicting Desires When we consider the background, the dynamic change in the last forty years, the demographics and the eagerness to progress, the Arab Gulf is perhaps now more than ever being pulled in two different directions. There seems to be friction between the desire to participate fully in the global market of today and to maintain local customs, traditions and religion. We can see this superficially in the mix of reproduced tradition and modernity that can be seen all over the UAE upon first glance. These examples include, as Clarke (2006, p. 227) mentions, “urban sculptures of coffee pots, pearl shells and sailing dhows, and traditional Bedouin ‘tents’ located in the marbled atria of hotels and shopping malls”. On a deeper level, this “conflict of desires” could have serious effects on language, culture and identity in the region. As Said (2011) queries, “Is there a double-function for English, one of need and the other of resentment perhaps?” (p. 201). Previous studies in the Gulf have investigated this query by looking into attitudes towards English. For the most part, these studies have found mainly positive attitudes towards global English. For example, Findlow’s (2006) study between 1997 and 2000 examined linguistic-cultural dualism and how far this leads to the loss of linguistic-cultural diversity and whether there is resistance to such a process. The results showed that although there may be underlying ideological conflict between wanting to maintain heritage and opportunity associated with English, the climate (modernist, global, a strong economy, no evident material need for resistance) meant English was above all “enabling” (p. 33). Similarly,

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Randall and Samimi’s (2010) study in 2010 with the Dubai Police Academy showed no sign of any overt opposition to English in their questionnaire’s open responses, apart from the word “unfortunately” used in relation to the fact that English is a global language. A year later, Morrow and Castleton’s (2011) study investigated a range of issues including attitudes towards the English language with volunteers from across the Arab world and found responses to be almost entirely positive. Regarding the future of Arabic, they found approximately 80% of participants were optimistic about the future of the Arabic language, while the other 20% were pessimistic. In Saudi Arabia, Hagler’s (2014) recent study conducted in 2012 at King Saud University assessed students’ attitudes to the West and found most (62% of males and 70% of females) held positive outlooks to Western culture and were curious and eager to learn more about it. The previous studies mentioned, although all taking place in the Gulf and wider Arab world in the last fifteen years and investigating similar issues, vary in nature. It is interesting to see such positive attitudes revealed in the studies, especially in the face of the ongoing “English threat” discussion. In the Gulf, however, there is a climate of fast-paced change. With the recent and intensifying upsurge of attention given to the dangers of Arabic and cultural identity loss, it is important to explore current views and fresh perspectives on this ongoing issue.

3. The Study The study, which examines the effects English as a global language has on cultural identity in the United Arab Emirates, seeks to answer four main research questions: 1. 2. 3. 4.

What do the languages English and Arabic represent to Emiratis? How does English as a global language affect attitudes towards it? How does learning English affect cultural identity in the UAE? How can the teaching of English in the UAE be adapted to minimize its effect on cultural identity?

Participants in the study were forty female students aged eighteen to twenty-four years old studying English in the highest level of the Academic Bridge Program (ABP) at Zayed University, UAE. The ABP is an intensive twenty-hour a week English program which students take in order to prepare to study their chosen majors in the medium of English. Each level of the program has specific learning outcomes that students

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must meet before they can progress to the next level. Depending on the level of English students have upon entering the APB, the program can last between one term (three months) to eight terms (two years). Participants were chosen from the highest level, Level 8 (IELTS Band 56), due to their higher language skills, meaning they could express their opinions well in English. The research project involved the collection of qualitative data, “in the form of words rather than numbers” (Punch, 2009, p. 3). Due to the research questions seeking to explore in-depth opinions and experiences, two methods of data collection were used: open response questionnaires with thirty-five students and an hour-long focus group interview with a further five students. The paper-based questionnaire, which took approximately twenty minutes to complete, was given to the students on a voluntary basis in their classrooms with the permission of their teachers. The questionnaire included biographical information as well as eight openresponse questions divided into four categories which matched the four research questions. The focus group interview, which contained fourteen questions ordered sequentially from light biographical questions at the beginning to deeper issues such as identity towards the end, took place during the students’ midday break in the researcher’s office. The interview was recorded with a digital voice recorder for the best possible quality. Regarding sampling, the student sample for the questionnaires included three classes with around twelve participants in each making it a “cluster sampling” as the groups were already in existence and contained a cross-section of university students who plan to major in a range of subjects, with the most popular majors being international studies, media and human resources. The student sample for the focus group included five students from two different Level 8 classes. For this sample, teachers of those classes were asked to call for volunteers and suggest students they thought would contribute well in a focus group setting, making it a purposive sample in this case. Pseudonyms were used to protect students’ identities and the abbreviations of “FG” or “Q” after these names indicate whether the participants were focus group members or questionnaire respondents. The data from the focus group was transcribed verbatim by the researcher, which, as Denscombe (2010, p. 275) points out, can be laborious but is also very valuable, because it brings the researcher “close to the data”. The data from the focus group and open-response questionnaires were analyzed using “content analysis” which involves examining the data for recurrent instances. As Wilkinson (2011) states, “these instances are then systematically identified across the data set, and

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grouped together by means of a coding system” (p. 170). This was used in conjunction with “thematic analysis”, which involves “searching for themes” (Rapley, 2011, p. 274) and noting patterns within the data. The themes were closely connected to the research questions. Used in conjunction, questionnaires and focus groups are highly effective and complement each other in multiple ways. The open-response questionnaire made it possible to gain a relatively large number of perspectives without participants giving too much of their time and energy. The focus group, on the other hand, made it possible for the researcher to concentrate on a smaller number of participants in much greater detail and gain a window into the mind or “life world” (Kvale, 1996, p. 5) of the focus group members, providing particularly rich data. Using the two different methods of data collection enabled the researcher to use methodological triangulation (with-in methods). By looking at issues in more than one way, greater knowledge could be gained, specifically in terms of improved accuracy and accessing a fuller picture.

4. Findings 4.1 The Prevalence and Importance of English The first section of the questionnaire and focus group aimed at assessing how far-reaching English was in the lives of the students. All the students named Arabic as their first language and English as their second. Only three students spoke an additional language (Tagalog, French and Korean), which perhaps testifies to the dominance of English as a second language in the region. The students had been learning English for an average of thirteen years starting in KG1 for most and they use English on a daily basis in one or more areas of their lives. Perhaps not surprisingly, the most common areas in which the students use English are when watching movies (97%), using the Internet (94%), traveling (89%) and emailing/texting (83%). The least common areas to use English were at home (29%) and with friends (40%) as can be seen from Table 1. When asked if English was important to them, all but one student said “yes” (97%). The most common reasons were the fact that English is a global language, wanting to connect with others, the fact English surrounds them due to the large expatriate community, and the fact that it was necessary to get a job.

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Table 1: When the students use English When students use English Movies Internet For traveling Email/texting Music Outside class time at university With friends At home

Yes % 97% 94% 89% 83% 74% 57% 40% 29%

4.2 Feelings about English and Arabic The second section in both the questionnaire and the focus group schedule sought to gain perspectives on how English is viewed in relation to Arabic and also in its own right. Firstly, the participants were asked to name five words that they associated with the languages English and Arabic. This provided a strong picture of what the languages represent to them. For the questionnaire responses, the five most popular words or word groups mentioned in association with English were: global or international, entertainment (movies, music, internet), university or studying, communication, and travel. For the first three categories, over half the participants made these associations with English as can be seen in Table 2. From the focus group, similarly, the words international, simple and freedom were mentioned. In contrast, for Arabic the five most commonly associated words in the questionnaire responses were: culture, religion, first language, poems, and history. All but one student wrote “culture” as a word associated with Arabic, which underlined the strong connection between their native language and culture in the eyes of the students. Religion also appeared in almost all the students’ responses due to it being the language of the Holy Quran. In the focus group, Arabic was associated with a sea of words, the primary language in the Middle East, complexity, and Islam.

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Table 2: The words students associate with English and Arabic Most common words associated with English 1 2 3 4 5

Global/ international Entertainment (movies, music, internet) University/studying Communication Travel

60%

Most common words associated with Arabic Culture 97%

57%

Religion (Quran, Islam, Muslim)

89%

51% 34% 26%

First (language) Poems History

71% 43% 23%

It is clear that there is almost no overlap between how the languages are seen. In fact, it could be argued that the two languages represent opposite worlds. This is especially clear when we look at visual representations of word associations which were generated through the word cloud website Wordle.net. Word Cloud 1 and Word Cloud 2 show all the words mentioned by the students in proportion to how often they occurred. We can see “global” and “culture” leap out from the page and represent very different areas of life. After reflecting on what the two languages represented, the students were asked specifically to comment on their feelings towards English as a global language. As can be seen from Figure 2, just over half had positive feelings. The most common reasons for welcoming English as a global language were that it helped them to communicate with people in other countries, everyone speaks it, and it is easy to learn. One fifth of the students commented on both positive and negative effects. For example, Maryam pointed out the benefits of being able to communicate well when traveling but voiced concerns about the low level of Arabic, and interest in Arabic, Emirati children have these days. This point was raised again and again in various parts of the study, underlining its importance.

A Conflict of Desires English Word Cloud

Arabic Word Cloud

Figure 1. Word clouds based on English and Arabic from participant responses

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Students' ffeelings abo out English ass a global Langu uage n no feelings 12% negattive 14% %

positiive % 54%

m mixed 20% Figure 2. Thee students’ feelings about English as a global language. Maryam (Q) I think it’s good beecause if you travel, you will w be communiccating with peeople using thee English langguage. Also, it’s bad because cchildren are staarting to lose interest i in the A Arabic languag ge and most of thhem can’t talk in Arabic.

The rem maining studennts had eitheer no feelingss or negativee feelings about Englissh, with the most m common feelings beinng those of ressentment, which Meerra, Marwa andd Shaima articulated. For exxample: Meera (Q Q) I feel a litttle bit jealous because I wannt my first lan nguage (Arabic) tto be the globall language. Marwa ((Q) Sometimes,, I feel sorry for fo my language ge, which is Ara abic. I feel it ddeserves to bee the global language l but Arabs let it down. Unfortunaately, I hate thee fact that Engliish is the globa l language. Shaima ((Q) To be honesst with you, I feeel like it’s not a great thing. I don’t know, but sometimes I think t why are we w learning Ennglish and no people p learn ourr language.

4.3 E Effects of En nglish on Liv ves, Culturee and Identity Moving deeper into thhe study, the students weree asked to com mment on whether Ennglish had chhanged any aspects of theeir own lives, Emirati culture or tthe way they think. Thesee questions w were asked in order to gauge the im mpact Englishh has on diffeerent layers oof cultural ideentity. As can be seenn from Figuree 3, the stud dents respondeed differently y to each question.

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Figure 3. Students’ responses to the question, “Has Global English changed: a) your life b) Emirati culture c) Your way of thinking?”

4.4 Effects on Individual Lives Twenty-seven (77%) out of the thirty-five questionnaire respondents felt that English had changed their lives in some way, mostly for the better, in terms of boosting their confidence and independence, making life easier and aiding communication. Aisha and Zeinab view English as enabling as can be seen from their comments. Aisha (Q) My life has become easier than before because I don’t need anyone to come with me to interpret me. Zeinab (Q) I felt embarrassed when I talked but now I am more confident.

4.5 Effects on Emirati Culture When asked about whether English had caused changes to Emirati culture, twenty students (57%) answered with a strong “yes” and five stated they could see partial changes. The most common examples of how culture had changed included a change in attitude towards being more

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open-minded and accepting of other cultures, changes in clothing, an increased use of English and decreased use of Arabic, a desire to be like English native-speakers and increased development in the country. Some of these changes were described in a positive light and some with a negative slant. Regarding Arabic loss, which was the most commented on change, Reema, Abeer and Afnan expressed the following concerns. Reema (Q) Yes, English has a huge impact on our culture, both positive and negative impacts. Positive because it kind of developed our country and improved it, and negative because nowadays almost all of children’s first language is English, which makes it hard for them to learn Arabic or even speak it. And, I’m afraid that our first language may disappear with time. Abeer (Q) I see some Emirati people starting to keep English as their mother language and I really don’t like it because it shows the other cultures we don’t care about our language and that is wrong. Afnan (Q) Yes. Locals don’t speak Arabic nowadays, they feel proud with their English.

This negative cultural change with regard to Arabic loss was also commented on during the focus group. As Shamma, Reem and Nouf stated: Shamma (FG) Some girls when they talk Arabic, they add some English words. The person who listens to them is sometimes confused or the person doesn’t know the meaning. Reem (FG) I think the English language affects the Arabic language negatively because the Arabic language is about to be abandoned. It’s possible to go to a hotel or somewhere and there are no Arabic speakers there. It affects us. We should be proud and introduce our language to the outside world. Like in Germany, if you went to Germany, France, Turkey, they speak in Turkish and they want you to know their language but in the UAE, they don’t. They are covering their own language, they are always showing their English. It’s a negative effect. And in some schools they ask the parents to speak with the English language with their children and a lot of children I know, some of them can’t speak Arabic properly. They speak English better and they prefer the English. Nouf (FG) Also my cousins. They are really so young but they can’t speak Arabic maybe because they spend almost all of their time at the school and with their nanny. So they speak English a lot. So that’s bad for them when

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they grow up. There will be no Arabic language, it will disappear by that time.

These comments signify a general concern about society as a whole, especially in comparison to other nations, and a personal concern if we consider the case of Nouf’s younger cousins, for example. After Arabic loss, the influence of Western culture on national dress was the next most common example of cultural changes connected with English. Amal shared a personal example of removing her hijab (a veil that covers the head and chest worn by Muslim women) after becoming closer to her English-speaking foreign teammates during football practice. She seemed a little uncomfortable sharing this with the other Emirati focus group members: Amal (FG) It affected me a lot because I am a football player. My team players, not all of them are local, some of them are Filipino and American. Before I didn’t speak much English so I moved my arms around a lot so they could understand me. After that I didn’t wear my hijab because it’s difficult to train with hijab. They give me songs to listen to so all my songs on my phone are English. It’s okay.

4.6 Effects on Identity When asked about the impact of English on their identities, which was defined by the researcher as how you see yourself in the world and how you think, the students’ answers were divided. Around half (51%) felt their identities had changed and around half (49%) felt they had not. Nada and Sara commented on using English to express feelings and the effects it has on ways of thinking. Nada (Q) Yes, when I want to express my feelings, I express them by talking English, it is more confident when I talk, more than Arabic. Sara (Q) Yes it does. It affects on the way we think and talk. It affects on us as students and all that we think is how to write it and say in English. I think now Emirati people think like foreign people.

Identity is also connected with the names we are given. In the focus group, Reem gave an example of young Emiratis wanting to use English over Arabic and Anglicize their names on social media sites, thus distancing themselves from their Arabic identity.

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Chapter One Reem (FG) A lot of teenagers, you can see them on twitter, they speak only in English. They feel embarrassed or ashamed if they write in Arabic, and some of them change their names to Joey, he’s Mohamed, but he says “I’m Joey” but he keeps his Emirati family name so we can know he’s Emirati. It affects negatively because we should be proud of our language.

For those who felt English had not affected their identity, reasons were that English was only a language and a tool for communication. Maitha articulated this well. Maitha (Q) No, I don’t think so. I still think in the same way even if I use other languages. I just translate my Arabic words.

4.7 The Future of English The final section of the questionnaire and focus group aimed to determine thoughts and perspectives on how English should be taught in the future. Issues such as the preferred nationality of English teachers, the context of English courses and the most desirable language for university education were explored. The students were first asked if they had preferences regarding the nationality of their English teachers. A range of nationalities was provided as options, including English native-speaker nationalities, their own nationality, other Arabic-speaking nationalities and other European and Asian nations. There was also a space for students to include other choices. As can be seen in Table 3, there was a strong preference for native-speaker teachers especially from the UK, USA and Canada. Interestingly, the fourth most popular choice was Emirati teachers over Australians. German teachers came next with India, China and Egypt being relatively unpopular choices. In the focus group, students were asked the same question. With similar preferences emerging, the students were able to elaborate due to the focus group setting. The main reasons given for wanting a British, Australian or North American (BANA) English teacher were the accents of the teachers and the perceived notion that BANA teachers have “exact” or “right” English, as can be seen by Batool and Amal’s comments below. Shamma added that in the future she approved of Emirati teachers replacing BANA teachers.

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Table 3. Students’ preferences regarding the nationality of their English teacher Country UK USA Canada UAE Australia Germany India China Egypt Other

Percentage of students wanting a teacher of this nationality 86% 71% 60% 54% 46% 29% 6% 3% 3% 20%

Batool (FG) British, American, Canada, Australia teachers are good to learn the exact language, the right English. Amal (FG) Now we are studying in the ABP we need the exact and right English but when we are in general (the majors) it’s OK to have different types of English. Shamma (FG) After five or ten years maybe many girls will graduate from the universities and the government wants to let them to teach the new generation. I think this is a good way to give Emiratis a chance to teach another generation.

The final question in the questionnaire looked at the cultural content of English lessons. When asked whether they were interested in learning about Western culture as part of an English course, 72% of participants said “yes” and only 28% said “no”. It should be noted though that most of the students who said “yes” expressed an interest in learning about other cultures in general with the idea that all new knowledge is good. Nadia’s comment below was common. Nadia (Q) Yes, to know the way they think and learn other cultures as more information in my life.

Whereas those answering “yes” tended to give vague reasons for this choice, very specific reasons were given by those who answered “no”. Meera, Fatima and Abeer stated:

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Chapter One Meera (Q) Not really, because it might mix with our culture because some girls/women or even boys changed their actions like British/American culture that doesn’t fit our religion and culture. Fatima (Q) No, because it will change our culture and our thinking. Abeer (Q) No. They hate us, why should I know about them?

The final question for the focus group investigated the preferred medium of study at university. As can be seen below, Shamma stated that she would prefer to study in both Arabic and English in the future. Reem added that a balance between the languages was desirable. Shamma (FG) I think in university they should teach us in Arabic and English. Most of the English we should learn in Economics and Business. Also, we should keep Arabic in Law and History, for example. Reem (FG) I think it depends on the Ministry of Education, they should push the students to learn English but they shouldn’t let them forget their language. There should be a balance.

5. Discussion of the Findings The findings revealed some distinct patterns and provided answers to the four original research questions.

5.1 What do the Languages English and Arabic Represent to Emiratis? The fact that the languages English and Arabic were associated with very different words revealed contrasting feelings about them. The top five words associated with English í global, entertainment, university, communication and travel í were in sharp contrast with those given for Arabic í culture, religion, first language, poems and history. If we look at the words as groups, it can be said that English is connected with the wider world, education and communication whereas Arabic is connected with local culture and tradition, religion and the past. This supports Findlow’s (2006) theory that distinct worldviews exist with relation to the two languages. For Arabic, these views are connected with “cultural authenticity, localism, tradition, emotions and religion” and for English “modernity, internationalism, business, material status and secularism” (p. 25). Or, as summarized by Abdel-Jawad and Radwan (2011), “Arabic is in the heart while English is in the mind” (p. 147).

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The current way in which the languages are represented may have serious effects on the future. Al-Issa and Dahan (2011) warn that Arabic for Emiratis these days could be viewed: As something old-fashioned which does not merit their attention because, after all, what they are taught and continually reminded of, by everything and everyone surrounding them, is that English is the global language. English is the language of technology, business, medicine, and education – therefore it must be more important than Arabic because it does so much more for them than Arabic ever has the opportunity to (p. 14).

It is true to say that when English is everywhere, its importance cannot help but be stressed.

5.2 How does English Being a Global Language Affect Attitudes towards it? Regarding feelings towards English as a global language, the fact that 54% of participants had positive attitudes towards it supports the results of previous studies which found a majority of positive attitudes (Findlow, 2006; Hagler, 2014; Morrow & Castleton, 2011; Randall & Samimi, 2010). These students recognized the enabling power of English allowing for greater progression and communication. However, 54% is not an overwhelmingly high figure, in fact it is barely over half. This suggests that the traditionally highly positive attitudes towards English found in many previous studies may be turning in recent times. The students with mixed feelings or negative feelings about English showed concern over the effects English is having on the Arabic language, culture and identity. A feeling of resentment was dominant with these participants, with some blaming themselves or their own country for allowing English to “take over” rather than blaming English itself. Comments querying why expatriates were not required or encouraged to speak the official language of the country, Arabic, were raised. It is true that this does not seem to be important as Randall and Samimi (2010) observe that, in the UAE, “Professional institutions specializing in teaching Arabic to adult nonnative speakers of Arabic are a rarity” (p. 45).

5.3 How does Learning English Affect Cultural Identity in the UAE? The results regarding the effects of global English on individual lives, culture and identity were particularly revealing. The vast majority

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(approximately 88%) of participants who felt their lives had been impacted upon by English saw this as mainly positive, making them more confident, independent and able to communicate with a wide variety of people. On the other hand, for the 71% of students who felt English had affected Emirati culture, mixed effects were mentioned along with the negative aspects such as “Arabic loss”, “clothing changes” and “desires to be like English native-speakers” being elaborated on further. We can conclude from this that, whereas the majority of participants felt they benefited personally from English as a global language, they were concerned about its effects on their society as a whole thus causing a classic and distinct “conflict of desires”. On the deeper issue of identity, the students were divided. The fact that only around half (51%) felt English had affected their identities by changing the way they think and how they see themselves in the world indicates that, although lifestyles and culture are more easily influenced by English, identity is harder to change due to its depth. As Norton (2000) states, “Investment in the target language is also an investment in a learner’s own identity, an identity which is constantly changing across time and space” (p. 11), thus showing the connection between how far one is willing to let English change aspects of identity rather than being a passive subject of that change. Identity appears to be more related to choice than other categories.

5.4 In the Future, how can English Teaching be Adapted to Minimize its Effect on Cultural Identity? When looking at how English should be taught in the future in the UAE, it was clear that students still desire native-speaker (NS) teachers from Britain, Australia and North America (BANA), although just over half said they would also like an Emirati English teacher. It is clear that the “native-speaker fallacy”, which is the belief that native speakers intrinsically make better teachers than non-native speakers, is very much alive. There is still a perception that BANA teachers speak “good, exact and right” English. It was estimated in the focus group, however, that in five to ten years’ time, Emirati students will be graduating with excellent English and should be given the opportunity to teach English to the younger generation, which would neatly comply with the government’s Emiratization campaign. Perhaps due to their present desire to be taught by BANA English teachers, the majority of students (72%) were content with learning about Western culture as part of an English course, although this was mainly due to a desire to learn as much as possible about a variety of topics rather than

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specifically wanting to know about Western culture itself. Those who did not want to learn about Western culture had very strong opinions, with the most striking comments being, “They [English native-speakers] hate us, why should we learn about them?”. This opinion perhaps reflects the legacy of the 9/11 media war of words (Rehman, 2007, p. 198), although without probing further, we cannot be sure. The issue of English versus Arabic medium education at university level was only briefly touched upon in the focus group. Comments did indicate that a balance between the two languages would be desirable. This supports results found in O’Neill’s (2014) study in which the majority of Emirati university students stated a preference for studying in English and Arabic equally (60.22%) over any other option. When we look at the future of English teaching in the UAE, there are mixed opinions. Where many are content with BANA English teachers, others look forward to more Emirati English teachers and a greater balance between English and Arabic in university education. Despite the clear patterns shown in the data, it should be acknowledged that due to the relatively small-scale of the study, when it comes to making widespread conclusions regarding Emirati university students in general, one must be hesitant. We also need to consider the identity of the researcher. For the focus group, in particular, the researcher’s background as a British English teacher could have led students to answer in an English-friendly way, although, due to the varied content of the responses, this does not seem to have a major concern.

6. Recommendations and Conclusion Kazim (2000, p. 434) names three types of discourses in the presentday UAE: Conservative, progressive and moderate. The first one aims to preserve past patterns, the second to embrace globalization and the third to strike a balance between the first two. The results from the study reflect these discourses with an overall dominance for the third discourse involving a balance. The study also shows that this balance, especially in terms of Arabic and English, is not currently being addressed. Although this will undoubtedly take time to achieve, there are three main steps in the right direction which can be taken. Firstly, the contrasting ways English and Arabic are currently viewed need to be challenged if Arabic is to stay important and dynamic for generations to come. There need to be just as many incentives to speak Arabic as there are for English. Having clear role models such as leaders and actors using a high standard of Arabic and choosing to do so over

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using English could, for example, be effective. As Said (2011) comments with regard to the current situation: Role models give the overall impression, even if unintentional, that Arabic is not important and neither is learning it. The people feel that using English presents them as sophisticated individuals and that Arabic has a place only in religion and religious discourse and not in everyday ‘worldly life’ (p. 203).

This situation needs to be reversed if Arabic is to play an important role in the future. In the world of literature and research, the same applies. For example, Emirati sci-fi novelist Noura Al Noman sums up the difficulty Arabic writers face by stating, “Too many young adults are abandoning Arabic literature and exclusively reading English; my six kids and I are a case in point.” For an interview with Holland in The National (February 1st, 2014), when asked whether her latest book would be available in English, she honestly responds, “If an English version is published I suspect no one will bother to read the Arabic”. This worrying situation has to change. Making Arabic the official language in 2008 has had little effect if everywhere one goes in the UAE speaking English is necessary to survive. In response to this, Said (2011, p. 205) suggests that Arabic needs to be the public language just as English is in multicultural Britain and America. This would certainly pave the way for the desired balance to be achieved. Secondly, more effort needs to be channeled into teaching Arabic well and including local culture in education. As Badry (2011) states, “For Arabic to remain part of the identity of young and future generations in the UAE (and elsewhere in the Arab world), the same efforts exerted in teaching English must be brought to bear in improving the teaching of Arabic” (p. 112). This could be implemented in a move towards bilingualism in schools and universities in the UAE and the Gulf in general (Ronesi, 2011, p. 75), as also suggested by participants in the study. Regarding greater inclusion of local culture, Ahmed (2011) suggests: When all that is around one is seemingly foreign, as is increasingly the case in the UAE and many of the Gulf countries, any mention of one’s own culture, no matter how simple, may help to maintain it. Issues such as student vulnerability, personal worth, and alienation need to be examined (p. 131).

It is true to say that “English should offer a window on world culture and not on English culture alone” (Nadkarni, 1984, p. 159).

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Finally, the existing native-speaker fallacy, which the study clearly indicates is very much alive, needs to be challenged. Phillipson (1992b) points out, the native-speaker ideal dates “from a time when language teaching was indistinguishable from culture teaching” (p. 13). The primary reason for learning English was assumed to be familiarizing oneself with the culture that English originated from, being able to read its literature, and preparing for contact of some kind with that culture. However, learning another culture is no longer the prime reason for learning English in today’s world. As Bailey (2006) points out, “With recent advances in global transportation and communication, speaking and listening skills have become central goals for language learners, who often use the language to communicate with other non-native speakers (NNSs) rather than with native speakers (NSs)” (p. 296). It is true that, indeed, Emiratis use English mostly to communicate with expatriates who also have English as a second language and, therefore, as Timmis (2002) points out, “The question of whether students should conform to native-speaker norms of English, in an era when English is increasingly used in international contexts, is one which has been keenly debated in recent years” (p. 240). It could, therefore, be argued that the NS fallacy is “no longer valid in light of the current demographics of the world’s English-using population” (Lowenberg, 2000, p. 67). Despite these truths that are very much recognized in the world of TESOL, universities in the Gulf and worldwide still seem to see NS teachers as a “better business draw” (Medgyes, 1994, p. 72). It should be recognized that, due to the fact that NNSs have “gone through the laborious process of acquiring English as a second language and if they have insight into the linguistic and cultural needs of their learners they may in fact be better qualified than native speakers” (Phillipson, 1992a, p. 195). Considering the issues discussed in this chapter, it is clear that there are two sides to the English coin. Global English could be viewed as “an evil we cannot do without” (Abdel-Jawad & Radwan, 2011, p. 147), in that it is necessary due to its global nature, but resented in some ways due to its growing dominance. To research this area further, it would be fascinating to gain the perspectives of a wider range of Emirati students of both sexes as well as older Emiratis. It would also be valuable to gain the perspectives of the many expatriate instructors teaching in the Academic Bridge Program at the university in which the study was conducted. Due to the complexity of the topic under investigation, there is a sense that there is much, much more to explore.

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Darraj, S. M., & Puller, M. (2009). Creation of the modern Middle East: United Arab Emirates. New York: Infobase Publishing. Denscombe, M. (2010). The good research guide (4th ed.). Maidenhead and New York: Open University Press. Dervin, F., & Liddicoat, A. J. (2013). Introduction: Linguistics for intercultural education. In F. Dervin & A. J. Liddicoat (Eds.), Linguistics for intercultural education (pp. 1-28). Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing. Findlow, S. (2005). International networking in the United Arab Emirates higher education: Global-local tension. Compare, 35(3), 285-302. Findlow, S. (2006). Higher education and linguistic dualism in the Arab Gulf. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 27(1), 19-36. Fishman, J. A. (1999). The new linguistic order. Foreign Policy, 113, 2634. Graddol, D. (2001). English in the future. In A. Burns & C. Coffin (Eds.), Analysing English in a global context (pp. 26-37). London: Routledge. Hagler, A. (2014). A study of attitudes toward Western culture among Saudi university students. Learning and Teaching in Higher Education: Gulf Perspectives, 11(1). Retrieved from http://lthe.zu.ac.ae Harris, R. (1991). English versus Islam: The Asian voice of Salman Rushdie. In M. Chan & R. Harris (Eds.), Asian voices in English (pp. 87-96). Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. Hawthorn, J. (2000). Contemporary literary theory. London: Arnold. Holland, J. (2014, February 5). The Emirati sci-fi novelist Noura Al Noman on Arabic versus English. The National. Retrieved from http://www.thenational.ae/ Holliday, A. (2005). The struggle to teach English as an international language. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Jenkins, J. (2007). English as a lingua franca: Attitude and identity. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Karmani, S. (2005). Petro-linguistics: The emerging nexus between oil, English, and Islam. Journal of Language, Identity, and Education, 4(2), 87-102. Karmani, S., & Holliday, A. (2005). Islam, English and 9/11. Journal of Language, Identity, and Education, 4(2), 157-172. Kazim, A. (2000). The United Arab Emirates A.D. 600 to the present: A sociodiscursive transformation in the Arabian Gulf. Dubai: Gulf Book Center. Khaleej Times. (2014, March 3). Forum to promote the Arabic language. Retrieved from http://www.khaleejtimes.com/

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Khamis, J. (2013, December 17). Cultural identity in danger in the GCC. Gulf News.Retrieved from http://gulfnews.com/ Khondker, H. H. (2010). Wanted but not welcome: Social determinants of labor migration in the UAE. Encounters, 2, 205-233. Kirk, D. (2010). The development of higher education in the United Arab Emirates. Abu Dhabi, UAE: The Emirates Center For Strategic Studies and Research. Kramsch, C. (1998). Language and culture. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Kvale, S. (1996). InterViews. London: Sage. Lado, R. (1986). How to compare two cultures. In J. M. Valdes (Ed.), Culture bound (pp. 52-63). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lowenberg, P. H. (2000). Non-native carieties and the sociopolitics of English proficiency assessment. In J. K. Hall & W. G. Eggington (Eds.), The sociopolitics of English language teaching (pp. 67-85). Clevedon, Buffalo: Multilingual Matters Ltd. Medgyes, P. (1994). The non-native teacher. London: Macmillan Publishers. Mohd-Asraf, R. (2005). English and Islam: A clash of civilisations? Journal of Language, Identity and Education, 4(2), 103-118. Morrow, J. A., & Castleton, B. (2011). The impact of global English on the Arabic language: The loss of the Allah lexicon. In A. Al-Issa & L. S. Dahan (Eds.), Global English and Arabic (pp. 307-334). Bern: Peter Lang. Nadkarni, M. V. (1984). Cultural pluralism as a national resource: Strategies for language education. In C. Kennedy (Ed.), Language planning and language education (pp. 151-159). London: George Allen and Unwin. Norton, B. (2000). Identity and language learning. Harlow, England: Longman. O’Neill, G. T. (2014). ‘Just a natural move towards English’: Gulf youth attitudes towards Arabic and English literacy. Gulf Perspectives, 11(1), 1-21. Retrieved from http://lthe.zu.ac.ae Pan, L. & Seargeant, P. (2012). Is English a threat to Chinese language and culture? English Today, 28(3), 60-66. Payack, P. J. (2008). A million words and counting: How global English is rewriting the world. New York: Citadel Press. Pennycook, A. (2001). English in the world/The world in English. In A. Burns & C. Coffin (Eds.), Analysing English in a global context (pp. 78-89). London: Routledge.

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Phillipson, R. (1992a). Linguistic imperialism. Oxford: Oxford University Press. —. (1992b). ELT: The native speaker’s burden? ELT Journal, 46(1), 1218. —. (2008). Lingua franca or lingua frankensteinia? English in European integration and globalization. World Englishes, 27(2), 250-267. Pierce, B. N. (1995). Social identity, investment and language learning. TESOL Quarterly, 29, 9-31. Punch, K. (2009). Introduction to research methods in education. London: Sage. Qiang, N., & Wolff, M. (2005). Is EFL a modern day Trojan horse? English Today, 21(4), 55-60. Randall, M., & Samimi, M. A. (2010). The status of English in Dubai. English Today 101, 26(1), 43-50. Rapley, T. (2011). Some pragmatics of data analysis. In D. Silverman (Ed.), Qualitative research (3rd ed., pp. 273-290). London: Sage. Rehman, J. (2007). 9/11 and the war on terrorism: The clash of ‘words’, ‘cultures’ and ‘civilisations’: Myth or reality? In M. N. Craith (Ed.), Language, power and identity politics (pp.198-215). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Ronesi, L. (2011). Who am I as an Arab English speaker? Perspectives from female university students in the United Arab Emirates. In A. AlIssa & L. S. Dahan (Eds.), Global English and Arabic (pp. 49-80). Bern: Peter Lang. Said, F. F. (2011). Ahyaan I text in English ‘ashaan it’s ashal’: Language in crisis or linguistic development? The case of how Gulf Arabs perceive the future of their language, culture and identity. In A. Al-Issa & L. S. Dahan (Eds.), Global English and Arabic (pp.179-212). Bern: Peter Lang. Scotland, J. (2014). Operating in global educational contact zones: How pedagogical adaptation to local contexts may result in the renegotiation of the professional identities of English language teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education, 37, 33- 43. Spencer-Oatley, H. (Ed.) (2000).Culturally speaking. London: Continuum. Spencer-Oatley, H., & Franklin, P. (2009). Intercultural interaction. London: Palgrave Macmillan. Suleiman, Y. (2003). The Arabic language and national identity. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Suzuki, T. (1999). Why the Japanese people are no good at English. Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten.

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Timmis, I. (2002). Native-speaker norms and international English: A classroom view. ELT Journal, 56(3), 240-249. Wilkinson, S. (2011). Analysing focus group data. In D. Silverman (Ed.), Qualitative research (3rd ed., pp.168-184). London: Sage. Young, R. (1996). Intercultural communication. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd.

CHAPTER TWO UNRAVELLING FAILURE: BELIEF AND PERFORMANCE IN ENGLISH FOR ACADEMIC PURPOSES PROGRAMS IN OMAN THOMAS ROCHE SOUTHERN CROSS UNIVERSITY, AUSTRALIA, AND SOHAR UNIVERSITY, OMAN [email protected]

YOGESH SINHA SOHAR UNIVERSITY, OMAN

AND CHRISTOPHER DENMAN SULTAN QABOOS UNIVERSITY, OMAN

Abstract It is widely accepted that beliefs about education impact upon student behaviour and ultimately their performance. This paper reports on a study of students’ and teachers’ beliefs about effective English for Academic Purposes (EAP) education in two university English-medium programs in the Sultanate of Oman. This research is of particular importance given the increasing number of universities throughout the Arab world where local students are increasingly educated in English by expatriate teachers. The research employs an Arabic-language 45-item, five response-key Likert-scale questionnaire exploring fifteen dimensions of beliefs about effective teaching practice with students (n = 118) and teachers (n = 47). Response means were ranked and t-tests were performed on group means to compare responses between teachers and students, and male and female students. The study found significant attitudinal differences on all

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dimensions between teachers and students. The relationship between students’ responses and performance in the EAP programs, as measured on end-of-semester tests shows that Omani students whose beliefs are in conflict with those of their teachers often perform worse than their fellow students who do not share those beliefs. Based on these results, the authors suggest that pre-university EAP programs should explicitly develop students’ understanding the differences between learning in university EAP classrooms and high school classrooms. Keywords: student beliefs, teacher beliefs, teacher cognition, English as an Additional Language, English as a Lingua Franc

1. Introduction Universities across the Arab Gulf states are increasingly offering English-medium degrees.1 With youth under the age of 25 making up 60% of the Arab world’s current population (Wilkens, 2011), many governments in the region, such as those in the United Arab Emirates, Qatar and Oman, provide subsidies to universities from English-speaking countries to establish branch campuses (Bashir, 2007). Approximately 40 American, Australian and British branch campuses opened in the United Arab Emirates and Qatar alone between 2000 and 2007 (Weber, 2011). While national agendas encourage participation in English-medium programs, some authors have noted that many students in the region struggle with the transition from predominately Arabic-medium high schools to English-medium universities (Mustafa, 2012; Roche, 2013; UNESCO, 2011). Failure transitioning from high school to university can be measured in a number of ways, such as through drop-out (attrition) rates or by the poorperformance of students as measured against recognised benchmarks. Commencing year university foundation program attrition rates in Arab Gulf states range from 20% to 28.6% at the private Sohar University and public Sultan Qaboos University respectively (both in the Sultanate of Oman), but also have been reported as high as 42.3% at the public Kuwait University in Kuwait (Ghanboosi, 2013). Though assessing the learning outcomes of university programs in Arab Gulf states is beyond the scope of the present paper, benchmarking of language proficiency of students in 1

This phenomenon is part of a wider global trend in higher education (Coleman, 2006; Tilak, 2011), and has been critically discussed (Pennycook, 1994; Phillipson, 1992).

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the public and private sector in Oman shows that mean academic writing, reading and vocabulary knowledge scores at the institutions studied in 2009-2012 were significantly below groups of English as Additional Language (EAL) students studying in university programs in Australia (Harrington & Roche, 2014; Roche & Harrington, 2013; Roche, Harrington, Sinha, & Denman, submitted). These figures indicate that there is an issue requiring further investigation in these countries. Students’ difficulties transitioning to commencing year EAP programs in the Arab Gulf university sector have been attributed by some authors (Mustafa, 2012) to the absence of an established culture of literacy within Arab countries2. Researchers elsewhere in Asia attributed transition difficulties of EAL students in universities where programs are delivered in English and where English is used as a lingua franca (ELF) (see Jenkins, 2007) between staff and students from different first language backgrounds to a range of factors. For instance, low levels of English language proficiency were shown to be a stumbling block to success in ELF university programs in Hong Kong (Evans & Morrison, 2011) and in the Sultanate of Oman (Harrington & Roche, 2014; Roche & Harrington, 2013). Lee (2010) and Peacock (1999) found discrepancies between students’ expectations of educational practice and what they encounter insitu in ELF university programs staffed by expatriates in Japan and Hong Kong respectively. This paper investigates the beliefs of students and teachers in Omani higher education institutions and evaluates the relationship between those beliefs and students’ performance in their courses, as captured in their end-of-semester exam results, to see whether students’ pre-conceptions of how EAP classrooms should be run contribute to poor performance in Omani foundation programs.

2. Literature Review: Beliefs in Additional Language Teaching and Learning Research Beliefs research was first carried out in the field of additional language learning by Horwitz in 1985 using the Beliefs About Language Learning Inventory (BALLI). Horwitz (1988) explored the attitudes of 241 first year 2

The UNESCO Arab Human Development Report (2011) estimates that in the Arab states people read on average for a total of six minutes a year while in Western countries the average person reads about 200 hours a year. Though this figure indicates how often people in Arab countries read, and not, how well they read or their literacy skills, the statistic does indicate that the practice of reading is not frequently engaged in, despite being a skill which is central to academic study.

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foreign language learners of German, French, and Spanish at the University of Texas, Austin. Her research suggested that some of the expressed beliefs evinced a reliance on learning strategies that could be detrimental to language learning. Researchers since (e.g. Borg, 2006; Dahl, 1995; Lee, 2010; Nunan, 1995; Wenden, 1999) have emphasised the importance of surveying students’ beliefs as a method of enabling their voices in the classroom, thereby providing educators with relevant understandings that “expand and enrich” (Dahl, 1995, p. 130) their teaching practice. Studies have shown how students from different countries and programs have dissimilar concomitant beliefs about language learning. For example, students in an ELF Hong Kong undergraduate program were overly focused on grammar at the expense of other aspects of the language (Peacock, 1999), whereas students at a university in Austria studying business English were found to be more predisposed to communicative learning activities than other undergraduate EAL student groups (Trinder, 2013). Student attitudes towards language learning have also been explored in relation to gender, though the findings are not in agreement. Siebert’s (2003) BALLI study of participants (64 female and 91 male) studying EAP at universities in the US found that male students reported that grammar was the most important aspect of language learning more often than female respondents. In contrast, Bernat and Lloyd’s (2007) study of EAP students studying English at an Australian university (155 female and 107 male) reported that male and female students generally had similar views on language learning. When the BALLI was employed on a culturally homogenous population of 236 Saudi Arabian Qassim University students (111 females and 125 males), Daif-Allah (2012) found that girls believed it is easier for women than men to learn a foreign language. Differing results here suggest that gender groups within national or ethnic groups may have their own sets of beliefs which should be taken into account. In parallel to an increasing interest in students’ beliefs, a growing body of research has emerged on teachers’ beliefs, also referred to as teacher cognition3. Though it is noted in the literature that teachers’ beliefs may be

3

Teacher cognition in Phipps & Borg’s (2009) study was defined as “thoughts about what should be done with teaching”, and include both core and peripheral beliefs. Core beliefs are “experientially ingrained” (p. 388), and “are stable and exert a more powerful influence on behaviour than peripheral beliefs” (p. 381), whereas peripheral beliefs are “theoretically embraced” and “may not be reflected in pedagogical practices due to the influence of contextual factors” (p. 388). This is

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at odds with their practices (Basturkmen, 2012; Karavas-Doukas, 1996; Niu & Andrews, 2012) and, as such, are not always a reliable guide to practice (Pajares, 1992), it is generally accepted that teachers’ beliefs influence their behaviours in additional language classrooms (Basturkmen, 2012; Borg, 2011; Lee, 2010), and have a strong effect on pedagogical decisions (Johnson, 1994). Bell (2005) surveyed 457 post-secondary teachers teaching languages other than English in the United States and noted an emerging professional consensus strongly reflecting assumptions underpinning the communicative approach (e.g. the importance of group work, negotiation of meaning). Alexander (2011) surveyed the beliefs of general English as Additional Language (EAL) teachers and English for Academic Purposes (EAP) teachers, finding that general EAL teachers tend to approach language as a series of grammar structures to be taught with a focus on spoken English for socialising, whereas English for Academic Purposes (EAP) teachers are more likely to frame their lessons in terms of genres and discourse processes relevant to specific academic disciplines. Beyond proving a portrait of learner and teacher attitudes, belief research shows that difficulties may arise in classrooms when teachers employ learning activities reflecting their own beliefs with little awareness of their students’ expectations (Borg, 2003, 2006; Brown, 2009; Lee, 2010; Nunan, 1995). In Brown’s study of American additional language teachers (n = 49) and their students (n = 1,600), students seemed to favour a grammar-based approach, whereas teachers preferred a more communicative classroom. Increasingly, evidence suggests that such differences between student and teacher beliefs have a negative impact on learning outcomes (Gabillion, 2012; Horwitz, 1999) and lead to students’ reluctance to participate in classroom activities (Canagarajah, 1993). The above studies signpost a critical need to investigate how EAP teaching is characterised in institutions where the student population differs culturally from their teachers, such as in the case of ELF university programs in the Arab Gulf States. Current research indicates that EAP students from Arab states typically value memorisation as a learning strategy (Farquharson, 1989) and Omani students prefer English not to be taught as an abstract system of rules (Al-Busaidi, 2003). A primary aim of this paper is to complement existing research on students from one Arab Gulf state using concepts and methods developed in Borg (2006), Lee (2010) and Peacock (1999) in East-Asian universities. Secondly, though discussed as experiential-knowledge, occurring more in action than verballyderived knowledge (Woods & Akir, 2011, p. 383).

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the relationship between student beliefs about effective EAP practice and their learning outcomes is undoubtedly a complex one, this study aims to explore that relationship and indicate where contrary belief systems are possibly contributing to learning difficulties in EAP classrooms. As research has shown that there are often differences in beliefs about learning between genders in one cultural group (Bernat & Lloyd, 2007; Siebert, 2003), we will also examine the results in terms of gender.

3. Research Questions The first objective of the study is to address the following question: 1) Do students’ and teachers’ beliefs about effective EAP teaching differ in EAP classrooms in pre-faculty EAP programs in Oman; and, if so, how? To answer this question, data was gathered on student and teacher beliefs using a questionnaire and the results compared through t-tests on mean responses to questionnaire items. Secondly, the study investigates: 2) Do students’ beliefs about effective EAP practice relate to educational outcomes in pre-faculty EAP programs in Oman? To answer this question, we explore the relationship between responses on a questionnaire and outcomes on end-of-semester exams at two ELF tertiary institutions. These questions are an important step in addressing high attrition (drop-out) rates in higher education in the Sultanate of Oman through pinpointing Omani students’ conceptual misunderstandings of, and concomitant maladapted approaches to, university education.

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4. Materials and Methods 4.1 Context Nationwide English language teaching was introduced to the Omani education system in 1970 (Al-Issa & Al-Bulushi, 2012)4. Oman’s tertiary sector can be broadly categorised as having two sectors: the private, which is made up of seven private universities and 19 private colleges delivering English-medium programs to 33,000 students, and the public sector, made up of one university which delivers its science-based and some humanitiesbased programs in English (e.g. translation, literature and commercial law) to some 15,000 students. There are also seven state-funded and managed Higher Colleges of Technology, a College of Education, and six College of Applied Sciences, also delivering English-medium programs in the Sultanate. Both a public and a private sector institution were selected for this study to reflect the diversity in the sector. The Oman Academic Accreditation Authority (2008) has set entry standards to these programs, so that students must have evidence of English language proficiency comparable to IELTS 5.0, with no sub-skill scores below 4.5, before enrolling in tertiary EFL programs. Failing to provide evidence of those standards, students sit a placement test for recommendation to appropriate levels of language support in pre-faculty foundation programs where they are taught EAP, generic study skills, mathematics and IT. This study focuses on such EAP foundation programs providing educational pathways to ELF undergraduate programs.

4.2 Participants The student participants in this study (n = 118) were all Arabic first language users aged 17-24 and enrolled in the EAP language component of general foundation programs at either a public (n = 84) or a private tertiary ELF institution (n = 34). There were 71 female and 47 male participants. None of the students had previously studied outside of Oman and their proficiency levels were all below a comparable IELTS overall 5.0. The data collection period took place at the start of a 15-week 4

Earlier examples of English teaching in Oman include the Peter Zwemer school, which was established as an American Reformed Church English-medium school in 1896, before changing to Arabic-medium instruction while still teaching English as a foreign language until the late 1980s. English was taught as a compulsory subject at the upper grades of the first government schools started in Muscat and Muttrah in 1940 and 1948 (Allen & Rigsbee, 2000).

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semester at the beginning of the academic year 2012/2013 í for the majority of students this was only a few months after graduating from Arabic-medium high schools. A cluster sampling technique using naturally occurring units (Fink, 1995), here classes, was employed to gain access to participants. Participants’ informed consent to taking part in this voluntary study was formally obtained in accordance with both institutions’ ethical guidelines. Teachers in this study (n = 47) were sampled from the same two institutions: public (n = 17), and private (n = 30). Age-range and gender information is provided in the descriptive statistics section below. Four Omani staff (8.5% of the sample), who had been educated outside of Oman, were also included in the study.

4.3 Instruments 4.3.1 The questionnaire Surveys are widely used in applied linguistics research to elicit attitudes (Dörnyei & Taguchi, 2010; Lee, 2010; Nunan, 1992). Dörnyei & Taguchi (2010, p. 94) note that questionnaires should use multiple questions in order to avoid drawing conclusions based on fallible responses to a single item. As such, three items per dimension were used in this study. A 45-item, five-response key Likert-scale questionnaire was employed to explore fifteen dimensions of effective teaching practice. The questionnaire was drafted by creating an item pool (De Villis, 2003) through a review of related literature on Arab EAL students’ beliefs (AlBusaidi, 2003; Farquharson, 1989; Mustafa, 2012), taking some items from established questionnaires (Borg, 2006; Horwitz, 1988; Lee, 2010) and other items which the research teams’ experience suggested were locally relevant. The resulting dimensions explored through questionnaire items were: A. Teachers’ English proficiency B. Teachers’ use of relating English to real-world issues beyond the classroom C. Teachers’ use of discussion D. Teachers’ use of group work E. Teachers’ display of enthusiasm for English F. Teachers’ approachability G. Teachers’ use of varied activities in class

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H. Teachers’ punctuality I. Teachers’ focus on assessment rules/criteria J. Teachers’ use of memorisation-based activities K. Teachers’ use of training for exams L. Teachers awarding pass grades to students who perform poorly M. Teachers’ use of set readings beyond the classroom N. Teachers’ similarity to high school English teachers in Oman O. Teachers keeping genders separate during class activities Students responded to each item by ticking a box: 1 - strongly disagree, 2 - disagree, 3 - neutral, 4 - agree, 5 - strongly agree. Three questions per dimension were drafted and items were then mixed in order (Dörnyei & Taguchi, 2010) with negative as well as positive formulations used to avoid acquiescent response bias affecting data. As in Lee’s (2010) study, part two of the questionnaire consisted of one open-ended item that gave participants an opportunity to provide additional information about their beliefs about good EAP teaching that the researchers may not have included in the closed response section. In consideration of Harkness’ (2008) recommendation that better survey results are obtained in additional language research if questionnaires are translated into, and administered in, the students’ first language, an L1 Arabic user with a PhD in Applied Linguistics from an English-medium university in Oman translated the questionnaire into Arabic. To establish the construct validity of the translation, a blind back-translation was then performed by another L1 Arabic user with an EAL teaching background. Results indicated that no substantial modifications were necessary. 4.3.2 EAP outcomes EAP outcomes were measured by results on end-of-semester exams. At both institutions, these exams are designed by teams of test writers to include a variety of question types, including multiple choice, short answer and true and false questions based on content that is locally relevant and familiar to the students. Results on these tests determine whether students need to take another semester of EAP, or if they are linguistically prepared to enter undergraduate tertiary programs. All test items were based on outcomes for foundation programs as specified by the Oman Accreditation Authority (2008). The public institutions’ final exams include two sections: a reading test featuring 30 items in total, with 10 discrete item questions each for three reading texts. A listening test containing a total of 15 items split between

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two listening texts was also used. The exam total was based on these 45 items providing a total of 50 marks. Students had a total of 100 minutes to complete the test, of which 75 minutes were allocated for reading and 25 minutes for listening. The private institutions’ final exam consisted of five sections. The first was a discrete item test of grammatical accuracy (verb tenses/ comparatives/article/possessive pronouns) and vocabulary knowledge, while part two included two 120-word guided writing pieces (either a biography or describing a daily routine). Part three, the reading tasks, were two adapted pieces from the Internet on local places/events with accompanying comprehension discrete item questions. These first three sections were completed over two hours. The fourth section, the listening test, was allocated 30 minutes, and was a recorded discussion between two speakers with accompanying discrete item comprehension questions. The fifth and final section was the spoken exam, where students were asked to introduce themselves, talk about their family and then describe one of a series of photos chosen for the exam; this lasts for 5-6 minutes. The total end-of-semester assessment is worth 100 marks.

4.4 Procedure The questionnaires were administered at the start of a 16-week block (semesters including study weeks prior to exams) at both institutions with the assistance of teaching staff. Results for the end-of-semester tests were provided by each university’s Head of Foundation Program, with the participants’ informed consent first obtained in writing. The questionnaire was distributed to 225 student participants and the initial return rate was 87.11% (n =196). The number of questionnaires that were used in the research was further reduced through list-wise deletion due to incomplete bio-data (e.g. participants’ gender), or incorrect information (e.g. the student number was invalid and no end-of-semester scores could be obtained) or incomplete items. The questionnaire required approximately 25 minutes to complete including the bio-data section. Teachers were invited in person to complete the questionnaire by the researchers, and the response rate was 100%. End-of-semester exams were closed-book and administered under exam conditions at each institution.

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5. Results 5.1 Teachers’ Beliefs Of the 47 teacher participants, 36.2% (n = 17) were from a government higher education institution, and 63.8% (n = 30) were from a private university. There was a slightly higher number of male participants (n = 25) than female respondents (n = 22). Respondents were from a range of ages with 53.2% of those surveyed over 50 (n = 25), 40.4% were between 30 and 50 years of age (n = 19) and a small number (n = 4) were aged from 20-29. The majority of the respondents were non-Omanis (n = 43), although a small number (n = 3) who were educated abroad were included in the study. It is also of note that all respondents were educated or trained as teachers outside of the Arab Gulf States with 93.6% (n = 44) educated in non-Arab states and 6.4% (n = 3) educated in Arab states such as Tunisia. Descriptive statistics and frequency counts were used to calculate means for each questionnaire item in addition to the percentages of each response category for the teacher participants. Responses indicate that EAP teachers surveyed most strongly agreed upon the importance of questionnaire dimension I - Focusing on assessment rules and criteria in EAP classrooms (M = 4.497) with 68.1% of participants indicating they strongly agreed and 31.9% agreeing. In rank order, they next reported strong positive beliefs on the importance of C - Using discussion in the EAP classroom (M = 4.476) and G - Using a variety of learning activities (M = 4.419). The group also expressed a positive belief about the importance of dimension M - Setting reading outside of class (M = 4.241). Around 17% strongly agreed and 57.4% agreed that good EAP teachers set reading tasks outside the class. Next in rank order was the importance of dimension B - Relating English to the world beyond the classroom (M = 4.169). Teachers were also more likely to respond that dimensions A Excellent knowledge of English (M = 3.943), E - Showing enthusiasm for English (M = 3.957), F - Being approachable (M = 3.936), and H - Being punctual (M = 3.914) were more important than unimportant for effective EAP teaching. As a group, EAP teachers did not believe in the importance of dimension L - Students who performed poorly should be awarded a pass grade by teachers (M = 2.262), with 40.4% of respondents indicating that they strongly disagree and 29.8% disagreeing with giving extra marks to students who have difficulty learning English. Teachers also expressed slight disagreement that N - Using similar teaching strategies to local Omani English teachers (M = 2.496) would benefit local Omani students.

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It was also noted that teachers did not agree that J - Memorisation plays an important role (M = 2.574) in the EAP classroom: 27.7% of teachers strongly disagreed, 34% disagreed and only 6.4% agreed that students should be given chunks of language larger than phrases to learn by heart. Over half of those surveyed disagreed to some extent that students should be given lists of words to be memorised. There was also some slight indication by teachers as a group that they disagreed that effective EAP education is achieved through O - Keeping genders in separate groups (M = 2.737), although their beliefs here tended toward a neutral position (i.e. a mean closer to 3.000). It is of note that the majority of teachers did, however, think it is important to have gender-mixed groups at times: only 2.1% strongly agreed they would never mix genders in the classroom, whereas 10.6% strongly disagreed and 36.2% disagreed. Of the 47 staff surveyed, 38 (81.0%) added a comment to the end of the questionnaire. Over half of these comments reflected beliefs in taking into account students’ needs and adapting materials to the students’ level/learning preferences – for example, “A good teacher is the teacher who really knows what his/her students need”. This was sometimes expressed in a belief in the importance of flexibility and variety in approach to EAP teaching. Following which a large number of responses indicated a shared belief in the importance of strategy training, for instance, “To make students aware of using effective learning strategies as these can be taught and help students a lot to be more responsible and autonomous”. When means are compared between teachers at the private and public university, t-tests revealed very few significant differences. On questionnaire dimension N, staff at the private university slightly disagreed (M = 2.489) that keeping genders in separate groups contributes to effective EAP teaching, whereas, at the public university, teaching staff reported a marginally more neutral position (M = 3.175). Reported beliefs also differed significantly between groups as to whether O - Using similar teaching strategies to local Omani English teachers is effective in EAP university classrooms, but only in terms of the degree to which they disagreed with this statement. That is, teachers at the private university (M = 2.744) were temperate in their disapproval whereas teachers at the public university (M = 2.058) felt stronger about this.

5.2 Students’ Beliefs Of the total 118 student participants, 71.2% (n = 84) were from a government higher education institution, and 28.8% (n = 34) were from a

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private university. There was a slightly higher number of female participants (n = 71) than male respondents (n = 47). Respondents were all under 25, with 92.4% of those surveyed being between 18 and 24 (n = 109), and 7.6% under 19 (n = 9). All of the student participants were Omanis. Student respondents tended to express more moderate views around neutral positions (a mean of 3.000) than the teaching staff. Their beliefs about the following dimensions of effective EAP teaching are ranked in decreasing order of reported importance for the group: I - Focus on assessment rules and criteria (M = 3.853), with 40.7% strongly agreeing and 19.5% agreeing that teachers should not spend time on explaining assignment guidelines; E - Show enthusiasm for English (M = 3.726); B Relate material studied in class to real-world issues (M = 3.687); and G Use a variety of activities (M = 3.677). The respondents indicated that C Use of discussion (M = 3.613) was not of key importance in the EAP classroom, with 41.5% reporting a neutral position about the teachers’ use of student discussion and a further 11.0% agreeing and 4.2% strongly agreeing that good EAP teachers should keep discussion to a minimum. On dimension O - Separate genders into separate groups (M = 3.427), 20.3% of surveyed students agree and 31.4% strongly agree that good EAP practice is best facilitated when the teacher always separates boys and girls in the class into distinct groups. Only a small percentage of students responded to the contrary, with 4.2% disagreeing and 12.7% strongly disagreeing that the teacher should always separate male and female students. The majority of students also noted the importance of dimension J - Use of memorisation (M = 3.005), with 31.4% of respondents strongly agreeing that EAP learning is best facilitated by teachers giving lists of words and sentences for memorisation, and about a quarter of students also wanting teachers to provide stories or poems to be learnt by heart (7.6% strongly agree, 15.3% agree). Overall, students disagreed somewhat (M = 2.486) that EAP learning would be better assisted if staff at EFL universities N - Taught like high school English teachers in the sultanate. Approximately half the students do not believe that good EAP practice is achieved if university staff teach using the same methods as Omani high school English teachers (25.4% strongly disagree; 26.3% disagree). It is also of note that on dimension L Awarding pass grades to students who perform poorly, that 41.5% of students are neutral as to whether teachers should fail students who perform poorly, with 16.9% disagreeing and 9.3% strongly agreeing that students who perform poorly should fail. Only 14.0% strongly agree and 17.8% agree that students who perform poorly should be awarded fail

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grades. Finally, only half of the students saw the value of teachers setting reading outside of class time. While 20.3% strongly agreed and 33.9% agreed that teachers should set reading tasks outside of class time, the remainder of the students did not. Of the 118 completed and returned questionnaires, 87 contained a written comment added by the students, 69.0% of which could be grouped under four themes: good teachers take into account students’ needs (e.g. “consult students about the most suitable methods for them” and “use appropriate methods that suit the personality and preferences of the students”), relate classroom learning to real-world issues (e.g. “link the syllabus to real life”), vary learning tasks, and show care for students. Remaining comments addressed a range of themes such as the issue of failing (e.g. “never threaten them with failing” and “the pass mark should be lowered to 40%”); learning strategy training: (e.g. “make students aware of the need to adopt autonomous learning out of class” and “help students to use the most proper ways to learn efficiently”), as well as the importance of memorisation (e.g. “provide students with a list of the most frequent sentences and phrases used in daily life”) and corrective feedback (e.g. “correct their mistakes and overcome their weaknesses”). 5.2.1 Student beliefs and gender When t-tests were employed to analyse student responses in terms of gender, only two dimensions differed significantly at the p < 0.05 level: I Teachers should focus on assessment rules and criteria and L - Teachers should award pass grades to students who perform poorly. While both groups reported a predominately neutral position on the issue, the male group mean indicated a belief that poor performers should be passed irrespective of their performance (M = 3.234), whereas female respondents showed some indication that they slightly disagreed with passing underachievers (M = 2.868). The male students surveyed here agreed that I Teachers should focus on assessment rules and criteria (M = 3.632) with female students slightly more certain (M = 4.000) about the importance of this dimension.

5.3 Comparing Teacher and Student Beliefs Data from the 118 students and 47 teachers who completed the questionnaire were used to conduct independent samples t-tests to determine differences in these participants’ questionnaire dimension scores. The analysis shows that group means on almost all of these

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dimensions, with the exception of dimensions E and N, are significantly different between teachers and students. This indicates that teachers and Omani students hold often opposing beliefs about effective and appropriate English-language instruction.

5.4 Student Beliefs and Learning Outcomes As end-of-semester scores at the private institution were scored from 100 whereas those from the state-funded higher education institution were from 50, for the sake of comparison, students’ end-of-semester scores at the publicly funded institution were converted to percentages. Correlation analysis revealed six significant correlations between end-of-semester results and dimension scales. In ranked order, the significant (two-tailed) relationships were for the following dimensions: N - EAP teachers should use activities similar to local Omani high school teachers (r = í.256, p < .05), O - EAP teachers should keep genders in separate groups (r = .236, p < .05), L - EAP teachers should pass students who perform poorly (r = í.233, p < .05), and I - EAP teachers should focus on assessment rules and criteria (r = .222, p < .05). Two significant but very weak correlations were also found on the following dimensions: J - Use of memorisation (r = .191, p < .05) and G - Use of varied activities in class (r = 1.90, p < .05).

6. Discussion The relationship between belief and learning outcomes is undoubtedly a complex one, with many other factors (e.g. writing ability, vocabulary knowledge) contributing to students’ performance (Roche & Harrington, 2013). Results here indicate that there is a relationship between some of the expressed beliefs about EAP classrooms and students’ performance in those classrooms í these are discussed in the following section. However, first we relate some of the findings to other studies. A number of the students’ expressed beliefs were uncontroversial and are in keeping with existing research dealing with student beliefs in the Arab world. These include a belief in the importance of memorisation (Farquharson, 1989) and a desire to see classroom language learning related to real-world issues (Al-Busaidi, 2003). Four beliefs which correlated with performance have not been previously explored in the literature and therefore contribute to our understanding of current Omani students’ difficulties in EAP programs: that university learning should be structured like Omani high school classrooms, students should pass irrespective of their performance,

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genders should be segregated, and assessment criteria need not be discussed in class. These are discussed below. The first novel findings from this research is that Omani students who believe that university EAP teachers should use the same pedagogical methods as Omani high school English teachers were likely to perform worse in EAP programs than peers who believe otherwise. Approximately 20% of students surveyed felt that university EAP staff should teach using methods employed in Omani high school classrooms, and the majority of these students underperformed. Despite attempts by the Omani Ministry of Education to reform school education in the country through initiatives such as the Basic Education Curriculum which promotes the use of student-centred communication-focused language learning activities and independently oriented project work supported by a variety of media, statements from students surveyed here indicate some Omani English language high school classrooms are characterised by rote memorisation, teaching towards exams, and limited opportunities to produce spoken or written English. Students who believe in the efficacy of such methods are likely to experience failure in communicative focused university EAP classrooms. Secondly, students who believe that male and female students should be separated in EAP classrooms are more likely to experience educational success and positive learning outcomes than their peers who agree with mixed-gender language learning experiences. More than half of the students surveyed believe that male and female students should not be mixed in EAP classrooms, and less than half of teachers surveyed indicated they would sometimes mix genders for group EAP activities. In both foundation programs, male and female students are typically separated into distinct classes or groups so that students are not expected to interact with members of the opposite sex in communicative language learning activities. In the private, regional university, male and female students have separate classes. It is unclear why this belief correlates with educational success in the present study, but what is apparent is that students who believe in the importance of gender separation in class perform better in these institutions where segregation is common practice. This study also shows a discrepancy between students’ and teachers’ beliefs about the role of assessment in EAP programs. Students who believe in the efficacy of teachers focusing on assessment rules and criteria are more likely to perform better in EAP programs than students who do not believe in the efficacy of such methods. Unsurprisingly, the majority of EAP teachers surveyed here believe strongly in the importance of focusing on criteria and rules in the EAP classroom. When interviewed,

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a number of teachers stressed that they reviewed assessment criteria regularly in class but that their students complained that the exercise was a waste of time. This lack of awareness of the importance of assessment criteria correlates with poor learning outcomes. Related to the issue of assessment criteria are beliefs about pass/fail practices. We found that students who believe teachers should pass learners who perform poorly are more likely to fail than students who believe the contrary. Over 70% of teachers surveyed indicated that students who perform poorly should be failed, whereas, surprisingly, only a third of students surveyed believe that students who achieve poor scores should be awarded fail grades; a quarter of respondents in fact disagreed that poor achievement should be reflected in low grades. In comments at the end of the survey, students expressed related sentiments in statements such as “The pass mark should go down to 40%”. This belief may echo previous educational experiences where some students relied on the kindness of teachers to help them negotiate the secondary educational system and fail grades are rarely awarded. The findings of this study highlight Omani students’ lack of awareness of how assessment functions in university programs and evidence a disinterest in learning how their work is assessed and graded. Male and female students surveyed hold the vast majority of their views on effective EAP teaching in the classrooms in Oman in common. The few areas of difference found include that the majority of female students expressed some awareness about the importance of focusing on assessment rules and criteria while male students were somewhat less adamant that this was a characteristic of effective EAP teaching. For the dimension teachers should award pass grades to students who perform poorly, both groups expressed a predominately neutral position, with male students expressing a slightly more compassionate position that poor performers should pass, whilst female respondents indicated that merit and not compassion should determine grades awarded. On other dimensions there were no significant differences between genders in their beliefs. There are limitations that restrict the interpretability of the results presented here. Barcelos (2003) points out that survey questions are always at risk of being too vague or difficult for respondents to understand. Despite efforts taken to make questions intelligible and the use of respondents’ L1, some questions may not have been worded clearly for students. Dörnyei and Csizér, (2012, p. 86) encourage SLA researchers to produce generalisable findings, and encourage researchers to extend interpretations to a general population if there are reasons to assume the results apply. While there is reason to believe the results here are indicative of student populations at ELF higher education programs in

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Oman, we acknowledge a cluster sampling technique of existing classes was used, meaning that respondents were not randomly sampled. However, given the similarities in beliefs across the two different institutions, we can infer that similar responses are likely to be found across similar-aged cohorts in EAP foundation programs and, indeed, in other foundation programs across the sultanate. Though the authors also suspect that similar findings might be found in foundation programs in neighbouring Gulf states due to the comparable educational histories and boarder cultural similarities, in order to draw conclusions about students’ perceptions of effective practice in EFL universities in other Gulf countries more research needs to be undertaken. The authors are not arguing that belief alone is responsible for poor educational performance, but previous research has indicated that belief is linked to behaviour and, ultimately, it is modified behaviour which will have the biggest impact on learning outcomes. Based on our findings, we suggest that all EAP foundation programs in the sultanate should include an orientation program that explicitly draws newly enrolled students’ attention to differences between high school and university classrooms, particularly in relation to assessment (the use of criteria-based assessment and pass/fail policies), classroom practice (that students will be required to actively participate, i.e. produce spoken and written English rather than memorise passages), and expectations of students outside the classroom (e.g. that they will be expected to read material outside of class). Such orientations are common in EAP programs in countries such as Australia, where newly enrolled students from Asian countries joining foundation programs are required to not only attend an orientation session but also to sign and acknowledge that they have been made of aware of the program’s assessment, attendance and participation policies. Such a formalised induction may be a first step to addressing Omani students’ poor performance in EAP classrooms by helping them develop an explicit understanding of the differences between high school and university English classrooms. Beliefs are unlikely to change through one orientation session, and this message must repeatedly be given explicitly to students throughout their studies. We also recommend that incoming expatriate teachers are made aware of the prevailing belief systems of Omani students. This research could serve as a partial basis for that induction, helping those teachers develop an informed understanding of which aspects of current EAP classroom practice Omani students are likely to lack an understanding of the importance of (e.g. reading outside the classroom, focusing on criteria sheets, the absence of memorisation). When they have then developed an

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awareness of Omani students’ belief systems, EAP teachers in Oman should then reiterate points covered in the orientation throughout the semester, making explicit those beliefs which underpin EAP practice in their classrooms.

7. Conclusion Studies in a range of settings have shown that students’ beliefs about effective EAL teaching are influenced by a range of factors, such as: proficiency level (Bernat & Lloyd, 2007; Hu & Tian, 2012; Trinder, 2012), nature of the program (e.g. business English, vs. general English) (Trinder, 2012), cultural context (Daif-Allah, 2012), and gender (Bernat & Lloyd, 2007; Siebert, 2003). This research has contributed to our knowledge of the relationship between belief and performance with limited proficiency (i.e. comparable to achieve overall > 5.0 IELTS overall band) 17-25 year old EAP students’ beliefs in ELF university settings in Oman. In this study, we found that beliefs about effective EAP practice differ significantly on every dimension examined between Omani students and their expatriate teachers. Perhaps most importantly, the results also suggest that Omani students whose beliefs were in conflict with teachers’ beliefs typically performed worse in their course of studies than their fellow students whose beliefs matched that of their expatriate teachers. In light of this, we have argued in this paper that, not only do many Omani high-school graduates have a limited understanding of the expectations of the higher education system, but that the beliefs they hold are counterproductive and responsible, to some degree, for poor performance in their foundation programs. This claim could be further explored by tracking such students’ beliefs and performance over time, an endeavour which the research team is now undertaking. The results of this study suggest that EAP students’ limited understanding of university classroom practice (learning and assessment strategies required) should be addressed with some urgency. A formal orientation program as described in the discussion section would partially address this issue. Further studies would need to be conducted to gauge the impact and effectiveness of any such undertaking. Through our interviews with teachers, it was also apparent that institutions play an important role helping teachers develop an understanding of the difference in studentteacher belief systems. Teachers need to be made aware of the importance of repeatedly articulating the policies and requirements of their institution’s EAP programs, making their goals transparent to their students. As Phipps and Borg (2009) and Woods and Akir (2011) have

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argued, teachers should strive to provide learning experiences which can help shape students’ beliefs about effective language learning. In taking the steps outlined above, EAP programs can greatly facilitate students’ development of EAP language skills, improving their classroom performance en route to study in ELF university programs.

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English-as-a-Lingua-Franca (ELF) settings. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 15, 37-47. Horwitz, E. K. (1988). The beliefs about language learning of beginning university foreign language students. Modern Language Journal, 72, 283-294. —. (1999). Cultural and situational influences on foreign language learners’ beliefs about language learning: A review of BALLI studies. System, 27, 557-576. Hu, B., & Tian, L. (2012). Do teachers and students share similar beliefs about teaching and learning strategies? System, 40(2), 237-254. Jenkins, J. (2007). English as a lingua franca: Attitude and identity. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Johnson, K. E. (1994). The emerging beliefs and instructional practices of preservice ESL teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education, 10(4), 439452. Karavas-Doukas, E. (1996). Using attitude scales to investigate teachers’ attitudes to the communicative approach. ELT Journal, 50, 187-198. Lee, J. J. (2010). The uniqueness of EFL teachers: Perceptions of Japanese learners. TESOL Journal, 1(1). Retrieved from http://www.scribd.com/doc/72499593/The-Uniqueness-of-Efl-Teachers Mustafa, G. (2012). From legendry love of books into TV hooks. Perspectives, 19(1), 28-30. Niu, R., & Andrews, S. (2012). Commonalities and discrepancies in L2 teachers’ beliefs and practices about vocabulary pedagogy: A small culture perspective. TESOL Journal, 6, 134-154. Nunan, D. (1992). Research methods in language learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. —. (1995). Closing the gap between learning and instruction. TESOL Quarterly, 29, 133-158. Oman Academic Accreditation Authority. (2008). The Oman Academic Standards for General Foundation Programs. Retrieved from http://www.oac.gov.om/ Pajares, M. F. (1992). Teachers’ beliefs and educational research: Clearing up a messy construct. Review of Educational Research, 62(4), 307331. Peacock, M. (1999). Beliefs about language learning and their relationship to proficiency. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 9(2), 247263. Pennycook, A. (1994). The cultural politics of English as an international language. Harlow, Essex, UK: Longman Group Limited.

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Phillipson, R. H. (1992). Linguistic imperialism. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Phipps, S., & Borg, S. (2009). Exploring tensions between teachers’ grammar teaching beliefs and practices. System, 37(3), 380-390. Roche, T. (2013). Recognition vocabulary knowledge as a predictor of academic performance in an English-as-a-foreign language setting. Language Testing in Asia, 3(12). DOI:10.1186/2229-0443-3-12 Roche, T., & Harrington, M. (2013). Recognition vocabulary knowledge as a predictor of academic performance in an English-as-a-foreign language setting. Language Testing in Asia, 3, 133-144. DOI:10.1186/2229-0443-3-12 Roche, T., Harrington, M., Sinha, Y., & Denman, C. (submitted). Vocabulary recognition skill as a screening tool in English-as-alingua-franca university settings. Manuscript submitted for publication. Siebert, L. L. (2003). Student and teacher beliefs about language learning. The ORTESOL Journal, 21, 7-39. Tilak, J. B. (2011). Trade in higher education: The role of the general agreement on trade in services (GATS). Fundamentals of Educational Planning, 95, 154. Trinder, R. (2013). Business students’ beliefs about language learning in a university context. English for Specific Purposes, 32(1), 1-11. UNESCO. (2011). United Nations development program: Creating opportunities for future generations. Arab Human Development Report, UNESCO, New York. Retrieved from http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports Weber, A. S. (2011). Politics of English in the Arabian Gulf. Proceedings from 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Proceedings. Retrieved from http://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/13/1/FLTAL%202011%20Proceed%C4%B1n gs%20Book_1_p60-p66.pdf Wenden, A. L. (1999). An introduction to metacognitive knowledge and beliefs in language learning: Beyond the basics. System, 27, 435-441. Wilkens, K. (2011). Higher education reform in the Arab World: The Brookings project on U.S. relations with the Islamic world 2011. U.S.Islamic World Forum Papers. Retrieved from http://www.brookings.edu/research/papers/2011/08/education-reformwilkins Woods, D. C., & Akir, H. (2011). Two dimensions of teacher knowledge: The case of communicative language teaching. System, 39, 290-381.

CHAPTER THREE ADAPTATION AND FIRST-YEAR UNIVERSITY STUDENTS IN THE SULTANATE OF OMAN RAHMA AL-MAHROOQI HUMANITIES RESEARCH CENTRE, SULTAN QABOOS UNIVERSITY, OMAN [email protected]

CHRISTOPHER DENMAN SULTAN QABOOS UNIVERSITY, OMAN

AND BUTHAINA ABDULLAH AHMED ATEEQ MINISTRY OF EDUCATION, OMAN

Abstract This study examines the factors that influence adjustment of first-year English Foundation students in the Sultanate of Oman’s only public university í Sultan Qaboos University (SQU). A three-part questionnaire was employed incorporating both open-ended questions and items utilizing a five-point Likert-scale response key. Areas examined as potentially influencing freshman adaptation include expectations before and after entering university, the demands of students’ specializations or majors, self-esteem, the academic, social and emotional demands of their new roles as university students, stress, and the desire to leave university before obtaining a degree. The sample consisted of 60 freshmen (30 males and 30 females) enrolled in SQU’s English Foundation Program. Findings indicate that 46% of participants face difficulties in adapting to their new English-medium environment and to study requirements at university. The main issues identified for causing these difficulties included low levels of self-esteem and a lack of clear course information which results in participants’ limited understanding of the course and its requirements. No

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gender differences were found across these areas. The paper concludes by offering a number of solutions to ease student adaptation to studying at university. Keywords: adjustment, adaptation, university, freshmen, English medium education, Oman

1. Introduction For many, the transition from high school to university is an important milestone on the journey between adolescence and adulthood. However, like any period of significant change, moving from school to university can also be a time full of uncertainty and stress. Much of this stress may be associated with the problems of adaptation to the demands of universitylevel study and a more independent life away from family and friends. According to Elias, Mahyuddin and Uli (2009), 57% of dropouts, or those who leave their studies before graduation, are not satisfied with their lives since entering university. Factors associated with this lack of satisfaction include financial issues, course difficulties, physical problems, lack of job opportunities, and family problems. Of these factors, many can be directly or indirectly related to the issue of adaptation. Farris (2010) states that adaptation difficulties refer to “the problems which students might face with getting involved, making friends, being away from home, as well as many others” (p. 2). Approximately one in three students, according to Farris, faces some form of adaptation difficulty. Difficulties in adapting, or maladaptation, can be directly related to increased dropout rates and lower levels of academic achievement (Elias, Mahyuddin, & Uli, 2009). A number of studies indicate that the transition from a school environment to university life is full of stress for first year university students. These students are exposed to both interpersonal and personal obstacles. These obstacles are related to how students can cope with the new situation in terms of forming relationships, developing an understanding of the level of academic achievement required and, especially in the Arab Gulf, moving from an Arabic- to an Englishmedium learning environment (Elias, Mahyuddin, & Uli, 2009). Elias, Mahyuddin and Uli (2009) analyzed the impact of adaptation to university life in regard to academic achievement. The authors contend that students who face adjustment difficulties tend to achieve lower grades while those of their colleagues who experience a smoother transition perform better academically. They also conclude that gender plays an

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important role in adaptation to university, with female students often experiencing more problems in adapting to the demands of university life. However, despite the importance of this issue, as of yet there has been a lack of studies that examine the issue of adaptation in first-year university students in the Sultanate of Oman. The current research aims to explore the level of adjustment among new students at Sultan Qaboos University, while also examining the factors that affect adjustment during the freshman years and identifying some of the negative consequences associated with maladjustment. Finally, a number of solutions to help improve student adaptation are offered.

2. Literature Review 2.1 Definitions of Adaptation and Adjustment For the sake of the current paper, the terms adjustment and adaptation are used synonymously. Although some scholars maintain that adaptation is more linked to biological processes – for example, helping a living thing to survive and reproduce (Michael, 1996, p. 245) – while adjustment is related to psychological process, the current research adopted Chelliah and Yusoff’s (2010) stance that these terms represent different perspectives of the same concept. Adaptation and adjustment here, therefore, will be used to refer to a person’s involvement with their environment (Arkoff, 1968). When this environment is a university, Arkoff adds that adaptation is mostly measured by students’ academic performance and emotional growth. Gharaibeh, Ishak, Jdaitawi and Taamneh (2011, p. 251) state that adjustment is “a psychological process of adapting to, coping with, managing problems, challenges, tasks and requirements of daily life”.

2.2 Aspects of University Adaptation/Adjustment Elias, Mahyuddin and Uli (2009) contend that there are three main types of adaptation/adjustment related to university students. These are academic, social and emotional adjustment. 2.2.1 Academic adaptation/adjustment Early research focused on academic performance as a predictor of student adjustment (Grayson, 2003). Students who adapted academically to university at an early stage are more likely to persist in their studies in comparison with those who find this adjustment more difficult. Academic

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adjustment not only deals with a student’s scholarly potential, but is also related to having high levels of learner motivation, holding a clear purpose, and acquiring strategies to achieve educational demands. Several studies conducted in the United States focus on the issue of freshmen adjustment. Elias, Mahyuddin and Uli (2009) state that, in the American context, early adaptation to the academic demands of university helps students to gain more positive academic outcomes. However, these findings have been called in to question by Grayson (2003), who found that early adaptation to the academic requirements of tertiary-level studies may only have a slight impact on first year students and no implications whatsoever for outcomes across the course of the degree. 2.2.2 Social adaptation/adjustment A number of researchers suggest that social integration into new study environments is an important factor in achieving successful adaptation. Grayson (2003) asserts that students need to be integrated into university life so they will have motivation to continue their studies. He theorizes that students who have integrated socially into university display higher levels of academic achievement than those who remain isolated or fail to socially integrate. Tinto (1987) states that, in order to achieve integration into university, “students must separate themselves from their past communities, including family, the local high school, and local areas of residence” (p.16). As a result of such separation, students will try to adopt new values and habits that they consider important for this transitional phase. However, a number of studies have criticized Tinto’s (1987, 1988) theory, especially as it relates to creating space between the student and past communities including family and peers. For example, Elias, Mahyuddin and Uli (2009) suggest that social support from family and peers is a crucial factor for freshmen adjustment to their new environment. Similarly, Chhuon and Hudley (2008, p. 17) describe four main types of social support received from family and friends that can ease the transition from high school to tertiary-level study. These include guidance and feedback, non-directive support which incorporates the bonds of trust and intimacy, positive social interactions such as spending time together, and more tangible assistance which can include offering financial assistance and shelter. Almost all studies that have examined the role of social support from families and peers indicate that university freshmen who have high levels of social support are more likely to adjust to their new environment earlier. In fact, Gerdes and Mallinckrodt (1994) maintain that

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social adjustment can be as significant as academic adjustment in determining student retention during the early university years. 2.2.3 Emotional adaptation/adjustment During the transitional phase to university, freshmen are often prone to question their educational goals, self-esteem and self concept, and this, in turn, may result in personal conflict. Emotional problems consistently lead to increased rates of physiological disorders and dropouts. For those students who move away from their families in order to pursue their higher-level studies, being separated from parents may dramatically affect their levels of emotional adjustment (Gerdes & Mallinckrodt, 1994). Douglass and Islam (2006) term this ability to emotionally adjust “emotional wellbeing”. The researchers believe that there is a direct connection between emotional wellbeing and academic performance. According to Douglass and Islam, students who display difficulties in adapting emotionally to their new environment, and hence have lower levels of emotional wellbeing, are more likely to experience serious psychological problems such as anxiety and other developmental problems.

2.3 Factors Affecting Freshmen Adaptation/Adjustment Successful freshman adaptation to university life, as gauged by academic, social and emotional adjustment, is influenced by a number of factors. As freshmen arrive at university with different personal, social, cultural and linguistic backgrounds, and characteristics, the factors that affect the adjustment process necessarily vary from one student to another. However, gender, self-esteem, and student expectation of university life have been identified as important factors influencing successful adaptation. 2.3.1 Gender Gender has often been posited as an influential factor in adapting to university. For example, the study by Elias, Mahyuddin and Uli (2009) suggests that female students are more likely to experience difficulties in adapting to university. The authors state that female students tend to face more mental health problems than male students while also being less involved in campus activities including clubs and societies.

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In addition, Lee, Park and Kim (2009) state that female Chinese students studying abroad often feel constrained by traditional gender roles and that they are not “fully accepted” in their new environments. On the other hand, Elias, Mahyuddin and Uli (2009) claim that male students are less likely to experience these forms of social and emotional pressure, and, therefore, encounter far fewer problems in adjusting to university. Although Lee, Park and Kim highlight the pressures of gender roles on female students studying abroad, the authors do, nonetheless, maintain that female students are better at adapting to university life than males. 2.3.2 Self-esteem Self-esteem, at a basic level, refers to how people think about themselves (Josephs, Bosson, & Jacobs, 2003). Two different types of self-esteem have been offered in the literature which are specific selfesteem and global self-esteem. Specific self-esteem is concerned with how an individual views herself/himself in a specific situation such as at work or in an academic environment. Global self-esteem, on the other hand, is an overall judgment of oneself. High levels of global self-esteem, according to Friedlander, Reid, Shupak and Cribbie (2007), are associated with the ease of transition from high school to university. However, Blanks and Lowery (2005) believe that female students tend to have lower levels of global self-esteem, and often display consistently more negative judgments about themselves. 2.3.3 Student expectations Student expectations about life in university may be an important predictor of adaptation to tertiary-level studies. For example, Gerdes and Mallinckrodt (1994) found that students who hold unrealistic expectations of university life experience more difficulties in adjusting and tend to drop out. Moreover, Murdoch (2006) reports that a number of students at an Australian university did not show any real awareness of the nature of the transition between high school and university, with this affecting their expectations of their university-level assessments, assignments, lectures, and attendance, and also of the nature of the new relationships they formed. This lack of awareness, according to Murdoch, resulted in an experience similar to shock for many students upon entering university. It is for these reasons that those students who have unrealistic expectations about university life will experience the most difficulties in adapting.

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2.4 Results of Poor Adaptation/Adjustment. The results of a lack of adaptation or adjustment to the university environment, also known as maladjustment, have been explored by a number of researchers. Perhaps the most significant results of maladjustment are student stress and increased dropout rates among first year students. 2.4.1 Stress The transition from school to university presents significant changes in students’ lives. At university, higher levels of academic achievement, in addition to greater social integration, and more mature levels of emotional development, are required than at school. Moreover, at least in the context of the Arab Gulf, students are also expected to move from the Arabicmedium study environments of their government high schools to colleges and universities where English acts as the dominant language of instruction. It is perhaps no surprise, then, that students often find it difficult to cope with many of the demands of their new environments (Friedlander et al., 2007). Elias, Mahyuddin and Uli (2009) state that students who live on campus usually experience higher levels of stress. This, the authors claim, is due to lower levels of social support which manifests itself in decreased levels of academic achievement. 2.4.2 Dropouts Not all students find strategies to help them adjust constructively and they are not able to effectively deal with their new study environment. Although it is not necessary that everyone who enrolls in university must remain there until graduation, it has, nonetheless, been suggested that retention rates “may be a significant indicator of institutional quality and impact” (Jamelske, 2008, p. 381). Perhaps mindful of this claim, many academic institutions have attempted to find the factors associated with difficulty to adapt, with these typically focusing on issues of learner motivation. Recent studies have also added other factors to motivation, including a lack of familial experience with tertiary education and a lack of language proficiency for those learners moving from studying in their mother tongue to an English language environment (Grayson, 2011).

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2.5 Summary of Literature Review In conclusion, the transition to university can be stressful as the adaptation process can be difficult to achieve. Many freshmen who are eager to enter university life before enrolment may not continue with a strong will. One might believe that academic maladjustment, especially in English-medium environments, is the most important factor that leads students to dropping out. However, in this transitional phase, social and emotional adaptation are also crucial to predict student retention. A significant hurdle for freshmen is how they can manage their emotions, academic achievement, and social life. Freshmen need to know how to cope effectively with their academic demands, how to motivate themselves to continue their studies and take appropriate strategies to pass them successfully. In order to further explore the factors that influence adjustment to university life in an Omani context, the current research examines both the level of adjustment and the factors that affect adjustment of SQU first-year English Foundation students.

3. Methodology 3.1 Research Questions To address the research issues stated above, the following research questions were explored: 1. What factors influence participants’ levels of adjustment to university life at SQU? 2. Is the variable of gender related to participants’ levels of adjustment?

3.2 Instrument To explore the factors that influence adjustment of first-year English foundation students in SQU, this study employed a three-part questionnaire. The first section elicited demographic information about participants including gender and specialization. The second section explored seven themes that examined the level of freshmen adjustment through 29 items. The items employed a Likert-scale response key with possible responses ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree, with a middle response of neutral. Responses were assigned a value from 1 to 5. Items that have been reverse keyed to maintain direction across the scales

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and questionnaire are indicated below. The seven themes featured in this part of the questionnaire are: student expectations before and after attending university, college specialization, self-esteem, academic adjustment, social adjustment, emotional adjustment, and desire to dropout. The third questionnaire section contained six open-ended questions. The first sought to explore the areas of potential concern for SQU firstyear students. The second asked participants to describe their experiences during their first semester at university. The third asked students to identify the obstacles that may have hindered their adjustment process. The fourth required respondents to identify the extent to which the Foundation Program has contributed to their academic achievement, social integration, and emotional well-being. The fifth open-ended question investigated the characteristics students believe they should have to successfully adjust to life at SQU, while also inquiring whether participants believed themselves to possess these characteristics. The sixth question asked what actions the university could take, if any, to help freshmen adjust to life at university and in an English-medium study environment. The questionnaire was validated by three professors of applied linguistics at the research site before being piloted with five students. Both the validation and piloting confirmed the importance of offering participants an Arabic-language version of the questionnaire. The translation from the original English-language version was performed by the third author, who is a native speaker of Arabic. The translation was checked for content and clarity by two native speakers of Arabic, one of whom worked at SQU. No discrepancies were reported.

3.3 Participants As this study aimed to investigate issues related to the process of adaptation, a sample was drawn from SQU’s first-year students in academic year 2012/2013. Of the student intake that year, around seventy percent entered the Foundation Program in order to undertake mandatory instruction in the English language before entering their colleges. Of these, 60 freshmen (30 male and 30 female students) from different colleges were recruited (see sampling procedure below). These include the College of Arts and Social Sciences (n = 20), the College of Agricultural and Marine Sciences (n = 6), the College of Education (n = 8), the College of Engineering (n = 6), the College of Sciences (n = 11), and the College of

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Commerce and Economies (n = 9). The average age of participants was 18.

3.4 Data Collection Procedure Due to time and other practical constraints, a snow-ball sampling technique was used to recruit participants. The researchers asked freshmen who stated a willingness to participate in the research to identify classmates they considered willing to also participate. These newly identified potential participants were approached and informed about the nature of the research. If they decided to participate, these respondents were asked to identify others of their colleagues who they believed may also be interested in joining. All respondents were given a participation information sheet in Arabic and were reminded that participation was entirely voluntary and non-participation would not have any negative consequences whatsoever. Participants were also reminded that they could withdraw from the study at any time and that their identities would be kept confidential.

4. Data Analysis Descriptive analysis was performed to calculate overall means for each of the seven themes regarding participant adjustment in the second section of the questionnaire, while means, standard deviations, and frequency counts were also calculated for all items on this part of the questionnaire. T-tests were employed to explore gender differences across each of the seven themes. Finally, data gained from the open-ended questions in the third questionnaire section was analyzed through a process of thematic analysis.

4.1 Questionnaire Results The first research questions inquired about the factors that impact upon participants’ levels of adjustment to university. These factors were explored across the seven themes of student expectations before and after attending university, college specialization, self-esteem, academic adjustment, social adjustment, emotional adjustment, and desire to dropout. Table 1 reports the means and standard deviations for each theme. Scores closer to 1.00 on each theme represent areas where participants have struggled to adjust. Scores that are closer to 5.00, on the other hand, suggest areas where students have not experienced considerable

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adjustment difficulties. A value of 3.00 was established as a rough cut-off point between low and high levels of adjustment. Table 1 indicates that, of the seven themes measured by the second section of the questionnaire, participants reported experiencing some form of adjustment difficulty in three. These three areas are student expectations (M = 2.63), self-esteem (M = 2.65) and academic adjustment (M = 2.93). Participants reported higher levels of adjustment in the remaining four areas with, for instance, relatively high levels adjustment to their specializations (M = 3.59) and new social situations (M = 3.48). Participants also reported fairly low levels of stress while adjusting to their new lives in university (M = 3.14) and most reported a fairly low desire to drop out (M = 3.16). Items associated with each of these themes are explored in more detail below. Table 1: Participant levels of adjustment/adaptation Theme

Mean

Student expectations Self-esteem Academic adjustment Stress Desire to dropout Social adjustment Specialization maladjustment

2.63 2.65 2.93 3.14 3.16 3.48 3.59

Std. Deviation 0.83 1.23 0.90 0.78 1.14 0.57 0.86

Table 2 indicates that participants held somewhat unrealistic expectations about life at university (M = 2.63). For example, of the four questionnaire items related to this theme, three recorded means below 3.00. Around 68% of respondents stated some form of agreement with the statements, “I was shocked to know of the demands of university life” (M = 2.07) and “After joining SQU, reality contradicted my expectations” (M = 2.15). Moreover, more than half of participants agreed with item 2, “Before attending SQU, I thought that university life was easier than school” (M = 2.63). In fact, the only item related to this theme that the majority of participants (around 65%) disagreed with was, “Before attending SQU, I thought university life was similar to school life” (M = 3.67). These results share a number of similarities with Murdoch’s (2006) finding that most students do not show awareness about the nature of the transition to university life.

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Table 2: Students’ expectations before and after enrolment Statement Before attending SQU, I thought university life was similar to school life.

SA 5.0%

A

N

D

SD

15.0%

15.0%

38.3%

26.7%

Mean 3.67

Std. Deviation 1.17

Before attending SQU, I thought that university life was easier than school.

28.3%

23.3%

21.7%

10.0%

16.7%

2.63

1.43

After joining SQU, reality contradicted my expectations.

30.0%

38.3%

23.3%

3.3%

5.0%

2.15

1.06

I was shocked to know of the demands of university life. Total

33.3%

35.0%

25.0%

5.0%

1.7%

2.07

2.63

0.97

0.83

Table 3 indicates that, overall, learners reported low levels of selfesteem that hindered their transition to university (M = 2.65). More than 90% of participants disagreed with the statement, “I have high selfesteem” (M = 2.25) although this lack apparently did not interfere with participants’ contributions to the classroom. That is, in response to the item “I do not feel shy to participate or do presentations in class” (M = 3.05), around 61.7% of participants agreed while 25% remained neutral.

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Table 3: Self-esteem Statement I do not feel shy to participate or do presentations in class.*

SA

A

N

D

26.7% 35.0% 25.0% 10.0%

I have high self3.3% 1.7% 3.3% 36.7% esteem* Total *Items marked with asterisk are negatively keyed.

SD 3.3%

Mean 3.05

Std. Deviation 1.29

55.0% 2.25

1.48

2.65

1.23

Table 4 indicates that participants experienced some difficulties with academic adjustment (M = 2.93). Of the six items related to this theme, half recorded means below 3.00 which suggests areas in which participants struggled to adjust, while the remaining three recorded means above this point. However, of those three items which recorded means above 3.00, most were only marginally higher than this point with neutral responses often predominating. For example, 35% of respondents were neutral in response to the item “I have no trouble in understanding what I am required to do in some courses” (M = 3.30), with another 35% stating some form of agreement and the remaining 30% disagreeing. A similar result was also recorded for the item “I feel satisfied with my academic achievement” (M = 3.20), with 31.7% reporting neutral responses, 26.6% agreeing and more than 41% of respondents disagreeing. In contrast to these items, however, more than 86% of participants disagreed with the statement, “My academic goals are well-defined at SQU” (M = 2.55) while another 68% stated that they did not attend their lectures regularly (M = 2.68). Finally, around 71% of participants disagreed with the statement “I am motivated to study” (M = 2.77). Table 5 demonstrates that stress was only a slight concern for participants’ adjustment to life at SQU (M = 3.14), with only one item recording a mean below 3.00. This was for the item “It is difficult to cope with university stress” (M = 2.63), with around 46% of respondents agreeing and other 33.3% remaining neutral. However, 53.4% of respondents disagreed that they felt angry or nervous easily (M = 3.33), while around 46% disagreed that “I am unable to control my emotions”. Moreover, more than 38% of participants disagreed with the statement “I need to go to the counseling centre” (M = 3.22), although, interestingly, 35% were neutral in response to this item and around another 27% agreed.

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Finally, about 48% of respondents disagreed with the item “I find it difficult to be independent” (M = 3.20). The two items reported in Table 6 were related to the theme of desire to drop out from university. The overall mean for these items was 3.16, thus indicating only a slight desire among participants to drop out. For example, only 20% stated some form of agreement with the item “I sometimes think about dropping out of SQU” (M = 3.75), while, conversely, 55% agreed that “I am always thinking about taking time off from university” (M = 2.57). Although this may initially appear as a contradictory result, it should be reiterated that dropping out would involve stopping studying at university altogether while, taking time off could be conceived of as being a temporary event – something similar to what British students might term a “gap year”. Table 4: Academic Adjustment Statement

SA

A

N

D

SD

I have no trouble in 10.0% 25.0% 35.0% 25.0% 5.0% understanding what am required to do in some courses.*

Mean 3.30

Std. Deviation 1.01

I feel satisfied with 13.3% 13.3% 31.7% 26.7% 15.0% 3.20 my academic achievement.*

1.23

I am enjoining academic work in my college.*

5.0%

15.0% 28.3% 8.3%

43.3% 3.05

1.16

I am motivated to study.*

1.7%

3.3%

23.3% 50.0% 21.7% 2.77

1.20

I attend my lectures 1.7% regularly.*

6.7%

23.3% 41.7% 26.7% 2.68

1.24

My academic 1.7% 1.7% 10.0% 43.3% 43.3% 2.55 goals are welldefined at SQU.* 2.93 Total *Items marked with asterisk are negatively keyed.

1.44 0.90

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Table 5: Stress Statement

SA

A

N

D

SD

Mean

I always get angry and nervous easily.

13.3%

15.0%

18.3%

31.7%

21.7%

3.33

Std. Deviation 1.34

I am unable to control my emotions.

3.3%

21.7%

28.3%

33.3%

13.3%

3.32

1.07

I need to go to the counseling centre.

8.3%

18.3%

35.0%

20.0%

18.3%

3.22

1.20

I find it difficult to be independent.

6.7%

25.0%

20.0%

38.3%

10.0%

3.20

1.13

It is difficult to cope with university stress. Total

13.3%

33.3%

33.3%

16.7%

3.3%

2.63

1.03

3.14

0.78

Std. Deviation 1.27

Table 6: Desire to Drop Out Statement

SA

A

N

D

SD

I sometimes think about dropping out of SQU.

6.7%

13.3%

15.0%

28.3%

36.7%

Mean 3.75

I am always thinking about taking time off from university. Total

30.0%

25.0%

16.7%

15.0%

13.3%

2.57

1.41

3.16

1.14

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Table 7 indicates that participants reported quite high levels of social adjustment (M = 3.48). In fact, of the seven items related to this questionnaire theme, only 1 – “I need more support from my family and peers” (M = 2.03) – recorded a mean below 3.00. In response to this item, around 73% of participants agreed. However, of the remaining items, more than 70% of respondents disagreed with each of the following items: “I have found it difficult to make friends at SQU” (M = 3.93), “I do not have appropriate social skills to deal with others effectively” (M = 3.93), and “I feel that I am socially isolated” (M = 3.88). Furthermore, more than 60% disagreed with the items “The relationship between me and my roommate is very formal” (M = 3.65) and “I do not have good friends to talk to about problems” (M = 3.60). Table 8 indicates that respondents perceived very few difficulties with adjusting to the demands of their specializations (M = 3.59), with all three items recording means above 3.00. Of these, around 75% of respondents disagreed with the statement “My specialization is very hard” (M = 4.15), while another 43% disagreed that their specialization “hinders my adjustment at SQU” (M = 3.42). For the final item, however, responses were somewhat more evenly distributed with 40% of participants disagreeing with the item “I cannot continue with my recent specialization, so I have to transfer to another specialization” (M = 3.20), although 28.3% held neutral opinions in this area and more than 30% agreed. However, it should be noted that all participants in the study were foundation students and therefore had not yet directly experienced their specializations as they had not yet moved to their colleges at the time of the study. For this reason, their perceptions about the difficulty of their specialization is just a matter of expectation or, perhaps, participants based these judgments on the English, math and computing courses they were likely taking which tend to be comparatively undemanding at the foundation level. Independent samples t-tests were conducted to explore the second research question regarding possible gender differences across the seven themes explored in the second part of the questionnaire. Given the exploratory nature of the research, adjustments for increased probability of type I error due to multiple tests, such as Bonferroni or Sidak corrections, were not performed and the probability level was set at p < 0.05. No statistically significant differences were found.

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Table 7: Social Adjustment Statement

SA

A

N

D

SD

Mean

I have found it difficult to make friends at SQU.

1.7%

8.3%

16.7%

41.7%

31.7%

3.93

Std. Deviation 0.99

I do not have appropriate social skills to deal with others effectively.

3.3%

5.0%

21.7%

35.0%

35.0%

3.93

1.04

I feel that I am socially isolated.

5.0%

10.0%

13.3%

35.0%

36.7%

3.88

1.17

The relationship between me and my roommate is very formal.

10.0%

13.3%

15.0%

25.0%

36.7%

3.65

1.36

I do not have good friends to talk to about problems.

8.3%

6.7%

25.0%

36.7%

23.3%

3.60

1.17

I am not involved in social activities at SQU.*

10.0%

8.3%

35.0%

26.7%

20.0%

3.35

1.20

1.7%

2.03

1.07

3.48

0.57

I need more 38.3% 35.0% 13.3% 11.7% support from my family and peers. Total *Items marked with asterisk are negatively keyed.

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Table 8: Specialization maladjustment Statement

SA

A

N

D

SD

Std. Deviation 1.10

My specialization is very hard.

5.0%

1.7%

18.3%

23.3%

51.7%

Mean 4.15

My specialization hinders my adjustment at SQU.

6.7%

8.3%

41.7%

23.3%

20.0%

3.42

1.11

I cannot continue with my recent specialization, so I have to transfer to another specialization.

11.7%

20.0%

28.3%

16.7%

23.3%

3.20

1.33

3.59

0.86

Total

4.2 Open-ended Questions When participants were asked to name the factors that cause them to be worried at SQU, not surprisingly many answers revealed that they were concerned about their academic status. Some were afraid of failing in the Foundation Program, with the transition from Arabic-medium to Englishmedium studies highlighted as a cause of major concern. Moreover, some respondents stated that studying with the other gender in the same class after their experiences of same-sex schools caused them concern. Regarding the second question, some participants described their experience during the first semester at SQU as useful and interesting while, in line with the literature that suggests females face more social difficulties in adjusting to university life, more female students than males said it was especially difficult as they were living away from their families. Also, a number of respondents stated that they were dealing with stress caused from a variety of issues during that period and they suffered a lot from the negative consequences of stress. This is a finding that runs slightly contrary to the questionnaire results regarding the potential negative impact of stress on student adjustment.

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When it came to the obstacles that hindered their adjustment process at SQU, participants mentioned that mostly they faced some obstacles that were related to social factors. Some did not know how to deal with other freshmen at SQU since they found it difficult to cope with this new social environment. These participants felt shy about introducing themselves to others for the first time. They faced stress as they were separated from their socially supportive environment, which again mainly related to being away from their families. Another obstacle they faced was linked to an academic dimension which was the demands of studying in an Englishlanguage environment. In addition, males pointed out that they had difficulties with transport and that hindered their adjustment – all male students live off-campus while the majority of SQU female students live on-campus. Furthermore, most females described the Foundation Program as a waste of time and said there was no need to go through it. They claimed that they did not get any benefit from studying the English language through this program; rather it caused them to be depressed and delayed them from entering their specializations. On the other hand, male students had a more positive perspective towards it. They said it helped them to adjust easily and improve their general academic skills as well as their English language. Therefore, it played an important role in facilitating social, academic, and emotional adjustment. When participants were asked to mention the characteristics that students should have to be able to adjust easily to their new lives as university students in an English-medium environment, some respondents stated that the most important traits were having the ability to manage time and to overcome the stress of high-stakes tests of English proficiency during their first semesters. Moreover, they pointed out the importance of having communication skills to deal with others in both Arabic and English. Finally, participants offered a number of suggestions about how SQU can help freshmen adjust. Most students suggested that SQU should offer lectures as adjustment guides and plays that explain university life. They suggested making the registration process easier and designing activities specifically related to freshmen. Also, respondents claimed the university should ask students about their needs and try to understand the difficulties they face, especially in regards to transitioning to studying in the English language. Participants maintained that SQU should reduce the number of lectures students have to attend and let them choose which medium of instruction they would prefer to study in – Arabic or English. Some participants also suggested putting students who are from the same region in the same class.

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5. Discussion The most influential factors that negatively impacted upon participant adjustment in this study were unrealistic expectations about university life, self-esteem and academic adjustment. It is interesting to note that a number of participants believed that their university-level studies would be easier than their studies in high school. This finding fits neatly with anecdotal evidence in the region that many students view their first year of university as a time to “relax” after the demands of passing university entrance exams. However, such attitudes leave these students ill-prepared for the rigorous demands of their first years in tertiary-level studies with this, in turn, making their transition all the more difficult. Participants’ self-esteem was also reported as being somewhat low, although it is interesting to note that, although respondents claimed to have low levels of self-esteem, they did not feel reluctant about participating in class or even performing presentations. This finding may be related to the strong oral culture that is typically associated with Arab Gulf societies, and the fact that people from the region are often classified as being more comfortable with speaking in the English language than with any of the other core skills. Finally, difficulties with academic adjustment could be related to the struggles a number of participants reported with their encounters with English-medium education. Even though SQU’s English language Foundation Program is devoted to improving these students’ English language skills, respondents claimed that they did not get any benefit from their studies in these courses. Interestingly, a number of participants stated that they preferred to study mathematics and computing in Arabic rather than English, despite the fact that it is English that will form the core of their future university studies and that, in many ways in Omani society, it is English that helps define future employment opportunities. Specialization maladjustment and social adjustment were both reported as having little impact upon participants’ adjustment to university life. This former finding, however, may be due to a lack of familiarity with students’ specializations during their first semester or so at SQU. In particular, while students study in the English language Foundation Program, they have limited exposure to academic subjects in their specializations with only some “specialization specific” materials presented as a means through which to improve their English skills. Adjustment to students’ specializations after they successfully complete the Foundation Program could, therefore, be a worthwhile area of future research.

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Finally, despite a number of studies that suggest gender is an influential factor in student adjustment, this variable was found to have no significant impact on any of the seven areas investigated here. However, the small size of this sample means that the power of the t-tests performed to discern these differences was somewhat low. For this reason, it may be valuable to replicate this study with a much larger sample size in the future.

6. Conclusion This study looked at the factors influencing adjustment among SQU first-year students to university life. The adjustment level was explored by investigating seven areas which were student expectations before and after attending university, specialization, self-esteem, academic adjustment, social adjustment, emotional adjustment, and desire to dropout. Of these, unrealistic student expectations, low levels of self-esteem, and difficulties with adjusting to the academic requirements of SQU, including those related to studying in an English-medium environment, were all identified as areas which negatively impacted upon adjustment. On the other hand, specialization maladjustment and social adjustment were not deemed to negatively influence participant adjustment, while, unlike a number of previous studies, gender was not reported as a significant variable. In order to ease student adjustment to life at university, SQU could take a number of steps. For example, given that unrealistic expectations were highlighted as the most significant factor negatively impacting upon student adjustment, the university should thoroughly revise its existing induction program in line with findings from studies similar to this one in addition to feedback from students themselves. An important addition could be placing an explicit focus on the centrality of the English language to students’ studies at the university and to future career success. This could help highlight the importance of the English Foundation Program, which many participants described as pointless and a waste of time, in improving learners’ English proficiency before beginning studying in their specializations. Moreover, given that self-esteem may be an important issue for a number of students, a “preventative program” similar to that described by Sasakli and Yamaski (2007) could also be offered on a voluntary basis. Sasakli and Yamaski highlight this program as focusing on relaxation training and coping skills, and designed to make the transitional phase from school to university as smooth as possible by lessening the negative

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influence of psychological factors. As such, it could also help decrease the negative influence of stress on student adaptation.

References Arkoff, A. (1968). Adjustment and mental health. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Blanks, H., & Lowery, S. (2005). Body image, self-esteem, and healthrelated behaviors among male and female first year college students. College Student Development Journal, 46(6), 612-623. Chelliah, S., & Yusoff, Y. (2010). Adjustment in international students in Malaysian public university. International Journal of Innovation, Management and Technology, 1(3), 275-278. Chhuon, V., & Hudley, C. (2008). Factors supporting Cambodian American students’ successful adjustment into the university. Journal of College Student Development, 49(1), 15-30. Douglass, L., & Islam, R. (2006). Emotional wellbeing of first year students. Social and Community Psychology Journal, 33(4), 1-10. Elias, H., Mahyuddin, R., & Uli, J. (2009). Adjustment amongst first year students in a Malaysian university. European Journal of Social Sciences, 8(3), 494-505. Farris, A. (2010). The freshmen adjustment process: Commuter life versus residence life. Unpublished master’s thesis, California State University, Sacramento. Friedlander, L., Reid, G., Shupak, N., & Cribbie, R (2007). Social support, self-esteem, and stress as predictors of adjustment to university among first year undergraduates. Journal of College Student Development, 48(3), 259-274. Gerdes, H., & Mallinckrodt, B. (1994). Emotional, social, and academic adjustment of college students: A longitudinal study of retention. Journal of Counseling and Development, 72(3), 281-288. Gharaibeh, M., Ishak, N., Jdaitawi, M., & Taamneh, M. (2011). The effectiveness of emotional intelligence training program on social and academic adjustment among first year university students. International Journal of Business and Social Science, 24(2), 251-258. Grayson, J. (2003). The consequences of early adjustment to university. Higher Education, 46, 411-429. Retrieved from www.springerlink.com/index/RJX8P24JU712M854.pdf Grayson, P. (2011). Cultural capital and academic achievement of first generation domestic and international students in Canadian universities. British Educational Research Journal, 37(4), 605-630.

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Jamelske, E. (2009). Measuring the impact of a university first-year experience program on student GPA and retention. A Journal of Higher Education, 57, 373-391. Josephs, R., Bosson, J., & Jacobs, B. (2003). Self-esteem maintenance processes: Why low self-esteem may be resistant to change. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 29(7), 920-933. Lee, S. A., Park, H. S., & Kim, W. (2009). Gender differences in international students’ adjustment. College Student Journal, 43(4), 1217-1227. Michael, R. (1996). Adaptation. California: San Diego. Murdoch, P. (2006). First year students’ expectation of university study. Journal of Higher Education, 43(8), 1-14. Sasakli, M., & Yamaski, K. (2007). Stress coping and the adjustment process among university freshmen. Journal of Counseling Psychology Quarterly, 20(1), 51-67. Tinto, V. (1987). Leaving college: Rethinking the causes and curses of student attrition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Tinto, V. (1988). Stages of student departure: Reflections on the longitudinal character of student leaving. The Journal of Higher Education, 59(4), 438-455.

CHAPTER FOUR CHALLENGES OF TEACHING AND LEARNING ENGLISH IN THE ALBAHA REGION OF SAUDI ARABIA: A DIAGNOSTIC STUDY ABDELRAZAK MOHAMED ELSAGHEER UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA, USA [email protected]

Abstract The main purpose of this study is to diagnose the challenges of teaching and learning English language as perceived by teachers and students in Al Makhwah in the region of Albaha, Saudi Arabia. For collecting data, the researcher used a face-to-face questionnaire with 96 teachers and 384 students from 21 schools. A 4-point rating scale was used to measure the relative weighted scores of questionnaire items. Two research approaches were used: the descriptive approach to build the theoretical framework and describe the challenges of teaching and learning the English language and the analytical approach to analyze the preliminary results. Data analysis revealed that there are a number of challenges in teaching and learning the English language. The most important of these are related to the English language itself, to the teaching of English, to the learning of English, to the teaching materials, and to the teaching methodology. Also, the findings indicate that the challenges are recognized in using the English language, focusing on and integrating language skills, using language labs and multimedia, using language for communication, the prescribed school textbook, sources of knowledge and additional materials, objectives of lessons, the communicative approach, and the teaching methods employed.

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Keywords: challenges, teaching English, learning English, diagnostic study, Albaha region, Saudi Arabia

1. Introduction With the beginning of the academic year 2010–2011, a new college of science and arts was established in the governorate of Al Makhwah in the region of Albaha, Saudi Arabia. The researcher had the honor to be one of the faculty members who started working at the Department of English Language with 47 male undergraduate students who came from the preparatory year program where they studied f o r the first two levels of their academic careers so as to begin their specialized study at the department. However, it was realized from the beginning that the majority of students lacked the ability to communicate in English or even to express themselves in everyday life activities. This was a problem that needed to be investigated. The researcher thought that it would be better to go backward and examine the problem throughout the stages of pre-university education. This is because pre-university education includes three main stages of EFL education: elementary, intermediate, and secondary stages. Therefore, this research study investigated the challenges of teaching and learning English as a foreign language at Al Makhwah in the region of Albaha, Saudi Arabia.

2. Context of the Research English is the only foreign language that is taught in the government schools in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The teaching of English as a first foreign language was introduced in 1984. Since that time, the Saudi government did their best to develop and improve the teaching of English. The Ministry of Education is currently involved in research into, and the development of, the system. Accordingly, teachers are encouraged to provide comments and suggestions for the teaching of the English language for the purpose of future EFL developments. Today, English is given a high consideration as it is believed that pre-university students need to learn the basic skills of listening, speaking, reading, and writing since English is not only an international language but it is also an important factor in the development of the country. Several researchers have reported the problems related to the teaching and learning of the English language (Al Mazroou, 1988; Dhafer, 1986). Most of these problems are related to EFL methodology, the prescribed

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textbook, EFL teachers, and the low achievement and poor performance of pre-university students in English. In particular, though Saudi Arabian preuniversity students receive eight years of EFL teaching in elementary, intermediate, and secondary stages, most of them graduate unable to use the language in everyday life activities. This is documented by a number of local studies and institutions. For example, in a meeting of 15 Saudi universities about the status-quo of teaching and learning English in pre-university education, 18 working papers remarked that there are some problems in teaching and learning English particularly at the level of secondary education (King Saud University, 2010). Next, in a meeting of English Department chairs at AlBaha University, the problem was ascribed to the lack of sufficient EFL sources of knowledge (Albaha University, 2010). An educator noticed that the problem lies in the swinging of teaching approaches (Al-Nifayee, 2010). Moreover, Al Khalaf (2008) states that dealing with language skills as separate instead of integrating them is a big problem. In addition, AlOmary (2007) pointed out that supervisors of English do not draw their teachers’ attention to the importance of clarifying the objectives of the lessons they teach. Above all, the Ministry of Education (2000) attributes this problem to the teachers of English themselves. Finally, Al-Hajailan (1999) states that one of the major factors contributing to students’ unsatisfactory achievement is the textbook. Based on the above, it can be concluded that there is a problem that needs to be explored. Therefore, this study investigated the challenges of teaching and learning English as a foreign language in the Albaha region of Saudi Arabia.

3. Overview of Current Research The current research aims to diagnose the challenges of teaching and learning English at Al Makhwah in the region of Albaha, Saudi Arabia, as perceived by EFL teachers and pre-university students. The current study was guided by the following three questions: 1. What are the challenges of teaching the English language as perceived by EFL teachers? 2. What are the challenges of learning the English language as perceived by pre-university students? 3. What are the common challenges among EFL teachers and preuniversity students? The current research may be considered of significance to:

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1. Newly graduated EFL teachers 2. EFL supervisors 3. Those who are interested in EFL pre-university education To achieve the research purposes, this study surveyed a purposive sample of male EFL teachers at Al Makhwah in the region of Albaha, Saudi Arabia, and a random sample of male pre-university students of intermediate and secondary schools in the region. The sample included 96 EFL teachers and 384 students. As for the research methods, two main approaches were used: the descriptive approach to review previous studies, build the theoretical framework, and develop the study instrument, and the analytical approach to analyze the survey data. For the purpose of collecting data, a face-to-face questionnaire was used as the main tool of the study. Such a questionnaire was designed in two similar versions: the first one focused on the challenges of teaching English and was devoted to the EFL teacher sample. The other version concentrated on the challenges of learning English and was dedicated to the sample of pre-university students. In order to answer the first two research questions on EFL teaching and learning, a set of questions was derived from previous studies and was submitted to a panel consisting of two EFL university professors, an EFL supervisor, and three EFL pre-university teachers from the elementary, intermediate, and secondary stages, to be validated. Regarding the third question about the common challenges among both groups of EFL teachers and the pre-university students, those challenges that were agreed upon by both groups during the process of diagnosing the challenges of teaching and learning English language were examined.

4. The Literature Review The issue of teaching and learning English in Saudi Arabia is not a new one as the Saudi education system has undergone major reforms since the 1980s and 1990s. To begin, Al-Kamookh (1981) surveyed teachers’ perceptions of teaching methods in intermediate and secondary schools to discover perceptions of English language teaching and learning and to determine the kinds of methods that are being used. The study was conducted throughout the Al-Dammam and Al-Hasa districts and included 64 schools. One hundred and forty-four teachers out of 151 contacted responded to the questionnaire. Factors negatively influencing English teaching included teachers, students, language labs, audio-visual aids, teaching materials, and teaching

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methods. The study concluded that the audio-lingual method was the most commonly employed followed by the direct method, the cognitive learning method, and the grammar-translation method. The study also concluded that language labs are not available in most schools and, if found, there are often no qualified teachers to use them. Moreover, most teachers lacked the knowledge and skills of teaching. Al-Ahaidib (1986) explored the teaching of English as a foreign language in the intermediate and secondary schools of Saudi Arabia. The study was conducted to diagnose the problems with English language programs at both school levels. Al-Ahaidib developed three questionnaires that were distributed to a sample of 836 students, 51 teachers, and five supervisors. The researcher reported that the English language program needs improvement in the following areas: teachers’ quality, the English curriculum, methods of teaching, students’ attitudes, teaching aids, and teaching atmosphere. Al Braik (1986) investigated the successful attributes of EFL students in Saudi Arabia. One hundred and seventy-six Saudi Arabian students participated in the study. Each student’s attitude towards foreign language learning was identified via a 45-item questionnaire. The questionnaire was divided into four sub-categories: cognitive factors, attitudes and motivation, personality characteristics, and learning strategies. Results of the study showed that the participants responded negatively to learning a second language, that Saudi students considered exposure to English and its culture as important as formal English instruction, and that students who started English between the ages 7 and 12 showed better learning strategies than those who started at older ages. Zaid (1993) proposed a comprehensive analysis of the current system of teaching English as a foreign language in Saudi Arabian intermediate schools. The study was designed to investigate the system of teaching English in Saudi Arabia. It was concerned with the hypothesis that this system is dated and needs improvement. Textbooks, teaching methods, and teacher preparation were examined. Results revealed that respondents believed that the textbooks used for teaching English need improvement; teaching methods were evaluated as needing to be replaced with better methods that promote communication in English; and students’ achievement was viewed as below than what the Ministry of Education expects. Furthermore, Al-Essa (2003) investigated cooperative learning in secondary schools as he believed that students who graduate from Saudi high schools are weak in English. This weakness in the English language among secondary school graduates was clearly noticed by the heads of the

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English departments in Riyadh, Makkah, and Abha. According to Al Essa, the heads of those departments described the students’ weakness in the English language as the most persistent problem which led some colleges of education to start an intensive English remedial program for those who want to enroll in the department to become English teachers. Arroway (2009) studied the level disparity and objectives of Saudi EFL classrooms. She pointed out that some of the most common challenges faced are those involving the differing proficiency levels and the lack of clear objectives. According to Arroway, it is nearly impossible to create a class in which all of the members have the same proficiency level. Even in beginner level classes, individual students will learn more quickly or more laboriously than their mates. The findings of Arroway’s study revealed that the objectives of the classes were not clear enough and that they should be clearly outlined and understood by the teachers of English as a foreign language and by the students as well since clear, obtainable objectives should be brought to light from the beginning of the course. Moores-Abdool, Yahya, and Unzueta (2009) investigated the learning preferences of Saudi students with English-speaking teachers. The study surveyed 310 Saudi students enrolled in teaching English as a foreign language classes. The research question was whether Saudi students prefer student-centered learning or not. Findings showed that students were open to a student-centered learning approach, with certain student-centered activities being more favorable to participants. The authors conclude that teacher training programs should seriously examine innovative ways of teaching English to their pre-service teachers. Al Mohanna (2010) investigated EFL teaching in the Saudi Arabian context. He explored how communicative language teaching is understood and implemented by English teachers in Saudi secondary school for boys by using classroom observation and interviews with 40 teachers. The results revealed that the traditional methods of teaching are the predominant approaches practiced by the teachers, that the teachers face difficulties in implementing communicative language teaching even though instructional goals imply a smooth implementation of it, and that the implementation of communicative language teaching is not simple because of various situational issues such as time constraints, the unavailability of required and adequate teaching/learning aids, an inadequate examination system, over-crowded classes, and administrative tasks imposed on teachers. Finally, Fulghum (2010) studied the challenges of teaching English as a foreign language in the country. The study focused on two main

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challenges: differing levels among students and inadequate resources. She found that students vary in levels and that lessons need to be thoroughly prepared as some students may have no knowledge of English and some may not understand the basics of letter sounds and may have recognition problems. The author concludes that large numbers of students require a large number of resources and that ensuring that there are enough textbooks, computers, listening devices, hands-on tools, and other necessary teaching and learning instruments is a very challenging assignment. Therefore, previous research revealed that the English language itself is a challenge, that learning facilities are too limited, that language skills are not integrated, and that multimedia are not activated (Al Ahaidib, 1986; Al Braik, 1986; Al Kamookh, 1981; Jan, 1984). Moreover, the teaching methodology employed in Saudi classrooms is not communicative, there is a lack of additional materials, and the teaching methods are too challenging (Al Essa, 2003; Angel, 2007; Mishra, 2007; Zaid, 1993). Finally, training programs are poor, lesson objectives are not clear, teaching aids are not available, and sources of knowledge are inadequate (Al Mohanna, 2010; Arroway, 2009; Fulghum, 2010; MooresAbdool et. al., 2009).

5. Methodology To survey the perceptions of EFL teachers and pre-university students with regard to the challenges of teaching and learning English as a foreign language in the region of Albaha, a face-to-face questionnaire was employed. Questionnaire development, validity, reliability, and sampling are described below.

5.1 Questionnaire Development The questionnaire was developed after reviewing the related literature and reviewing the previous studies on the challenges, difficulties, and problems of teaching and learning the English language in Saudi Arabia (Al Ahaidib, 1986; Al Braik, 1986; Al Essa, 2003; Al Kamookh, 1981; Al Mohanna, 2010; Jan, 1984; Moores-Abdool et al., 2009; Zaid, 1993). The format of the questionnaire was designed according to the guidelines outlined by Brown (2001), Vandergrift et al. (2006), and Dornyei (2003). The initial list of questions was subject to the judgment of a panel that consisted of two professors at the research site, an EFL supervisor, and three EFL teachers. Thirteen items remained after the validation and these

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were re-examined for clarity, redundancy, and readability. Finally, the reviewed instrument was piloted with supervisors, teachers, and students for additional feedback on the clarity of items. The piloting stage was conducted with a sample of about 10% of the gross population of the surveyed teachers and students from various parts of the region in different learning contexts and at different levels of language proficiency. The questionnaire included five categories: English language, English teaching, English learning, Teaching materials, and Teaching methods. The first category included the items of (1) using the English language, (2) focusing on language skills, and (3) integrating language skills. The second one consisted of (4) using language labs, and (5) using multimedia. The third category had the items of (6) using language as communication in class activities, and (7) using language as communication in school activities. The fourth category consisted of (8) the prescribed school textbook, (9) using varied sources of knowledge, and (10) using additional materials. While the fifth category comprised of (11) clarity of the lesson objectives, (12) using the communicative approach, and (13) variance of teaching methods. The final questionnaire consisted of three versions: a teacher questionnaire (Appendix A), a student questionnaire in English (Appendix B), and a student questionnaire in Arabic (Appendix C). The questionnaire was designed using a 4–point scale where the score of 1 was given for “unchallenging”, 2 for “less challenging”, 3 for “challenging”, and 4 for “more challenging”.

5.2 Questionnaire Validity Validity was performed by two university EFL professors at the research site, an EFL supervisor, and three EFL teachers from elementary, intermediate, and secondary stages to decide if the questionnaire items measured what they were intended to measure. In light of the panel’s recommendations, 13 items were retained from the original version of the questionnaire while several other items were omitted due to either repetition or irrelevance. Scotts’ Agreement Coefficient was calculated for each of the items and was found to be about 0.80 which indicates a high degree of validity.

5.3 Questionnaire Reliability Reliability was estimated by using the split-half method. Items were divided into odd-and-even numbered items after obtaining scores for each

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individual. Pearson’s correlation coefficient was found to be about 0.88 which is considered a high correlation indicator. In addition, the Spearman–Brown prediction formula was used to correct the effect of splitting. The correlation coefficient was found to be about 0.90 which indicates that the questionnaire items have a high degree of internal consistency (Lindquist, 1998).

5.4 Sampling and Sample Size Out of 50 schools in the Al Makhwah region of Albaha, a random sample of 21 schools was chosen including 7 elementary, 8 intermediate, and 6 secondary schools with a sampling percentage of 0.33%, 0.38%, and 0.29% respectively. Due to their limited number, a purposive sample of 96 EFL teachers was selected, with 15% being elementary teachers, 42% intermediate teachers, and 43% secondary teachers. The student sample was selected randomly and consisted of 384 students. This number ensures that statistics can be generalized to the population at a 95% confidence level (Osborne & Costello, 2004).

5.5 Data Analysis According to Likert’s formula, the relative weight equals (F1 X1) + (F2 X2) + (F3 X3) + (F4 X4) / N X4 where: F1 refers to the 1st frequency *1; F2 to the 2nd frequency *2; F3 to the 3rd frequency *3; F4 to the 4th frequency *4; N is the total number of participants; and 4 is the number of rubrics (Rodgers, 2001). From the statistical analysis, the quartiles are used in order to score the questionnaire items labeling them as low (0.250), low/medium (0.500), medium/high (0.750) and high (0.999).

6. Challenges of EFL Teaching 6.1 English Language Table 1 demonstrates that using the English language during teaching was considered unchallenging by 11.5% of teachers, less challenging by 13.5%, challenging by 36.5%, and more challenging by 38.5%, while focusing on language skills was seen as both unchallenging and less challenging by 12.5%, and both challenging and more challenging by 37.5% (Items and item numbers are available in Appendix A). Integrating language skills was seen as

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unchallenging by 10.4%, less challenging by 11.5%, challenging by 38.5%, and more challenging by 39.6% of the surveyed teachers.

6.2 English Teaching In Table 2, the item of using language labs during teaching English was considered as unchallenging by 10.4% of the surveyed teachers, less challenging by 13.5%, challenging by 33.3%, and more challenging by 42.7%, while the last item about using multimedia during teaching English was found to be unchallenging by 9.4%, less challenging by 12.5%, challenging by 33.3%, and more challenging by 44.8% of the surveyed teachers.

6.3 English Learning Table 3 indicates that the item of using language as communication in class activities was seen as both unchallenging and less challenging by 7.3% of EFL teachers, as challenging by 34.4%, and as more challenging by 51%, but using language as communication in school activities was found unchallenging by 10.4%, less challenging by 20.8%, challenging by 28.1%, and more challenging by 40.6%.

6.4 Teaching Materials In Table 4 below, item 8 í “School textbook prescribed for teaching English” í was found to be unchallenging by 10.4%, less challenging by 19.8%, challenging by 28.1%, and more challenging by 41.7% of teachers. Using varied resources during teaching English (item 9) was seen as unchallenging by 8.3%, less challenging by 12.5%, challenging by 26.0%, and more challenging by 53.1%. Using additional materials during teaching English (item 10) was considered as unchallenging by 9.4%, less challenging by 12.5%, challenging by 29.1%, and more challenging by 49.0% of the surveyed EFL teachers who participated in responding to the teacher questionnaire.

6.5 Teaching Methods Finally, Table 5 shows “clarity of the lesson objectives during teaching English” (item 11) was found to be unchallenging by 8.3% of teacher participants, less challenging by 9.4%, challenging by 40.6%, and more challenging by 41.7%, while using the communicative approach in teaching

11 12 10

2 13 12 11

11.5% 12.5% 10.4%

Percentage

%

Less Challenging

4 5

Percentage

% 10.4% 9.4%

Unchallenging

1 10 09

2 13 12

Less Challenging

Item Number

Item Number

3 35 36 37

% 13.5% 12.5% 11.5%

Table 2: Teachers’ challenges of English teaching

1 2 3

Unchallenging

1

Percentage

Table 1: Teachers’ challenges of English language

Challenges of Teaching and Learning English in the Albaha Region

% 13.5% 12.5%

Percentage

3 32 32

4 37 36 38

% 36.5% 37.5% 38.5%

Percentage % 33.3% 33.3%

Percentage

Challenging Challenging

More Challenging 4 41 43

More Challenging

38.5% 37.5% 39.6%

%

Percentage % 42.7% 44.8%

Percentage

0.755 0.750 0.768

Relative Weight 0.770 0.783

Relative Weight

93

10th 12th 9th

Item Order 8th 7th

Item Order

Unchallenging

1 07 10

2 07 20

Percentage

% 7.3% 10.4%

Item Number

8 9 10

Percentage

% 10.4% 8.3% 9.4%

Unchallenging

1 10 08 09

2 19 12 12

Percentage % 19.8% 12.5% 12.5%

3 27 25 28

% 41.7% 53.1% 49.0%

% 7.3% 20.8%

4 40 51 47

3 33 27

Percentage

% 28.1% 26.0% 29.1%

% 51.0% 40.6%

4 49 39

% 34.4% 28.1%

Challenging

Item Number

Table 4: Teachers’ challenges of teaching materials

6 7

Percentage Percentage

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More Challenging More Challenging

Table 3: Teachers’ challenges of English learning

94

Less Challenging Less Challenging

Percentage Percentage

Challenging

0.841 0.747

Relative Weight 0.752 0.809 0.794

Relative Weight

first last

Item Order 11th 2nd 4th

Item Order

11 12 13

Percentage

% 8.3% 9.4% 8.3%

Unchallenging

1 8 9 8

Less Challenging 2 9 12 11

% 9.4% 12.5% 11.5%

Percentage

Item Number

Table 5: Teachers’ challenges of teaching methods

Challenging 3 39 29 29

Percentage % 40.6% 30.2% 30.2%

4 40 46 48

More Challenging

Challenges of Teaching and Learning English in the Albaha Region

Percentage % 41.7% 47.9% 50.0%

Relative Weight 0.789 0.791 0.804

95

6th 5th 3rd

Item Order

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English (item 12) was considered as unchallenging by 9.4%, less challenging by 12.5%, challenging by 30.2%, and more challenging by 47.9%. Variance of the teaching methods (item 13) was seen as unchallenging by 8.3%, less challenging by 11.5%, challenging by 30.2%, and more challenging by 50.0% of the surveyed teachers. Tables 1-5 reported the challenges of teaching as perceived by the EFL teacher participants. Thus far, these are the tasks that were considered more challenging as reported by the surveyed teachers of English as a foreign language in the region of Albaha in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia as arranged from most to least important: 1. Using language as communication in class teaching activities 2. Using varied sources of knowledge during teaching English 3. Variance of teaching methods during teaching English 4. Using additional materials during teaching English 5. Using the communicative approach in teaching English 6. Clarity of the lesson objectives during teaching English 7. Using multimedia and language lab during teaching English 8. Integrating language skills during teaching English 9. Using English language during teaching English 10. The prescribed school textbook for teaching English 11. Focusing on language skills during teaching English

7. Challenges of EFL Learning 7.1 English Language Table 6 demonstrates that the 1st item of the English language category was found to be unchallenging by 2.0%, less challenging by 26.6%, challenging by 33.1%, and more challenging by 38.3% (see Appendices B and C for a full list of items and item numbers). However, the 2nd item was considered as unchallenging by 1.3%, less challenging by 26.0%, challenging by 35.2%, and more challenging by 37.5%. The last item was found to be unchallenging by 4.9% of participants, less challenging by 26.0%, challenging by 32.6%, and more challenging by 36.5%. Unfortunately, focusing on language skills during learning English was found to be the first among all other items as a more challenging item.

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7.2 English Teaching Table 7 shows “Using language lab during learning English” (item 4) was seen as unchallenging by 1.8%, less challenging by 25.8%, challenging by 34.6%, and more challenging by 37.8% of the surveyed students while using multimedia during learning English (item 5) was found to be unchallenging by 3.4%, less challenging by 27.3%, challenging by 33.3%, and more challenging by 35.9%.

7.3 English Learning In Table 8, 7.8% of students view using language as communication in class activities (item 6) as unchallenging, 29.4% as less challenging, 31.0% as challenging, and 31.8% as more challenging. However, 0.5% view using multimedia in school activities as unchallenging (item 7), 29.7% as less challenging, 34.9% as challenging, and the same previous percentage as more challenging.

7.4 Teaching Materials In Table 9 below, the prescribed school textbook for learning English is considered as unchallenging by 7.8%, of the surveyed students, less challenging by 18.2%, challenging by 36.7%, and more challenging by 37.2% of students, while 7.6% have seen varied sources of knowledge during learning English (item 9) as unchallenging, 26.0% as less challenging, 31.8% as challenging, and 34.6% as more challenging. Using additional materials during learning English (item 10) is considered as unchallenging by 7.3%, as less challenging by 28.6%, challenging by 28.9%, and as more challenging by 35.2% of the surveyed students.

7.5 Teaching Methods Table 10 demonstrates that clarity of the lesson objectives (item 11) was found to be unchallenging by 6.5%, less challenging by 23.9%, challenging by 31.3%, and more challenging by 38.3% of students. Using the communicative approach (item 12) was seen as unchallenging by 8.0%, less challenging by 27.6%, challenging by 30.5%, and more challenging by 33.9% of participants. Variance of teaching methods (item 13) was found to be unchallenging by 2.9%, less challenging by 26.3%, challenging by 34.1%, and more challenging by 36.7% of students.

Unchallenging

1 8 5 19

Less Challenging 2 102 100 100

Percentage

% 2.0% 1.3% 4.9%

4 5

Percentage

% 1.8% 3.4%

Unchallenging

1 7 13

Less Challenging 2 99 105

% 25.8% 27.3%

3 133 128

% 34.6% 33.3%

% 37.8% 35.9%

% 26.6% 26.0% 26.0%

4 145 138

% 38.3% 37.5% 36.5%

4 147 144 140

% 33.1% 35.2% 32.6%

3 127 135 125

Percentage

Item Number

Item Number

Table 7: Students’ challenges of English teaching

1 2 3

Challenging

Table 6: Students’ challenges of English language

Percentage

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More Challenging More Challenging

Challenging

98

Percentage

Percentage Percentage

Percentage

0.770 0.754

2nd 7th

3rd first 9th 0.768 0.772 0.751

Relative Weight Relative Weight

Item Order Item Order

Unchallenging

1 30 2

2 113 114

Percentage

% 7.8% 0.5%

% 29.4% 29.7%

8 9 10

Percentage

% 7.8% 7.6% 7.3%

Unchallenging

1 30 29 28

2 70 100 110

Percentage % 18.2% 26.0% 28.6%

3 141 122 111

% 37.2% 34.6% 35.2%

3 119 134

Percentage

4 143 133 135

% 31.0% 34.9%

Challenging % 36.7% 31.8% 28.9%

% 31.8% 34.9%

4 122 134

Percentage Percentage

Item Number

Item Number

Table 9: Students’ challenges of teaching materials

6 7

More Challenging More Challenging

Table 8: Students’ challenges of English learning

Challenges of Teaching and Learning English in the Albaha Region

Less Challenging Less Challenging

Percentage Percentage

Challenging

0.716 0.760

Relative Weight 0.758 0.733 0.729

Relative Weight

99

last 5th

Item Order 6th 10th 11th

Item Order

Item Number

11 12 13

Percentage

% 6.5% 8.0% 2.9%

Unchallenging

1 25 31 11

Less Challenging 2 92 106 101

% 23.9% 27.6% 26.3%

Percentage

Table 10: Students’ challenges of teaching methods

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3 120 117 131

Challenging

100

Percentage % 31.3% 30.5% 34.1%

More Challenging 4 147 130 141

Percentage % 38.3% 33.9% 36.7%

Relative Weight 0.753 0.725 0.761

8th 12th 4th

Item Order

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Thus, Tables 6-10 reported the challenges of learning English as a foreign language as perceived by pre-university student participants. The following activities were considered to be more challenging by students in the region of Albaha. These activities are arranged from more challenging to least challenging: 1. Focusing on language skills during learning English 2. Using the language lab during learning English 3. Using English language during learning English 4. Variance of teaching methods during learning English 5. Using language as communication in school learning activities 6. The prescribed school textbook for learning English 7. Using multimedia during learning English 8. Clarity of lesson objectives during learning English 9. Integrating language skills during learning English 10. Using varied sources of knowledge and additional materials during learning English 11. Using the communicative approach during learning English 12. Using language as communication in class learning activities

8. Findings and Discussion The current study investigated the challenges of teaching and learning English in Al Makhwah in the region of Albaha, Saudi Arabia. Another goal of this study was to find the common challenges among both groups of EFL teachers and pre-university students who participated in the research. Findings are interpreted and discussed according to the following perspectives: 1. Challenges of teaching English language as perceived by EFL teachers 2. Challenges of learning English language as detected by preuniversity students 3. The common challenges among EFL teachers and pre-university students 4. Comparing the existing findings with those of local studies 5. Comparing the current findings with those of world studies First of all, based on teachers’ responses with regard to the challenges of teaching the English language, eleven out of thirteen items surveyed were found to be challenging. This means that a percentage of about 85%

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of EFL teachers face challenges during the process of teaching English. These challenges included the inability to use the English language for communication during EFL teaching, the difficulty of using different sources of knowledge, the invariance of teaching methods, the absence of using additional materials during teaching, the lack of use of the communicative approach in EFL teaching, the opacity of the objectives of the lessons taught, ignorance of how to use multimedia during teaching English, the ineffective usage of language labs during the process of EFL teaching, no integration of language skills, the severe interference of Arabic as a first and native language in teaching, and, finally, the lack of clarity of the prescribed school textbook. Next, according to students’ responses regarding the challenges of learning the English language, twelve out of thirteen items surveyed were found to be challenging for pre-university students. This percentage is less than that of teacher participants. The activities that were found most challenging by pre-university students included focusing on language skills, using the language lab, using English language, variance of teaching methods, using language as communication, the prescribed school textbook, using multimedia, clarity of lesson objectives, integrating language skills, using varied sources of knowledge and additional materials, using the communicative approach, and using language as communication in class learning activities. Moreover, both teachers and students agreed on 31% of the challenges in both teaching and learning English. That is, both groups of teachers and students agreed that the usage of multimedia during the process of teaching and learning English language is very challenging for them and that integrating language skills during both teaching and learning English language is the biggest challenge. In addition, findings here are quite similar to those from previous studies. That is, on the local level, there seems to be some relationship among the findings of the current study and research from Al Braik (1986) and Al Mohanna (2010) which investigated teaching aids and multimedia. Moreover, findings of this study support the results of research from Al Kamookh (1981), Al Ahaidib (1986), and Zaid (1993) which explored the variables of language teaching, language skills, and language methodology respectively. Similarly, the current study findings revealed that some additional materials are lacking and that learning facilities are limited. This is similar to what both Al Essa (2003) and Jan (1984) concluded. Finally, there seems to be some resemblances among the findings of the present study and those of Angel’s (2007) and Arroway’s (2009) research in terms of the interference of the first language during the teaching of a

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foreign language and the importance of clarifying the objectives of the lessons taught. Moreover, the findings of this study affirmed the findings of both Fulghum’s (2010) and Mishra’s (2007) investigations which studied additional sources of knowledge and teaching methods.

9. Conclusion and Recommendations The current research explored the challenges of teaching and learning the English language in the region of Albaha, Saudi Arabia, as perceived by EFL teachers and pre-university students. The main findings of the study revealed that both teachers and students experience a number of challenges with English language teaching and learning in Saudi Arabia. As for students, the percentage of challenges perceived decreased to 92%. Both teachers and students agree on a common percentage of 31% of the challenges of teaching and learning English language. On the other hand, within the limitations of the current study and in light of the findings on the topic of the challenges of teaching and learning the English language, the following recommendations are offered: -The training of EFL teachers is very important as they have to be trained to use the English language itself for communication and as a medium of instruction instead of depending on Arabic as this may reduce the interference of the first language in EFL teaching. -Teachers of English as a foreign language have to integrate the language skills of listening, speaking, reading, and writing during EFL teaching rather than dealing with these skills as separate language arts. -The supply of teaching equipment is a crucial issue. Pre-university schools, whether they are secondary, intermediate, or even elementary, should be provided with language labs and other multimedia tools so that both teachers and students can employ them during the process of teaching and learning English. -The availability of additional teaching and learning materials is of equal importance. It is important to develop some additional teaching and learning materials to be used as accompanying materials so as to cope with the rapid accumulation of EFL knowledge as the prescribed school EFL textbook may be not enough. -The in-service training programs are significant since the preparation of EFL teachers through the different and varied in-service training programs could help them clarify the lesson objectives, use the communicative approach in teaching, and vary teaching methods during the process of teaching English.

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-Finally, encouraging students to use English whether inside the classroom, during different school activities, or even during daily activities of everyday life, would help them practice the target language and focus on the essential language skills of listening, speaking, reading, and writing.

References Al Ahaydib, M. (1986). Teaching English as a foreign language in the intermediate and secondary schools of Saudi Arabia: Diagnostic study. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Kansas, USA. Al Braik, M. S. (1986). Investigation of the successful attributes of English as a second language of Saudi Arabian students studying in the United States of America. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Pennsylvania State University, USA. Al Essa, A. (2003). Education in the 21st Century in Saudi Arabia: A Study of cooperative training in the Buraydah Secondary Commercial School. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Denver, USA. Al Hajailan, T. (1999). Evaluation of English as a foreign language textbook for third grade secondary boys’ schools in Saudi Arabia. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Mississippi State University, USA. Al Kamookh, A. (1981). A survey of the English language teachers’ perceptions of the English language teaching methods in the intermediate and secondary schools of the eastern province in Saudi Arabia. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Kansas, USA. Al Khalaf, M. (2008) A guide to the supervision of EFL teachers in Saudi Arabia. Riyadh: Ministry of Education Press. Al Mazroou, M. S. (1988). An evaluation study of teaching English as a foreign language in secondary schools in Saudi Arabia as perceived by Saudi EFL teachers. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, California State University, USA. Al Mohanna, A. (2010). English language teaching in Saudi Arabian context: How communicatively oriented is it? Journal of King Saud University, Language & Translation, 22, 69-88. Al Nifayee, A. M. (2010). The effectiveness of the instrumental enrichment approach on the enhancement of reading comprehension skills of preparatory stage pupils with English language learning difficulties. Unpublished master’s thesis, Taif University, Saudi Arabia. Al Omary, H. A. (2007). The essential leadership skills of English language supervisors and its practice in the secondary schools of

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Jeddah City, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Unpublished master’s thesis, Aden University, Yemen. Albaha University. (2010). The meeting of foreign language departments’ chairs (English language divisions) at the Faculties of Arts in Albaha University headed by the Dean of Albaha Faculty of Arts and Human Sciences according to the coordination among the Deans of Albaha Faculties of Arts. [Monograph]. Angel, N. (2007). The challenges of teaching English. Retrieved from http://www.helium.com Arroway, R. (2009). Discipline, level disparity and objectives in the EFL and ESL classroom. Retrieved from http://www.helium.com Brown, J. D. (2001). Using surveys in language programs. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Dhafer, T. (1986). A survey of the English language supervisors’ and teachers’ perceptions of the English language curriculum in Saudi Arabia. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University, USA. Dornyei, Z. (2003). Questionnaires in second language research: Construction, administration, and processing. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Fulghum, S. (2010). The challenges of teaching English as a foreign language in large classes. Retrieved from http://www.helium.com Jan, M. S. (1984). An investigation of the problems of the English program in the intermediate boys’ schools of Saudi Arabia. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University, USA. King Saud University. (2010). Evaluation of Saudi universities’ tryouts for the preparatory year and the challenges which face them during application. Working papers submitted to the 4th Circular Meeting of Vice Deans of Saudi Universities, King Saud University, 30–31 March, Saudi Arabia. Lindquist, E. F. (1998). Statistical analysis in educational research. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Ministry of Education. (2000). Document of English language syllabus in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia for intermediate and secondary stages. Riyadh: The Educational Development Center. Mishra, A. (2007). The challenges of teaching English as a foreign language. Retrieved from http://www.helium.com Moores-Abdool, W., Yahya, N., & Unzueta, C. H. (2009). Learning preferences of Saudi University students with English speaking teachers. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Association of Language Teachers conference, Al Khobar, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, May 7.

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Osborne, J. W., & Costello, A. B. (2004). Sample size and subject to item ratio in principal components analysis. Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation, 9(11), 8. Rodgers, T. S. (2001). Language teaching methodology. Washington, DC: ERIC Clearinghouse on Languages and Linguistics, Center for Applied Linguistics. Retrieved from http://www.cal.org/resources/digest/rodgers.html Vandergrift, L., Goh, C. C., Mareschal, C. J., & Tafaghodtari, M. H. (2006). The meta-cognitive awareness listening questionnaire: Development and validation. Language Learning, 56, 431–462. DOI:10.1111/j.1467-9922.2006.00373.x Zaid, M. A. (1993). Comprehensive analysis of the current system of teaching English as a foreign language in the Saudi Arabian intermediate schools. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Colorado, USA.

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Appendix A: Teacher’s Questionnaire Date of Questionnaire: School Year: Teacher’s Qualification(s): School Term: Date of Qualification(s): Stage: Name of School: Grade: How challenging is each of the following items in teaching English language?

English Language 1 Using English language during teaching English 2 Focusing on language skills during teaching English 3 Integrating language skills during teaching English English Teaching 4 Using the language lab during teaching English 5 Using multimedia during teaching English English Learning 6 Using language as communication in class teaching activities 7 Using language as communication in school teaching activities Teaching Materials 8 The prescribed school textbook for teaching English 9 Using varied sources of knowledge during teaching English 10 Using additional materials during teaching English Teaching Methods 11 Clarity of the lesson objectives during teaching English 12 Using the communicative approach in teaching English 13 Variance of teaching methods during teaching English

Unchallenging

Less Challenging

Challenging

More Challenging

Item Number

Questionnaire Items

1

2

3

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Appendix B: Student’s Questionnaire Date of Questionnaire: School Year: Name of School: School Term: Name of Students: Stage: Number of Classroom: Grade: How challenging is each of the following items in learning English language?

English Language 1 Using English language during learning English 2 Focusing on language skills during learning English 3 Integrating language skills during learning English English Teaching 4 Using the language lab during learning English 5 Using multimedia during learning English English Learning 6 Using language as communication in class learning activities 7 Using language as communication in school learning activities Teaching Materials 8 The prescribed school textbook for learning English 9 Using varied sources of knowledge during learning English 10 Using additional materials during learning English Teaching Methods 11 Clarity of the lesson objectives during learning English 12 Using the communicative approach during learning English 13 Variance of teaching methods during learning English

Unchallenging

Less Challenging

Challenging

More Challenging

Item Number

Questionnaire Items

1

2

3

4

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Appendix C: ΐϟΎτϟ΍ ΔϧΎΒΘγ΍ :ϰγ΍έΪϟ΍ ϡΎόϟ΍ :ΔϧΎΒΘγϻ΍ ΦϳέΎΗ :ϰγ΍έΪϟ΍ Ϟμϔϟ΍ :ΔγέΪϤϟ΍ Ϣγ΍ :ϒμϟ΍:ΐϟΎτϟ΍ Ϣγ΍ :Δγ΍έΪϟ΍ ΔϓήϏ Ϣϗέ :ΔϠΣήϤϟ΍ ˮΔϳΰϴϠΠϧϹ΍ ΔϐϠϟ΍ ϢϠόΗ ϰϓ ΎϳΪΤΗ ΔϴϟΎΘϟ΍ ΩϮϨΒϟ΍ Ϧϣ ΪϨΑ Ϟϛ ϞΜϤϳ ϯΪϣ ϯ΃ ϰϟ· ήΜϛ΃ ΎϳΪΤΗ 4

ΎϳΪΤΗ 3

Ϟϗ΃ ΎϳΪΤΗ 2

βϴϟ ΎϳΪΤΗ 1

ΔϧΎΒΘγϷ΍ ΩϮϨΑ

Ϣϗήϟ΍

ΔϳΰϴϠΠϧϹ΍ ΔϐϠϟ΍ ΔϳΰϴϠΠϧϻ΍ ΔϐϠϟ΍ ϢϠόΗ ˯ΎϨΛ΃ ΔϳΰϴϠΠϧϹ΍ ΔϐϠϟ΍ ϡ΍ΪΨΘγ΍ 1 ΔϳΰϴϠΠϧϻ΍ ΔϐϠϟ΍ ϢϠόΗ ˯ΎϨΛ΃ ΔϐϠϟ΍ Ε΍έΎϬϣ ϰϠϋ ΰϴϛήΘϟ΍ 2 ΔϳΰϴϠΠϧϻ΍ ΔϐϠϟ΍ ϢϠόΗ ˯ΎϨΛ΃ ΔϐϠϟ΍ Ε΍έΎϬϣ ΞϣΩ 3 ΔϳΰϴϠΠϧϹ΍ ΔϐϠϟ΍ ϢϴϠόΗ ΔϳΰϴϠΠϧϻ΍ ΔϐϠϟ΍ ϢϠόΗ ˯ΎϨΛ΃ ΔϐϠϟ΍ ϞϤόϣ ϡ΍ΪΨΘγ΍ 4 ΔϳΰϴϠΠϧϻ΍ ΔϐϠϟ΍ ϢϠόΗ ˯ΎϨΛ΃ ΓΩΪόΘϤϟ΍ ς΋ΎγϮϟ΍ ϡ΍ΪΨΘγ΍ 5 ΔϳΰϴϠΠϧϹ΍ ΔϐϠϟ΍ ϢϠόΗ Δϴϔμϟ΍ ΔτθϧϷ΍ ϢϠόΗ ˯ΎϨΛ΍ Ϟλ΍ϮΘϛ ΔϐϠϟ΍ ϡ΍ΪΨΘγ΍ 6 ΔϴγέΪϤϟ΍ ΔτθϧϷ΍ ϢϠόΗ ˯ΎϨΛ΍ Ϟλ΍ϮΘϛ ΔϐϠϟ΍ ϡ΍ΪΨΘγ΍ 7 βϳέΪΘϟ΍ Ω΍Ϯϣ ΔϳΰϴϠΠϧϹ΍ ΔϐϠϟ΍ ϢϠόΘϟ έήϘϤϟ΍ ϰγέΪϤϟ΍ ΏΎΘϜϟ΍ 8 ΔϳΰϴϠΠϧϻ΍ ΔϐϠϟ΍ ϢϠόΗ ˯ΎϨΛ΃ ΔϋϮϨΘϣ έΩΎμϣ ϡ΍ΪΨΘγ΍ 9 ΔϳΰϴϠΠϧϻ΍ ΔϐϠϟ΍ ϢϠόΗ ˯ΎϨΛ΃ ΔϴϓΎο· Ω΍Ϯϣ ϡ΍ΪΨΘγ΍ 10 βϳέΪΘϟ΍ ϖ΋΍ήρ ΔϳΰϴϠΠϧϻ΍ ΔϐϠϟ΍ ϢϠόΗ ˯ΎϨΛ΍ αέΪϟ΍ ϑ΍Ϊϫ΃ ΡϮοϭ 11 ΔϳΰϴϠΠϧϻ΍ ΔϐϠϟ΍ ϢϠόΗ ˯ΎϨΛ΃ ϰϠλ΍ϮΘϟ΍ ϰΤϨϤϟ΍ ϡ΍ΪΨΘγ΍ 12 ΔϳΰϴϠΠϧϻ΍ ΔϐϠϟ΍ ϢϠόΗ ˯ΎϨΛ΃ βϳέΪΘϟ΍ ϖ΋΍ήρ ωϮϨΗ 13

CHAPTER FIVE MIXED ABILITY CLASSES IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING: CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES SHAKER ALI AL-MOHAMMADI BURAIMI UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, OMAN [email protected]

Abstract Given that learners cannot be identical in terms of background, ability, learning pace and motivation, it is unrealistic and impractical to consider that all the students in a given class are homogeneous. Bearing this assumption in mind, this paper investigates the issue of mixed ability classes in EFL teaching and learning, arguing that it is important for teachers to be aware of their targeted learners’ differences which are influential in determining what, why, and how to teach. Through examining the major challenges and obstacles faced by EFL teachers dealing with mixed ability classes, this paper explores EFL teachers’ thoughts and reflections regarding the issue of mixed ability classes and provides possible and practical solutions to this problem. Additionally, it builds on a qualitative analysis of the actual practice of a sample of nine EFL teachers at the Department of English and the Unit of Foundation Program at Buraimi University College in the Sultanate of Oman. Keywords: mixed ability classes, ELT, learning styles, differentiation, individualization, learner autonomy

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1. Introduction It is often assumed that teachers play an important role in helping their learners acquire the necessary skills to learn a second or foreign language. The approaches, strategies, and techniques adopted by language teachers have been continuously developing to meet the needs of an ever-changing world. Bearing in mind that this mission is not an easy task, investigating methodologies and classroom applications that work best for improving foreign language teaching is a never-ending process. Being aware of this significant issue, this paper investigates one of the many aspects that effective language teachers should always attend to. It is the issue of mixed ability classes. Mixed ability classes are a fact of not only language classes but of all other courses. Given that no two learners can be identical in terms of background, ability, learning speed, and motivation, it would be unrealistic and impractical to consider that all the students in a given class are homogeneous in these aspects. Actual practice in English language teaching reveals that EFL teachers often find teaching mixed ability classes very challenging and demanding as it involves a careful consideration of a variety of learning styles and abilities. In addition, it is argued that even if students are assembled based on their test scores, their evolution rates will always be at diverse levels due to disparities in teaching methods, materials, and learning styles (Prodromou, 1989). Therefore, this paper focuses on the issue of mixed ability classes in EFL teaching and learning, arguing that it is important for teachers to be aware of their targeted learners’ differences that are influential in determining what, why, and how to teach. This paper examines the challenges and obstacles faced by EFL teachers dealing with mixed ability classes. It also studies EFL teachers’ thoughts and reflections regarding the issue of mixed ability classes and provides possible and practical solutions to this problem. The methodology used in conducting this research follows essentially the theoretical framework for teaching English from the communicative approach and the premises of the learner-centered approach. Additionally, it builds on a qualitative analysis of the actual practice of the EFL teachers at the Department of English and the Unit of Foundation Program at Buraimi University College in the Sultanate of Oman.

1.1 Research Questions The dilemma of English language teaching in the context of mixed ability classes is the main target of this paper. To make the focus narrower,

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the investigator concentrated on investigating EFL teachers’ opinions and strategies concerning their approach to the challenge of teaching mixed ability classes. Accordingly, interviews and active discussions with different EFL teachers allowed for the exploration of the strategies they use and permitted a closer understanding of their authentic teaching practices. In this way, this investigation sought to tackle the following questions with a selected group of EFL teachers: 1. What are the major difficulties posed by mixed ability classes in the context of ELT? 2. How do EFL teachers seek to cater for the needs of all students regardless of their disparate levels and skills?

2. Literature Review A number of key concepts need to be clarified due to their significance for EFL teachers aiming to meet varied, and sometimes clashing, students’ needs in mixed ability classes.

2.1 Learner Factors To find out which strategies work best for students’ language development, it is important to take into consideration different aspects of second language acquisition. Lightbown and Spada (2002) explain how an individual’s age is one characteristic that determines the way they approach a second language. It is often claimed that our capacity to learn a language peaks before puberty. For example, the Critical Period Hypothesis proposes that “there is a time in human development when the brain is predisposed for success in language learning” (p. 60). Hence, in order to reach successful outcomes in students’ language development, it is essential to lay the foundation of foreign language learning early on and to enhance student motivation and interest in that foreign language. 2.1.1 Aptitude Lightbown and Spada (2002) argue that “learning quickly is the distinguishing feature of aptitude” (p. 53). Aptitude is a cognitive process which has been investigated in the form of tests to assess individual competence in learning a second language. Aptitude is commonly viewed to be composed of four diverse abilities which include the ability to identify and memorize new sounds, understand the function of words,

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figure out grammatical rules from particular samples, and have a good memory for new vocabulary. Not all students are successful in all these abilities as some can be efficient in acquiring new words and others can be better at figuring out the function of grammatical rules. Nevertheless, identifying learners’ strengths and weaknesses may be positive as it can help them achieve more. It can also be used to guide students in their choice of programs, and teachers in their choice of teaching methods and techniques. 2.1.2 Attitude and Motivation When it comes to being successful in learning a second or foreign language, motivation and positive attitude are important factors (Lightbown & Spada, 2002). A main inquiry that arises within this field is whether students are generally more motivated because they are successful or whether they are successful because they are motivated. Gardner and Lambert (1972) claimed that there are two types of motivation. The first one, integrative motivation linked to personal development, and the second one, instrumental motivation, involves learning for practical reasons (Gardner, 1993, p. 39). Based on the actual practice of EFL teachers, it is often claimed that students with good results are generally the most motivated ones and are very interested in preserving their high scores. Therefore, their motivation seems to be habitually instrumental. This implies that learners should have some special reasons to evaluate the importance of the target language. For instance, they may be interested in fulfilling professional ambitions, or gaining better interaction with their surrounds. Accordingly, students will be more motivated to be more proficient in the target language. That is to say, teaching has to be “authentic” and teachers have to design tasks based on students’ abilities, interests, and experiences to fit their needs (Brown, 2002, p. 28). Furthermore, if students’ attitudes are positive towards the speakers of the target language, they will be encouraged to look for more opportunities to communicate and interact. According to Krashen (1981, p. 22), it is through a positive disposition towards the target language that language acquisition occurs. Another aspect which is closely related to attitudes and motivation is that students who are exposed to forced input in a second language may lose their motivation. In order to avoid this discouraging situation, it is fundamental for teachers to be able to create a positive learning setting. In other words, teachers are advised to make their classrooms enjoyable and to offer content that is interesting and relevant to students’ ages and ability

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levels. In this learning environment, learning goals will still be challenging but manageable, achievable and clear, and the general atmosphere will be supportive and non-threatening (Lightbown & Spada, 2002, p. 57).

2.2 Learning Styles Students learn in various ways and have definite learning styles. The term “learning style” refers to the way in which students approach information. It portrays how they understand, process, and store new facts and details. This area also encompasses a cognitive style with a distinction between those styles that are “field independent” and “field dependent”. This distinction refers to whether an individual approaches a matter holistically or detaches the details from the general background. Other categories of learning styles are also based on a student’s personality and temperament. However, insufficient research has been conducted to investigate the importance of these aspects in enabling learners to be successful in a second or a foreign language. 2.2.1 Howard Gardner’s Eight Intelligences In his book Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences, Howard Gardner (1993) introduces eight intelligences that can be influential in affecting students’ learning styles. He identified eight different types of intelligences that each individual has the capacity to possess and maintains that people use these autonomous intellectual competences in the learning processes. These are: 1. Linguistic intelligence: Students with this kind of intelligence enjoy writing, reading and speaking. They have “sensitivity to the different functions of language” (Gardner, 1993, p.77). 2. Logical-Mathematical intelligence: These students are interested in structure, patterns and relationships within books and materials. They enjoy arithmetic games and like to recognize and solve significant problems. 3. Kinesthetic intelligence: These students enjoy using physical coordination and dexterity. They use fine and gross motor skills, and express themselves through physical activities. 4. Spatial intelligence: This refers to the ability to perceive a form or an object in its full form. Students with high spatial intelligence think in images and symbols.

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5. Musical intelligence: Musical learners often express themselves through music or rhythmic movements. They can distinguish between different sounds and can often sing with “greater accuracy and expressivity” (Gardner, 1993, p.109). 6. Interpersonal intelligence: This involves learners who have the “ability to notice and make distinctions among other individuals” (Gardner, 1993, p. 239), especially in regard to their moods and intentions. They usually are good leaders and are good at communicating and detecting other’s moods. 7. Intrapersonal intelligence: Learners with this type of intelligence have the capacity to access their own feelings. This ability entails learners understanding their emotions and they are usually successful in controlling their feelings. 8. Naturalist intelligence: This involves understanding the natural world of plants and animals, noticing their characteristics, and categorizing them.

2.3 Approaches to Mixed Ability Classes As the various learning factors and styles outlined above indicate, the challenge of teaching mixed ability classes has been approached through different perspectives by various educators. Some pedagogical techniques have been considered important to successfully cater for all students’ needs. 2.3.1 Differentiation A differentiated classroom presents diverse teaching and learning styles designed to cope with a variety of readiness levels, interests, and learning profiles. In differentiated classes, teachers introduce a number of techniques. They employ various ways for students to explore curriculum content, they use a number of sense-making activities to enable students to understand and acquire information and ideas, and they also offer a range of options for students to reveal and display what they have acquired (Tomlinson, 2001). However, there is no ready-made model or recipe for differentiation. Teachers create differentiated classrooms in multiple ways depending on their students’ nature and needs and on their own strategies, techniques, and methodologies. According to Tomlinson, a differentiated classroom has certain characteristics which can be summarized in the following ways:

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1. Instruction is concept focused and principle driven í Tomlinson (2001) states “lessons for all students should emphasize critical and creative thinking” (p. 20). Through the development of these skills, all learners have the opportunity to recognize and apply the fundamental concepts of the content being studied. This type of instruction highlights understanding and comprehension rather than memorization. 2. On-going assessment of student readiness and growth are built into the curriculum – According to Tomlinson (2001), “Assessment invites us to adjust our teaching based on current information” (p. 20). Teachers do not take for granted that all students need a given task, instead they assess their readiness continuously, providing support when needed and allowing “fast finishers” to move ahead. 3. Flexible grouping is consistently used í In differentiated classes, students work in many patterns; sometimes alone, sometimes in pairs, and sometimes in groups. Tasks can sometimes be readiness-based and, at other times, interest-based or constructed to match differing learning styles. Additionally, tasks can also be based on a combination of readiness, interest, and learning styles. 4. Students are active explorers and teachers guide the exploration í Instruction is student-centered and teachers play the role of guides, monitors, and facilitators, but not a deliverer of information or a spoon feeder. 2.3.2 Individualization Individualization took some time before it became largely established as a didactical approach which highlights that students have diverse learning profiles and that there is merit in meeting students where they stand and helping them move on from where they are (Tomlinson, 2001, p. 2). Individualization emphasizes the fact that every student acquires and processes information according to their individual learning style. Like differentiation, teachers who individualize instruction are “committed to the potential of the individuals” (Bartlett & Burton, 2004, p. 162). In spite of the advantages of individualization, some concerns have been raised regarding the restrictions that may be faced by teachers during the actual practice of teaching. These difficulties include time constraints and class sizes.

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2.3.3 Learner Autonomy According to Tornberg (2000), Henri Holec was the originator of the educational concept of learner autonomy which he coined in 1988 to refer to teaching that is characterized by student self-regulation. Holec affirmed in his report to the Council of Europe that taking charge of one’s learning implies being responsible for all the decisions related to the learning process. That is to say, learners are active in determining the objectives, selecting the content, deciding on the methods and techniques they will use, monitoring the process, and evaluating what has been learned. For Tornberg, schools should support autonomous thinkers who can achieve democratic ideals, and that is why the reflective and meta-cognitive attributes that inspire learner autonomy are most recommended not only in language learning but also in every school subject. Scharle and Szabos (2000) define the word autonomy as the “freedom and ability to manage one’s own affairs which entail the right to make decisions as well” (p. 4). EFL teachers who focus on learner autonomy have a major objective of enabling learners to be aware of, and responsible for, their own language acquisition. This entails that a sense of selfdiscipline is usually developed by EFL teachers who also keep encouraging learners to take an active part in deciding on their learning techniques.

3. Methodology Because the main focus of this paper is to investigate teachers’ perceptions towards the issue of mixed ability classes, data was collected through semi-structured interviews. Accordingly, interviewing and interacting with experienced EFL teachers from various nationalities and analyzing their strategies and techniques they use to tackle the challenges of mixed ability classes were the essential tools on which this work is based.

3.1 Collecting Data The approach which was selected to carry out this research differs from quantitative research, where interviews, when conducted, are mostly closed-ended surveys with yes/no questions. The researcher opted for interactive discussions with interviewees through a series of semistructured and extended conversations. A couple of guiding questions were included in the interviews when the investigator felt it was necessary to get

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more information or some specific explanations from interviewees, but all these interviews were still open to further discussions and included related areas that were deemed worth mentioning (Hatch, 2002). The investigator did not record the interviews but rather took notes. In order to investigate the teachers perceptions’ and practical strategies to approach mixed ability classes in ELT, a group of nine experienced EFL teachers from nine different nationalities were selected to take part in the interviews. The nationalities selected were as follows: Omani, Tunisian, Indian, Pakistani, Syrian, Bangladeshi, Egyptian, Sudanese, and American. All nine participants teach at Buraimi University College, the site where this research was conducted. The nine teachers have long years of teaching experience varying from 5 to 20 years. The choice of nine different nationalities aimed at exploring different opinions and perspectives about the topic. All interviewees were assured about their anonymity, even though they all had no objection to revealing their names and affiliations. To carry out the interviews, the investigator used 10 open questions which were divided into two main parts for the sake of structuring and simplifying the analysis of interviews and findings. The first part of the interview deals with the challenges and obstacles faced by the interviewees in their mixed ability classes. The second part focused on the possible strategies used by interviewees to overcome those challenges based on their actual practice.

3.2 Sampling Procedure The duration of the interviews was between 20 and 30 minutes each. In order to gather rich and insightful feedback from the nine interviewees, before the interview event the researcher handed all participants a document which included a summary of the research, the purpose of the investigation, and all the types of questions to be posed during the interviews. The interviews and the open discussions were carried out with the nine teachers individually in a comfortable atmosphere.

4. Findings and Discussion 4.1 Some Problems in the Mixed Ability Classes The interviews with the nine teachers revealed many problems and challenges faced in mixed ability classes. A summary of the most common challenges is offered in the following sections.

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4.1.1 Learning styles and students’ backgrounds All of the nine interviewed EFL teachers affirmed the fact that their students have different learning styles and paces of progress. A sentiment that was frequently repeated was, “No two learners are the same and so we are always dealing with no less than 20 students who have 20 different personalities”. Participants pointed at the fact that, while some students may find learning tasks very easy, others may find them difficult. In addition, the interviewees emphasized the effects of the different backgrounds of students who join their classes. These backgrounds include social, economic and cultural factors. One teacher mentioned that: Every semester, I have a new group of students who come from different schools, different villages and cities, and sometimes different nationalities, while I have to teach the same syllabus using the same book and ask students to sit for the same test. It is a big challenge.

4.1.2 Motivation, participation, and interest All nine interviewees stated that some of their students find it difficult to speak in the target language for many reasons ranging from a lack of confidence to low motivational levels. However, participants also stated that, contrary to this, some other students are very active in expressing themselves in the new language. These types of students enjoy taking parts in class activities and feel very motivated to participate during the entire lesson. This leads to the problem of disparity in students’ interest towards the course and the teacher. For example, some of the interviewees mentioned that, “In some cases, a few students in our classes feel bored although we vary our teaching techniques”. They explained this boredom by the lack of student interest in the course. 4.1.3 Classroom management and discipline Six teachers raised the issue of discipline in class and the challenge to establish a balance between the high achievers who finish the given tasks before the low achievers and then find themselves either bored or engaged in disruptive talk with peers. According to the interviewees, “Such imbalanced learning contexts may result in any type of misbehavior while waiting for the low achievers to finish the tasks”.

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4.1.4 Teaching materials Seven of the interviewees brought in the issue of different students’ reactions towards the teaching materials due to their individual differences. In many cases, some students find the textbooks hard and uninteresting, while some other students find it easy and the topics appealing and enjoyable. One interviewee mentioned that, “It is natural, we are born different and we don’t like the same things, and so are our students”.

4.2 Possible Remedies to Challenges of Mixed Ability Classes As previously mentioned, this research does not aim at studying all kinds of strategies that work best to overcome the challenge of meeting all students’ needs in mixed ability classes. However, it does seek to get a closer understanding of EFL teachers’ reflections and insights regarding this complex dilemma. When asked about the techniques used to face the challenges of mixed ability classes, the nine EFL teachers suggested a number of possible solutions that may be useful to overcome these problems. For example, in order to overcome the challenges of mixed ability classes, participants claimed teaching methodologies and techniques should appeal to all types of learners taking into consideration their different learning styles and capabilities. At a certain point of the interviews, all nine interviewed EFL teachers emphasized the importance of varying instruction in order to fit their learners’ different learning styles. Approaching content from different perspectives is an effective way to avoid boredom and a lack of attention. For these reasons, it is important for teachers to vary instruction to break the monotonous routines which can distract students and make them feel bored. Additionally, teaching should be based on contextualized situations which are meaningful for all learners. The use of realia in EFL classes is very efficient in grabbing students’ attention and motivating them regardless of their abilities and skills. Moreover, discussions on authentic topics based on the students’ own backgrounds, experiences, and interests are very successful in keeping a class motivated. Through selecting authentic topics, students recognize that EFL classes are meaningful and related to their everyday lives. As offered by a number of participants above, high achievers often finish their tasks before their peers who are slower learners. In such cases, it is preferable that teachers have some plans in advance for the early

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finishers. Such plans can include a few extra exercises or some handouts for practice. Another way to cope with the different paces of students is to vary the length of the class activities or tasks. For instance, high achievers may be asked to do the entire task while the slower learners are assigned only parts of it. In addition, various tasks can be given to different learners according to their performance, pace, and interest. Two of the interviewees stated that embedding the latest information technologies within EFL teaching and learning is very useful in raising students’ motivational levels as argued by Al-Mohammadi and Derbel (2013). It is worth noting here the importance of making sure that the fast finishers do not perceive the extra tasks as a kind of punishment. Hence, it is suggested that the extra tasks for the high achievers should be interesting, amusing, and, at the same time, challenging. Group-work and pair-work activities can be a useful remedy to the issue of mixed ability classes. Having the students grouped together helps them cooperate and learn from each other. When forming groups, teachers should make sure to group students of different levels, skills, and paces so that high achievers can work with slower students. Meanwhile, teachers should guide the groups and facilitate the tasks and they can give more focus to the low achievers. Open-ended questions which have a variety of expected correct answers rather than one single typical answer permit each student to take part in class activities at their own level. These types of questions allow students to express themselves differently without trying to keep searching for a single exact correct answer. Another possible solution suggested by the interviewees is to personalize and individualize classroom activities. That is to say, teachers should create authentic contexts that cater for individual student needs. In this way, regardless of their disparate levels and abilities, students can present their opinions, express their feelings, and share their experiences with their peers, in spite of any lack of confidence or skills they may have. In addition, students can get individual feedback which is not to be generalized to all classmates but rather targets the specific needs of each individual student. Such activities can help in establishing a positive atmosphere in EFL classes and in building a good rapport between teachers and their students regardless of their abilities. In this regard, commenting on the advantages of individual feedback, Tomlinson (2001) states that what works for one student may not work for another. Finally, EFL teachers facing challenges of mixed ability classes can also employ extra homework activities that pay attention to the different levels and interests of students. Consequently, varied homework tasks, projects, extended reading activities, and reports that take into account

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students’ individual needs and abilities, can motivate students and engage them in activities with a feeling of enthusiasm.

5. Conclusion This study aimed at investigating EFL teachers’ viewpoints on how to cope with the challenges of mixed ability classes and cater for all differing students’ needs. It examined the difficulties and obstacles faced by EFL teachers in the context of mixed ability classes. Additionally, through exploring EFL teachers’ thoughts and reflections regarding the issue, this study suggested some possible and practical solutions that may be useful to overcome the challenges posed by a mixed ability class. The findings of this research are based on a qualitative analysis of the actual practice of nine EFL teachers at the Department of English and the Unit of Foundation Program at Buraimi University College, Sultanate of Oman. The theoretical framework on which this study was based follows the premises of learner-centered and communicative approaches. To be successful in overcoming the challenges of mixed ability classes, EFL teachers should be aware of different learner factors, such as aptitude, motivation, and attitude. Obviously, students have different learning styles, skills, and abilities which compel teachers to plan authentic, meaningful tasks and activities, and vary their instructions to meet the disparate needs of all students. A number of strategies and techniques, such as differentiation, individualization, learner autonomy, varied instructions, authentic materials, group work, and extra homework activities, were presented and discussed as possible practical solutions to the issue of mixed ability-classes in the context of Omani ELT. As there is no ready-made answer or a fixed recipe for the strategies and techniques that work best in the context of mixed ability classes, this study reports that a combination of methodologies selected on the basis of a student needs analysis is necessary to cope with these challenges. All students need to have a positive and encouraging environment to learn regardless of their disparate levels and different interests. It is the role of teachers to come up with the appropriate strategies that can be effective in achieving this main goal.

5.1 Limitations of the Study Before applying these findings to other research contexts, however, it is important to take into account a number of potential limitations. First, the findings are not to be generalized to EFL learners worldwide, or even

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across the Arab Gulf region, as the study was conducted in two departments at one university in Oman. Second, this study did not cover all the challenges posed by mixed ability classes, nor did it provide all the possible remedies to such challenges because this was not the study’s aim. The examples and the suggestions presented here were only examples of probable difficulties and possible solutions. Third, this study was conducted on a limited sample size of only nine EFL teachers which was due to the fact that the research specifically targeted the university which was the site of the research.

5.2 Directions for Future Inquiry Further research on the topic under study can allow for the generalization of findings to wider populations. Moreover, investigating the situation in other departments and other schools and universities regarding the issue of mixed ability classes can generate results that can be a good foundation for comparing the findings from different research sites. Further investigation of possible effective assessment techniques in the context of mixed ability classes is necessary to provide accurate and effective findings for EFL teachers and decision makers to implement appropriate educational assessment reforms and changes.

References Al-Mohammadi, S., & Derbel, E. (2013). The effects of embedding information technologies within ELT on EFL learners’ motivation and interest. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and English Literature, 3(1), 181-186. Bartlett, S., & Burton, D. (2004). Introduction to education studies. London: Pout Chapman Publishing. Brown, D. (2002). Language assessment: Principles and classroom practices. New York: Pearson. Gardner, H. (1993). Frames of mind: The theory of multiply intelligences. New York: Basic Books. Gardner, R. C., & Lambert, W. E. (1972). Attitudes and motivation in second language learning. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House Hatch, A. J. (2002). Doing qualitative research in education settings. New York: State University of New York Press. Krashen, D. S. (1981). Second language acquisition and second language learning. Oxford: Pergamon.

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Lightbown, P., & Spada, N. (2002). How languages are learned. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Prodromou, L. (1989). The mixed ability class and the bad language learner. ELT Journal, 27(4), 2-8. Scharle, A., & Szabos, A. (2000). Learner autonomy: A guide to developing learner responsibility. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Tomlinson, C. A. (2001). How to differentiate instruction in mixed ability classrooms. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision & Curriculum Development. Tornberg, U. (2000). Mixed ability grouping. London: Harper & Row.

CHAPTER SIX FROM SMALL ‘R’ TO BIG ‘I’: THE IMPACT OF CLASSROOM-BASED ACTION RESEARCH IN PRE-SERVICE TEACHER EDUCATION KAY GALLAGHER ZAYED UNIVERSITY, UAE [email protected]

Abstract As the teacher education paradigm shifts from a transmission-based model to a more participatory and practice-based model, action research can play an important role in the preparation of future teachers. Moreover, action research may play a useful role in developing the new pedagogical approaches required for a reformed school system, as in the case of the recently transformed state school sector in the United Arab Emirates. Taking a case study approach, the practitioner research conducted by a young Emirati pre-service teacher of English is portrayed in this paper, and the impact of her classroom-based action research is examined at three levels: the personal level, the local level, and the public level. In so doing, this chapter aims to illustrate how action research, albeit research with a “small ‘r’, can actually have a “big impact” not only on the development of the individual teacher, but also on the pedagogical transformation of English language learning and teaching in the school system. Keywords: action research, UAE, English language teaching

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1. Introduction This paper examines the impact of classroom-based action research through the preparation of national teachers for a reformed school system in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). The key role played by action research in the development of a new generation of professionally qualified teachers is explored through the case study of a pre-service Emirati teacher, Huda Omar Obaid1, as she begins her career as a teacher of the English language in a state elementary school in the capital city, Abu Dhabi, during a period of extensive curricular and pedagogical reformation in state schools. Although undergraduate action research in teacher education is construed here as research with a small ‘r’, its impact can nevertheless be big; not in terms of the impact factor by which research published in top-tier scholarly journals (research with a big ‘R’) is measured in academia, but in terms of its impact on the professional lives of future teachers, on the learning of their students, and on the reconstruction of the entire education system. Action research has been characterised as the methodology of choice for research focusing on innovation and change (Somekh, 2006), and can be used to ameliorate “problematic situations or issues considered by the participants to be worthy of investigation in order to bring about critically informed changes in practice” (Cornwell, 1999, p. 5). One main purpose of classroom-based action research is the improvement of classroom practice (Bassey, 1998), and it differs from other types of educational research in that it implies a commitment to change (Meyers & Rust, 2003).

2. Changing the Teacher Education Paradigm Teacher education has been undergoing a paradigm shift from a transmission-based model which has little impact on teachers’ thinking (Borg, 2006a; Crandall, 2000), to a socioconstructivist and participatory model wherein teachers not only develop their knowledge and understanding through practice, but become knowledge-generators themselves (Graves, 2009; Zeichner & Noffke, 2001). Action research can play an important role within this new conception of teacher education, facilitating the development and empowerment of teachers (Campbell & 5 The author is grateful to Huda (whose real name, not a pseudonym, is used here at her request) for her enthusiastic support for this chapter, and for her consent to feature her work as a pre-service student teacher. Now a qualified teacher of English in a school in Abu Dhabi, Huda has since completed a Master’s degree in Educational Leadership in New Zealand, with first class honours.

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McNamara, 2010; Somekh & Zeichner, 2009). More specifically, preservice action research by future teachers í the focus of this chapter í has been described as a “unique genre within the action research tradition” (Kalmbach Phillips & Carr, 2010, p. 2). While it may be true that there is little interest in what student teachers learn about educational research overall during their courses of study (Reis-Jorge, 2005), there is growing interest in the use of action research in teacher education, not only to help develop student teachers’ classroom pedagogy (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 2010; Koshy, 2005; Pelton, 2010), but also to implement educational change (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 2009; Price & Valli, 2005; Somekh, 2006). Within the specific field of English language teaching, there is growing interest in action research in the classroom (see, for example, the work of Burns, 1999, 2010; Edge, 2001; Nunan, 1993, 2001; Wallace, 1998); yet little is known about how it is actually implemented in pre-service English language teacher education. To address this gap, this paper examines the ways in which action research provides a tool at three levels for the development of a young teacher during a period of educational reform in the Arabian Gulf: at the personal level, the local level, and the public level. It is situated within a Bachelor of Education program in teaching English as a second language during an ongoing period of intense transformation of schooling í a program established to prepare appropriately qualified Emirati teachers of English for an ailing state school sector (Clarke, 2008; Gallagher, 2011), and a program imbued with socioconstructivist and sociocultural principles of learning and teaching.

3. Reconceptualising Language Teacher Education Ever since the knowledge base of English language teacher education was reshaped by Freeman and Johnson (1998) in their landmark paper challenging the assumption that Applied Linguistics alone sufficed as its core, the field of TESOL2 teacher education has been reconceptualised to include consideration of how teachers actually learn to teach within institutional and program contexts. This broadened paradigm has been largely well-received (Hawkins, 2004; Richards, 1998), but not without robust debate initially (see the exchanges between Freeman and Johnson (2005), Tarone and Allwright (2005), and Yates and Muchisky (2003), for example). Characterised as a “quiet revolution” that is “stirring the very essence of what stands at the core of TESOL teacher education” (Johnson, 2

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2000, p. 1), the expanded knowledge base conceives of the enterprise as the development of “users and creators of legitimate forms of knowledge who make decisions about how best to teach their ... students within complex socially, culturally and historically situated contexts” (Johnson, 2009b, pp. 20-21). Yet reports of how this “epistemological shift” (Golombek, 2011, p. 121) actually plays out in the practice of teacher education are still sparse, and specific data on teacher education programs is “sorely lacking” (Freeman & Johnson, 2004, p. 28), leading to calls (see Johnson, 2000, 2006) for detailed analyses of specific language teacher education contexts to give a fuller sense of the field. One response to that call is to document case stories from extant teacher education programs (see, for example, Johnson, 2009a; Johnson & Golombek, 2011). In this vein, the current paper presents the case of a student teacher as she implements an action research project in a young learners’ classroom as a key requirement of her undergraduate, pre-service teacher preparation program. Furthermore, a shift in focus has seen primary schools emerge as significant sites of English language teaching in the past two decades, as English language became a core subject in state school curricula around the world (Graddol, 2006; Nunan, 2003), and B.Ed degrees in English language teaching are now established in many countries. Within this new paradigm, Huda’s action research project as described in this paper is integral to her B.Ed program. By providing a clear link between the course room and the school classroom, her action research connects coursework and fieldwork í a connection that characterises effective contemporary teacher education according to Zeichner and Conklin (2008).

4. Reforming English Language Teaching in the UAE The UAE’s state school system has been widely criticised for its quality, and, since 2005, has been undergoing a radical transformation in the Abu Dhabi emirate, encompassing root and branch curricular, infrastructural, and administrative reforms, as well as pedagogical reforms (ADEC, 2010; Macpherson, Kachelhoffer, & El Nemr, 2007). This is a sustained attempt to redress some of the educational shortcomings that hamper its aim to establish itself as a knowledge-based economy (Ministry of Information and Culture, 2005), and an effective education system is a sine qua non to achieve that aspiration. Dissatisfaction with the quality of English language teaching and learning in schools has been well documented (Loughrey, Hughes, Bax,

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Magness, & Aziz, 1999; Saunders & Quirke, 2002). For instance Syed (2003) noted the following endemic weaknesses: reliance on rote learning and on memorisation, poor student motivation, dependence on high stakes testing, outdated curricula and methodology, under-qualified teachers, and underachieving students. Not surprisingly, as far back as the late 1990s, an external report commissioned by the UAE’s Ministry of Education on the status of English language teaching in schools concluded that “the system is currently failing to deliver appropriate levels of student attainment. The results of tests administered during the course of the evaluation… constitute clear evidence of systematic underachievement” (Loughrey et al., 1999, p. 60).

5. Action Research in Action: A Classroom Vignette To illuminate how pedagogical change can happen through action research on the ground, a vignette is presented from a UAE classroom where the young teacher-in-training, Huda, is teaching English vocabulary to grade 2 children during her final-year ten-week school internship. 3 It has just gone 8 a.m. on a Monday morning in a second grade English language lesson in an elementary boys’ classroom in a state school in Abu Dhabi. Twenty-five young boys, angelic in their long white dishdashas, are working enthusiastically and independently this early morning, shuffling purposefully through sets of interconnected laminated picture and word cards in small individual fabric sacks, checking word meanings and spellings in order to complete a vocabulary categorisation task. The vocabulary sacks have been created by their student teacher, Huda, who is using them to teach, revise, consolidate and extend her young learners’ knowledge of key English lexical items within a thematic unit on “my house”. The seven-year olds are fully engaged, and most are able to complete the task (categorising the lexical items according to rooms in the house), using the picture cards as tools for successful task completion. Huda walks around the classroom, where she has arranged the children in groups, guiding and assisting. She has doubled the number of lexical items the young learners are exposed to in this unit – from the 18 items in the government-mandated textbook to 36 associated lexical items – thus increasing the learner lexicon by 100% in this thematic unit.

Huda has already taken a semester-long course in Research Methods and Reflective Practice in Education the previous semester to prepare for 3

The author of this chapter was Chair of Huda’s B. Ed program at the time of this study, and was invited by Huda to observe and give feedback on the interventions in her action research project in her practicum classroom.

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her action research project during her final school practicum. She has chosen to research an alternative approach to the teaching of vocabulary than that afforded by the mandated textbook and by the prevailing transmission pedagogy, and she has invited external observers to her classroom to see her approach and to complete an observation checklist as one of her data collection tools. By involving knowledgeable others as external observers, Huda seeks to enhance the trustworthiness of her research project (Zeichner & Noffke, 2001). Over the following days and weeks she will continue with her vocabulary teaching innovation, and will continue to gather data on its effectiveness. In addition to classroom observations, she will interview a group of mothers on their perceptions of the usefulness of the vocabulary sacks which the little boys have been taking home with them for the past few weeks. As an English teacher who is a fluent speaker of both Arabic and English, she enjoys the privileges of the “intercultural” speaker (Kramsch, 1997, 1998), and can use the children’s mother tongue to scaffold their learning of English (Morrow, 2011; Swain, Kirkpatrick, & Cummins, 2011), while also being able to communicate effectively with parents who may not speak English. On the face of it, there is nothing remarkable in what Huda is doing in her classroom, yet her pedagogy will be recognised as quite markedly different from the stereotypical portrayals of teaching-though-rote-learning that characterise reports of classrooms in the Gulf region. Huda’s determination to be innovative in her pedagogy was fuelled by her observations of the teaching of English vocabulary in multiple school sites over the previous three and half years of school placements, which she described as “mainly teacher centred and restricted by the course book” in her action research report. She further delineated the conditions under which English vocabulary is usually taught and learned as follows: 1) the classroom is the only place where most of the students hear English, 2) the coursebook is considered the curriculum, 3) the teachers’ priority is to ensure that students have covered every single page in the coursebook, 4) only the vocabulary presented in the coursebook is taught, 5) the language is presented in a traditional teacher centred way where students listen, imitate, and follow the teacher, 6) the use of flash cards (pictures and words) is the most common way of presenting, revising, and practising new vocabulary, and 7) language learning is exam driven which results in a lot of recalling and memorising activities (Omar-Obaid, 2007). Huda seeks to interrupt these practices and believes that her intervention will transform the pedagogy of the teaching of lexis. Her conviction contrasts with pre-service teachers engaging in action research

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elsewhere (see, for example, Price & Valli, 2005), who are sometimes unsure about what they actually want to change through action research.

6. Impact at the Personal Level Turning now to look at the impact of her work at the personal level, Huda’s engagement in action research affords her a legitimate means by which to think and act reflectively and critically, and thus helps her forge a professional identity for a new era of English language teaching. When systematic self-reflective enquiry is undertaken in order to improve practice, it lays a sound foundation for continuous professional growth and development (Carr & Kemmis, 2005; Sagor, 2000). Moreover, as a tool that enables teacher-learners to choose what specific aspects of classroom pedagogy they themselves want to investigate, it allows teachers like Huda to work within their individual zone of proximal development (Vygotsky, 1978, 1987), while engaging systematically in the activity and dispositions of reflective practice (Schön, 1983, 1987). As a tool of empowerment, activity theory shows us that teachers are not merely at the mercy of extant institutional contexts, “but that they are endowed with the power to act (agency)” (Roth & Lee, 2007, p. 210). Characterised by Engestrom (1993) as “the best kept secret of academia” (p. 64), human activity is the fundamental unit of analysis in sociocultural theory. Deriving from Vygotsky’s work, and developed by Leont’ev (1978), Cole (1988), and Engestrom (1987, 1993), it is embodied in a triangular framework that shows human actions as interconnected between subject, artefact-mediated, and goal-oriented dimensions. Thus, within the activity system of the practicum, Huda directs her agency towards the outcome of enhanced learning of lexis by her students, using the mediating artefact of her vocabulary bags to do so. Thus Huda’s engagement in action research fuels her transition from student to beginning teacher at the personal level, and thus helps shape her teacher identity. Moreover, it is a relatively high-stakes personal undertaking, as the written report and oral presentation of her action research is assessed and graded at college as a major proportion of her academic course requirements.

7. Impact at the Local Level Although action research is often thought of as having impact merely at the personal level, it can also have impact at the local and public levels (Aswin & Trigwell, 2004). By linking the course room and the school

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room, action research envisages teacher education not only as transformation of the teacher-learner, but also as “transformation of the communities of which he or she is a member and of the activities in which they engage” (Street, 2004). Firstly, her project enhances the learning of the children she teaches, and their increased engagement with, and retention of, lexical items. This is a demonstrated result of her study. Secondly, Huda shares her ongoing investigation with the classroom teacher who is her schoolbased mentor, with the other English teachers in her school and with the school principal í all of whom she invites into her classroom as observers, and whose own learning is thus extended by the experience of observing and discussing her project with her. Furthermore, she engages through her action research with the parents of the children she teaches, involving them as participants in her research. In addition, on return to college, Huda will present the results of her study to her peers and teacher educators in the course room as a formal program requirement, thus sharing her insights with other future teachers and with teacher educators. Moreover, as a student in a system of colleges across the UAE, Huda discusses issues arising in her practicum and in her action research with peers in other sister colleges across the country in an online discussion forum. By such dissemination, Huda’s engagement in “research with a small ‘r’” can contribute to critically informed changes (Burns, 1999) in how lexis is taught in the UAE classroom. Within such a conception of action research as practical engagement with problems encountered in classroom teaching, to do action research is to commit to educational change at the local level, and, as noted at the outset, this is its distinguishing feature as a research methodology (Bryant, 1996; Cumming, 1994; Elliott, 1991; Meyers & Rust, 2003). As it is directed towards the improvement of practice in a specific and local application (Wallace, 1996), it has particular resonance as a mediating tool between the emerging knowledge and understanding of language teaching of a new generation of teachers, and the extant world of English language teaching in schools at a time of pedagogical reform. In the reforms underway in the UAE’s schools, and most strongly implemented in Abu Dhabi, the efforts of many stakeholders at many levels are needed to effect the changes that are needed. A community of empowered future national teachers who have experience of employing the tools of action research is one element of that journey towards change, for it remains ever true that “educational change depends on what teachers do and think. It’s as simple and as complex as that” (Fullan, 2001, p. 115).

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8. Impact at the Public Level Beyond the immediate personal and local levels of impact, the classroom research of Huda and her peers may have wider resonance within the region. The local publications of edited versions of student teachers’ action research reports (Gallagher & Bashr-Ali, 2007; Warne, O’Brien, Syed, & Zuriek, 2006), when viewed from the sociocultural perspective, are tools which distribute knowledge of action research activity amongst the region’s English language teacher education and development communities of practice. Such publications offer a means of assisted performance (Tharpe & Gallimore, 1998) to mediate the learning and scaffold the performance of future generations of student teachers conducting their own classroom research projects in similar contexts. While necessarily of limited impact insofar as they contain the work of novices – novice teachers, novice researchers, novice writers – Stenhouse’s (1975) classic definition of research as “systematic enquiry made public” (p. 142) is nontheless fulfilled. Alongside similar collections from the region, such as the classroom research of Omani school teachers (Borg, 2006b, 2008), these publications can serve towards the foundations of a local knowledge base (Zeichner & Dahlstrom, 1999). Somekh and Zeichner (2009) point out that the combination of action with research “inevitably challenges the routines of the status quo” and allows future teachers to bring about changes that are “locally appropriate within the globalized world they inhabit” (p. 19). Another way in which to view the impact of Huda’s action research at the public level is to relate it to the strand within the action research tradition that emphasises equity and social justice (Carr & Kemmis, 1986, 2005; Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 2010; Noffke & Somekh, 2009; Somekh & Zeichner, 2009). Although the action research tradition in which this paper is located emphasises the improvement of practice (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 2010; Groundwater-Smith & Campbell, 2010), and while classroom research such as Huda’s appears to bear little relation to emancipatory social justice, it can be argued that there is indeed social justice in her efforts to bring high quality teaching of English to Emirati children in the state school system. Prior to the reform efforts in Abu Dhabi, only those who attended elite private schools had access to quality English language teaching and its associated socioeconomic benefits, and thus Huda’s work makes its own small contribution to the public good.

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9. Constraints Contradictions are inherent in all activity systems; however, it is in attending to these contradictions that development can occur. When examining Huda’s action research project from an activity framework, contradictions and ambiguities emerge because, as a mandatory assessed activity, it inevitably constrains her as well as offering her many affordances. One such contradiction is that by specifying this particular form of research and no other (for example, policy analysis is not an option), her teacher education program sets parameters on the range and level of structured reflective enquiry in which she can engage, and, in effect, limits the scope of her enquiry to classroom pedagogy. While there are clear reasons for so doing, given the pressing need to transform schoolbased pedagogy, it does preclude the development of initial skills in engaging in other, broader forms of educational enquiry. At the level of personal constraint, there is the constraint of the double linguistic challenge that Huda must surmount in order to complete her research project in an English-medium institution: she has to produce a written report using an appropriate academic register in English, a language that is still being learned (Gallagher & Bashr-Ali, 2007). To achieve this, she needs to be assisted by her own college teachers as more knowledgeable others; yet such support is labour-intensive and timeintensive. Another constraint is implicit in the short-term nature of her final school placement, which, albeit within the extended period of a ten week internship, allows for limited iterations (if any) of the action research cycle through successive stages; iterations which are considered to be a core element of its methodology (Carr & Kemmis, 1986). A further constraint is that the action research project is conducted individually, contrary to another strand of the action research tradition which emphasises collaboration (Burns, 1999), and which is encapsulated in the dictum that “the approach is only action research when it is collaborative” (Kemmis & McTaggart, 1988, pp. 5-6). More significant, however, than its adherence to any particular traditions of action research, is the dislocation from the principles and practices of Huda’s B.Ed program for, in other strands of program study, peer-to-peer collaboration is strongly emphasised. So, while the final year action research project represents the culminating expression of four years’ collaborative reflective practice, it is paradoxical that it is mandated as an individual project. There are also constraints inherent in implementing classroom “actions” that may lie outside of the mandated school curriculum. This may cause

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resistance from school teacher mentors, in addition to discontinuity with college course content í a challenge identified by one of Huda’s peers, Zeinab, who commented that: We want to practise the things that we learn in college í doing what we are learning í but some teachers say no, that their students are used to their way: “So just follow our way because we have the curriculum to follow. You are not allowed to do whatever you want”. But if we’re learning something (at college) and practising another thing (in school), we won’t get much benefit from it.

Above all of these constraints of pre-service action research must be set the exigencies of the work of the fulltime classroom teacher, for practising teachers report again and again that they have neither the time nor the resources to engage in classroom research, whether they be English teachers in international contexts (Nunan, 2001), teachers of general subjects in Singapore (Salleh, 2006), science teachers in Turkey (Kucuk & Cepni, 2005), or, indeed, graduates of Huda’s program who have since become practising teachers in the UAE (Volk, 2010). However, as a student teacher undertaking half of a teaching load during her internship, there was sufficient time for Huda to undertake action research, and, indeed, the opportunity to formally engage in the cycle of reflectionenquiry-action during her teacher education program may well be all the experience that she will ever have of conducting such systematic enquiry in her teaching career. A final í and fundamental í contradiction which must be acknowledged, at least in passing, may be inherent in the oxymoron of the term “action research” itself, where the emphasis placed on practice may be seen as antithetical to the disinterested stance favoured by the academy. Thus it is not necessarily considered to be “real research” by some (Nunan, 2005), and the whole notion of action research by teachers continues to be viewed as “inherently unstable” and “contradictory” (Hammersley, 2004, p. 175) because it subordinates inquiry to teaching. Given such limitations, Huda’s pre-service action research is perhaps best seen as a research of becoming (Phillips & Carr, 2009; Price & Valli, 2005), just as pre-service teacher education itself is merely the beginning of the never-ending process of becoming a teacher (Loughran, 2007).

10. Conclusions This paper offers a glimpse into the classroom of a beginning teacherresearcher engaging with the cultural-historical tool and activity of action

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research, in a region in which research in education is embryonic and where pedagogical reform is underway. While the search for an integrated pedagogy for general teacher education continues to gain momentum, fuelled by the work of teacher-educator researchers such as Korthagen, Loughran and Russell (see Korthagen, 2001; Korthagen, Loughran, & Russell, 2006; Loughran, 2006, 2007; Russell & Loughran, 2007), this paper has attempted to demonstrate the case for action research as a core and “signature pedagogy” (Falk, 2006; Shulman, 2005; Wood, 2006) in teacher education, and particularly so in contexts of pedagogical change. If the role of teacher education is to prepare future teachers as “adaptive experts” (Darling-Hammond & Brandsford, 2005, p. 359) who can respond to changing conditions with confidence, then the experience of doing action research can empower young teachers such as Huda and her peers to enact the pedagogic changes needed in UAE schools. Its impact need not be limited to the personal level, and teacher education program practices that are consonant with sociocultural theory can extend the influence of action research to the local and public levels.

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CHAPTER SEVEN THE EFFECT OF GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS ON THE WRITING PERFORMANCE AND ATTITUDES OF OMANI GRADE EIGHT EFL STUDENTS BADRIA ABDUL-AZIZ AL-BULUSHI MINISTRY OF EDUCATION, OMAN [email protected]

Abstract The present study investigated the effect of graphic organizers on the writing performance and attitudes of Omani EFL grade eight students towards their use. Conducted during the academic year 2011-2012, the investigation was quasi-experimental and focused on Basic Education students in Cycle Two. Two grade eight classes at a school in the Batinah South region of Oman consisting of 58 students made up the study sample. One class of 29 students represented the experimental group which was instructed in writing using graphic organizers. The other class of 29 students formed the control group. This group was taught writing following the grade eight course book without the use of graphic organizers. Three instruments were used: an achievement test to measure students’ writing levels; an attitude questionnaire to assess both groups’ attitudes to writing; and a questionnaire to measure the attitudes of the experimental group to using graphic organizers. Findings indicate that there was a significant different between the performance of the experimental group and that of the control group which indicated that graphic organizers are effective tools to enhance writing instruction. Moreover, learners in the experimental group appeared to have positive attitudes towards the use of graphic organizers. In light of these findings, recommendations and suggestions for further research are offered.

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Keywords: graphic organizers, writing performance, Omani EFL students

1. Introduction One of the most important skills that students must acquire during their school years is the ability to write well. Writing skills are essential, not only for academic purposes but also for future careers. However, Hinkle (2006) believes that writing is a highly complex process that proves to be difficult for many second language learners because of the problems they encounter in spelling and sentence formation. They also struggle with the cognitive process of planning and organizing ideas for their writing assignments. Hedge (1997) argues that effective writing requires a degree of organization for developing information on any given topic. In order to write effectively, students need to develop a positive attitude, fostered by providing them with innovative and attractive methods of practicing this skill. A review of literature on effective methods of teaching writing reveals an emphasis on using graphic organizers in the brainstorming and planning stages of the process (Pishghadam & Ghanizadeh, 2006; Tran, 2009). Using these methods helps learners to visualize their ideas and organize their thoughts. This visual approach to brainstorming or organizing information is essential as many students are visual learners and this provides them with clear mental representations of their ideas, which, in turn, leads to better writing. In addition, graphic organizers help students to generate mental images to accompany the information needed to be organized. Accordingly, there are different types of graphic organizers, all of which have their own purposes. Examples include concept and story maps, question and compare-contrast matrices, and various types of charts. Evidence exists that using graphic organizers helps learners to develop positive attitudes to writing. However, the way writing skills are taught to Omani students often hinders the development of positive attitudes. Learners need to be supported by methods of structuring and organizing ideas in their writing and graphic organizers have proved to be an effective tool for this. Moreover, they can also encourage learners to both write and develop a positive attitude to writing. Mancini (1995), Capretz, Ricker and Sasak (2003), and Nguyen (2009), all stress that student use of graphic organizers plays a major role in developing a positive attitude towards writing. Currently, English for Me is the textbook used for teaching English to Omani students in government schools in the country and its aims and objectives are detailed in an accompanying teacher’s guide. Within these

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textbooks, grade eight students are introduced to the concept of writing for different purposes and audiences and using different genres. Four types of writing are introduced in the course book í narrative, descriptive, evaluative, and interactive. Students are generally assessed twice a year in semester exams, which include two writing types being tested each semester. The researcher’s own experience suggests that most teachers, parents, and supervisors complain about students’ poor writing. This might stem partially from ineffective teaching methods, a point noted specifically in reports on the grade 10 General Exam for 2010/2011 which revealed low overall marks on the writing questions by a large number of students as seen in a sample of papers taken from seven classes at three Batinah South schools. About 90 students from a sample of 185 received marks between 0 and 10 out of a possible total of 20, thereby suggesting that about half of all students had writing difficulties. Most had weaknesses in vocabulary, spelling, and their general ability to organize ideas. In addition, the General Certificate Exam results also revealed that poor writing was widespread among Omani students. The results for three consecutive academic years (2008/2009, 2009/2010, and 2010/2011) showed that the marks for the three cohorts were 39%, 40%, and 43% respectively. These low scores indicate weak writing skills that lead to serious problems that students face later at university, at work, and in their everyday lives. EFL Omani learners, therefore, struggle with writing and need to be supported with more engaging ways of teaching them to develop their skills in terms of sentence formation and organization. From the researcher’s own experience as both a supervisor and English teacher in the Omani government school system, I came to realize that complaints about poor student writing were common. In fact, some teachers even claimed that most students could not produce a single correct sentence or organize their ideas to create a coherent piece of writing. This study, therefore, sought to determine if graphic organizers would help Omani students to improve their writing and develop a positive attitude towards it. As such, the current research was designed to address the following questions: 1. Is there a significant difference in writing performance between experimental group students taught writing using graphic organizers and a control group taught writing only using the grade eight course book? 2. Is there a significant difference in attitudes to writing between the experimental group and control group?

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3. What is the attitude of the experimental group towards using graphic organizers in their writing classes?

2. Methodology 2.1 Research Design The present study was of a quasi-experimental pretest-posttest design. The sample was divided into two groups í the control group (n = 29) which was instructed in writing following only the course book methodology, and the experimental group (n = 29) which was instructed using graphic organizers. Students were randomly assigned to these groups. SPSS was used to analyze the data and an independent samples t-test was employed to compare the pretest and posttest scores of both groups. The study population for academic year 2011-2012 consisted of about 5,905 grade eight students in Omani Cycle Two Basic Education schools from where two classes were randomly selected and assigned to control and experimental groups as detailed above. Two teachers also participated in the study. One, who had taught English for five years, taught the control group, while the other, with four years of English teaching experience, instructed the experimental group. Learners in both groups were of the same level of language proficiency with no significant differences between them.

2.2 Research Instruments Three research instruments were developed and validated for the purpose of the study. 1. A language achievement test (writing performance) was developed based on the objectives taught in the course in order to investigate the effect of using graphic organizers on the students’ writing performance. 2. A questionnaire was developed to identify the attitudes to writing of students in both groups (control and experimental). It was administered both before and after the intervention. 3. A questionnaire was developed to identify the experimental group’s attitudes to using graphic organizers in their writing. It was administered after the intervention.

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2.3 Achievement Test Description To achieve strong internal test validity, balanced and comparable control and experimental groups were required. Since the study compared the two groups’ English language writing levels, a pretest was employed. The researcher analyzed the three units of the grade eight course book B which had a minimum of three writing tasks each – narrative, descriptive, and interactive – and based the pretest-posttest on them. The test was administered prior to the experiment so as to establish a skills baseline and to confirm the comparability of the two groups in terms of their writing levels. The same test was then given to the two groups as a posttest in order to identify and measure achieved improvements. The posttest was administered to both groups after covering the first three units of the grade eight B course book – that is, after eleven weeks of intervention í to compare performances. The test consisted of four questions. In the first, students were provided with a picture and asked to write a paragraph describing what was happening in it. The second question required students to use information provided in a box and write a paragraph about the mountain Gorilla. In the third question, students were asked to imagine that they had seen a car accident and to write a paragraph describing it. The last question required them to write a letter to a friend in England describing their free-time activities. They were given about 80 minutes (or two periods) to answer these questions.

2.4 Establishing the Achievement Test’s Validity and Reliability Face and content validity were established by submitting the test to 12 reviewers for comment. They included six English supervisors, two senior teachers, and four teachers from the Ministry of Education. The test was modified based on feedback received. To establish the test’s reliability, it was piloted on a group of 25 grade nine students. Inter-rater reliability was calculated using Pearson’s correlation coefficient based on the ratings given by the researcher and those assigned by the grade nine class teacher. The correlation coefficient was r = .97, which indicates a high level of inter-rater consistency.

2.5 Administering and Grading the Test The pretest was administered to both groups at the beginning of semester two of the academic year. The papers were double-marked by the researcher first and then by the teachers of the experimental and control

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groups respectively. An independent samples t-test was used to compare the students’ final test scores (see Table 1). Table 1: Mean differences in the groups’ writing pretest using independent samples t-test Group Experimental Control

n 29 29

df 56

Mean* 5.34 5.43

SD 5.06 4.77

Sig. .947

*The total score is 20

The results represented in Table 1 indicate that there was no significant difference in the mean pretest scores of the two groups. The control group achieved a mean value of 5.43 and the experimental group a mean value of 5.34. The t-value for these scores of .067 is not significant at the 0.01 level. The standard deviation for the control group was 5.06 and for the experimental group 4.77. Therefore, these results indicate that the writing level of both the control and experimental group was not statistically different at the beginning of the treatment.

2.6 Attitude Questionnaire Description To collect data for the study and to more thoroughly understand students’ perceptions of the effectiveness of using graphic organizers in writing instruction, a questionnaire was developed after a review of previous studies on teaching writing. Such research on student attitudes to using graphic organizers guided the development of two questionnaires. Both questionnaires were translated into Arabic, the learners’ first language, in order to accommodate participants’ potentially limited understanding. The first questionnaire contained 23 statements that sought to elicit and measure participant attitudes to writing. The second questionnaire was used to measure attitudes to graphic organizer use in writing classrooms and contained 16 items. A five-level rating scale was used for responding to the questionnaires. (The complete questionnaires can be seen in Appendices A and B.) In order to validate the attitude questionnaires, initial versions were submitted to an eight-member panel to assess the relevance, clarity, and accuracy of translation of each item. The panel consisted of faculty drawn from a local university’s College of Education’s Curriculum and Instruction Department, the College of Arts, and the Centre for Omani

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Studies. In terms of reliability, the questionnaire on attitudes to writing was constructed by computing a Cronbach alpha coefficient after piloting the questionnaire on a sample of 30 eight grade female students from the same school that the research was conducted in. The value of this coefficient of .77 indicated an acceptable level of reliability.

2.7 Equivalence of the Two Groups’ Attitudes To measure the equivalence of the two groups’ attitudes to writing before the treatment, the researcher conducted an independent samples ttest on data from these groups at the beginning of the study. Table 2 indicates the results for the pre-treatment responses. Table 2: Independent samples t-test results for pre-treatment responses to the attitude questionnaire by groups Group Experimental Control

n 29 29

df 56

Mean* 74.3 73.9

SD 6.82 8.79

Sig. .881

*The total score =115

Results in Table 2 indicate no significant difference between the two groups in attitudes to writing before the treatment. The control group scored a mean value of 73.9 and the experimental group recorded a mean value of 74.3. The t-test value was .150 which is not significant at the .01 level. This provides an indication that attitudes to writing were statistically equivalent in both groups prior to the experiment.

3. Results and Discussion In order to address the first research question, two statistical analyses were performed. First, the independent samples t-test was used to compare both groups on the posttest. For further insight, a paired samples t-test was used to compare the pretest and the posttest scores of learners within each of the two groups. To answer the second research question, the researcher conducted an independent samples t-test on both groups’ post-experiment responses to the questionnaire on attitudes to writing. To address the third research question, descriptive statistics were used to measure the experimental group’s attitudes to using graphic organizers.

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3.1 Analysis of the Achievement Test 3.1.1 Mean differences in the posttest performances of the groups In order to answer the first research question, the researcher administered the writing posttest to both groups and performed an independent samples ttest on their scores. Results are shown in Table 3 below. Table 3: Independent samples t-test of the writing scores in the posttest of the two groups Group Experimental Control

n df 29 56 29

Mean* 10.76 7.01

SD 4.90 4.80

t-value 2.92

Sig. .005

*The total score is 20

Table 3 shows the results of the independent samples t-test. It demonstrates a statistically significant difference between the means of the posttest scores. These were 10.76 and 7.01 respectively, and the t-value was 2.92 was significant at the .01 level in favor of the experimental group. The result indicates this group’s superior achievement and suggests that using graphic organizers in teaching may be effective for developing writing skills. 3.1.2 Mean differences of pretest and posttest achievements of the experimental and control groups For further insight into these results, to measure the experimental group’s writing improvement, and to verify that it was, indeed, due to the use of graphic organizers, a paired samples t-test was used to compare separately the pretest and posttest scores of both groups. Table 4 indicates a significant difference in the mean pretest (5.34) and posttest (10.76) scores for the experimental group. The t-value was 16.8, which is significant at the .01 level. The students’ performance in the posttest significantly improved on the pretest result and this could be argued to be the result of the use of graphic organizers which helped learners to produce better organized writing while supporting them in their efforts to assemble their ideas and build accurate sentences for their chosen topics. This result may be credited to a number of contributing factors.

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Table 4: Paired samples t-test results for the pretest and posttest scores of the experimental group Experimental Group Posttest Pretest

n

Mean*

SD

t-value

Sig.

29 29

10.76 5.34

4.92 5.07

16.8

.001

*The total score is 20

First, the atmosphere of learning writing using graphic organizers (maps, tables, and diagrams) broke the routine of following the course book method which is often reported as being complicated and difficult for most learners. Second, graphic organizers were a way of organizing and grouping ideas and details to be included in the writing task. As a result, students showed a clear development in this regard, and were able to understand how information is presented and related. Third, the nature of graphic organizer use resulted in students staying focused and writing in more detail. The results of the study were consistent with those of Delong (2009) who investigated the effect of graphic organizers on grade six student essays. His findings showed that students’ writing skills had improved significantly, especially in terms of organizing ideas. For his part, Loader (1989) found that students’ organizational skills had increased from 68% prior an experiment using graphic organizers to 84% after it. Other studies have also found that the use of graphic organizers brings significant results (Cleaves, 2007; Harington, Holik, & Hurt, 1998; Huang, 2007; Ibnian, 2010; Lee, 2010; Mancini, 1995; Sharrock, 2008). Table 5: Paired samples t-test results for the pretest and posttest scores of the control group Control Group Posttest Pretest

N

Mean*

SD

t-value

Sig.

29 29

7.01 5.43

4.84 4.77

6.66

.001

*The total score is 20

Table 5 indicates a significant difference in the mean of the pretest (5.43) and the posttest (7.01) scores for the control group. The t-value 6.66 is significant at the .001 level. The students’ performance on the posttest was an improvement over that on the pretest. This improvement was

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expected as the students in the control group were exposed to writing instruction during the period of the study.

3.2 Analysis of the Questionnaire on Attitudes to Writing 3.2.1 Difference in means of the two groups in their attitudes to writing after the experiment To address the second research question, an independent samples t-test was conducted on both groups’ post-treatment responses to the questionnaire on attitudes to writing. The results are displayed in table 6. Table 6: Independent samples t-test results for the groups’ posttreatment responses to the attitude to writing questionnaire Group Experimental Control

N 29 29

df 56

Mean* 87.9 73.2

SD 14.6 12.2

t-value 4.16

Sig. .000

*The total score = 115

Table 6 shows significant differences in post-experiment attitudes to writing between the two groups. The mean score for the experimental group was 87.9. This score was 74.3 before the treatment. On the other hand, the mean score for the control group was 73.2, which was almost exactly the same as the 73.9 score received before the experiment. The tvalue was 4.16 which is significant at the .001 level. This is an indication that the method used in the study may have contributed to developing the experimental group learners’ positive attitudes to writing after the 11 week experiment. This supposition gained support through this group’s responses to the questionnaire on attitudes to writing. For example, the highest mean scores were obtained on item number 5 í “I am good at organizing my ideas”. This received a mean score of 3.96, while item number 11, “I like to see my ideas written in English”, recorded a mean score of 4.07. In addition, item number 15 í “I wish I had more time to write at school” í and item 21 í “I like the writing classes” í obtained means of 4.62 and 4.44 respectively. A probable reason for these results is that students in the experimental group were influenced by the use of graphic organizers. The way information and ideas were presented in the organizer made the students feel comfortable while writing which, in turn, increased their self-confidence and ease in writing.

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3.2.2 Differences in means of the two groups in their attitude to writing before and after the experiment To measure the attitudes of the experimental and control groups to writing before and after the experiment, a paired samples t-test was used to compare both groups’ responses before and after the experiment. The results of the experimental group are shown in Table 7 below. Table 7: Paired samples t-test of the experimental group’s pretest and posttest responses on attitude Test

n

df

Mean*

SD

t-value

Sig.

Post-attitude Pre-attitude

29 29

28

87.9 74.3

14.6 6.7

5.22

.001

*The total score = 115

Table 7 reveals statistically significant differences between the mean scores of the experimental group’s responses to the attitude questionnaire prior to the beginning of the experiment and after it (there is a t-value of 5.22 which is significant at the .001 level). The mean difference for the pre-questionnaire was 74.3, which reached 87.9 for the post-questionnaire. The result, therefore, shows a significant difference in attitudes to writing among the experimental group before and after the treatment thereby suggesting that the learners were positively influenced by the experience of using graphic organizers and that contributed to successfully developing a positive attitude. Comparing the groups’ pretest and posttest results, it can be concluded that the sense of engagement students may have experienced in using graphic organizers helped them to form their sentences well and with confidence. Another interpretation is that using graphic organizers created an interesting learning environment which enabled the learners to enjoy writing about their topics. This is consistent with Tran’s (2009) findings which indicated that students build up positive attitudes to writing after using graphic organizers. Similar results were found by Taheri (2009) regarding the use of graphic organizers for persuasive writing. Results of the control group are shown in Table 8 below.

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Table 8: Paired samples t-test of the control group’s responses to the questionnaire on pretest and posttest attitudes Test

n

df

Mean*

SD

t-value Sig.

Post-attitude Pre-attitude

29 29

28

73.20 74.00

12.3 8.79

.243

.810

Sig. (2 tailed) .810

*The total score = 115

Table 8 reveals no significant difference in the attitudes of the control group before and after the experiment. The t-value was .243 which is not significant at the 0.01 level. This result indicates that, although the control group improved their writing performance, their involvement in writing lessons during the period of the study did not affect their attitude to writing itself. This suggests that perhaps they were not very interested in the materials used in the grade eight curriculum. Perhaps they did not enjoy the syllabus methods used and this, in turn, failed to develop in them a positive attitude to writing in English. This can be clearly deduced from their responses to the questionnaire where they indicated a desire to write and to develop their writing. Hence, their responses to items that obtained a mean score above 3.00, such as item number 15, “I wish I had more time to write at school”, with a mean score of 3.86, and item number 22, “I like to write in my free time”, with a mean scorer of 3.29. However, some of the items obtained a mean of below 3.00. For example, for item number 5, “I am good at organizing my ideas”, the mean score was 2.72. Item number 23, “Expressing my ideas in writing is a waste of time”, obtained a mean score of 2.16. In addition, item number 20, “Compared with others, I am a good writer”, and item number 6, “I feel that my performance is bad when I hand in my written work”, obtained means of 2.92 and 2.62 respectively. A possible explanation for these results is that the way writing is introduced and taught in grade eight needs to be modified and that more effective techniques, such as graphic organizers, need to be implemented in teaching writing. (Means and standard deviations are available in Appendix C.)

3.3 Attitude of the Experimental Group to Using Graphic Organizers in Teaching Writing In order to answer the study’s third question, a descriptive analysis of the attitude questionnaire was performed. Frequency distributions were used to display data and represent the percentage of student scores on the

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questionnaire. The mean value of the learners’ attitudes towards the questionnaire was 88.6 (on a scale from 0-100), which implies that the students had a very positive attitude to using graphic organizers. These findings suggest that the learners were influenced by the use of graphic organizers and that there was sufficient satisfaction with this method. In fact, most participants in the experimental group found graphic organizers to be a very useful tool when learning to write. Overall, experimental group participants showed a very positive attitude to using graphic organizers and this might be attributed to their nature which could be argued to match students’ levels of development. Generally speaking, grade eight students like to learn using visuals aids such as maps and drawings. Therefore, despite the difficulties some students had in writing, graphic organizers as visual displays of information had a strong role in developing positive attitudes. This, in turn, had a positive effect on their writing performance. Although some participants, especially the weaker ones, did not gain good marks in the posttest, they were satisfied with the method used. Moreover, most strongly agreed that using graphic organizers was an interesting experience. In response to item 2, they stressed that graphic organizers made writing easier by helping them to recall information about their writing topic (item 8). They also said that graphic organizers helped them to better group and arrange their ideas (item 10), which made them more confident (item 11). All these factors may have contributed to the generation of their positive attitudes. These findings support those of earlier studies on the same topic (e.g. Burgess, 2008; Capretz, Ricker, & Sasak, 2003; Delong, 2009; Troyer, 1993).

4. Conclusions, Implications and Recommendations 4.1 Conclusions Learners’ Writing Performance: Based on the findings from the results of the writing test used to address the first research question, the experimental group was significantly ahead of the control group in the post-achievement writing test despite the similarity of the groups’ writing levels in the test administered prior to the experiment. It can therefore be concluded that using graphic organizers contributed to the development of students’ writing skills. Learners Attitudes to Writing: Despite a number of potential difficulties, results revealed that the students in the experimental group had positive attitudes to writing. Graphic organizers could be argued to

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have played a strong part in this development. By contrast, the control group showed no significant improvement in their attitudes to writing after following the course book methodology. This finding, therefore, supports the potential influence of using graphic organizers to teach writing in Omani classrooms on learner attitudes. Learner Attitudes to Using Graphic Organizers in Writing: A questionnaire on attitudes to using graphic organizers in writing was used to answer the third research question. The results indicated that the students were highly influenced by this use. In fact, their attitudes towards using graphic organizers were more positive than their attitudes towards writing itself. Experimental group participants enjoyed using graphic organizers and felt comfortable using the clues in the organizers to form sentences to help develop their writing tasks. This generated the positive attitude of the learners following completion of the experiment.

4.2 Implications Since this experiment revealed that using graphic organizers in teaching writing is effective, a number of potential implications arise. To begin, this finding should be a key factor for policy makers, curriculum designers, administrators, and teachers wanting to achieve their aims more effectively. Since the Basic Education curriculum prescribes implementing process writing for teaching English with the government-produced textbooks, using graphic organizers may help considerably because it supports learners when organizing their ideas for writing about a given topic. Specifying and stating an appropriate amount of time for writing lessons which use graphic organizers is essential because the time specified for teaching writing in the curriculum is, at the moment, insufficient. Regarding this study, a difficulty that the researcher faced was finding enough time for the students to practice using graphic organizers. Adequate time was needed for them to plan, write their first drafts, and edit their writing. Thus, curriculum designers need to be aware of the importance of allowing enough time for writing in the curriculum. And it is crucially important that the teachers’ book provides instructors with a clear picture and explanation of how to use graphic organizers which, in turn, should match both the learners’ levels and the nature of the writing task. Training teachers to use graphic organizers effectively is also crucial. Lenz, Alley and Schumaker (1987) stress this point. This can be achieved through training sessions on the principles and philosophy of the method.

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The Ministry of Education might consider including such instruction in its teacher training programs. However, giving teachers the freedom to select the type of graphic organizers to be used is vital since they, more than others, are aware of their learners’ needs. In addition, in order to guarantee the successful implementation of the method, it is important to provide students with clear instructions on how to use and construct graphic organizers in their writing (Kang, 2004; Khamnivong, 2009; Sharrock, 2008). This requires training learners to practice using graphic organizers from the early grades since the visual nature of the organizers must match the development of young learners.

4.3 Limitations and Recommendations for Further Studies This study was perhaps one of the first to explicitly investigate the effect of graphic organizers on Omani students’ writing performance and their attitudes to writing. In light of its findings, some limitations are acknowledged and some recommendations offered for further research: x The students participating in this study were from one school. A similar study could be conducted using a larger sample from more schools and regions across the sultanate. It is of great importance to measure the effectiveness of this method on learners from diverse demographic areas. x The study focused on investigating the effect of graphic organizers in developing grade eight students’ writing. Investigating the effect of graphic organizers on other language skills and other grades (especially among young learners) could be beneficial. x The sample of the current study was comprised of only females. Further studies should consider gender as a variable in forming a comparison between male and female attitudes and achievements in using graphic organizers. x The study focused on investigating the effect of different types of graphic organizers on different types of writing studied in the Grade Eight B course book. Further studies are needed to investigate the effect of graphic organizers on specific types of writing. x The study used three instruments – a writing achievement test to measure students’ development in writing, a questionnaire to measure their attitudes to writing, and a questionnaire to measure attitudes to actually using graphic organizers in writing. However, the researcher felt that collecting reflection notes from the teachers

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participating in the study would have been helpful for documenting the nature of the implementation process and the practical difficulties faced when applying the graphic organizer method in teaching.

References Burgess, E. (2008). The use of graphic organizers in the writing process in 9th grade world history class. (Master’s thesis). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. 1453202) Capretz , K., Ricker, B., & Sasak, A. (2003). Improving organizational skills through the use of graphic organizers. Unpublished master’s thesis, Saint Xavier University, Chicago, USA. Cleaves, J. R. (2007). The effects of using metaphors, analogies and graphic organizers in vocabulary development and comprehension on fourth grade students’ reading and writing scores. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. 3289719) Delong, M. (2009). Does this go in the introduction or the body of the paragraph? The effect of graphic organizers on the overall cohesiveness of sixth grade students essay writing. (Master’s thesis). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. 1471193) Harington, M., Holik, M., & Hurt, P. (1998). Improving writing through the use of varied strategies. Retrieved from ERIC database. (ED420874) Hedge, T. (1997). Writing: Resource books for teachers. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Hinkle, E. (2006). Correct perspectives on teaching four skills. TESOL Quarterly, 4(1), 1-23. Huang, J. L. (2007). Critical features for teaching the five-paragraph essay to middle school Chinese speaking English learners. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. 3283708) Ibnian, S. (2010). The effect of using story mapping technique on developing ten grade students short story writing skill in EFL. English Language Teaching, 3(4), 1-14. Kang, S. (2004). Using visual organizers to enhance EFL instruction. ELT Journal, 58(1), 58-67. Khamnivong, D. (2009). “So I can be a better writer”. Using graphic organizers to enhance procedural writing through home recipes.

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(Master’s thesis). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. 1471205) Lee, Y. (2010). Concept mapping strategy to facilitate foreign language writing: A Korean application. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. 3429061) Lenz, K. B., Alley, G. R., & Schumaker, J. B. (1987). Activating the inactive learner: Advance organizers in the secondary content classroom. Learning Disability Quarterly, 10, 53-67. Loader, M. L. (1989). The effect of the semantic organizer of writing ability and motivation with fourth grade students. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. 48106) Mancini, A. (1995). The effect of graphic organizers on the transactional writing of third graders. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. 9602021) Nguyen, S. (2009). The effects of graphic organizers on third grade students’ narrative writing. (Master’s thesis). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. 1471125) Pishghadam, R., & Ghanizadeh, A. (2006). On the impact of concept mapping as a prewriting activity on EFL learners’ writing ability. IJAL, 9(2). Retrieved from http://www.sid.ir/en/VEWSSID/J_pdf/87620060204.pdf Sharrock, T. (2008). The effect of graphic organizers on students’ writing. Retrieved from https://commons.kennesaw.edu/gpc/sites/commons.kennesaw.edu.gpc/ files/Paper%20Paper%20Sharock_0.pdf Taheri, C. (2009). “But it is persuasive”: Improving the written argument: Making ability of 8th grade U.S. history students using graphic organizers. (Master’s thesis). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. 1471165) Tran, L. (2009). “Can we use a story map?”: Using a story map graphic organizer to improve students’ narrative writing. (Master’s thesis). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. 1471134) Troyer, S. J. (1993). The effects of three instructional conditions in text structure on upper elementary students’ reading comprehension and writing performance. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. 48106)

Appendix A: A Questionnaire on Attitudes to Writing

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11 12 13

7 8 9 10

1 2 3 4 5 6

I like to write in English I write in English a lot Writing in English is boring I avoid writing in English I am good at organizing my ideas I feel that my performance is bad when I hand in my written work I don’t like others to evaluate my writing in English I have problems in writing I am worried about my English writing ability I do not seem to be able to clearly write down my ideas I like to see my ideas written in English Writing requires a lot of thinking I face difficulty in organizing my ideas in writing lessons I have trouble thinking about what to write

Statement

Strongly agree

Agree

Uncertain

Dear students, Please answer this questionnaire. The information will be used for research purposes.

160

Disagree

Strongly disagree

1 2 3 4 5

Using graphic organizers in writing is very useful Using graphic organizers in writing makes writing easier It is easy to construct a graphic organizer for writing I prefer using graphic organizers in writing Generally speaking, I enjoyed using graphic organizers in writing

Statement

Strongly agree

Agree

Uncertain

Dear students, Please answer this questionnaire. This information will be used for research purposes. Tick ( ¥ ) the cell that presents your point of view Disagree

161

Strongly disagree

Appendix B: A Questionnaire on Attitudes to Using Graphic Organizers in Writing

I wish I had more time to write at school I like what I write It is easier to write a good topic in English I share my English writing with family members who understand English 19 I share my writing with my friends 20 Compared with others, I am a good writer 21 I like writing classes 22 I like to write in my free time 23 Expressing my ideas in English is a waste of time Tick ( ¥ ) the cell that presents your point of view

15 16 17 18

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16

15

14

13

11 12

9 10

8

6 7

162

I found difficulties in using graphic organizers in writing I feel that using graphic organizers didn’t help me write better Constructing graphic organizers helped me recall information about the writing topic Graphic organizers helped me improve my thinking skills Graphic organizers helped me organize my ideas while writing Graphic organizers made me more confident while writing I think my ability to write has developed after using graphic organizers The thought of using graphic organizers in writing makes me feel tense The thought of using graphic organizers in writing makes me feel comfortable I feel comfortable about my ability to use graphic organizers in writing Using graphic organizers in writing was an interesting experience

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No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

Statements I like to write in English I write in English a lot Writing in English is boring I avoid writing in English I am good at organizing my ideas I feel that my performance is bad when I hand in my written work I don’t like others to evaluate my writing in English I have problems in writing I am worried about my English writing ability I do not seem to be able to clearly write down my ideas I like to see my ideas written in English Writing requires a lot of thinking I face difficulty in organizing my ideas in writing lessons I have trouble thinking about what to write I wish I had more time to write at school I like what I write It is easier to write a good topic in English I share my English writing with family members who understand English I share my writing with my friends Compared with others, I am a good writer I like writing classes I like to write in my free time Expressing my ideas in English is a waste of time

Experimental group: Mean 4.69 3.89 1.96 1.86 3.86 3.21 2.24 2.68 2.31 2.45 4.07 3.96 2.52 2.45 4.62 4.48 3.82 4.10 3.34 3.69 4.44 3.69 3.10

SD 0.60 0.90 1.29 1.16 1.06 1.29 1.35 1.49 1.19 1.24 1.13 1.15 1.24 1.38 0.78 0.69 0.97 1.17 1.37 1.10 0.63 1.28 1.29

Appendix C: Mean and Standard Deviation of the Items in the Questionnaire on Attitudes to Writing (Post-Treatment)

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No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

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Statements I like to write in English I write in English a lot Writing in English is boring I avoid writing in English I am good at organizing my ideas I feel that my performance is bad when I hand in my written work I don’t like others to evaluate my writing in English I have problems in writing I am worried about my English writing ability I do not seem to be able to clearly write down my ideas I like to see my ideas written in English Writing requires a lot of thinking I face difficulty in organizing my ideas in writing lessons I have trouble thinking about what to write I wish I had more time to write at school I like what I write It is easier to write a good topic in English I share my English writing with family members who understand English I share my writing with my friends Compared with others, I am a good writer I like writing classes I like to write in my free time Expressing my ideas in English is a waste of time

Control group:

164

Mean 3.29 2.89 3.34 2.65 2.72 2.62 2.79 3.65 3.34 3.27 3.69 4.10 3.06 3.34 3.86 3.69 2.93 3.00 3.79 2.92 3.10 3.34 2.16 SD 1.19 1.20 1.34 1.47 1.19 1.37 1.67 1.42 1.28 1.39 1.44 1.26 1.55 1.47 1.48 0.97 1.41 1.33 1.31 1.33 1.57 1.37 1.39

CHAPTER EIGHT TYPES OF QUESTIONS OMANI TEACHERS USE IN CYCLE ONE AND TWO BASIC EDUCATION AND THEIR EFFECTIVENESS ON COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE USE SHAIKHA RASHID SA’EED AL SHABIBI MINISTRY OF EDUCATION, OMAN [email protected]

Abstract This preliminary study was designed to explore the types of oral questions that Omani EFL teachers use in their classrooms in Cycle One and Cycle Two Basic Education schools. The fundamental purpose of the study was to explore the types of questions that Omani teachers use in classrooms and whether these have communicative value and reflect the communicative approach in the Basic Education system. The subject of the study was twelve EFL teachers (9 females and 3 males) who had differing levels of teaching experience. Twelve lessons were recorded and analyzed. The results indicate that teachers in Cycle One and Cycle Two Basic Education use more display questions than referential questions. There was no significant difference between teachers in the two cycles in the use of display question and there was also no significant difference between the amount of display and referential questions used by experienced teachers in comparison to inexperienced teachers in Cycle One. However, there was a significant difference between the amount of display and referential questions employed by experienced and inexperienced teachers in Cycle Two. The study concludes that, as the type of questions used by teachers in Cycle One and Two partially influences the amount of natural and authentic language learners are

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exposed to, there may be limited communicative language used in Basic Education schools in Oman. Keywords: question types, Basic Education, Oman, Cycle One and Two

1. Introduction Questioning is one of the tools a teacher can use to enhance the communicative environment in the classroom. Many researchers consider questions as one of the most important elements in a classroom situation. For instance, Jacobsen, Eggen and Kauchak (1989) maintain that questions promote involvement, enhance learning, and motivate students. Sanders (1966) stresses the fact that questions are also helpful for teachers to initiate and create situations to start a lesson. One general topic that is dealt with in the research is classroom interaction. Krashen (1985) claims that the way to acquire a second language is to proceed along a natural order of development by understanding input that is just a little bit above the learners’ current level of competence. Krashen (1982) proposed that, if the learner focuses on understanding the meaning of the input, then they will acquire the structures of the second language. He added that the best way to make students understand “real” language is by supplying them with input regardless of their competence in language production. On the other hand, Long (1983) argued that language acquisition is not only receiving comprehensible input, as proposed by Krashen (1982), but also negotiation of the meaning of the input between interlocutors. Long claimed that communication involving a two-way exchange of information will provide more comprehensible input than communication that is one-way in nature. Pica and Long (1986) found that more classroom interaction resulted in more interactional questions. For example, comprehension checks, confirmation checks, and clarification requests, on the part of the teacher and students. They added that information-gap questions generate more comprehensible input which is essential for language acquisition. Sanders (1966) claims that questions have always been an important resource for teachers in classroom interaction. Cazden (1998) emphasized that teachers’ questions are the distinguishing features of teacher talk in the classroom. Nunan (1990, p. 187) states that teacher’s talk is important because it is the major source of comprehensible input in the classroom. Accordingly, the teachers’ responsibility is to provide the student with varied linguistic input in order to raise effective types of interaction for promoting language development. On this basis, in an effective classroom,

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teachers should use a variety of question types in order to provide learners with the comprehensible input needed to raise effective classroom interaction. Display and referential questions are commonly used in the second language classroom. Long and Sato (1983) refer to knowledge-checking questions as “display” questions, for example, “What’s the opposite of up in English?”, and those to which the teacher does not have the answer as “referential” such as, “Why didn’t you do your homework?” The assumption behind this distinction, as stated by Chaudron (1988), is that referential questions promote greater learner productivity which results in more communicative language use in the classroom. Despite this, Long and Sato found that ESL teachers used significantly more display questions than referential questions in the classroom. The results of their study showed that 91% of teachers’ questions were display while only 9% of the questions were referential questions. In terms of the Omani classroom context, a study conducted by Al Belushi (1996) which covered almost all Omani EFL teachers at the preparatory and secondary schools in the Muscat area, revealed that they used display questions significantly more often than referential questions. Additionally, in a series of bachelor level studies published by the Ministry of Education (2006), it was found that Omani teachers used more display than referential questions. The findings of these studies encouraged the researcher to conduct further research in the area with a particular focus on comparing the kinds of questions used in Cycle One and Cycle Two Basic Education schools.

2. Literature Review Communicative approaches have suggested that a basic goal of questions in the classroom is to enhance natural communication. For example, Harmer (2001, p. 86) demonstrates that communicative language teaching should lead to improvements in students’ skills for better communication. Liao (2003) advocates the view that the extensive use of display questions encourages an unrealistic use of languages. He adds that, when teachers use display questions, teacher-student interaction has little communicative value because there is no real information gap to fill. White and Lightbown (1984) propose a similar view. In support, the use of display questions is not preferable according to a number of researchers because these questions are characterized by the three-turn sequence of initiation-response-evaluation (IRE) (Dinsmore, 1985; Ellis, 1994; Mehan, 1979; Sinclair & Coulthard, 1975).

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Some researchers focused on the classroom context in which the teachers’ questions are produced rather than differentiating between the two types of questions themselves. For instance, Van Lier (1988) argues that the distinction between display and referential questions is too simplistic. He adds that the cognitive demands and interactive purposes of the teachers’ questions must be examined besides the matter of linguistic production. Additionally, Nunan and Lamb (1996) maintain that the choice of question should depend on the objective of the lesson, the task within the lesson, the size of the class, and the particular pedagogical imperative driving the management of the learning process at the particular time. In contrast to the previous arguments, Lee (2006) and Farr (2002) challenge the view that display questions are a less effective means of encouraging communicative language use. In particular, Lee reports that display questions are central resources for classroom teaching and concludes that they cannot proceed without communicative language use. Input is important in social language acquisition because students’ lack of basic knowledge at a certain stage might lead to unsuccessful language development. Based on this supposition, the type of questions asked by teachers should depend on their students’ ability. Krashen (1985) reports that conversational adjustment made by both teacher and learners varies according to the stage of the learners’ development. For this reason, the amount of adjustment required at early stages of development will be greater than that required at a later stage in order to achieve comprehensible input. Equally, Hakansson (1992) states that, to match the level of their learners’ language proficiency, teachers tend to use a slow speech rate, short sentences, few subordinate clauses, and a more restricted vocabulary. Despite this, there are only a limited number of studies that directly compare between beginners and advanced learners in term of teachers’ questioning techniques. However, some researchers suggest that certain types of questions are preferable for certain levels of language development. For instance, Gall (1970) claims that an emphasis on fact questions, such as display questions, is more effective for promoting low ability learners because these questions involve the basic skills that are needed at this level. On the other hand, higher cognitive questions, such as referential questions, are more effective for students at an intermediate or more advanced level. Similarly, Poole (1992) states that display questions are routinely used in conversation with young learners more than with advanced learners. Gass and Madden (1985) state that, in classroom conversations with young learners, the teacher should use more questions requiring object

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identification, such as “What’s this?”, in early sessions than in the latter ones. In other words, in the early stages, learners need simple adjustment, however, in the later stage, the teacher should switch to more demanding questions like “What’s the man doing?”, “What’s wrong with the picture?” and so on. Gass and Madden add that teachers use more self-repetition of questions with early stage learners because learners often possess little competence in English at this stage. Rost and Ross (1991) maintain that the use of certain question strategies is correlated with learners’ L2 proficiency levels. Based on this, Ramsey, Gabbard, Clawson, Lee and Henson (1990) claim that the types of questions asked by teachers should depend on their students’ abilities. That is, for lower ability students, teachers should use simple knowledge or comprehension questions, whereas teachers should ask more complex questions for higher ability students. In Oman, students are categorized in Cycle One of the Basic Education curriculum as beginners and Cycle Two as lower intermediate learners. In Omani classrooms, several action research studies conducted by teachers in Cycle One schools reveal that teachers in these schools use more display questions than referential questions due to their learners’ language level (Ministry of Education, 2006, p. 31). With regard to the current study, it is hypothesized that teachers in Cycle One schools will use more display questions than teachers in Cycle Two based on students’ proficiency levels. It was also assumed for the current study that experienced teachers may have gained more knowledge throughout their experience and that this may affect the type of questions they use in the classroom. Several studies have examined this point, including Pica and Long (1986) who hypothesized that experienced teachers employ more display questions and fewer referential questions in ESL classes. The results of this study suggest that the frequency of display questions asked by experienced and inexperienced teachers was almost exactly the same. Although their research did not support the hypothesis, it did show that display questions were used almost exclusively by all teachers regardless of experience. Similar conclusions were reached by Nunan (1987) who reports the results of a short follow-up experiment conducted by an experienced teacher with a class of zero-proficiency beginners. The results reveal that all of the questions asked by the experienced teacher were “display” questions and that the typical pattern of interaction was teacher initiation, learner response, and teacher follow-up. This pattern represents what the researcher describes as a typical teacher-fronted class.

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In the Omani classroom context, similar findings have also been reported. For example, Al Belushi (1996) investigated the extent to which oral questions asked by Omani EFL teachers vary according to their teaching experience. The study covered all Omani EFL teachers in preparatory and secondary levels in Muscat area. The sample of the study covered 40 Omani EFL teachers who constituted 38.5% of the total number of Omani EFL teachers in the Muscat area. Results indicate that there was no significant relationship between the teachers’ years of experience and the types of oral questions they asked in their classrooms.

2.1 Research Question and Hypotheses As stated above, Omani teachers often use display questions however, with the introduction of the new Basic Education curriculum with its emphasis on communicative language teaching, more referential questions should be employed in the classroom. The overriding aim of the current research, therefore, is to address the following question: Does classroom practice reflect this change? In order to address this question, the following hypotheses are offered: Hypothesis One: Omani teachers in Cycles One and Two of Basic Education use more display questions than referential questions. Hypothesis Two: Omani teachers in Cycle One use more display questions than teachers in Cycle Two. Hypothesis Three: There is no difference in the type of questions experienced and inexperienced Omani teachers use in Basic Education. Hypothesis Four: The types of questions used by Omani teachers in Cycle One and Two influence the amount of natural/authentic language provided to students.

3. Methodology 3.1 Participants 3.1.1 Teacher participants Twelve teachers took part in this study. Six of them are teachers in Cycle One schools, with three of these teachers being considered experienced – that is, having more than three years of teaching experience í and the other three being inexperienced, or having fewer than three years

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of experience as teachers. The remaining six are teachers in Cycle Two schools. Like participants in Cycle One, three of these teachers were also considered experienced and three inexperienced. Participants were both male and female and had a variety of educational backgrounds, including being educated in Oman, the UAE, and the UK. Added to this, the teachers observed all had attended a compulsory in-service training course to familiarize them with the government-mandated Basic Education course book. 3.1.2 Students All classes in the study were taken in Cycle One and Cycle Two Basic Education schools. All classes contained Omani students who all have Arabic language backgrounds. The language ability of these students ranges from beginners (in Cycle One) to low intermediate (in Cycle Two). The majority of the students in the study had completed class 1 which represents a basic language level. However, most of the students in Cycle Two had completed 4 to 8 years of English language learning. The age of the students ranges from 7 to 11 in Cycle One and from 12 to 15 years in Cycle Two. The lessons observed include listening tasks, group discussions, vocabulary based activities, and speaking tasks.

3.2 Procedure for Data Collection The study covered the Al Batina region in the Sultanate of Oman during academic year 2006-2007. The researcher visited a number of Cycle One and Cycle Two schools to ask teachers to volunteer to participate in the study. The researcher found male teachers to be more willing to be videotaped than female teachers due to local cultural concerns. However, after a short discussion with female teachers and headmistress, more female teachers expressed a desire to take part. The duration for each observed lesson was 35 to 40 minutes. However, songs, games, silent reading, and pair work activities were not recorded since the main focus was on teachers’ questioning techniques. After teaching the lessons, six teachers (3 experienced and 3 inexperienced) were invited to participate in an interview in order to examine their attitudes towards the questioning types they used in their lessons. All the observed lessons were transcribed and analyzed by the researcher. To ensure the accuracy of the transcripts, the coding was reviewed by a native speaker with some modifications made on the basis of this revision.

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3.3 Research Instruments For the purpose of the study, twelve lessons were videotaped and transcribed. The frequency of referential and display questions was recorded before the total number of display questions was compared with the total number of referential questions. The transcript of the twelve lessons was coded for display and referential questions following the definitions offered by Long and Sato (1983): Referential questions: Questions which are intended to provide contextual information about situations, events, actions, purposes, relationships, or properties (Wh-questions). For example, “Why didn’t you do your homework?” Display questions: Questions which are asked to establish the addressee’s knowledge of the answer (known information questions). For instance, “What’s the opposite of ‘up’ in English?” Similar distinctions have also been advocated by several researchers as well. For instance, Brock (1986) defines display questions as those which require recall of factual information and which are low level questions. On the other hand, she defines referential questions as those calling for evaluation while also being of a higher level type. More specifically, referential questions are genuine or real questions for which the teacher does not know the answer in advance, whereas display questions are those types of questions that teachers already know the answers to (Ellis, 1994; Lynch, 1991; Thompson, 1997). In terms of coding procedure, questions that were repeated were coded one time only. Questions that required nonverbal responses í for example, “Who can read?” í were not coded. The researcher considered questions that only required a yes/no response as display questions since the teacher previously knew the answer.

4. Analysis of the Data Regarding the number and types of questions used by Cycle One and Two teachers, results indicate that a total of 361 questions were asked of which 311 (85%) were display and 55 (15%) were referential questions in both cycles. Therefore, Omani teachers across these cycles ask more display than referential questions. In terms of question type breakdown across the cycles, Cycle One teachers used 153 (42%) display questions but only 8 (2%) referential questions. On the other hand, teachers in Cycle

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Two schools used 158 (43%) display questions and 47 (13%) referential questions. Table 1: Teachers’ display and referential questions in Cycle 1 classrooms Cycle 1 Teachers Type

T1

T2

T3

T4

T5

T6

Display

0

17

17

21

15

36

Referential

47

1

3

4

1

0

Total

47

18

20

25

16

36

Table 1 indicates the distribution of display and referential questions as they were used by the six Omani teachers in Cycle 1 schools. It is apparent that the teachers use more display than referential questions. For example, Teacher 1 (T1) asked 47 display questions while the numbers of referential questions was zero. Similarly, Teacher 6 asked 36 display questions and no referential questions. Teachers 2, 3, 4 and 5 asked fewer display questions in comparison to the other two teachers. However, the number of display questions still exceeds the number of referential questions. Generally, teachers in Cycle One schools asked more display questions than referential questions. Table 2: Teacher’ display and referential questions in Cycle 2 classrooms Cycle 2 Teachers Type

T1

T2

T3

T4

T5

T6

Display

15

16

58

37

4

28

Referential

3

13

1

10

11

9

Total

18

19

59

47

15

37

Table 2 shows the distribution of display and referential questions used by the six Omani teachers in Cycle Two schools. The teachers in Cycle Two schools used more display than referential questions which indicates that the situation in Cycle Two schools is similar to the situation in Cycle

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One. For example, Teacher 3 asked 58 display questions and only one referential question. Similarly, Teacher 4 asked 37 display questions and 10 referential questions. Additionally, it is worth noting that Teacher 5 is the only teacher who asked more referential questions (11) than display questions in both cycles. Generally, therefore, teachers in Cycle Two schools ask more display questions than referential questions. Table 3: Total number of display and referential questions of experienced and inexperienced teachers in Cycle 1 Experience

Display Qs

Referential Qs

Cycle 1 (experienced)

79

1

Cycle 1 (inexperienced)

74

7

Table 3 indicates that Cycle One experienced teachers asked 79 display questions while they asked only 5 referential questions. However, Cycle One inexperienced teachers asked 74 display questions but only 7 referential questions. In general, these figures show that similarities outweigh the differences found between the experienced and inexperienced teachers regarding the use of display and referential questions in the study. In other words, there is no noticeable difference between the experienced teachers in the use of display and referential questions in Cycle One schools. Table 4: Total number of display and referential questions of experienced and inexperienced teachers in Cycle 2 Experience

Display Qs

Referential Qs

Cycle 2 (experienced)

48

33

Cycle 2 (inexperienced)

110

33

Table 4 shows that Cycle Two experienced teachers asked 48 display questions while they asked 33 referential questions. Inexperienced Cycle Two teachers asked 110 display questions whereas they asked only 5 referential questions. It is worth noting from these figures that experienced teachers in Cycle Two schools used more 33 referential questions and less

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display questions in comparison with inexperienced teachers. Generally, there is a large difference between experienced and inexperienced teachers in the use of display and referential questions in Cycle Two schools.

5. Discussion Research Hypothesis One: Omani teachers in Basic Education Cycle One and Cycle Two use more display questions than referential questions. It has been hypothesized that teachers in Cycle One and Cycle Two use more display questions than referential questions. This hypothesis was derived from Long and Sato’s (1983) study in which it was reported that ESL teachers use significantly more display questions than referential questions in the classroom. As stated above, findings here indicate that teachers in Cycle One and Two asked 311 display questions. On the other hand, teachers in Cycle One and Two asked 55 referential questions. It is apparent form these figures that EFL Omani teachers in Cycle One and Cycle Two Basic Education in Oman use more display questions than referential questions. This, therefore, represents a confirmation of the first hypothesis. In addition, this result also supports findings of previous studies which suggest that display questions are used heavily in ESL/EFL classrooms in comparison to referential questions. For example, Long and Sato (1983), Brock (1986), and Pica and Long, (1986) all reported similar results. Additionally, the results of this study support the finding of Al Belushi’s (1986) study which found that Omani teachers in the Muscat region use more display questions than referential questions. Therefore, this finding gives an indication that there is most likely no difference in the situation before and after the introduction of the Basic Education system in Oman. As stated above, a number of writers on language teaching have encouraged teachers to focus more, or even exclusively, on using referential questions to allow more opportunities for communicative language use (Brock, 1986; Long & Sato, 1983; Lynch, 1991; Poole, 1992; White & Lightbown, 1984). In addition to these studies, Chaudron (1988) emphasized the fact that referential questions promote greater learner productivity and meaningful communication than display questions. However, it is apparent from the findings reported here that the actual situation in Omani English classrooms may be completely different. The findings of this study support Long and Sato’s (1983) belief that ESL teachers, at least in the Omani context, continue to emphasize form over meaning and accuracy over communication.

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The heavy reliance of Cycle One and Cycle Two teachers on display rather than referential questions can be interpreted from different perspectives. For example, many writers state that teachers tend to ask more display questions because they are the primary knowers and providers of knowledge (Good & Brophy, 1987; Telebinezahd, 2003; White & Lightbown, 1984). In addition, Ramsey et al. (1990) state that teachers often ask display questions to assess their students’ ability to recall, recognize, or repeat certain information. Long and Sato (1983) have proposed that display questions are used for knowledge-checking. Accordingly, the answers are distinguished as predeterminately correct or incorrect (Dillion, 1988, p. 85). The current study suggests that the situation in Omani classes for Cycle One and Cycle Two is not different from other EFL contexts. For example, many cases were noted in the classroom transcripts of the current research that show teachers ask questions not to raise communicative interaction but to check student understanding. For example: T: I with ‘P’… what is it? (display) T: I with ‘P’. Ss: Teacher, teacher! T: Yes… Ss: Play. In short, the required answer is short, for example, a general fact or simple yes or no response. Therefore, there is enough time for teachers to ask more display questions and this is clearly noticed throughout the transcripts. Another factor that supports teachers’ use of more display than referential questions is the nature of activities used in the lessons observed. Banbrook and Skehan (1990) and Liao (2003) stated that elicitation and substitution exercises generate more display questions than referential questions. Based on this, in Cycle One classes, the types of activity used mostly depend on elicitation and that, therefore, leads teachers to use more display questions where the they know in advance what the students are going to say. For example: T: Number 2, what is number 2? (display) S: Teacher.... 2. S: He watch T.V. T: He watches T.V., good. T: Number 3, what is number 3? (display) S: Teacher… teacher… play guitar. T: Yes, play guitar.

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Although the new Basic Education textbooks incorporate some communicative principles and include some real-life activities, the questions asked by teachers in Cycle Two are predominately of the display question type. For example: T: We have sea, what is bigger than sea? (display) S: Muhitat [oceans] T: …in English, yes… S: Oceans. T: Oceans, very good, we have oceans, what else? (display) S: Cities. Training programmes can be one of the factors that influence the teachers’ questioning. Tsui (1995) states that teachers tend to use the lowest cognitive level questions í display questions í because they appear to be unaware of the extent to which they are omitting meaningful questions from teaching. An examination of the transcripts suggests a lack of teachers’ awareness of the importance of using referential, rather than display, questions in classroom situations may due to their training. The importance of training is emphasized by Thompson (1997) who states that asking questions is not always as easy as it seems. Although it is a crucial skill, it can be picked up through trial and error. Based on post-observation interviews, a number of teachers declared that they have not received any pre- or in-service training that addresses the issue of questioning the classroom. Thus, the teachers’ questioning techniques in classroom situations reflect their attitudes that display questions are the only type of questions to be used in teaching. This belief reflects a results-centered methodology. It is worth mentioning, especially in Cycle One classes, that teachers are instructed to follow the same questions outlined in the teacher’s book in order to achieve the objectives of the lesson. For example, this observation excerpt highlights the way the teacher’s book prescribes teaching the question: “What is it?”: T: Yes, what’s this? (display) Ss: Tennis. T: Yes, tennis, and this? (display) Ss: Table tennis. T: Table tennis, what’s this? (display) Ss: Badmin.... T: Badminton.

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Moreover, teachers have to finish a certain number of steps as highlighted in the teacher’s book and that, consequently, forces them to ask quick and short questions in order to finish the suggested steps within the allocated time. In short, teachers in Basic Education classes used more display questions than referential questions. It can be concluded that display questions used in the lessons did not lead to a communicative use of the target language in the classroom as proposed by Lynch (1991), White and Lightbown (1984), and Poole (1992). The current results reveal that Omani teachers continue to emphasize form over meaning and accuracy over communication as illustrated by the reference to display, rather than referential, questions which may lead learners away from the use of language for communicative purposes . Research Hypothesis Two: Omani teachers in Cycle One Basic Education use more display questions than Omani teachers in Cycle Two Basic Education. It was hypothesized that teachers in Cycle One use more display questions than teachers in Cycle Two. This hypothesis is derived from the view that display questions are more effective for promoting low level learners since these questions involve the basic skills that are needed during the early stages of language learning. On the other hand, higher cognitive questions such as referential questions are more effective for students of average or high ability (Gall, 1970; Poole, 1992). Hence, it was expected that teachers in Cycle One use more display questions than teachers in Cycle Two. The data reported above generally suggests that teachers in Cycle One schools used 153 (display questions whereas teachers in Cycle Two schools used 158 display questions. From these figures, it is apparent that there is a slight but not important difference between the amount of display questions employed by teachers in both Cycle One and Cycle Two. There is a similar number of display questions that have been used by the teachers in both cycles. As a consequence, the hypothesis was not borne out. This finding gives evidence that teachers used display questions equally with low and high proficiency level students. The current findings, therefore, do not support the belief of Gall (1970), Gass and Madden (1985), and Ramsey et al. (1990) that teachers use display questions with low level learners and referential questions with higher level learners. In addition to the factors mentioned in hypothesis one regarding the heavy use of display questions rather than referential questions, it can be

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added that teachers are generally not accustomed to ask referential questions even with high ability students. To conclude, the classroom interaction is heavily teacher-led with teachers simply testing the students’ knowledge through a series of display questions and fewer referential questions which leads to a lack of communicative use of the target language in the classroom (Lynch, 1991; Poole, 1992; White & Lightbown, 1984). Research Hypothesis Three: There is no difference in the types of questions experienced and inexperienced teachers use in Cycle One and Cycle Two Basic Education. It was hypothesized that there is no significant difference in the types of questions experienced and inexperienced teachers use in Cycle One and Cycle Two Basic Education. This hypothesis is derived from Pica and Long’s (1986) study in which they found that there is no significant relationship between the teachers’ years of experience and the types of questions they asked in their classroom. From the result presented in Table 3, it was found that experienced teachers in Cycle One asked 79 display questions and 1 referential question, whereas inexperienced teachers asked 74 display questions and 7 referential questions. Apparently, there is a slight, but not important, difference between the number of display and referential questions used by experienced and inexperienced teachers. The results suggest a confirmation of the third hypothesis that there is no difference between experienced and inexperienced instructors in the types of questions used in Omani English classes. This finding, therefore, supports the results of Pica and Long (1986), Nunan (1987), and Al Belushi, (1996). The inexperienced teachers in Cycle One schools are new graduates, since the majority of them are newly appointed teachers in the region. The results emphasized that both experienced and inexperienced teachers have the same attitudes towards the use of display and referential questions with low proficiency learners. When analyzing the interview data, it was found that both types of teachers stressed the view that using display questions is more suitable with young students, while referential questions are a waste of time since young learners cannot interact successfully with their teachers due to their low level of English language proficiency. For example, Teacher 1 said, “It is difficult to ask open questions to Grade 1-4 students because they cannot express themselves; they just repeat or produce the same answers in the book”. Added to this, Teachers 2 and 3 declared that, “using open questions with young learners is a waste of time

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because the learners will tend to use Arabic language if they do not understand the instruction”. On the other hand, Teachers 2, 3 and 4 reflected that: We have to follow precisely the teachers’ book step by step to reach the lesson’s objectives in order not to be blamed by the supervisors or head teachers; consequently, this forces us to use the same questions in the course book in order to finish the lesson on time.

Other teachers suggested that referential questions are not effective with more than 30 students in the class. For this reason, they prefer using display questions to handle classroom management more effectively. For instance, Teacher 6 stated that it is difficult for teachers to ask many open questions in a large class: “I personally prefer asking simple and short close questions to finish the lesson”. On the other hand, some teachers seem to have an awareness of the importance of referential questions and stated that referential questions are beneficial. However, despite this awareness, they do not use them frequently because referential questions are time consuming. For instance, Teacher 5 said: When I ask open questions, only good students want to participate and if I give a chance for the weak students to say something, that usually takes more than five minutes for each; it is good but it takes time and we have to finish the lesson within 45 minutes.

Additionally, others do not prefer using referential questions because this forces them to use the mother tongue in order to make the question clearer to students. For example, Teacher 6 said: I usually use the same questions in the course book because when I want to extend some questions or try to relate the questions to students’ life, the students do not understand what is needed, in this case I try to use L1 to explain the purpose of question.

On the other hand, the situation in Cycle Two may be somewhat different. The figures presented in Table 4 indicate that Cycle Two experienced teachers asked 48 display questions and 33 referential questions, whereas inexperienced teachers asked 110 display questions and 5 referential questions. In contrast to Cycle One, there is a noticeable difference between experienced and inexperienced teachers in Cycle Two classes regarding the types of questions used in the classroom. Therefore, the specification in the third hypothesis that states there is no difference between experienced and inexperienced teachers in the types of questions use in Cycle Two classes is not confirmed.

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Discussions with experienced and inexperienced teachers in Cycle Two bring to light some reasons for this finding. That is, some experienced teachers expressed their dissatisfaction with students who joined Cycle Two schools and said that the students’ speaking skills are very poor. For this reason, teachers in Cycle Two have to encourage the development of students’ speaking abilities through the use of more referential questions. For example, Teacher 6 reported: In fact, we have noticed that students come from Cycle One school and joined Cycle Two school can’t express themselves, they have poor English, so we try to give them chance to use the language when they join Cycle Two school and that, I think, depends on the type of the question the teachers use, in this case the open questions I think are better.

Inexperienced teachers, in contrast, claim that students’ language levels do not encourage teachers to ask referential questions since students are not accustomed to these questions in their previous classes. In addition, Teacher 1 stated that it is difficult to ask open questions especially with low level learners. She said, “When asking open questions, it’s better to accompany them with something like facial expressions which are mainly helpful in case of weak students. So body language is really useful with open questions because it makes students participate in the class”. Other experienced teachers seem to gain some knowledge through their experience regarding the curriculum, lesson plans, and students’ individual differences, and that helps them to ask more referential questions. Teacher 5 reflected that: I know my students’ level, so I ask them some questions according to that, I try to vary my questions and use open questions, especially with grades 9 and 10, but if I found that they are not able to give answers, I directly simplify the questions to make it more simple and understandable.

Some teachers, for example Teachers 1 and 6 in the interviews, reported that they have not received any training in questioning techniques. The need for further education in this area was stated by number of teachers who reported that a lack of training is considered as one of the factors that affects questioning strategies in the classroom. The views reported above suggest that training programmes should address the issue of questioning techniques in the classroom to raise teachers’ awareness of appropriate types of questions in the classroom. The need for training, especially for new teachers, was addressed by AlRasbiah (2007) who claimed that new Omani teachers lack experience and, therefore, they feel more in need of training and skill development

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especially because the training courses conducted by the Ministry of Education are meant to familiarize teachers with the curriculum and not with teacher training courses. This finding, therefore, may be associated with the institution in which the teachers studied and how much they sought to learn from their colleagues since joining their respective schools. This might affect the teachers’ questioning techniques in the classroom more than their actual experience. That is because an inexperienced teacher might have had a good teaching technique and may be better than an experienced teacher who has little support in their school or has been exposed to poor methodology courses at their university. In theory, anyone coming to work as a teacher having completed a four year degree should have fully covered all aspects of effective questioning techniques. However, it is doubtful that this theory is reflected in reality. To conclude, there is some evidence from the study that referential questions were used by some experienced teachers in Cycle Two classes. However, the majority of teachers still rely heavily on the use of display questions. As Pica and Long (1986) state, it can be assumed that the influence of a teacher-centered classroom environment far outweighs the effect of teachers’ years of experience. This, consequently, makes information in the classroom flow in one direction only í from teacher to student. Research Hypothesis Four: The types of questions used by teachers in Cycle One and Cycle Two influence the amount of natural/authentic language provided to students. It was hypothesized that the types of questions used by teachers in Omani Cycle One and Two classrooms influence the amount of student response. This hypothesis was derived from Brock’s (1986) findings that responses to referential questions were significantly longer than those for display questions. To examine this hypothesis, an analysis of the transcripts was performed. In Cycle One classes, in all the lessons there was an extensive use of drills and controlled practice in which the teacher focused on using display questions and students were required to repeat the teachers’ words or to say no more than three words. It is noticeable that, since the teachers already know the answers, they simply test the students’ knowledge. Hence, this practice constrains students from producing creative language. Instead, students infer from what is written in the textbook or simply echo

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the teachers’ words. There are many examples in the transcripts representing this point. For example: T: Badminton. Ss: Badminton. T: Badminton, say it again. Ss: Badminton. T: Everyone say badminton. Ss: Badminton. In addition, the following extract is driven by a series of display questions, which has a marked effect on the language produced by the students. In the excerpt, it is clear that the students’ response is built mainly around the content of the textbook (Nunn, 1999). As a consequence, the length and complexity of the students’ responses are limited to yes/no (Nunan, 1981; Nunan & Lamb, 1996): T: Yes, good, ok, who has judo? Judo? Yes or no? (display) Ss: Yes. T: Good, judo, sit down. Who has swimming? Swimming? (display) Ss: Yes. T: Good, swimming, who has skiing? Skiing? (display) T: Look, at the picture, yes or no? Ss: Yes. Even though the number of referential questions in Cycle One is very limited, there are some examples from the transcripts that show that using referential questions in Cycle One can lead to more communicative language production. From the extracts, it can be seen that, even though the student’s response is long, it is controlled by a meaningful drill. For example: T: Buthaina, what do you do in your free time? (referential) S: I watch T.V. T: You watch T.V., good. T: What do you do in free time? (referential) S: I play basketball. T: You play basketball. T: Mohammed, what do you do in your free time? (referential) S: I play judo.

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Surprisingly, there are some examples in Cycle One classes where the students asked referential questions themselves. The reason might due to the type of pair work activity used in the observed lesson. Doughty and Pica (1986) state that two-way information gap activities have an effect on students’ interaction as well as students’ production of the language as can be seen below: S: Ameera, do you like football? S: No, I don’t. T: Very good… ask Salim. S: Salim, do you play volleyball? S: Yes, I don’t… I do. T: Ask Mohammed. S: Mohammed, do you do judo? In addition to the previous findings, it was also noted that the display questions used are characterized by the three-turn sequence (IRE) of initiation-response-evaluation which represents a non-communicative use of language (Dinsmore, 1985; Mehan, 1979; Sinclair & Coulthard, 1975) in which there is no negotiation of meaning (Tsui, 1995). For example: T: And the last one, what is it? (display) (I) Ss: Wind surfing. (R) T: Wind surfing, good. (E) Generally, the influence of display questions on students’ responses is highly prevalent throughout the transcripts. The use of display questions tends to make the length and complexity of the response very short and limited. Even though the number of referential questions in Cycle One is very limited, the students’ responses seem to be longer. The finding supports Long and Sato’s (1983) belief that display questions are less effective in encouraging students’ responses because they limit opportunities for them to produce genuine language. Moreover, the situation in Cycle Two is not very different in relation to the use of display questions. It is notable that, because of the constant use of display questions, the length and complexity of the students’ responses are limited to yes/no words as respondents only need to offer a confirmation or denial (Nunan, 1981). For example:

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T: Do you see a t-shirt Hanya? (display) S: No. T: Do you t-shirt Noof? (display) S: No. T: What do you see? (display) S: Chicken. Again, it was evident that students’ responses were generally characterized by the three-turn sequence (IRE). For example: T: Yes, our world, what is wonderful, great, wonderful? (display) S: Ra’e… [wonderful] (R) T: Yes, very good, very good, Muhammad. (E)

(I)

The effect of referential questions in Cycle Two, on the other hand, is noticeable, as there appears to be an increase in the length and complexity of students’ responses. These features appear in the following extract: T: At home, what do you prefer? (referential) S: Fresh chicken. T: Yes, Waleed. S: Audience about people and family. S: (unclear).... cavity.... the color: it’s nice picture. S: …The special offer: discount for price. In addition, the use of referential questions gives an emphasis on meaningful communication as proposed by Tsui (1995). Thus, the meaning of the utterance is understood by negotiation between the teacher and the learner. In other words, the meaning of the teachers’ question is negotiated between the teachers and the student. For example: T: What color you prefer... if you have the chance to make this advertisement… what color you choose? (referential) S: No.... ah… T: I mean, which color you like for the advertisement, this one? T: Blue. On the other hand, it is noteworthy that there are some instances from the data that demonstrate that the teachers asked referential questions but the students’ responses are still limited to only a handful of words. These

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examples suggest that display and referential questions do not have very much effect on the learners’ responses (Lee, 2006; Winne, 1979). For example: T: Can you say something about feet? (referential) S: (Not clear) T: What do you have to do for your feet? T: To take care of our feet? (referential) S: Wear.... T: Raise your voice, I can’t hear you. Wear what? S: Sandals. The data, therefore, suggest that display questions limit the length of student responses across both cycles. Similar results were also reported by Brock (1986), Long and Sato (1983), and Cullen (1998). Added to this, there is some evidence that suggests that referential questions used in Cycle Two lessons generated the longest responses. However, the findings also revealed that not all referential questions lead to long responses, which tends to contradict Brock’s (1986) findings. However, it should be noted that Brock’s study was conducted with adult learners who could be argued to be able to produce longer responses than the young learners featured here. Moreover, it can be assumed that Omani learners may have been unfamiliar with referential questions and unaccustomed to being asked many open questions. Therefore, these students tend to produce shorter answers. Another interpretation might be that teachers direct the questions to the whole class which requires a choral response and not individual responses and this, as a consequence, prevents them from elaborating on their answers. Finally, it may also be, as many teachers have reported in the interview stage of the research, that the students’ proficiency levels might have the greatest effect on limiting their responses. To conclude, the findings regarding this hypothesis illustrate a traditional pattern of interaction rather than genuine communicative interaction. The large number of display questions inhibits students from producing language in a natural and communicative way. The students’ responses seem to be limited to repeating the language presented by the teacher or the materials. As a consequence, there is no negotiation of meaning because display questions generate interactions that are typical of didactic discourse and not of social communication (Tsui, 1995).

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6. Conclusion and Recommendations Teachers’ questions play a central role in English language teaching in Oman. Therefore, this study represented an attempt to explore the types of oral questions used by Omani teachers in Cycle One and Two classes. The study investigated whether these types of questions influence the communicative use of language in the English language classrooms of Oman’s Basic Education system. Major findings are summarized below. It was found that teachers in Cycle One and Cycle Two Basic Education use more display questions than referential questions. This result tends to support those of previous studies in the area which suggest that display questions are used more frequently in ESL/EFL classrooms than referential questions (Brock, 1986; Long & Sato, 1983; Pica & Long, 1986; Poole, 1992; White & Lightbown, 1984). Moreover, the results of this study support the findings of Al Belushi’s (1996) investigation which reported that Omani teachers in the Muscat region use more display than referential questions. It has been offered here that teacher-centered methods, activity types, and training programmes are the main reasons for teachers’ reliance on using display rather than referential questions. The findings of this study also support the supposition that there is likely no difference in the situation before and after the introduction of the Basic Education curriculum in terms of the questioning techniques that teachers in Omani schools use. It was also found that there is a slight difference between the number of display questions used by teachers in Cycle One and Cycle Two. This finding offers support for the belief that teachers use display questions equally with low and high level students. The current findings only partially supported what authors such as Gall (1970), Gass and Madden (1985), and Ramsey et al. (1990) have all proposed í teachers tend to use display questions with low level learners whereas they use referential questions with high level learners. It was also reported that there is a small difference between the number of display and referential questions employed by experienced and inexperienced teachers in Cycle One schools. As outlined above, results suggest a confirmation of the third hypothesis. On the other hand, there is an apparent difference between experienced and inexperienced teachers in Cycle Two classes. Results indicate that display questions usually result in short and simple responses from learners. However, the effect of referential questions was not clearly detailed due to the limited number of referential questions used in Cycle One. In contrast, some referential questions used in Cycle Two resulted in long and complex responses. Finally, it was

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concluded that teachers in Cycle One and Two commonly use questions that have low communicative value. The study also suggests that there is most likely no difference in classroom interaction regarding questioning techniques employed before and after the introduction of the Basic Education system. Consequently, results suggest that, though Basic Education supports the use of communicative teaching approaches in Oman’s English language classrooms, interaction in Cycle One and Two is of a relatively poor communicative quality.

6.1 Recommendations This study was undertaken to shed some light on the types of oral questions that Omani EFL teachers use in Cycle One and Cycle Two Basic Education schools. Based on the findings reported here, a number of recommendations are offered to make Omani English classrooms more communicative and student-centered: 1. It was reported that the number of display questions used in English classrooms far outweighs the number of referential questions and this leads teachers and learners away from the use of language for communicative purposes. On this basis, teachers have to use appropriate questioning strategies, and that can be done by reformulating display questions to referential questions in order to give students more opportunities to experience genuine uses of the English language in the classroom. 2. Raising teachers’ self-awareness regarding their questioning techniques is also essential. This can be achieved through individual professional development. Accordingly, teachers are advised to record their teaching over several lessons. Eventually, reflecting over these lessons may help teachers continue their development. Additionally, peer observation and/or team teaching may also be useful alternatives for teachers to gain some awareness regarding questioning strategies. Such techniques can reveal the types and numbers of questions teachers use in each lesson. Additionally, teachers should consider themselves as researchers in the classroom, being always ready to analyze their daily experiences and adapt new questioning strategies. 3. It was also concluded that the type of questions that teachers use influences’ learning outcomes. Consequently, students’ responses were restricted to one, or no more than three, words. Alternatively, teachers are advised to help students acquire a number of basic learning strategies such as requesting further explanation, restating ideas, and

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giving additional information. In order to make classroom conversation more realistic, students need to be exposed to some expressions from their teachers to help them attempt to communicative. For example: “Do you mean...? I can’t understand you. Please explain.” “Please sum up what you said.” “Will you please repeat it?” “I don’t agree with this point because…” 4. Results suggest that teachers tend to focus on the reproduction of course book content and that is clearly observed in the kinds of questions teachers use. This is because there is a common belief among teachers that when students reproduce course book content through display questions that good learning quality is achieved. In response to this apparently widespread belief, teachers should receive some training on how to teach the course book in a learner-centered way that encourages communicative language use. 5. Teachers should allow 3-5 seconds of response time when asking questions to students. This can be done after posing a question and before calling on a student to respond. This gives students enough time to think and get prepared to answer. More response time should be given to weaker students than strong students because, as Ramsey (1990) reports, lower level students need more time to formulate their responses. In addition, teachers have to elicit responses from volunteering and non-volunteering students in class without focusing too much attention on specific individual students.

References Al Belushi, A. (1996). Oral questioning by Omani teachers of English as a foreign language in the Muscat preparatory and secondary schools. Unpublished master’s thesis, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Oman. Al-Rasbiah, S. (2006). In-service training needs of EFL teachers in Oman. Unpublished master’s thesis, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Oman. Banbrook, L., & Skehan, P. (1990). Classroom and display questions. In C. Brumfit & R. Mitchell (Eds.), Research in the language classroom (pp. 141-151). London: Modern English Publications. Brock, C. (1986). The effect of referential questions on ESL classroom discourse. TESOL Quarterly, 20(1), 47-48.

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Cazden, C. (1998). Relationship between talking and learning in classroom interaction. In B. Das (Ed.), Patterns of classroom interaction in Southeast Asia (pp. 1-5). Singapore: SEMO Regional Language Centre. Chaudron, C. (1988). Second language classrooms: Research on teaching and learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Dillion, J. T. (1998). Questioning and teaching: A manual of practice. London: Croom Helm. Dinsmore, D. (1985). Waiting for Godot. EFL Journal, 39, 225-234. Doughty, C., & Pica, T. (1986). Information gap: Do they facilitate language acquisition? TESOL Quarterly, 20, 305-325. Ellis, R. (1994). The study of second language acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Farr, F. (2002). Classroom interrogations: How productive? The Teacher Trainer, 16, 19-22 Gall, M. (1970). The use of questions in teaching. Review of Educational Research, 40, 707-721. Gass, S., & Madden, C. (1985). Input in second language acquisition. Rowley, MA: Newbury House. Good, T., & Brophy, J. (1987). Looking in classrooms. New York: Harper and Row. Hakansson, G. (1992). The role of the teacher in the second language classroom. Revue de Phonetique Appliquee, 103/104, 163-180. Harmer, J. (2001). The practice of English language teaching. Harlow: Pearson Education. Jacobsen, D., Eggen, P., & Kauchak, D. (1989). Methods for teaching: A skills approach. London: Merrill. Krashen, S. (1982). Principals and practice in second language acquisition. London: Pergamon Press. —. (1985). The input hypothesis: Issues and implications: London: Longman. Lee, Y. (2006). Respecifying display questions: International resources for language teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 40(2), 691-714. Liao, X. (2003). Information gap in communicative classrooms. English Teaching Forum, 39(4), 1-4. Long, M. (1983). Native speaker/non native speaker conversation and the negotiation of comprehensible input. Applied Linguistics 4, 126-141. Long, M., & Sato, C. (1983). Classroom foreigner talk discourse: Forms and functions of teachers, questions. In H. Seliger & M. Long (Eds.), Classroom-oriented research in second language acquisition (pp. 268285). Massachusetts: Newbury House.

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Lynch, T. (1991). Questioning roles in the classroom. ELT Journal, 45(3), 201-210. Mehan, H. (1979). Learning lessons: Social organization in the classroom. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Ministry of Education. (2006). Classroom research in English language teaching in Oman. Muscat: author. Nunan, D. (1987). Communicative language teaching: Make it work. ELT Journal, 41(2), 136-153. —. (1990). The questions teachers ask. JALT Journal, 12(2), 187-202. Nunan, D., & Lamb, C. (1996). The self-directed teacher. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Nunn, R. (1999). The purposes of language teachers’ questions. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 37(1), 23-34. Pica, T., & Long, M. (1986). The linguistic and conversational performance of experienced and inexperienced teachers. In R. Day (Ed.), Talking to learn (pp. 85-98). Rowley, MA: Newbury House. Poole, D. (1992). Language socialization in the language classroom. Language Learning, 42(4), 593-616. Ramsey, I., Gabbard, C., Clawson, K., Lee, L., & Henson, K. (1990). Questioning: An effective teaching method. The Clearing House, 63(9), 420-422. Rost, M., & Ross, S. (1991). Learner strategies in interaction: Typology and teachability. Language Learning, 41(2), 235-273. Sanders, N. (1966). Classroom questions. New York: Harper and Row. Sinclair, J. M., & Coulthard, M. (1975). Towards an analysis of discourse. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Talebinzahd, M. (2003). Effective questions. English Teaching Forum, 41(4), 46-47. Thompson, G. (1997). Training teachers to ask questions. ELT Journal Volume, 51(2), 99-105. Tsui, A. (1995). Introducing classroom interaction. Harmondsworth: Penguin. Van Lier, L. (1988). The classroom and the language leaner. London: Longman. White, L., & Lightbown, P. (1984). Asking and answering in ESL classes. Canadian Modern Language Review, 40(2), 288-344. Winne, P. (1979). Experiments relating to teachers’ use of higher cognitive questions to student achievement. Review of Educational Research, 49, 13-50.

CHAPTER NINE AN EVALUATION OF ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT TOOLS USED IN GRADES 5-8 OF OMANI BASIC EDUCATION SCHOOLS AS PERCEIVED BY EFL TEACHERS MAIMONA AL RUQEISHI UNIVERSITY OF NIZWA, OMAN [email protected]

Abstract Alternative assessment is one of the terms that started to appear in the educational literature in the 90s as a call for new insights into assessment. This movement towards a nontraditional philosophy of assessment has developed in response to many factors. Perhaps the most important of which include the recognition that students have special needs and interests and an awareness of how children learn and develop. This study addresses the responses of 224 EFL teachers of grades 5-8 in the Omani Basic Education context to a survey about using alternative assessment tools. The results show that teachers perceived this type of assessment to be adequate as it develops teachers’ sense of reflection and fosters students’ awareness of their learning. Also, the findings reveal some serious problems that hinder the effectiveness of alternative assessment in the Omani context. Teachers shed light on their practical experiences with alternative assessments gained over time. Based on the findings of this study, the implications of, and recommendations about, alternative assessments are suggested. Keywords: alternative/authentic assessment, Oman, Basic Education

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1. Introduction Among current educational reforms in Oman, one point of emphasis is assessing students’ academic performance. Researchers claim that traditional measures fail to capture the full range of students’ learning outcomes. A call for multifaceted assessment vision has given rise to new initiative forms of assessment at all levels of education. This call moves assessment away from testing to assessment as an integral part of instruction (Herman, Aschbacher, & Winters, 1992; Katz, 1997; O’Malley & Valdez Pierce, 1996; Stiggins, 2004). In responding to the need for improved assessment procedures, recent research supports the use of alternative assessment as a valid key to educational reform. Literature on the knowledge base of alternative assessment shows considerable acknowledgment of this new form of assessment as a powerful tool to trigger large achievement gains. Culbertson and Jalongo (1999) view alternative assessment as a more natural and non-tense means of measuring students’ progress than testing. For them, these informal methods of assessment are relevant to real-life tasks that provide an accurate picture of a student’s ability to apply what has been learned. This new vision of assessment, therefore, emphasizes both the process and product of student performance. For Herman et al. (1992), what is new about these assessments is that they involve teachers clearly stating their teaching attainments to ensure consistency between the current trends of meaningful teaching and learning and the systematic collection of evidence about their instructional efforts. This implies that assessment is an integral part of instruction that should reflect and complement the teaching methodology used in the class. Moorcroft, Desmarais, Hogan and Berkowitz (2000) provide a broader notion of authentic assessment. They consider the term to not only include assessment tools but also involve designing exercises through which students can develop understanding and apply what they have learned. For Moorcroft et al., assessment tools are a means through which students learn how to learn. This conception of authentic assessment highlights the aim of conducting assessment to achieve the potential of lifelong learning rather than just measuring learning outcomes. Wiggins (1990) attempts to clarify the notion of authentic assessment by comparing it with traditional standardized tests. He argues that authentic assessment is based on intellectual challenges that reflect best instructional activities. In other words, authentic assessment offers students a range of tasks that requires them to use high level thinking in order to solve real-life problems. Traditional tests, in contrast, are usually confined to one-answer questions that mostly rely on recalling what was

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learned. Wiggins, therefore, touches on the validity and reliability of both authentic assessment and traditional tests. He believes that authentic assessment provides accurate estimates of students’ performance more than tests do. In sum, traditional methods of measuring students’ learning outcomes have been often criticized, especially when viewed against more meaningful assessment practices. Moving to the notion of multidimensional assessment means that measuring students’ learning outcomes should broaden the information that is collected about students’ abilities to apply knowledge reflecting sound teaching principles. More specifically, students should be provided with more than one opportunity to demonstrate what they know and what they can do. Accordingly, as asserted by O’Malley and Valdez Piece (1996), a number of assessment methods are currently being suggested as alternatives to testing, with many of these already in use around the world. The range of options is so broad that teachers can select from them to meet specific instructional and student needs. Tedick and Klee (1998) illustrate how to design an array of tasks that lend themselves to alternative assessment. These include speaking and listening tasks, writing tasks, and reading tasks. As an attempt to quell the limitation of standardized testing, O’Malley and Valdez Pierce (1996) suggest approaches for using authentic assessment that originated in workshops conducted over a period of years for teachers of English language learners. Among authentic forms of assessment suggested by the authors were portfolio assessment and student self-assessment. For them, the use of authentic assessment requires shifting the philosophy of teaching to a learner-centered approach. Recently, many innovation assessment forms have been employed in classrooms. Regardless of the labels, these forms have become integral parts of the instructional process. Besides, they enhance the positive learning atmosphere and students’ motivation towards learning and provide useful information for instructional planning. Despite the popularity and increasing interest in these tools of assessment as effective means for achieving learning targets, using them nonetheless often places a heavy demand on teachers (Butler, 1997; Corcoran, Dershimer, & Tichenor, 2004; O’Malley & Valdez Pierce, 1996; Payne, 2003). For these reasons, the current research is an evaluation of alternative assessment tools used in grades 5-8 of Omani Basic Education schools as perceived by EFL teachers.

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1.1 Context of the Problem Responding to current educational innovations, and in order to meet the challenges and demands of local and global markets, the Omani government decided to reform ELT in the country’s government schools. These reforms have materialized in form of the Basic Education curriculum introduced in 1998/99 which introduced English language instruction from grade 1. This new system of education was implemented gradually in a number of schools and then was generalized across the country. Basic Education was developed at the expense of the old General Education system which was almost completely phased out in 2010. The Ministry of Education introduced alternative assessment for the first time in Basic Education schools in 1998/99. The second cycle of the Basic Education system, however, started in 2001/02. At this time, the second cycle constitutes four grades from grade 5-8. The main reason for adopting this type of assessment is that children are not capable of test taking because of their limited linguistic competence (Ministry of Education, 1998). Introducing alternative assessments in Omani Basic Education ELT classrooms has led to classroom assessment assuming two essential roles: providing useful information about student learning, and supporting and encouraging effective teaching and learning strategies. In order to fulfill these twin roles effectively, the ministry believed it was necessary to form a good match between assessment and teaching/learning in addition to supporting a range of different methods of assessment (Ministry of Education, 2004). These methods offer the means for an ongoing assessment that provides information about student learning over time. In grades 5-8 of Basic Education, this new vision of assessment includes information gathered for self-assessment activities, portfolios, projects, and daily classroom observations, as well as elements of paper and pencil testing. These alternative assessment methods are called “informal assessments” and account for 40% of a student’s overall grade in English, while formal assessments, such as class tests and end-of-semester exams, account for 60% of this grade.

1.2 Research Questions In order to evaluate teachers’ perceptions about the use of alternative assessment tools used in grades 5-8 in Omani Basic Education schools, the following research questions were posited:

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1. What are EFL teachers’ perceptions of alternative assessment tools used in grades 5-8 of Omani Basic Education schools in terms of: a. Adequacy? b. Difficulties? c. Sufficiency of training and support? 2. Do teachers’ perceptions of alternative assessment tools vary according to gender, qualification, and years of teaching experience?

2. Theoretical Framework 2.1 The Emergence of Alternative Assessment Calls for a friendly classroom atmosphere and instruction reform away from the transmission model of education have given rise to alternative forms of assessment. Another important reason for the widespread interest in alternative assessment is heavy criticism of traditional methods of assessment. There is a consensus among a number of practitioners and scholars that alternative assessments are more developmentally- and ageappropriate for young learners than traditional testing (Grace, 1992; Huerta-Macias, 1995; Kartz, 1997; Meisels, 1995; Smith et al., 1993; Stiggins, 2004). Smith et al. (1993) note that research on early childhood education emphasizes the significant influence of the early years of schooling on children’s future progress. Consequently, researchers now question the traditional classroom methods used in these early years as they often do not correspond with knowledge about childhood development. Using achievement tests for young children is also a highly questionable issue. The results of these tests provide insufficient information about students’ mastery of knowledge (Meisels, 1995). This means that testing fails to demonstrate students’ strengths and weaknesses and the kind of help they need. Considering this fact, major decisions that are based on these tests’ results may be unfair for some students. Therefore, many educators and decision makers believe that high-stake tests, or those tests that are used to make crucial decisions about a student such as a high school graduation, are unfair to many students. Neill (2002) discussed a number of high-stake test drawbacks. For example, anxious students are unable to show what they know on standardized tests and this leads them to achieve lower scores. Other students often do not fairly have the chance to learn materials on tests because of large class sizes, unqualified teachers, poorly designed books, and a lack of access to facilities. These students might also undergo housing or health care problems. High-stake tests penalize these students

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for circumstances out of their control. Consequently, tests often cause lowachieving students to dropout. Standardized testing is also thought to be unfair as it denies students equal access to higher education because it plays a very important role in determining whether or not secondary school students will get the chance to join colleges after completing their secondary education (Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory, 2001). Culbertson and Jalongo (1999) consider traditional testing not fair to children who are not good test takers. They maintain that this kind of assessment does not offer children the opportunity to show what they can do. Since children’s knowledge has been rapidly extended by technology, it is not logical to give them merely one chance to demonstrate this knowledge. In some cases, the child may be familiar with the concept being tested but face problems with the format of the test (Huerta-Macias, 1995). Motivating children and keeping them learning a language is also considered an important factor supporting the use of alternative assessment. Ioannou-Georgio and Pavlou (2003) believe that children usually do not choose to learn a language because they are too young to be aware of the importance of foreign languages. Therefore, they need a friendly environment to reinforce their efforts and to keep them learning. Teachers usually create enjoyable tasks for this purpose. Nevertheless, their hard work in establishing a motivating environment and changing their students’ negative attitudes towards language learning may be destroyed when the time for assessment comes. For these reasons, it is suggested that the assessment should be carried out in a way that maintains a friendly classroom atmosphere and encourages positive attitudes towards language learning.

2.2 What is Alternative Assessment? There is no single definition of alternative assessment. However, many labels have been used to distinguish it from traditional testing (HuertaMacias, 1995). For Butler (1997), alternative assessment is commonly defined in terms of what it is not. That is, it is usually stated in contrast to traditional methods of assessment. Alternative assessment usually calls for using more than one way of measuring students’ performance as conventional tests do. It is an ongoing process that measures whether students can apply knowledge and skills in real life contexts. Mueller (2005) also claims that this kind of assessment offers the student an opportunity to apply meaningful knowledge and skills in real-world tasks.

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Real-world tasks represent kinds of problems faced in real life that require students’ creative and effective solutions.

2.3 Review of Previous Studies Mertler (1998) investigated the extent to which teachers use traditional versus alternative forms of assessment techniques in their classrooms in Ohio. The researcher found that assessment practices differ according to school level (i.e., elementary, middle, and high school), different years of teaching experience, and different school locations. For example, middle and high school teachers usually use traditional assessment techniques more frequently than elementary teachers who tend to use alternative methods. Teachers in suburban schools use alternative assessment more than teachers in rural settings, while teachers with less teaching experience use alternative assessment more frequently than teachers with 30 or more years of experience. Regarding the Omani context, Al-Belushi (2002) investigated EFL teachers’ perceptions of alternative assessments used in the first cycle of Omani Basic Education schools. The research sample was drawn from eight regions of the sultanate. Data analysis revealed that teachers viewed alternative assessment tools to be better for evaluating learners in more natural and less stressful ways. For difficulties teachers face, alternative assessment tools were thought to be time-consuming and not fair to shy children. Teachers also expressed their need for on-going support and training to improve their experience in using alternative assessments. Significant differences between teachers’ perceptions due to level of qualification, nationality, and years of teaching experiences, were also reported. For example, BA holders were found to be in need of training and support, while diploma holders were only reported as moderately in need of further training. Furthermore, data revealed non-Omani teachers were in need of more training and on-going support. Additionally, teachers with teaching experience ranging from one to five years perceived alternative assessment tools to be adequate, while teachers with longer experience perceived them to be only moderately adequate.

3. Methodology 3.1 Population and Sample The population of this study consisted of EFL teachers who teach grades 5-8 in Omani Basic Education schools. The entire population was

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627 teachers distributed all over the Sultanate of Oman. Participants in the study were drawn from ten regions: Muscat, Dakhiliah, Dhofar, Dhahirah South, Dhahirah North, Batinah South, Batinah North, Sharqiyah South, Sharqiyah North, and Musandam. The sample consisted of 224 teachers representing about 36% of the population. Stratified sampling was used to ensure that the sample accurately reflected a number of key population traits. Table 1 features the number of participants from each region. Table 1: Distribution of the sample on the target regions No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Regions Muscat Dakhilia Dhofar Batinah South Batinah North Sharqiyah South Sharqiyah North Dhahirah South Dhahirah North Musandam Total

n 34 35 27 20 24 23 22 18 8 13 224

% 15.2 15.6 12.1 8.9 10.7 10.3 9.8 8.0 3.6 5.8 100

Table 2: Characteristics of the sample Characteristics Gender Male Female

127 97

56.7 43.3

Qualification Diploma Bachelor of Education Bachelor of Arts Masters

20 185 6 13

8.9 82.2 2.7 5.80

Years of Teaching Experience 1-5 6-10 11 years+

65 79 80

29 35.3 35.7

n

Teachers

%

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Characteristics of the sample according to gender, level of qualification, and years of teaching experiences are provided in Table 2. As seen in the table, the sample consisted of 127 male and 97 female instructors. Twenty of them held diplomas, while 185 held Bachelor of Education degrees. Six of the teachers in the sample held Bachelor of Arts degrees and thirteen of them held master’s degrees.

3.2 Instrument A 38-item questionnaire was used to explore teachers’ perceptions of alternative assessment tools. The questionnaire consisted of two sections. The first section elicited respondents’ background information. This included gender, qualification, teaching experience, and region in which currently working. This information is presented in tables 1 and 2 above. The second questionnaire section comprised three dimensions. Each dimension focused on a specific area of alternative assessment tools. These were: (1) adequacy of alternative assessment tools; (2) difficulties in using these tools; and (3) training and support. The first dimension of the questionnaire entitled “Adequacy of alternative assessment tools” has 17 items. These items highlight, for example, teachers’ perceptions of the adequacy of these tools to assess students’ specific skills such as social skills, language proficiency, and creativity. Additionally, items also examine teachers’ perceptions about the adequacy of such tools to provide concrete evidence of students’ learning and what they are able to do. The second dimension consists of 14 items, and was entitled “Difficulties in using alternative assessment tools”. This dimension examines teachers’ views of the difficulties regarding the use of alternative assessment. It explores whether teachers experience difficulties in the following areas: time consumption, effort, and subjectivity. This part of the questionnaire also has a focus on teachers’ perceptions about difficulties in managing these assessment tools. The third questionnaire dimension focuses on teachers’ perceptions about training and the support they receive with alternative assessment tools. This dimension was entitled “Training and support” and it specifically examines whether teachers have received sufficient training and continuous support regarding the use of these tools. Across the three dimensions, participants were asked to respond to items using a Likert scale with responses ranging from 5 í strongly agree, to 1 í strongly disagree, with a middle option of neutral. They were also encouraged to add any additional comments about the questionnaire themes in the space provided at the end of the instrument to illustrate their

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responses. Specific items associated with each dimension are available in Section 5. Mean values are interpreted in the following ways: mean values that range between 3.5 and 5 are considered adequate, appropriate, sufficient, and important depending on the nature of the items included in each dimension. Mean values ranging between 2.5 and 3.4 refer to the next lowest level and are interpreted as moderately adequate. Finally, mean values ranging between 1 and 2.4 refer to the lowest level and are interpreted as inadequate, insufficient, and not important. These interpretations are based on Oxford’s (1990) analysis of data collected from a language learning strategies questionnaire.

3.3 Validation The questionnaire items were developed from a thorough review of literature on alternative assessment. In addition, informal interviews with a number of EFL teachers and supervisors helped in formulating some items of the questionnaire. Furthermore, some items of the questionnaire were adopted from Al-Belushi’s research (2002). These are items 2, 4, 5, 18, 22, 24 and 34. The initial version of the questionnaire was reviewed for face and content validity by a panel of eight experts and practitioners from the Curriculum and Instruction Department, English Department, and the Language Center. The members of the panel were requested to read the statements and check them regarding clarity, relevance, and appropriateness. In the light of their suggestions, some items of the questionnaire were modified. This involved (1) rewording some items, (2) eliminating any ambiguous items, (3) excluding irrelevant items, and (4) eliminating any redundant items.

3.4 Piloting and Reliability To ensure that all items of the questionnaire were clear, appropriate, and unambiguous, twenty copies of the questionnaire were piloted by a group of EFL teachers of grades 5-8 in Basic Education schools. The reliability of the questionnaire was established by computing the Cronbach Alpha coefficient. The coefficient value was .87, indicating a high degree of internal consistency.

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4. Research Design and Data Analysis Data was analyzed using SPSS. The following statistical procedures were used to address the research questions offered above: 1. Descriptive statistics (means and standard deviations) were used to determine teachers’ perceptions of alternative assessments tools used in grades 5-8 of Basic Education schools. 2. Independent t-tests were used to detect the statistical significance of differences in perceptions between male and female teachers. 3. ANOVAs were used to investigate the differences in teachers’ perceptions due to teaching experience and qualification. When differences were found to be statistically significant, post hoc comparisons were conducted to determine how groups differed.

5. Findings 5.1 Teachers’ Perceptions To gain a clear understanding of teachers’ perceptions of alternative assessment tools used in grades 5-8 of Basic Education schools, descriptive analysis was conducted and the means of all dimensions were obtained. The overall dimension mean values of the three dimensions fall into the high and middle levels as outlined above. The highest overall mean is for the dimension of the difficulties in using alternative assessment tools (M = 3.85). The next highest dimension mean is for training and support with value of 3.62. The mean value regarding the adequacy of alternative assessment is 3.46 thus indicating that teachers perceive alternative assessment tools as moderately adequate. Each questionnaire dimension is explored in more detail below. 5.1.1 Adequacy of alternative assessment tools This dimension examines teachers’ perceptions of the adequacy of alternative assessment tools. The grand mean value of this dimension is 3.46, which indicates that alternative assessment tools are generally viewed to be moderately adequate. Teachers’ perceptions of the items on this dimension are shown in Table 3. The items are presented in a descending order according to mean values. The mean values of the items included in this dimension all fall into the high and middle levels. This indicates that teachers perceive alternative assessment tools as adequate

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with regard to the eight items that have values that range between 3.51 and 3.85 and moderately adequate with regard to the remaining items which have means values ranging between 3.15 and 3.45. As shown in Table 3, projects are perceived as adequate for promoting student creativity and for measuring the ability to employ language skills. This finding supports the belief of Ioannou-Georgiou and Pavlou (2003) that projects lend themselves to language skills and can foster students’ creativity. Teachers in this study perceive projects as adequate. This may be attributed to the fact that projects provide students with more natural, and less stressful, ways of demonstrating what they can do and thus reflect on their ability to use their imaginations. They also allow learners to use their language skills by explaining their accomplishments orally or by writing reports. Similarly, self-assessment activities are perceived to be adequate for developing students’ awareness of their learning and focusing on the aims of the unit. These findings are consistent with what Smolen, Newman, Wathen and Lee (1995) found in their research with teacher educators who reported that, by using self-assessment, students started to take more control of their learning and became more aware of their progress. Moreover, teachers perceive self-assessment activities as adequate for providing useful information about students’ strengths and weaknesses and for developing their own sense of reflection. This finding supports the assertion by Herman et al. (1992) that assessment not only measures how much was learned but also provides evidence to teachers and students about learner progress and ways to improve it. Assessment, therefore, is an integral part of instruction according to which teachers should adjust their instruction plans. Portfolios are perceived as adequate for reflecting the stated aims of each unit. The possible interpretation of this perception is that the contents included in students’ portfolios reflect instructional goals as well as what students are doing in the classroom. Notably, projects are perceived to be moderately adequate for providing concrete evidence of students’ learning. Furthermore, their moderate appropriateness for the language proficiency of students is also attributed to their adequacy. In general, the first nine items in Table 3 share a common aspect, which is the belief that alternative assessment tools provide feedback that enhances teachers’ instruction and guides students’ growth. Assessment in this sense becomes the feedback that enables teachers to communicate expectations and standards of learning and helps students to be strategic in their own learning process. It is appropriate to conclude that teachers in this study

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believe that direct linkage between instruction and assessment will improve assessment for its potential in promoting learning. Table 3: Teachers’ perceptions regarding the adequacy of alternative assessment tools No. 16 1 6 8 7 11 10 17 2 12 13 9 3 14 5 15 4

Items Projects are tools for promoting students’ creativity Alternative assessment tools provide a clear picture of what students can do Self assessment develops students’ awareness of their learning Self assessment activities focus on the aims of each unit Self assessment provides teachers with useful information about students’ strengths and weaknesses Samples of work in students’ portfolios reflect the aims for each unit Self assessment tools develop teachers’ sense of reflection Projects measure students’ ability to employ their language skills Profile charts sensitize teachers to the attainment target of each unit The elements used for judging portfolios (effort, organization, co-operation and initiative) are reliable The elements used for judging projects (effort, organization, co-operation and initiative) are reliable Students can measure their performance using self assessment Profile charts reflect students’ strengths and weaknesses Projects can demonstrate students’ learning Profile charts help teachers assess students’ mastery of individual tasks and provide concrete evidence of language items Projects are appropriate with language proficiency of students of this level Students’ social skills can be measured using profile charts

Mean 3.85 3.73

SD 0.97 0.95

3.67

1.04

3.61 3.60

0.90 1.04

3.55

0.98

3.55 3.51

0.96 1.03

3.45

0.90

3.39

1.06

3.37

1.06

3.35

1.09

3.31 3.31 3.21

1.10 1.14 1.02

3.16

1.09

3.15

1.02

Interestingly, teachers perceive the elements used for judging both portfolio and projects to be of moderate reliability. Overall, however, the vast majority of the participants consider alternative assessment tools used in grades 5-8 in Omani Basic Education schools to be adequate and moderately adequate. This is consistent with the findings of Al-Belushi

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(2002) who explored the adequacy of alternative assessment tools used in the first cycle, or grades 1-4, of Omani Basic Education schools. 5.1.2 Difficulties in using alternative assessment tools Teachers’ perceptions regarding all items about the difficulties they experience in using alternative assessment are displayed in Table 4. The table reveals that teachers perceive all items related to this questionnaire dimension to constitute serious difficulties. Mean values for these items range between 3.55 and 4.18 which indicates that using alternative assessment is not an easy process for EFL teachers in the Omani context. “Demanding” and “time consuming” head the list of difficulties featured in the table, with means of 4.18 and 4.17 respectively. This result is not surprising. It can be explained by the fact that teachers are overloaded with teaching and administrative duties and, therefore, do not have the necessary time for handling such assessments. This finding is consistent with the research by Al-Belushi (2002) in the Omani context. Another serious obstacle to using alternative assessment reported by participants is that students need extra guidance and support in completing their portfolios and projects. Another possible justification might be that students’ low levels of English proficiency lead them to become very dependent on their teachers. Item 22, regarding the subjectivity of profile charts, obtained the lowest mean of 3.55 which indicates that fewer teachers believed profile charts to be based on personal feelings. 5.1.3 Training and support The overall mean value of this questionnaire dimension is 3.62 which indicates that teachers consider the training and support they received in using alternative assessment to be adequate. Table 5 displays the data related to this dimension. Table 5 demonstrates that teachers agree that the initial and on-going training and support they received in alternative assessments were adequate. They also believe that pre-service training and support are very important. Interestingly, these findings oppose what Al-Belushi (2002), Al-Sarmi (2002) and Horton and Bowman (2002) found. In these studies, most of the participants expressed their need for training support in implementing alternative assessment. Presumably, given the recent emphasis on the use of these assessments in Omani Basic Education schools, teachers are well prepared and more confident and skillful than teachers in previous studies. However, teachers have become accustomed

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to this type of assessment because it is not new to them anymore. Another possible explanation for these findings is that teachers already have gained experience in employing alternative assessment tools from the first cycle í a fact which makes them feel secure when using them. Table 4: Teachers’ perception of difficulties in implementing alternative assessment No 20 19 29 30 31 32 27 21 23 24 28 26 25 22

Items Alternative assessments require a great deal of effort from teachers Alternative assessment tools are time consuming Students need extra guidance in completing their portfolios Students need extra support with their projects School learning resource centers cannot provide the required references for projects Students with limited English proficiency cannot carry out projects Students sometimes lose some parts of their portfolios Students do not take alternative assessment tools seriously Profile charts distract teachers’ attention from teaching to evaluation Students do not assess their progress objectively (they are influenced by personal feelings) Portfolio assessment cannot be applied to oral skills It is difficult for students to understand self assessment activities in English Self assessment activities do not provide a real estimate of what they assess Profile charts are subjective in nature (based on personal feeling or interpretation) and not objective

Mean 4.18

SD 0.92

4.17 4.09 3.93 3.89

0.82 0.95 1.13 1.18

3.87

0.98

3.86 3.80 3.74

1.01 1.07 1.05

3.73

0.96

3.72 3.71

1.11 1.12

3.62

1.07

3.55

0.99

Overall, results reported thus far suggest that, although teachers perceive training and support they received as adequate, they experience some barriers that hinder the adoption of alternative assessment in their classrooms. Difficulties in using alternative assessment are consistent with what was found by several other studies such as Culbertson and Yan (2003), Horton and Bowman (2004), and Wiggins (1990). Based on these findings, teaching and administrative loads and a lack of required time outside their teaching schedules to spend on these forms of assessment, are the most imposing challenges for teachers. This may also, due to the fact that students are not well prepared to handle such assessments and this, as a result, makes them depend more on their teachers.

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Table 5: Teachers’ perceptions regarding training and support No 35 36 37 39 38 40 34

Items Teachers need initial training workshops to use alternative assessment Teachers need on-going support and training to improve their use of these instruments In-service training workshops helped me to improve my skills in using alternative assessment Teachers have grown competent in using alternative assessment through experience My supervisor provides me with sufficient continuous support in carrying out this type of assessment Guidance given in teacher’s book about the implementation of alternative assessment is helpful I received sufficient training in using these assessment tools during my pre-service training

Mean 4.11

SD 0.91

3.98

1.00

3.69

1.04

3.58

0.97

3.50

1.05

3.23

1.10

3.20

1.30

5.2 Differences in Teachers’ Perceptions according to Background Factors 5.2.1 Gender To determine whether there were differences between male and female teachers’ perceptions of alternative assessment, a series of t-tests were performed. Table 6 summarizes the mean values of the dimensions according to gender. The table shows that there are statistically significant differences at the p < 0.05 level between the perceptions of male and female teachers in the questionnaire dimensions of adequacy, and training and support, whereas no significant differences were detected between male and female teachers’ perception with regard to difficulties in using alternative assessment.

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Table 6: Differences in teachers’ perceptions according to gender Dimension

Gender

Mean

SD

t

df

Sig.

Adequacy

Male Female Male Female Male Female

3.54 3.35 3.80 3.90 3.71 3.49

0.61 0.63 0.62 0.60 0.56 0.62

2.26

222

0.024

-1.29

222

0.200

2. 80

221

0.006

Difficulties Training and Support

Results reveal that male teachers feel that alternative assessment tools are adequate (M = 3.54) while female teachers view them as moderately adequate (M = 3.35). Male participants also view the training and support they received to be sufficient (M = 3.71), whereas female teachers view them as moderately sufficient (M = 3.49). A possible interpretation of these findings is that male teachers are not accustomed to this new approach of assessment because it was introduced in the second cycle of Basic Education only four years ago, whereas female teachers have been using these approaches in the first cycle of the Basic Education system since 1998/1999. Therefore, females’ expertise inspires their confidence to seek for a wider range of alternative assessment tools. This experience may also qualify them to be more aware of any possible limitations and deficiencies in this assessment than their male colleagues. Male teachers also reported that the training and support they received is sufficient. This could be explained by the fact that training and support is usually provided more frequently for teachers who are using any new approach for the first time. Yet, given the recent calls for reform in assessment, it is logical that more novice teachers would be better trained and, therefore, feel better prepared to use and develop alternative assessment. 5.2.2 Qualification To determine if there were differences in teachers’ perceptions on questionnaire dimensions due to qualification, one way ANOVAs were performed. As can be seen in Table 7, qualification (diploma, bachelor, and master degree) has no significant effect on the three dimensions of the questionnaire at a p < 0.05 level. This means that qualification has no influence on teachers’ perceptions in using alternative assessment and may be attributed to the fact that teachers of different qualifications teach the

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same syllabus, use the same alternative assessment tools, and work under uniform conditions. Table 7: Differences qualification

in

No

Dimension

Source

1

Adequacy

2

Difficulty

3

Training

Between groups Within groups Total Between groups Within groups Total Between groups Within groups Total

teachers’

perceptions

Sum of squares 2.48 86.65 89.13

df 4 219 223

1.60 83.77 85.37

4 219 223

1.40 78.83 80.24

4 218 222

Mean Square 0.621 0.396

according

to

F

Sig.

1.568

0.184

0.399 0.383

1.044

0.386

0.351 0.362

0.971

0.424

5.2.3 Years of teaching experience To examine the effect of teaching experience on participants’ perceptions, one way ANOVAs were employed. As shown in Table 8, the F-value for the training and support dimension is 4.50, and it is significant at the p < 0.01 level. Tukey post hoc comparisons were conducted to gain a clearer understanding of the nature of these differences between the three different years of teaching experience groups. As Table 8 shows, comparing the three years of teaching experience groups reveals that there are significant differences at the p < 0.05 level between the first and the third group. This indicates that most experienced teachers, those with 11 or more years of teaching experience, consider the training and support they received in alternative assessment to be sufficient. This finding can be justified by the fact that a teacher who has gained more experience is most likely more confident and apt to experiment with new types of assessment than teachers with less experience. This finding seems to be consistent with the finding of Bol,

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Stephenson and O’Connell (1988) who examined the influence of teaching experience on teachers’ alternative assessment practices and reported that teachers with the most experience felt more prepared than teachers with the least experience in developing and administrating both alternative and traditional methods of assessment. Table 8: Differences in teachers’ perceptions attributed to years of teaching experience No

Dimension

Source

1

Adequacy

2

Difficulty

3

Training

Between groups Within groups Total Between groups Within groups Total Between groups Within groups Total

Sum of squares 0.75 88.38 89.13

df

0.20 85.16 85.37

2 221 223

3.15 77.09 80.23

2 220 222

2 221 223

Mean Square 0.38 0.40

F

Sig.

0.94

0.39

0.10 0.39

0.26

0.77

1.58 0.35

4.50

0.01

Table 9: Post-hoc comparisons between the group on training and support No 1 2 3

Groups 1-5 6-10 11+

Mean 3.45 3.62 3.75

Groups 1-5

6-10

* * *

*

11+

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6. Conclusion This study sought to gain a more accurate understanding of EFL teachers’ perceptions of alternative assessment tools. Not surprisingly, alternative assessment tools were viewed by the majority of participants as adequate. Self-assessment activities and portfolios, for example, were perceived as adequate for providing a sense of reflection for both teachers and students. Thus, they prompt students to take more control of their learning. They are an integral part of instruction according to which teachers should adjust their instructional plans. It is appropriate to conclude that teachers in this study believed that a direct linkage between instruction and assessment would drive assessment for its potential in promoting learning. Interestingly, teachers found the training and support they received as moderately sufficient. Similar to previous research, this study revealed that teachers’ experience some challenges in administrating this method of assessment. The great administrative pressure and teaching loads that are placed on teachers may be the biggest challenges in the Omani context. Time is another barrier that may break the movement of alternative assessment. Teachers do not have the required time outside their teaching schedules to devote to their assessment. Students’ limited English proficiency may be another serious problem in carrying out projects. Twenty-five teachers reported in their comments that projects do not reflect their students’ efforts because they depend on someone else to do them. Male-female differences in teachers’ perceptions are significant in regards to the adequacy of alternative assessment and the sufficiency of training and support. Here, male participants reported higher means than female respondents. Given that alternative assessment is relatively new, one might expect that more experienced teachers would be in need of training and support. However, in this study, teachers with 11 years’ experience and more perceived training and support as moderately sufficient. This result was unexpected given that other researchers have found older teachers were less prepared and in need of training. It could be argued here that teachers have gained more confidence in using alternative assessment through experience. The findings of this study suggest a number of implications for teachers, assessment personnel in Basic Education, and other decision makers in the Omani government education system. Although alternative assessment plays a potential role in improving students’ learning, we should not ignore some difficult issues this new assessment method may

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pose. In other words, for alternative assessment to reach its full potential, we must look beyond its current popularity and address the constraints that may hinder its applications. Furthermore, we should admit that the road towards the appropriate use of alternative assessment tools in the Omani context is not fully paved. Like any changes in education, alternative assessment practices require a shift in the beliefs of teachers, students, and policy makers. Because these assessments are still novel in the Omani context, there are observable discontents among teachers. Teachers are also under time pressure to cover the syllabus and to carry out administrative duties. Convincing teachers to accept this burden as a natural consequence of this type of assessment is not a solution. The difficulties of using alternative assessment under these circumstances might be less threatening if more time and a greater scope are allowed for teachers to employ them in a better way. Therefore, it would be useful if the Ministry of Education does the following: (1) allows teachers to be more flexible in terms of the content of syllabus to be covered throughout the year; (2) gives teachers the required time outside of their teaching schedules for continuing follow up and feedback on their students’ work; (3) follows the implementation of this new assessment regularly and makes use of teachers’ feedback about it. Students should be trained in using self- and peer-assessment. They need to be exposed to more tasks that are based on reflecting on their work and that of others in their daily learning process. Students should also be provided with criteria that guide their judgments. School learning resources should be prepared to serve as the required materials for students’ project. In sum, teachers should be allowed to give up the burden of completing the required syllabus within a limited time thought the academic year. They need to shift from focusing on the portion to be covered and concentrate on what information and support they can provide for their students to promote their learning. Factors that may disrupt the planned schedule should be given more space. Individual attention should be given to the areas where students need more support. If teachers do not have time to support their students in coping with all the requirements of alternative assessment, weak students who do not want to be left behind will depend on someone else to complete their school work. The main aim of alternative assessment is to illustrate learners’ growth and progress over time and to promote their engagement in self-assessment and selfreflection. They also aim at promoting learners’ skills in goal setting regarding their learning. These are the most authentic skills learners need to develop to successfully manage in the real world. However, achieving

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these goals requires sufficient attention and time from both teachers and students. Time and effort should be allowed for training the student on how to cope with these assessments. Finally, teachers are partners in any process of educational reform or change. There should, therefore, be an opportunity for their voices to be heard. Educational leaders should promote ways of engaging teachers in decision making concerning new methods of teaching and assessment. Teachers’ feedback on comprehensive education reform should be valued.

References Al-Belushi, K. (2002). Teachers’ perceptions of alternative assessment tools used in the first cycle of Omani basic education schools. Unpublished masters’ thesis, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Sultanate of Oman. Al-Sarmi, Y. (2002). Portfolio assessment of pupils’ scientific abilities in Oman: Providing authentic assessment of pupils’ performance and improving communication between school and home. Unpublished master’s thesis, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK. Bol, L., Stephenson, P. L., & O’Connell, A. A. (1998). Influence of experience, grade, level, and subject area on teachers’ assessment practices. The Journal of Educational Research, 91(6), 323-330. Butler, P. (Ed.). (1997). Issues in alternative assessment: The Japanese Perspective. Nishinomiya, Japan: Language Centre. Corcoran, C.A., Dershimer, E. L., & Tichenor. M. S. (2004). A teacher guide to alternative assessment: Taking the first steps. The Clearing House, 77(5), 213-216. Culbertson, L. D., & Jalongo, M. R. (1999). But what’s wrong with letter grades? Responding to parents’ questions about alternative assessment. Childhood Education, 74(3), 130-135. Culbertson, L. D., & Yan, W. (2003). Alternative assessment: Primary grade literacy teachers’ knowledge and practice. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Chicago. Grace, C. (1992). The portfolio and its use: Developmentally appropriate assessment of young children. Retrieved from ERIC database. (ED351150). Herman, J. L., Aschbacher, P. R., & Winters, L. (1992). A practical guide to alternative assessment. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Department.

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Horton, C., & Bowman, B. T. (2002). Child assessment at the pre-primary level: Expert opinion and state trends. Retrieved from ERIC database. (ED479281). Huerta-Macias, A. (1995). Alternative assessment: Responses to commonly asked questions. TESOL Journal, 5(1), 8-11. Ioannou-Georgiou, S., & Pavlou, P. (2003). Assessing young learners. New York: Oxford University Press. Katz, L. G. (1997). Approaches to assessment of young children. Retrieved from ERIC database. (ED407172). Meisels, S. J. (1995). Performance assessment in early childhood education: The work sampling system. Retrieved from ERIC database. (ED382407). Mertler, C. A. (1998, October). Classroom assessment practices of Ohio teachers. Paper Presented at the meeting of the Mid-Western Educational Research Association, Chicago. Ministry of Education. (1998). Basic Education: Assessment, evaluation, evaluation, recording and reporting. Guidance for teachers. Muscat, Oman: Author. Ministry of Education. (2004). Assessment arrangements for English grades 5 until 10. Muscat, Oman: Author. Moorcroft, T. A., Desmarais, K. H., Hogan, K., & Berkowitz, A. R. (2000). Authentic assessment in the informal setting: How it can work for you. The Journal of Environmental Education, 31(3), 20-24. Mueller, J. (2005). Authentic assessment in the classroom and the library media centre. Library Media Connection, 23(7), 14-18. Neill, M. (2002). High-stakes testing flunks. The National Centre for Fair and Open Testing. Retrieved from http://www.fairtest.org/high-stakesUSA-Today-Op-ed Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory. (2001). Students assessment and testing. Retrieved from http://www.maec.org/educate/11.html O’Malley, J. M., & Valdez Pierce, L. (1996). Authentic assessment for English language learners: Practical approaches for teachers. New York: Addison-Wesley. Oxford, R. L. (1990). Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know. Boston: Heinle and Heinle. Payne, D. A. (2003). Applied educational assessment. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning. Smith, L. M., & South Carolina University Center for Excellence in the Assessment of Student Learning. (1993). Assessment of student learning in early childhood education. Paper presented at the Annual

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Meeting of the American Educational Research Associated, Atlanta, GA, April 12-16. Smolen, L., Newman, C., Wathen, T., & Lee, D. (1995). Developing students’ self-assessment strategies. TESOL Journal, 5(1), 22-27. Stiggins, R. (2004). New assessment beliefs for new school mission. Phi Delta Kappan, 86(1), 22-27. Tedick, D. J., & Klee, C.A. (1998). Alternative assessment in the language classroom. Retrieved from ERIC database. (ED433720). Wiggins, G. (1990). The case for authentic assessment. Retrieved from ERIC database. (ED328611).

CHAPTER TEN INTEGRATION OF LANGUAGE SKILLS AND CULTURE IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING: RATIONALE AND IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE EMIRA DERBEL BURAIMI UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, OMAN [email protected]

AND SHAKER ALI AL-MOHAMMADI BURAIMI UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, OMAN

Abstract This paper highlights the significance of integrating culture with the four language skills in English language teaching. It states that integrating language skills in ELT is one of the most efficient strategies to create a successful communicative class with a positive atmosphere for learners to use the language authentically. The integrated-skill approach that incorporates cultural aspects provides a solid foundation for initiating motivating activities that cover the four language skills, the culture of the target language, and students’ own cultural backgrounds. This study investigates the underlying motives and the effectiveness of applying the integrated-skill approach in teaching the four language skills compared to the traditional method of teaching language skills discretely. Based on data collected from two main sources í the actual practice of English language teaching at Buraimi University College (BUC) through ten class observations and semi-structured interviews with EFL teachers at BUC í this study demonstrates that language skills should not be considered as unrelated skills to be taught and learned in separate courses. It also

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explores the interrelation and the strong ties between the four language skills and culture in the context of ELT. Keywords: content-based instruction, culture, ELT/EFL, skills integration, task-based integration

1. Introduction In today’s post-modern era of highly sophisticated means of communications, with the revolutionary progress of mass communication technologies and the swift pace of globalization which has led to a compression of time and space, English language teaching and learning has spread in various areas of the world as English has affected different facets of human life to be a necessity for effective communications. Accordingly, experts, researchers, and scholars of English language teaching have been persistently examining the effective methodologies and strategies for equipping language learners with the required skills to use English efficiently and correctly in authentic contexts. Attaining this desirable aim has been a challenging task for teachers of English as a Foreign Language (EFL). The body of literature investigating approaches and strategies to improve EFT teaching and learning has been progressively evolving and there are constant debates about the most efficient techniques to teach the four language skills, namely reading, writing, listening, and speaking. In enabling students to acquire the necessary tools and skills to learn a second or foreign language, the role of teachers seems to be paramount and pivotal. The approaches, strategies and techniques adopted by language teachers will surely affect learners’ perceptions of foreign languages. Accordingly, investigating methodologies and classroom applications that work best for improving foreign language learning and teaching is an issue of great importance (Al-Mohammadi & Derbel, 2013). In this context, the current research investigates the rationale behind teaching the four language skills in an integrated way as opposed to the traditional method of teaching language skills disparately. It also aims at proposing a number of practical strategies for integrating the four language skills in ELT. There has been a rising realization among EFL experts and teachers that habitual classes which present programs based on disparate language skills are not effective anymore in training learners to use the language in authentic circumstances. It is widely advocated that the four language skills which have long been “treated somewhat in isolation, in fact have so much in common with each other, that it makes much more sense to treat

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them holistically” (Wray & Medwell, 1991). Thus, the four language skills are not considered isolated or separated any more. Language teachers following this approach endorse communication and language use in context and in real life situations through either integrating the four language skills or at least two of them. Integrating the four skills stresses the emphasis on communicative competence and realistic language (Jing, 2006). Nunan (1989) argues that the integration of skills is an important feature of language learning, which appeals to interaction, task continuity, real word focus, language and learning focus, and task outcomes. Yet, despite the various advantages of the integrated-skill approach for EFL learners and teachers, a huge number of EFL students are still facing serious challenges and difficulties in acquiring communicative competence. The obstacle that hinders the process of being autonomous learners with effective communication skills is the fact that the cultural variables of the foreign language are often disregarded in the actual practice of English language teaching by many language teachers. In reality, foreign language teaching exceeds the limits of training students to memorize vocabulary and grammatical rules. Additional areas of learning such as social, cultural and communication aspects, as well as critical thinking skills, should also be included in the classroom applications of ELT (Damen, 1997; Straub, 1999). Accordingly, being aware of this significant issue, the second part of this paper demonstrates the importance of integrating the cultural aspects of the target language with English language teaching in the integrated-skill approach.

2. Literature Review 2.1 Integrating Language Skills in ELT: Rationale It is frequently admitted that in consequential communication people utilize incorporated language skills rather than disparate skills. For example, when people start a conversation, they are normally required to listen, understand, and talk. Therefore, activities in EFL classes are expected to follow this process of incorporation. The integrated-skill approach introduces students to the genuine use of language in context and promotes natural interaction. In addition, it allows teachers to follow students’ progression in diverse skills simultaneously. Probably one of the most appropriate metaphors used to depict the process of English language teaching is that offered by Rebecca Oxford (2001) in which she contends that teaching EFL invokes the image of a tapestry. Similar to a tapestry being woven from many strands to finally

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come up with a strong and colorful piece, EFL teaching is made up of various strands that work together to achieve overall goals. These strands include the characteristics of the teacher, the learner, the setting, the relevant languages, and the students’ mother tongues. How to interweave these strands to reach the desired objectives is the big quest for ELT experts, scholars, and teachers. Given the fact that we do not use language skills independently in authentic communications, it has been advocated that they not be considered discretely in EFL classrooms. EFL teachers are advised to provide their students with genuine conditions which offer a suitable atmosphere for learners to concentrate on authentic language use that will develop their communicative competence (Mohan, 1986). Such a goal can be reached through the use of the integrated-skill approach with its focus on introducing students to authentic language use and natural interaction in classrooms as well as in genuine circumstances. Currently, the models for integrating skills in language teaching are numerous, but perhaps the two most widely used models are ContentBased Instruction (CBI) and Task-Based Instruction (TBI). CBI is defined as “the integration of particular content with language teaching aims, or as the concurrent teaching of academic subject matter and second language skills” (Brinton, Snow, & Wesche, 1989, p. 2). English language teaching following the premises of the CBI approach perceives the language as the medium to communicate content and information relevant to learners, rather than being the instant object of study. Nevertheless, it should be noted that there are instances in content-based courses when EFL teachers do not teach the content itself, but rather focus on some aspects of the language of that content. For instance, in a literature course, the teacher may not teach literature per se, but he/she might focus on how to analyze literary texts. Eskey (1997) argues that for each section of content, a discourse population exists to provide the text receivers and decoders with the ways to study and react to that content in oral and written forms. Accordingly, in CBI, the task for EFL teachers is to acculturate learners to definite discourse communities. Additionally, Genesee (1994) asserts that instruction that integrates language and content fall in line with the specificity of functional language. That is to say, learners can understand that meaning varies depending upon context, and hence approaches that focus on teaching the language within authentic contexts help students learn more effectively. Some debates were raised regarding the effectiveness of CBI at all levels of proficiency. Oxford (2001, p. 2) contends that CBI is really important at all levels of proficiency, despite the disparities in the nature

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of the content. For example, in beginner courses the content may include essential collective and interpersonal interaction skills, while at higher advanced levels the content can be gradually more academically-oriented. In this way, with CBI the integration of language skills can be performed very smoothly. This is achieved because CBI is aimed at developing the use-oriented foreign language skills and facilitating the learning of a definite content with related language use skills (Brinton et al., 1989). Following a CBI approach, students have the opportunity to get involved in a variety of activities that integrate all the language skills. Students are actively engaged in reading, discussing, commenting, problem solving, examining data, and writing assignments. Hence, they have the opportunity to use all the language skills genuinely in an integrated manner while simultaneously learning content from a variety of sources. TBI is the second integrated-skill approach offered here. It is characterized as an approach that emphasizes learning for the sake of communicating interactively in a foreign or second language while utilizing genuine course books for learning goals. It aims at developing students’ personal experiences and backgrounds, and concurrently connecting actual classroom learning applications with activating language in real life situations outside the classroom. Despite the linguistic nature of course goals, in TBI these goals revolve around students’ pragmatic language competence (Nunan, 1991, p. 279). Defining the term “task” as it is related to TBI is an area of some contention. Brown (2000, p. 83) indicates that a task is any structured language learning attempt having a definite objective, suitable content, a particular working procedure, and a variety of outcomes for learners undertaking the task. As a result, a task is not a particular type of teaching method for the reason that numerous methods might contain a task. For instance, a problem-solving task can comprise a grammatical clarification that is followed by the teacher’s queries, and afterward concluded by a consecutive turn-taking process. Generally, tasks have broader ends compared to techniques. Additionally, it should be made clear that TBI is not a methodology. It places tasks at the core of the teachers’ procedural center of attention where the learning procedure turns into a number of communicative tasks which are smoothly associated to meet curricular goals and outcomes. Similar to CBI, the aim of TBI expands beyond learning and practicing a language for its own sake to involve the contextual and social aspects of discourse for practical and authentic ends. In this way, TBI is distinguished for developing and sequencing communicative tasks. Because they are expected to identify what students intend to do with the acquired knowledge and skills and what the

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particular functions of the instructor and students are, EFL teachers are advised to consider numerous dimensions of tasks. Accordingly, teachers who are willing to apply TBI should be aware that the functional purposes for which language is used are of great importance and priority. Following this line of thought, EFL teachers can arrange their classrooms around realistic tasks that involve language learners in practical activities which will pave the way for real world practice. To sum it up, CBI and TBI are only two proponents of the integratedskill approach. This approach that aims for integrating all the four language skills has tremendous advantages for learners and teachers. These advantages stem from the integrated approach premises that enable learners to be introduced to genuine language use, to face the challenges of interacting naturally using the target language, and to perceive the complexities of using the English language for communicative purposes within authentic contexts. It is this rich combination that helps students expand their communication skills and communicative competence. Concerning EFL teachers, such approaches enable them to follow learners’ evolution in several skills simultaneously. Compared to segregating language forms and isolating skills, teachers who apply CBI or TBI can effectively enhance the learning of authentic content, which proves to be highly motivating for students of different levels, proficiencies, ages, and personal experiences and backgrounds.

2.2 Integrating Culture to the Four Language Skills The four language skills are indispensable constituents of EFL classes following the integrative way. Yet, is the integration of these four skills sufficient to enable students to become communicatively competent? That is to say, are the skills sufficient to allow learners to employ the language properly and naturally in authentic circumstances? Given that most EFL language classrooms aim at achieving learners’ communicative competence, EFL instruction is expected to pay attention to all language components: organization, pragmatic, strategic, and even psychomotor strategies (Bachman 1990, p. 87; Celce-Murcia, Dornyei, & Thurrell, 1995, p. 17). Brown (2000) indicates that communicative goals can be better attained through paying attention to “language use and not just usage, to fluency and not just accuracy” (p. 29), to genuine language use and contextualized situations, and to the learner’s ultimate necessity to practice the learned skills and knowledge in real world contexts and authentic situations. Accordingly, EFL teachers are advised to vigilantly decide on resources and course books that not only support integrating the four language skills,

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but also add to it the integration of cultural aspects which will eventually enhance students’ communicative competence. Damen (1997, p. 12) states that, initially, it should be remembered that language learning entails culture learning. In other words, whenever a language is being taught, a simultaneous teaching of cultural customs and aspects, ways of thinking, norms, and feelings is taking place (Brown, 2000, p. 25). In order to be triumphant EFL instructors, classrooms environment is to be expanded to include meaningful cultural learning. For Damen, culture learning can be considered as a fifth skill along with the four core language skills. Moreover, integrating culture learning about English-speaking people while teaching the four language skills in EFL classes can help expand students’ knowledge of situational language use. Since language is regarded as a social practice, culture is expected to become the center of language teaching where cultural awareness channels into language proficiency. Therefore, from a communicative framework perspective, EFL teaching “should integrate the four language skills within a context of meaningful cultural learning” (Kramsch, 1993, p. 8).

3. Methodology and Analysis 3.1 The Current Study This study has two main aims. First, it seeks to investigate the underlying motives and the effectiveness of applying the integrated-skill approach in teaching the four language skills compared to the traditional method of teaching language skills discretely. The study intends to suggest a number of practical strategies for integrating the four language skills in ELT based on the experience of language teachers at the Unit of Foundation Program (UFP) and the English Department of Buraimi University College (BUC), Oman. The second aim of this paper lies in highlighting the significance of the essential aspects of culture in foreign language communications and statements. It is this interrelation between the four skills of a foreign language and its cultural aspects that contributes to the importance of this study.

3.2 Research Questions This study seeks to address three main research questions:

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1. What are the motives of applying the integrated-skill approach in teaching the four language skills compared to the traditional method of teaching language skills discretely? 2. How does an awareness of the cultural aspects of the target language and its learners affect foreign language teaching? 3. How can EFL teachers incorporate the four language skills and culture in English language teaching?

3.3 Methodology and Data Collection The methodology used in conducting this research followed the premises of the communicative approach and the integrated-skill approach, namely TBI and CBI. The data for the study was collected from two main sources: the actual practice of English language teaching at BUC through ten classroom observations conducted by the two researchers, and semi-structured interviews with EFL teachers at the Unit of Foundation Program and BUC’s Department of English. The classroom observations were conducted by the two researchers who attended together ten class visits. Throughout all the ten visits, one investigator focused on the teacher and the other focused on the students. The ten visits covered all four language skills. The purpose of the class observations was to collect data regarding the strategies and techniques of foreign language teaching applied by a sample of BUC EFL teachers. The observations also aimed at looking at any cultural aspects integrated into the actual practice of ELT at BUC. The template of the classroom observation form is in Figure 1. Teacher’s Name & Code Course Name & Code Students’ Level First Investigator (Focus on Second Investigator (Focus on Teacher) Students) Skills integrated: 1 Students’ seats: Teacher’s instructions: 2 Students’ activities: Tasks carried out: 3 Students’ participation & motivation: Consideration of any cultural 4 Skills practice by students: aspects (explicit / implicit): Consideration of cultural aspects: 5 Students’ interactions: Investigator Comments: Investigator’s Comments Figure 1: Classroom observation form.

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In addition to classroom observations, interviews with a sample of BUC EFL teachers aimed at investigating their viewpoints regarding the integrated-skill approach in ELT. The investigators also sought to explore teacher participants’ opinions about incorporating the cultural aspects of the target language and the learners’ cultures in English language teaching. The guiding questions used in these semi-structured interviews were: 1. What do you think of skills integration in ELT? 2. How can you integrate two or more skills in your teaching? 3. How many nationalities are there in your class? 4. How can you cater for the different needs of your students who come from different backgrounds? 5. Have you met any difficulties related to cultural differences? 6. Do you think that culture has a place in ELT? 7. Do you take into consideration any cultural aspects of the target language in your teaching? 8. Do you take into consideration any cultural aspects of your students in your teaching? 9. What do you think of incorporating culture into ELT? 10. Do you have any practical suggestions to do that?

3.4 Participants A total number of ten teachers from BUC were selected for the interview stage of the research. Six were from the UFP and four were from the English Department. The researchers selected interviewees from different nationalities including Omani, Tunisian, Indian, Pakistani, Egyptian, and Sudanese in order to more accurately represent the research site’s teaching faculty. For the classroom observations, a total number of ten sections, or classes, with ten different teachers were observed. Every section included between 18 and 28 students. The students were from different levels ranging from beginner to advanced, and they were from different nationalities such as Omanis, Emiratis, Iraqis, and Syrians.

4. Findings The findings are presented in two parts. The first part deals with the observations of the ten classes from the UFP and English Department. In the second part, the investigators present the findings of the interviews with the ten EFL teachers at BUC.

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4.1 Findings of the Class Observations Based on the ten classroom visits conducted in the UFP and the English Department, the investigators noticed that the EFL teachers at BUC are applying various strategies to integrate the four language skills in their teaching but with different degrees of success. Whenever there was a greater amount of skills integration in language teaching, students were more likely to understand and to perform better in the productive skills, i.e. speaking and writing. In addition, it was noted during the observations that the integration took place throughout the three main lesson stages; that is to say the pre, while and post. Most of the warming up pre-activities aimed at stimulating the students’ prior knowledge about the major topic of reading or listening tasks. Those pre-activities were extremely supportive in raising learners’ awareness and motivating them for the forthcoming activities. Likewise, the investigators noticed that, during the while-stage, students integrated the existing prior information with the newly obtained knowledge. Students looked for replies to the inquiries and deductions which were raised previously during the pre-stage. Besides, students practiced other sub-skills such as skimming, scanning, paraphrasing, reordering information, constructing sentences, correcting mistakes, notetaking, summarizing and so on. At some point in the post-stage, students were encouraged to expand their comprehension through a range of tasks which contributed to the integration of skills during the previous two stages. An important finding of the classroom observation was that the cultural aspects of the foreign language being taught, and those of the students themselves, were, in many cases, not considered by teachers. In the majority of the classes observed, there were instances where students failed to reach the correct answers because there was a cultural barrier and a lack of cultural knowledge and not because students had problems with the language. For instance, this was the case where a group of advanced learners in a literature class failed to answer the teacher’s questions in spite of their high level of English. The reason for their failure was simply because they didn’t know what Westminster Bridge was. Another example was the inability of some students to produce an effective conversational situation at the end of a speaking class because they did not know what Halloween was. Another group of students were asked to comment on some pictures, but their performance was very weak because the visual cues used were of places like the Eifel Tower, Big Ben, London Eye, the Statue of Liberty, and a fort. Almost all the students avoided the first four pictures and opted for describing the fort because it was the only picture

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that represented an image associated with their cultural backgrounds. This was very revealing as it clearly showed that students had a cultural barrier that prevented them from successfully achieving this task and not a language barrier.

4.2 Findings of the Interviews All ten interviewees strongly advocated the advantages of the integrated-skill approach in English language teaching. They expressed a belief that the four language skills are naturally linked and, hence, their teaching should take into account this link. This viewpoint was found to be logical by the two investigators as it is actually the policy of the UFP and the English Department to encourage teachers to adopt an integrated-skill approach in their teaching practice. However, what was surprising for the two investigators was the fact that only three teachers out of the ten interviewees thought that an understanding of both the target language cultures and the cultures of the learners may be helpful in foreign language teaching. The remaining seven teachers argued that English language teaching does not necessarily require an understanding of cultural aspects. This opinion was not shared by three teachers who believed that foreign language teaching entails a close understanding of the cultural aspects of the target language together with that of the learners themselves. This understanding, these participants argued, will help create a suitable atmosphere for effective foreign language teaching and learning. In line with this viewpoint, the three teachers revealed that they had faced serious problems with the lack of their students’ cultural knowledge. One of the teachers at the English department mentioned that, after one full year of teaching listening, she discovered that the weak performance of her students was not due to their inability to listen to native speakers but was mainly due to their inability to recognize events related to cultural awareness such as Halloween, Christmas, the Cold War, Thanksgiving Day and so on. This testimony strongly emphasizes the importance of including culture teaching within the four language skills. Another teacher from the same department brought in the subject of the inefficiency of teaching English literature isolated from its cultural and historical context. She argued that whenever she taught a novel, a poem, a short story, or literary theories, her students always lacked something that could have enabled them to better understand the course. It was the cultural and even the historical contexts of those literary works. This

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lacuna, as she argues, always hinders the effective learning process and prevents students from fully grasping intended meanings. Additionally, it is not only the cultural aspects of the target language that should be integrated within language teaching. It is also very useful for EFL learners to reflect on their individual culture so that they can attain the necessary vocabulary to portray principles, customs, norms, lifestyles, cultural signs, and identity signs. Therefore, it is important for EFL learners to go through the mutual process of reflecting on their own culture and simultaneously discovering the cultural aspect of the target language which will result in a thorough understanding of language use and usage. As Straub (1999) argues, “behaviors are culturally prescribed norms intended to meet expectations or needs shared by the members of a culture” (p.1). In this way, what may seem to be commonly accepted, well-mannered behavior in one culture might not essentially be considered as appropriate manners in the culture of the target language.

5. Discussion 5.1 Integrating Culture into Language Skills Teaching As highlighted above, the four language skills are vital elements of integrated EFL classrooms. However, are they sufficient to assist language learners in becoming communicatively competent? Or, put another way, are the four language skills adequate to permit learners to utilize language properly in any situation? As offered above, Brown (2000, p. 29) claims that “communicative goals are best achieved by giving attention to language use and not just usage, to fluency and not just accuracy”, and to the learner’s need to use what they have learned in authentic situations. As asserted by Damen (1997), language learning implies culture learning. Accordingly, “whenever we teach a language, we are teaching a system of cultural customs, ways of thinking, feeling, and acting” (Brown, 2000, p. 25). To reach tangible results in EFL teaching, instructors are advised to make the classroom environment as open as possible to significant learning that incorporates cultural aspects. Damen continues, “culture learning, along with the four traditional skills, can be accorded its rightful place as a fifth skill, adding its particular dimension to each of the other four” (p. 13).

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5.2 Integrating Reading and Writing It is frequently advocated that the two skills of reading and writing are as closely connected as those of listening and speaking. Wray and Medwell (1991) refer to reading and writing as ‘literacy’ while ‘oracy’, according to the authors, refers to listening and speaking skills. According to Carson and Leki (1993), the two skills of reading and writing are interrelated and interactive. That is, meanings of texts are produced through both the writers’ and readers’ processes of interaction where texts create an interactive dialogue involving both readers and writers who are reciprocally affected. Krashen (1984, cited in Hirvela, 2004, p. 112) states that “it is reading that gives the writer the ‘feel’ for the look and texture”. The argument is that reading allows language learners to acquire what Hirvela describes as “the necessary structures and discourse rules for writing” (p. 112). Furthermore, it is necessary for learners to see and comprehend the different components and structures of the written language through reading tasks in order to acquire the means and mechanics to write effectively. The actual practice of EFL teachers at BUC suggests that starting with reading activities and then moving to writing tasks is practical and very useful for language learners to attain the essential terminology, language formation and composition, and the technicalities of effective English writing which will be practiced through writing tasks. To be precise, reading activities can be effectively utilized as a model for student writing where learners are expected to employ the knowledge and skills which have been learned throughout reading activities in their writing tasks. Additionally, it is worth noting that the tasks of writing in response to a text improve students’ intellectual skills as it stimulates them to connect what they read, comprehend, know, and think (Carr, 2002). In this way, the teaching of reading and writing in an integrative way can yield strong reading gains while also improving students’ writing skills (Graham & Perin, 2007). Based on the actual practice of EFL teachers at BUC, this incorporation takes place throughout three main lesson stages. Warming up pre-activities can help raise learners’ awareness and arouse their motivational levels and attention to the main reading activities. During the while-stage of the lesson, learners assimilate their existing prior information with the newly attained knowledge from the reading. Throughout this stage, students try to answer the questions and make deductions which have been raised previously in the warm up activities. In addition, students apply the essential sub-skills of reading, such as skimming and scanning, to reveal the meanings and ideas of the text. Accordingly, students do not only decode the writer’s intended

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meaning, but they can additionally encode the text with their individual thoughts. Finally, in the post-stage, learners are given the chance to expand their intellectual and comprehension skills through various tasks. Following the exploration of the main ideas and details of the text, students have the opportunity to search for specific information to be summarized in short paragraphs. In addition, they can employ the newly obtained terminology and mechanics of composition in paragraph writing. It should be noted that the integration of reading and writing does not suggest the exclusion of the other two skills í listening and speaking í nor does it propose disregarding culture. On the contrary, listening and speaking can be smoothly integrated especially in the pre-stage and the post-stage, while cultural aspects can be subsumed throughout the whole teaching process. This refined integration will certainly be beneficial for EFL learners to enhance their communicative competence.

5.3 Integrating Listening and Speaking It is thanks to reception that linguistic information is internalized and hence language is produced. The actual practice at BUC suggests that students of the English Department, as well as those of the Unit of Foundation Program, are likely to do more listening than speaking. No wonder, then, that the BUC students’ speaking abilities are below expectations and that is why EFL teachers at BUC have recently placed a concerted emphasis on listening and speaking courses. The first step was to integrate the listening and speaking skills in one course at the UFP. The second step was to give more attention to speaking skills in the listening courses at the English Department. The semi-structured interview participants expressed their encouragement for these two procedures. They emphasized that integrating listening and speaking is natural and their students are now performing much better than they were with the two skills being taught separately. Listening and speaking are major components of language teaching and learning. In fact, it is very common to think of speaking when we talk about foreign languages, hence the repeatedly asked question: “Do you speak English, French, Spanish or any other foreign language?” (Brown, 2000, p. 233). Nevertheless, this does not mean that listening, or the other two skills, should be neglected. Language teachers should always look for effective strategies to teach oral skills in an integrated way. For instance, the actual practice of EFL teachers at BUC suggests that students are facing problems with speaking because it is sometimes disregarded or

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given less focus compared to listening. Another obstacle faced by EFL students at BUC is that of the cultural barriers on two layers. The first one is related to the lack of knowledge about the cultural aspects of the target language. The barrier concerns the students’ own cultural backgrounds, as many of them find it difficult to speak freely and naturally in front of other students, especially when those students are of the opposite gender. This barrier is deeply rooted in the cultural and social norms of the students and it seriously hinders the learning process in terms of acquiring effective speaking skills. Faced with such obstacles, EFL teachers at BUC tried to find practical solutions that can be summarized in three main points. First, they decided to introduce some cultural aspects and background information within their listening and speaking courses. Second, they opted for listening topics that are familiar to their students. These listening tasks are always followed by speaking activities and group discussion. Third, they keep trying to establish a relaxing atmosphere that can encourage students to be positively engaged in class activities without being culturally offended. For these reasons, this study argues for an integrated-skill approach to English language teaching that caters for the cultural aspects of both the target language groups and the students themselves.

6. Conclusion To conclude, this study emphasized the significance of incorporating the four language skills with cultural aspects in English language teaching. It argued that integrating language skills is an effective approach to create a successful interactive class where students are encouraged by their teachers to utilize the language in a natural way. An integrated-skill approach that incorporates cultural aspects sets a positive atmosphere and a solid foundation for initiating tasks that create high motivational levels. Such types of classroom activities will involve the four language skills, the culture of the target language, and students’ own cultural backgrounds. This study aimed at demonstrating that language skills are not to be considered as distinct skills that can be learned through disparate language courses. Participants proved that the four language skills are inter-related, associated, and work better once they are mutually connected. Therefore, it is much better and more effective to teach them in an integrated way where all the skills inform each other smoothly. In this way, students’ needs, their cultural backgrounds, as well as the culture of the target language, are to be carefully considered in EFL classes. Based on authentic teaching practice at the research site, this study suggested some

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strategies for integrating the four language skills and incorporating the cultural aspects in English language teaching which will result in a better teaching and learning environment in Oman.

References Al-Mohammadi, S., & Derbel, E. (2013). The effects of embedding information technologies within ELT on EFL learners’ motivation and interest. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and English Literature, 3(1), 181-186. Bachman, L. (1990). Fundamental considerations in language testing. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Brinton, D., Snow, M., & Wesche, M. (1989). Content-based second language instruction. New York: Newbury House. Brown, D. (2000). Teaching by principles. New York: Pearson Longman. Carr, S. (2002). Assessing learning processes: Useful information for teachers and students. Intervention in School and Clinic, 37(3), 156162. Carson, J., & Leki, I. (Eds.) (1993). Reading in the composition classroom: Second language perspectives. Boston: Heinle and Heinle. Celce-Murcia, M., Dornyei, Z., & Thurrell, S. (1995). Communicative competence: A pedagogically motivated model with content specifications. Issues in Applied Linguistics, 6(2), 5-35. Damen, L. (1997). Culture learning: The fifth dimension in the language classroom. Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley. Eskey, D. E. (1997). Syllabus design in content-based instruction. In M. A. Snow & D. A. Brinton (Eds.), The content-based classroom: Perspectives on integrating language and content (pp. 132-141). White Plains, NY: Longman. Genesee, F. (1994). Integrating language and content: Lessons from immersion. Educational Practice Report 11. Santa Cruz, CA: National Center for Research on Cultural Diversity and Second Language Learning. Graham, S., & Perin, D. (2007). A meta-analysis of writing instruction for adolescent students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99, 445-476. Hirvela, A. (2004). Connecting reading and writing in second language writing instruction. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. Jing, W. (2006). Integrating skills for teaching EFL: Activity design for the communicative classroom. Sino-US English Teaching, 3(12). Retrieved from http://www.linguist.org.cn/doc/su200612/su20061201.pdf

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Kramsch, C. (1993). Context and culture in language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Mohan, B. (1986). Content-based language. Addison, MA: Wesley. Nunan, D. (1989). Designing tasks for the communicative classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. —. (1991). Language teaching methodology. Hertfordshire: Prentice Hall International.Oxford, R. (2001). Integrated skills in the ESL/EFL classroom. ESL Magazine, 6, 1. Straub, H. (1999). Designing a cross-cultural course in English. English Teaching Forum, 37(3), 2. Wray, D., & Medwell, J. (1991). Literacy and language in the primary years. London: Routledge.

CHAPTER ELEVEN TEACHERS’ VIEWS ON LEARNER AUTONOMY IN THE OMANI CONTEXT ALINA REBECCA CHIRCIU MAJAN COLLEGE (UNIVERSITY COLLEGE), OMAN, AND UNIVERSITY OF EXETER, UK [email protected]

Abstract Learner autonomy has long been a highly debated concept in the field of English Language Teaching (ELT). Although most ELT practitioners agree on its benefits, they share different views on what learner autonomy is and how it is manifested in the classroom. Like most ELT or TESOL concepts, it has fit the trend of “best practices” cloaked in an aura of neutrality and “how-to” methodologies. This study sought to problematize the fact that autonomy is a categorical concept by looking at the perspectives on autonomy of nine teachers coming from diverse cultural and educational backgrounds teaching on the Foundation Programme in a private higher education institution based in the Sultanate of Oman. The findings suggest that categorical, clear-cut, neutral definitions of learner autonomy have little applicability in the reality of the classroom. Keywords: learner autonomy, critical paradigm, teachers’ views, ELT

1. Introduction As EFL teachers, we have been constantly grappling with the idea of learner autonomy and what it entails as we have been on the lookout for the “holy grail” of methodology that would make our students responsible, effective learners. I do believe that in this constant quest we have all, at one point or another, been part of the native-speakerism crusade mentioned

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by Holliday (1997), through which we have fought to implement different methods and techniques in order to train our students to be better English learners. This is not in the least surprising considering the large amount of “how-to-do-it” literature for teachers, the numerous workshops on teacher training that promise, in the words of the famous Beatle Paul McCartney, a certain “hope of deliverance from the darkness” of ELT failure and the abundance of conferences where teachers and researchers share ideas about “best practices” í all defined by Holliday (2003, p. 421) as the dominant BANA discourse. Some of these “best ELT practices” focus on training students towards achieving learner autonomy through the emphasis on different types of autonomy and different general, or culturally appropriate, strategies to obtain or enhance autonomy in language learners. In this vein, this study seeks to problematize the fact that autonomy is a categorical concept (Oxford, 2003; Smith, 2003) which, having originated in Western thinking (Leathwood, 2006; Smith, 2003), cannot be applicable to Eastern or Middle Eastern contexts and therefore has to be trimmed or culturalised in order to fit pedagogical purposes (see Smith, 2003). It also attempts to uncover instances of Othering in teachers’ discourse on learner autonomy motivated by the cultural and professional background they come from. The study is thus looking at the perspectives on autonomy of nine teachers coming from diverse cultural and educational backgrounds teaching on the Foundation Programme in a private higher education institution based in the Sultanate of Oman. It endeavors to look at learner autonomy through a critical lens and with a “constant scepticism” (Pennycook, 2001, p.10). Participants were prompted to reflect on their views of what learner autonomy is and how it manifests itself, or how it is operationalized, in their particular contexts. The interviews conducted for this purpose explored the different conceptualizations teachers have regarding learner autonomy and its relationship to classroom learning. Starting from Hutchinson and Water’s (1984) contention that “education, is, by its very nature, a compromise between the individual and society” (cited in Holliday, 1994, p.175), and criticizing the view of autonomy as a strictly individualistic concept, an alternative possibility that gives the community a role in the development of autonomy is proposed.

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2. Literature Review 2.1 Learner Autonomy from the Teacher’s Perspective To the language teacher, learner autonomy represents the sum of a series of pedagogical goals that would lead to a transformation of the learner into a well-rounded person “who can take charge” of his/her learning (Holec, 1981, p. 3) and ultimately one’s life. Thus, learner autonomy is very often an educational outcome with very practical implications, i.e. students taking charge and doing work on their own and students being aware of their potential and their role in the learning process and acting accordingly. Kumaravadivelu (2001) calls this perspective “the narrow view” of learner autonomy, including learning strategies and learner training under this umbrella term. In the context of this research, I call this view a functionalist view (see Figure 1) representing the pedagogical goals mentioned above. Autonomy is thus viewed by the teacher as a means to an end: students need to be more autonomous in order to learn better and in order for them to be more autonomous they need to be trained better. This perspective is by no means minimalistic, as it brings into the picture a series of factors that can hamper autonomy and, hence, effective learning. Moreover, this view doesn’t presuppose the existence of autonomy in the learners, nor does it deny it. It most certainly acknowledges the need to develop it further, implying that, if autonomy does not exist, it naturally needs to be taught and respectively learned. However, this view can also lead to stereotyping and Othering (Palfreyman, 2005) in the sense of viewing students as the opposite of what they should be í an antithesis of the working model, different and trainable and, more often than not, different than any other students teachers have worked with in their native country. Thus, this functionalist view of autonomy is the result of a predominance of a professional and institutional discourse (Holliday, 1997) that has prompted teachers to expect and strive for certain desirable attitudes and behaviors on the part of the students. These are all trainable and are supported by a philosophy of efficiency, target-setting, and achievement which has become predominant in TESOL. This functionalist view is also part of a power discourse, under which the local knowledge of teachers is inhibited by “the desire to conform to naturalised categories” (Holliday, 1997, p. 420). An alternative view of learner autonomy is termed by Holliday (2003) as social autonomy, by Schmenk (2005, p. 84) “glocal autonomy”, and by Kumaravadivelu (2001) as the broad view of autonomy. I decided to call it the relativist view of learner autonomy as it involves a context-dependent

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perspective on what autonomy is and how it emerges. This kind of autonomy exists in different forms and shapes in learners and the teacher’s role in this case is to encourage it by raising the learners’ awareness of their potential and their role in their communities and societies. Kumaravadivelu also calls it a liberatory form of autonomy as it “empowers them to be critical thinkers in order to realize their human potential” (p. 141). I have to clarify from the beginning that, in the spirit but contrary to Holliday’s taxonomy, this relativist view is not synonymous with the cultural relativism in approach B that he speaks about, but rather defines relativism depending on the cultural, social, and even individual, context of the learner (approach C). Unlike Holliday, this paper intends to present the functionalist and relativist views of autonomy as extremities of a continuum along which teachers’ beliefs and views vacillate. This reflects the complexity of this intensely debated concept as well as the difficulties teachers face in seeing through their own professionalism when dealing with power and imposition discourses such as the one centered around English as a Medium of Instruction (Auerbach, 1993) or appropriate ELT methodology (Holliday, 1997). Teachers’ views are shaped by their professional context, by their cultural background, and also by their previous learning experience which leaves them be somewhere in-between. Failing to acknowledge this influence lends itself to another type of essentialist, prescriptive discourse which translates, in my view, into what Schmenk (2005) calls “a twofold culture blindness” (p.108) impeding the “glocalisation” of learner autonomy. It is therefore paramount to understand that teachers’ backgrounds and their priorities reflect the practicalities of day-to-day teaching, more often than not with limited resources and limited autonomy, and involve coping with their own perceptions of what learning should be and the ones shared by the learners themselves. Other times, their priorities will reflect their mission as educators for society, as liberators and seekers, thus reflecting an overall compromise between both functionalist and relativist ends of the continuum.

2.2 The Context of Autonomy in Oman: Between Culture and Culturism The field of TESOL is currently accommodating a large variety of perspectives, some more problematic than others. All these perspectives reflect in the pedagogical practices of the hour. In the Middle East, the preference for the communicative methodology is evidence of the classroom becoming “a global contact zone” (Singh & Doherty, 2004).

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The scene here is dominated by expatriate teachers that, willingly or unwillingly, promote a native-speakerist (Holliday, 2003), culturist discourse validating the necessity for preparatory foundation programmes in order to justify English as a Medium of Instruction policies. Thus, most teachers find themselves subsiding to the ideological power of the English only movement (Auerbach, 1993) as “authority and power are manifested by institutional practices around language use” (p. 11). These sort of “beneficial” institutionalized practices do not only pertain to language use, but also to the perceptions teachers have of their students. Functionalist x Autonomy is a achieved through training x Autonomy is individualistic x Students are not autonomous x Student-centered methodology is the key for developing it x Classroom as an oasis of unfettered, secular knowledge x Autonomy is a universal characteristic of an efficient student x Autonomy as a universally applicable concept x The existence of autonomy is culture dependent/some cultures would show more autonomy than others x Autonomy as extrinsic motivation

Relativist VARIOUS ELEMENTS OF BOTH VIEWS

x Context and individual variables affect the way autonomy manifests x Student participation in decision making x Methodology chosen depends on the students; what works for one class might now work for others x Classroom as an extension of the community x Awareness of the differences between smaller cultures and ethnic groups x EMI as a barrier in the way of autonomy x Students can achieve without being autonomous x Autonomy as intrinsic motivation

Figure 1: Functionalist and relativist views of autonomy

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While the majority of teachers have a fair understanding of the “linguistic and social culture” (Troudi, 2005, p.10) of their students, I am referring here to Holliday’s (1994) conception of large and small cultures in that some are more often than not unaware of their students’ “modes of learning and sociolinguistic patterns of communication” (Troudi, 2005, p.11). This is due to various degrees of cultural distance (Syed, 2003), which stem from the teachers’ cultural and professional backgrounds and which may result in various instances of Othering (Palfreyman, 2005). Other contributing factors are a heavy teaching load and very little autonomy when it comes to the decisions they can make with regards to the curriculum and the materials they use. Ultimately, expatriate teachers deal with situations that they would encounter in any other normal L2 learning environment, such as the students’ reluctance to speak, passivity in class, dependence on the teacher and so on, which they instead attribute to cultural traits as they tend to perceive their students through the lens of their language abilities (Kumaravadivelu, 2003). The context in which teachers’ perceptions are formed when dealing with the large Omani culture and the smaller institutional and classroom cultures is complex as the factors presented above all play a major role in shaping teachers’ perspectives of what autonomy is and how it becomes manifest in learners’ attitudes. Furthermore, it takes expatriate teachers some time to understand the complex cultural background of Omani society which reflects in group dynamics (Holliday, 1994), thus interposing another lens on their view of how autonomy should manifest. This intricate and complex pattern of mixed views can only be unveiled through an exploration, and consequent understanding, of the factors which impact upon them. However, this is beyond the scope of the present research. What this research attempts to achieve is the presentation of some of the complexities of teacher views in connection to their backgrounds, and, in doing so, expose a need for further dialogue and research into the complex “global zone” which is the classroom. Palfreyman’s (2003) study on learner autonomy representations echoes the aims presented above with the distinction that I see the functionalist and relativist representations not as conflicting discourses, but as complementary components of a larger TESOL discourse that dominates the scene and which is currently having a direct impact on ELT practice.

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3. Methodology 3.1 The Study The current research sought to address the following research questions: 1. Does the teachers’ background impact on their views of what student autonomy is and how it can be developed? 2. Does this translate into teachers’ preferences for student-centered pedagogy in the language classrooms? 3. How ready are teachers to question their teaching approach and see new possibilities for autonomy to become manifest? Considering the thrust of the research which is to problematize a stereotypical view of the nature and implementation of learner autonomy, the study is based on an interpretive framework which considers reality to be socially- and perspective-bound “through meanings that construct or are constructed by interactive human behaviour” (Usher, 1996, p. 18). The research instruments used consisted of a background open-ended questionnaire and interviews that provided rich qualitative data. The background questionnaire was an instrument intended to familiarize the researcher with the participants’ prior experience while also familiarizing participants with the context of the research project. The questionnaire also served as a starting point for the interview framework.

3.2 Context of the Study Foundation programmes were implemented in the Gulf region in order to prepare students in tertiary education for the challenges of their degree programmes which are taught exclusively through the medium of English. Foundation programmes across the region, however, experienced a cultural diversity, and in this case I am referring to Holliday’s concept of smaller cultures (Holliday, 1994). Although there was a standardization in terms of the skills included in the curriculum, this was not implemented in terms of materials or learning methodologies. Thus, foundation programme curricula vary considerably from one institution to another. According to the Oman Accreditation Authority (2008, p. 106), which is the regulatory body of the higher education institutions in Oman, the respective programmes are intended to:

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The Foundation Programme of the institution in which the research was carried out includes a number of core English Skills modules for Semester I and Semester II students. The curriculum for the respective modules includes study skills, grammar skills, academic reading and writing, as well as speaking and listening skills. The students joining this programme come from different parts of the country and different backgrounds. Some of them receive funding for their studies in the form of scholarships given by the Ministry of Higher Education, while some of them are self-funded, as is the case of most part-time, mature students that attend evening classes.

3.3 Participants The teachers on the Foundation Programme come from different backgrounds, either Omani graduates of different English majors, i.e. teacher education or literature, or expatriate teachers among which American native speakers, Eastern-European and Indian non-native speakers form the majority. The majority of teachers are either BA or MA graduates of English or related fields, which is reflected in the sample interviewed for this research. That is, there are four BA holders, four MA holders and one PhD holder. All these teachers had different levels of teaching experience in their native countries and in Oman, ranging from 1 year to 40 years of experience. They also have diverse religious and cultural backgrounds. In terms of gender, the sample included three males and six females thus reflecting the ratio of the population which is comprised of a majority of female teachers. The sample was thus selected based on two criteria: purposiveness and accessibility (Silverman, 2010). The researcher is a faculty member on the same Foundation Programme in the same institution. Therefore accessibility to the respondents played a major role in choosing the sample. At the same, it was endeavored to represent the diversity of the faculty members in the respective department by choosing respondents that would fit in either of the categories mentioned above. All participants were ensured of full anonymity and confidentiality of the data they provided, and they were required to read and sign an informed consent form which also made them aware of the right to withdraw from the study at any time they wished to do so. All the

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participants are referred to by their pseudonyms: Anna, Bethany, Carol, John, Roger, Isa, Nouha, Sharifa and Tania.

3.4 Method and Procedure As stated above, this research is an attempt to view autonomy as a problematic concept which has practical implications in specific contexts that are influenced by educators and learners alike. It follows from a similar project which explores a view of autonomy that incorporates individualism and interdependence (see Chirciu & Mishra, 2012). Data were collected within a three month period at different intervals accommodating the participants’ schedules and availability. All participants were asked to fill in the background questionnaire at least one week prior to their interview so as to give them insight into the research topic and provide the researcher with a starting point for the interview. In addition to eliciting information about participants’ gender, age, nationality, and religion, the questionnaire featured seven open-ended questions or requests. These were: 1. How long have you been an English speaker? 2. How long have you been teaching English in Oman? 3. Write a few lines about your cultural heritage. 4. Write a few impressions of Omani culture. Name a few aspects that you can relate to and a few aspects that are different from your own cultural background. 5. Write a few impressions of teaching Omani students. Please provide examples of interactions that you find relevant. 6. Write a few general characteristics of Omani female and male students. If you have taught students from other cultures, how are they different or similar from them? 7. In your opinion, which ELT method works best with Omani students: teacher-centered, student-centered or a mixture of both? Please name a few reasons. The interviews were semi-structured, starting from “a list of issues to be addressed and questions to be answered” (Denscombe, 2007, p. 153) but also allowing for flexibility in terms of the order of the questions addressed and development of ideas. The questions were clustered in categories or related themes whose focus overlapped at times as the questions were a tool for the in-depth exploration of participants’ views (see Appendix A). Eight of the interviews were audio-taped and fully

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transcribed, with one being recorded through note-taking at the informant’s wish. The interviews started with questions regarding the informants’ general view of autonomy as a concept and how it is reflected in practice, i.e. if the students displayed instances of autonomous learning and how were these different or similar from what they had experienced before. Following this, an alternative view of autonomy was proposed, namely one that problematized the general view and allowed for an emancipatory view in terms of allowing students to make their autonomy manifest by involving them in classroom decision making, i.e. tilting more to what I deemed a relativist view. The last two categories included questions regarding pedagogical approaches in order to promote autonomy, thus exploring the teachers’ preference for student-centered methodology as well as concluding views on autonomy and its role in the teachers’ and students’ learning. The interviews were fully transcribed and coded through a process of abstraction (Dey, 1993). In analyzing the data, the content analysis approach was used, allowing for a “flexible, iterative, and continuous” (Rubin & Rubin, 1995, p. 43) process of exploration where different categories and sub-themes emerged which were examined and presented in terms of their direct relevance to the research questions. The analysis process consisted of first splitting the data into categories “in search for greater resolution and detail” and splicing it “in search for greater integration and scope” (Dey, 1993, p. 147). As a result, the comparison and cross-tabulation of various data bits was made possible allowing for relationships of similarity and difference to emerge and enabling me to paint a picture of the phenomenon in question. I am well aware of the impact of my views and my cultural and professional background could have on the analysis of the data hence I tried to maintain a “critical self-reflective stance” while implementing “negative case sampling” where possible (Johnson & Christensen, 2010, p. 265). These two considerations increased my awareness and permitted me to provide a truthful account of the picture that revealed itself before me.

4. Findings and Discussion Keeping the research questions in mind, the data was analyzed and presented in three sections: the first one pertains to the teachers’ cultural and professional backgrounds and the way they perceive their students as different from themselves or the students in their own native countries in terms of autonomy in learning. The second section is very closely linked to the first and aims to look at the teachers’ preference for student-centered

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pedagogy and their reflection on alternatives keeping in mind the students’ needs. Finally, the last section is closely linked to the second one and examines the teachers’ views on ways of promoting autonomy in their students by extending it from the learning community to the society. The analysis is presented from the perspective of the functionalist/relativist continuum aiming to expose a range of complex views that vacillate between the two extremities, reaching at times a middle ground.

4.1 Teachers’ Backgrounds: Between Cultural Distance and Cultural Proximity Most of the teachers interviewed acknowledged facing major problems in defining the concept of autonomy in their present context, albeit some of them stated that their students were not autonomous at all at this stage. Roger, an American teacher, said that: It’s a difficult question because in a given week I would vacillate from one side to another. In a given week, I would be convinced that in preschool, grammar school, primary school, secondary school, the vast majority of Omanis behave in the same way, because that’s been reinforced through their family and culture then, when I do a little comparative analysis between two and a half years ago and today, I see a real difference in the actual level of English, it is improving... it is improving not nearly as much as it should but it’s noticeable.

Thus, Roger admits to have a pre-conceived, stereotyped view regarding Omanis but also says that the level of English has improved over time. Therefore, his views are in-between the functionalist and relativist ends of the continuum. On the other hand, Bethany, when asked if she considered her students to be autonomous, replied, “In my current situation, no. Hardly”. The other teachers admitted to the fact that there were degrees of autonomy or the percentage of autonomous students was very low. Thus, Tania said that: Ten per cent, yes, but again it’s not a very happy percentage to have because those 10 per cent of the students are the high achievers and they know their aim, they have their focus intact but still ninety per cent of them learn not for themselves but for something else or someone else.

However, some of the participants admitted that, even though the students did not have autonomy, they could be trained towards it as Anna, another teacher put it, “Maybe for the first semester they are, they depend

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completely on the teacher, but definitely in semester two we can give them more tasks which involve the students’ work”. The concept of learner training was pervasive throughout the discussions which tilted teacher perceptions towards a functionalist perspective as they portrayed the role of an educator to include student exposure to the outside world by helping them unlearn what they have known all their lives. Bethany stated that the way to make learners achieve autonomy is by: Weaning them away from the norm which is too much of dependency, encouraging them to think for themselves, having confidence in their own ability to achieve their objectives or their goals or their aims, making them realize that culture, language shouldn’t be a barrier for them to achieve what they want to achieve.

Her statement embodies the perception of cultural background acting as a barrier to academic achievement. This view is very similar to what Holliday (1997) presents as passive, inappropriate, undesirable behaviour due to a lack of participation in the classroom. Just like the discourse of participation, the discourse of autonomy stems from a culture of professionalism which reflects an increasingly goal- or learning-outcome dominated ELT field. Furthermore, culture í and here the term is synonymous with what Holliday (1994) calls national cultures í is seen as an obstacle to autonomy by being the antithesis of exposure. This led the non-Omani teachers to identify the lack of autonomy as being a cultural trait of Omani students, as John stated, “I think teaching here, coming from America and teaching in the Middle East, has made me think that it seems like it’s a cultural thing”. Interestingly enough, this view is shared by some Omani teachers as well which goes to show that ELT in Oman, just like many TESEP regions, has been affected by the BANA “proponents of the skill-based, discovery-oriented, collaborative approach which values the freedom it allows to the individual and the democracy it brings to the classroom” (Holliday, 1994, p.96). For example, Nouha said: From what I see, actually students don’t have that autonomy, they depend on the teacher and they like spoon-feeding, this is the attitude that unfortunately Omani students have and I don’t know about the others but I’m talking about my culture. They have these things, they wait for the lecturer to give them material and they wait for the guides from the teachers, they don’t depend on themselves. That’s why here we don’t have students’ autonomy.

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However, she further added that the manifestation of autonomous traits in students is dependent upon individual as well as family background: Maybe because of their background and because of the Omani tradition that they always depend on someone to do something for them and the basic thing is school, it’s the way they teach them, they make them depend on the teacher one hundred per cent and they don’t support them in being independent in learning. And it depends on the family, it depends on the way the parents raise their children and it depends also on the background of a person from where he is here in Oman, because every place and every region they have their own traditions and habits.

Roger, another teacher, said that people who become autonomous are even ostracized for diverting from the norm: Local people, here in Oman, you would have to ask how they would react to one of their sons not turning his back on family but always looking outward rather than looking inward. That would not go over well here and that would come across as almost an anathema, as a complete aberration to do that. And again to be clear I don’t mean turning back on family and communicating with family but asking questions, travelling outward, meeting different people, debating different ideas, questioning their own ideas. I think it’s extremely important.

In perceiving the other, in this case the students, as different, teachers not only emphasize a perceived cultural distance, an Othering phenomenon, but also display an allegiance to a professional academic discourse. All these instances of cultural distance are thus not necessarily based on a national, or the received view, of culture (Atkinson, 1999), but, as mentioned earlier, on a discourse of independent learner attributes. This discourse of independent learning has gained momentum in the ELT tradition as it served as a reason for the propagation of BANA discourses and methodologies (Holliday, 1997) as well as the implementation of selfaccess learning centers and platforms (Leathwood, 2006). Hence, “the belief that self-directed learning works to further the students’ liberatory interests is ideologically sedimented in adult education’s professional culture” (Brookfield, 1999, cited in Leathwood, 2006, p. 614). She further argues that SDL can prove repressive when used to justify the preference of the individualistic self over the co-operative and collective, and legitimize educational institution budget cuts through an imposition of self-access learning platforms. Although the TESOL discourse of efficiency mentioned above is pervasive in the ELT practice in Oman, some teachers are able to “tease out the discourses that dominate their profession and their own views”

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(Kubota, 2002, cited in Palfreyman, 2005, p. 214). Thus, they are able to identify the obstacles that students face in manifesting their autonomy such as a lack of confidence in their linguistic abilities as illustrated by Anna: See again here it depends on the subject also like I said for English if you teach English as a Foreign Language in this country, because of the lack of language they are restricted to go out to the public, to approach them, whether it’s interviews or to collect the information from others, there’s a barrier, they can’t proceed because of the language barrier… So this in a way prevents them from working independently they might ask the teachers’ support in doing that or they might approach their colleagues for certain things so I feel the language also acts as a barrier.

Furthermore, some of them are aware of the cultural diversity present in Oman and thus adopt a more relativist view with regard to the expectations that they have of their students, pointing out the need for an awareness of different learning styles that diverts from the group ideal (Holliday, 1994). Thus, Isa pointed out that: The students are coming from different regions to the college; they are not like from the same region so we have a different personality with people coming from the interior of Oman or the South of Oman. They are not sharing the same cultures and the same values, there are some differences between them so this might hinder the work here if we’re going to apply the cooperative learning environment but for individual work I think it would be like successful.

It is, however, important to mention the fact that the teachers that were able to differentiate between these TESOL discourses and their own views have either been teaching in Oman for a long time, as in Anna’s case, or are Omanis, as is Isa’s case. This brings into question the need for critical cultural knowledge (Troudi, 2005, p. 9) in order to disseminate the professional TESOL discourses from teachers’ beliefs and form a clear picture of learners’ needs. This proves all the more difficult as even critical discourses tend to fall in the trappings of a culturist approach (Smith, 2003). This is also apparent in the critical discourse on learner training (Rees-Miller, 1993), or on independent learning (Leathwood, 2006) where the awareness of cultural differences can lend itself to forms of Othering such as the West versus East discourse defined by Said (1977) in his seminal work “Orientalism”.

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4.2 A Pedagogy for Autonomy: Between Student-centered and Teacher-centered When considering pedagogy for autonomy from a critical perspective, the need to reach a middle ground becomes even more necessary as the obvious self-directed, autonomous learning discourse dominates ELT practice through a universally applicable student-centered, communicative pedagogy. The reaction to this has been to look for alternatives, which very often has meant coming up with opposing categories and dichotomies, i.e. “strong as opposed to weak” (Smith, 2003), which, in my view, leads to a culturist pedagogical approach as some methods are considered to be more applicable in “non-Western contexts than others” (Smith, 2003, p. 130). Reflecting the vacillating nature of their views, most teachers initially defined student-centered methodology as the best way to promote autonomy but, then, as the conversations progressed, the majority acknowledged that a mix of both student-centered and teacher-centered approaches depending on the situation and student needs was the most common practice. Tania even defined student-centered as including a fair degree of teacher involvement: Student-centered doesn’t mean that it takes the shift completely. Because the teacher always has the authority, the last word comes from a teacher; student-centered doesn’t mean that the teacher has no role into it. The griddle is in the teacher’s hand, the execution, the way of execution because she/he would estimate their students, he would gaze as to what they want and apply the methodologies in the class. Because even in student-centered learning the students look up to the teacher for the final word.

Anna further acknowledged that her methodological choices depend on her students’ needs: My priority first is my student so first I just asses the level of my students and depending on their level I have to plan whether I have to give them the same materials that I teach, whether I should grade my materials, the whole focus is on my students... Every lesson is a new lesson for me.

John spoke extensively about the need for student involvement in the classroom learning decision-making process, which would help him to better understand his students’ needs, thus evidencing a liberatory, relativist view:

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Chapter Eleven Because I need rapport with my students, for me to enjoy it I need to have good rapport with my students. If I come in and just dictate what’s going to go out, what’s going to happen in my classroom, then it’s going to be an animosity between the students and me which doesn’t make teaching enjoyable whatsoever... they’re the ones that are learning and they’re the ones that are trying to acquire a second language. It’s my native language so even though there’s certain practices that I think would help them develop their language ability they’re the ones that ultimately need to choose what’s best for them and in that case if I feel very strongly that my way is the right way, I won’t fully dismiss teaching it, I’ll still teach some of that but I’ll lean more toward what they’re requesting. Students aren’t the only ones learning in a classroom, the teacher also has to learn to be open to new ideas and new ways of doing things as well.

Carol gave a similar testimony, emphasizing the need for teachers to support their students and, at the same time, allow them to do things on their own: I spontaneously try to adapt myself to my students so I’m trying different things and what works that’s the direction I go. I don’t have any strict set of methods that I want to apply regardless of the place or culture I go. I’m quite open. I consider what I do as a kind of a service, I’m a service provider. I’m working for good results and good results are produced by the students not by me so I assist them to achieve what is required to be achieved or what I think is reasonable so I’m always trying to work with the students.

Isa, Nouha and Sharifa shared the same view stating that their choices with regard to methods and materials depend on their students’ needs and wants. The teachers’ confessed ability to adapt to their students’ needs in the form of either more support or more independence shows their readiness for reflection in terms of methodological choices and their having adapted to the post-method condition which we currently find ourselves in (Kumaravadivelu, 1994). This is all the more applicable in the case of autonomy where teachers believe that placing the onus on the student while providing teacher- or peer-support, where and when needed, is the way to go. A strict definition of the desirable pedagogy for autonomy is, therefore, highly problematic when considering the many contextual and individual differences in educational practices. Palfreyman (2003) illustrates this through his elephant metaphor implying the challenge of finding definite practical applications for such a slippery concept. The above argument was made all the more obvious in the present study when the participants were asked to talk about the skills they are trying to

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inculcate in their students in order to promote their autonomy. The teachers’ answers were as varied as their background and their individual teaching philosophies, ranging from instilling motivation, to incorporating technology, to helping them practice the four language skills, to developing their life skills first and foremost. For example, Tania emphasized the social responsibility of the educational institution: More than the course that we teach is the personal skills, social skills that we give along with our teachings because they come from a background where these things are more important because they don’t have anybody in the family to tell them that as well. So the classroom is an institution that guides them not just about their modules but about their whole lives.

This diversity of views goes to show the “developmental nature of methodology” (Holliday, 1994, p. 166) and the teachers’ ability to reflect on their existing context while involving students in the classroom decision-making process without being “unrealistically partisan and sitting in one camp or another” (Holliday, 1994, p. 167).

4.3 Embracing Alternatives for Learner Autonomy: Between the Individual and the Community The driving force behind this project has resided in my belief that the concept of learner autonomy should enter a developmental stage, through the exploration of new contexts in which it can manifest. Thus, autonomy cannot afford to be viewed in dichotomizing parameters, individualistic versus collective, Western versus Eastern, functionalist versus relativist, but, rather, in complementarity, in transition, in evolution, in different shapes and forms, ceasing to strive to be what it should be but be what it is, as it is, for different people in different places. In order for this to happen, a bigger picture needs to be presented, that of the true compromise between society and the individual inherent in the educational endeavor (Hutchinson & Waters, 1984, cited in Holliday, 1994). Thus, teachers’ views on the social community in the education process were sought, trying to establish whether teachers were ready to reflect on new teaching approaches by banking on learning and the social community as sources of support. Again their views ranged from voicing a lack of support on the part of the social community due to a lack of awareness or due to a very new education system, to ideas on how to bring community support in the learning process or on how to give a more social value to language learning. Some of them acknowledged that the classroom should be viewed as an extension to the community, considering that shared local

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knowledge is a vast resource that can be utilized in formal learning and that, ultimately, any form of learning reverberates in the society. Others felt that the classroom is a place for knowledge transfer, where students should exert the democratic right of communicating their unfettered opinions. Two teachers, John and Roger, despite coming from the same BANA territory (Holliday, 1994) and sharing the same larger culture, showed contrasting views. Roger expressed the view that: It shouldn’t be about bringing your own experience into the classroom to teach others because you are not a teacher. A student should come into the classroom and be ready to protect their views based on hard fact empirical evidence instead of what they’ve been taught and that’s clearly separating in some countries the culture from the classroom.

Whereas John argued that: If you don’t use the real world experiences if you don’t use the culture that people are involved with every day, I think there’ll be more resistance to learning. If I talk about Britain, Britain, Britain the students in Oman don’t care about Britain so why are they going to pay attention to the example that I give. The language especially with our students is alien, is not anything that they can relate to so you have to give them something familiar for them to compare it with or apply it to cause if you don’t give them examples that they can relate to and you don’t give them reasons to apply it outside the classroom, then, there’s no real reason to have the class in the first place.

Carol went a step further and defined this compromise as being a necessary one for the success of the educational endeavor: Everything happens in a context and the context is the culture. Classrooms are a space designed to transfer values and knowledge and everything, all these terms are very heavily culture related so that’s how cultural knowledge is transferred from one generation to another... I mean you are trying to educate responsible citizens that are integral part of that culture not out of space, international UFOs.

Tania gave concrete examples on how she banks on this community cultural knowledge to reach her students and diminish her cultural distance: Here comes the intelligence of a teacher, because as a teacher you don’t give up and you exploit what is available and keep on dreaming of a situation which is yet to come. Here these people like to talk about certain topics, they like to work in similar groups, these people they bond with each other, and it’s a group life so you can utilize that, like student peer-

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teaching. They would listen to someone in their group more than an expatriate. We can exploit their mythological training and religious training. Whenever there is a difficulty in the class to explain a topic to them, I often refer to their religious background, because they attach moral values to it. So you can exploit that. I think it’s very much possible especially on Foundation where still it is skill-based and the content modules haven’t come yet.

Similarly, some teachers view autonomy as individualistic and others view it as both individualistic and collaborative. For example, Carol said that, “I think cooperation and autonomy are complementary ideas. I don’t think that autonomy means loneliness and being isolated”. Bethany voiced the fact that some students learn better in collaboration as (individualistic) autonomy is not necessarily a pre-requisite for academic success: A student who is not autonomous can also excel, they can also do well. Maybe what I’ll say is perhaps an autonomous student, someone who is more autonomous will stand out as in achieve a lot more but it doesn’t mean that they’re not good students. There are some students that do better when they study in a group, maybe being in a group can help them think better in terms of bouncing off or sounding off their thoughts onto someone else who helps them to reflect. There are some students who can’t achieve much on their own but can achieve in a group because it helps bring out the best in them.

All the above statements serve to highlight the already existing developmental perspective on learner autonomy which does not deny the functionalist aspect of autonomy, i.e. a degree of learner responsibility or control over one’s own learning and which incorporates the relativist perspective, based on community support and interdependence, where successful learning can be achieved better in a group or with the teacher’s support than on one’s own. It is thus important to understand that these two dimensions of autonomy “take different values in different social, cultural, and historical contexts depending on the needs and the interests of the student groups” (Canagarajah, 1999, p. 107).

5. Final Thoughts This paper started out by problematizing the view that autonomy is a categorical, clear-cut relativist vs. functionalist concept and ended-up discovering that there is a creative, and not conflicting, tension between both views as the informants revealed their conceptualization of autonomy

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from both positions depending on their particular teaching contexts and on their students’ needs and wants. Palfreyman (2003, p. 193) defines this in a similar study where “learner autonomy is associated both with a liberating individual capacity and with responsible compliance with organizational requirements”. It looked at the influences of the teachers’ backgrounds on their views on learner autonomy and discovered that it is not only their cultural background that influences perceptions but also their exposure to professional TESOL discourse. Secondly, it unveiled that a pedagogy for autonomy defined in the literature through categorical “psychological, technical or political” (Benson & Voller, 1997) or dichotomizing “strong versus weak” categories (Smith, 2003) has little applicability in practical classroom situations as the teachers in the study admitted choosing the methods that best suited their students’ needs, preferring a mix of methods, or even denying any prescribed methodology, thus infirming the teacher-centered versus student-centered argument. Thirdly, the research showed that some teachers can read through the dominant TESOL discourse and develop an in-depth cultural knowledge, while others express a deeply functionalist attitude where learner training and exposure through education dominate the autonomy discourse. The majority of them, however, showed evidence of both functionalist and relativist arguments in their conceptualization of autonomy. Finally, I believe this research is important first of all due to a scarcity of similar studies in this particular sociocultural context and secondly because it reveals a problematic and, I believe, static learner autonomy discourse which has given way to certain stereotypes namely an individualistic and independence-related representation of autonomy in opposition with its socializing and culturally appropriate “other”. The data presented here showed that the teachers’ conceptualization of autonomy is in neither one of the above mentioned camps as, although it is undeniable that autonomy includes individual attributes, it is only in the community that these can become manifest and can be capitalized upon. I believe we, as TESOL practitioners, have thus entered a developmental stage of the concept where we have reached a middle ground allowing us to discover autonomy in very different ways, depending primarily on the needs and interests of our students balanced with our beliefs about the educational process. This raises a number of questions that need to be pursued even further: how can we reconcile independence with interdependence in a practical and meaningful way, and how do we capitalize on what we have learnt from the extensive research on learner autonomy without imposing a “how to do it” or “what should be” discourse?

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I think Roger’s final interview comments can leave us with an optimistic, but at the same time realistic, view on the future of learner autonomy: “The fact that we’re still having these conversations and pushing it and pushing it regardless of whether or not we’ll hit a wall is a very good thing. For all the complaining you hear in any field or job the most important thing is that it’s moving in the right direction...”

References Atkinson, D. (1999). TESOL and culture. TESOL Quarterly, 33(4), 625654. Auerbach, R. (1993). Reexamining English only in the ESL Classroom. TESOL Quarterly, 27(1), 9-32. Benson, P. and Voller, P. (1997). Introduction: Autonomy and independence in language learning. In P. Benson & P. Voller (Eds.), Autonomy and independence in language learning (pp. 1-12). London: Longman. Canagarajah, A. (1999). Resisting linguistic imperialism in English teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Chirciu, A., & Mishra, T. (2012). Teach me if you can: Omani foundation students and the story of autonomy. In V. Tutzlokova & S. Al-Busaidi (Eds.), General foundation programmes in higher education in the Sultanate of Oman (p. 157-167). Muscat: Mazoon Press & Publishing. Denscombe, M. (2007). Good research guide. Buckingam: Open University Press. Dey, I. (1993). Qualitative data analysis. London: Routledge. Holec, H. (1981). Autonomy and foreign language learning. Oxford: Pergamon. Holliday, A. (1994). Appropriate methodology and social context. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. —. (1997). The politics of participation in international English language education. System, 25(3), 409-423. —. (2003). Social autonomy: Addressing the dangers of culturism in TESOL. In R. Smith & D. Palfreyman (Eds.), Learner autonomy across cultures. Language education perspectives (pp. 110-126). London: Palgrave Macmillan. Johnson, B., & Christensen, L. B. (2010). Educational research: Quantitative, qualitative and mixed approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Kumaradivelu, B. (1994). The postmethod condition: (E)merging strategies for second/foreign language. TESOL Quarterly, 28(1), 2748.

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—. (2001). Beyond methods: Macro-strategies for language teaching. New Haven: Yale University Press. —. (2003). Problematizing cultural stereotypes in TESOL. TESOL Quarterly, 37(4), 709-719. Leathwood, C. (2006). Gender, equity and the discourse of independent learning in higher education. Higher Education, 52(4), 611-633. Oman Academic Accreditation Authority. (2008). The Oman academic standards for general foundation programs. Muscat: Author. Oxford, R. (2003). Toward a more systematic model of L2 learner autonomy. In R. Smith & D. Palfreyman (Eds.), Learner autonomy across cultures: Language education perspectives (pp. 74-91). London: Palgrave-Macmillan. Palfreyman, D. (2003). The representation of learner autonomy and learner independence in organisational culture. In R. Smith & D. Palfreyman (Eds.), Learner autonomy across cultures: Language education perspective (pp. 183-200). London: Palgrave MacMillan. —. (2005). Othering in an English language programme. TESOL Quarterly, 39(2), 211-233. Pennycook, A. (2001). Critical applied linguistics. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Rees-Miller, J. (1993). A critical appraisal of learner training: Theoretical bases and teaching implications. TESOL Quarterly, 27(4), 679-689. Rubin, H., & Rubin, I. (1995). Qualitative interviewing: The art of hearing data. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Said, E. (1977). Orientalism. London: Penguin. Schmenk, B. (2005). Globalising learner autonomy. TESOL Quarterly, 39(1), 107-118. Singh, P., & Doherty, C. (2004). Global flows and pedagogic dilemmas: Teaching in the global university contact zone. TESOL Quarterly, 38(1), 9-42. Sliverman, D. (2010). Doing qualitative research (3rd ed.). London: Sage. Smith, R. (2003). Pedagogy for autonomy as (becoming-) appropriate methodology. In R. Smith & D. Palfreyman (Eds.), Autonomy across cultures: Language education perspectives (pp. 129-146). London: Palgrave McMillan. Syed, Z. (2003). The sociocultural context of English language teaching in the Gulf. TESOL Quarterly, 37(2), 337-341. Troudi, S. (2005). Critical content and cultural knowledge for TESOL teachers. Teacher Development, 9(1), 115-129.

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Usher, R. (1996). A critique of the neglected epistemological assumptions of educational research. In D. Scott & R. Usher (Eds.), Understanding educational research (pp. 9-33). Florence, NY: Routledge.

Appendix A: Interview Framework Views of autonomy as a concept: What is your view of student autonomy? What does it mean to you as a teacher? Do you believe autonomy to be culture-free, a universally applicable concept, i.e. your idea of autonomy- is it really applicable to the Omani context and students? Views of autonomy in practice, students’ autonomy: Do you consider your students to be autonomous? How are the students in your country manifesting their autonomy? Comparing with your own experience as a student, how do you view your students? Is autonomy a universal feature of a good student? Do you think your view of autonomy is compatible with the Omani Foundation students’ culture? An alternative view of autonomy: Do you see any connection between autonomy and society? In the Omani context, do you find that there is any tension between autonomy and society? In this context, what are your priorities when it comes to teaching? Problematizing autonomy – autonomy as an individualistic or collective concept: Do you find your job as a teacher is more demanding because of your students’ lack of autonomy? Do you think students’ lack of autonomy is a cultural trait? Have you ever reflected on the possible differences between their views on how their learning should take place (methodology-wise) and your view on methodology? Did you ever involve your students in your decisions about the methods chosen to teach them? Do you think autonomy is based on social responsibility and interdependence or based on self-determination?

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In your view are your students aware of their role in the learning process? Do you see autonomy as an individualistic trait or a collective one? Do you think the classroom is an extension of the community in which the students live or do you see it a separate entity? Pedagogy for autonomy: Do you find that student-centered methodology can promote autonomy in our students? What do you think is the best methodology to teach our students? What kind of skills are you trying to inculcate in order to develop autonomous students?

CHAPTER TWELVE LOOKING THROUGH THE CRYSTAL BALL: EXPLORING LEARNER AUTONOMY WITHIN THE CLASSROOM DYNAMIC INTERRELATIONAL SPACE ALINA REBECCA CHIRCIU MAJAN COLLEGE (UNIVERSITY COLLEGE), OMAN, AND UNIVERSITY OF EXETER, UK [email protected]

AND TULIKA MISHRA MAJAN COLLEGE (UNIVERSITY COLLEGE), OMAN

Abstract Learner autonomy has more often than not been looked at from a unilateral perspective í either that of the learner or, as in most cases, that of the teacher. As this concept has been frequently associated with selfaccess or self-directedness, it has rarely been explored from the standpoint of the classroom as a dynamic interrelational space. This study examines the concepts related to teachers’ views on learner autonomy, learnercenteredness and its relationship to learner autonomy, as well as the teacher-learner relationship in the context of learner autonomy. It consisted of observations of classroom dynamics of five English classes at the pre-university level at a private institution in the Sultanate of Oman. The findings showed the relationship between learner autonomy and teacher autonomy in the dynamic interrelational space is not as straightforward as it may seem and the multiple factors that contribute to its development still remain to be explored. However, the study helped illuminate some of the factors that contribute to a successful teacherlearner relationship, such as rapport and constant teacher reflection.

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Keywords: learner autonomy, dynamic interrelational space, teacherlearner relationship, classroom observation

1. Introduction Most research on learner autonomy has thus far embraced a unilateral perspective, looking at either the position of the learner or that of the teacher (Illés, 2012; Smith, 2008; Zohrabi, 2011). However, our experience has shown that a unilateral view does not represent the complex reality of the everyday language learning classroom, hence the current study on learner autonomy has sprung from the realization that teachers’ views on learner autonomy, and the way they implement their principles towards the exploitation and the development of autonomy in their learners, come to life in the dynamic space called the classroom. The teacher-learner relationship within the dynamic space of the classroom thus becomes primordial to the possibilities that unfold for autonomy to become manifest. In this context, concepts of interelationality, classroom interaction, and power exertion or power restraint, represent important ingredients to the teacher-learner relationship formation, but how these ingredients blend or stand out in the whole classroom learning experience, and how they fit in the learner autonomy puzzle, are questions that need to be explored. These questions prompted us to refer to La Ganza’s (2008) concept of dynamic interrelational space in the psychosocial context of the teacher-learner relationship. Hence, the focus of this study is: how teachers’ views on their own autonomy, as well as that of their learners’ autonomy, are manifest in the classroom; if, and how, these views materialize in a preference for learner-centered tasks; and the amount of teacher control or teacher restraint involved in the respective tasks.

1.1 Study Outline The study is structured in two major parts. The first one examines the concepts related to teachers’ views on learner autonomy, learnercenteredness and its relationship to learner autonomy, as well as the teacher-learner relationship in the context of learner autonomy. The second part of the study examines these three concepts in the teachers’ views and in their teaching practice, i.e. within the scope of classroom interaction by looking at data from multiple sources, namely classroom observations, classroom discourse, and teacher interviews. The description of the research design of the present study is provided in the second part

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with comprehensive sections on the research context, participants, methods, and procedures and findings. Following the principles of thematic analysis, the findings were presented within three major themes that mirror the three major concepts in the reader guidance/literature review: teacher autonomy impacting learner autonomy, re-thinking learner-centeredness, teacher beliefs in inter-action. The study ends with concluding thoughts on the limitations and challenges faced, but also the goals achieved by providing a short summary of the findings and suggestions for further research in the area.

2. Literature Review 2.1 Teachers’ Views on Learner Autonomy and the Factors that Influence Them Talking about learner autonomy invites a desire to clean up, to create order in a quagmire of concepts and definitions. In fact, this quest for order prompted Oxford (2003) to present a more systematic view of the concept which identified four perspectives: -The technical perspective which focused on the physical situation of the learner -The psychological perspective focused on the characteristics of the learner -The socio-cultural perspective with a focus on mediated learning and the specific social and cultural settings in which the learning takes place -The political-critical perspective with a focus on ideologies, access, and power structures All these categories are good at cleaning up the messy picture of the learner autonomy concept, however, we do not believe that they reflect the learner’s or teacher’s reality. A study undertaken by the first author at a higher education institution in Oman showed that the majority of language lecturers teaching on a preparatory/foundation English programme adhered to a technical and psychological perspective defined as a functionalist, learner-training oriented conceptualization of learner autonomy (Chirciu, in press). In their view, learner autonomy is not something inherent to the learner’s persona, but something that takes time and training to achieve. This view of autonomy comes essentially from an academic-professional culture that has propagated from the British-Australasian-North American territory (henceforth BANA) to the tertiary, secondary, primary state

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education regions (TESEP) by way of a massive export of curriculum, teaching pedagogies, and English Language Teaching (ELT) practitioners also known as “native speakers” (Chirciu, in press; Holliday, 1997). Teachers’ views are also influenced by the beliefs they hold regarding teaching and learning which, oftentimes, stem largely from a professional discourse imposed on them by the very nature of the TESOL profession which has so long been dominated by native-speakerism, the English only classroom, or the English only policy, but also by the established practices within the educational institutions in which they operate. This being said, a study by Shi and Cummings (1994) showed that teachers who were experienced and even educated at the same institution held different beliefs about teaching and learning. Teachers’ beliefs about autonomy can also be sourced by the teachers’ past experiences as learners (Richards & Lockhart, 1994, cited in Farrel, 2007). A previous study on teachers’ views on learner autonomy corroborates this claim as some of the teachers interviewed identified themselves as having been very different students from the ones they were teaching in terms of independence and motivation to learn. Teacher beliefs about teaching are also influenced by their experience of what works best for their classes (Richards & Lockhart, 1994, cited in Farrel, 2007). During the interviews for the above mentioned study, teachers admitted resorting to the strategies that worked best for their students, also naming strategies that would not work for some of them such as collaborative tasks, for example. To this picture we have to add individual personality factors, as well as education or research-based principles, and ideas about methods. This aspect was evident during the first author’s previous study where the majority of teachers suggested that a mix of methods is the best way to go and that there has to be a blend of teacher-centered and student-centered learning in the classroom (Chirciu, in press). However, most of them adhered to the humanistic ideal promoted by the “learner-centered curriculum”, stating that this was the best approach to encourage the development of learner autonomy in their students. All the above considered, teacher beliefs oftentimes do not necessarily reflect their choice of pedagogical practices (Tragrant, 1996) and this, in fact, is one of the areas this study looks at, as we believe that teacher/educator beliefs about learners’ autonomy impact upon the way they allow the learner autonomy to become manifest in the classroom. In return, the teachers’ own perceived autonomy impacts on the freedom with which they can function in a prescribed syllabus situation and on the possibilities they envisage for pedagogy for autonomy to happen.

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2.2 Learner Autonomy and the Learner-centered Classroom The student-centered classroom has long represented the embodiment of a democratic ideal based on the “understanding that language learning is owned by the student” (Holliday, 2005, p.63). This meant that the focus had to shift from the teacher to the student, from the transmission of knowledge to that of skills with an emphasis on student needs and individual learning styles as well as group work. Learner-centeredness is thus based on the belief that “learners are self-directed, responsible decision-makers” (Richards, 2005, p.23). The ELT literature in the field of autonomy, therefore, promoted the need for individualized learning through student-centered approaches which, in turn, contributed to teacher beliefs about their benefits in the area of learner autonomy. As laudable an ideal as this may be, it has been deemed to lead to a deindividualization of the learner through the promotion of a prescriptive, “technologized discourse” (Fairclough, 1995, cited in Holliday, 2005, p. 68). This often has to do with TESOL practitioners’ preferences for group work and their measuring the success of the classes based on participation (Holliday, 1997). In our experience, most teachers or supervisors tend to base their performance evaluations when peer-reviewing classes on these criteria. As a result, teachers end up using group-work activities even though the actual task pertains to individual work. Learner centeredness represents in the current English language teaching arena a paradox in the sense that it is based on a humanistic ideal but, in the strive for a standardization and internationalizing of the ELT domain, it has, in fact, dehumanized the learner through a globalizing discourse as part of “an integrationist, skills-oriented educational paradigm” (Holliday, 1994, cited in Holliday, 1997, p. 410). Another reason for the teachers’ great belief in this approach is the heavy commercialization of the education system and the pressure to attain certain key performance indicators stated by the quality assurance systems in the institutions they belong to. In the present TESOL work culture, educators have become much more accountable to their stakeholders í heads of departments, executive boards, funding bodies, and the students themselves í in their role of consumers of education. All these factors have a direct impact on the teachers’ perceived sense of autonomy in the classroom which is directly related to “perception that teachers have regarding whether they control themselves and their work environment” (Pearson & Hall, 1993, cited in Pearson & Moomaw, 2005).

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2.3 Learner Autonomy and the Teacher-Learner Relationship In the present day, predominantly student-centered, language learning classroom, the importance of teacher-student communication and relationship-building becomes evident. However, most writing on learner autonomy has neglected this aspect by sticking to an over theorization of the concept (Oxford, 2003) and by placing very little emphasis on the classroom dynamics and the teacher-learner relationship (Holliday, 1994; Schmenk, 2005). La Ganza’s (2008) theory of learner autonomy gives us a more holistic perspective, taking into account the teacher-learner relationship in the classroom dynamics. He conceptualizes learner autonomy as an “interrelational construct, whose realization depends as much on the capacities of the teacher as on the capacities of the learner” (p. 65). This form of autonomy does not become manifest in the classroom at times as it is often inhibited due to a series of factors deriving mostly from the relationships learners form with their teachers and their peers. Thus, it is up to both teachers and learners to work towards a relationship that allows learner autonomy to manifest in order to achieve specific learning goals. Interrelationality in the classroom is based on a constant interplay between the will for power and the will to empower from the part of the teacher, as well as the will to be empowered and to claim power from the part of the learner. Or, as La Ganza (p. 66) states: As the learner initiates and progresses a piece of work, learner autonomy depends upon the capacity of both the teacher and the learner to develop and maintain an interrelational climate characterized by the teacher’s holding back from influencing the learner, and the learner’s holding back from seeking the teacher’s influence. Apart from developing a capacity for restraint, the learner must develop a capacity for persistence in using resources and using the teacher as a resource, and the teacher must develop a capacity for communicating to the learner that he or she is concerned for the learner’s educative well-being during the learning process: that he or she has the learner “in mind”.

In La Ganza’s (2008) view, the ideal conditions for learner autonomy to become manifest involve what he calls “the Q3 climate and Q3 capacity” (p. 67) where both the learner and the teacher are “in the cognitive-affective phases of restraint” (p. 68). Restraint here depends upon the capacity of the teacher and the learner to develop and maintain an interrelational climate characterized by the teacher holding back from influencing the learner, and the learner holding back from seeking the teacher’s influence. However, a climate of restraint can lead to a break-

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down in communication between the teacher and the learner, reaching a “critical in the mind boundary”, which can be prevented through what La Ganza calls “in the mind teaching” (p. 68). The teacher thus tries to hold the context together by communicating to the learner, either in an overt or implicit manner, that he/she has the learner’s educative well-being in mind and he/she represents “a perceptive source with, with the leaner’s work in mind, a participant-observer in the learning process, supportive of learner’s individuality” (p. 71). La Ganza’s (2008) theory gives prime importance to the classroom dynamics and the teacher-learner relationship. However, he places more emphasis on teacher and learner actions, and does not necessarily focus on verbal communication, i.e. teacher-learner talk. We believe that this dimension is crucial in the dynamics of the teacher-learner relationship as teacher-learner talk, or the absence of it, can give further insights into the amount of restraint exercised by both teachers and learners. Thus, while exploratory talk can count as a form of teaching in the mind, final draft talk can represent an evidence of teachers’ reclaiming power and being unable to exercise restraint (Barnes, 1976, cited in Farrell, 2007). This can become more evident during questions, which are the ultimate tool for the teacher’s evaluation of student learning. The present study takes into account instances of teacher-student talk and their meaningfulness in terms of the teacher’s and learners’ ability to exercise restraint. The ability of the teacher to engage in teaching in the mind and restraint is influenced, as mentioned earlier, by the teacher’s beliefs about teaching and learning and by their understanding of the socio-cultural context in which they operate. This understanding will allow teachers to develop an awareness of the social worlds the students bring to the classroom and, consequently, engage in self-reflection. The teacher’s ability to understand the factors that influence their teaching philosophy is fundamental to their conceptualization of their own relationship with the learner. Thus, the present study intends to probe the teacher’s conceptions about teaching-learning and learner autonomy and their ability to reflect on, and challenge, them.

3. Methodology 3.1 The Study Taking into account the criteria mentioned above, the study addresses the following questions:

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1. What are the teachers’ views on their own autonomy and the factors that influence it? How does their autonomy impact that of their learners? 2. How do the teachers’ beliefs about student-centered learning as a vehicle for autonomy impact on the amount of restraint they exert in the classroom? 3. How ready are teachers to question their approach, and reflect on the amount of control or restraint they exert, in the classroom? The study explores “meanings that construct or are constructed by interactive human behaviour” (Usher, 1996, p. 18) while challenging the teachers’ beliefs about teaching and learning and paving the way for change in the conceptualization of learner autonomy through teacher reflection and pedagogical action. This study also unpicks the mainstream literature discourse on learner autonomy and explores new and emerging views of learner autonomy as an integral part of classroom practice and the teacher-learner interaction.

3.2 Context of the Study The research was conducted at a private higher institution in the Sultanate of Oman and involved teachers and students from a postsecondary, pre-university, programme widely known in the region as the foundation programme. The purpose of this programme is to prepare students in tertiary education for the challenges of their degree programmes which are taught exclusively through the medium of English. Foundation programmes in the country are diverse in terms of modules offered and the teaching and learning methodologies employed, and are standardized in terms of the skills included in the curriculum. Thus, foundation programme curricula vary considerably from one institution to another. The teachers teaching on the foundation programme in which the research was carried out have diverse backgrounds. The English department includes teachers from different countries such as India, Ukraine, Romania, Hungary, the Philippines, Sudan, Oman, and the USA. Their diverse backgrounds and levels of experience, particularly in the Omani context, represent a baggage of various expectations and beliefs which, we believe, impacts upon their conceptualization of leaner autonomy and of the teacher-learner relationship.

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3.3 Participants As mentioned above, the teachers on the foundation programme come from different backgrounds and have different levels of experience. For this study, we chose five female teachers: three Indians, one American and one Omani. This reflects the make-up of the English Department at the institution which consists of a majority of female staff. Their experience ranged from one to 22 years in the Omani context. The sample thus chosen followed two criteria: purposiveness and accessibility (Silverman, 2010). Our being faculty members on the same foundation programme and in the same institution played a major role in choosing the sample. The approximately equal five groups, i.e. a total of 100 students, who took part in this study were all Omani males and females within the 18-23 age group. As Oman follows the co-education principle at the tertiary level, classes tend to be mixed gender. However, the proportion of females tends to be significantly higher. For example, in one group of twenty-six students, only 3-5 were male. Students come from different backgrounds and have mixed ability language levels. The students participating in this study were enrolled in second semester modules such as academic reading, writing, and vocabulary in communication. All participants read and signed an informed consent form and were assured of their anonymity and confidentiality and of their right to withdraw at any stage. Throughout this paper, they are referred to by their pseudonyms.

3.4 Method and Procedure We decided to interview five teachers at different levels of experience in their careers and coming from different backgrounds. All were employees of a private higher education institution in the Sultanate of Oman. Since the research focused on the classroom as a dynamic interrelational space and on autonomy as a teacher-learner interrelational concept, we deemed it necessary to observe one class taught by each teacher-participant prior to the semi-structured interviews. The purpose of the classroom observation was to see the amount of restraint exercised by both teacher and students, and the types of tasks in which it was practiced. Observations also intended to look at the dynamic of the teacher-student relationship throughout the lesson and the possible break-down in communication between them. All observed classes were also audiorecorded, except for one where the participants í all female students í were opposed to being recorded. Hence, the researchers were only allowed

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to observe the class. The teacher, however, consented to provide the researchers with an interview. The classroom observation was semi-structured starting with an “agenda of issues but gathering the data to illuminate these issues in a far less predetermined and systematic manner” (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2007, p. 397). For each of the five tutors, one class was observed at a time of their convenience, which meant a total of five periods of one and a half hours each. Observations were recorded in the form of notes, and the classroom interaction was audio-recorded. We opted for a type of overt nonparticipant observation as it fit the purpose of the study and it allowed us to be more thorough in collecting the data. The researchers are aware of the fact that our presence might have constituted a distracting factor for both teacher and students, however, we tried to minimize any possible influence by maintaining absolute silence throughout the lesson and by having explained in advance to both teachers and students that our presence had an investigative purpose and not an evaluative purpose. The interviews took place post observation. The reason was that we wanted teachers to be themselves and not feel that they had to live up to the expectations set had they been interviewed prior to the observations sessions. In this way, we believe the chances for a biased approach to the interview questions caused by a pre-observation interview were reduced. The interviews examined the teachers’ beliefs about student-centered learning which was considered by most teachers that participated in our previous study as the key to autonomous learning (Chirciu & Mishra, 2012). The interviews aimed at investigating the teachers’ prior learning experiences and their views on teacher autonomy and its perceived consequent impact on their learners’ autonomy. They were also intended as a reflection on the students’ classroom performance and the dynamics of their relationship with students, i.e. the amount of restraint they thought they had exerted and the students’ ability to use the teacher as a resource. Three interviews were audio-taped and two were recorded in the form of notes at the respondents’ wishes. The classroom observations were recorded in the form of notes and audio recordings. Although video recording would have provided further insights into the classroom dynamic interrelational space (DIS), the researchers chose to take into account cultural sensitivities which prevent Omani female students from consenting to video recording. Due to this limitation, the observation notes, in tandem with the recorded data, intended to capture the non-verbal aspects of classroom interaction. All of the interviews and observations were carried out during an approximately two-month period.

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When analyzing the data, the content analysis approach was used thus allowing for a flexible, iterative, and continuous (Rubin & Rubin, 1995) process of exploration where different categories and sub-themes emerged which were examined and presented in terms of their direct relevance to the research questions. The notes consisted of a narrative of the actual lesson and were analyzed in tandem with the actual recordings. The observation notes served to illustrate the actions that were substantiated through teacher-student conversation in an attempt to gain and portray a more holistic picture of the classroom interaction. The observations also served as a focus point for the questions to be addressed in the interview. Hence the observation, recordings, and interview data were integrated in an iterative manner, substantiating and adding different dimensions to the research questions in an “attempt to map out, or explain more fully, the richness and complexity of human behavior by studying it from more than one standpoint” (Cohen et al., 2007, p. 329).

4. Findings The thematic analysis looked at the data mainly at the surface or semantic level, thus moving from description to interpretation, in an attempt to theorize the significance of patterns and their prevalence within the data sets. However, due to the problematizing nature of the study and its emphasis on the context of the problem, the need arose to go beyond the surface and discover latent themes such as the problematizing of learner-centeredness by the teacher participant Tabitha (see below sections for detailed quotes). Thus, when coding we looked at the most interesting semantic features of the data but, staying true to the focus of the study, we explored interesting latent features as well. The reasons for using multiple data sources when addressing the research questions lie within the epistemological considerations of the study and the need to paint a clearer picture of complex phenomena such as the teacher-learner relationship and teacher-learner classroom interaction. This was done by picking “triangulation sources ... so that they can complement each other” (Meijer, Verloop, & Beijaard, 2002, p.146). The data interpretation started right from the classroom observation stage as the concepts of teachers’ views on learner autonomy, learnercenteredness, the teacher-learner relationship, restraint, that were discussed in the first part of the study had driven us to look for particular features in the teacher-learner verbal and non-verbal interaction. The verbal interaction was also recorded and transcribed hence allowing for the categories in the analysis to become more defined and opening up a clearer

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picture for the interpretation process. This represented the first step in the data triangulation process. Following this, the interview data was analyzed keeping in mind the categories found in the observation records and recordings while, at the same time, developing other categories as the thematic analysis process unfolded. Finally, the last step was to look at all the data sets as a whole by looking at the predominant patterns within the data while also examining the data items that deviated from the predominant pattern such as Alma’s response regarding teacher autonomy impacting learner autonomy below. The presentation of the findings followed an integrated approach whereby the most salient data items pertaining to the major themes and sub-themes which underpinned the epistemological framework of the study were presented first and corroborated with data items that belonged to, or deviated from, the respective pattern. Thus, the first major theme in the analysis pertains to how teachers view their own autonomy in relation to their learners’ autonomy. The second looks at learner-centeredness and its relationship with learner autonomy in addition to the ways teachers problematize the concept. Finally, the third section looks at how teacher beliefs reflect in teacherlearner interaction as well as the capacity of restraint that they are willing to exercise in the classroom dynamic interrelational space which, in La Ganza’s (2008) theory, creates the appropriate environment for learner autonomy to become manifest.

4.1 Teachers’ Autonomy Impacting Learners’ Autonomy Earlier in this paper, we discussed how teachers’ self-perceived autonomy could have an impact on learners’ autonomy. In the same manner, Balakian (2012), in her paper on teacher autonomy, talked about the power of “examples of virtue we set the young rather than through the things we preach” (p. 261). Our interviewees supported the above as shown in Tabitha’s statement: I feel I’m completely autonomous. The only thing that makes me introspect, contemplate about my autonomy is my students […] Autonomy as I said comes with a great deal of responsibility. When you go to the class on time, when you don’t shirk from your responsibility, when they see you that you do things honestly because they can definitely pick it from there, because they are the best judge. Even the most below average student assesses the teachers most accurately.

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Teachers see the two concepts as being directly linked and believe that the teacher is a role model that has the responsibility to educate students towards autonomy through the power of example. Another respondent, Abeer, added, “I want them to get, transfer independence from me to themselves”. The picture of learner autonomy is, in this case, far less disjointed from the one of teacher autonomy than in the categories we have become so accustomed to in the mainstream learner autonomy literature (Benson, 2008; Oxford, 2003). The above-mentioned testimonies show that teachers perceive their autonomy to be directly related to the way learners develop and manifest their autonomy. This supports La Ganza’s (2008) theory of learner autonomy as an interrelational construct which depends, in equal measure, on the capacities of the teacher and the learner. However, Alma, left room for doubt: I cannot say that there is a distinct relationship between my autonomy and my students’ or I cannot even guarantee that because of my strategies they will become autonomous learners but yes fifty-fifty per cent I can say. For example the quizzes I had many games practicing the synonyms, whatever and after that it’s up to them whether they come prepared for the next day’s quiz. I felt some of my students did that so I have done my part but I cannot guarantee that my strategies will develop them into autonomous learners.

Her statement evidences the fact that there are no true guarantees when it comes to different pedagogical approaches and that the myths of infallible learning strategies are no longer something that reflects classroom reality.

4.2 Re-thinking Learner-centeredness The above being said, most of the respondents adhered to a functionalist view of learner autonomy whereby students lack the ability to take charge of their own learning and hence lack the ability to engage in learner-centered strategies (Chirciu & Mishra, 2012). Thus, Andrea stated: I wouldn’t consider the majority of them to be autonomous I mean at this level not really, they are more dependent on each other and they are at times dependent on me. They just want you to give them the answer still level 1 classes it’s like this kind of dependency going on but even in semester two classes you can see it’s starting to change a little bit. They take more responsibility on themselves and what they are learning and they don’t expect other people to do things.

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She points out that the level of autonomy has to do with the level of maturity of the students and that it needs to be developed over time. Mediha supports the same idea: “Not all of my students are autonomous. I like my students to think, to do their own job. Most of the students like the teacher to explain to them. The teacher and students should integrate together”. However, Tabitha and Abeer mentioned that their experiences helped them see beyond the prescriptions of learner-centered strategies and go against what Holliday (2005) calls “the learner as a pre-defined cultural type” (p.70) by stating that, in fact, the focus should be on particular learners while activities are linked to a specific context and situation. Thus Abeer said: “It depends on what you’re teaching. If it’s target language I initiate and then I want them to work on their own”. Similarly Tabitha stated: I feel the teacher is in command of executing learner-centeredness. Group work and pair work has to come later when proper guidance, proper lecture notes had been given. When I know that half of them will not achieve in group-work what they need to achieve I cannot leave everything on them.

Our observations of class interaction, the conversations I have had with my participants, and my own teaching experience have all shown me that the conceptualization of learner centeredness and its implicit goal of forming autonomous learners is very different from teacher to teacher and depends on the classroom situation and the subject that they teach and their prior learning experiences. Some believe that the “genuine, democratic aim of education is to allow students a greater share of sociological power in the classroom and the teaching and learning of skills which implies that the content of education becomes meaningful to the needs of the student” (Holliday, 2005, p.66). Andrea supported this belief with the claim that: In the classroom my philosophy is to make it a student-centered approach, involving them in the topics that they would have to face inside of the classroom and outside of the classroom, a student-centered approach that is realistic for them that they will relate to, English experiences that they are likely to have in the classroom and also when they go out interacting with other people whether it’s in work or other social situations.

Mediha and Alma focused on one particular aspect of the learnercentered classroom philosophy which is classroom participation. Mediha

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stated that, “There should be variation in the classroom. The classroom should be lively and the students should participate”. While Alma said: And I don’t like a silent class; I like it to be noisy. Let them speak, let them say what they want, let them do what they want. In time they’ll have to fulfill what they want them to do whether they do it in a different way but the task has to be completed. So they enjoy that freedom in the class.

However, there are aspects of learner-centeredness that other teachers find problematic, aspects which can give way to “disregarding students as unimportant interactants in the classroom” (Holliday, 2005, p.67), and hence result in the adoption of a standardized, prescriptive pedagogical approach such as group work. Tabitha supports this argument by saying: The teacher has to be very responsible with it (learner-centeredness); they have to read a lot as to how it can be passed and implemented and when it should not be implemented. It has also been seen that learner-centeredness is abused because some teachers feel, give them a task, give them a group work and you stay idle. The teacher should be around them in order to see whether they are getting the objectives met.

In the scenario mentioned above, La Ganza’s (2008) concept of restraint becomes more complex as a climate of restraint can lead to a risk of break-up of the teacher-learner interrelational climate due to a lack of vitality. This is a phenomenon where, due to the exertion of restraint from the part of both teacher and learner, the interrelationality is reduced to a minimum. The way this break-down can be prevented is through a display of overt or covert support and concern from the part of the teacher. This brings us to the need for a strong teacher-learner relationship; a relationship which, according to our respondents, is primarily defined through rapport. As Abeer put it, “If you have good rapport with your students, half of the battle is won”. When we asked participants how to establish rapport with students, they all mentioned different techniques that they use to achieve this and added that it has to start very early in the semester and has to be built on a daily basis. For example, Abeer added: I know that yes they enjoy my classes. I have a good rapport with them […] Building this rapport the first thing starts with the names of the students, getting to know the names of the students personalizes everything in the classroom. If we cross about week 5-week 7 and we go you, you, you they feel that they are not important to the teacher... And then as time goes on, I try to give them some space within the class, it’s not like oh, don’t, don’t, don’t. There should be some kind of freedom, I

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Mediha also stated that rapport is built through a balance of freedom and responsibility given to the students which reflects in the teacher’s attitude in the class: The teacher and students should integrate together. The teacher should be somehow firm. If the teacher likes to have fun, he/she should balance in the classroom... I test myself í being very serious some students will not like it so it has to be both.

This, according to Mediha, brings forth the idea of a constant searching and questioning whether her teaching approach works for her students. Tabitha shares the same view and further added that the teachers’ strategies have to be based on an integrationist approach where every individual, irrespective of their language abilities, has a role to play in the learning process: I think every good teacher is a very good supervisor in the class. He can assess, gauge by the expression of the face whether he is getting it or not getting it. Now here comes your judgment whether to expose a student that he didn’t understand or to mould him accordingly. My strategy is that I pick up students who I know would have understood. I knew that there are some people who could not come to the board and write. Instead of exposing them in front of the whole class and letting them run down what I do is I ask the confident ones to write on the board. I ask the weaker ones to correct their mistakes. Nobody in any class is completely useless.

Abeer reiterated this point by saying that: “I feel each student is capable of one or the other... I have had the opportunity of teaching various learners”. They both emphasize the importance of teacher reflection as a form of constant work on the teacher-learner relationship, what La Ganza (2008) calls “teaching in the mind” (p.71). Unlike La Ganza who mainly sees teaching in the mind as a form of reflection in action while the actual classroom interaction is taking place, we believe that teaching-in-the mind can also be a form of reflection-on action, post interaction. This means that teachers have to reflect constantly on their teaching and be ready to question their approaches by taking into account learners’ feedback. As Mediha pointed out:

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The teacher can re-plan the lesson. The teacher should listen to the students and reflect on what works and what not. They have to respect their opinion even if they are wrong so the students will like the classroom and the other students.

Tabitha was of the same opinion: You have to make them autonomous by definitely indulging more, by not feeling that it’s just a task that you are doing for money. You have to be very passionate about your stuff. You have to be in love with your class actually.

In the same way, Alma said that what drives her teaching is: Student satisfaction. The first week it’s training for me. The first week itself I get to know what students like, because sometimes they don’t like to mingle around, there are students who don’t like to work in groups so I get to know whether they like the activities in my first week itself. I ask them, are you in for games or do you like serious work? […] If I feel a class is very reluctant to do something I try not to have activities that require them to get out of their places. But there is a class who are willing to do what I want to I plan my activities according to that.

Abeer reiterated that she treats her students as “customers. I am not a servant to them but I want them to be happy to come back to me”. Mediha also pointed out the need for an individualization of the learner: “I like to discover my students individually... If the teacher discovers the personalities of the learners we’ll know what activities to do for such students”. Moreover, Mediha stresses the idea of individualized learning that puts the teacher in a constant process of reflection. It also brings forth the teachers’ ability to question their performance and adjust their teaching strategies according to the situation at hand and, most importantly, in reaction to the learners’ expectations. This again is evidence of a constant teaching in the mind approach. Mediha admitted to constantly asking herself: Is the classroom good, do the students like it, what’s wrong in the lesson? I found that for example the lesson is very difficult so I’m going to change the technique. Some students like to move some students don’t. Did the students benefit from the lesson? What are the changes I can do in the future?

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4.3 Re-thinking Learner Autonomy: Teacher Beliefs About Learner Autonomy in Inter-action As mentioned above, La Ganza’s (2008) work makes very little reference to the verbal interaction in the teacher-learner relationship. While observing the classes of the five teacher-participants, we were intrigued to find very different approaches to teaching and learning. The classes were observed over three weeks towards the middle of the second semester, hence students and teachers both knew what to expect from each other. The post-observation interviews revealed the teachers’ beliefs about teaching and about learner autonomy, and they helped illuminate the decisions that the teachers had taken in the classroom. Thus, we have found that both “teacher cognition and classroom practice exist in ‘symbiotic relationships’” (Floss & Kleinsasser, 1996, cited in Borg, 2006, p. 87). Tabitha’s view that the teacher is actually in charge of learnercenteredness came through in her classroom interaction where she elicited and directed the class from the beginning until the end. The abbreviations T and S stand for teacher and student respectively: T: Now we will have a quick recap of what we did for four weeks. Can anyone tell me? Ok, Abeer you tell me. From the beginning. S: We started with academic and non-academic writing. T: What have you learnt there? S: That we have things that we shouldn’t do in academic writing. Like we don’t have to do “I”. T: Then when can you use your “I”? S: In informal. T: But in academic writing you can use it, when you give your opinion you can use I right? Anything else? Think! You all have to say something. S: Brainstorming, how to write a paragraph. What is important in a paragraph? What are the things that we require? First choose the topic, then brainstorming, write all information or idea that is in your mind. The same could be seen in Abeer’s class who, as mentioned above, believed she should initiate and then the learners need to take over: T: What did we do yesterday in the class? S: We talked about grammar. Always, often, usually. T: What are they called always, often, usually? What are they? S: Adverbs of frequency. T: Very good. Again! S: Adverbs of frequency. T: So we talked about adverbs of frequency. Anything else we talked about? S: Subject, verb, object.

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In the case of Mediha’s and Alma’s classes, although the students were structured in groups from the beginning and therefore more prone to learner-centered activities, the teacher-student interaction showed a lot of input from the part of the teacher and evidence of final draft talk just like Abeer’s and Tabitha’s classes. This being said, we felt, however, that their teaching strategies reflected what they admittedly believed in at the time of the interviews, which was to provide a secure and comfortable environment for students to manifest themselves. This included providing student support and guidance before leaving them on their own. For example, from Mediha’s class: T: Ok I just want you to make six groups please. Could you help me make six groups. T: Ok can you tell me what we did yesterday? S: Orchids. T: What are orchids? S: It’s a type of flower T: Is it a flower we can find everywhere? S: No we can find it in the mountains. T: Yes we can find it in the mountains and? S: And it’s rare. T: It’s rare good. So it means that you read.

And from Alma’s: T: We discussed about the Paralympics. What is special about the Paralympics? S: They are disabled people. T: Disabled people. How are they disabled? They cannot walk or... S: Something with the mind. T: Yes, something with the mind. Intellectually disabled. So in today’s reading class we will not take the book because we have already read about this. We are going to read about a girl named Mystie. She has taken part in the Special Olympics. If she has taken part in the Special Olympics what do you think? I mean what is her problem or...? Can a normal person enter the Olympics? S: No. T: No. They have a problem. Intellectual disability maybe. Now you will read the text and see what her problem is.

As you can see, the mirroring of student language by the teacher and the higher number of leading questions and close-ended questions shows the teachers’ feeling that the students needed a lot of ground work before going and attempting the task on their own. It is a form of final draft talk

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in concordance with the students’ expectations for validation and recognition of their contribution to the class. It is thus safe to say that teacher-participants exerted various levels of restraint and worked towards a maintenance of vitality in the dynamic interrelational space. As the classroom approach was different, we found that the interactions were appropriate to the context and the situation. In the case of Abeer’s and Tabitha’s classes, the discussion took up the major part of the class time as they were either focused on revision or collaborative writing, whereas Alma’s and Mediha’s classes were focused on specific reading strategies that the students had to practice, hence most of the class time was devoted to students’ actual work on the respective tasks. In Andrea’s class, although students were doing the vocabulary tasks given, they expected the teacher to provide them not only with the tools to solve their language problems but also with the solutions. This was consistent to what Andrea had asserted with regard to her students’ lack of autonomy. Nevertheless, the established rapport became apparent during the interaction. In all the five cases, the students seemed perfectly comfortable with the approach and the general feel of the class was that this was what they had expected in the first place. In all the classes observed, La Ganza’s (2008, p. 68) Q3 climate of restraint was present to a certain extent, but it was not predominant as evidenced in the observation notes in Figure 1 below: Alma Scenario A text to be read was posted in different places around the room. Students were divided into groups and each group was given one text along with a list of comprehension questions. Each member of the group is assigned one question they need to answer. The teacher is monitoring the activity. She is making it into a competition, assigning a score on the board for the teams. The activity is followed by a peer checking of the answers and peercorrection. The teacher then discusses the answers with the students. The class end with praises for the team who got most of the answers right.

Academic Reading- 3/04/2013 Observations -Learner-centered class right from the beginning, group-oriented -Instructions and eliciting rules from the students -Negotiation about grouping arrangements -Alma exercising limited restraint by assisting the students with every stage of the task -Students using the teacher as a resource for clarification and vocabulary issues -Feeling of fear from break-down in teacher-learner communication vitality from the part of the teacher -Alma was eager to show her support to the students

Figure 1: Observation record – Alma, 3/04/2013

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Because of limited restraint exercised by the teacher, we felt that the students did not have to take the initiative of using the teacher as a resource to a great extent, although they were working on the activity on their own. A similar scenario is present in Mediha’s case (see Figure 2): Mediha Scenario Started with references/recap of a previous lesson. The teacher arranged the tables for group work. Elicited information about sports. She went on write all the names of the sports elicited on the board. Discussed which was more popular. Distributed a text to the groups along with reading comprehension questions.

Academic Reading - 20/03/2013 Observations -Mediha guided the students throughout the task -She exercised limited restraint by identifying challenging vocabulary from the beginning and explaining it for students -Good rapport with students; feeling that students knew what to expect from this lesson -The lesson was slow-paced -Mediha spent most of the time on the reading comprehension task, making sure everything was clear to every student

Figure 2: Observation record – Mediha, 20/03/2013

We believe both teachers showed limited capacity for restraint as their focus was to prevent a lack of vitality in the teacher-learner communication during classroom interaction. This is consistent with La Ganza’s (2008) conceptualization of the above-mentioned critical in-the mind boundary. This being said, we thought that the teachers were overly involved in facilitating and guiding student tasks. Our feeling during both lessons was not of a student-centered class but, rather, a teacher-guided, skills-oriented one. The teaching approach in both these classes is consistent with the instances of teacher-learner talk mentioned above and with the beliefs these two teachers held about their learners’ autonomy. In Tabitha’s case, the restraint was surprisingly more present through her ability to allow students to come up with their own ideas and her building on their arguments with examples from their own context, although her class was not carried out as a typical learner-centered class as it was teacher-fronted and it did not involve group work (see Figure 3):

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Tabitha Scenario Paragraph writing revision class. Elicited from students what the process of writing a paragraph is. Introduced the topic of neighbors and elicited the word in Arabic to clarify English meanings. Contextualized the topic by referring to the students’ culture of being close to neighbors and to their religious beliefs. Asked students to write a collaborative paragraph based on the ideas they had discussed. Asked seated students to correct grammar and spelling errors.

Academic Writing – 18/03/2013 Observations -Teacher at the centre of the class but the class was not teacher-centered -Students take thelead in writing ideas and are followed by teacher support and validation -The board was used as the main reference point -Teaching in the mind present by seizing opportunities to support students -Encouraged collaboration through peercorrection and peer-support - Good rapport with students

Figure 3: Observation record í 18/03/2013, Tabitha

Tabitha’s class was an interesting example of a different kind of learner-centeredness where the teacher is visibly the conductor of the orchestra, as she herself had mentioned earlier: “The one in charge”. However, we felt that, in her class, the students showed the most initiative and involvement in discussions and we believe her contextualizing the topic, her appeal to their age, their culture, and spiritual values, was the reason for this. Thus, the teacher did not need to influence the students by guiding them to the right answer as they themselves were willing to ask the questions and come up with the answers in the first place.

5. Concluding Thoughts We can safely say now, at the end of this journey, that learner autonomy in the space of the classroom interaction is a challenging concept to research due its multidimensionality that can hardly be captured in a small-scale, time-limited, and very much deadline-driven study. This is the reason why, during our journey of exploration, we felt that we were looking through a crystal ball not knowing what we were going to find next and how the dimensions of teacher-learner relationship were going to reveal different dimensions of learner autonomy.

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One of these multi-dimensions is the learner perspective which is yet to be investigated in more depth through interviews and further observations. Furthermore, in order to get an in-depth picture of the dynamic interrelational space and its relationship to learner autonomy, an ethnographic study in this direction would be more appropriate. Having considered these limitations, however, we can say that the findings of the study managed to allow a glimpse into the concept of learner autonomy within classroom interaction. First of all, the study aimed at drawing attention to the different conceptualizations of learner autonomy from the part of the teachers as well as their views on how teacher autonomy can influence learner autonomy and the factors that help build the teacher-learner relationship. Within the chosen sample, three of the teachers mentioned that their personal examples of autonomy had a great impact on their learners’ autonomy and that a strong rapport leads to a fruitful teaching-learning experience. The other two were not certain of the impact their autonomy as teachers could have on the autonomy of their learners. Secondly, when looking at the pedagogical possibilities for learner autonomy to become manifest, most teachers adhered to the humanistic ideal of learner-centeredness as a vehicle for learner autonomy embracing the functionalist perspective. However, some of the teachers noted that learner-centered pedagogy can be overused to the detriment of the learners, specifically when it comes with very little involvement from the part of the teacher and when it implies prescriptive activities such as group work. The classroom observations and the analysis of teacher-learner talk revealed that, generally, the respondents stay true to their beliefs when engaged in teaching, hence their preference for a functionalist approach or a relativist approach reflects in their choices of tasks and the way they carry out interaction with their students. When having a closer look at La Ganza’s (2008) concept of restraint, we found that a higher degree of restraint does not necessarily equate with a learner-centered approach as our initial assumption had been but, rather, with walking that fine line between learner guidance and the allowance of freedom to the learner to explore and discover. We also have to add that the interviews and the observations showed that experienced and, hence, highly confident teachers, showed capacity for a higher degree of restraint and seemed to be more comfortable in going against the highly prescriptive group-work oriented syllabus and adapting activities and tasks to students’ needs and to the pace of the lesson. The role that professional experience plays in the teachers’ capacity for restraint remains to be investigated.

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Furthermore, unlike La Ganza (2008), we believe that the relationship between learner autonomy and the climate of restraint in the dynamic interrelational space is not as straightforward as it may seem and the multiple factors that contribute to its development still remain to be explored. On the other hand, the findings of this study, in our view, helped illuminate some of the factors that contribute to a successful teacherlearner relationship, such as rapport and constant teacher reflection. Finally, this project also prompted us to reflect on our own views of autonomy and learner-centeredness. We realized that we were looking at this concept through a blind lens all along, a lens influenced by our own professionalism and by our own capacity for Othering. We realize that this conceptualization of learner-autonomy and learner-centeredness had been prompted by our initial consideration of students in relation to the activities that we had planned for them and their being “problems” that had to be solved or “constraints to methodology” (Holliday, 2005, p. 71). As a result, we believe that there is a need for us as a TESOL practitioners and researchers to keep looking through the crystal ball of the classroom interaction and classroom discourse in order to further understand the emerging, complex dimensions of learner autonomy, learner-centeredness, and the teacher-learner relationship, and their constant interplay in the dynamic space of the classroom.

References Balakian, A. (2012). The autonomy of the language teacher. Journal of Educational Sociology, 35(6), 257-263. Benson, P. (2008). Teachers’ and learners’ perspectives on autonomy. In T. L. Reinders (Ed.), Learner and teacher autonomy: Concepts, realities and responses (pp. 15-33). Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Borg, S. (2006). Teacher cognition and language education. London: Continuum. Chirciu, A. (in press). Teachers’ views on learner autonomy in the Omani context. In R. Al–Mahrooqi & C. J. Denman (Eds.), Issues in English education in the Arab world. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Chirciu, A., & Mishra, T. (2012). Teach me if you can: Omani foundation students and the story of autonomy. In V. Tutzlokova & S. Al-Busaidi (Eds.), General foundation programmes in higher education in the Sultanate of Oman (p. 157-167). Muscat: Mazoon Press & Publishing.

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Cohen L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2007). Research methods in education. New York: Routldege. Farrell, T. (2007). Reflective language teaching: From research to practice. London: Continuum. Holliday, A. (1994). Appropriate methodology and social context. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. —. (1997). The politics of participation in international English language education. System, 25(3), 409-423. —. (2005). The struggle to teach English as an international language. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Illés, É. (2012). Learner autonomy revisited, ELT Journal, 66(4), 505-514. DOI:10.1093/elt/ccs044 La Ganza, W. (2008). Learner autonomy-teacher autonomy: Interrelating and the will to empower. In T. L. Reinders (Ed.), Learner and teacher autonomy: Concepts, realities and responses (pp. 63-83). Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing. Meijer, P., Verloop, N., & Beijaard, D. (2002). Multi-method triangulation in a qualitative study on teachers’ practical knowledge: An attempt to increase internal validity. Quality & Quantity, 36, 145-167. Oxford, R. (2003). Toward a more systematic model of L2 learner autonomy. In R. Smith & D. Palfreyman (Eds.), Learner autonomy across cultures: Language education perspectives (pp. 74-91). London: Palgrave-Macmillan. Pearson, L. C., & Moomaw, W. (2005). The relationship between teacher autonomy and stress, work satisfaction, empowerment, and professionalism. Educational Research Quarterly, 29(1), 37-53. Richards, J. C. (2005). Theories of teaching in language teaching. In J. C. Richards & W. A. Renandya (Eds.), Methodology in language teaching (pp. 19-27). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Rubin, H., & Rubin, I. (1995). Qualitative interviewing: The art of hearing data. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Schmenk, B. (2005). Globalising learner autonomy. TESOL Quarterly, 39(1), 107-118. Shi, L., & Cumming, A. (1995). Teachers’ conceptions of second language writing instruction: Five case studies. Journal of Second Language Writing, 4, 87-111. Silverman, D. (2010). Doing qualitative research (3rd ed.). London: Sage. Smith, R. (2008). Learner autonomy. ELT Journal, 62(4), 395-397. DOI:10.1093/elt/ccn038 Tragrant, E. (1996). The impact of teachers’ beliefs on their practice on activity structuring. Atlantis, 18(1), 407-415.

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Usher, R. (1996). A critique of the neglected epistemological assumptions of educational research. In R. Usher & D. Scott (Eds.), Understanding educational research (pp. 9-26). London: Routledge. Zohrabi, M. (2011). Enhancing learner autonomy through reciprocal approach to curriculum development. English Language Teaching, 4(3), 120–127. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/889136490?accountid=150994

CHAPTER THIRTEEN CHECKLIST ANALYSIS OF OMAN’S BASIC EDUCATION EFL TEXTBOOKS SERIES RAHMA AL-MAHROOQI HUMANITIES RESEARCH CENTRE, SULTAN QABOOS UNIVERSITY, OMAN [email protected]

CHRISTOPHER DENMAN AND FAISAL AL-MAAMARI SULTAN QABOOS UNIVERSITY, OMAN

Abstract Oman’s Basic Education curriculum for English-language studies prescribes the use within government and monolingual and bilingual private schools of the textbook series “English for Me” for grades 1-10 and “Engage with English” for grades 11 and 12. These books were devised by the Ministry of Education’s Textbook Production and Education Technologies Centre. The fundamental aims of the Language Curriculum in Basic Education are to provide culturally appropriate education that encourages critical thinking, problem solving, and an appreciation of English’s global value. Moreover, these aims are to be achieved in learner-centred classrooms where communicative teaching practices dominate. This study investigates the extent to which these textbooks support these aims through an evaluation of “English for Me” and “Engage with English” across all 12 grades. All textbooks were evaluated independently by two reviewers using a 15-item checklist based on the themes of text authenticity, potential for affective and cognitive engagement, level of challenge, ability to scaffold the development of high-level thinking skills, support for communicative teaching approaches, and visual elements. After determining inter-rater reliability, descriptive

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analysis was used to offer evaluation means for each book, in addition to each item across the textbooks used across all grades. The reviewers’ qualitative feedback for each book based on the above themes was also analysed. Results indicate that the textbooks are generally suitable for learners’ needs, encourage affective and cognitive engagement, and are visually engaging. However, a number of areas including authenticity of texts, the development of higher-level thinking skills, and encouraging learners to make their own discoveries about language, were identified as potentially benefiting from further revision. Keywords: Oman, Basic Education, English language teaching, checklist analysis

1. Introduction This study is part of a nation-wide investigation funded by His Majesty Sultan Qaboos’ Trust Fund for Strategic Research, awarded on May 2, 2012, into stakeholders’ perspectives on the reasons for public school graduates’ weaknesses in English in Oman. The research explores the reasons why, despite the heavy investment the Omani government has made in promoting English language instruction in government schools, colleges, and universities to prepare the nation’s youth for participation in a globalised work force (Al-Mahrooqi, 2012a, 2012b), results indicate students’ English achievement continues to be below average (Al-Issa, 2011; Al-Mahrooqi, 2012a, 2012b; Al-Mahrooqi & Asante, 2010). A number of factors have been identified as contributing to this situation, including teachers, supervisors, the curriculum, students, peers, parents and so on (Al-Mahrooqi, 2012b). The current study takes as its focus the issue of textbooks. Textbooks are often posited as one of the most influential elements of curriculum design and delivery (Wang, Lin, & Lee, 2011). A number of authors state that ensuring textbooks meet pre-specified learning objectives, content, experiences, and assessment, is vital in ensuring curriculum coherence. Moreover, Incikabi (2011) warns that for many instructors textbooks may form a kind of de facto curriculum that supersedes the national curriculum and thus have the power to define not only what is taught and how it is taught, but also the standards to which learners are held and how they are subsequently assessed. In this way, poorly designed textbooks may hinder language learning while threatening the legitimacy and application of a prescribed curriculum.

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It is for these reasons Roseman, Linn and Koppal (2008) assert that ideas and concepts featured in the textbooks used in a given subject area must have a strong link with those goals and objectives outlined in the curriculum. In order to ascertain the “fit” between textbooks and objectives, content, and learning experiences, Ellis (1997) maintains that textbooks employed in a given course of study must be evaluated in either a predictive – that is, before the textbook has been adopted for use – or retrospective manner, with the latter involving reflecting upon the textbook’s utility after it has been in use for a period of time. One of the most effective ways to evaluate a textbook according to Lawrence (2011) is by using checklists that act as evaluation guides for teachers, supervisors, and other education experts. The current study adopted a retrospective analysis approach to the evaluation of two sets of textbooks used in the ELT classrooms of government schools and monolingual and bilingual private schools in the Sultanate of Oman. These textbooks – “English for Me” and “Engage with English” (Al-Jardani, 2012) – were created by the Ministry of Education’s (MoE) Textbook Production and Education Technologies Centre (MoE, 2004). The fundamental aims guiding the creation and use of these textbooks as a vital element of the language strand of Oman’s Basic Education Curriculum are, according to the MoE, providing culturally appropriate education that encourages critical thinking, problem solving, and an appreciation of English’s global value. Moreover, the ministry states the textbooks have been designed to support a student-centred, communicative approach to language learning. As these textbooks have only been in use for a relatively short period of time, as of yet very few studies have sought to evaluate them. Of those evaluations that have been conducted, most tend to focus on either one individual textbook (Abdenacer, 2006) or one series (Al Harrasi, 2012; AlIssa & Al-Bulushi, 2010), with results often suggesting a number of areas of potential concern. For this reason, the current study was conducted as an in-depth evaluation of the textbooks used across all 12 grades of the Basic Education curriculum. All textbooks were evaluated independently by two reviewers using a 15-item checklist based on seven themes. These themes are: text authenticity, potential for affective engagement, potential for cognitive engagement, level of challenge, ability to scaffold the development of high-level thinking skills, support for communicative teaching approaches, and visual elements. Qualitative feedback was also provided by each evaluator in relation to these themes. The key point of concern was how far these ministry-produced books go towards achieving the goals and aims set out by the MoE and how far they subsequently

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support student achievement in English language learning in Omani schools.

2. Background 2.1 The Place of Textbooks in EFL/ESL Incikabi (2011) warns that commercially produced curriculum materials, including textbooks, exert a strong influence on actual classroom practice and may run the risk of forming a de facto curriculum that replaces the national curriculum and, ultimately, supersede the objectives, content, and learning experiences that the curriculum offers. For this reason, Roseman, Linn and Koppal (2008) state that the ideas and concepts presented in the textbooks students use in a given subject area should have a strong relationship with curriculum goals and objectives. Wang, Lin and Lee (2011) state that the selection of an appropriate textbook is probably one of the most important factors facing EFL/ESL educators as the choice of textbook affects students, teachers, and classroom dynamics. Textbooks, according to the authors, are used in classrooms due to pragmatic reasons such as time-constraints, teachers’ uncertainty about language, visual appeal, and as a yardstick of student progress. Rahimpour (2013) offers a number of additional advantages of employing textbooks in EFL/ESL classrooms. These include being a resource for self-directed learning and for ideas and activities, acting as a syllabus that reflects pre-established learning goals, supporting inexperienced teachers, offering a concrete measure of learner progress, providing extensive input for lessons, supporting a variety of learning activities, offering reading texts and explanations of points related to language use, ensuring students in different classes receive the same content and so can be assessed in the same way, providing an overall structure for a course of study, and, if they include an accompanying CD, DVD, website and so on, making the learning experience more varied and, therefore, more interesting for students (Haycroft, 1998; Richards, 2001; Sheldon, 1988). The potential advantages of employing EFL/ESL textbooks in the classroom are many. However, despite these advantages, Rahimpour (2013) suggests that no commercially produced textbook designed for a general market can be entirely suitable for the needs and goals of a particular group of learners and certain actions must therefore be taken to avoid the threat textbooks may pose to curriculum coherence. This position incorporates what Rahimi (2008) describes as a weak anti-textbook stance,

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in that it holds commercially produced textbooks must be supplemented by teacher-developed materials to overcome the gap between curriculum objectives, content, learning experiences, and assessments, and those that are either offered or promoted by a commercially produced book. A strong anti-textbook stance, on the other hand, is one in which textbooks are deemed completely unnecessary in EFL/ESL classrooms as they can potentially do more harm than good as evidenced in the threat they may pose in offering an alternative curriculum that does not reflect the purpose and goals of a national curriculum. Moreover, according to this perspective, textbooks are culturally- and/or socially-biased, often reflecting the norms of the inner-circle Western nations in which they were produced, while also featuring such contrived examples of the target language as to offer no support whatsoever for communicative practice or the use of language in real-life situations (Rahimpour, 2013). While Wang, Lin and Lee (2011) tend to focus more on the potential benefits, rather than the disadvantages, of using textbooks in EFL/ESL classrooms, they do, nonetheless, acknowledge the way textbooks are cultural objects that involve political struggle about how and by whom they are produced, written, distributed, and even used by teachers in the classroom. This struggle, according to the authors, has become even more pertinent in EFL/ESL classrooms of late due to the move to integrate content instruction into language learning, and may be one way in which the selection and use of textbooks can be viewed as a political, rather than a pedagogical, decision. Despite these potential areas of concerns, it is important to note that today most institutions offering instruction in EFL/ESL around the world tend to either adopt a pro-textbook stance or, at least, seek to complement selected textbooks with teacher-produced materials. This latter position involves what Rahimpour (2013) describes as the acknowledgement that no perfect textbook exists, but that it is nonetheless important to find the best possible one to meet the needs of a particular group of learners. In seeking to find the textbooks that best suit learner needs and curriculum requirements, therefore, it is necessary to perform some form of textbook evaluation.

2.2 Textbook Evaluation According to Wang, Lin and Lee (2011), the selection and evaluation of a commercially produced textbook should involve matching the needs of the target use group, as exemplified by learning outcomes and purposes, and available solutions. This, according to the authors, involves, at the

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very least, the thorough examination of the programme curriculum, which allows for the establishment of a link between textbooks and prescribed outcomes and required content. In addition, Gretchen (2003) states textbooks should be evaluated on whether they are up-to-date, appropriate for learners, culturally sensitive, oriented to the language and literary needs of learners, and suitable for a variety of learning styles. This evaluation can take the form of what Ellis (1997) terms either a predictive or retrospective evaluation, as outlined above. The evaluation of textbooks whether in pre- or post-use phases, according to Lawrence (2011), is one way to ensure “curriculum fitness” between content, objectives, and assessments. For this reason, a number of authors have offered checklists to help guide schools and practitioners in the selection and evaluation of EFL/ESL textbooks (see Cunningsworth, 1984; Ur, 1996). Lawrence states that the advantages of employing checklists in textbook evaluation include reducing the level of subjectivity that is a necessary component of any evaluation, and increasing the systematic nature of the evaluation in an economical way. Moreover, checklists can also improve the depth of analysis while, at the same time, be custom made to the teaching context to examine how appropriate the textbook is to curriculum demands and the particular needs of a group of students. After acknowledging some of the difficulties associated with selecting a commercially produced textbook that enhances, rather than threatens, curriculum coherence, Roseman, Linn and Koppal (2008) offer the example of the way the Center for Curriculum Materials in Science in the United States sought to better align their primary textbook with a science programme’s goals and objectives, learners’ prerequisite knowledge, and learning experiences built on pedagogical supports, by producing their own textbooks rather than relying on those available from large publishing houses. This is a course of action that involves access to a number of valuable resources, including the expertise of material writers and graphic designers, publishers, distributors and so on. However, Roseman, Linn and Koppal’s example highlights how a government-produced curriculum can be successfully supported by textbooks specifically designed to match the demands of that curriculum and thus take a large step towards enhancing successful learning.

2.3 The Omani ELT Textbooks In the Sultanate of Oman, the MoE began working on reforms to the General Education system that eventually resulted in the introduction of

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the Basic Education system for a number of schools in the country in the 1998/1999 academic year. According to Issan and Gomaa (2010), the overriding goal of these reforms was ensuring universal access to education for all Omanis that provides them with lifelong learning skills. This is a goal that is, according to the authors, necessary to deal with the challenges posed to Oman’s citizens by the demands of globalisation. These challenges are described by Issan and Gomaa as the need to create a skilled labour source capable of taking advantage of both economic and technological globalisation. However, in the face of these challenges, the authors state many Arab countries, including Oman, are struggling as their education systems do not “produce skills needed in an increasingly competitive world” (p. 20). In addition to these challenges, a number of researchers also believe that many students in the Arab Gulf struggle with the transition from high school to their studies in the English-medium higher education institutions which dominate the region’s tertiary sector (Mustafa, 2012; Roche & Harrington, 2011). In particular, students’ English-language skills, motivation to improve their knowledge, and application of the language in real life contexts, are often reported as lacking, with many students displaying little ability to master the English for academic purposes skills and conventions that are often associated with university success. To help address these issues, Oman’s MoE (2004, 2010a, 2010b) devised the Basic Education system which features 10 grades across two cycles. The first cycle applies to the first four years of schooling and is aimed at students aged between 6 and 9. The second cycle applies to grades five to ten, or students who are between 10 and 15 years old. These two cycles are further complemented by two years of education that are referred to as Post-Basic Education, and are intended as a bridge between Basic Education, higher education and/or the demands of the workforce through a focus on communication, social, interpersonal, and informational technology skills (Al-Issa & Al-Bulushi, 2012). According to Issan and Gomaa (2010), the most important aspects of the education reforms that have occurred in Oman under the aegis of Basic Education include changes in the following areas: the MoE’s structures and procedures, the overall structure of the school system, curriculum content, student assessments, teacher training, and, of primary interest to the current research, textbook development. As part of the introduction of the Basic Education curriculum, the MoE (2004) states that curriculum content associated with specific subject areas has been “completely rewritten” (p. 15) in order to better reflect real-life contexts and support experiential learning. In particular, the ministry

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acknowledges that, while it is important for students to acquire the factual knowledge that forms the foundation of learning in a specific subject area, these bodies of knowledge are constantly changing and curriculum materials should therefore support the acquisition of transferable skills and the ability to locate information. As far as this relates to the English-language curriculum, Al-Jardani (2012) states Omani government schools all utilise the same English textbooks. These books were devised by Oman’s Textbook Production and Education Technologies Centre which was established by the MoE in 2003 (MoE, 2004). Although Arabic mono-lingual private schools also use the same textbooks for their English courses, bi-lingual private schools, or those where math and science are the only content subjects taught in the English language, are free to complement these prescribed textbooks with others chosen from a ministry-approved list of books and materials (MoE, 2010a). The MoE’s (2010b) English Language Curriculum Framework states that the prescribed “English for Me” textbooks feature “core stimulus materials” (p. 20) that have been selected to support classroom activities. These books are supplemented by a teachers’ book, a listening CD and another CD which includes songs, rhymes, and stories spoken by both child and adult speakers. The CD accompanying “Engage with English”, on the other hand, features dialogues and monologues. Moreover, teachers in the first two cycles are also provided with a class resource pack and a teacher resource pack that contains posters, flash cards, word cards and so on, while, at the Post-Basic level, core readers and book boxes are also provided for use within the classroom.

2.4 Evaluations of the Omani ELT Textbooks Due to the relatively recent design and utilisation of “English for Me” and “Engage with English”, very few studies have yet sought to evaluate them in a comprehensive manner. Among those evaluations that have thus far been conducted, Abdenacer (2006) applied Sheldon’s (1988) textbook evaluation checklist (STEC) to one textbook from the “English for Me” series with a particular focus on the possible future application of the checklist in a wide-scale curriculum evaluation. In seeking to explore the potential value of Sheldon’s evaluation checklist within the Omani context, Abdenacer applied a slightly modified version of the STEC to the fifth grade’s “English for Me” Classbook B. The evaluation framework included 17 evaluative factors featuring 53 associated criteria. The four possible evaluation ratings were poor, fair, good, and excellent.

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Overall, Abdenacer’s (2006) evaluation ranked the textbook as poor in six of the 17 evaluation areas. These areas include rationale, which refers to the clear statement of the textbook’s objectives and purpose; sufficiency, or whether the textbook can be used as a “stand alone” resource without being complemented by teacher-produced materials; availability, which here refers to whether it is easy to contact the publishers of the textbook to obtain more information about its content and pedagogical approach; and user definition, or the educational expectations and measurable level of English-language skills at both the entry and exit level that the creators assume students to hold. The textbook was evaluated as fair on another six elements. These include authenticity, which relates to the use of “real” or authentic texts that have not been overly simplified; cultural bias referring to whether presented topics and situations are appropriate for the social and religious context in addition to the avoidance of stereotyping based on gender, social class, and ethnicity; and flexibility, or whether the textbook’s activities can be modified to suit classroom-specific constraints and local circumstances. Abdenacer’s (2006) rated the textbook as good on only three areas, which are appropriacy for learners’ interests, educational validity in terms of learners’ skills development level, and the level of guidance offered by the teacher book. Finally, only two elements received an excellent evaluation. These are layout/graphics and physical characteristics, with the latter referring to the size and robustness of the textbook. Although Abdenacer’s (2006) evaluation highlighted a number of positive points of the grade 5 textbook, overall the book received evaluations of either poor or fair on 12 of the STEC elements, and positive evaluations of good or excellent on only five. Moreover, the fact that this particular textbook was rated negatively in terms of both authenticity and cultural bias also suggests that, especially given the focus of Oman’s Basic Education curriculum for ELT on culturally appropriate language learning that takes into account the cultural concerns of students, a more detailed evaluation of these textbooks is required. Al-Issa and Al-Bulushi (2010) took a different approach to further understandings of the nature of the ministry-produced textbooks by examining, among a number of different areas, the lack of “fit” between “English for Me” and new teaching graduates’ skill sets. In particular, the authors distributed a 25-item five-point Likert scale questionnaire to 90 final year ELT student teachers and seven of their teacher trainers at Oman’s Sultan Qaboos University. Although the authors’ primary concern was the ways in which the current training process encouraged the

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development of reflective practitioners, one of their areas of interest was the manner in which participants were taught to deal with the studentcentred teaching highlighted by the MoE as being necessary to successfully teach “Engage with English”. Responses, however, seem to indicate that the teacher trainees did not believe themselves to be equipped with the skills they needed to teach the textbook in a learner-centred way. For example, in response to item 17, “Our trainers tend to ask us to use the teacher’s guide only to plan our lessons”, Al-Issa and Al-Bulushi (2010) state that around 67% of participants agreed while only around 20% disagreed. The authors claim that this exclusive focus on the teacher book fostered by teacher trainers runs against the learner-centred classroom practices that the new Omani textbooks are intended to support. Moreover, Al-Issa and Al-Bulushi state that, as these teacher trainees completed their high school studies before the Basic Education reforms and are, therefore, unfamiliar with the philosophy and guidelines associated with the new textbooks, they will tend to adopt the kinds of teacher-centred approaches to their English classes that they themselves were exposed to as learners. Moreover, AlAlawi (1994) maintains that the focus of the teacher trainers on using the teacher book as the basis of classroom activities could be associated with the bureaucratic and highly centralized nature of the Ministry of Education which seeks to control, despite its ostensible support for learner autonomy, the ways in which the textbooks are employed. In addition to this finding, around half of participants agreed with item 19 that their trainers instructed them to teach the national curriculum, while about 30% were unsure and another 20% disagreed. However, AlIssa and Al-Bulushi (2010) state that the teaching methodologies participants were encouraged to use to teach the curriculum were often very formal and rigid in nature and tended to emphasise rote learning and teacher-centred classrooms. The authors state that the top-down implementation of the curriculum makes it difficult for teachers to move beyond these teacher-centred approaches, with a number of participants claiming that the teaching practices of supervisors and other ELT instructors in Omani schools often encouraged them to view the learner as little more than a passive recipient of knowledge. Al-Issa and Al-Bulushi (2010) conclude that the student teacher participants lacked the necessary training in teaching methodology to teach “English for Me” in student-centred classrooms where communicative teaching practices dominate. This gap between the teaching skills needed to fully implement the textbook in the classroom in a student-centred manner and the skills which these participants graduated with was

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attributed to a lack of appropriate instruction in SQU and/or the more traditional teaching practices of in-service teachers and the beliefs of school supervisors. The fault, therefore, did not lie with the textbooks themselves, but with the kinds of educational cultures participants were exposed to which encouraged more traditional approaches to language instruction. Al Harrasi’s (2012) evaluation of “English for Me” focused on the use of stories as tools of instruction. The author notes that stories have recently assumed a prominent place in Omani English language classrooms as a result of curriculum reforms. However, Al Harrasi states, by the time his research was conducted, no single study had yet been carried out which specifically focused on how effective the stories within the Omani textbooks are as teaching tools. In order to address this, the author conducted an action research evaluation of the “English for Me” textbooks used in the first cycle of Oman’s Basic Education curriculum. The areas that formed the basis of the evaluation were text length, language input, readability of texts, the ability of the texts to personalise the learning environment, whether the stories encouraged the development of readers’ imaginations, the variety of tasks associated with each story, and whether the stories were integrated with other language learning activities to develop a variety of skills. Al Harrasi (2012) reports positive results across most of these evaluation areas. For example, in terms of language input, the author claims that the stories in “English for Me” in Cycle 1 feature “a rich source of language input” (p. 54) that contributes to an enjoyable and meaningful context in which learners are exposed to the language. In addition, Al Harrasi also states that the textbook stories contain a good mix of the familiar, which helps students personalise their learning environment, and stories drawn from outside of Oman that help learners begin to understand more about cultures apart from their own. Moreover, all of the stories in the textbooks were reported as having moral or didactic goals, while also being engaging enough for learners to help develop their use of imagination. The only area in which Al Harrasi (2012) evaluated the textbooks negatively was in terms of readability. In particular, the author states that, although overall readability of the stories is quite appropriate for learners’ levels, at times the language is too difficult and this results in comprehension problems. Al Harrasi points out that, in some cases, this issue of lack of readability seems to be a deliberate decision on the part of the material developers with, for instance, the teachers’ guide for the grade 4 textbook stating that learners should only get the “gist” of the story and

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not focus on any difficult words. However, Al Harrasi maintains that learners will gain more if these stories are only slightly above their levels, and not so far ahead of their current reading abilities as to cause frustration and confusion. Al Harrasi (2012) concludes that the stories appearing in the first cycle of “English for Me” contribute significantly to students’ linguistic and even personal development, help make the classroom atmosphere more interesting, assist in fostering positive attitudes towards learning, and encourage students to participate in their English language classes. Moreover, the author considers the stories to be mostly age- and developmentallyappropriate, although he does suggest some minor modifications to either the story texts or associated activities to help improve the textbooks in this area. Overall, current evaluations of the Omani textbook series report mixed results. That is, Abdenacer’s (2006) evaluation of a single textbook was mostly negative while Al Harrasi’s (2012) examination of the “English for Me” books used within the first cycle of Basic Education reports mostly positive results. Added to these evaluations, Al-Issa and Al-Bulushi (2010) question whether the learner-centred classrooms the textbooks are designed to be used in actually exist in an Omani education system where pre-service teachers are instructed to follow the teachers’ guide step-bystep and where the teaching culture has been criticised as being overly hierarchical and teacher-centred. However, although these evaluations are important first steps in the thorough examination of the ELT textbooks used in Basic Education, they are yet to be followed by an evaluation that looks at all textbooks used across all grade levels. The current research seeks to achieve this.

3. Methodology 3.1 Checklist Analysis A retrospective textbook checklist evaluation was employed in the current study, which is itself one component of a wider evaluation and analysis of these textbooks based on the current checklist, a second checklist adapted from Mukundan, Nimehchisalem and Hajimohammadi (2011), and an electronic analysis of the textbooks’ vocabulary items and grammatical structures. The checklist used in this study was created by a research team consisting of five experienced language instructors and contained the following 15 items:

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1. To what extent are the materials likely to expose the learners to English in use? 2. To what extent are the topics likely to engage the learners affectively? 3. To what extent are the themes likely to engage the learners affectively? 4. To what extent are the texts likely to engage the learners affectively? 5. To what extent are the tasks likely to engage the learners affectively? 6. To what extent are the topics likely to engage the learners cognitively? 7. To what extent are the themes likely to engage the learners cognitively? 8. To what extent are the texts likely to engage the learners cognitively? 9. To what extent are the tasks likely to engage the learners cognitively? 10. To what extent are the materials likely to provide an achievable challenge to the learners? 11. To what extent are the materials likely to involve the learners in using high level skills? 12. To what extent are the materials likely to help the learners to make discoveries about the language themselves? 13. To what extent are the materials likely to provide opportunities for the learners to use English to achieve communication? 14. To what extent are the instructions likely to be easy for the learners to carry out? 15. To what extent are the illustrations likely to facilitate language acquisition? A 5-point rating scale of 1-5 was employed. This scale represents the extent to which the evaluator believes the textbook matches the characteristics described in the evaluation item, with 1 being not at all and 5 representing to a large extent. The mid-point on this scale, or where a more positive evaluation becomes a more negative one and vice versa, is 3. Two evaluators – one a professor of Applied Linguistics and the other an experienced language instructor at Sultan Qaboos University’s Language Centre – completed the checklists for each grade set of textbooks independently. Each evaluator also added qualitative feedback for every textbook based on the above themes. After both evaluators had completed their checklists for each textbook, an Intraclass Correlation Coefficient was calculated to determine interrater reliability. Descriptive analysis was then performed to determine overall means for the textbooks used at each grade level, and also to assess which evaluation items received the highest and lowest response means. Finally, qualitative feedback was analysed in relation to each theme, with comments that highlight statistical trends grouped together and presented below.

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4. Results 4.1 Descriptive Analysis Results indicated a respectable level of inter-rater reliability with a mean Intraclass Correlation Coefficient across all 12 sets of textbooks of .46. This demonstrates an intermediate level of agreement between the evaluators. Table 1 presents the descriptive statistics for textbooks across all grades. As can be seen, the mean recorded for all textbooks was 3.25, which suggests that, overall, the textbooks were evaluated only slightly positively. Of the 12 sets of textbooks examined, nine received overall means above the 3.00 cut-off mark which was established to divide more negative from more positive evaluations, one recorded a mean of exactly 3.00, while two books received means below 3.00. The grade 10 and grade 6 textbooks recorded the highest overall means of 3.87 and 3.73 respectively, while the lowest means of 2.93 and 2.96 were for textbooks from grades 4 and 2. The grade 5 textbook received an overall mean of exactly 3.00. Table 1: Descriptive Statistics for textbooks across all grades Grade Level Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 6 Grade 7 Grade 8 Grade 9 Grade 10 Grade 11 Grade 12 Overall

Mean 3.11 2.96 3.18 2.93 3.00 3.73 3.10 3.23 3.33 3.87 3.20 3.30 3.25

SD 1.05 1.04 0.77 0.52 0.59 0.45 0.55 0.50 0.76 0.73 0.66 0.65 0.69

Descriptive statistics for all items across the textbooks used across the twelve grades were also calculated (see Table 2). Thirteen of the fifteen analysis items recorded means above 3.00. However, for checklist items 11 and 12, these dropped below this point with means of 2.79 and 2.38 respectively for evaluation items regarding whether the textbooks

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encourage students to apply higher order thinking skills and whether they allow students to make their own discoveries about the language encountered. These results, therefore, suggest a negative overall appraisal of the textbooks’ capacities to encourage self-discovery of language points and to encourage the development of high level thinking skills. Several other evaluation items also received means only slightly above 3.00. These include item 1 í “To what extent are materials likely to expose the learners to English in use?” – and item 10 – “To what extent are materials likely to provide an achievable challenge to the learners?”. Both these items received means of 3.08, which suggests that the texts featured across the textbooks are generally not authentic in nature because they have been significantly modified to be more accessible to learners. This is a finding that has also been reported by Abdenacer (2006) and Al Harrasi (2012). The third item within this range is number 13, “Are the materials likely to provide opportunities for the learners to use English to achieve communication?”. This item received an overall mean of 3.09, which implies that opportunities to use the language students are exposed to may be somewhat limited. The highest means of 3.92 and 3.88 were reserved for evaluation items 15 and 14, with the first item regarding whether the illustrations featured in the textbook are likely to facilitate language learning and the latter examining whether the instructions are easy to follow. These items both largely relate to the visual elements of the textbooks, such as layout, illustrations and so on, with this finding closely adhering to Abdenacer’s (2006) evaluation of these elements as also being excellent. Items 2-9 are all concerned with the potential for affective and cognitive engagement of the textbooks’ texts, topics, tasks, and themes. All items here recorded overall means between 3.19 and 3.46, which indicates generally positive evaluations in these areas. For example, items 2-5 all refer to the potential of the textbooks to affectively engage learners. The overall mean for these four items was 3.29, with the highest mean of this group received for item 4, “To what extent are the texts likely to engage the learners affectively?”. Items 6-9, about the potential for learners’ cognitive engagement, recorded an overall mean of 3.35. This result shares similarities with Al Harrasi’s (2012) positive evaluation of the stories in the textbooks as creating a fun and inclusive atmosphere that encourages learners to use their imaginations in their English classes.

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Table 2: Descriptive statistics for analysis items across all textbooks Checklist Item: To what extent are… Item 15: the illustrations likely to facilitate language acquisition? Item 14: the instructions likely to be easy for the learners to carry out? Item 4: the texts likely to engage the learners affectively? Item 6: the topics likely to engage the learners cognitively? Item 9: the tasks likely to engage the learners cognitively? Item 7: the themes likely to engage the learners cognitively? Item 5: the tasks likely to engage the learners affectively? Item 2: the topics likely to engage the learners affectively? Item 8: the texts likely to engage the learners cognitively? Item 3: the themes likely to engage the learners affectively? Item 13: the materials likely to provide opportunities for the learners to use English to achieve communication? Item 10: the materials likely to provide an achievable challenge to the learners? Item 1: the materials likely to expose the learners to English in use? Item 11: the materials likely to involve the learners in using high level skills? Item 12: the materials likely to help the learners to make discoveries about the language themselves?

Mean 3.92

Min. 3.00

Max. 5.00

3.88

3.00

5.00

3.46

3.00

5.00

3.42

2.00

4.00

3.38

3.00

5.00

3.38

3.00

4.00

3.29

3.00

4.00

3.21

2.00

4.00

3.21

2.00

4.00

3.19

2.00

4.00

3.09

1.00

4.00

3.08

2.00

4.00

3.08

2.00

4.00

2.79

2.00

4.00

2.38

1.00

4.00

4.2 Qualitative Data As stated above, the evaluators recorded their comments about the ways in which the textbooks relate to each evaluation theme of text authenticity, potential for affective and cognitive engagement, level of challenge, ability to scaffold the development of high-level thinking skills,

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support for communicative teaching approaches, and visual elements. These comments were analysed in relation to the means highlighted above. In terms of authenticity of texts, the mean of 3.08 across all textbooks is only slightly positive. This is expressed in the qualitative feedback with comments such as, “Some of the texts seem to have been specially written to illustrate language points” for the grade 5 textbooks, and, “The language is sometimes used in inauthentic ways. For example: children sitting around asking pointless questions and children telling each other what they already know in a picnic” in the grade 2 textbook. The areas of affective and cognitive engagement received overall means of 3.29 and 3.35 respectively, which suggests fairly positive evaluations in these areas. Examples of evaluator feedback here include, for the grade 11 textbooks, “The focus on the world outside Oman is connected to Oman in ways which could facilitate affective engagement. However, sometimes the tone is ‘worthy’ and rather prescriptive and the intention seems more to impart information than to stimulate interest”. And, for the grade 6 textbooks, “The topics are relevant and potentially cognitively engaging. They are likely to get the learners to think, to visualise and to connect to their own out-of-school lives”. The level of challenge offered by the textbooks received only a slightly positive evaluation mean of 3.08. Al Harassi (2012) also offers a similar evaluation, as he claims a number of stories in the first cycle textbooks are too far above learners’ language abilities. However, the current evaluations report the opposite to be the case, as this comment from the grade 4 textbook highlights: “The materials are a little too easy and are unlikely to offer the learning opportunities which come from not getting everything right straight away. They are also unlikely to lead to the learners feeling a sense of self-esteem when they get things right”. This is a theme that is commonly reported all the way to the grade 12 textbook where it is still claimed: “Some of the activities are a little too easy, and many comprehension questions can be answered without really understanding the text”. The textbooks were evaluated negatively in terms of whether they were capable of encouraging the development of higher level thinking skills with a mean of 2.79. For example, for the grade 1 textbooks, it was stated that, “The materials only really require the use of low level skills”, while a common criticism of most of the remainder of the textbooks was similar to the feedback for the grade 8 textbook: “Most of the materials only really require the use of low level skills such as copying, identifying, matching, repeating. High level skills such as connecting and predicting should be added”.

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Another area in which the textbooks received a negative evaluation was in terms of whether they encouraged learners to make their own discoveries about the language. This item received a mean of 2.38. For example, feedback from the grade 7 textbook stated that, “Some of the texts contain repetitions of language which could be used to help learners make discoveries for themselves, though learners are never encouraged to think about the language they have experienced in the texts”. While, for the grade 12 textbooks, it was claimed that, “Most of the language activities are practice activities and there are no activities in which learners are helped to make discoveries about language use for themselves”. The ability of the textbooks to encourage genuine communication within the classroom received a fairly neutral evaluation, with an overall mean of 3.09. A common response among the evaluation feedback is that, while certain opportunities exist that encourage genuine communication within the classroom, overall these are fairly limited. For example, feedback from the grade 8 textbooks states that, “There are some opportunities for the learners to tell each other about their lives or about their opinions. However, many opportunities are missed in activities in which learners could be encouraged to use English to share their lives and views with others”. The two themes that received the highest evaluation means are clarity of instructions and visual aspects. Both these elements recorded means of around 3.90 (3.88 and 3.92 respectively). Feedback related to these areas includes this comment about the grade 7 textbooks: “The instructions are generally precise, clear and easy to carry out”. However, despite this level of clarity in “English for Me”, comments tend to focus on the existence of some unnecessarily difficult language for the grade 11 and 12 textbooks “Engage with English”. For example, the visual elements of the textbooks, including illustrations, font size and so on, were described as mostly “generally appealing, engaging and functional” if, at times, “somewhat dull” (grade 11).

5. Discussion Overall, the textbooks received a mixed evaluation with those books used in three grades receiving overall means of 3.00 or below and the rest recording means between 3.10 and 3.87. The grade 10 textbooks received the highest overall mean, with these textbooks described as being “very rich in language and very rich in opportunities for learning” while also focusing on engagement through language use. In fact, these textbooks were described by one evaluator as being “a model of good practice for the

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other grades” – a comment that seems even more important considering the largely neutral and/or negative evaluations received by many of the other textbooks. On the other hand, the grade 4 textbooks received the lowest overall evaluation mean of 2.93. While this mean is only slightly negative, these textbooks were nonetheless noted as largely failing to engage the learner affectively due to the repetition of themes from previous books without the addition of new materials, and as also featuring topics that are rather boring and unlikely to encourage learners to think about the topics and make their own connections in language learning. An interesting evaluation note here is that the standard of the grade 4 textbooks “is rather uneven í some units are rich in interesting texts and interesting activities whereas other units are quite mundane without any extended texts or appealing activities”. However, that does not mean that the textbooks for this grade themselves are not worthwhile, but rather that they could benefit from further revision that seeks to address these areas of concern. In relation to individual evaluation items across all books, the textbooks were evaluated negatively in terms of whether the material used could help learners develop higher level skills and whether they could encourage learners to make their own discoveries about the language. This first area seems to be an issue of aiming the textbooks at the “middle” level of language learners in each grade, with the kinds of learner-centred, communicative focused classroom practices highlighted in the ELT curriculum perhaps one of the best ways to overcome this potential limitation. However, it was noted that the focus on mechanical repetition and the reproduction of presented models dominating a number of textbooks should be addressed. On the other hand, encouraging learners to make their own discoveries about the language is one area that perhaps requires more direct scaffolding from the textbooks themselves, although the practicality of this particular outcome could be questioned if Al-Issa and Al-Bulushi’s (2010) description of teacher-centred cultures still dominating ELT in Omani government schools is accurate. Closely linked to this point, the textbooks were also evaluated slightly positively in terms of whether they provide students with authentic examples of the English language in use. Overall, the language used across the textbooks was seen as somewhat contrived and as being purposefully created to support the language point of each lesson. This is an issue that Al Harrasi (2012) noted in his otherwise positive evaluation of the stories used in “English for Me”. In particular, Al Harrasi claimed that some of the stories in these textbooks were too difficult for learners. The current study also found the textbooks to not offer an achievable challenge to

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learners, although, unlike Al Harrasi, this was because many of the texts were considered too easy and too focused on encouraging all learners to get every activity right the first time. While the confidence building that making textbook activities easy for learners to accomplish allowed could be argued to be a worthy goal especially during the lower grades, the evaluators believed that this approach meant learners would not be exposed to the “learning opportunities which come from not getting everything right straight away”, with it also being “unlikely to lead the learners to feeling a sense of self-esteem when they get things right”. On the other hand, the textbooks received their most positive evaluations in relation to their visual appeal and clarity of instructions. Both these points suggest that the books are presented in a fairly professional fashion and have been written by people with a clear understanding of the functioning of ELT classrooms in Oman. This is an evaluation that is also shared by Abdenacer (2006). Moreover, the areas of the potential cognitive and affective engagement of the texts, topics, tasks, and themes featured in the textbooks all received fairly positive evaluations, with the textbooks therefore being mostly appropriate for the emotional and cognitive development of their targeted learners.

6. Conclusion This evaluation, therefore, indicates that the textbooks produced by the MoE’s Textbook Production and Education Technologies Centre are mostly suitable for Omani learners’ needs and cultural concerns and tend to support communicative EFL teaching methods. However, there are a number of areas where further attention could be directed to improve these textbooks if they are to more fully contribute to Omani government school students developing higher levels of English language proficiency. These include providing learners with the skills and activities that are required to encourage higher level thinking skills, focussing more on the scaffolding they need to make their own discoveries about the language and, finally, improving the authenticity of texts in order to support these dual aims. In addition, it may be worthwhile to review a number of the textbooks that received overall negative and/or neutral means in relation to the grade 10 textbooks which, here, received the most positive evaluation. This approach would allow for a greater understanding of the ways in which the textbook set used for this grade helps create a language environment “rich in learning opportunities” – an essential element in fostering the kinds of learner-centred, communicative-focused classrooms in which learners are

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exposed to authentic examples of language in use and can begin to make their own discoveries about the ways in which language works. However, despite the somewhat mixed nature of the above evaluation, it should be reiterated that the current evaluation was only performed by two evaluators, neither of which work in government schools in Oman. It is for this reason, and also due to the somewhat middling level of interrater reliability reported above, that two other analyses have been performed, one of which involves using a checklist completed by English teachers and supervisors who have direct experience of the implementation of these textbooks in Omani classrooms. Moreover, the themes featured in the checklist used in the current study focus on fairly specific areas of evaluation, and, therefore, a fuller understanding of the textbooks could be gained from the two additional analyses which use a totally different checklist in addition to a computerised analysis of the lexical and grammatical loading of all textbooks. Overall, the current evaluation could be described as slightly positive, with the visual elements of the textbooks and their abilities to affectively and cognitively engage learners being examples of these textbooks’ strengths. It appears that these textbooks designed by the Textbook Production and Education Technologies Centre are capable, with the kinds of revision suggested above, of achieving the goals and aims set out by the ministry and of thereby supporting student achievement in English language learning in Omani schools.

References Abdenacer, J. (2006). Textbook evaluations: The case of grade 5’s English for Me classbook B. Retrieved from http://www.scribd.com/doc/162701476/Textbook-Evaluations-Thecase-of-Grade-Five%E2%80%99s-English-doc Al-Alawi, K. (1994). The teaching and learning of English as a foreign language in third year secondary education in Oman with special reference to reading. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Bath, UK. Al Harrasi, K. T. (2012). Using stories in English Omani curriculum. English Language Teaching, 5(11), 51-59. Al-Issa, A. (2011). Advancing English language teaching research in Gulf Cooperation Council states’ universities. MJAL, 3(2), 60-77. Al-Issa, A., & Al-Bulushi, A. (2010). Training English language student teachers to become effective teacher. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 35(4). DOI: 10.14221/ajte.2010v35n4.4

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Al-Jardani, K. S. (2012). English language curriculum evaluation in Oman. International Journal of English Linguistics, 2(5), 40-44. Al-Mahrooqi, R. (2012a). English communication skills: How are they taught at schools and universities in Oman. English Language Teaching, 5(4), 124-130. —. (2012b). A student perspective on low English proficiency in Oman. International Education Studies, 5(6), 263-271. Al-Mahrooqi, R., & Asante, C. (2010). Promoting autonomy by fostering a reading culture. In R. Al-Mahrooqi & V. Tuzlukova (Eds.), The Omani ELT symphony: Maintaining linguistic and socio-cultural equilibrium (pp. 477-494). Muscat: Sultan Qaboos University Academic Publication Board. Cunningsworth, A. (1984). Evaluating and selecting ELT materials. London: Heinemann. Ellis, R. (1997). The empirical evaluation of language teaching materials. ELT Journal, 51(1), 69-82. Gretchen, B. (2003). TESOL standards for adult education ESL programmes. Alexandria, Virginia: TESOL. Haycroft, J. (1998). An introduction to English language teaching. London: Longman. Incikabi, L. (2011). The coherence of the curriculum, textbooks and placement examinations in geometry education: How reform in Turkey brings balance to the classroom. Education as Change, 15(2), 239-255. Issan, S. A., & Gomaa, N. M. (2010). Post Basic education reforms in Oman: A case study. Literacy Information and Computer Education Journal, 1(1), 19-27. Lawrence, W. P. (2011). Textbook evaluation: A framework for evaluating the fitness of the Hong Kong New Secondary School (NSS) curriculum. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong. Retrieved from http://www.asian-efl-journal.com/Thesis/Thesis-Wong.pdf Ministry of Education. (2004). National report on quality education in Oman. Muscat: author. Retrieved from http://www.ibe.unesco.org/International/ICE47/English/Natreps/report s/oman_part_1.pdf —. (2010a). Draft syllabus framework for English for private schools and list of approved course book/materials for private, global and international schools. Muscat: author. —. (2010b). The English language curriculum framework. Muscat: author. Mukundan, J., Nimehchisalem, V., & Hajimohammadi, R. (2011). Developing and English language textbook evaluation checklist: A

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focus group study. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 1(12), 100-106. Mustafa, G. (2012). From legendry love of books into TV hooks. Perspectives, 19(1), 28-30. Rahimi, M. (2008). What do we want teaching-materials for in EFL teacher training programmes? Asian EFL Journal, 31. Retrieved from http://www.asian-efl-journal.com/pta_Oct_08.pdf Rahimpour, S. (2013). TEFL textbook evaluation. Proceedings from the Global Summit on Education. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Retrieved from http://worldconferences.net/proceedings/gse2013/papers_gse2013/203 %20Sepideh%20Rahimpour-2.pdf Richards, J. C. (2001). Curriculum development in language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Roche, T., & Harrington, M. (2011). Recognition vocabulary knowledge as a predictor of academic English performance and academic achievement in English. The Teaching and Learning of English in Asia 4 Conference, Bendhari Universiti Utara, Penang, Malaysia, 1012 November. Roseman, J. E., Linn, M. C., & Koppal, M. (2008). Characterizing curriculum coherence. In Y. Kali, M. Linn & J. E. Roseman (Eds.), Designing coherent science education: Implications for curriculum, instruction, and policy (pp. 1336). New York: Teachers College Press. Sheldon, L. (1988). Evaluating ELT textbooks and materials. ELT Journal, 42(2), 21-37. Ur, P. (1996). A course in language teaching: Practice and theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Wang, W. C., Lin, C. H., & Lee, C. C. (2011). Thinking of the textbook in the ESL/EFL classroom. English Language Teaching, 4(2), 91-96.

CHAPTER FOURTEEN THE CHANGING STATUS OF ENGLISH IN SUDAN: A HISTORICAL REVIEW HALA NUR UNIVERSITY OF KHARTOUM, SUDAN [email protected]

Abstract Sudan, as an ex-colony, has traditionally used English as a medium of instruction in all institutions of education. However, since 1964, Sudan has gone through a long journey of Arabicisation starting with primary and secondary schools. Throughout this journey, English language teaching has suffered and its status has changed from being a medium of instruction to being a mere subject in the school curriculum. In 1999 with ‘The Revolution of Higher Education’, Arabicisation was carried to a higher stage as the Arabicisation of institutions of higher education was fully implemented. Again, English became a subject and not a medium of instruction at the tertiary level. A real drawback started in the teaching and learning of the English language that resulted in a dramatic drop in the level of English language proficiency of university graduates throughout Sudan that has continued until now. Since 2000, economic and political factors lead to an acute need for a higher level of English language proficiency throughout the country. This paper, therefore, traces the long journey of the Arabicisation of educational and other public institutions and the influence of many factors on English language teaching and learning in the two Sudans. In doing so, it both focuses on the present situation and possibilities for the future of English in the country. Keywords: Arabicisation, diversity, Sudan, identity, colonisation

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1. Introduction Sudan is a country that is very diverse linguistically. This diversity grew out of the multiple identities of the different ethnic groups who make up Sudan. It is estimated that there are around 177 languages spoken in the country (Abu-Manga, 2006) as calculated before the secession of southern Sudan. This linguistic diversity has been the result of many factors including constant population movement as Sudan has historically been both a north-south and an east-west migration crossroads due to draught, famine, civil war, and emigration from neighbouring countries. Most African languages fall into four language super-stocks which are divided into groups that are, in turn, subdivided into sets of closely related languages. Three of these super-stocks í Afro-Asiatic, Niger-Kurdufanian, and Nilo-Saharan í with their different groups are represented in Sudan. This presence has resulted in the richness and diversity of the linguistic scene in the country. Despite this, the diversity of languages has not been a complication in most areas as it has been overcome by the emergence of some languages acting as lingua francas and sometimes by a considerable degree of multilingualism. Arabic came to Sudan in the seventh century with the Arabs and eventually became the national language of the country. In Sudan, a variety of Arabic is spoken which is known as Sudanese Arabic. It is a combination of classical Arabic and local languages. This has resulted in a variety of Arabic that is unique to the country, reflecting the way in which it has been influenced by both African and Arab cultures. Arabic, as the national language, is spoken by around 54% of the population (Lodhi, 1993) and, as a native language, is known by almost 80% of the population as an L1, L2 or L3 (Abu-Manga, 2006). Abu-Manga says about the dominance of Arabic: It serves as a lingua franca and facilitates communication between groups, which speak over a hundred mutually unintelligible languages spread all over the country, including the Southern Region. Mother tongue Arabic speakers make up the most economically affluent, socially prestigious and culturally dominant ethnic group in the country, thus Arabic’s prestige. It is the dominant language in all other official and semi-official domains, including mass media, politics, administration, the army, etc. (p. 6).

English in Sudan has had a shorter history than Arabic but the two cannot be separated from each other. The status of English has been changing throughout the history of Sudan. Politics has placed these two languages at the opposite ends of the continuum. While Arabic entered the country earlier with the Arabs and spread by diffusion, the English

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language came with British colonisation in the nineteenth century and has spread through education. Therefore, to understand the changing status of the English language in Sudan, we must trace the educational polices of the country.

2. English in the North In 1850, the Turks ruling Sudan at the time decided to open a number of schools in which Arabic and Turkish were taught. In 1898, British and Egyptian armies invaded Sudan and established what came to be known as Condominium Rule in Sudan or the Anglo-Egyptian rule. The British, who were the policy makers at the time, introduced all the educational policies. In 1902, they opened primary and intermediate schools and the first college in the country, Gordon Memorial College. The teaching of English became the single major objective of British educational policy in Sudan. Thus, English found a foothold in a land dominated by Arabic and Islam. One of the educational objectives of teaching English at the time was to create a small administrative class of Sudanese to ultimately fill the numerous minor posts in the civil service. The use of English was limited to a class of educated elite. Sandell (1982, p. 11) states: The use of English was limited to a small section of the educated elite. It was not felt to be politically expedient to do otherwise. As many of the early reports show, there was a great fear of producing a class of educated unemployed youths. As a result of this the schools produced too few graduates rather than too many.

English remained the language of education and government but Arabic was the medium of instruction in the Quranic Kutab and the lingua franca of the people. The British who worked in Sudan were expected to speak Arabic and, if not, their careers were often terminated. As time passed, more schools were opened and greater emphasis was laid on the teaching of English. In 1934, an Elementary Teacher Training College was established in Bukter Alruda. Its main aim was to train more Sudanese English language teachers to promote the teaching of the language in the country. In addition, more English language teachers were hired from Britain. With these changes, and with the increasing number of students leaving schools, more pressure was put on the British government to upgrade Gordon Memorial College and to open more secondary schools to fill the gap between the elementary and tertiary levels (Wagi’alla, 1996). In 1946, Gordon Memorial College became a university college affiliated with London University. English was the medium of instruction

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in secondary schools and entrants to Gordon College had to pass the British GCE. English was one of the main subjects in intermediate schools. In 1959, as Sudan gained its independence, strong forces were working to Arabicise the civil service and education, at least in the north. Arbab (2009, p. 11) states: However, the most drastic change that affected English language in Sudan was the suggestion made by the Sayyedien Committee. This Committee which was assigned to review the educational policy after the Independence of the country suggested that the language of instruction be changed from English to Arabic. In fact the question of Arabicization was a controversial issue.

In 1965, the medium of instruction was changed in secondary schools from English to Arabic. Many educational experts criticised the policy as mainly political rather than educational or linguistic. Despite the voices of criticism and the lack of planning for Arabicisation, by 1968 all four years of secondary schooling were taught in Arabic. In 1990, the government of Omer El Bashir announced a revolution in higher education. One of the most important aspects of this revolution was the full Arabicisation of higher education institutes. Arabic, by law, replaced English as the medium of instruction. English became a subject taught as a university/institute requirement. With the implementation of this policy, the English textbooks at the General Education level were changed, the number of teaching hours devoted to English was reduced, and literature was taken off the curriculum. As a result, many English language teacher training centres were closed down. Overall, very aggressive policies against English were implemented to ensure the full Arabicisation of institutions of higher education. English was seen as the language of the modern colonisers, i.e. Great Britain and the United States. Voices of criticism of the policy of Arabicisation were silenced and were deemed to run counter to the political will of the government.

3. English in the South Before the post-independence era, the British colonisers administrated the north and the south of Sudan separately. Schools in the north had curricula that taught Arabic and reflected Islamic heritage while schools in the south were administered entirely by missionaries and thus reflected an English language course of study. Bishai (2008, p. 2) says about this policy:

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The British thought that the indigenous tribes of the south were incapable of development. They were animist and their languages unknown to the colonisers. So, as Sandell (1982, p. 49) states, the “little money there was for education was spent in the north and southern education became the lowest priority in a low-priority area”. The great disparity in educational provision between the two parts of the country was very clear and was considered an important factor contributing to the secession of the south. At the time of British colonial rule, there was a great missionary movement across much of Africa. The missionary societies wanted to establish a chain of Christian stations across central Africa. The aim of these missionaries “was to convert not only the pagans but also the infidel Muslims whom many saw as the great Christian challenge of the twentieth century” (Sandell, 1982, pp. 49-50). The British administration, fearful of antagonising the Muslims of the north, directed these missionaries to the south of the country. As a result, education in the south was left entirely in their hands. Because one of the main objectives of the missionaries was to convert the “pagans” to Christianity, one of their first priorities was educating them well enough to be able to read the Bible. The language situation in the south, therefore, was complex. Around 40 languages existed in the region at the time and, in some places, pidgin Arabic was used. The British felt that a lingua franca was needed due to the many languages spoken in the south, but it was difficult to introduce English with the very few English teachers then available. Moreover, it was difficult for the missionaries to learn the local vernaculars and use them in instruction. Therefore, Arabic was used for a time as a lingua franca in the south, but for the missionaries this was not considered viable in the long term because Arabic meant Islam. Therefore, with pressure coming from the missionaries, in 1918 English assumed the place of the lingua franca of the south and the language of official correspondence while Sunday also became the official holiday. In 1922, the British governor passed the ‘Closed District Ordinance’ í a law that made it illegal for northerners and southerners to

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cross borders between the two parts of Sudan. In 1928, the Rejaf Language Conference was convened at which six vernaculars were identified in the south and labelled as ‘Group Languages’ to be taught at elementary schools. The Conference reinforced the teaching of English and the vernacular languages while Arabic was outlawed completely. However, after ten years, the educational situation was still not satisfactory for the British, as missionary intermediate schools failed to produce enough educated southerners for their administrative needs. In 1937, the Assistant Director of Education, C.W. Williams, reported the condition of education in the south to be unsatisfactory. He blamed the narrow outlook of the missionaries who were primarily focused on the “pursuit of their religion to the exclusion of all other things” (Sandell, 1982, p. 62). In 1945, a new Labour Government took power in Britain and it initiated talks about the future of the Sudan. Two options existed; the first was the independence of the north and the annexation of the south to Uganda. The second was the full annexation of the south by the north. At the same time, discontent started to grow with the southern policy. This policy was blamed for the deterioration of the south in comparison to the north. The criticism was also directed towards the use of English and local vernaculars in preference to Arabic. One direct result of the southern policy was that very few educated southerners were still there at the time of independence to take over the administrative responsibilities of the south. In the 1950s, Arabic was reintroduced in the south as national movements were gaining a strong foothold in the country. The language was viewed by some as the symbol of national unity. Some southerners were against Arabic, although others agreed about its re-introduction but not at the expense of their local vernaculars. This resulted in a situation where, by the mid-1950s, Sandell (1982, p. 64) states “the introduction of Arabic in the south was well under way, and the expansion of education had made good progress”. In 1955, a mutiny took place in the south as the southerners with no administrative leadership felt they were being controlled by the north. Civil war broke out between the south and the north. An accord was eventually signed in 1972 during a settlement reached in Addis Ababa. One of the main articles of the Addis Ababa Accord was an article about language. It stated that Arabic shall be the official language of Sudan and English the principal language for the southern region without prejudice to the use of any language or languages which may serve a practical

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necessity for the efficient and expeditious discharge of the executive and administrative functions of the region (Bakr, 1975). The switch back to English was slow and the policy of dual languages worked rather differently in the different regions of the south. Three types of elementary schools existed side-by-side. The first type used vernacular languages as a medium of instruction and Arabic and English were taught as foreign languages. In the second type, Arabic was the medium of instruction and English was taught as a second language. The third type of mainly secondary schools used English as the medium of instruction and Arabic was taught as a second language. This greatly added to the complexity of the language situation in the south. As was perhaps to be expected in this context, the situation continued to be rather chaotic in some places, and there were problems with students coming from Arabic intermediate schools and joining secondary schools where the medium of instruction was English. In July 1980, the Regional Minister for Education, Dr Andrew Wieu (cited in Sandell, 1982, p. 85) wrote, “In practice (the language policy) has caused alarming unrest in schools, particularly in the secondary schools. This I believe is due to the fact that it did not have a gradual introduction, neglecting provision of relevant books, syllabi and teachers, since language is believed to be a unifying factor”. This situation remained more or less the same until 1983 when President Jafaar Numeri declared the nationwide application of Sharia Law and revived efforts to impose the Arabic-language and an Islamicthemed curriculum in the south. A rebellion broke out which eventually became a large-scale civil war with Sudan’s People Liberation Army/Movement (SPLA/M) acting as a major force in the south. Two clear models of schools emerged during the forty years of fighting. In areas under government control, Arabic was used as a medium of instruction. In the areas under SPLA/M control, the situation, as described by Sid-Ahmad (2007, section 9, para. 8), was different: The SPLA/M reintroduced a version of the British colonial educational policies to the South. The SPLA/M encouraged the teaching of the vernaculars at the primary levels, and English, where possible, at the upper levels in “bush” schools, which were surprisingly successful considering the circumstances or perhaps not surprisingly so considering the development of the South’s national consciousness. In effect, during the period of pseudo-self-government, the South managed to have its own educational policy, similar to the one the Southern Region’s government, under the Addis agreement, was about to implement when the civil war broke out again in 1983.

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Arabi Juba, which is a pidgin variation of Sudanese Arabic, came to take a more important role as the lingua franca in everyday life in large areas of the south. The pidgin developed in the 19th century among descendants of Sudanese soldiers, many of whom were recruited from southern Sudan. It became a unifying language rather than English. It became a language spoken by the common people. In 2005, the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) was signed between the SPLA/M and the government of the north. This agreement allowed the south a certain degree of autonomy and officially integrated the region into the northern political system through a power sharing arrangement. In addition, according to the agreement, the south was given the right to vote for secession in 2011. Language was one of the major articles of the CPA. Chapter 2, Article 8, of the CPA states: 2.8 Language 2.8.1 All indigenous languages of Sudan are national languages and shall be respected, developed and promoted. 2.8.2 Arabic language is a widely spoken national language in Sudan. 2.8.3 Arabic, as a major language at the national level, and English shall be the official working languages of the national government and the languages of instruction for higher education. 2.8.5 The use of either language at any level of government or education shall not be discriminated against.

This article in the CPA raised the status of English to become a second, instead of a foreign, language. This was, of course, a very challenging article as English was far from being a second language in the whole country especially after the policy of Arabicisation as discussed above. However, policy makers, the media, and educationalist were very much aware of the deteriorating levels of English among students and higher education graduates and often lamented the loss of the prestige of Sudanese proficiency in the English language.

4. The Future of English in the Two Sudans Languages play a crucial role in a country’s development, national unity, and the fostering of citizenship. Arabic in Sudan assumes that role and will not be replaced by any other language any time soon. Despite this, many in the country have grown very much aware of the damage done to the teaching and learning of English due to the policies of

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Arabicisation. Many factors, both international and local, have contributed to a growing awareness of the importance of English in Sudan. Internationally, English has become the language of globalization and of the internet. It is this process of globalization that has led to increased competition between economic blocs with those in a position to take advantage of it benefitting from a rapid information and finance flow within dynamic interactive environments. A globalized world needs a lingua franca and English has become that language. In short, English has become a tool for development and Sudan needs that tool. Now, English is no longer seen in Sudan as the language of the coloniser but rather as a language for gaining competitive advantage in the global economy and an one way of helping achieve a better future. Locally, the exploitation of oil in the country and an influx of foreign investment have led to a greater need for higher English language standards amongst Sudan’s citizens. Conflict in the old south, Darfur, and more recently in Kordfan, has resulted in the influx of aid agencies and humanitarian organisations which require English language services in the south. Moreover, higher education needs English to conduct and disseminate research and to provide graduates with the communicative abilities they need to work locally and internationally. In light of this, it is perhaps not surprising that the government of Sudan has changed its view about enhancing the English language proficiency of its citizens. At the 2012 Education Conference, policy makers made a number of decisions to improve the teaching and learning of English. English teaching, it was decided, would start from grade three instead of grade five at the basic education level. A new curriculum for the basic education level is to be rewritten to replace the Spine curriculum which has acted as the official curriculum for 25 years. In addition, more funding is to be allocated to the training of English language teachers. All these decisions, along with others like adding an academic year to make the education ladder 12 years instead of 11, licensing teachers, introducing a strategy for teacher training and so on, have been implemented with the aim of improving the teaching and learning of English in Sudan. For Sudan, English is no longer seen as the language of the coloniser but rather as a tool for development. In the 1990s, the Sudanese government looked at Chinese as an optional language for development but now it has become clear that English is the lingua franca they need to communicate with the international community. The Ministry of Higher Education has thus worked towards improving English language proficiency levels by running English courses for university professors and has participated with NGOs in projects to improve the delivery of these

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courses. The Ministry of General Education, moreover, has taken huge steps in training school teachers and launching different projects for improving the teaching of English in the country. The SMILE project, funded by the World Bank and run as a partnership between the British Council, the National Centre for Curriculum and Educational Research, and the Federal Ministry of General Education, is one such project that aims to write a new curriculum for schools starting from grade three. In 2011, Sudan broke into two countries, the Republic of Sudan and the Republic of South Sudan. One of the main reasons for this break was the demand for linguistic equality and cultural autonomy by the people of the south. In the Republic of South Sudan, the political leaders chose to make English the official language. Of this situation, Goldsmith (2011, para. 1) states: The young nation of South Sudan has chosen English as its official language but after decades of civil war, the widespread learning of English presents a big challenge for a country brought up speaking a form of Arabic.

None of the local languages were chosen to be the official language, and, which brings to mind Green’s (1987, cited in Selassie, 1992, p. 39) assertion that, “Some may argue that selecting a primary language for a nation has very little or nothing to do with cultural domination”. The choice of English, rather, reflects the need to find a uniform means for communication, while also contributing towards political and economic progress. The policy makers of the south see English as a language for unity. Or, as Power and Simpson (2011, p. 4) state: Our analysis leads us to suggest that whilst national identity is likely to rest on the regular manipulation of multiple languages – both mother tongues and local varieties of Arabic and English, English is liable to play an important role, particularly in strengthening regional ties and trade within the EAC, and enabling individuals to access opportunities for personal and economic development.

This assumption about the potential benefits of English’s place in the linguistic landscape of the south remains to be proved. In particular, the selection of English to be the official language of South Sudan may appear to address some of the needs of the newly-born state, but does it address the needs of cultural unity and identity? This is a difficult question to answer now as there are over sixty indigenous languages in South Sudan. Some argue that languages have a more important role than just acting as vehicles of communication and carriers of ideas. Languages embody the

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beliefs, culture, and identity of nations (Selassie, 1992). For this reason, English seems not to be the language that will ultimately unite the different tribes of the south, as suggested by the recent outbreak of violence between two of the largest ethnic groups. The teaching of English, moreover, poses a huge challenge to the newly-born country as very few southerners speak it. It will take years and a huge and concerted effort for English to become the lingua franca of the south. As if to illustrate the point, in the celebrations of independence in 2011, the leaders of the south spoke to their people in Arabi Juba instead of English. The renowned South Sudanese writer and academic, Professor Taban Lo Liyong (cited in Al-Mahdi, 2011, para. 3), maintains that Arabi Juba should be the lingua franca of South Sudan, and not Khartoum Arabic or English. He claims that Arabi Juba is an African language that is easy to learn and is a uniting cultural factor, and that “it is graphic as well as being dramatic, so it can be used for creating laughter. Then what we need to do is to infuse and inject into it with philosophical words, serious terminologies, and serious technical words, technical concepts that is what we need”. He continues that it is the responsibility of linguists to develop Arabi Juba grammar to make it an official language.

5. Conclusion As is clearly evident from both the historical and contemporary uses of English in the country, the unique place of English in Sudan will continue to be complicated. The north sees it as a tool of development and needs a huge effort and large amounts of investment to raise the proficiency levels of its people after years of neglect. The south view it as tool for unity to help overcome the challenges associated with growing ethnic tensions. Despite the different needs associated with the official position of English in both countries, English is still viewed in the two Sudans as a tool of understanding and communication for the future. As time passes and the tensions of the secession of the south cool down, English will continue to play an even more crucial role in building understanding and peace between the two Sudans.

References Abu-Manga, A. (2006). Linguistic diversity and language endangerment in the Sudan. UNESCO. Retrieved from http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/doc/src/00142-EN.pdf

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Al-Mahdi, A. (2011). South Sudan adopts English language. Retrieved from http://sudanwatch.blogspot.com/2011/10/south-sudan-adoptsenglish-language.html Arbab, S. H. (2009). A century of English language in Sudan. International University of Africa Faculty of Arts Journal, 2, 1-28. Bakr, Y. K. (1975). Language and education in the Southern Sudan. In S. H. Hurreiz & H. Bell (Eds.), Directions in Sudanese linguistics and folklore (pp. 13-18). Khartoum: Khartoum University Press. Bishai, L. (2008). Sudanese universities as sites of social transformation. Retrieved from http://www.usip.org/resources/sudanese-universitiessites-social-transformation Goldsmith, R. (2011, October 8). South Sudan adopts the language of Shakespeare. BBC News Magazine. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine Lodhi, A. Y. (1993). The language situation in Africa today. Nordic Journal of African Studies, 2(1), 79-86. Power, T., & Simpson, J. (2011). Scoping mission for an English language training (ELT) programme in South Sudan. Retrieved from http://www.heart-resources.org/assignment/scoping-mission-for-anenglish-language-training-elt-programme-in-south-sudan/ Sandell, L. (1982). English language in Sudan: A history of its teachings and politics. London: Ithaca Press. Selassie, A. G. (1992). Ethnic identity and constitutional design for Africa. William and Mary Schools Scholarship Repository, paper 86. Retrieved from http://scholarship.law.wm.edu/facpubs/86 Sid-Ahmad, M. (2007). English as a marker of Southern Sudanese nationalism: Social history, politics and language in the Sudan. Retrieved http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/~cpercy/courses/eng6365-sidahmad.htm Wagi’alla, A. (1996). English in Sudan. In J. A. Fisherman, A. W. Conrad, & A. Rubal-Lopez (Eds.), Post imperial English: Status change in former British and American colonies, 1940-1990 (pp. 339-356). The Hague: Mouton de Gruyter.

CHAPTER FIFTEEN PROBLEMS OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE ACQUISITION IN JEDDAH, SAUDI ARABIA KHADIJAH BAWAZEER KING ABDULAZIZ UNIVERSITY [email protected]

Abstract This chapter explores the reasons behind the problems learners in the official school system in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, encounter as they learn English. I do so by conducting interviews with four English language teachers and administering a questionnaire to thirty-eight English language learners between the ages of eighteen and twenty-five who went through the different phases of the Saudi school system in Jeddah. The questionnaire explores the problems and examines some assumptions I have developed from the experience acquired from over thirty years of teaching English as a foreign language and from being a student of the same system I am examining. I conclude that the problems of English language acquisition in Jeddah result from adopting strategies that focus on grade acquisition. This is apparent in two educational strategies most respondents claimed they encountered: a focus on theoretical grammar and the memorization of short paragraphs for exams. Although the students eventually get high grades, they do not learn English because the focus is on teaching rules rather on language internalizing. Students develop psychological blockages and low self-esteem because of their inability to learn English. There are other important factors that make English difficult to attain, such as social and personal expectations that do not match input, books and curriculum that are mass produced and mass used, study skills, the logistic factors of time and place, teaching materials and teacher training. These factors should be taken into consideration when designing strategies for English language acquisition in the Saudi school system.

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Keywords: English language acquisition, grammar, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

1. Introduction Since English was introduced to Saudi Arabian (KSA) schools in 1925, interest in the language has been paramount in the Ministry of Education (Al-Abdulkareem, 1993; Al- Hajailan, 2009). Accordingly, there have been various efforts to improve the acquisition of English in KSA. However, any program implementation faces resistance, which makes it necessary for dialogue between the relevant social sectors in order to obtain improved results (Elyas & Picard, 2012, pp. 1083-1086). In 2009, there was a dialogue between the Minister of Education and teachers, parents, students and clerics which represented a paradigm shift for top KSA officials from the top-down model that has been employed in the country for a long time (Lindsay & Hager, 2014). However, despite these attempts, the improvements acquired throughout the past decade do not match the efforts made, and attitudes towards English language acquisition and the extreme focus on grades that plagues the Saudi school system has not changed. In short, implemented change did not yield the expected positive results. Since 2013, a non-typical experiment has been conducted whereby four different versions of books for teaching English have been distributed among schools to test students’ reactions to them and to learn which ones are the most effective. Though this act could be argued as suggesting desperation, it is still a positive effort because it investigates what works for learners instead of deciding this for them. However, the usefulness of the experiment cannot be judged fully before the results are released. This research is an inductive empirical investigation that aims to uncover the important issues and discourses, defined here as language formations that express and comprise a set of discursive ideas loaded with particular signification (Foucault, 1972, pp. 21-32), connected to the problems of learning English in Jeddah, KSA (Barber & Stainton, 2009, pp.47-53; Emery & Naseem, 2010, pp. 8-11). This is achieved by conducting a mixed analysis approach. Qualitative data was collected from semi-structured interviews with four teachers of English while quantitative data was gathered through a questionnaire distributed among King Abdulaziz University’s (KAU) female prep year students (Gendall, 1998, pp. 28-39; Marshall & Rossman, 1999, pp. 93, 115; Shah & Corley, 2006, pp.1821-1835). In both respects, I draw on the sociological concepts of micro and macro analyses developed by Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) and Talcot Parsons (1902-1979) in the sense of conducting a microanalysis to

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arrive at a macro understanding of the issue that can help inform education strategists within this area (Bendix, 1972, pp. 766-768; Durkheim, 1967, pp. 3-9; Lucas, 1985; Parsons, 1973, 1979). As indicated earlier, I employ a bottom-up model that is coherent with the current efforts to reach a valid solution to the problems of second language acquisition in KSA, which constitutes a shift from the previously deployed top-down model that has proven both costly and ineffective (Palmer, Rosch, & Chase, 1981, pp.135-151). The interviews and questionnaires aim to identify the problems learners encounter as they are taught English in the official school system in Jeddah, KSA, and also examine the assumptions the researcher has about these problems from thirty years of teaching English. Throughout this chapter, I point to the Saudi school system at large because the school system in KSA is national and similar in all schools, so whatever is taught in Jeddah is used everywhere else in KSA (Ministry of Education, 2014). While exploring the nature of these problems, the current research also seeks to examine alternative models of learning English in KSA.

2. Description of the Phenomena Under Study Most Saudi students think of English as too difficult to learn and almost unattainable (Al-Hajailan, 2009). English language teaching material is focused on grammar and is prepared by people who may not even have set foot in the country let alone known its learners. Nonetheless, students want to learn English because it is socially prestigious, is a job requirement in the era of globalism, and because they have to prove themselves to others such as their parents, teachers and colleagues (AlHajailan, 2009, pp. 31-34; Elyas & Picard, 2012, pp. 1083-1086; Ministry of Education, 2014). Students are first taught grammar when starting to learn English without having any vocabulary or knowledge of sentence structure to deduct from. This is like asking someone to cut wood without a saw or a knife. Beare (2014) states that one of the most important questions for a teacher to ask themselves when teaching grammar is “how do I help students learn the grammar they need” (para. 1). Vocess (2014) adds that “grammar rules of the language are difficult to learn and use properly” (para. 1). As a result of teaching close theoretical grammatical drills and rules while ignoring issues of usefulness and difficulty, English becomes a psychological burden in Jeddah and the rest of KSA. Being able to learn or not learn English, or its attainability and accessibility, impacts upon how students as well as teachers perceive

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themselves because they develop a feeling of worthlessness if they do not know English no matter how good they are in other subjects (Panggabean, 2007). Students end up judging their abilities by how much English they know and their self-esteem is determined by being able to acquire the language. Unfortunately, societies encourage this because individuals gain status in KSA through knowing English.

3. Research Questions Within this context, the main question this chapter asks is: What are the problems of English language acquisitions in Jeddah, KSA? This involves a number of sub-questions, some of which are asked in both questionnaire and interviews such as: Why do we learn English in KSA? Is English difficult to learn for Saudi students? Are current English teaching education modes and materials sufficient to cover students’ learning needs? Does teaching theoretical grammar enable school students to learn English? Is the time allotted to learning English in public schools sufficient? How are students motivated? Do Saudi learners treat all courses as knowledge retention courses? How do parents impact upon their children in their efforts to learn English? On the other hand, some questions and issues were exclusively explored through interviews, such as who should be writing the teaching material and the issue of false beginners. This chapter also explores the reasons behind the love/hate relationship with English often reported among Saudi students and how feelings of inadequacy and unattainability are created among both students and teachers.

4. Methodology and Sampling The researcher interviewed four teachers í two from KAU and two who work in the public school system outside of KAU. In addition, thirtyeight questionnaires were returned fully completed out of the sixty-four distributed. For reasons of accessibility, all participants were female. The primary criterion for choice of teachers as well as students was that all have gone through the six years of the public school system during which English is taught. Furthermore, teachers must also have a minimum of 3-5 years of experience teaching English as a second language, be between the ages of 30-40, have a bachelor degree, and never have studied abroad for a degree. The two teachers from outside KAU were afternoon students in the MA TESOL program at King Abdulaziz English Language Institute (ELI). Both worked as full-time English language teachers in a public school in

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the mornings. The two others were recruited from the ELI itself as they met all research criteria offered above and were available within the second or third week of March, 2014, when the study was conducted. For the sake of convenience, all respondents were interviewed by the researcher after calling them by phone to set a time for the interview during the research period. The interviews were conducted in English in the researcher’s office at KAU’s ELI and all were audio recorded with the consent of participants. (See Appendix A for a list of interview questions and issues.) An Arabic version of the questionnaire was distributed to student participants so that they could readily understand all items. Student participants were drawn from a workshop on methodologies of teaching English. They were all KAU female students over eighteen either doing, or having already completed, general English as part of their prep year in KAU’s ELI. All were students from Jeddah who went through the public schools system and passed with more than 85% in English on their high school exams. The researcher informed students that participation was optional and anonymous. On the questionnaire itself, there was no personal identification reference. The ladies in the workshop were given a pamphlet regarding the rights of student participation to read in Arabic and asked if they had any questions. After this process was completed and students were asked to decide if they would like to respond to the questionnaire or not, forty student respondents agreed to participate of which thirty-eight questionnaires were included in analysis (see Section 5).

5. Questionnaire Construction 5.1 Language The main aim of the questionnaire is to uncover problems regarding English language acquisition in government schools in KSA. It was distributed in Arabic to make sure that its items were understood clearly and to include participants who may be struggling with English. The researcher relied on interviews and on her observations and experiences in constructing the questionnaire. The instrument was sent to two ESL researchers to validate before distribution. After taking their remarks into consideration, the current form of the questionnaire was finalized (see Appendix B).

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5.2 Sections and Items The questionnaire consisted of eight sections that covered personal information, learning English in general (5 items), learning English in school (8 items), study habits (5 items), motivation (5 items), social and cultural impacts of learning English (4 items), change in English language teaching (items 4), and two open-ended questions about problems with learning and teaching English in KSA and potential solutions.

5.3 Scale The questionnaire had a measurement scale from 1-5 whereby: 1= I strongly agree; 2= I agree; 3= I do not know; 4= I disagree; and 5= I strongly disagree. Frequency counts for responses are reported below.

5.4 Sample Inclusion Only fully completed questionnaires by participants who learned in a public school in KSA for a minimum of six years were considered. Some points in the questionnaire were included to determine the consistency of responses. If there was discrepancy between these points, the questionnaire was excluded from analysis. These pairs of reference checking items were: items 2 and 4 in section II, 4 and 6 in section III, 2 and 4 in section IV, 2 and 4 in section V, and 2 and 4 in section VII. Two questionnaires were excluded because of discrepancies between these points with thirty-eight questionnaires analyzed.

6. Data Collection and Results The researcher conducted four 50-minutes interviews with English language teacher participants. As stated above, the focus of these interviews was on the problems learners of English experience in schools in Jeddah, KSA. Interview respondents were given a typed list of questions and issues to reflect upon and were asked to speak about these questions and issues. All were asked to offer their honest opinions, and all were again reminded that their participation was anonymous, that the researcher passed no judgment on their ideas and beliefs, and that, by participating, respondents could be part of the solution. Interviews were audio recorded with their consent.

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6.1 Interviews 6.1.1 Teacher One This was a teacher who is forty years old with almost 13 years of experience in teaching English as a second language in schools. She has taught 1, 2, and 3 prep years in the school system. She thinks education should enhance human potential and she is confused about the amount of information the teacher should offer students given the importance of the internet. When asked what she meant by ‘human potential’, the respondent said that she meant it both in relation to work and at a transcendental level. She does not think that the current education model fulfills the personal and social needs of learners. The respondent also objects to the present situation of teachers because, though they are the ones who know the material and students best, she believes there is little scope for creativity as each teacher has to follow the pre-designed curriculum and the books of the Ministry of Education, focus on grammar because it lends itself to measurability, think about satisfying educational inspectors, and be ready for finals and grades by the end of the school year. This final point means she gives prewritten paragraphs to her students to memorize for the finals. She gives her students four instead of the average two paragraphs and she consoles herself by knowing that, through memorization, the students learn a number of words and structures. The respondent maintained that students are motivated mainly by grades. When asked to speak about false beginners, she said that she does not know the term. In conclusion, the respondent thinks that students want to learn English for various practical and social reasons such as landing a job after graduation, pleasing their families, acquiring social prestige, being able to communicate with speakers of English and, finally, because they simply want to. However, she claims that, except for the last point, learners think that English is difficult and hard to attain. She does not think she gets enough training because she usually leaves workshops forgetting what she has learned there. 6.1.2 Teacher Two This respondent is 35 with 11 years of experience teaching in public schools. She teaches classes 9, 11, and 12. She read all the pre-distributed questions carefully but said she would discuss only a few. She skipped the first two questions and claimed that English language teaching focuses on grammar, which is true in her own case as grammar reigns supreme throughout her classes because of the affinity of grammar to quantitative

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assessment enforced by the Ministry of Education at the end of year. Before the exam, students are usually given 2-5 short paragraphs to memorize. In consequence, school students do not learn English, but they graduate with high scores that enable them to get into university. The respondent continued that students eventually know about English but they do not know English and cannot use it. Even their memorization skills do not come to their rescue effectively as they learn new vocab. She stated that they try to memorize a large number of words just before the exam but they usually forget most of them later. As a result, the respondent stated students end up feeling frustrated with learning English and doubt their capacities even though they feel that maybe they could deal with the problem later on in university or by going to a private institute to study English. She also said that books are given to teachers in a prescribed fashion from upper administration but these teachers do not have the time or training to deal with these books. Despite all these problems associated with English language acquisition, the respondent believes students usually desire to learn at least enough English to get them jobs when graduating. 6.1.3 Teacher Three The third respondent is a thirty-two year old Saudi teacher from the ELI who used to teach in a private kindergarten for one year and at the public school system for 3 years before she transferred to KAU’s ELI. She has four years of teaching English at the ELI. She struggles with her students and feels that no matter what she does it is not going to be effective because learners of a second or foreign language need a longer time than three to three-and-a-half hours a day for six weeks per quarter. She thinks that instructors at the ELI face a similar problem to those in the school system, which is having to race to cover the curriculum to meet exam requirements. From being in the school system herself and from checking with her students, she learned that there was a focus on isolated grammar drills and on short-term memory. She also reports that it was a common practice to give students some pre-written short paragraphs to memorize for the exams, that most students studied only before exams to get the right grades, and that the students have to face pressure from their families to do well in English as determined by their grade. Some parents tutor their children at home either regarding English or across the board of their studies in particular. She believes that a lot of false beginners come to the prep year at KAU with confused perceptions of how good their English is and a confusion between truly learning to use the language and between

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grade accumulation and knowing about English. The respondent also states that although there are a large number of workshops in the university that she can benefit from, teachers are usually too busy to go to them. There are also development symposiums that take place at the end of the year, but the respondent states that too much info in one day is hard to process so teachers usually benefit from the first and maybe the second sessions only. 6.1.4 Teacher Four The fourth respondent was 27 and has 3.5 years of experience at the ELI and no school teaching experience although she attended a public school in Jeddah as a student. This respondent feels that education should improve one morally but recognizes that English is also important for education and work these days although she perceives a larger role for learning English which is the transfer of knowledge. She believes that once an effective system is employed in schools, there would be no problem in teaching and learning English, and English will not be a frustrating language to attain. She thinks that this can be done in schools because there is enough time to learn English in university. As a teacher, she feels frustrated and incapable because she cannot make her students use English but she realizes the time for learning English at the university is not sufficient. She also believes that education should be suitable to the times and that students should use the various capacities embedded in the net and in smart phones to learn English and help make them autonomous and in control. The respondent maintains that a lot of learning can occur in schools instead of the superficial activities that eat up school time. If learners come out of school with reasonably good English language skills, then in their prep year classes at the ELI when they join university they can learn higher-level skills such as academic writing. She also thinks that the curriculum and the material decided on should be prepared, at least partially, by people who know the culture well and know students’ problems to avoid cultural clashes. As for training, the respondent emphasizes that end of year development sessions are hard to retain. There is a supervising system in place called the coordinating system that can help teachers with their questions. However, this system is threatening to non-Saudi teachers because it is also a judgment system, therefore they refrain from asking questions and do not use it much.

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6.2 Questionnaire Questionnaire sections are outlined in Section 5. In terms of demographic information related to age, thirty-one participants were either eighteen or nineteen years old while seven were between nineteen and twenty-five. Based on results from the second questionnaire section regarding learning English in general, 19 participants strongly agreed that they wanted to learn English and 17 agreed while two did not know. 35 participants did not agree with the statement that English is easy to learn while three did not know. 11 participants very strongly agreed that English is important to secure a job while 25 agreed and two were neutral. The questionnaire item “English is difficult” reports almost exactly the same findings to the item “English is easy to learn” as the same numbers are given in the opposite direction. That is, 35 participants agreed with this item while only 3 did not know. 31 participants responded very strongly to the statement “I want to learn English but I do not like the task of learning it”, while another seven agreed. Items 1 and 3 from Section III regarding learning English at school indicate that all participants went to public schools for 6 years, while only 4 also attended a language institute. However, many participants do not feel that their English is good as evidenced by the fact that they were participating in a beginners’ workshop. In school, students focused mostly on grammar when they studied English. The 5th item of this section shows that all students received pre-written paragraphs to memorize for their exams. All respondents also think that allotted school time is enough. The 6th item in section III indicates the accuracy of the previous response regarding the focus on grammar in item 4. Item 8 indicates that students do not learn English in school í 12 respondents strongly agreed and another 22 agreed with the item “I did not learn English from school”. Section IV related to learners’ study habits. 25 students strongly agreed and eight agreed that parents “work with them at home”, while only five stated some form of disagreement. Most students do not learn on a regular basis. That is, 21 participants strongly disagreed and 13 disagreed with the statement “I study on a regular basis”, while only four agreed or strongly agreed. Responses to item 3 show a reluctance to pass judgment on others. 14 respondents were neutral, five strongly agreed and 13 agreed with the statement “Saudi learners treat all courses as knowledge retention courses”, while six either disagreed or strongly disagreed. The last two items received similar responses. 33 participants each state some for agreement with items 4 and 5 – “I study when it is exam time” and “I memorize things so I can get high grades in exams” while only five students stated any form of disagreement to either item.

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In response to Section V about learner motivation, all students either strongly agreed (n = 22) or agreed (n = 16) that their teachers use grading as a motivation tool. The students themselves focus on grades as the next item shows since 35 participants displayed some form of agreement with the item “I study to get high marks”, while only three disagreed. Moreover, 35 participants either strongly agreed or agreed with item 3, “I get satisfied when I get high grades”. Responses to the item “Grades do not matter to me” indicate similar findings as 34 respondents displayed some form of disagreement and only four agreed. Responses to item 5 indicate that the euphoria acquired by getting high grades, however, is temporary. That is, in response to the statement, “The satisfaction from getting high grades lasts for a long time”, 23 participants either disagreed or strongly disagreed while only eight displayed some form of agreement. According to results from Section VI which relates to the social and cultural impact of English in KSA, 25 participants expressed agreement with the item, “My parents feel proud when I speak English”. Only eight participants disagreed with this statement. In addition, 35 students agreed that they wanted to make their parents proud of them, although 25 participants stated some form of agreement with the item “I do not feel good about my abilities without learning English”. In response to this statement, only five participants disagreed. Finally, 33 participants agreed that “I need English to work”, while only two participants disagreed. Section VII of the questionnaire was related to changes in the teaching of English in KSA. Eight students expressed some form of agreement with the item that “There is an improvement in the way that English is taught now”, although 10 students disagreed and 19 were not sure. When asked to respond to the statement “The changes [in English language education] are sufficient”, 19 participants were not sure, while only nine agreed and seven disagreed. In response to the items, “The change does not match the effort” and “The implemented changes are not sufficient”, 19 students each again were not sure. In response to the former item, nine participants each agreed and disagreed, while in response to the latter, eight agreed and nine disagreed. No participant responded to Section VIII which asked them to list some of the problems faced by Saudi students in the government school system and to suggest solutions for these problems.

6.3 Observation For almost ten years, I took written notes of my students’ reactions and behavior regarding learning English. I also used the interviews and the

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questionnaire to check these notes. I have experimented with various methodologies and strategies for teaching/learning English as an instructor in the English Department teaching, in addition to literature, courses of English as a second language for more than 30 years. I also base my assumptions on knowing the system and the learners as I was a student of the same system. Furthermore, over the past few years, I have heard in my capacity as an administrator in KAU’s ELI many opinions and complaints from teachers about teaching methods, portfolios, the authority of teachers, the quarter system, the top-down system, and the materials used. Based on these experiences, I offer the following observations. Most Saudi students think of English language learning as something difficult and almost unattainable as most of the Jeddah students struggle with English despite the number of hours allotted to it in school. Most books are written either by English or American writers who use strategies that suit their cultures but not necessarily ours, such as teaching all four language skills simultaneously. I have also observed that most curriculums and exams focus on grammar to guarantee that students go to the university after high school. Moreover, curriculum exhibits little awareness of modes that would make learning effective using the internet and smart phones such as learning patterns (Bloom, Engelhart, Frust, Hill, & Krathwohi, 1956), effective study skills (Kranylk & Shankman, 1963), multiple intelligences (Gardner, 2000), and effective group work strategies (Benjamin, Bessant, & Watts, 1997).

7. Discussion and Analysis The results of the interviews and the questionnaires show a remarkable degree of overlap with the researcher’s assumptions based on observations and experience as offered above. Three of the interviewed teachers and most respondents claimed they encountered two general teaching strategies that emphasized final exams and grade acquisition. The first was the focus on teaching grammar rules theoretically rather than internalizing them subconsciously; the second is giving students a few previously written short paragraphs to memorize and write down in the exam so they would attain the high grades important for university entrance. In fact, 75% of the teachers and most respondents said that students memorized paragraphs previously written by someone else in preparation for exams as responses to questionnaire items 4 and 5 of section III and item 2 from section V indicate. Items 4 and 5 from Section IV and the first three items from section V, as well as the interviews of the first, second, and third teachers indicate that students usually memorize a lot for the exam and

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activate short-term memory for their learning. This eventually creates many false beginners of English who end up having high grades while they have very limited English language skills or, at best, gaps in their English learning (Helgesen, 1987, p. 23-29). Too much memorization and too little internalization can also develop psychological blockages and conflicting feelings of wanting to know English and hating the task of learning it at the same time as interviews, in addition to items 1, 3 and 5 from section I and item 4 from section VI, indicate. Excessive focus on grammar is a very important factor, but it is only one factor in making English language teaching and acquisition an unsuccessful task in Jeddah. The following factors play major roles too: poor study habits that can be summed up by crash memorization the night of the exam, regurgitating the material during the exam then forgetting about it while waiting for results, and blaming others if they did not do well grade-wise. Study strategies focus on short-term memory retention of information rather than on long-term memory. All of these points were also offered by the interviewed teachers (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968, pp. 89-90; Poirier & Saint-Aubin, 1996, pp. 408-412). Furthermore, personal expectations do not match input. This has an impact on learners’ inhibition because, while students are taught grammar, they are asked to know the language rather than know about the language as the first two items from section VI indicate. The research underscores other factors that contribute to the problem such as, insufficient teacher training, study skills, multiple intelligences, motivation modes (Ferlazzo, 2013), memorization when exams are set for the sake of grades as item 5 in section IV and item 2 in section V indicate, and attempting to transfer theoretical knowledge of English grammar into practice without having sufficient vocabulary and sentence structure as items 1 and 2 in section VI suggest. Most students complained that they cannot learn English in school as suggested by item 8 in section III, for example, despite the fact that allotted time is sufficient as shown in their responses to item 7 of the same questionnaire section. Nonetheless, despite the fact that most students and teachers claimed that English is difficult, Saudi students want to learn English as items 1, 3, and 5 in section II and 3 and 4 in section VI imply. Moreover, students tend to develop dependency complexes as shown in the first item of section V. That is, as explained in the interviews, students depend on their mothers or fathers or any member of the household to fulfil school requirements, which means that parental support is vital for English language skill development. This also has the side effect of setting the house tempo to match the school tempo.

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While being taught mostly grammar, students are asked to speak the language rather than know about the language, which is, paradoxically, what they learn. This leads to the development of an exaggerated fear of failure since students want to make their parents proud as item 2 in section VI indicates. Therefore, I can safely say that expectations do not match input and that there is an unrealistic expectation of students, teachers and families when a learner is expected to know the language because he/she achieved high scores in exams. Both the interviews and the questionnaire point to a lack of intrinsic motivation. The current motivation mode is superficial and temporary because it focuses on grades only. Although, I am not against teaching grammar, nor against all forms of memorization, I believe that there is a time and a way for teaching it and for asking students to memorize. Grammar as a set of abstract rules is what I find problematic and it is the first thing school students encounter when starting to learn English, even though they do not have much internalized vocabulary or many sentence structures they can fall back on to interpret grammatical rules. Items 4 and 5 of section 4 and the first three items of section V indicate that these strategies result in many false beginners of English who end up having high grades while they have very limited English language skills or, at best, gaps in their learning of English (Helgesen, 1987, p. 23-29).

8. Conclusion Richards (2001) states that the fact that English has become an international language necessitates the need to develop effective strategies that are suitable for learners. In general, a curriculum should be set according to the requirements and abilities of the learner. However, despite the introduction of interesting and more manageable school books in Jeddah, KSA, students still do not like English. Yet, they are keen on learning it mostly because it is a job market requirement and because it is a mark of social prestige. Reform is in process. However, in order for the problem of the acquisition of English to be resolved and for reform to be effective, it must take into consideration all variables that have an impact on English language acquisition in public schools (Elyas & Picard, 2012; Nabih, Samman, Moujaes, & Abouchakra, 2008; Nolan, 2012). We must not only consider books and their contents, but also expand to other study modes such as distant learning while also focusing on the influence of study habits (Carter, Bishop, & Kravits, 2010), the reliance on memorization (Higbee, 2001), the demands and expectations of parents’ and extended

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family members, a reliance on other people instead of relying on oneself, assessment and teacher training, group work strategies, and the logistics of time and place. These are all factors that play a major role in poor English language acquisition in KSA. Teacher training is usually overlooked or done in short workshops which teachers are usually keen on attending to get points for promotion. However, I do not think that workshop training for a few days without follow up is enough. I think it is essential to make teachers experiment with the new methods and have pre-, during-, and post-coaching sessions in an unthreatening environment to help them absorb and experience the theories learned. This will enable them to handle the new methods and transfer them to their student learners with confidence (Swartz, Costa, & Beyer, 2010, pp. 33-53). Assessment is another problematic issue. Most administrators, examiners and teachers prefer doing a quantitative assessment at the end of a session. This translates into measurable criteria for some, into fairness for others, and in money and time saving for others more. It is more manageable to do a quantitative assessment and, therefore, it is easier to teach and test grammar rather than real language usage skills such as listening and speaking because these require qualitative assessments that are ideally individualized. Thus, grammar drills become preferred by most teachers who favor quantitative assessment. This does not mean, however, that we should blame teachers for this heavy focus on grammar because they have been trained to focus on this area in order to satisfy demand and to work with texts that emphasize measurable ends. Another problem is the unrealistic time expectation of how long it takes to learn English. Unfortunately, learners usually want to know and use English within a few weeks. Inability to do so adds to feelings of rejection and frustration, and the learner’s sense of failure especially given their ability to acquire high grades in most of their courses through memorization. Therefore, some learners claim they can learn many words in a day, even though this information tends to be stored in their short-term memory (Higbee, 2001). Along with these primary factors come others that also play an important part in inhibiting English language acquisition. Better and more effective study habits are internalized skills that help learners not just in learning English, but in other courses as well. The second factor is the lack of motivation other than grades. We need motivators that are not superficial and short-term so assessment should not be focused on grades only. The third factor is related to the first and is treating all courses as knowledge retention courses. The fourth is the unrealistic expectation of

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students, teachers, and families. The last is the exaggerated fear of failure because of the prestige associated with knowing English. The way we try to identify and solve our English language acquisition problems reminds me of the story of the man who was looking for a lost item away from where it fell. We need not copy other authorities and societies in teaching/learning English, but we need to look at the conditions of learners in our society as well as at the particular learning inhibitions our learners have. I say this recognizing that there are aspects of language learning that are international. For example, I have been travelling and attending conferences extensively lately and it seems that a need to move to a learner-centered approach is paramount. This would encourage our students to become autonomous learners. We also need to find out which theories work for us and which do not, and we need people to set books and curriculums who know not just about English but also about the specific problems we have in KSA, our social conditions, and our students’ study habits. Failure to take serious consideration of the specific learning inhibitors would result in unsolved problems (BernardPowers, 2011), and the blame game between learner and teacher, which serves as a self-exoneration act, would continue. This is exploratory research that aims to uncover the problems of second language acquisition in Jeddah, KSA. Further studies should be conducted to examine the findings offered here. In particular, we specifically need to examine the current form of teacher training and decide how teachers can be a crucial part of educational reform. All of these aspects need to be investigated thoroughly in order to achieve practical and lasting results.

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Barber, A., & Stainton R. (2009). A concise encyclopedia of philosophy of language and linguistics. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science. Beare, K. (2014). Teaching grammar in an ESL/EFL setting. Retrieved from: http://esl.about.com/cs/teachingtechnique/a/a_teachgrammar.htm Bendix, R. (1972). Talcott Parsons, review essay: Embattled reason: Essays on social knowledge. The American Journal of Sociology, 77(4), 766-768. Benjamin, J., Bessant, J., & Watts, R. (1997). Making groups work: Rethinking practice. Crows Nest, Australia: Allen & Unwin. Bernard-Powers, J. (2011). The ‘girl question’ in education: Vocational education for young women in the progressive era. London: Routledge. Bloom, B. S., Engelhart, M. D., Furst, E. J., Hill, W. H., & Krathwohl, D. R. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals. New York: David McKay Company. Carter, C., Bishop, J., & Kravits, S. (2010). Keys to effective learning: Study skills and habits for success. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Durkheim, E., & Mauss, M. (1967). Primitive classifications. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Elyas, T., & Picard, M. (2012). Teaching and moral tradition in Saudi Arabia: A paradigm of struggle or pathway towards globalization? Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 47, 1083-1086. Emery J., & Naseem A. (2010). Scientism and education: Empirical research and neoliberal ideology. New York: Springer. Ferlazzo, L. (2013). Self-driven learning: Teaching strategies for student motivation. London: Routledge. Foucault, M. (1972). The archeology of knowledge. London: Routledge. Gardner, H. (2000). Intelligence reframed: Multiple intelligences for the 21st Century. New York: Basic Books. Gendall, P. (1998). A framework for questionnaire design. Marketing Bulletin, 9, 28-39. Helgesen, M. (1987). False beginners: Activating language for accuracy and fluency. The Language Teacher, 11(14), 23-29. Higbee, K. (2001). Your memory: How it works and how to improve it. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Da Capo Press. Kranyik, R., & Shankman, F. (1963). How to teach study skills. Portland: Teacher’s Practical Press. Lindsay, M., & Hager, M. (2014). View from the top: An inside look at how people in power see and shape the world. New Jersey: Wiley. Lukas, S. (1985). Emile Durkheim: His life and works: A historical and critical study. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

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Marshall, C., & Rossman, G. B. (1999). Designing qualitative research. London: Sage Publications. Ministry of Education. (2014). Retrieved from http://www.tatweer.edu.sa/sites/default/file Nabih, M., Samman, H., Moujaes, C. N., & Abouchakra, R. (2008). How to succeed at education reform: The case for Saudi Arabia and the broader GCC region. Retrieved from http://www.booz.com/global/home/what-we-think/reports-whitepapers/article-display/succeed-education-reform-case-saudi Nolan, L. E. (2012). Keeping the kingdom: The politics of higher education reform in Saudi Arabia. International Studies Association Annual Conference. Retrieved from http://citation.allacademic.com/meta/p500893_index.html Palmer, S. E., Rosch, E., & Chase, P. (1981). Canonical perspective and the perception of objects. In J. Long & A. Baddely (Eds.), Attention and performance IX (pp. 187-203). NJ: L. Erlbaum Associates. Panggabean, H. (2007). How to motivate English learners with psychological burden. Kata, 9(2). Retrieved from http://puslit2.petra.ac.id/ejournal/index.php/ing/article/view/16691 Parsons, T. (1973). Nature and extent of changes in value systems of modern societies. In International Symposium on New Problems of Advanced Society (pp. 137-142). Tokyo: Japan Economic Research Institute Conference. —. (1979). On theory and metatheory. Humboldt Journal of Social Relations, 7(1), 52. Poirier, M., & Saint-Aubin, J. (1996). Immediate serial recall, word frequency, item identity and item position. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, 50(4), 408-412. Richards, J. (2001). Curriculum development in language teaching. Cambridge. Cambridge University Press. Shah, S. K., & Corley, K. G. (2006). Building a better theory by bridging the quantitative-qualitative divide. Journal of Management Studies 43(8), 1821-1835. Swartz, R., Costa, A., & Beyer, B. (2010). Thinking-based learning: Promoting quality student achievement in the 21st Century. Boston: Christopher-Gordon Publishers. Vocess, T. (2014). The best way to learn English grammar. Retrieved from http://www.ehow.com/how_8066490_way-learn-englishgrammar.html

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Appendix A: Interview Questions and Issues x What is the goal of education? x Do you think that current education modes fulfill the personal and social needs of the learners? x Does teaching theoretical grammar enable school students to learn English? x What are the alternatives to current teaching strategies? x What is a false beginner? x Would the current strategies bring in a lot of false beginners? x Do you think that learners want to learn English? x Is there a love/hate relationship with English? Why? x Do parents have a role in the process? What is it? x How are students motivated? x What is the time allotted to learning English? Is it sufficient? x Are you as a teacher trained enough to handle material?

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Appendix B: English Version of the Questionnaire Instructions: circle the one that most closely expresses your opinion 1= I strongly agree, 2= I agree, 3= I do not know, 4= I disagree, 5= I strongly disagree Section II: Learning English No Issue 1.

I want to learn English

2. 3. 4. 5.

The English language is easy to learn English is important to secure a job English is difficult I want to learn English but I do not like the task of learning it

Section III: Learning English in school 1. I learned English in public schools 2. I learned English in public schools & in a private language institute. 3. I spent 6 years in public school 4. We focused mostly on grammar at school 5. My teacher gave me pre-written paragraphs for my final 6. We focused mostly on vocabulary building in school 7. I think that time allotted in school for English is enough 8. I did not learn English from school Section IV: Study habits 1. One of my parents works with me at home 2. I study on regular basis 3. Saudi Learners treat all courses as knowledge retention courses 4. I study when it is exam time 5. I memorize things so I can get high grades in exams Section V: Motivation 1. My teachers motivate me through grades 2. I study to get high marks 3. I get satisfied when I get high grades 4. Grades do not matter to me 5. The satisfaction from getting high grades lasts for a long time

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Section VI: Social and cultural impact 1. My parents feel proud if I speak English 2. I want to make my parents proud 3. I do not feel good about my abilities without learning English 4. I need English to work Section VII: Change 1. There is an improvement in the way English is taught now 2. The changes are sufficient 3. The change does not match the effort 4. The implemented changes are not sufficient Section VIII: Open comments Please list by importance some of the problems that Saudi students face as they learn English in the regular public school classroom: ........................... ....................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................... Suggest remedies that you can think of that will enhance English language learning: ......................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................................