Invasion and Response: The Case of Roman Britain 9780860540700, 9781407323459

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Table of Contents
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
INTRODUCTION
SECTION 1: FOOD FOR THOUGHT?
SECTION 2: THE IMPACT OF A STANDING ARMY
SECTION 3: THE IMPACT OF AN INVASION ON INDUSTRY AND TRADING PATTERNS
SECTION 4: THE IMPACT OF AN INVASION ON CURRENCIES
SECTION 5: THE IMPACT OF AN INVASION ON URBAN DEVELOPMENT
SECTION 6: THE IMPACT OF AN INVASION ON RURAL SETTLEMENT
SOME CONCLUDING THOUGHTS

Citation preview

Invasion and Response The Case of Roman Britain Edited by Barry C. Burnham Helen B.Johnson

B A R British Series 7 3 1979

B.A.R.,

B.A.R.

122

Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England

GENERAL EDITORS

A. R. Hands, B.Sc., :\I.A. ,-D.Phil. D. R. Walker, �I. A.

B. A. R. 73, 1979. "Invasion and Response" © The Individual Authors The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860540700 paperback ISBN 9781407323459 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540700 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

CONTENTS

P age L is t o f C on tr ibu tors Acknow ledgemen ts I NTRODUCT ION S ECTION 1 :

B arry B urnham a nd H e len J ohnson

F ood f or Though t?

R . A . O l iver

1 1 1

C o lon iza t ion a nd D eco lon iza t ion i n Trop ica l

1 3

A fr ica 1 885-1965 D . B irmingham S ECTION 2 :

P or tuga l a nd t he A fr ican I ron Age

T he I mpac t o f aS tand ing Army

W . K irk

2 5 3 7

The Mak ing a nd I mpact o ft he Br i t ish I mper ia l

3 9

N or th- West F ron t ier i n I nd ia G . D . B . J ones

I nvasion a nd R esponse i n R o man B ri ta in

5 7

P . S . M idd le ton

Army S upp ly i n R o man G au l :

8 1

An H ypothes is

f or R oman Br i ta in K . Greene

I nvas ion a nd R esponse :

P o t tery a nd t he

9 9

R o man Army S ECTION 3 :

T he I mpac t o f a n I nvas ion o n I ndus try a nd Trading

1 09

P a t terns W . H . Mann ing

T he Na t ive a nd R o man c on tr ibu t ion t o t he

1 11

D eve lop ment o f Me ta l I ndus tr ies i n B r i ta in J . P . Wi ld

R o man a nd N a t ive i n T ex t i le T echno logy

1 23

W . R . R odwe l l

I ron Age a nd R o man S a lt- Wi nn i ng o n t he

1 33

E ssex C oas t G . B . Danne l l

E a t ing a nd Dr inking i n p re-Conques t B r i ta in :

1 77

T he e v idence o f amphora a nd s amian t rad ing , a nd t he e f fec t o ft he i nvas ion o f C laud ius S ECTION 4 :

T he I mpac t o f a n I nvas ion o n C urrenc ies

1 87

I . R . H odder

Pre-Ro man a nd R omano-Br i t ish Tr iba l E cono mies

1 89

C . C . H ase lgrove

T he S ign if icance o f C oinage i n p re-Conques t

1 97

Br i ta in R . R eece

R oman Mone tary I mpac t

2 11

P age S ECTION 5 :

T he I mpac t o f a n I nvas ion o n Urban Deve lop men t

B . W . H odder

The E uropean I mpac t o n I nd igenous N uc lea ted

2 21 2 23

S e t t lemen ts i n Wes t A fr ica J . R . C o l lis

C i ty a nd S ta te i n p re-Ro man Br i ta in

M . W . C . H assa l l

T he I mpact o f Med i terranean Urban ism o n

2 41

I nd igenous N uc lea ted C en tres B . C . B urnham

Pre-Ro man a nd R o mano-Br i t ish U rban ism ?

2 55

Prob lems a nd P oss ib i li t ies S . S . F rere

V eru lamiu m :

U rban D eve lop men t a nd t he

2 73

L oca l R eg ion S ECTION 6 :

T he I mpac t o f a n I nvas ion o n R ura l S e t t lemen t

A . H . A . H ogg

I nvas ion a nd R esponse :

C . O 'Br ien

I ron Age a nd R o mano-Br i t ish S e t t le men t i n t he

T he P rob le ms i n Wa les

2 83 2 85 2 99

Tren t B as in M . J ones a nd

C e l t a nd R o man i n t he Thames V a l ley :

D . M i les

a pproaches t o c u lture c hange

K . R odwe l l

R o me a nd t he Tr inovan tes

3 27

D . R . R ud ling

I nvas ion a nd R esponse :

3 39

Down land S e t t le men t

3 15

i n E as t S ussex S O ME CONCLUDING THOUGHTS :

Barry C un lif fe

3 59

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS D. Birmingham School of Oriental and African Studies, London B. C. Burnham St. David's University College, Lampeter J. R. Collis Dept. of Prehistory and Archaeology, University of Sheffield B. W. Cunliffe Institute of Archaeology, Oxford G. B. Dannell 42 Mymms Drive, Brookmans Park, Hatfield, Herts. S. S. Frere Institute of Archaeology, Oxford K. Greene Dept. of Archaeology, University of Newcastle C. C. Haselgrove Dept. of Archaeology, University of Durham M. W. C. Hassan Institute of Archaeology, London B. W. Hodder School of Oriental and African Studies, London I. R. Hodder Dept. of Archaeology, University of Cambridge A. H. A. Hogg Brynfield, Waun Fawr, Aberystwyth H. B. Johnson 458 King's College, Cambridge G. D. B. Jones Dept. of Archaeology, University of Manchester M. Jones Dept. of Botany, University of Oxford W. Kirk Dept. of Geography, The Queen's University of Belfast W. H. Manning Dept. of Archaeology, University College, Cardiff i

P . S . M idd le ton 4 7 P os t S tree t , G odmanches ter D . M i les Oxfordsh ire Archaeo log ica l U n i t , Oxford C . O 'Br ien Tren t V a l ley Archaeo log ica l R esearch U n i t , U n ivers i ty o f N ot t ingha m R . A . O l iver S choo l o f Or ien ta l a nd A fr ican S tud ies , L ondon R . R eece I ns t i tu te o f Archaeo logy , L ondon K . A . R odwe l l 1 2 A l ma R oad , C l if ton , B r is to l W . R . R odwe l l C raags , Mark L ane , B ris to l D . R . R ud ling S ussex Archaeo log ica l F ie ld U n i t , c /o I ns t itu te o f Archaeo logy , L ondon J . P . Wi ld Dep t . o f Archaeo logy , U n ivers i ty o f Manches ter

1

ACKNO WLEDGE MENTS

Th is v o lu me r epresen ts t he o u tco me o f ac onference h e ld i n S t . J ohn 's C o l lege , C a mbr idge , f ro m 9 th-11th March 1 979 .

A lthough t he ma in a im o f

t he c onference was t he i nves t iga t ion s pecif ica l ly o ft he i mpac t o ft he R o man i nvasion o n t he p re-Ro man I ron Age c o m mun i t ies o f B r i ta in , an u mber o f s peakers s pecia lising i n t he s tudy o f more r ecen t , h is tor ica l ly a t tes ted , c o lo n ia l p er iods were a lso i nv i ted t o p ar t icipa te . l i ke t o e x tend o ur warmes t t hanks .

T o t hese e spec ia l ly we w ou ld

Men t ion mus t a lso b e made o ft he c ha ir-

men who s o e f fect ive ly c on tro l led t he s cope o f t he i nd iv idua l s ect ion d iscuss ions : Dr . J . A . A lexander , P rofessor P . Gr ierson , Professor W . K irk a nd Dr . J . P erciva l .

Thanks a re d ue t o t hose p ar t ic ipan ts who p repared t he ir c on tr ibu-

t ions s ubsequen t ly f or t h is v o lu me a nd a lso t o t hose who h ave s ince c on tr ibuted a dd i t iona l a r tic les . We owe a s pec ia l d eb t o fg ra t itude t o t he Mas ter a nd F e l lows o f S t . J ohn 's C o l lege , who mos t g enerous ly p rov ided f i nancia l a ss is tance t owards t he c os t o f t he c onference a nd made t he i nva luab le f aci l i t ies o ft he C o l lege a va i lab le t o u s .

P ar t icu lar t hanks mus t g o t o o ur s ponsors w i th in t he C o l lege , P rofes-

s or G .

E . Dan ie l , Professor J . A . Crook a nd Dr . J . A . A lexander .

The g enera l smooth r unning o f t he c onference was f aci li ta ted b y t he h ard work o f an u mber o f i nd iv idua ls i nc lud ing i n p ar t icu lar J an A u ton , Andy Dav ison , C aro le Morr is a nd Ka te Owen .

F or t he p rov is ion o f c a ter ing a nd

b ar f aci l i t ies o n t he S a turday e ven ing we mus t t hank t he s ta f f a nd me mbers o f L ucy C avend ish C o l lege a nd e spec ia l ly M iss J oan L iv ers idge .

Many o thers

t oo n u merous t o men t ion h ere a lso h e lped i n o ne way a nd a no ther t o e nsure t he s uccess o ft he c onference . The t ask o f e d i t ing t h is v o lu me h as b een made c ons iderab ly e asier b y t he r eady a dv ice a nd h e lp p rov ided b y B arry C un l if fe .

T he e d i tors w ou ld a lso

l i ke t o e x tend t he ir t hanks t o A n thony H ands a nd Dav id Wa lker o f BAR f or t he ir c ons tan t a ss is tance .

The r eading a nd c orrec t ion o f t he p roofs h as b een

t he e d i tors ' r espons ib i l i ty , a nd a ny r e ma ining e rrors mus t b e r egarded a s t he irs .

A ugus t 1 979 . D epar t men t o f Archaeo logy ,

B arry C . B urnham

C a mbr idge .

H e len B . J ohnson

i n

INTRODUCTION by Barry Burnham and Helen Johnson

1

Present day Iron Age and Roman studies in Britain tend to be sharply divided by the momentous historical date of 43 A. D. with all its attendant conceptual and methodological problems. In a situation where areas of study and aims are clouded by scholarly allegiance, the hope of the conference upon which this volume is based was to span the two periods, by examining the general concept of invasion and response with specific reference to Roman Britain. A review of the literature produced in recent years covering aspects of the period both before and after the conquest confirms the view that 43 is as divisive a date as ever. If anything, the gulf is tending to widen between those who, working in a 'prehistoric' context, can make liberal use of the diversi­ fying conceptual and methodological trends developing in modern prehistoric studies, and those who, working in a 'historic' context, seem less easily able to sweep aside existing approaches. The adoption of the new ideas of prehistory is very apparent from a study of work on the Iron Age over the last twenty years. The recent comprehensive reviews of the period (Cunliffe 197 4 and Harding 197 4) contrast sharply with the approaches evident in such work as Hawkes (1959), Frere (1961) and Hodson (1964). Whereas the earlier authors tended to adopt a classificatory approach to the material culture, defining 'invasions' and producing such models as the ABC (Hawkes 1959), Lowland/Highland (Piggott 1958) or the Woodbury/Arras/Aylesford (Hodson 1964), the more recent writers follow to a much greater extent the recent emphases on total systemic studies, con­ sidering socio-economic interactions over whole areas, and looking at the development of complete settlement landscapes. To be sure, both authors still maintain a classificatory system, Harding a modified ABC and Cunliffe one based on pottery style zones, but for them it is no longer a totally explana­ tory tool in its own right, but merely a convenient framework for considering more complex factors. The Iron Age scholar enjoys a great advantage within his 'prehistoric' context, in that he is able to offer generalising models for criticism on their own merits, without the problem of the isolated exceptions with which historical detail tends to obscure the general patterns. On more specific aspects of the field, a now considerable body of litera­ ture emphasises the differences between older and newer approaches. While hillforts, oppida and their related problems are treated in what might perhaps be regarded as a fairly traditional way by Hogg (1975), Forde-Johnston. (1976)

1. We should like to thank Barry Cunliffe for reading this introduction. 1

a nd mos t o ft he c on tr ibu tors t o Hard ing ( 1976 ) , emp loy ing d escr ip t ions o f l oca t ion , d efence a nd o ccas iona l ly i n terna l f ea tures , works s uch a s N ewco mb ( 1968) , C un l if fe ( 1976 ) a nd t he c o l lec t ion e d i ted b y J esson a nd H i l l ( 1971 ) i nd ica te s o me more f ar r each ing p ossib i l i t ies u s ing t he n ewer a na ly t ica l a pp roaches a nd me thods .

S uch t echn iques a s t he d raw ing o f Th iessen p o lygons

o r t he s tudy o f c oin d is tr ibu t ion a reas ( Hodder 1 978 ) , h owever t en ta t ive t he c onc lus ions , a re s ure ly wor thwh i le a t te mp ts t owards a d eeper u nders tand ing o f o vera l l p a t tern ing i n I ron Age s tud ies i n B r i ta in . C hanges i n a t t i tudes t o c oin e v idence , f or e xa mp le , c an b e t raced b y c o mpar ing Hase lgrove 's c ont r ibut ion t o t h is v o lu me a nd s uch w orks a s A l len ( 1961 ) a nd R odwe l l ( 1976 ) . On a b roader s ca le , s uch works a s C larke ( 1972 ) , H odder ( 1978 ) a nd B lack more e t a l .

( 1979 ) s how h ow t he more g enera l ised i deas c urren t i n

s o me o ft oday 's p reh is tory migh t b e a pp l ied i n I ron Age c on tex ts .

R ichard

Brad ley 's ( 1978) s tudy o fp reh is tor ic s e t t le men t i n Br i ta in p oin ts u p s o me mos t i n teres t ing a spec ts o f c on t inui ty o ver p erhaps s urpr ising ly l ong p er iods . I ti s ag rea t p i ty , f or t he e d i tors ' p resen t p urpose , t ha t h e f a l ls i n to t he s a me t e mpora l t rap a s many o ther s cho lars a nd r egards t he a dven t o f t he R o mans a s t he t ermina l p oin t f or t he u se o f h is p ar t icu lar a pproaches . On t he R o man s ide , we f i nd a t endency , r a ther t han p roduc ing works w i th ag enera l a pproach , t o d iv ide t he s ub jec t ma t ter i n to t idy ' parce ls ' f or s epar a te t rea t men t .

E xamp les o f c on tr ibu t ions r ecen t ly p roduced i nc lude v o lu mes

o n t owns ( Wacher 1 966 a nd 1 974 ) , ' sma l l t owns ' ( Rodwe l l a nd R ow ley 1 975 ) , t e mp les ( Lew is 1 966) , v i l las ( R ive t 1 969 , P erc iva l 1 976 a nd T odd 1 978 ) , r ura l s et t le men t ( Tho mas 1 966) a nd a gr icu lture ( App lebau m 1 972 ) a s we l l a s as er ies o f s tud ies o n p ot tery ( Dore a nd G reene 1 977, Ar thur a nd Marsh 1 978 a nd P eacock 1 978 ) , t rade ( du P la t Tay lor a nd C leere 1 978 ) , r oads ( Margary 1 967, C heval lier 1 976 a nd J ohns ton 1 979 ) a nd a spec ts o f mi li tary a c t iv i ty ( Jones 1 975 , Breeze a nd D obson 1 976 a nd J ohnson 1 976 ) .

E ven where

a u thors h ave a t te mp ted a more c o mprehens ive a pproach , t he ir w ork t ends t o b e i nterna l ly d iv ided i n to much t he s ame s e t o f ' parce ls ' whose i n terre lat ionsh ips a re s e ldo m much d iscussed .

E xa mp les o f t h is s tructure c an b e

f ound i n mos t o f t he ' s tandard ' b ooks o n R o man Br i ta in , g o ing b ack t o R ichmond ( 1955 ) a nd R ive t ( 1958 ) , a nd more r ecen t ly i n t he c lass ic s tudy b y F rere ( 1974 ) a nd i n w orks b y L ivers idge ( 1968 ) , Wacher ( 1978 ) a nd e ven S cu l lard ( 1979 ) .

The r eg iona l s er ies p roduced b y D uckwor th ( Cun lif fe 1 973 ,

Dunnet t 1 975 , Ram m 1 978 , T odd 1 973 a nd Webs ter 1 975 ) a ga in t ends t o p resen t t he e v idence i n much t he s a me way . The emphas is f or t he s tuden t o f R o man B r i ta in t ends t o b e d ic ta ted b y t he ' h is tor ic ' n a ture o ft he p er iod , a nd b y t he v ery s pecia l n a ture o f t he R o man Emp ire , b oth p oin ts made more f orc ib ly b y J ones a nd Mi les i n t h is v o lu me . There i s a t t he s ame t ime wr it ten e v idence a l low ing t he work o f s pec if ic p eop le t o b e t en ta t ive ly i den t if ied ( e .g . Agr ico lan a nd S everan c a mps i n S co tl and ) , a nd a mass o f ma ter ia l e v idence f ro m o ther p ar ts o ft he emp ire , whose b et ter s ta te o fp reserva t ion i n s o me a reas a l lows t he u se o f a na logy i n r econs truc t ing f ea tures n o t a lways a rchaeo log ica l ly r ecoverab le i n Br i ta in . H ence t he s tuden t o f R o man Br i ta in n eeds a k now ledge o f al arge b ody o f d e ta i led ma ter ia l i n o rder t o u se t he c o mpara t ive t echniques h ab i tua l ly emp loyed i n h is s tudy , a nd t h is t ends t o l ead h im t o a' par ticu lar is t ' r a ther t han a ' genera lis t ' a pproach . 2

There a re s o me s l igh t s igns o f c hange i n t he t rad i t iona l ' parce l led ' a pp roach i n r ecen t work , e spec ia l ly i n t he c ase o fv i l las , where P erciva l 's ( 1976 ) work o n e s ta te b oundar ies a nd r e la t ionsh ips a nd Sm i th 's ( 1 978a a nd b ) c onsidera t ion o ft he f am i ly b as is o f v i l la ownersh ip a re u sefu l s teps t owards a more i n tegra ted a pproach t o t he p rob le ms o ft he c oun trys ide , a s i s Bran igan 's ( 1977 ) a na lys is o f G a tcombe a nd i t s c a tchmen t a rea . C . E . S tevens ( 1 966) h as p erhaps t aken t h is t ype o f a pproach t o t he e x treme i n h is c ha l leng ing b u t a rchaeo log ica l ly u n tes tab le d iscuss ion o fl and t enure p a t terns i n d if feren t a reas .

T he who le r ange o fn ew t echn iques a nd i deas u sed b y I an

H odder i n an u mber o f a r t ic les s uch a s t hose o n t owns a nd marke t ing p a t terns ( 1972 , 1 975 a nd 1 974 ) , a l though p erhaps s imp lis t ic , s hou ld s ugges t t ha t o ther a l terna t ive a pproaches c an p rof i tab ly b e a pp l ied e ven w i th in t he R o manoBr i t ish c on tex t .

R enfrew ( 1978 ) a nd G reene ( t h is v o lume ) a lso d iscuss s o me

o ft he p rob lems c onnec ted t o t he marke t ing o fp o t tery . Never the less , e ven a f a ir ly s ke tchy p erusa l o f s o me o ft he w orks men t ioned a bove w i l l , i n g enera l , g ive t he i mpress ion t ha t t he t wo s e ts o f s cho lars a re b eing i ncreas ing ly s harp ly d iv ided b y t he d a te o f 4 3 A . D .

Wh i le a n umber o f

a u thors o n R o man B r i ta in p ay l i p-serv ice t o t he e x is tence o fp eop le i n B r i ta in b efore t he i nvas ion , w i th i n troduc tory c hap ters o n ' The C e l t ic B ackground ' ( e .g . R ive t 1 958 , F rere 1 974 , D uckwor th s er ies ) , I ron Age s cho lars b are ly s ee m t o c over t he c onsequences o ft he i nvas ion o n t he s ocie ty t hey d iscuss . Brad ley ( 1978 ) , a s a lready men t ioned , d rops h is d iscuss ion q u i te a brup t ly , j us t when i tp ro mises t o b eco me e ven more i n teres ting . Wh i ls t t he e d i tors a re o ft he o pin ion t ha t ar econs idera t ion o ft he i mpact o ft he R o man i nvas ion o f B r i ta in i s l ong o verdue , t he e v idence p resen ted s ugg es ts t ha t t h is i s u n l ike ly t o h appen w i thou t an ew s t imu lus .

I n o rder t o p ro-

v ide s uch a s t imu lus , an u mber o f c on tr ibu tors h ave b een i nv i ted t o d iscuss t he i mpac t o f i nvas ions i n h is tor ica l ly a t tes ted c ircums tances . Th is , i ti s h oped , s hou ld w iden t he g enera l s cope o ft he v o lu me , wh i ls t a lso p rov iding a f ra mework f or t he d iscuss ion o ft he s pecif ic R o mano-Br i t ish p rob le m . The t rans i t ion f ro m t he p re-Ro man t o t he R oman i n B r i ta in s ee ms i n a ny c ase t o b e ap o ten t ia l ly u sefu l a rea f or c ross-cu ltura l d iscuss ion . Three p hases c an b e i den t if ied c over ing t h is t rans i t iona l p er iod : t he p re-Caesar ian , t he c en tury f ro m C aesar t o C laud ius , w i th G au l a lready u nder R o man d o minat ion , a nd t he p os t-conques t p roper .

I n r ecen t y ears i th as b een d e mons tra ted

i n f ac t , h ow i mportan t t he p re-invas ion c on tac ts mus t h ave b een , a nd C un l if fe ( 1974 ) g ives c ons iderab le w e igh t t o t he f orma tive i nf luence o ft he c on tac ts w i th R o man Gau l b e tween C aesar a nd C laud ius i n d eve loping t he s ocioe cono m ic p a t tern ing o ft he s ou th-eas t wh ich was l a ter , i ts eems , s o we l l s u i ted t o R o man a dmin is tra t ive n eeds .

O n t he o ther h and , i ti s a lso t rue t o

s ay t ha t t h is i nf luence , wh i ls t s trong i n c er ta in s pheres , a lso l ef t much o ft he r ura l s et t le men t p a t tern b road ly u nchanged—a f ea ture wh ich a n u mber o ft he a r t icles i n t h is v o lu me d emons tra te we l l e ven i n t he p os t-conques t p er iod . I t was o ur h ope , i n i nv i ting c on tr ibu t ions o n more r ecen t , h is tor ica l ly a t tes ted , c o lon ia l s i tua t ions , t o b r ing o u t s o me p oss ib le g enera lisa t ions a pp licab le i n a ny ' i nvas ion ' c on tex t .

O bv ious ly , wh i le e ach c o lon ia l c ase may

we l l h ave s o me f ea tures i n c o m mon w i th R o man Br i ta in , i tw ou ld b e e x tre me ly d angerous , a s B . H odder emphas ises i n t he Wes t A fr ican c ase , t o o vers tress 3

t he r o le o f s uch ' para l le ls ' .

We h ope n ever the less t ha t w e h ave managed t o

emphas ise t he u sefu lness o f c ross-cu ltura l c o mpar ison a s ag u ide t o t he p ot en t ia l n a ture o f c onques t .

K irk , f or e xamp le , d iscusses a spec ts o f f ron t ier

d eve lopmen t a nd e s tab lishmen t i n N or thwes t I nd ia , where t he B r i t ish e ncount ered p rob le ms v ery s i mi lar t o t hose f acing t he R omans i n B r i ta in ( and i ndeed i n o ther p ar ts o ft he emp ire ) , whi le H odder h igh ligh ts s o me f ea tures i n t he g row th o fc o lon ia l t owns i n Wes t A fr ica wh ich migh t b e a pp l icab le i n t hose o f R o man B r i ta in .

O l iver a nd B irm ingham d iscuss t heir t wo s i tua t ions i n more

g enera l t erms—so me o ft he p oin ts o fp oss ib le s imi lar i ty a re r ead i ly a pparen t , o thers p ose s ome th ing o f ac ha l lenge t o t hose h oping t o s tudy s ome o f t he more a rchaeo log ica l ly e lus ive a spec ts o f R o man B r i ta in .

T he mode ls o f fered b y

K irk a nd O l iver r epresen t a t te mp ts t o g enera l ise a bou t i nvas ion f ro m a s truct ura l p oin t o fv iew , a nd p rov ide a v a luab le s tar ting p oin t f or f ur ther c o mpar ii sons . Wh i ls t w e w ou ld n ot c r i t ic ise t he ' parce l ling ' a pproach t o R o man Br i ta in , t he emphas is o ft he ' co lon ia l p ara l le ls ' a nd t he n a ture o ft he q ues t ions o f i mpac t s hou ld s ugges t e ven t en ta t ive ly t ha t a t l eas t o n t h is o ccasion t here may b e g rea t a dvan tages t o b e g a ined b y a dop t ing a more i n tegra ted , s ys te m ic a pproach t o t he e v idence . The e d i tors d o n o t f or amomen t p re tend t ha t t h is v o lume h as s ucceeded i n a ch iev ing t h is s ince o ur ma ter ia l i s ' parce l led ' i n more o r l ess t he u sua l way ;

w e d id a t t imes h owever f ee l t ha t s o me s or t o f

' f our th d imens ion ' a l low ing a rgu men ts t o b ifurca te a nd l ead i n s evera l d irect ions a t o nce w ou ld h ave b een a g rea t h e lp ! R egre tfu l ly we mus t l eave t he c ha l lenge o f d eve lop ing a n ew c lass if ica tory t rea tmen t o ft he ma ter ia l t o o thers . The s ec t ions a s t hey a ppear i n t he v o lume a re b as ica l ly t hose i n to wh ich t he o r ig ina l c onference was d iv ided . A l l t he p apers p resen ted t o t he o r igina l mee ting a ppear h ere , s o me w i th s l igh t a dd i t ions , a nd we h ave b een a b le t o a dd a n u mber o f f ur ther c on tr ibu t ions n o t o r ig ina l ly p resen ted , t hese b eing t he p apers b y B urnham , Danne l l , J ones a nd M i les , Warw ick R odwe l l , R uf l ing a nd Wi ld .

Moreover , t he p aper b y Ma nning , wh ich t ime d id n o t a l low u s t o

r ead o u t a t t he c onference , a lso a ppears i n i t s c o mp le ted f orm .

The p resence

o ft hese a dd i t iona l p apers h as a l lowed u s t o e xpand t he n u mber o f s ec t ions i n t he v o lu me s o mewha t a nd t o move c er ta in p apers , n o tab ly B irmingham 's a nd I an Hodder 's , t o c on tex ts where t hey p erhaps f i t more l og ica l ly .

We h ave

i n troduced a s ec t ion o n I ndus try a nd Trad ing P a t terns , a nd s o mewha t e xpanded t ha t o n R ura l S et t le men t . T he o rder o ft he s ec t ions s eems t o u s t o r epresen t a pprox i ma te ly t he d ecreas ing d egrees o f i mpac t o ft he i nvas ion a s t he v o lume p rogresses , a l though t here were s o me c ons iderab le p rob lems . T h is i s p art icu lar ly t rue o ft he ma ter ia l o n e cono my a nd c urrenc ies , wh ich o f c ourse s tre tches r igh t a cross t he b oard f ro m c en tra l a dmin is tra t ion t o r ura l e xchange a nd v ar ies g rea t ly i n t he d egree o f R o man i nf luence i n i t s d if feren t s pheres . I ndus try c ou ld p erhaps b e r egarded i n t he s ame way . Obv ious ly t he F ood f or Though t s ec t ion i s i n tended a s as t imu lus t o s pur t he r eader ( we h ope ) i n to s ee ing t he more t rad i t iona l ma ter ia l i n n ew ways , a nd C un lif fe 's c on tr ibut ion a t t he e nd i s d es igned a s as u m mary t o t he who le v o lu me . I tw i l l b e n o t iced b y t hose f a mi liar w i th t he ' parce ls ' i n wh ich R o man Br i ta in i s n orma l ly d iscussed t ha t t here a re c er ta in om iss ions i n t h is v o lu me f ro m t he n orma l c anon o f s ub jec ts c overed . 4

I n p ar t icu lar , t he t op ics o f

r el ig ion a nd v il las a re n ot s pec if ica l ly t rea ted.

Rel ig ion was a q u ite d el ibera te

om iss ion , s ince t he s ub jec t w i l l s hort ly b e c o mprehens ively c overed i n t he p roceed ings o f t he Ox ford c on ference o n T e mp les o f May 1 979 , w h ile t he om iss ion o f v il las was l ess c a lcu la ted , a ris ing i n p art f ro m o ur d es ire t ha t o ur c on tribu tors o n t he impac t o f t he i nvas ion i n t he v ar ious r ura l a reas s hou ld c over t he ir ma ter ia l a s ac o mp le te s et t le men t l andscape , r a ther t han p ick ing o u t s pec ia l p lu ms wh ich may n ot t el l u s s o much a bou t t he p a ttern o f Ro man is a t ion o ver a n e n t ire a rea .

We a lso h ave a g ood r ecen t s u mmary o f c urren t

r esearch a nd t hough t o n v il las i n Ma lcol m T odd 's e di ted v o lu me ( 1978 1 a r ising f ro m t he 1 976 Not t ingha m c on ference , s o t ha t i ts ee med u n l ikely t ha t t here wou ld b e s ubs tan t ia l n ew c on tr ibu t ions. Another f i eld wh ich h as o n ly b een t rea ted i n t he c on tribu t ion b y Barn i J ones , a l though a spec ts h ave b een t ouched u pon b y an u mber o f t he o ther wri ters , i s t he whole q uest ion o f t he i mpac t o f t he i nvas ion i n n orthern Br ita in . Th is r a ther c o mp lex s ub jec t c ou ld e as i ly s upport a f urther c onference i n i t s el f , b u t n ever the less i tc annot b e e n t irely p assed o ver i n t he c onsidera t ion o f t he s i tua t ion i n t he l ow lands, a s i s we l l d e mons tra ted i n t he c on tr ibu t ions b y Greene a nd Midd le ton . S uch a re t he ma in om iss ions o f wh ich we a re o urselves aware — there must o f c ourse h ave b een o ther more minor a spec ts wh ich c ou ld h ave b een u sefu l ly c overed h ad t ime a nd s pace a l lowed .

We h ope t ha t r eaders w i l l f ind

n ot o n ly t he i nd iv idua l p apers i n terest ing a nd u sefu l , b u t t he d iferen t s ect ions s t i mu la t ing a s e n t i t ies i n t he mselves , where v ary ing c o mp le men tary o r c ont rad ic tory v iewpo in ts a re e xpressed i n t he h ope o f mov ing o thers t o f ur ther c ons idera t ion o f t he i ssues r a ised.

Most o f a l l , we h ope t ha t t he e n t ire v olu me

w il l b e s een a s a n i n tegra ted whole w i th a n umber o f r ecurren t t he mes , q uest i ons a nd a pproaches , a nd t ha t b y p roduc ing i t we w il l h ave e nabled s cholars i nb oth t he I ron Age a nd t he Ro mano-Br i t ish f i elds , a nd p erhaps a lso t hose c oncerned w i th ' i nvas ions ' i n g enera l , t o u nders tand more f u l ly a nd t o q uest ion more d eep ly t he d if feren t f ac tors i nvo lved i n t he i mpac t o f R o me o n B r i ta in .

I f we h ave managed t o s t imu la te s o me n ew i deas , n ew a pproaches

a nd n ew l i nes o f r esearch , we w i l l f ee l t ha t t he a im o f t h is v o lu me h as b een a ch ieved .

B IBL IOGRAPHY ALLEN D . F ., 1 961 ' The Or ig ins o f C o inage i n Br i ta in :

ar eappra isa l ' i n

FRERE 1 961, 9 7-308. APPLEBAU M S ., 1 972.

' Ro man Br ita in ' i n F INBERG H . P . R . ( Ed .) The

Agrar ian H istory o f E ngland a nd Wa les v ol . I . i i Ca mbr idge , 3 -277. ARTHUR P . a nd MARSH G ., ( Eds.) 1 978.

Ear ly F ine Wares i n Ro man

Br i ta in BAR 5 7 Ox ford. BLACK MORE C ., BRA ITH WA ITE M. a nd HODDER I . , 1 979.

' Soc ia l a nd

Cu l tura l Pa t tern ing i n t he l a te I ron Age i n S ou thern E ng land ' i n BURNHAM B .C. a nd K INGSBURY J . G .

( Eds.) S pace , H ierarchy a nd S oc ie ty BAR

S upp . S er. 5 9 Ox ford .

5

BRADLEY R ., 1 978.

The Preh istoric S et t le men t o f Br ita in . L ondon .

BRANIGAN K ., 1 977.

Ga tco mbe Ro man V il la BAR 4 4 Ox ford .

BREEZE D . J . a nd DOBSON B ., 1 976.

Hadr ian 's Wa l l

CHEVALL IER R ., 1 976.

L ondon .

CLARKE D . L ., 1 972.

Ro man Roads

L ondon .

' A Prov isiona l Model o f a n I ron Age S oc iety a nd i t s

S et tle men t S yste m ' i n Models i n Archaeology CUNL IFFE B . W., 1 973.

The Regn i Duckworth .

CUNL IFFE B . W., 1 974.

( rev ised 1 978 )

L ondon , 8 01-870.

I ron Age Co m mun it ies i n Br i ta in

L ondon . CUNL IFFE B . W., 1 976.

' The Orig ins o f Urban isa t ion i n Br ita in ' i n CUN-

L IFFE a nd RO WLEY 1 976, 1 35-161. CUNL IFFE B . W. a nd RO WLEY T ., ( Eds.) 1 976.

Opp ida :

t he Beg inn ings

o f Urban isat ion i n Barbar ian Europe BAR S upp . S er. 1 Ox ford. DORF J . a nd GREENE K ., ( Eds.) 19 77.

Ro man Pot tery S tud ies i n Br ita in

a nd Beyond BAR S upp . S er. 3 0 Ox ford. DUNNETT R ., 1 975.

The T rinovan tes Duckworth .

FORDE-JOHNSTON J ., 1 976.

H ill forts o f t he I ron Age i n England a nd Wales

L iverpool FRERE S . S ., ( Ed.) 1 961.

Proble ms o f t he I ron Age i n S ou thern Brita in

L ondon FRERE S . S ., 1 974.

Br itann ia L ondon.

HARDING D . W., 1 974.

The I ron Age i n L ow land Br ita in

HARDING D . W., ( Ed .) 1 976. HA WKES C . F . C ., 1 959.

H il lforts

L ondon .

L ondon .

' The ABC o f t he Brit ish I ron Age '

An t iqu ity 3 3,

1 70-181. HODDER I . R ., 1 972.

" Loca t iona l Models a nd t he s tudy o f Ro mano-Br it ish

S et t le men ts' i n CLARKE D . L . ( Ed .) Models i n Archaeology L ondon , 8 87-909. HODDER I . R ., 1 974.

' So me market ing models f or Ro mano-Brit ish C oarse

Pot tery ' Br itann ia 5 , 3 40-359. HODDER I .R.,

1 975.

' The S pa t ia l D istribu t ion o f Ro mano-Br it ish Smal l

Towns' i n ROD WELL a nd RO WLEY 1 975, 6 7-74. HODDER I . R ., 1 978.

' So me n ew d irec t ions i n s pa t ia l a na lys is' i n CLARKE

D . L . ( Ed .) S pa t ia l Archaeology L ondon , 2 23-351 HODSON F . R ., 1 964.

' Cu l tura l Group ings w ith in t he Brit ish p re-Ro man

I ron Age ' Proc. Preh ist. S oc. 3 0 , 9 9-110. HOGG A . H . A ., 1 975.

H il l-forts o f Br ita in

JESSON M. a nd H ILL D ., ( Eds.) 1 971. S ou tha mp ton . 6

L ondon .

The I ron Age a nd i t s H il l-For ts

JOHNSON S ., 1 976.

The Ro man Forts o f t he S axon S hore

JOHNSTON D . E ., 1 979. JONES M. J ., 1 975.

L ondon .

Ro man Roads i n Br ita in S purbooks.

Ro man Fort Defences BAR 2 1 Ox ford.

LE WIS M. J . T ., 1 966.

Te mp les i n Ro man Br i ta in Ca mbridge.

L IVERS IDGE J ., 1 968.

Br ita in i n t he Ro man Emp ire

M ARGARY I . D . 1 967.

Ro man Roads i n Br ita in

NE WCO MB R . M., 1 968.

L ondon.

L ondon .

' Geograph ica l l oca t ion a na lysis a nd I ron Age s et-

t l e men t i n West Penw ith ' Corn ish Arch . 7 , 5 -13. PEACOCK D ., ( Ed .) 1 978.

Pot tery a nd Early Co mmerce :

a nd Trade i n Ro man a nd L a ter Cera m ics PERCIVAL J ., 1 976.

The Ro man V il la

Character iza t ion

L ondon .

L ondon .

P IGGOTT S ., 1 958. ' Na t ive Econo m ies a nd t he Ro man o ccupa t ion o f N orth Br ita in '

i n R ICH MOND I . A . ( Ed.) Ro man a nd Na t ive i n N orth Br ita in

L ondon , 1 -27. d u PLAT TAYLOR J . a nd CLEERE H ., ( Eds.) 1 978. Trade :

Ro man S h ipp ing a nd

Br ita in a nd t he Rh ine Prov inces CBA. Res. Rep . 2 4 L ondon .

RA M M H ., 1 978.

The Par is i Duckworth .

RENFRE W A . C ., 1 978.

' I n troduct ion :

Product ion a nd Exchange i n Early

S ta te S oc iet ies, t he Ev idence o f Pot tery ' i n PEACOCK 1 978 , 1 -20. R ICH MOND I .A .

1 955. ( rev ised 1 963) Ro man Br ita in Pel ican .

R IVET A . L . F ., 1 958.

( rev ised 1 964) Town a nd Coun try i n Ro man Br ita in

L ondon. R IVET A . L . F ., ( Ed .) 1 969 . The Ro man V il la i n Br ita in L ondon . ROD WELL W., 1 976.

' Co inage , Opp ida a nd t he r ise o f Be lg ic P ower i n

S ou th-Eastern Br ita in ' i n CUNL IFFE a nd RO WLEY 1 976, 1 81-367. ROD WELL W. a nd RO WLEY T . ( Eds.) 1 975.

The ' S ma l l Towns ' o f Ro man

Bri ta in BAR 1 5 Ox ford. S CULLARD H . H ., 1 979. SMITH J . T ., 1 978a .

Ro man Br ita in :

Ou tpost o f t he Emp ire L ondon .

' Vil las a s ak ey t o s oc ia l s tructure ' i n TODD 1 978,

1 49-185. SMITH J . T ., 1 978b.

' Ha l ls o r Yards ? A p roble m o f v illain terpre ta t ion '

Br itann ia 9 , 3 49-358. STEVENS C . E ., 1 966. ' The S oc ia l a nd Econo m ic a spec ts o f Rura l S et tle men t ' i n THO MAS 1 966, 1 08-128. THO MAS A . C, ( Ed.) 1 966.

Rura l S et t le men t i n Ro man Br i ta in CBA Res.

Rep . 7L ondon . TODD M., 1 973.

The Cori tan i Duckworth .

TODD M. ( Ed .) 1 978.

S tud ies i n t he Ro mano-Br it ish V il la L e icester.

7

WACHti t J . S . ( ed.) 1 966.

The C iv itas Cap ita ls o f Ro man Br i ta in L e icester.

W ACHER J . S ., 1 974,

The Towns o f Ro man Brita in L ondon .

WACHER J . S ., 1 978.

Ro man Br ita in L ondon .

WEBSTER G ., 1 975.

The Cornov i i Duckworth ,

8

S ECT ION 1 :

FOOD FOR THOUGHT?

A l though t h is s hort i n troduc tory s ec t ion c ons ists o f o n ly t wo p apers , i t i s t o b e h oped t ha t r eaders w i l l d iscover e le men ts o f i n teres t i nb oth wh ich f ar s urpass t he a pparen t n arrow l im i ts.

I n t he p resen t s ta te o f a rchaeology ,

where ' d irec t a na log ies ' t end t o b e f rowned u pon , t he v a lue o f o ur ' para l lels ' b oth p resen ted h ere a nd a t t he b eginn ing o f t he a r my a nd u rban s ec t ions l i es n ot s o much i n t he ir a pparen t s im ilar i ty , s o much a s i n t he i deas d rawn f ro m t he m t o s t i mu la te n ew e xp lana tory models f or t he I ron A ge —Ro mano-Br it ish c on t inuu m .

Our c ho ice h as n ecessar ily b een s elec t ive a nd n o d oubt r eaders

w i l l h ave t he ir own p ersona l ' f avour i tes ' i n a dd it ion , b u t t h is s hou ld n ot d eny t he f ac t t ha t i n e xa m in ing q uest ions o f i nvas ion a nd r esponse a t t he g enera l e xp lana tory l eve l , we may a l l h ave much t o l earn a nd much t o c on tr ibu te f ro m o ur i nd iv idua l d isc ip l inary s tandpo in ts.

Bo th t he p apers p resen ted h ere d is-

c uss a spec ts o fv ar ious c olon ia l s i tua t ions i n d if feren t a reas o f A fr ica , a nd p oin ts emerge f ro m e ach o f i n terest a nd r elevance t o t he s pec if ic c ase o f Ro man Br i ta in :

O l iver i n an umber o f p laces h as d rawn s pec if ic a t ten t ion

t o t he s im i lar i t ies , wh ile B ir m ingha m 's p aper p oses more o f ac ha l lenge i n t he ma t ter o f c o mpar ison . O l iver d iscusses t he n ineteen th c en tury c olon ia l e xpans ion a nd s ubsequen t t wen t ieth c en tury d eco lon isa t ion b y t he E uropean p owers i n t rop ica l A fr ica. I n s o me s enses , t he a c tua l p rogress o f c olon isa t ion a s r epresen ted c an b e s een a s ad irec t c o mparison w ith t he s i tuat ion i n Ro man Br i ta in , r ef lec t ing t he i n i t ia l e xp loratory a nd t rad ing l i nks a nd u l t i ma tely t he u se o ff orce b y t he a rguably more a dvanced c u l tures i n h old ing d own a nd c onver t ing t he ir s ub jec t p eop les t o n ew ways o f l i fe. I t wou ld b e u n fa ir t o a na lyse t he p o in ts o f c on trast a nd s im ilar i ty i n a n i n troduc t ion , b u t s uch a spec ts a s t he g row th o f e xports t o p ay f or p rov inc ia l a dm in istra t ion o r t he d evelopmen t o f m in ing may s ee m f am i l iar g round , wh i le t he d iscuss ion o f t he ' conf idence t r ick ' p osed b y t he v ery sma l l n umbers o f t he m i l i tary f orces s uggests s o me i n teres t ing c on trasts. I n a dd it ion , t he " concen tr ic a nd e xpand ing c irc les" mode l o ut l ined b y O l iver , r ef lect ing t he l evels o f i n tegra t ion w ith in t he n ew c olon ies , emphas ises t he d ic tu m l a ter o u t l ined b y K irk i n S ec t ion 2 , t ha t ac olon ia l p ower t ends t o b e f orced t o k eep o n e xpand ing ; t ha t t he c onquest o f Ro man Br ita in c an b e s een t o r ef lec t t h is d yna m ic p a t tern s uggests b road s tructura l s im i lar i t ies w orthy o f s tudy . B ir m ingha m 's a r t ic le , c over ing t he Portuguese c olon isa t ion i n A fr ica , s ee ms a t f i rs t s igh t l ess d irec t ly r elevan t t o t he s i tua t ion i n B r ita in u nder f u l l Ro man d om inat ion.

On t he o ther h and , when c ons idered b y c o mpar ison

w ith Br ita in i n t he p er iod f ro m C aesar t o C laud ius , o r i ndeed w ith Gau l b et ween t he a nnexa t ion o f Provence a nd t he c ampa igns o f Caesar , t here a re s o me i n terest ing s uggest ions , p art icu larly o n t he i mp ortance o f t rad ing c onn ec t ions a nd s lavery .

O ther a spec ts c an o f c ourse f i nd t he ir p ara l lels more

d irec t ly i n t he p ost-conquest p hase.

I n p ar t icu lar i ti s i n terest ing t o n ote 1 1

t ha t t he P or tuguese c olon ists h ad s o l i t t le s uccess i n c ap tur ing f undamen ta l e cono m ic r esources s uch a s s a l t o r meta l s ources , d esp i te n u merous e xped it i ons , a nd o ne i s t e mp ted t o s pecu la te h ow much o f t he m il itary s treng th o f B r i ta in i n t he e arly d ays o f t he Ro man c onquest was r equ ired t o f urther s uch o b jec t ives. O ther u sefu l c o mpar isons a re t he i n troduc t ion o f improved c rops a nd t he s pread o f d iseases; wh i le i ts ee ms h ard t o i mag ine a ny th ing q u ite a s u np leasan t a s t he t rop ica l d iseases i n t he c ase o f Ro man Br i ta in , t here i s n onethe less t he l i ke l ihood t ha t d isease may h ave s pread i n t he wake o f t he a r my move men ts , a s t he h istor ica l s ources a t test f or l a ter p er iods. On a b roader l evel , t hose o f I ta l ian o rig in may wel l h ave f ound t he B r i t ish c l i ma te a s d eb i l ita t ing a s t he P ortuguese f ound t he t rop ics: These a re o n ly a f ew i n troduc tory r e marks : we l eave t he r eader t o f ind o ther i deas t o s u it p roble ms wh ich may s pec if ica l ly i n teres t h im .

1 2

COLON IZATION AND DECOLONIZATION I N TROPICAL AFRICA 1 885-1965 b y Roland O l iver

H av ing h ad my h ead d own f or a bou t t h irty y ears i n A frica , am id what P rofessor Trevor Roper h as t er med ' t he mean ingless g yra t ions o fb arbarous t r ibes i n p icturesque b u t i rrelevan t c orners o f t he g lobe ', If ound my k nowl edge o f Ro man B rita in s o i nadequate t hat Ih ad t o l ook u p p rec isely what w as t he mo men tous h istorical e ven t o f 4 3 A .D . Id id t h is i n what s ee med t o me ( a s ap erfec t n ov ice ) t he v ery l i vely a nd s uperbly w ri t ten w ork b y C ol l ingwood o n ' Ro man B ri ta in ', p ubl ished 4 3 y ears a go. ( CoR ingwood a nd Myres 1 936 ). R igh tly o r wrong ly , Ih ave u sed t h is b ook a s my ma in g u ide i n t ry ing t o t h ink what m igh tb e most r elevan t t o t he a rchaeolog ical s tudy o f Ro man Bri ta in i n t he much more r ecen t h istory o f c onquest a nd r eac t ionto-conquest i n A frica. N o d oubt most o f my s l i pt s w il l misf ire, wh i le o thers w il l h it d uck s t hat a re a lready l ong d ead ;

b u t t hose a re t he h azards o f a l l i n ter-d isc ip l inary w ork .

On t he whole, i ts ee ms t o me t hat i ti s i n Trop ical A fr ica b etween t he S ahara a nd t he Z a mbez i t ha t t he most u sefu l c o mpar isons c an b e f ound b etween modern A fr ica a nd Ro man B ri tain , b ecause i ti s i n t h is r eg ion t ha t w e c an s ee t he r ap id c onquest a nd ama lga ma t ion o f l arge t r ibal a reas, u ndertaken w i th a v iew t o p rof i table a dm in istra t ion r ather t han t erri torial s et tle men t. I n Egyp t a nd N orth A fr ica s trateg ic c onsiderat ions w ere much s tronger , a nd modern European imper ial is m was b u il t o n t he r e ma ins o f o lder i mper ial s yste ms. I nS ou th A frica a nd Rhodesia t he mo men tu m o f c olon izat ion s oon s h if ted i n to t he h ands o f al ocal wh i te p opu la t ion , l ong s et t led i n o ne c orner o f t he r eg ion , w ith o b jec t ives wh ich d iverged i ncreasingly f ro m t hose o f t he European c olon ial p owers. I n Trop ical A frica , h owever , t he mo t iva t ion f or c olon ial is m c a me s quarely f ro m European g overnmen ts , a nd e ssen t ial ly i t was a bou t t he d evelopmen t o f p oten t ia l s ources o f r aw ma terials o n t he o ne h and , a nd a bou t t he c rea t ion o f p o ten t ial markets f or i ndustrial p roduc ts o n t he o ther,

Both o b-

j ec t ives r equ ired t he c rea t ion o f s table g overn men t i n u n i ts much l arger t han A frica h ad k nown b efore, b u t t he l ong-ter m m igrat ion o f European p eop le was n o t f unda men ta l t o t he d esign. I n Trop ical A frica , a s i n Ro man B ri ta in , s o me migra t ion o ccurred a s ab y-produc t o f c olon ial a dm in istrat ion , b u t i tw as t he f orc ible modern isa t ion o f t r ibal s oc iet ies t ha t l ay a t t he h eart o f t he e n terprise. O f c ourse i nT rop ical A frica , a s e arl ier i n B rita in , t he p eriod o f f orceful ly imposed modern isa t ion u nder c olon ial t u telage r epresen ted o n ly a s udden n ew t hrust i n al ong h istory o f r elat ionsh ips w i th t he o u tside world .

The l ong

S aharan f ron t ier o f Trop ical A frica h ad b een r egu larly c rossed b y t rad ing c aravans a t l east s ince t he w es tward s pread o f t he c a mel i n t he e arly c en turies A . D., a nd a l l t hrough med ieval a nd e arly modern t imes g old , i vory , s laves a nd p rec ious s k ins h ad f l owed n orthwards i n to t he Musl im w orld , a nd t o s o me

1 3

e x ten t t hrough i ti n to w estern E urope. I t was i n t he w ide, S udan ic b el t o f Trop ical A frica , e x tend ing f or s o me s ix t o s even h undred m iles t o t he s ou th o f t he S ahara , t ha t c u l tural i n f luences f ro m t he o u ts ide w orld h ad b een g reatest. H ere t here w ere wal led c i t ies , b u il t o f c lay a nd i nhab i ted b y Mus l im r u lers , c lerics , merchan ts a nd a rt isans , f ro m wh ich t he m il itary a ristocracy r ode f orth t o war o n h orseback i n h el mets , c oats o f ma il a nd p added a r mour. Here w ere t heolog ians a nd j urists who s tud ied t he s a me t ex ts a s t he ir o ppos i te n umbers i n F ez , K a irouan , Ca iro a nd Baghdad. Here w ere t ownspeop le, c lo thed i n amp le r obes o f c ot ton , who p rayed , f asted a nd e ven w en t o n p i lg ri mage.

H ere w ere merchan ts , Musl i ms t o a man , who t ravel led l ong

d istances among t he p agan p eop les o f t he s ou th i n s earch o f g o ld , i vory a nd k ola-nu ts. These men h ad r eached t he s hores o f t he Gu l f o f Gu inea b efore t he Europeans a rr ived t here b y s ea , a nd t heir d escendan ts o f ten b eca me t he i n land s upp l iers o f t he A t lan t ic t rade. By t he l a ter n ineteen th c entury , t he Musl im s tates o f t he S udan ic b el t h ad p assed t he p eak o f t heir p ower.

Even

t hough t hey h ad b een s p iri tual ly r ev ived b y p owerfu l r efor m ing move men ts , t hey r e ma ined c aval ier s urv ivals i n aw orld o f f i re-ar ms. l arge a rm ies w ere t o p rove p aper t i gers. r ebel .

M il itar ily , t heir

Once c onquered , t hey d id n ot

Bu t , c ultural ly , t he ir r esistance t o c olon ical i n f luences was t o b e

s tronger t han a ny. S ou th o f t he S udan ic b el t , a l l t he r est o f T rop ica l A fr ica was l i kew ise s ea med b y s t rands o fe x ternal i n f luence, b u t i t s i mpac t w as f ar l ess v isible. Perhaps, i fo ne w ere t o l iken t he S udan ic b el t t o s ou th-eastern B rita in o n t he e ve o ft he Ro man c onquest , t he r est o f T rop ica l A fr ica migh t c orrespond r ather more t o t he s i tuat ion i n n orthern England , S cot land a nd Wales.

P ro-

b ably t he g rea test d if ference b etween t he t wo z ones o f T rop ica l A frica was i n t he means o f move men t a nd t ransport. S ou th o f t he S udan ic b el t t here w ere n o b aggage o r r id ing a n i mals. c arr ied o nh u man h eads.

Travel was o n f oo t , a nd t rade g oods w ere

N evertheless , e ven i n med ieval t imes t he l ong

a nd e as i ly n av igable e astern s eaboard o f T rop ica l A fr ica was r egu lar ly s erved b y A rab s h ipp ing , a nd t he c oast a nd o f fshore i s lands w ere d o t ted w i th merchan t s et t le men ts. F ro m a s e arly a s t he 9 th a nd 1 0 th c en tur ies g old a nd i vory f ro m t he i n terior o f t he Z a mbes i r eg ion w ere f l ow ing n orth t o t he P ersian Gu l f a nd o n t o I nd ia a nd Ch ina.

The e x istence o f t h is t rade must c erta in ly h ave a f fec-

t ed t he s tructure o f s o me A frican s oc iet ies, a nd h ave made p ossible , f or e xa mp le, t he c oncen tra t ions o fw eal th a nd p ower d e monstrated a rchaeolog ical ly i n t he s tone r u ins o f t he Rhodes ian p lateau . Bu t i tw as o n ly a round t he c oastal s et t le men ts t hat a ny l arge n u mber o f A fricans b eca me Musl i ms a nd s hared i n t he g eneral c u l ture o f aw ider world. The s a me was t rue o ft he A t lan t ic s ec tor o f T rop ica l A frica a f ter i t s o pen ing b y t he Europeans i n t he f i f teen th c en tury . The d i mens ions o f t he A t lan t ic t rade were i m mense. To t ake o n ly t he b est- k nown i t em , i ti s t oday r eckoned t ha t s o meth ing o ver n ine m il l ion A fr ican s laves w ere t ransp orted t o t he N ew World d uring t he f our c en turies f ro m t he m id-f if teen th t o t he m id-n ineteen th . The s oc iet ies o ft he Gu inea c oast a nd o f w estern C en tral A frica w ere o f c ourse p rofound ly a f fected , n ot o n ly b y t he l oss o f manpower b u t i n more p osi t ive ways a s w el l . t ake a dvan tage o ft he t rade.

Whole s oc iet ies a dap ted t he mselves t o

The more s uccessfu l among t he m b ough t f i re-

a r ms, e xpanded t heir f ron t iers a nd c en tral ized t heir p ol it ical i nst itu t ions.

1 4

B en in a nd K ongo , Oyo a nd A shan t i , a l l g rew f ro m i nsign if ican t b eg inn ings t o a pprox i ma tely t he s ize o f Ro man Bri ta in , a nd p robably a l l o f t he m r u led a t t heir p eak a l arger p opu la t ion , a nd t h is d ur ing t he p eriod o f t he A t lan t ic t rade. Even o u tside t he l arger s tates, mil l ions o f A fricans o rgan ized i n much small er s oc iet ies c a me t o d epend o n European imports —no t j ust d r ink a nd g eeg aws, b u t t ex t iles, i ron , c opper a nd b ronze f or r e-work ing ; g uns, c u t lasses a nd h ardware o fa l l s orts.

Yet , w estern T rop ica l A fr ica , e ven b y t he mid-

n ineteen th c en tury , c ou ld n ot p ossibly b e d escribed a s " western ized".

With

t he e xcep t ion o f af ew P ortuguese f orts i n t he i n terior o f Angola , Europeans i n western A frica d ur ing t he p er iod o f t he A t lan t ic s lave-trade r e mained s tric t ly c on f ined t o t he ir o f fshore i s lands a nd t he ir c oastal f ac tor ies, where t hey t ransacted t heir b usiness t hrough smal l c o m mun i t ies o f s pec ial ized midd le men , who a lone k new t he e le men ts o f European l anguages a nd h and led a l l r elat ions w i th t he i nd igenous p ol it ical a u thori t ies. Id o n ot k now whefher t hese b rief a nd n ecessarily s uperf ic ial i n troduc tory r e marks o n p re-coh n ial , f r ica p ose a ny q uest ions o f i n terest , e i ther f or B ri tain i n t he p er iod p reced ing t he Ro man c onquest , o r f or t he l a ter r e lat ions o f Ro man B ri ta in w i th t hose b eyond t he p ale. Imyself h ave b een s truck b y h ow l i t t le C ol l ingwood a t l east h as t o s ay a bou t t he s lavetrade.

Ir eal ize

t ha t t here w ere o n t he o ne h and t he p r isoners-of-war t aken d irec t ly b y t he Ro man a rm ies, t hough t here i s o f c ourse n o p aral lel i n t he l a te n ineteen th c en tury c onquest o fA fr ica b y t he Europeans , a nd o n ly a v ery t enuous p aral lel w i th s o me o f t he e arly a c t iv i t ies o f t he P ortuguese i n Angola , b u t t he o ther s ide o f t he q uest ion c oncerns t he e f fec ts o f al arge e x ternal mark et f or s laves o n t he p ol i t ics a nd s oc iety , a s wel l a s t he e cono m ics , o f n e ighbouring r eg ions. H ere i n t he p re-colon ial h istory o f T rop ica l A fr ica we h ave a ccu mu la ted q ui te ar ange o f d eta iled s tud ies wh ich m igh t w el lb e o f s o me u se t o I ron A ge a nd Ro mano-Bri t ish a rchaeology.

The b asic p o in t i s t ha t s laves w ere s eldo m

o bta ined b y k idnapp ing ; most w ere war c ap t ives. Bu t t he e x istence o f a n e x ternal market s t i mulated t erri torial e xpans ion a nd p ol it ical c en tral izat ion. The s a me was i n s o me measure t rue o f t he l ong-d istance t rade i n me tals. Metals h ad n ot o n ly t o b e e x trac ted , b u t t hey a lso h ad t o b e t ransported i n s afety t hrough t he t err itories o f n eighbouring p eop les. The s a me w as t rue o f i vory a nd o ther p roducts o f t he c hase. I n a l l t hese c ases w e h ave t o r eckon w i th t he p ol it ical a nd s oc ial i mp l icat ions o f as yste m o f a r med c aravans a nd f ort if ied r elay-po in ts s o met i mes o pera t ing o ver g rea t d istances. B efore p ass ing t o t he c onquest , Iw an t t o p ause b rief ly t o e xa m ine t he f i rst t hree q uarters o f t he n ineteen th c entury , a nd t o a sk whether t here i s a ny p ara l le l h ere w i th t he p er iod b e tween J u l ius C aesar 's c ampaigns a nd t he i nvasion b y C laud ius.

I n A fr ica t he f i rst 8 0 y ears o f t he n ineteen th c en tury

s aw t he e xp lora t ion o f t he c on t inen t b y Europeans a l most f ro m e nd t o e nd . Th is was a n i n terna t ional , s c ien t if ic e n terpr ise , t he r esu l ts o f wh ich w ere p ubl ished i n many l anguages a nd f ol lowed w i th s o meth ing o f t he s a me i n terest a s t he modern e xp lorat ion o f s pace. S econd ly , t h is p eriod s aw a c oncerted e f fort t o e nd t he s lave-trade a nd t o d evelop a l ternat ive l i nes o f c o m merce. Th is was e nforced b y n aval p a trols a nd b y t he p ost ing o f c onsu ls a t k ey p o in ts o n t he c oast l ine , w ith a marked g row th i n t he f l ow o f p ol it ical a nd e cono m ic i n for mat ion a bou t c ond it ions i n t he i n ter ior.

Among t hose who wa tched t he

r esu l ts o f t he e xp lorat ion w ere merchan ts a nd s h ippers, many o f t he m t he 1 5

d escendan ts o f t he o ld s lave-trad ing f i r ms, n ow i n terested i n a gr icu l tural p roduce —pal m-o i l a nd g round-nu ts, c of fee a nd c ocoa —who were a nx ious t o g et c loser t o t he s ources o f p roduc t ion t han t heir s lave-trad ing p redecessors. For t he most p art p ol it ical c ond i t ions p reven ted t he m f ro m p enetra t ing i n land , b u t a long t he g reat r ivers — the S enegal , t he Ga mb ia , t he N iger a nd t he Zamb ez i , t he a dven t o f s ha l low-draf t s tea mers e nabled t he m t o make a s tart . On t he h u man i tarian s ide, t he a n t i-slavery move men t was c losely l inked w i th t he e xpans ion o f Christ ian missionary e nterprise.

Th is t ook t ime t o g et

l aunched , b u t b y t he 1 870s i th ad r esu l ted i n t he e stabl ish men t o f m issionary s et tle men ts i n v arious p arts o f t he i nterior , wh ich a dded t o t he f l ow o f i nforma t ion a nd t he g row th o f p ubl ic i n terest.

When c o lon iza t ion c a me , m ission-

a ries a nd t he ir c onverts w ere t o b eco me o fg rea t i mportance a s i n ter med iaries b etween t he c olon ia l g overn men ts a nd t heir n ew s ub jec ts. wha t was a foo t.

They u nderstood

They k new t he l a tent p ower b eh ind t he smal l n u mbers o f t he

o ccupy ing f orces a nd t hrew t heir i nf luence s quarely o n t he s ide o f c ol laborat ion r ather t han r esistance. I n o ne o r t wo a reas o f t he r eg ion t he t h ird q uarter o f t he c en tury s aw a s l igh t e xpansion o f European c oastal b ases i n to t he i nt erior —notably b y t he F rench i n t he S enegal a nd t he B ri t ish o n t he G o ld C oas t a nd a round L agos.

Th is i nvolved t he r ecru it men t a nd t ra in in g o f s o me smal l ,

l oca l a r med f orces, wh ich b eca me t he n uc le i o f l a ter c olon ial a rm ies a nd p ol ice.

There i s as chool o f A frican h is tor iography wh ich wou ld weave a l l

t hese s trands t ogether i n to a c onsc ious p reparat ion f or c olon ial c onquest , b y f i rst s py ing o u t t he l and , t hen s end ing i n t he m iss ionary c ohorts t o s of ten u p t he i n tended v ic t i ms, a nd f inal ly p rovok ing i nc iden ts wh ich wou ld l ead t o i n terven t ion .

Id o n ot s ee i tl ike t h is, b u t Id o t h ink t he i nfor mat ion g a ined

i n t he f i rst 8 0 y ears o f t he n ineteen th c en tury w as a p re-cond i t ion o f t he v ery r ap id c onquest wh ich f ol lowed i n t he l ast 2 0 y ears, a nd i t mak es me w onder, p erhaps n a ively , a bou t t he p re-conquest i n tel l igence o f t he Ro mans. The f unda men tal d if ference o f c ourse b etween t he European c onquest o f Trop ica l A frica a nd t he Ro man c onquest o f B ri ta in i s t hat i t was c arried o u t b y s ix c olon ia l p owers s i mu ltaneous ly , a nd n o t j us t i n s ix s l ices ( wh ich wou ld h ave b een s o much b et ter f orAfrica ) b u t i n s o meth ing more l ike t h irty s l ices. D esp i te t h is, i th appened s o q u ick ly, a nd s o much i n p aral lel , t hat i tc an b e v iewed a s as ingle e ven t.

What d eter m ined t he t im ing w as n o t a ny a ct ion b y

t he t hree p owers wh ich a lready h ad l ongstand ing i n teres ts t here, b u t t he s udden s tate men t o f c la i ms b y t hose wh ich h ad n o t .

These c la i ms t ook t he

f or m o f t rea t ies o f p rotec t ion made b y Ger many a nd K ing L eopold o f t he B elg ians w i th A frican r u lers i n t he i nterst ices b etween t he c oastal s et t le men ts o f t he F rench , t he B ri t ish a nd t he Portuguese.

They w ere p resen ted a s a

b asis f or i n ter-European d ip lo mat ic b arga in ing a t t he B erl in C onference o f D ece mber 1 884, where i t was a greed t ha t f u ture c la i ms s hou ld b e a d jud ica ted o n as im i lar b asis, m islead ingly d escribed a s ' e f fec t ive o ccupa t ion '.

The

s cra mble was u n leashed , a nd i tp roceeded w ith s uch i n tensity t ha t o n ly s even y ears l a ter, b y t he e nd o f 1 891, most o f t he f ron t iers o f modern Trop ical A frica h ad b een a greed i n o u t l ine. Part i t ion , h owever , was n ot t he s a me a s c onquest.

Part i t ion w as a d ip-

l o mat ic e xerc ise b etween European p owers, a nd s upported o n t he g round b y a sw if t s er ies o f l i gh tly a r med c aravans, h ard ly t o b e d ist ingu ished b y t he A fr icans f ro m t hose o f e xp lorers a nd miss ionaries.

1 6

These e xped it ions made

n o i n tel l ig ible d e mands u pon t he A fr ican p eop les. They d istribu ted f l ags a nd t rade-goods, a nd t hey r eturned w i th s craps o f p aper s igned w i th c rosses. C onquest , o r, a s i tw as u sual ly c al led , ' occupat ion ' , was a much more l ong d rawn o u t p rocess, wh ich i n s o me c ases t ook a s much a s f orty y ears, o r h al f t he t otal l eng th o f t he c olon ial p er iod , b efore i t was c o mp lete.

I tb egan ,

i n e ach o ft he 3 0 o r s o c olon ial u n i ts, w ith t he e stabl ish men t o f ab ase o f o pera t ions, wh ich o f ten , b u t n ot a lways , g rew i n to t he c olon ial c ap ital. U sua l ly , s uch a b ase was s i tua ted o n t he c oast a nd n ear t he s i te o f ap rec olon ial c o m mer ical p ort , where t he r esiden t c o mmun i ty o f m idd le men i n termed iaries c ou ld b e e n l isted a s t he n uc leus o f al ocal c orps o f i n terpreters, p ol ice men a nd c aravan e scorts. The n ex t p roble m was t o d evelop , s tep b y s tep , t he o ld t rade-pa ths l ead ing t o t he i n ter ior , a nd t o e stabl ish a n etwork o f p osts a t t he t r ibal c en tres. S o l ong a s t here was n o t alk o f t ax o r t r ibu te, a nd s o l ong a s a l l s erv ices b y t he l oca l p eop le w ere h andso me ly p a id f or, t he b asic p rocesses o f i nstal la t ion c ou ld o f ten g o al ong way w i thou t a ny n ecessity f or f i gh t ing. The embryo c olon ia l g overn men ts merely b eca me a n ew v ar iable i n i n tertribal r elat ions, wh ich a l l s ough t t o e xp lo it t o t heir own a dvan tage. The ma in d anger w as t hat f r iend ly r ela t ions w ith Tr ibe A w ou ld e n ta i l u n friend ly r ela t ions w ith Tribe B , wh ile , e ven w i th T ribe A t he mo men t w as a lways l i able t o c o me when a n o u tpost l ef t w i thou t f ood m igh t f eel c o mpel led t o f orage , a nd s o t o r isk a nn ih i lat ion b y n oth ing more s erious t han a n a ngry mob. Imust s ay t hat i n r ead ing Col l ingwood n oth ing h as a ston ished me more t han t he s cale o f t he Ro man m i l i tary o pera t ion i n a t tack ing t he f u ture p rov ince o f Br ita in .

Forty t housand t roops i n t he i n it ial a ssau l t , r is ing t o s ix ty t hou-

s and d uring t he c a mpa igns o f Agricola , were n eeded a s ag arr ison f or a p opu lat ion e st i mated t o b e i n t he r eg ion o f 2m i l l ion :1

b y t he s tandards o f

European i mperial is m i n A frica , t h is was t ak ing a s ledgeha mmer t o c rush a g na t. Io nce w rote t he b iography o f a n emp ire-bu ilder c al led S ir Harry J ohnston , who was s en t i n 1 891 t o i naugura te Bri t ish r u le i n what i s n ow Malaw i a nd e astern Z a mb ia.

The a rea wou ld h ave b een l arger t han B r i ta in .

The p opu lat ion w ou ld h ave b een n earer t hree mi l l ion t han t wo.

I tw as f i ve

h undred m i les f ro m t he s ea , a nd t he o n ly a ccess t o i tw as b y at iny c o m merc ial s tea mer t hat p l ied u pt he Z a mbez i a nd i t s t r ibutary , t he S h ire , i n t he i n terests o f t he i vory t rade a nd t he s upp ly ing o f t he m issionaries o n L . N yasa.

F or

t h is e n terprise J ohnston h ad h is own s a lary a nd a g ran t o f £ 10 ,000 a y ear. Th is e nabled h im t o emp loy o ne o ther European , s even ty S ikh s old iers f ro m t he Pun jab , a nd 3 00 c aravan p orters f ro m Z anzibar. Th is w as a dm i t ted ly af a irly e x tre me e xa mp le, b u t t he B rit ish a dm in istra t ion o f Uganda s tarted w i th a n i n i t ial g ran tin-a id o f £ 50 ,000 a y ear, wh ile L ugard i n N orthern N igeria , w i th a p opu la t ion o f w el l o ver 1 0 m il l ion , h ad £ 100 ,000.

I n most

o f T rop ica l A fr ica i t wou ld b e t rue t o s ay t ha t t he i n i t ia l c o lon ia l o ccupa t ion was c arried o u tb y g roups o f Europeans who c ou ld b e n umbered i n t ens, s upported b y A fr ican t roops who c ou ld b e n umbered a t most i n h undreds. Even i fi tw as t rue, a s H ila ire B el loc r e mark ed , t hat "We h ave g o t t he Max im g un , a nd t hey h ave n ot" , Max i ms were f ew a nd c ou ld o n ly b e u sed v ery s pari ngly s o l ong a s t he ammun i t ion f or t he m h ad t o b e c arried i n h ead-loads. I n t hese c ircu mstances c o lon ia l o ccupat ion c ou ld o n ly b e av ery h esi tan t p roc ess , a ma t ter o f o pen ing c o m mun icat ions a nd e scort ing c aravans , a mat ter o f s eek ing a l l ies a nd u sing t he ir u n tra ined l ev ies t o s ubdue t he r ecalc i tran t ,

1 7

a l low ing a l l ies t o r eward t he mselves w i th t he b ooty t aken i n p un i t ive r a ids. P eripheral a reas, s o l ong a s t hey r e ma ined q u iescen t , w ere l ef t s everely a lone. Th is i s n o t t o s ay , h owever, t ha t t he c olon ial o ccupat ion o f T rop ica l A fr ica was a p eacefu l a nd b lood less a f fa ir.

On t he c on trary , t he p er iod f ro m a bou t

1 885 t i l l a bou t 1 910 was c harac terized b y a l most c onstan t f i gh t ing a nd v iolence, n ot i ndeed e verywhere o r a l l t he t ime, b u t i n many d if feren t a reas o f e ach c olon ial t erri tory. Dur ing t he s econd a nd t h ird g enera t ions o f c olon ial r u le t h is f ac t w as e as ily f orgotten b y t he c onquerors , who u sed e uphe m is ms l ike ' pac if icat ion ' t o d escribe t he p rocess; b u t a l l r ecen t , d eta i led r esearch h as s erved t o u nderl ine t he f ac t t hat c olon ia l r u le w as a lmost e verywhere i n t he e nd i mposed b y f orce. B ecause o f t he i n it ial w eak ress o f t he c olon ia l a rm ies o n t he g round , a nd a lso b ecause t he more p owerfu l A frican s ta tes w ere s i tua ted f ar i n land o n t he b orders o f t he I sla m ic w orld , t he l argest c on fronta t ions were a ble t o b e p os tponed , s o me t imes f or f if teen o r t wen ty y ears , u n t i l c olon ia l f orces h ad g rown s o mewha t s tronger. was e ncoun tered f ro m t he b eg inn ing.

Bu t r esistance o f s o me k ind

The embryo c olon ial g overn men ts

made wha t f r iends t hey c ou ld , a nd w ere s oon f orced t o a t tack t he t rad i t ional e ne m ies o f t hose f r iends.

With in e very t r ibal s oc iety t here w ere t hose who

s tood t o l ose most b y t he e stabl ishmen t o f an ew o rder, a nd t hose who s tood t o g a in b y t he ir d isp lace men t. The b usiness o f r ep lac ing i ndependen t- m inded c h iefs b y o thers more amenable b egan v ery e arly. t o a ny t r ia l o f s treng th o n h owever smal l as cale.

I t was t he n or ma l s equel Moreover, e ven i ft he

c olon ia l a u thorit ies w ere i n n o h urry t o move o n a nd c onquer t heir p eripheral d istr ic ts, t hey w ere o f ten f orced t o d o s o , a s t he l osers i n o ne r ound o f t he s truggle f l ed , t o i n it iate r esistance i n t he n ex t. I ti s t he p erenn ial p roble m o f a l l imperial e xpans ion t ha t , h av ing o nce b egun , o ne h as t o g o o n .

Tha t

t h is w ou ld s ee m t o h ave b een t he c ase i n Ro man B ri ta in , i s a l l t oo c lear. L ooked a t i n t he r ound , t herefore, o ne h as t o s ay t hat t he f i rst 2 5 y ears o f t he c olon ia l p eriod i n T rop ica l A fr ica were ap eriod o fg rea t d isturbance . f ro m wh ich a f ew A frican p eop les a nd c lasses emerged t r iu mphan t , w i th t he ir t erritor ies e xpanded a nd t heir t rad i t ional l eaders r ecogn ized , wh ile many o thers h ad s uf fered a lmost i rretrievable d efeat , t heir l ands t runcated , t heir l eaders e x i led , w ith c h iefs f ro m t he ir t rad i t ional e ne m ies a ppo in ted t o r u le o ver t he m.

I ti sb eg inn ing t o b e s uspec ted b y d e mographers t ha t o ver t he

c on t inen t a s a whole i t was a p eriod o f p opu la t ion d ec l ine.

I fs o, Ib el ieve

t h is wou ld h ave b een t he r esu l t n o t s o much o f l i ves l ost i n t he c ourse o f a c t ive r esistance , b u t f ro m l ocal f am ines f o l low ing t he d estruc t ion o f c rops i n p un it i ve r a ids, a nd a lso f ro m t he s heer l oss o f h ear t a nd h ope b y t hose c o mmun it i es wh ich f or o ne r eason o r a nother f ound t he mselves o n t he l osing s ide. P erhaps a l l t hese a re f actors w orth c ons idera t ion i n r espect o f R o man B ri tain o n t he morrow o f t he c onquest.

In ot ice i n C oR ingwood t ha t i ti s o n ly t he

most o u tstand ing a c ts o f r esistance , l ike t ha t o f Boud icca , wh ich a re r ecorded i n t he s ources. For T rop ica l A fr ica we h ave much more d e ta i led r ecords , b u t e ven s o , i ti s v ery d if icu l t t o g et t he t rue measure o f t he c oun t less smal l a c ts o f v iolence i nvolved i n s ecuring imperial c on trol . I ti s my s usp ic ion t ha t i n Ro man B ri ta in t he smal l a c ts o f v iolence must h ave b een e ven more n u merous t han i n T rop ica l A fr ica :

i ndeed , t he T ac i tean r eference t o i n iqui t ies

w i th in t he e arly t axa t ion s yste m r e med ied b y Agricola w ou ld s ee m t o b e ac ase i n p oin t . 1 8

S t i l l , d esp i te t h is s trong e lemen t o f v io lence a t t he p eripheries o f c o lon ia l s oc iet ies, s o meth ing p osit ive was g radual ly e stabl ished a t t he ir c en tres. I nt he c ase o f T rop ica l A fr ica , t he ma in d iscip l ine i mposed u pon c o lon ia l g overnmen ts was t hat t hey s hou ld b eco me, a s s oon a s p ossible, f inanc ial ly s el f-support ing. Th is mean t t hat t hey s hou ld p roduce r evenues s uf f ic ien t t o p ay f or t heir a dm in istrat ion , t heir p ol ic ing a nd t heir d efence. Th is i n t urn mean t t ha t t hey s hou ld p roduce e xports s uf f ic ien t i n v alue t o c oun terb alance t he ir i mports, i n t er ms o f s upp l ies, b u ild ing a nd r a ilway ma teria ls, a r ms, am mun i t ion , e xpatr iate s alaries a nd t he t rade-goods u sed t o p ay l ocal p ersonnel. A t t he b eg inn ing o f t he c olon ial p eriod , t he o n ly s ource o f r evenue a vai lable t o c olon ial g overn men ts w ere metropol i tan g ran tsin-a id , a nd c ust o ms d u t ies o n t he l im i ted i mport a nd e xport t rade a lready e x ist ing i n p rec olon ial t imes.

I n s o me p arts o f\ Vest A frica t h is a lready i nc luded a t rade

i n a gricu l tura l p roduc ts , g rown c lose e nough t o t he c oast t o b e moved b y c anoe o r h eadload ing , b u t f or most o f t he a rea , e x ist ing t rade w as l im i ted t o af ew e xcep t iona l ly v aluable p roduc ts, s uch a s i vory a nd r are s k ins , wh ich c ou ld s tand t he c ost o f h ead-load ing o ver l ong d is tances .

I n e ssence , t herefore ,

t he p roble m o f e cono m ic s elf-su f f ic iency c en tred a round t he p rov ision o f mechan ical t ransport b y r iver s tea mers, r a i lways a nd , a f ter a bou t 19 10 , b y motor-lorries.

B road ly s peak ing , o ne f a ir ly p rimi t ive g oods-tra in c ou ld d o

t he work o f 1 5,000 p orters. o f t hree o r f our t housand .

Qu ite a modest r iver s tea mer c ou ld d o t he work G iven mechan ical t ransport , i tw ou ld b eco me a n

e cono m ic p roposi t ion f or a gricu l tural p roduce t o b e g rown f or e xport a t a l most a ny d istance i n t he i n terior a nd f ro m t he v ery b eg inn ing o f c o lon iza t ion i n T rop ica l A fr ica i t was t he f undamen ta l e conomic o b ject ive o f a l l c o lon ia l g overn men ts t o make t h is p ossible. C olon iser, s a id L eopold I , c 'est t ransp orter. p roduc ts.

I tw as n ot o n ly , o r e ven ma in ly , t ha t Europe r equ ired t he p r i mary The r eal d riv ing c o mpu lsion c a me f ro m t he f ac t t ha t c olon ial

g overnmen ts r equ ired t he e xports , f or w i thou t t he c ash i nco mes d er ived f ro m c ash c rops t here was p rac t ical ly n o th ing t hat t hey c ou ld t ax . Mechan ical t ransport h ad n ot e ven b y t he e nd o f t he c olon ial p eriod p enet rated t o a l l t he p eripheries o f t he c olon ial t erri tories i n T rop ica l A fr ica . N evertheless , a lready b y 19 14, most c olon ial g overn men ts h ad a ch ieved a s ta te o f f inanc ial s e lf-support i n wh ich t hey w ere a ble t o p ay f or t he b asic c osts o f ma in tain ing l aw a nd o rder t hroughou t t heir t erri tories a nd t h is was more t han a ny th ing e lse t he r esu l t o fr a il , r oad a nd water c o m mun icat ions e stabl ished d uring t he f i rst 3 0 y ears o f t heir e x istence. I t was t he f i rst a nd p erhaps t he most impor tan t a ch ieve men t o f c olon ia l is m.

I t was a n a ch ieve men t made p os-

s ible o n ly b y a ne nor mous amoun t o f f orced l abour most ly i n c arry ing h eavy l oads, wh ich w as t he most g rievous a nd h a ted b urden i mposed b y c olon ial g overn men ts o n t heir s ub jec ts.

Bu t a t t he s a me t ime i td id make p oss ible

t he e l im inat ion o f f orced l abour when t he t ask was d one.

One g a thers t ha t

i n B ri ta in t he Ro man r oads were l argely b u il t b y t he Ro man s old iers, a nd t hat a t l east t here w ere p ack-an i mals a nd wheeled v eh ic les t o c arry t he l oads. Bu t c erta in ly e arly c olon ial A frica was a s cene o f =w i l l ing , u npa id p orters , march ing g rea t d istances, w ith p oor f ood s upp l ies a nd a troc ious c a mp-si tes, a nd t he t o l l o n l i fe a nd h eal th must h ave b een e x tre mely s evere.

One wonders

whether t he i nhab i tant s o f Ro man B r ita in r eal ly e scaped a s im i lar p eriod o f h ardsh ip wh ile t he r oads w ere b eing b u i l t —espec ial ly w i th t he a dded b urden o f s upp ly ing a nd ma in ta in ing t roops o n t he move. 1 9

I n T rop ica l A fr ica , t hen , o ne c an p icture t he d eve lopmen t o f c o lon ia l r u le a s as eries o f c oncen tric a nd e xpand ing c irc les —f irst a c irc le o f c au t ious, s em i-d ip lo ma t ic r ela t ionsh ips, t hen , i nside i t , ac ircle o f mil itary a c t iv i ty a nd e n force men t o f a uthor i ty , t hen a c irc le o f e cono m ic modern iza t ion c hara c ter ized b y s tea mers , r oads a nd r a i lways . Wi th t he l ast o f t hese c irc les wen t t he e s tabl ish men t o f c iv i l a d min is tra t ion , t he e ncourage men t o f c ash c rops a nd t he i mposi t ion o f p ol l t axes p ayable i n c ash , t he l ast made p ossible n o t o n ly b y modern c o m mun ica t ions b u t b y t he d ispersion o f t raders s el l ing impor ted g oods i n e xchange f or p roduce, a nd , v ery q u ick ly i ndeed , e ducat ing t r ibal p eop les i n t he u se o f c o inage. The t raders w ere a lways i n s o me s ense f oreigners — in West A fr ica mest izos a nd c oastmen f ro m t he o ld midd le men c lass, i n East A frica I nd ians.

They s e t t led b es ide t he a dm in istra tors , i no r

n ear t he t r ibal c ap i tals, a nd l ike t he a dm in istra tors t hey s oon s tarted t o t our t he v i l lages.

S o t here emerged t he b eg inn ings o ft he modern t ownsh ips —a

t iny c ircle o f European h ouses b u il t r ound a n o pen s pace wh ich s tarted a s a p arade g round a nd l a ter b eca me a g olf c ourse, a nd a s ing le s treet o f t raders ' s hops , s eparated f ro m t he European dwe l l ings b y ad istric t of ice, a s i mp le c ourthouse, p ol ice l i nes a nd p erhaps a p r ison .

V ery s oon a c lubhouse ( f or

wh i tes o n ly ) , b u t d ef in i tely n o p ubl ic b ath s, a nd n o amph itheatre.

I ti s a n

i n terest ing r ef lec t ion o n European c olon ial is m i n A fr ica t hat n o p laces o f p ubl ic a sse mbly w ere p rov ided , e ven i n t he c olon ial c ap i tals , u n t il t he p ol i t ica l l eaders o ft he i ndependence p eriod i nsisted o n t he b u i ld ing o f s tad ia.

Is o me-

t imes w onder i fo ne o f o ur g ravest d efec ts a s c olon izers w as t ha t w e b ored o ur s ub jec ts. One f ea ture c o m mon t o a l most e very c o lon ial t ownsh ip a nd o f t he g reatest importance t o t he d evelop men t o f c olon ial A frica , was t he Chr ist ian Mission . Though i nhab i ted b y Europeans, i t was n ever s et i n t he o f f ic ia l European q uart er o ft he t ownsh ip , b u t more l ikely o n t he o pposi te s ide o f t he t r ibal c ap i ta l o r e ven o u t i n t he c oun try.

The b u ild ings v ar ied s o mewhat a ccord ing t o t he

d eno m iat ion , a nd o f c ourse t hey i nc luded c hurches.

Bu t e ssen t ial ly t hese

p laces were s chools, a nd n o t merely s chools b u t b oard ing schools, i nhab ited f ro m q u i te e arly d ays b y l arge n umbers o f A frican c h ildren a nd b y g row ing n u mbers o f A fr ican a s w el l a s European t eachers. Withou t a ny d oubt , i t was t he m ission r a ther t han t he g overn men t s ta t ions t ha t was t he s pearhead o f w estern iza t ion .

H ere c h i ldren l earned t o r ead , w rite a nd p ray , a t f i rst

i n t he ir own l anguages , b u t l a ter i n E ng l ish o r F rench o r G er man o r P ortuguese o r e ven i n L at in .

Bu t h ere t hey a lso l earned t o s leep i nb eds , t o wash w i th

s oap , t o e at a t t ables, t o w ear s horts a nd s h irts a nd p inafore f rocks, t o p lay f ootbal l a nd t o t ake European med ic ines when t hey w ere s ick .

Their r el ig ious

e xerc ises a nd t he ir s chool l essons a l ike t augh t t he m a bou t aw ider world a nd t heir own p lace i n i t , a nd t he most a p t o f t he e arly p up ils q u ick ly moved o u t t o r epea t s o meth ing o ft he s a me p rocess i n t he s urround ing v i l lages. S o me moved i n to t he s erv ice o f t heir own t r ibal g overn men ts.

S o me m igrated t o

t he c olon ial c ap i tal . S o me e ven tual ly t ravel led a broad. These w ere t he p eop le who f e l t mos t a t h o me i n t he c olon ial s yste m. These w ere t he p eop le whose c h i ldren a nd g rand-ch ildren f i rst l earned t o o ppose i t—or r a ther t o c ap ture i tf ro m t he i nside.

A s L ord Duncan S andys h as s a id :

" Once y ou 've

g iven t he m Christ ian t i ty a nd e duca t ion , Ir eckon y ou 've j ust a bout h ad i t ".

2 0

N o d oubt i ti s j ust my own i gnorance o f t he Ro man s yste m , b u t c erta in ly i n r ead ing C oR ingwood Ih ave f ound i tv ery d if f icu l t t o imag ine h ow t he p rocess o f Ro man iza t ion was s o t horough ly a cco mp l ished w i thou t a ny v isible e qu ivalen t o ft he m ission s chool.

I ti s ap roble m wh ich s ee ms t o me most a cu te i n r e la-

t i on t o t he t r ibal k ingdo ms o f t he s ou th-east , where i f Ih ave u nderstood i t c orrec t ly , t he m i l i tary p resence was s hor t-l ived a nd where t he c iv il a dm in is tra t ion o f t he Ro mans was l argely c oncerned w i th t he r a ising o f t ax a nd t r ibu te.

Ic an u nderstand t hat i n t he h eav ily g arrisoned r eg ions o f t he n orth

a nd west t here w ou ld h ave b een a p at tern o f c u l tural i n tegrat ion r a ther more l ike Ro man o r Arab N orth A frica , whereby a m i l itary c a mp g rew i n to a t own , a nd t he r e t ired s old iers t ook u p l and n earby, i n ter marr ied w i th t he

l ocals,

a nd h ad c h ildren a nd g randch i ldren who g rew u p i n t he c u l ture o f t he i nvaders. Bu t wha t a bou t C an terbury , Ch ichester , Winchester, S i lchester, C irencester a nd D orchester , a nd t he r est? These a re t he p laces wh ich s hou ld p erhaps h ave most r esemb led t he B ri t ish D istr ic t H eadquarters o r t he G er man B ezirksamt o r t he F rench o r B e lg ian C en tre d u Territo ire, s et d own b eside a t r ibal c ap ital , a nd c erta in ly e xerc ising a g ood d eal o f p ol i t ical a nd e cono m ic a nd j ud ic ial i n f luence u pon i t , b u t c erta in ly n o t e xerc ising t he d irec t e ducat ional a nd c u l tural i n f luence r ad iated b y t he Christ ian m ission . O r p erhaps , t o j udge f ro m t he r eferences i n Tac i tus t o Agricolan e ncourage men t i n t he b u i ld ing o f t e mp les , f ora a nd h ouses a nd t he a dop t ion o f t he L at in l anguage s o w el l a t tested b y t he a bundan t e p igraph ic material , t here may h ave b een s o me f or m o f o f f ic ial s t i mu lus t o e duca te t he r icher me mbers a t l east o f t he t r ibal s oc iety , i n t he a dop t ion o f Ro man c usto ms a nd s tandards.

Th is was most c erta in ly t he c ase

i n t he d ef in i t ively Musl im r eg ions o f T rop ical A frica , where g overnmen t e duca t ion s erv ices h ad t o t ake t he p lace o f missionary e duca t ion wh ich w as o bv iously u naccep table.

These were much s lower t o g et o f f t he g round , w i th

t he r esu l t t hat Musl im T rop ica l A fr ica was o ver taken b y C hris t ian T rop ica l A frica i nt he s cra mble f or w estern izat ion. Bu t e ven i n Musl im a reas e ducat i on was t he s pearhead o f modern iza t ion. Iam n ot s ure i ft he s ons o f t he Fu lan i em irs o f n or thern N igeria p layed p olo a t t heir b oard ing s chools, b u t t hey c erta in ly p layed E ton f i ves. One s ide o f t he European c olon ial s yste m i n T rop ica l A fr ica wh ich s hou ld b e b orne c onstan t ly i n m ind i na ny c o mparisons w i th Ro man B ri ta in—and t he more s o a s we move t owards t he l a ter p art o ft he c olon ial p er iod i n A frica — i s wha t o ne migh t c al l t he p rest ige f actor , o r a l terna t ively t he e x ten t o f t he c onf idence t r ick . Ih ave a lready c o m men ted o n t he t i ny f orces wh ich c arried o u t t he o ccupa t ion o f T rop ica l A fr ica i n c omparison w i th t he c onques t f orces o f t he Ro mans.

I fw e l ook n ow a t t he h igh p eriod o f c olon ial is m , a round 1 930 ,

t he c on trast i s s t i l l p ret ty s taggering. I n 1 931 t he N iger ian c ensus f i gures s howed a p opu lat ion o f 1 9 m il l ion , a nd i t was p robably a c onsiderable u ndere st i ma te.

Three y ears e arl ier, t he mil i tary g arrison o f N igeria n u mbered

3 ,600 , wh i le t he p ol ice i n t he s erv ice o f t he c olon ial g overnmen t , who w ere t ra ined i n t he u se o f r if les , n umbered a f urther 4 ,000. The r ank a nd f i le o f b oth f orces were o f c ourse l ocal A fricans. The p ol ice w orked u nder 7 0 B ri t ish o f f icers , a nd Is uppose t he m il i tary h ad a bou t t he s a me n u mber. The Gold C oast , w i th a ne s t i ma ted p opu lat ion o f a bou t 3m i l l ion , h ad 1 350 s old iers a nd 1 800 p ol ice. K enya , w ith a p opu lat ion o f 3m il l ion , h ad 1 200 t roops a nd 2 ,000 p ol ice. Tangany ika , w i th 5 m il l ion p eop le, h ad 8 00 t roops a nd 1 ,800 p ol ice.

F rench f i gures were marked ly h igher. 2 1

F rench West A frica , w ith a

p opu lat ion o f 1 41 m il l ion h ad 1 5,000 t roops a nd t he s a me n umber o f p ol ice. French Equatorial A frica , w i th 3 m il l ion , h ad 4 ,500 t roops a nd 4 , 0 00 p ol ice. Even s o , o ne c an s ay t ha t F rench t err i tories h ad o n ly a bou t 1s old ier a nd 1 p ol ice man f or e very t housand p eop le, wh ile t he B ri t ish h ad l ess t han h al f t ha t n umber.

C o mpare t h is w i th S heppard F rere 's f i gure ( 1974 p p . 3 48-350 ) o f

6 0 ,000 t roops , f or a n o ccup ied p opu la t ion o f a pprox i mately 2 m il l ions w i th y et o thers b eyond t he p ale : t ha t s ee ms t o g ive a p roport ion more l i ke o ne i n 3 5 w i th in t he p rov ince, w ith t he b ias p art icu larly d irec ted t owards t he f ron t ier a reas.

C learly , s o me o f t he d if ference i s t o b e a ccoun ted f or b y

modern w eapons, a nd s o me b y modern c o m mun ica t ions e nabl ing r einforcemen ts t o b e b rough t i n f ro m o u ts ide i n at ime o f c risis.

Un less t he Ro mans

g reat ly o verest i ma ted t he amoun t o ff orce t hey n eeded , ( wh ich s ee ms u n l ikely ), t he r est o f t he d iference c an p resu mably o n ly b e e xp la ined b y t he e x ten t o f t he c u l ture-gap b etween c olon izer a nd c olon ized , n ot s o much i n t he s ou the ast a s i n t he f ron t ier a reas.

One mus t s uppose t hat i n T rop ica l A fr ica t he

c u l ture-gap a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he c olon ial p eriod w as much g rea ter t han t hat b etween c o lon ial Gau l a nd p re-conquest B r i ta in . Bu t i t wou ld e qual ly s ee m t ha t i n c olon ial A frica t he c u l ture-gap b etween c onqueror a nd c onquered was n arrowed f ar more r ap id ly t han i n s o me a reas o f Ro man B r i ta in , a nd l argely b ecause o f t he e duca t ional a c t iv it ies o f Christ ian m issions, wh ich w ere t aken u p a nd r einforced b y c olon ical g overn ments o n ly d uring t he s econd h a lf o f t he c olon ial p eriod . The e nd o f t he c olon ial p eriod i n t rop ical A fr ica i s of ten s een a s as i mp le c onsequence o f t he S econd World War, a nd o f t he emergence o f t he American a nd Russian s uperpowers, e ach f or i t s own r easons d eter m ined t o u nder m ine t he s tab i l i ty o f t he o ld c olon ial emp ires. O f c ourse t h is was a r eal f ac tor i n t he s i tua t ion .

A l l t he s a me, i ti s my s trong impression t ha t , g iven t he v ery

modest d ep loy men t o f m i l i tary p ower i n A frican c olon ies, a nd g iven t he v ery r ap id emergence o f l ocal e l ites e duca ted i n t he w estern t rad i t ion , t he c olon ial p er iod was b ound t o e nd a pprox i mately when i td id .

Withou t t he i n terna t ional

c o mp l icat ions , i tm igh t n ot h ave h appened b y 1 964 , b u t i tw ou ld p robably h ave h appened b y n ow . Foreign r u le was a lways u npopu lar, e ven among t hose who d erived i nco me a nd p rest ige f ro m s upport ing i t .

I tn eeded o n ly a v ery s lender

s tra in o f modern , e ducated l eadersh ip t o r umble t he c olon ial c on f idence t r ick a nd t o ma le t he s yste m u nworkable. C erta in ly o nce c olon ial A fr icans h ad r eached t he s tage o f t ravel l ing t o u n iversit ies i n Europe a nd N orth Amer ica, where t hey c ou ld o bserve t he t echn iques o f d e mocrat ic p ol i t ics a t f i rst h and , a nd where t hey c ou ld meet a nd m ingle w i th t heir p eers f ro m o ther c olon ial c oun tries, t he whole p rest ige f actor w as b ound t o c ru mble. S uch p eop le wou ld q u ick ly l earn t o s ee t he d is lodgemen t o f t he c o lon ia l r u lers a s ac omp arat ively s i mp le, p ush-over j ob , i nvolv ing t he e nro lment o f mass p ar t ies o f an ot v ery m il i tan t k ind , a nd t he i nc i te men t o f af ew i nc iden ts wh ich wou ld d e monstra te t he w eakness o f c olon ial f orces o n t he g round. D istan t metrop ol itan g overn men ts w ou ld n ot o f ten f ace t he e xpense o f s end ing r ein force men ts a nd e ngag ing i n wars o f r epression .

They w ou ld c u t t heir l osses a nd g o.

I n f ac t , a s w e k now , t h is i s r ough ly h ow t h ings t urned o u t.

The B ri t ish

d id n o th ing s erious t o r esist a ny s ingle a n t i-colon ial i ndependence move men t i n T rop ica l A fr ica ,e xcep t i n K enya , where t hey m is-d iagnosed t he Mau Mau move men t a s a n a tav ist ic , t r ibal r ebel l ion . 2 2

The F rench , f ol low ing t heir

e xperiences i n V ietna m a nd A lgeria , w ere n o l ess d eter m ined t han t he B rit ish t o a vo id wars o f r epression i nT rop ica l A frica . T he B e lgians , a f ter mak ing t he b ravest n o ises o f a ny a bou t t heir d eter m ina t ion n ot t o b e h urr ied , g ave u p t he B e lg ian C ongo s ix mon ths af ter o ne m inor r iot i n L eopoldv i l le.

On ly

t he Portuguese s tayed t o f i gh t i to u t , a nd t heir emp ire l asted j ust t welve y ears l onger t han t he o thers, o n t he b as is o f ah uge r ein force men t o f t heir c olon ial g arrisons i nvolv ing 4 y ears c onscr ip t ion i n P ortugal a nd a v ast c o mm i t men t o f t he ir n at ional r evenue.

For t he r est , i tw as n ot a mat ter o f t he

l eg ions b eing r ecal led t o f i gh t o n o ther f ron ts. e x isted .

The l eg ions h ad s i mp ly n ever

There a re o n ly t wo o ther p oin ts t o b e made a bou t t he p er iod o f d ecolon iz a t ion .

The f i rst i s t hat t he t en o r f i f teen y ears t hat p receded i tw ere i n a

s ense t he y ears when c olon ial a ct iv i ty was most i n tense. Th is w as t he p er iod when most c olon ial c ap i tals g rew f ro m smal l t owns i n to l arge c i t ies, a nd when e ven t he smal ler c olon ial t ownsh ips o u tgrew t he t r ibal c ap i tals t o wh ich t hey h ad f or merly b een a ccessory.

Th is was t he p eriod when c ash-

c ropp ing b egan t o t ake s econd p lace t o b urgeon ing l ocal i ndustries c arried o n i n f ac tories p owered b y n ew h ydro-elec tr ic i nstal la t ions.

Th is was, a bove

a l l , ap eriod o f swel l ing b ureaucracy , made p ossib le b y t he f ac t t ha t c olon ial r evenues were a t l ast o u tgrow ing t he b are n eeds o f l aw a nd o rder.

I n a l most

e very c olony t he s i mp le s ecretariats o f e arly d ays w ere n ow d evelop ing i n to ap anop ly o f m in i s tries, a nd e very d istric t h eadquarters i nc luded t he l oca l r epresen ta t ives o f ad ozen d epartmen ts o f g overnmen t. There was a h uge i ncrease o f c iv il ian e xpatria te s taf f a nd a v ast d evelopmen t o f European-sty le s uburban b u ild ing t o s erve t heir n eeds.

To many A fricans i tl ooked a s t hough

as econd wave o f European c o lon iza t ion was t ak ing p lace.

The c olon ial p er iod

e nded o n ar ising t ide o fw estern iza t ion , wh ich h as c on t inued t o f l ow w i th g athering mo men tu m d uring t he e arly y ears o f i ndependence.

The European

c iv il s ervan ts h ave g one , b u t an ew g enera t ion o f A frican b ureaucrats h as i nheri ted t heir j obs, t heir h o mes , t he ir mo tor-cars, t heir a ir-cond i t ion ing a nd a l l t he t rapp ings o fe xpa tr iate l i fe i n t he t rop ics.

I tw il l p erhaps b e o ne

o f t he ma in p uzzles o f t he a rchaeology o f A frican i ndependence t ha t, a long w i th a g row ing i mpover ish men to f t he c oun tryside, t he H i l ton h otels a nd t he I nsurance c o mpany s ky-scrapers a re monu men ts o f i ndependence r a ther t han c olon ial r u le. P erhaps t hey w il l b e s een a s t he b est p roof t ha t European c olon ial is m s ucceeded i n i t s o b jec t ive.

NOTE 1 .

H igher f igures f or t he p opu la t ion o f Ro man B ri ta in h ave r ecen tly b een p roposed .

S ee Cun l if fe 1 978. B IBL IOGRAPHY

COLL ING WOOD , R . G . a nd MYRES , J . N . L ., 1 936 . Engl ish S et t le men ts. Ox ford .

R o man B r i ta in a nd t he

CUNL IFFE , B . W ., 1 978 . ' Se t t lement a nd P opu la t ion i n t he B ri t ish I ron Age : S o me Fac ts, F igures a nd Fan tasies ' i n Cun l if fe B . W. & Row ley T . ( Eds.) L owland I ron Age Co mmun i t ies i n Europe. FRERE , S . S ., 1 974 .

B ri tann ia .

L ondon . 2 3

B .A .R. S 48.

PORTUGAL AND THE AFR ICAN I RON AGE b y Dav id B ir m ingha m

When l ooked a t f ro m a d is tance , o ne migh t a ssume t ha t t he i mpact o f R o me o n I ron Age Br i ta in was s o d if feren t f ro m t he i mpac t o f P or tuga l o n I ron Age A fr ica a s t o make c o mpar ison imposs ib le. The R o mans , a ccord ing t o r eceived w isdo m , r o l led b ack t he C e l ts , d ug a f ew d i tches t o h o ld t he m b ack , a nd b rough t o n t he R o man ,s team-ro l ler .

The i nvas ion —so i t s ee med — b rough t i n an ice ly

s yn thes ised , h o mogen ized , i n tegra ted , i ns tan t p ackage o f c oins , v i l las , r oads , s e t t lers , La t in , l i teracy , g ods , l aws , p o l i t ica l o ra tors a nd s o ld iers , a l l n ea t ly l abe l led A .D. 4 3.

I ti s t here fore s t i mu la t ing t o d iscover t ha t t h is s tereo type i s

i n t he c ourse o f f unda men ta l r ev is ion a nd t ha t t he i n teres t i s n ow f ocus ing o n q ues t ions o f c on tinu i ty a nd c hange . S o me y ears a go a t heory c o mparable w i th t h is c ar ica tur ized v ers ion o f R o man iza tion i n B r i ta in f lour ished a lso i n c onnec t ion w i th t he a l leged Arab c onques t o f t he N or th A fr ican c oas t i n 6 42 A .D.

T he t heory was a s i mp le o ne .

The B erbers , t he B yzan t ines , t he Vanda ls , t he G reeks a nd e veryone e lse l e f t b eh ind i n N or th A fr ica were r o l led b ack i n to Morocco a nd t hen N or th A fr ica was c o mp le tely r e-seeded w i th a n ew Arabic p opu la t ion o f g ood f a i th fu l Mus l i ms . Th is h ardy t hes is o f A rab c onques t h as g radua l ly b een r ep laced b y a much s lower a nd more v ar ied c oncep t o f c u l tura l Arabiza t ion .

I tt ook many y ears t o

i nven t a n ' A l lah ' who s u i ted a l l t he e c lec t ic s p ir i tua l n eeds o f t he v ar ied c u l tura l s trands o f N or th A fr ica .

I tt ook a l ong t ime t o c obble t oge ther t he K oran .

The

t rad i t ions a nd w ise words a t tr ibu ted t o Moha m mad were g radua l ly t rans ferred b ack t o h im b y t he ' l igh tn ing-conductor e f fect ' we l l k nown t o o ra l h is tor ians . A bove a l l i tt ook many N or th A fr icans c en tur ies t o l earn A rab ic , a nd p ass f or Arabs , p referably w i th we l l-cons tructed p ed igrees .

The p rocess .o f A rabiza-

t ion b egan i n a r my c amps , s pread s low ly t o t he t owns , a nd more s lowly s t i l l t o t he c u l t iva tors a nd t he n o mad ic p as tora l is ts .

I n t he e nd , h owever , a f ter

p erhaps f our h undred y ears , much o f N or th A fr ica h ad a bsorbed Arabic l anguage , l aw , c us to m , c u l ture , a r t , a rch i tec ture , f a i th , d ress a nd c u is ine . Wi th t h is p ic ture o f c on t inu i ty a nd c hange i n mind , wha t t hen , t o t urn t o o ur b r ief , was t he c onsequence o f f our h undred y ears o f P or tuguese f am i l iar i ty w i th t he A t lan t ic s eabord o f A fr ica?

D id i tc rea te a u n i f ied n a t ion o f d r ied-f ish-

e a t ing Ro man C a thol ic o l ive f ar mers?

N o t a t a l l .

The word s apa to may h ave

e n tered t he v ocabu lary o f s evera l f or mer ly n on-shoe-wear ing s oc ie t ies , b ut o therwise c u l tura l t rans fer a long mos t o f t he c oas t was q u i te l im i ted .

The I ron

Age s ocie t ies o f A t lan t ic A fr ica a bsorbed t he P or tuguese w i th b are ly a h iccough . A t f irs t s igh t t he r esi l ience a nd a dap tabi l i ty o f A fr ican I ron Age s oc iet ies migh t a ppear t o b e i n s tark c on tras t w i th t he c o mprehens ive R o man iza t ion o f I ron Age Br i ta in , b u t t he c on tras t b e tween t he e f fec t ive r es is tance o f A fr ica t o c u l tura l , c o lon ia l a nd e cono mic t rans for ma t ion a nd t he a pparen t i ner t s ub-

2 5

s erv ience o f s o me p ar ts o f B r i ta in i n t he f ace o f t he R o man l eg ions may n o t f or m a who l ly v a l id a n t i thes is .

I ti s wor th a sk ing whe ther c on t inu i ty was n o t

more s ign i f ican t t han c hange i n t he p rocess whereby I ron Age B r i ta in a bsorbed t he R o mans , a nd whe ther , d espi te v io len t h iccoughs s uch a s t he r evo l t o f B oud icca , c hange was n o t f ar more g radua l a nd u neven ly d is tr ibu ted .

The

ma t ter migh t b e e luc ida ted b y af ew s peci f ic q ues tions wh ich a n h is tor ian o f A fr ica wou ld l i ke t o a sk a bou t t he h is tory o f R o man B r i ta in . T o s o me o f t hese , n o d oub t , t he a nswers a re a lready we l l k nown , b u t t he f ocus ing o f a t ten t ion o n s uch s peci f ic p o in ts may h e lp t o h igh l igh t t he q ues t ions o f i nvas ion a nd r esponse . T o wha t e x ten t w as R o man c o lon isa t ion a n a l l- ma le a f fa ir a nd h ow d eep was i t s c u ltura l i mpact?

T he e s tabl ishmen t o f t he P or tuguese t rading f a irs

d own t he A fr ican c oas t d id n o t i nvo lve a ny s ign i f ican t migra t ion o f wo men . The e f fec ts o f t h is were o bv ious .

I n t he y ear 1 683 t he v enerab le o ld warr ior

An ted i io d e C adornega wro te s en t i men ta l ly a bou t A ngo la a s t he c oun try where o ne 's s ons were s war thy , g randsons w ere d usky , g rea t g andsons were c o mplet e ly b lack a nd a l l was d arkness . 1 The n u mbers o f im m igran ts were m inu te c o mpared w i th t he h os t p opu la tions , o n ly a f ew h undred a y ear a t mos t e ven i n a reas a nd t imes o f max i mum i mpac t . were A fr ican r a ther t han E uropean .

As a r esu l t f am i ly l i fe a nd f am i ly c u l ture The c onsequence was a h igh l eve l o f r acia l

c onsc iousness s ince t he h os t p opu la t ion was o bv ious ly a nd d is t inc t ive ly b lack a nd d i f feren t .

The r acia l d is t inc t ion made t he d i f feren t ia t ion b e tween f ree a nd

s lave much e as ier t o d e ter m ine , a l though s lave c onsor ts a nd t he ir c h i ldren c ou ld a sp ire t o h igh l eve ls o f r espons ibi l i ty a nd a ccumu la te s ign i f ican t c o m merc ia l wea l th .

T he l anguage o f t he c o lon ia l c o mpound was A fr ican , a nd n o t P or tu-

g uese , a nd t he mo thertongue u sua l ly o u twe ighed t he f a thertongue i n mos t s ocia l a nd b us iness t ransact ions , t hough n o t a lways i n l ega l a nd d ip lo ma t ic a ffa irs , n or i n a l l b ranches o f t he c hurch . Where d id t he i m migran t mi l i tary a nd c iv i l ian p opu la t ion o f R o man B r i ta in o r ig ina te?

The f i rs t P ortuguese merchan ts , s o ldiers a nd s et t lers i n A fr ica

c ame f ro m t he me tropo l is .

V is ions o f wea l th , o f l and , c once ivab ly o f f ree-

d om , were d ang led b efore t he m . s i lver r ush o ft he 1 580s .

One s tr iking e p isode c oncerns t he Ango lan

S oon a f ter t he d iscovery o f t he P eruv ian mines o f

P otos i b y t he S pan iards , P or tuguese c os mo logis ts b egan p redict ing t he p resence o f r ich v e ins o f s i lver i n t he s ame l a t i tude i n A fr ica .

A dven turers f ro m a l l

walks o f l i fe , e ven a r is tocra ts l ed b y t he g randson o f Bar tho lemeu D ias , s a i led f or Ango la where t hey s pen t t h ir ty y ears t enacious ly i nch ing t he ir way u p t he Kwanza r iver i n a n e ndeavour t o c ap ture t he who l ly myth ica l moun ta ins o f s i lver wh ich f ea tures i n t he r epor t o f a n e ar ly J esu i t e xp lorer .

2

Many more P or tuguese c a me n o t f ro m L isbon b u t f ro m o ther P or tuguese c o lon ies .

The o ver-crowded a nd i mpover ished A t lan t ic i s lands o f Made ira ,

A zores a nd C ape V erde were a p er manen t s ource o f c o lon is ts .

The B razi l ians

f ea tured l arge i n t rop ica l Wes t A fr ica , a nd b eyond t he C ape , P or tuguese c o lon ia l p ersonne l w ere u sua l ly r ecru i ted f ro m t he C hr ist ian ized c o m mun i t ies i n P or tuguese I nd ia . Bu t v o lun tary migran ts were n o t t he ma ins tay o f t he c o lon ia l p resence . c olon ies t oo .

U nco m for table minor i t ies were h arsh ly e x i led t o t he

J ew ish s ugar p lan ters were t aken t o t he u n inhabi ted o f f-shore

i s land o f no T o m ga nd s upp l ied w i th b lack w ives a nd s laves i n ar are e xamp le

2 6

o f e cono m ica l ly p ro f i table t ranspor ta t ion .

On t he ma in land G yps ies r egu lar ly

f ea tured among t he men e n l is ted i n t he c o lon ia l g arr isons .

An e ven g rea ter

c a tegory o f c o lon is ts , a nd o ne t ha t was e x tens ive ly u sed f ro m t he 1 490 's u n t i l t he 1 930 's , c ons is ted o f c onv ic ts .

Al arge p ar t o f t he P or tuguese p resence i n

A fr ica c ons is ted o f men , a nd r are ly wo men , who were b an ished f or f ixed o r i ndef in i te p er iods o f A fr ican s erv i tude . The c o m mon c r i mes were murder , r ape , t hef t , r io tous a sse mb ly a nd p o li t ica l d iss idence .

3

The b ig q ues t ion o f c ourse i s why s hou ld s ign i f ican t n umbers o f p eop le h ave b een s en t t o e ver more r e mo te o u tpos ts o f emp ire?

H is tor ians o f R o man c o lon ies

s ee m t o b e u nusua l ly c oncerned w i th t he d rawing a nd p ro tect ing o f f ron t ier l ines . L ines o n maps s ee m , i n t he a bsence p erhaps o f o ther e v idence , t o t ake o n a n a l mos t mes mer izing impor tance : wa l l l i nes , r iver l ines , wa tershed l ines , f oo th i l l l ines , d i tch l ines , e nc losure l ines . e x is t .

I n A fr ica s uch p recise f ron t iers d id n o t

F ron t iers a re z ones o f e cono m ic a c t iv i ty , f lu id a reas o f i n f luence b eyond

t he t rade b each , t he r iver h arbour , t he s lave b aracoon o r t he who lesa ler 's f or t if ied f actory.

S o me f ron t ier z ones were f ixed :

d irect ly e xp loi tab le l and .

z ones o f minera l r esources o r o f

O ther z ones were mob i le , t he a reas o f f orag ing a nd

h un t ing e cono m ies , t he i vory g rounds , t he s lav ing r eg ions , t he t ax f i efs wh ich d epended o n v ar iab le p owers o f c onscr ip t ion , c oercion a nd c o l lec t ion . F our minera ls g rea t ly a t trac ted t he P or tuguese i n A fr ica , s a l t , i ron , c opper a nd g o ld .

S a l t d rying was a n i mpor tan t i ndus try i n P or tuga l .

The c har ter wh ich

was d rawn u p i n 1 571 f or a l ord-propr ietor who was g ran ted c o lon izing r igh ts i n Ango la , a ssumed t ha t h is f irs t t ask wou ld b e t o t ake c o m mand o f t he c oas ta l s a l t p ans a nd i n land s a l t mines a nd l evy a n i mpos t o n a l l s a l t t rad ing wh ich wou ld c over t he c os ts o f t he v en ture.

Wi th s o me e f for t , a nd t he i n troduc t ion o f ma tch-

l ock muske ts , t hey d id s ucceed i n c ap tur ing o ne c oas ta l s a l t p an .

The e ven t

was s t i l l r ecorded i n A fr ican f o lk me mory f our h undred y ears l a ter :

t he wh i te

men h ad c o me i n s h ips w i th w ings wh ich s hone i n t he s un l i ke k n ives a nd h ad s pa t f ire .4

Tha t was t he l im i t o f P or tuguese s uccess .

The g rea t K isama s a l t

mines , f or ty mi les i n land , e luded a l l P or tuguese a t te mp ts t o c onquer t he m f or t he n ex t t hree h undred y ears .

T he i nv inc ib i l i ty o f t he l oca l magna tes was r ue-

f u l ly r epor ted i n ac o mprehens ive e cono m ic s urvey p ub l ished i n 1 846.

5

E lsewhere i n A fr ica t he f a i lure o f t he P or tuguese t o c ap ture a ny mines o r a ny z ones o f minera l wea l th was c o mp le te a nd t o ta l .

E f for ts were made t o

e s tabl ish a n i ron sme l t ing i ndus try b y t he impor ta t ion o f B asque i ron mas ters . The c os t o f t he s k i l ls , a nd t he mor ta l i ty o f t he l abour , r ap id ly u nder m ined t he e xper i men t . The P or tuguese r e ma ined d ependen t e i ther o n impor ted i ron o r o n i ron p roduced b y t he n umerous l oca l s pecia l is ts . I n Wes t C en tra l A fr ica sme l t ing was u nder taken i n p ar t icu lar ly s i mp le p i t f urnaces w i thou t h igh c h i mn eys , a nd y e t P or tuguese t echno logy was u nable t o g e t ag r ip a nd t rans for m t he i ndus try . C opper min ing was impor tan t i n t wo z ones o n t he f r inge o f b o th t he Eas tern a nd t he Wes tern s pheres i n C en tra l A fr ica .

I n t he Eas t c opper i ngo ts

' shaped l i ke w ind m i l ls ' were r egu lar ly b ough t a nd p r ized , b u t i n t he Wes t t he P or tuguese h ad l i t t le s uccess e ven a s t raders .

I t was t he Du tch who g a ined a n

e n tree i n to t he c opper t rade a nd b egan c arrying sma l l q uan ti t ies b ack t o Europe . G o ld was s u f f icien t ly impor tan t i n A fr ica t o s t i mu la te e specia l P or tuguese c o m mercia l e f for ts .

E x tens ive min ing b o th i n t he Wes t A fr ican a nd i n t he S ou th-

Eas t A fr ican g o ld-bear ing z ones p re-da ted P or tuguese e xpans ion b y f our o r f ive

2 7

c en tur ies .

A l l P or tuguese e f for ts e i ther t o c onquer t he o ld mines o r t o d is-

c over n ew o nes c ame t o n ough t .

E ven e n ter ing i n to c o m mercia l r e la t ions

w i th e x is t ing miners p roved more d i f f icu l t t han migh t h ave b een e xpec ted . P or tuga l h ad n o p roduc t ive c apaci ty w i th a n o bv ious e dge o ver t heir c o mpe t i tors . I n Wes t A fr ica i n terna t iona l c aravan t rade t o t he Mus l im h a l f o f t he Med i terr ananean c ou ld o n ly b e b roken i n to w i th Mus l i m-s ty le t ex t i les a nd c lo th ing s u i ted t o t he e s tabl ished f ash ions a nd t as tes o f t he market .

P or tuga l h ad t he a dvan tage

o f a n e f f ic ien t mar i t i me c arry ing s ys te m , b u t c ou ld o n ly s e l l i t s o wn wares when t hey were c arefu l ly made u p i n to mixed l o ts wh ich i nc luded t he more a t trac t ive N or th A fr ican , a nd l a ter I nd ian , g oods .

D esp i te d i f f icu l t ies , t he P or tuguese

p robab ly s ucceeded i n c ap tur ing a bou t h a l f o f t he g o ld p roduc t ion o f t he Wes t A fr ican f i e lds a nd i n s t i mu la t ing i ncreased p roduc t ion b y t he Akan mine mas ters . The e f fec t o f t h is was t o h e igh ten t h e d e mand f or mine l abour .

A t a n e ar ly d a te

C hr is t ian P or tuga l , wh ich h ad s tar ted b uying s laves i n A fr ica ' f or t he g ood o f t heir s ou ls ' , f ound t he mse lves c o mpe l led t o s e l l t he r edee med men t o h ea then p i t o wners a s t he mos t p ro f i table way o f c ap tur ing a s hare i n t he g o ld market .

6

I n S ou th-Eas t A fr ica P or tuga l u sed more mi l i tan t methods t o c ap ture t he g o ld t rade . S ta te-reg is tered p ira tes s uch a s Vasco d a G a ma d isrup ted t he r icher p or ts w i th c annon f ire , b u t d id n o t d isrup t t he f low o f g o ld t o I nd ia a s c o mprehens ive ly a s t hey s hou ld h ave l i ked .

Two g enera t ions l a ter , l and e xped i t ions

a t tacked t he sma l ler Mus l im t rad ing t owns u p t he Z ambezi r iver , b u t a ga in w i th l im i ted e f fec t . men t .

The g o ld-bear ing p la teau r e ma ined f ir m ly u nder A fr ican g overn-

The c ap ta ins o f t he o u t-lying P or tuguese t rading p os ts were a bsorbed

i n to t he t rad i t iona l p o l i t ica l s tructure b y b eing o f f ic ia l ly g iven a t i t le a s o ne o f t he g rea t w ives-of-s ta te o f t he Mu tapa emperor .

Sma l l p ocke ts o f s o ld ier-

t raders d ependen t o n t he p ower o f l oca l k ings were a f ar c ry f ro m a n a l l-conqueri ng c o lon ia l a rmy .

7

I ron Age A fr ica r epe l led a l mos t a l l a t te mp ts a t l and a cqu is i t ion b y a l ien c o lon is ts .

I n t h is A fr ica was i n s tr ik ing c on tras t t o u nder-popu la ted , p re-Iron

Age Amer ica .

On ly i n t hree a reas d id a ny c o lon iza t ion o f s e t t le men t o ccur .

One was t he C ape o f G ood H ope where a L a te S tone Age p as tora l p opu la t ion was u nable t o r es is t t he e ncroach men t o f Du tch c o lon is ts who n eeded a b ase f ro m wh ich t o p enetra te t he P or tuguese s eaborn emp ire .

Du tc hs tock men t ook o ver

as hare o f t he p as tora l is t e cono my a nd c rea ted ab r idgehead f or n ine teen th c en tury e xpans ion . The s econd a rea o f c o lon iza t ion was t he a lready men t ioned o f f-shore i s lands . Par t icu lar ly impor tan t were t he C ape Verde I s lands . These were c o lon ized w i th b lack s lave c o t ton a nd i nd igo p lan ters a nd w i th A fr ican s p inn ing a nd weav ing a r t isans .

C o lon ia l e n trepreneurs t hereby r e-crea ted a n A fr ican i ndus try

whose p ro f i ts c ou ld b e e as i ly e x trac ted a nd t hen i nves ted i n ma in land t rad ing v en tures .

T he t h ird a rea o f c o lon iza t ion was Ango la , t he weak u nderbe l ly o f

C en tra l A fr ica .

H ere , h owever , l and-co lon izing a ch ieve men ts were s l igh t .

The

l arges t s lave h o ld ings i n e ar ly c en tur ies were p robab ly t hose o f t he r e l ig ious h ouses .

Af ew v i l las , o r q u in tas , were c rea ted i n t he c oas ta l v a l leys , b u t t hey

were n ever s u f f ic ien t ly p roduc t ive t o f eed t he sma l l c i ty p opu la t ion o f L uanda , o r t he h undred o dd s a i l ing v esse ls wh ich r egu lar ly p l ied b e tween A fr ica a nd B razi l . The a l iena t ion o f p roduc t ive l and , o r t he o pen ing o f n ew l and , was n o t af ea ture o f e ar ly c o lon iza t ion i n A fr ica . One o f t he more i mpor tan t mobi le f ron t iers i n A fr ica was t he i vory f ron t ier . R o man o ver-k i l l h ad w iped t he e lephan t o u t i n N or th A fr ica , a nd E as t A fr ican 2 8

i vory was f ir m ly c omm i t ted t o t he a l mos t i nsa t iable I nd ian marke t .

A t lan t ic

A fr ica p rov ided a n a l mos t v irg in f ie ld a nd t he P or tuguese c rown i mposed a r oya l monopo ly o n t he t ra f f ic wherever i th ad t he p ower t o e n force i t .

I vory

h un t ing was n ever a d irec t c o lon ia l e ndeavour , b u t a no ther o f t he e cono m ic s ec tors wh ich r esponded t o i nd irec t c o m mercia l s t i mu lus .

C oas ta l e lephan t

h erds were d ep leted i n t he s even teen th c en tury , a nd b y t he n ine teen th c en tury t he e lephan t was b eco m ing r are i n Wes t A fr ica .

R is ing wor ld p r ices h owever ,

l ed t o ad rama t ic e x tens ion o f t he t rade l ines o n t he C en tra l A fr ican f ron t ier . The g rea t i vory h un t ing s oc ie t ies f ro m t he A t lan t ic s ide o f A fr ica e ven tua l ly me t u p w i th i vory t raders who s o ld t o Z anzibar a nd t he e as t c oas t .

E ach s et

o f r ou tes t o t he i n ter ior c overed o ver a t housand l and mi les .8 S laves were a lways more impor tan t t han i vory i n t he mob i le z ones o f f ron t ier e xp loi ta t ion t ha t were o pened u p b y o cean n av iga t ion i n t he A t lant ic . F ro m t he 1 440s t he b uy ing o f s laves was a d o minan t e cono mic a c t iv i ty o n t he who le A t lan t ic c oas t .

The l as t p hase o f i nvo lun tary s eaborn l abour movemen t

was n o t t er mina ted b y t he P or tuguese u n t i l t he g rea t S ao T o me c ocoa-p lan t ing s canda l o f 1 908 .

I n A t lan t ic A fr ica , t hree d is t inc t f i e lds o f s lav ing e vo lved ,

e ach w i th i t s own me thods o fo pera t ion a nd p a t tern o f l oca l p o l i t ica l r esponse . These t hree were Wes t A fr ica , mar i time C en tra l A fr ica , a nd i n land C entra l A frica . I n Wes t A fr ica s lavery p re-da te d t he Por tuguese .

The g rea t s a l t mines

o f t he S ahara a nd t he g o ld mines o f t he u pper N iger were s lave o pera ted .

I n

a gr icu l ture t here were n a tura l p ressures t owards t he u se o f s lave l abour s ince manpower was s carce a nd l and was n o t .

P o l i t ica l a nd ma ter ia l wea l th d epended

o n man-ownersh ip r a ther t han o n l and-ownersh ip .

There were e ar ly e x terna l

marke ts f or t he t rans-Saharan e xpor t o f c ap t ives .

The a dven t o f P or tuga l

c rea ted o ne more o u t let f or t he s a le o f s laves , a nd a n ew t ranspor t n e twork f or t he ir t ranspor ta t ion . V ery r ap id ly , h owever , t he s ca le o f European b uying i ncreased f ar b eyond p rev ious b ounds . N ew A fr ican p o l i t ica l p owers emerged t o manage f oreign r ela t ions , max im ise t he p ro f i ts f ro m s lave t rad ing , a nd min imise t he r isk o f E uropean i nvas ion o r d irec t s lave r ecru i t men t .

I n ter-European

c o mpet i t ion f or s laves t o man t he mines a nd p lan ta t ions o f t he Amer icas e na bled t he s tronger a nd more a s tu te f ron t-l ine k ingdo ms t o p rosper a t t he e xpense o f t he Wes t A fr ican midd le b e l t wh ich b eca me a d epressed r a id ing g round .9 The mar i t i me s lave z one o f C en tra l A fr ica was q u i te d i f feren t .

I n Ango la

n o l abour market e x is ted a nd s laves were o bta ined b y d irec t c o lon ia l i n i tia t ive . The p rocess wen t t hrough f our s tages . t ween h os ts a nd g ues ts .

I n t he f irs t , g i f ts were e xchanged b e-

F oreigners were we lco med f or t he ir f resh i deas a nd f or

t he p res t ige wh ich t hey l en t t o al oca l c our t .

I n e xchange f or ma ter ia l o f fer ings

wh ich e nr iched a nd v ar ied t he ma ter ia l c u l ture o f t he c our t , t he t ax a nd t r ibu te s ys te ms were u sed t o o bta in s laves among t he l ess p r iv i leged me mbers o f s ociety : p r isoners o f war , c onv ic ts , a l iens , c l ien ts , w i tches , a nd o ther l ame d ucks a nd b lack s heep i n t he c lan f am i l ies .

I n as econd more mi l i tan t s tage ,

c o lon ia l a rm ies p ene tra ted t he f r inges o f t he g rea t k ingdo ms a nd a r my c ap ta ins were s e t u p a s l oca l c o lon ia l c h ie f ta ins .

Each was g iven a c onquered p r ince-

l ing t o f urn ish h is wan ts . Trad i t iona l t r ibu te o f f ood , s a lt , c lo th a nd s he l ls t o l and c h iefs a nd s hr ine g uard ians was p erver ted i n to s lave t r ibu te t o t he c o lon ia l c ap ta ins .

F ro m t he d is tor t ion o f t r ibu te , i t was b u t a sma l l s tep t o d irect

2 9

e xac t ion , a nd t he i nc ipien t c o lon ia l a r my b egan t o r eward i t sel f b y t he d e l ibera te c ap ture a nd s a le o f i nd iscr im ina te v ic t i ms .

F ina l ly i n af our th s tage , war-

r ior b ands o f b lack mercenary a l l ies were r ecru i ted t o d o t he s lave c a tch ing a nd b ear t he r isks o f war .

Th is i nd irec t r a id ing b y s ub jec t a rm ies p roved t he

mos t e x tens ive , d isrup t ive , e ndur ing , a nd p ro f i table means o f f i l l ing t he s lave s h ips .

1 °

The i n ter ior o f C en tra l A fr ica h ad a t h ird s ys te m o f s lave r ecru i t men t wh ich d i ffered b oth f ro m t he c o m merc ia l o ne i n Wes t A fr ica , a nd f ro m t he mi l i tary o ne i n A ngo la .

H ere t he s lave f ron t ier was a d ip lo ma t ic o ne .

The

t raders i n t h is z one were e scapees f ro m t he c onv ic t a r mies o ft he sma l l P ort uguese c oas ta l c o lony , t hey were t he b rown c h i ldren o ft he g rea t c o lon ia l f a mi l ies , t hey were t he s hoeless r e ta iners o f t he wh i te t rading h ouses .

F or

t he ir s afe ty , w e lfare , ma in tenance , f ood-supp l ies , f erry s erv ices , c arriers , t hey w ere d ependen t o n f riend ly r e la t ions w i th i n terior k ingdo ms .

They h ad t o

b uy g ood-w i l l w i th ma teria l i mpor ts o ft ex t i les , t obacco a nd a lcoho l .

A who le

n ew b reed o f sma l l b roker k ingdo ms g rew u p t o s erv ice t he n eeds o f t he l ongd is tance s lave c aravans .

T hey r ep laced t he o ld k ingdo ms g rounded o n more

l eg i t ima te c oncep ts o f l and-ownersh ip , o f a nces tor v enera t ion a nd o fp ro tect ion f or k in-based s ocia l o rder .

L us i tan ian iza t ion d id n ot g o d eep among t he b roker-

k ingdoms , b u t t he i ndirec t s phere o f i nf luence h ad a s ign if ican t l egacy :

i ta l-

l owed a much l a ter g enera t ion o f P ortuguese t o c la im a l arge swa the i n to t he c on t inen t d ur ing t he V ic tor ian p ar t i t ion o f A fr ica . Wha t t hen were t he r ea l c onsequences o f t he P or tuguese i mpac t o n l a ter I ron Age A fr ica?

The f irs t o ne o f n o te was p robab ly i n a gr icu l ture .

A l though

n o i mpor tan t c o lon ia l p lan ta t ions were e s tab l ished , n ew p lan ts were i n troduced i n to t he d o mes t ic a grar ian e cono mies .

Many o f t he c erea l-growing r eg ions

a dop ted e i ther t he f l in t ma izes o f d ry Mex ico o r t he f l our ma izes o f we t B razi l t o r ep lace t he mi l le ts a nd s orghums wh ich f ro m l oca l g rasses .

h ad e vo lved o ver f our t housand y ears

The n ew c erea l h ad h igher y ie lds , g rea te r c l i ma t ic a dap t-

a bi l i ty , a nd a bove a l l as eed-cas ing wh ich made i tl ess v u lnerab le t o b ird d epred a t ion .

I n t he r oo t-grow ing a reas , where i nd igenous y ams h ad b een d o mes t ica ted

a nd e nnob led , n ew c assava r oo ts were i n troduced .

They h ad b e t ter y ie lds ,

t o lera ted p oorer s oi ls a nd c on ta ined t ox ins i n t he r aw s ta te wh ich made t he m p oisonous t o r oden t p reda tors .

Cassava was a lso a n e xce l len t wart i me c rop.

I td id n o t n eed t o b e h arves ted a t a ny p art icu lar s eason , b ut c ou ld b e l ef t i n t he g round f or mon ths wh i le t he owner was away c ampa ign ing o r h is f i e lds were o verrun b y e ne mies .

The p ene tra t ion o f n ew c rops was s o met i mes r ap id ,

b u t more o f ten i tp robably p erco la ted s lowly a long t rade-rou tes , u sed i n i t ia l ly t o f eed c aravans a nd s lave c o lu mns .

Agr icu l tura l c onserv is m . was p ar t icu lar ly

n o ted i n t he b rew ing i ndus try where t he t radi t iona l c erea ls , i nc luding f i nger mi l le t , c on t inued t o b e c hosen f or t he b es t b eer .

An u mber o f o ther t ropica l

c rops a nd w eeds i nvaded A fr ica o nce t he wor ld s ealanes h ad b een o pened . Wor ld t ravel a lso o pened t he way f or t he w ider d isse m ina t ion o f d iseases . A fr ica s u f fered f ro m i t s f u l l q uo ta o f d ebi l i ta t ing a nd mor ta l d iseases —ye l low f ever , ma lar ia , sma l l-pox , s leep ing-s ickness , meas les , v enerea l d iseases , e lephan t ias is , r iver-bl indness — b u t n o t e nough i s y e t k nown a bou t t he ir o r ig in a nd s pread . The P or tuguese u ndoubted ly b rough t u n fa m i l iar d iseases f or wh ich t here was n o l oca l i m mun i ty , a nd c augh t l oca l d iseases t o wh ich t hey h ad n o

3 0

a n t ido te .

Ma lar ia a nd d ysen tery were t he k nown b ig k i l lers o f s e t t ler a nd

s o ld ier , b u t t he a r my s urgeon a nd miss ion a po thecary h ad l i t t le t o o f fer i n t he way o f p rophylax is o r c ure .

The P or tuguese i n A fr ica t urned i ncreas ing ly t o

A fr ican f or ms o f med ica l a ss is tance . C o lon is ts s o me t i mes t rave l led f ar t o v is i t we l l-known s hr ine p r ies ts who were c o mpe ten t h erba l is ts . They t hereb y c aused a ngu ish t o t he o u traged p r ies ts a nd miss ionar ies o f t he ir o wn n om ina l C hr is t ian p ersuas ion . R e l ig ious c onvers ion o pera ted b o th ways .

Wh i le P or tuguese f ron t iers men

r ead i ly a ccep ted t he ' hea then ' p rac t ices o f t he c o m mun i t ies i n wh ich t hey l i ved , many A fr ican s oc iet ies a dop ted t he n ew C hr is t ian r e l ig ion b rough t i n b y c o lon ia l p r ies ts a nd b y S pan ish a nd I ta l ian miss ionar ies .

I n t he more c en tra l ized k ing-

d o ms Chr is t ian i ty b eca me a n impor tan t n ew a d junc t o f r oya l ty.

The K ongo

monarchs a cqu ired s uch ab road d ependence o n impor ted r e l ig ious p rac t ices a nd p arapherna l ia t ha t t hey c ons tan t ly e ndangered t he ir t rad i t iona l s p ir i tua l b ase o f n a t iona l s uppor t .

The c ap i ta l c i ty b u i l t s evera l s tone c hurches s ta f fed

b y b o th f oreign a nd i nd igenous c lergy.

Two h undred y ears a f ter t he f irs t c ourt

c onvers ions , an ew miss ionary f ervour b roke o u t a nd s pread f or t he f irs t t ime , t o t he r ura l a reas where i tc aused e x tens ive d isrup t ion t o v i l lage l i fe .

N ew

s a in ts emerged f ro m t he s ocia l a nd p o l i t ica l u pheava ls ; o ne o f t he m , aK ongo J oan o f A rc c a l led B ea tr ix , b eca me t he r a l lying p o in t f or a n e igh teen th c en tury n a t iona l r ev iva l . C o lon is ts who c ame t o A fr ica n o t o n ly b rough t n ew r e l ig ious a nd i deo log ica l i n f luences . They a lso i n troduced n ew f or ms o f h u man s el f-indu lgence . The p a t tern o f l e isure i n t he P or tuguese s phere was n o t modi f ied b y t he i n troduc t ion o f R o man-s tyle s auna b a ths , b u t t hrough t he r apid a nd e x tens ive s pread o f t obacco smok ing .

A t f irs t , t he t obacco c ons is ted o f t h ick r opes o f Brazi l ian

t obacco c oa ted w i th a p reserv ing l ayer o f mo lasses . ap r i me s ource o f P or tuguese p urchas ing p ower .

Th is c o m mod i ty b eca me

La ter t obacco b eca me a

l oca l ly-grown c rop a nd s pread t o t he f ur thes t p ar ts o f t he i n ter ior . An e ven more i mpor tan t t rade i t em t han t obacco was f oreign a lcoho l . Rum , a lso f ro m Brazi l , b eca me a k ey c o m merc ia l c o m mod i ty.

I ta lso f ea tured i n a l l g i f ts

a ssoc ia ted w i th d ip lo ma t ic t ransac t ions . Brandy , r um a nd European w ines b eca me t he u sua l p ay men t f or t o l ls o n c oun try r oads , a t r iver c ross ings a nd o n s ta te b oundar ies . I n a dd i t ion t o g i f ts a nd p ay men ts , a lcoho l ic b r ibes b eca me n ecessary a s a means o f i mprov ing c o m mun ica tion a nd l ubr ica t ing s oc ia l i n terc ourse .

A l though i n tox ican ts were n o t t he o n ly c o m mod i t ies wh ich t he P or tu-

g uese i n troduced t o A fr ica , a ny more t han w ine was R o me 's s o le g i f t t o B r i ta in , t hey n ever the less f ea tured l arge i n t rade o ver a f ive h undred y ear p er iod . The t wen t ie th c en tury p er c ap i ta i mpor ts o f a lcoho l i n to Ango la were a bou t t wen tyf ive t imes h igher t han t hose o f Br i t ish c o lon ies i n modern A fr ica .1 1 T rad ing i n s uch b u lky i t e ms a s b o t t led o r c asked b everages p resen ted p roble ms o f t ranspor ta t ion i n wh ich o ne migh t e xpec t t he c o lon ia l t echno logy t o p rov ide i nnova t ive s o lu t ions .

N o th ing o f t he s or t h appened .

The P or tu-

g uese i n A fr ica a bandoned t he whee l o vern igh t a nd a dopted t he h ead p or ter o f l oca l c aravan p rac tice .

R iver n av iga t ion h ad a lready d eve loped c ra f t o f t he

o p t i mum s ize , a nd l e f t n o s cope f or improve men t .

P ack a n i ma ls were p rone

t o d isease , t hough a f ew r id ing o xen were u sed i n t he d ry s ou th , a nd s o me e xper i men ta l c ame ls s urv ived i n aw i ld s ta te t hough w i thou t e ver c on tr ibu t ing t he ir e cono m ic wor th .

I n o ther t echno log ica l s pheres t he P or tuguese a lso 3 1

a dap ted t o l oca l p rac t ice .

The ir g ra in was p ounded i n mor tars a nd a n ambi t ious

p rogra m me o f w ind m i l l c ons truct ion was n ever e ven b egun .

The r esu l t o f a l l

t h is r egress ion was t ha t e ar ly c o lon ia l A fr ica was i n tense ly l abour c onsum ing i n a l l f i e lds o f p roduc t ion a nd t ranspor ta t ion .

The g raves t s ource o f c on f l ic t b e-

t ween t he c o lon ies a nd t heir n e ighbours was t he c ons tan t d e mand f or h ired o r c onscr ip ted c arr iers t o h ead-load b a les o f t ex t i les a nd b arre ls o f r um t o t he f a irs o n t he f ron t ier . Where p or ters c ou ld n o t b e o b ta ined s laves h ad t o b e u sed , a nd t he mi l i tary r ecovery o f r e fugee s laves was a f ur ther s ource o f s tra in , c onf l ic t a nd c ons tan t i rr i ta t ion b e tween L us i tan ian ized a nd u n-Lus i tan ian ized c o mmun i t ies . S ince c on f l ic t was s o i mpor tan t i n r e la t ions b e tween t he P or tuguese a nd A fr ica , o ne migh t h ave e xpec ted a f as t d eve lop men t i n weapon t echno logy. I n f ac t c hange was s low.

C annon moun ted o n s h ips a nd a f ew c oas ta l f or ts were

a n e ar ly f ea ture o f d e fence b u t c ou ld n o t b e u sed f or c a mpa ign ing .

Ear ly h and

g uns h ad a p ower fu l p sycho log ica l e f fec t o n a n u naccus to med e nemy , b ut were s low a nd c umberso me t o u se .

I tt ook f i f teen minu tes t o c lean a muske t a nd r e-

l oad d ur ing wh ich t ime a n A fr ican a rcher migh t d ischarge s evera l h undred a rrows .

Mercenary b ow men were p re ferred i n e ar ly c o lon ia l war fare .

A

f ur ther p rob le m was t ha t g uns r el ied o n impor ted p owder a nd s ho t , a nd t he s upp ly f ro m L isbon was s low a nd u nre l iab le .

The f irs t c a mpa ign i n wh ich g uns

p layed a d ecis ive r o le o ccurred o ne h undred y ears a f ter t he P or tuguese l and ings i n C en tra l A fr ica . I t was a h undred y ears a f ter t ha t b e fore s ign i f ican t q uan t it ies o f f irear ms b egan t o f ind t he ir way i n to A fr ican h ands .

Once t hey d id , h ow-

e ver , t he ir a va i labi l i ty c rea ted a marke t f or g unpowder wh ich c ou ld n ever b e l oca l ly me t .

The P ortuguese were c ons tan t ly d iv ided a s t o whe th er t he p ro f i ts

t o b e made f ro m s el l ing g uns a nd p owder were s u f f ic ien t t o o u tweigh t he d isa dvan tage o f a rm ing l oca l k ingdo ms wh ich c ou ld a t a ny mo men t t urn h os t i le . The u sua l s o lu t ion was f or c o lon ia l g overnmen t t o b an t he s a le o f weapons a nd f or c o lon ia l merchan ts t o i gnore t he b an . One migh t e xpec t ac oun try l ike P or tuga l , w i th a s trong t rad i t ion o f c i ty dwe l l ing , t o i n troduce u rban iza t ion i n to A fr ica .

I td id n o t d o s o .

I n Wes t A fr ica

med ieva l u rban iza t ion was a n i mpor tan t p heno menon i n aw ide r ange o f d i f feren t s oc ie t ies a nd e nv ironmen ts , n one o f t he m i n a ny way c onnec ted w i th t he P or tug uese .

I n C en tra l A fr ica e ven t he r oya l t owns were sma l l a nd n o s ign i f ican t

g row th o ccurred .

Desp i te t h is g enera l a bsence o f merchan t t owns , i ns t i tu t ions

f or u rban iza t ion w ere i n troduced i n to Ango la , a nd t wo mun ic ipa l i t ies were s e t u p t here .

T he ir o l igarch ic s tructures w ere c o mp lex , b u t t here was a lways a

c hron ic s hor tage o f q ua l i f ied o l igarchs e l ig ib le f or e lec t ion t o t he ir minu te c ounc i ls .

L uanda a lone e ven tua l ly d eve loped i n to a c i ty — t he o n ly o ne o n t he

who le A t lan t ic c oas t a ccord ing t o Mary K ings ley who e u log ised o ver i t more t han t hree c en tur ies a f ter i t s c ere mon ia l f ound ing i n 1 578 . I ft owns a nd t echno logy were n o t t he h a l l- mark o f c o lon iza t ion , o ne migh t a t l eas t e xpect s uch a s upre me ly c o m mercia l n a t ion a s P or tuga l t o make i t s i mpac t o n f inance . e d .

N o th ing o f t he s or t h appened .

I n A fr ica c oinage was a bandon-

G old c on t inued t o b e measured b y weigh t o r , i n sma l l t ransac t ions , p oured

o n to t he t humb-na i l i n d us t f or m .

L oca l s ys te ms o f weigh ts a nd measures

were u sed , mod if ied , e x tended a nd p erver ted b y f a lse u n i ts a nd d oub le v a lues , b u t n o g o ld was e ver c o ined . u sage .

O ther c urrenc ies w ere a lso a bsorbed i n to c o lon ia l

S a l t b ars , s o me t i mes e ncased i n w icker , o ccas iona l ly s haped i n h exa3 2

g ons , s erved a s measures o f v a lue a nd med ia o f e xchange i n Ango la .

The o ld

s he l l t r ibu te s ys te m o f K ongo was mod i fied s o t ha t s he l ls c a me t o s erve t he p urpose o f c oins .

I n Luanda , t ha t i nc ipien t c i ty , t here were f ierce mun icpa l

d eba tes a bou t t he a dvan tages a nd d isadvan tages o f i n troduc ing a c opper c o inage. F or many y ears l oca l s quares o f r a f fia t ex t i le , s o me t i mes s ta mped b y g overnmen t w i th a n o f f ic ia l s ea l , s erved a s c urrency.

The ma jor n eed f or money was

t o p ay t he mi l i tary g arr ison a nd t he e scor t f orces wh ich a cco mpan ied c aravans a nd d e fended t he e ar then f or ts t ha t were s e t u p a t af ew s tra teg ic r ou te p o in ts . These s o ld iers were p a id s pas mod ica l ly i n t ex t i les wh ich t hey c ou ld t hen u se t o b eco me p r iva te t raders .

S pecu la t ive c o m merc ia l p ro f i ts p rov ided a b e t ter

r evenue t o t he a r my t han u ncer ta in s a lary e n t i t le men ts . The c onclus ion o ne mus t d raw f ro m t h is A fr ican s ke tch i s t ha t t he P or tug uese h ad n o g rea t c u l tura l impac t o n I ron Age A fr ica wh ich migh t c o mpare w i th t he A rabiza t ion o f N or th A fr ica o r t he R o man iza t ion o f Br i ta in .

And y e t

i n s o me r espec ts t he P or tuguese impac t was a l mos t im measurab le i n i t s s cope. I n Angola a miserable , t iny , s em ili tera te , h a lf-cas te c rew o f s ick ly c onv ic ts managed —in l i t t le o ver a h undred y ears— t o e x tract o ne MILLION b lack s laves . The e xp lana t ion o f h ow t hey d id i tl i es i n t hree b road a reas . F irs t ly t hey h ad b eh ind t he m t he r is ing e cono m ic p ower o f B razi l w i th i t s s even teen th c en tury p lan .a t ions a nd i t s e igh teen th c en tury mines a nd b acked b y ap rosperous s et o f c o lon ia l s h ipping a nd b ank ing i ns t i tu t ions .

There was n o n eed t o d eve lop A fr ica

—no t e ven e nough t o f eed t he s lave s h ips — when a l l s erv ices c ou ld b e p rov ided f ro m B razi l .

Tha t way t he p ro f i ts were t igh t ly r eta ined i n a n Amer ican c o lony

w i thou t d anger o f l eakage i n to t he e cono m ies o f i nd igenous n eighbours .

S econd ly

P or tuga l i nves ted e nough f orce i n A fr ica t o ma in ta in u nequa l t er ms o f t rade , a nd t o k eep mos t r iva ls o u t f ro m a t l eas t t heir s ou thern s lav ing z ones .

Whereas

l a ter European s lavers p u t mos t o f t heir i nves t men t i n to ma ter ia l i t e ms o f t rade , t he P or tuguese p ers is ten t ly i nves ted more h eav i ly i n a r med f orce a nd t hereby c onquered t he o n ly p re- modern c o lon ia l t err i tory , a lbei t av ery sma l l o ne , i n t he who le o f t ropica l A fr ica .

Th ird ly P or tuga l u nder m ined , a nd e ven tua l ly

d es troyed , t he l eg i t i ma te o ld a gr icu l tura l k ingdo ms o f Wes t C en tra l A fr ica .

I n

t he ir p lace a rose n ew b roker k ingdo ms o f warr iortraders a r med w i th n ew impor tec weapons a nd ma in ta in ing t rea ty r e la t ions w i th Por tuga l . These warr ior k ingdo ms d epended o n t he s lave t rade f or t heir merchand ise a nd t he ir f irear ms , a nd i n e xchange g ave e x tra terr i tor ia l r igh ts t o r epresen ta t ives o f t he Luanda t rad ing h ouses . The s lave f a irs were t he c ut t ing e dge o f E urope 's p ene tra t ion i n to A fr ica , b u t t hey s howed l i t t le e v idence o f European c u l ture , l anguage , l i tera ture , r e lig ion , t echno logy , c urrency o r a ny o ther b ranch o f t ha t e phe mera l c oncep t c a l led c iv i l iza t ion .

3 3

NOTES 1 .

An tOn io d e O l iveira d e Cadornega ,

H is tör ia G era l d as Guerras Ango lanas

( L isbon e d i tion 1 940-42 , 3v o ls .) .

These s even teen th-cen tury s o ld ier 's

me moirs a re o ne o f t he r iches t p ieces o f Luso-A fr ican l i tera ture . 2 .

Dav id B ir m ingha m , Trade a nd C on f lict i n Angola ( Ox ford 1 966).

Th is

i s t he ma in s ource f or t h is e ssay , a nd n o f ur ther r eference t o i ti s g iven . 3 .

C .R . Boxer , Por tuguese S oc ie ty i n t he Tropics ( Mad ison 1 965 ).

Th is

s tudy o f P or tuguese c olon ia l mun icipa l g overnmen t h as a n a ppended s ect i on o n c o lon is ts . 4 .

The c har ter i s i n t he Torre d o T o mbo a rch ive i n L isbon a nd h as b een p ubl ished , f or i ns tance i n t he t h ird o f t he t h ir teen v o lume work b y An ton io B ra sio , Monu men ta M iss ionar ia A fr icana ( L isbon 1 952) . The o ra l e v idence d er ives f ro m G .L . Haveaux , La Trad i t ion H is tor ique d es Bapende Or ien taux ( Bruxel les 1 954 ).

5 .

J ose J oaqu i m Lopes d e L i ma , Ensa ios s abre a S ta t is tica d as P ossessöes P or tuguezas ( Lisbon 1 846 , v o l . i i ).

6 .

J . W. B lake , Europeans i n Wes t A fr ica ( London 1 942 , 2v o ls .); B ir m ingha m ,

Dav id

' The Reg i men to d a M ina ' Transac t ions o f t he H is tor ica l

S oc ie ty o f Ghana ( Legon ? 1967). 7 .

Dav id B ir mingha m ,

' Cen tra l A fr ica f ro m Ca meroun t o t he Z a mbezi ' i n

C ambr idge H istory o f A fr ica , v o l. i i , 1 977. 8 .

R ichard G ray a nd Dav id B ir mingha m , Pre-Co lon ia l A fr ican Trade ( London 1 970 ).

9 .

A .G . H opk ins , An E cono mic H is tory o f Wes t A fr ica ( London 1 973) i s a g ood s ource i n wh ich t o f ind ab a lanced s um mary o f t h is f raugh t s ub jec t .

1 0 .

Andrew Ba t tel l , The S trange Adven tures o f Andrew Ba t tel l ( London 1 901) i s a n Eng lishman 's e yewi tness a ccoun t o f t he e ar ly d eve lop men t o f t he Ango lan s laving s ys te m .

1 1.

G era ld B ender , Ango la u nder t he P or tuguese ( London 1 978 ) .

3 4

S ECTION 2 :

THE IMPACT OF A S TANDING AR MY

I n many i nvas ion c ircu mstances , i ti s i mpor tan t f or t he i nvader t o ma int a in a s ubs tan t ia l f i eld a r my e i ther o n t he march d ur ing c a mpa igns , o r more p robably i n p er manen t f ron t ier p osi t ions o nce e stabl ished .

Th is was n o l ess

t rue o f t he Ro man Emp ire a s o fo ther ma jor h istor ica l s i tua t ions a nd y et v ery l i t t le h as b een wr i t ten ( pace t he s tandard a nd t rad i t iona l m il itary h is tor ies ) o n t he more g enera l s tra teg ic p ol ic ies b eh ind f ron t ier p rogress ion a nd e stabl i sh men t . Even l ess r esearch h as c oncen tra ted o n t he n a ture o f t he d irec t a r my r equ ire men ts a nd t he ir impac t a t t he l oca l o r p rov inc ial l evels , o r o n t he a dap ta t ions w i th in t he p rovinc ia l s upp ly mechan is ms.

To b e s ure , t he

r ole o f t he a r my a s a n i nf luence i n a gr icu l tura l p roduc t ion a nd e cono m ic d evelopmen t i s o f ten a cknowledged , b u t l i t tle e xp l ic it q uan t if ica t ion o f t he p roble m h as b een a t te mp ted . I n t h is impor tan t s ec t ion , t wo ma jor p apers , o ne , b y K irk , c oncerned w ith t he N orth-West Fron t ier o f I nd ia , a nd t he o ther , b y J ones , r ela ted t o t he e stabl ish men t o f t he Ro mano-Br i t ish f ron t ier , d raw d irec t s tructura l s im i lar i t ies b e tween t he p rogress ion o f c olon ia l a r med f orces a nd t he c onseq uen t e stabl ish men t o f p er manen t f ron t iers w i th in t he t wo r eg ions.

The s i m-

p le model o f f ron t ier p rogress ion p roposed b y K irk h as v ar ious a f f in it ies w ith t he Ro mano-Br i t ish c ase , e ven i fo ne a cknowledges w i th J ones t ha t t he i dea o f p rogress ion a s o pposed t o f ron t ier e stabl ish men t i s more c orrec t ly t he c ase b efore t he s econd c en tury . I nb oth e xa mp les a s er ies o f move men ts , l ead ing i n t ime t o a dvance men t a nd a nnexa t ion , e ven tua l ly d e mand t he p rov is ion o f af ron t ier t o s et l im its t o wha t i s d irec t ly c on trol led a nd t o a l low c on trol t ob e e xerc ised o ver e x terna l a reas. I nb oth c ases , t he i dea o f e cono m ic v ersus mi l i tary s tra tegy i s p erhaps a pparen t. J ones , f ol low ing L u t twak , a lso s ees g rea t v a lue i n t he c oncep t o f Defencein-Dep th mechan is ms wh ich a re l i kely t o h ave o pera ted i n t he l a te Emp ire. More importan t ly , a s K irk emphas ises , a ny g iven f ron t ier i s u nable t o f unc t ion w ithou t e ither t he s uppor t o f i t s l oca l h in terland , a nd more p art icul arly t he l ong-d istance s upp ly r ou tes a va i lable t o t he p rov inc ia l c o m mand. The importance o fh in terland d evelopmen t i s a lso a t tested b y J ones i n t he North- West a rea o f Br i ta in a round Carl isle wh i le t he a spec ts o f l ong-d istance s upp ly mechan isms a re d iscussed b y Midd leton .

I n e xa m in ing Ga l l ic e p igraph ic

e v idence , t he l a t ter c on tends t ha t t he Rh ineland a rm ies c ou ld n ot h ave b een ma in ta ined b y s upp l ies d rawn whol ly f ro m t he f ron t ier z one ; i nstead h e i sol a tes t hree b road r eg ions wh ich a ppear t o b e l i nked b y l ong-d istance s upp ly r ou tes mov ing b as ic b u lk n ecess it ies f ro m i n ter ior t o f ron t ier , a nd d e mons tra tes t he p oss ibil ity t ha t t he l ong-d istance t rade o f s am ian p ot tery may b e s een a s ar esponse t o t he p rox im i ty o f am il i tary s upp ly r oute a nd t he a c t ion o f e n trepreneur ial a gen ts a lready e ngaged i n t he b u lk move men t o f g oods o n t he s ta te 's b eha l f .

I n t urn ing t o Br ita in , where s uch l ong-d istance s upp ly

3 7

n etworks a re j ust a s l i kely , b u t t he e p igraph ic r ecord s o much p oorer , M idd leton p roposes t ha t l ong-d istance p ot tery n etworks a nd l oca l e cono m ic d ev elopmen t ( as s een i n v il la g row th ), may b e i nd ica t ive o f s uch r ou tes. H is b r ief a na lys is s uggests many p ossib i l it ies c oncern ing t he q ues t ion o f a r my s upp ly , a nd i t wou ld b e i n terest ing t o e xa m ine t hese f ur ther a nd t o c ons ider h ow c hanges i n t he p rov inc ia l s truc ture c onnec ted t o t he g radua l s ubd iv is ion o f Br i ta in i n to t wo a nd l a ter f our p rov inces , w ou ld h ave a f fec ted t he p rov inc ia l s upp ly r ou tes. The more s pec if ic q uest ion o f t he a r my impac t o n p ot tery i s e xa m ined b y Greene.

Wh ilst s pec if ica l ly a i med t o f i t i n t h is s ec t ion , i tc an a lso l i nk

w ith t he a r t ic les o n t he i ndustr ies i n t he n ex t s ec t ion b y Mann ing , Wild a nd Rodwel l , wh ich a lso r ef lec t i nv ary ing d egrees t he r ole p layed b y t he a r my a nd p rov inc ia l g overn men t , among o ther f ac tors, i n g enera l d eve lopmen t. I n t ak ing t he b roader v iew o n p roduc t ion a nd t rad ing , Greene i s a t p a ins t o p lay d own t he a c t ive r ole o f t he a r my , emphas is ing i nstead t ha t wh ilst t he a r my may wel l h ave b een i mportan t i n i t ia l ly i n e x tend ing t he r ange o f t he wares a va i lable , i t was f o l lowed v ery c lose ly a nd s oon s uperseded b y c iv il ian d e mand o n af ar g rea ter s ca le. E qua l ly o n t he q uest ion o f t rade , h e w ou ld p u t t he emphas is s quare ly o n c iv i l ian d emands wh i ls t n o t ing t ha t t he a rmy w ou ld r e ly more c lose ly o n i ndependen t a gen ts o r o ther mechan isms t o s upp ly i t s p ot tery r a ther t han d irec t r equis i t ion .

N ever the less , wh i ls t a cknow ledg ing t h is l ess

a ct ive a rmy r o le , t here i s s t i l l t he p oss ib i l i ty t ha t , g iven e x is t ing s upp ly l i nes a s M idd le ton p roposes , a nd g iven e n trepreneur ia l ' know-how ' , t he l oca t ion a nd e xpans ion o f s ome e x is t ing o r n ew p roduc t ion c en tres may h ave owed more i n i t ia l ly t o a rmy n eeds t han c iv i l ian d emand .

S uf f ice i tt o s ay t ha t t he

p rob lem o f a rmy s upp ly c ou ld we l l s t i l l o f fer g rounds f or much w ider d iscuss ions . The importance o ff ron t ier s tud ies a s a n o vera l l t ac t ica l p roble m c onnect ed t o t he l og ist ics o f s upp ly a nd d e mand mechan is ms i s c learly a n a rea w orthy o f more c oncen tra ted s tudy .

3 8

THE MAK ING AND IMPACT OF THE BRIT ISH IMPERIAL NORTH- WEST FRONT IER I N I ND IA

b y Wi l liam K irk

"Thanks t o t he d evo ted l abours o fg enera tions o f s cho lars, t he p hysica l e le men ts o f Ro man f ron tier p o licy h ave b een u ncovered i n ac oheren t , i fi nco mp lete , manner .

B u t wh i le t he a rchaeo logica l,

e p igraphica l , n um is ma t ic ,and l i terary e vidence h as b een a ug men ted a nd a ssiduously c o l la ted b y t hese l abours t he mean ing a nd p urpose o f Ro man f ron tier d efence d ur ing t h is p hase o f emp ire r e ma ins c ont roversia l" . Edward N . L ut twak

1

" No thing w i l lt end t o s ecure t he s afe ty o ft he f ron tier s o much a s t he p ower o f r ap id ly c oncen tra ting t roops o n a ny t hrea tened p oin t ,and n o th ing w i l l s treng then o ur mi li tary p osi tion more t han t o o pen o u t t he c oun try a nd i mprove o ur r e la tions w i th t he f ron tier t r ibes. There a re n o b et ter c ivi lizers t han r oads a nd r ai lways;

a nd a l though s o me

o ft hose r eco m mended t o b e made may n ever b e r equired f or mi li tary p urposes, t hey wi l lb e o ft he g rea test a ssistance t o t he c ivi l p ower i n t he a dm in istra tion o ft he c oun try ." F ield Marsha l Ear l Rober ts

2

Any e xercise t ha t s eeks t o t hrow l i gh t o n t he n a ture a nd i mpact o f t he Ro man Imper ia l f ron tier i n Bri ta in b y a na logy w i th t he Bri tish I mper ia l f ron tier i n I ndia a l most t wo t housand y ears l a ter i s b ese t w i th d i f f icu l ties. The e nvironmen ta l a nd p o li tica l c on tex ts o ft he t wo s yste ms a re p a ten t ly d i f feren t , a s a re t he t echno log ies o f war i nheren t i n t hose s ys tems .

R oman t roops i n B ri ta in

d id n o t h ave t oc on tend w i th e nviron men ta l p roble ms o n q ui te t he s ca le a s were e ncoun tered b y B ri tish f orces i n I ndia a long t he t housand- mi le f ron tiertha t e x tended f ro m t he s now-covered h e igh ts o ft he Pa mirs a nd H indu K ush i nthe n orth t o t he b roken f o ld r anges a nd b li ster ing d eser ts o f Ba luchistan i n t he s ou th . One wou ld n eed t o embrace a l l t he f ron tiers o ft he Ro manE mpire t o c over s uch a n e nviron men ta l r ange .

F ur ther more Ro man r u lers i n Bri ta in d id n o t h ave t o

p lan a ga inst t he p ossibi li ty o f a n i nvasion f ro m t he n or th west b y a n i mper ia l a r my a s p owerfu l a s t heir own a sd id t he Br i t ish i n I ndia a s ar esu l t o f t he R ussian a dvance i n to C en tra l A siaduring t he n ineteen th c en tury.

Nor d id t he

Ro man a r my i n Br i ta in h ave t he f i repower o f r if les, g uns a nd b o mbs a nd t he s tra teg ic mobi l i ty o f r a i lways, mo tor ised t ranspor t a nd a ircraf t t ha t was u lt ima te ly a vai lab le t o Br i tish f orces o pera t ing o n t he Nor th- West F ron tier o f I ndia . However , i n s pi te o ft hese a nd o ther d i f ferences wh ich i mpose s evere c onstra in ts o n c o mpara tive s tudy t here a ppear t o b e s uff icien t s tructura l r es e mb lances t o make s uch s tudy r ewarding , e ven i fi to n ly e ncourages t he 3 9

4 0

f or mu la tion o f q uestions t ha t migh t n o t o therw ise b e a sked . To r educe t he t echno logica l d i f ferences a nd h eigh ten t he s tructura l a na logies t h is p aper c onc en tra tes a l most e xc lusive ly o n t he n ine teen th c en tury d eve lop men t o ft he North- West F ron tier o f I nd ia .

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A t t he o u tse t i ts hou ld b e r ea lised t ha t t he g rea t f ron tier s yste m o n t he n or thern marches o f wha t was, u n ti l 1 947 , t he Br i tish Emp ire o fS ou thern A sia was n o t t he r esu lt o f as ing le a ct o f c rea tion , s o meth ing d esigned a ccordi ng t o ap reconceived t heory o r mode l o fb oundary mak ing .

I tt ook o ver ac en-

t ury i n t he mak ing a nd d ur ing t his t ime c onsiderab le c hanges o ccurred i nt he p o li tica l , e cono mic a nd mi li tary p rocesses i nvo lved — includ ing i n ter a l . t he t rans m ission o f r esponsibi li ty f ro m t he East I ndia Co mpany t ot he Crown ( 1858 ) , t he c o l lap se o f i nd igenous ( Moghu l , S ikh , A fghan ) i mperia l s tructures i n Northern I nd ia , t he g row ing awareness o f Russian a dvances t owards t he n or thwestern g a tes o fI ndia , t he d ec lin ing s igni f icance o f C h ina a s ap ower o n t he n or th-eastern a nd n or thern a pproaches, a nd t he s uper i mposi tion o f n ew a d mini s tra tive s yste ms i n I ndo-Gangetic l ow land t erri tories a s t hey c a me u nder Bri tish c on tro l . I nthe ma inthe f ron tier s yste m was c onstructed o fs epara te e le men ts, e ach a rising f ro m p rag ma tic s o lu tions t o l oca l a nd c urren t c ircu mst ances, a nd i t was n ot u n ti l t he s yste m was a l most c o mp le te t ha t ag enera l s pa tia l p o licy o r l ogic b egan t o emerge . 4 I n i tia l ly t he Bri tish p ower b ase l ay i n B enga l , c en tred o n t he p or t o f Ca lcut ta a nd t he g row ing wea lth o f Hoogh lyside , a nd i t was n o t u n ti l Bri t ish s eapower emerged s upre me i n t he I ndian O cean d ur ing t he Napo leonic Wars, a nd t h is o cean b eca me v ir tua lly aBr i tish medi terranean ', t ha t l andward e xp ansion b egan i n t he G ange tic l ow lands. Dur ing t he f i rst h a lf o ft he n ine teen th c en tury t here was i ndeed a succession o f North- West F ron tiers a s t he Benga l Ar my o ft he Co mpany e x tended t he Co mpany ' st erri tor ies i n to t he h in ter land o f Ca lcu t ta , a nd i n t he p rocess c ame i n to c ontact w i th t he h igh land t riba l p eop les o nt he p er iphery o ft he l ow lands.

I n 1 816 b order a gree men ts were

made w i th t he G urkhas, p ar ticu lar ly o nt he q uestion o ft he a lign men t o ft he s ou thernboundary o f Nepa l i n r e la tion t o t he c u ltura l/ad m in istra tive d ivide t ha t t radi t iona l ly f o l lowed t he e dge o ft he p la ins , a nd f o l low ing t he a nnexa t ion o f A ssa m i n 1 828 s i mi lar a rrange men ts were made b y t he s o-ca l led I nner L ine R egu la tions s epara ting t he h i l ltr ibes o ft he Nor th-Eastern F ron t ier f ro m t he l ow landers o ft he Bra maputra Va l ley .

F or a t ime t he North- West f ron tier was

l oca ted i nthe I ndo-Gange tic D ivide , w i th D e lh i a s v ir tua l ly af ron tier f or tress, a nd e ven a t t he e nd o ft he c en tury Crooke 5 c ou ld s t i l l b e u rging t he Govern men t t ha t t he n a me o ft he s ta te we n ow k now a s Un i ted P rov inces o r U t tar Pradesh , e ast o f D e lh i , s hou ld a t l ast b e c hanged f ro m

The Nor thwest Prov ince.'

The

g rea t mi li tary c an ton men ts a t Meeru t , L ucknow , Barei l ly a nd A l lahabad d a te f ro m t his p er iod o f f ron t ier e xpansion .

B u t t hen , w i th t he d efea t o ft he S ikhs

i n t he P un jab a nd t he e stab lish men t o ft he h i ll k ingdo m o f Kash m ir i n 1 846, t he Bri t ish f ron tier s urged f orward t ot he I ndus a nd Bri ta in was l ef tt o s o lve t he p rob le ms o ft he d isturbed f ron tier z one t ha t h ad d eve loped b e tween S ikhs a nd t he A fghans ( see F ig . 1 ) . 4 1

Various p ossib le b oundar ies c ou ld h ave b een c hosen a s t he l imi t o f empire , d epend ing o n p ar t icu lar p ercep tions o ft he f unc t ion o ft he i mper ia l b order a nd t he i n terna la nd e x terna l p ressures t o wh ich i t was e xposed . S o me , i nc lud ing L ord L awrence ,6a rgued t ha t t he I ndus R iver i t se lf s hould c onsti tu te t he b ounda ry . Th is a l ignmen t wou ld h ave h ad t he a dvan tage o f k eep ing s upp ly l i nes s hor t , a nd l eng then ing t hose o fa ny e ne my a pproach ing I ndia f ro m t he n or thwest . S uch a n e ne my wou ld h ave t he p rob le m o f ma in ta in ing l i nes o f c o m munica tion t hrough d if f icu l t t r iba l c oun try a nd c ou ld b e a t tacked a t t hose p o in ts a t which h e emerged i n to t he I ndus p la ins o r s ough t t o c ross t he I ndus.

F ur ther more , t he g rea t

r iver c ou ld p rovide i n c ivi l a f fa irs ac lear l i ne o f d e marca tion f or t he a dm in ist ra tion o ft he P un jab , i nc lud ing t he r evenue s e t t le men t . B u t t he r iver h ad n ever f unctioned a s a n i mperia l f ron tier . I t was au ni f ier o fp eop le s e t t led i n t he r ivera ine r a ther t han a c u ltura l d ivide a nd a s i st he c ase w i th most g rea t r ivers, d id n o t c onsti tu te t he mi li tary o bstacle i ta ppeared t o b e a tf ir st s igh t . I t was d i f f icu l tt o h o ld a s af i rst l i ne o f d efence , was u nhea lthy f or t he p er ma nen t g arrison ing o ft roops, a nd i t s b anks were p hysica l ly u nstab le . F ur thermore , a s s uccessors t o t heSikh emp ire o ft he P un jab t he Bri tish i nheri ted t hose t ransIndus t erra ins t ha t h ad b een r u led b y t he S ikhs a nd i tp roved d iff i cu l t t o a bandon s uch l ow land c o m muni ties t o t heir w i lder P a than b rethren i n t he h i lls. A s econd p ossibi l i ty was t o i nc lude t hese t ransIndus l ow land c o m muni ties w i th inthe a dm in istra tion o f t he P un jab a nd a l ign t he b order a long t he e dge o ft he h igh lands, i n t he manner a dop ted b y t he I nner L ine R egu la t ions i n A ssam .

B u t whi le s uch a l ine made a good d ea l o f a dm in istra tive s ense t he

mi li tary a u thor i ties were o pposed t oi t . A s a mi l i tary f ron tier i t wou ld b e v ir tua l ly i mposs ib le t o d efend . I twould n ecessi ta te p lugg ing v ir tua l ly e very e xi t f ro m t he h igh lands w i th f or ts a nd o ther d efensive s tructures a nd a n e ne my wou ld h ave t he a dvan tage o f h o lding t he h igh g round a bove s uch s tructures a nd t he e le men to f s urprise wou ld b eo n h is s ide . Troops wou ld n eed t o b e d ispersed i n s treng th a long t he who le l i ne t o p reven t as urpr ise b reakthrough a t a ny p o in tc hosen b yt he e ne my —as t he S ikhs h ad d iscovered t o t heir c ost .

A

t h ird p ossibi l i ty was t o p ush t he f ron tier f orward , b eyond t he o u ter r anges o f f o ld moun ta ins a nd t he d if f icu l t Pa than t r iba l t erra ins t o t he i n terior p la teaus a nd o pen v a l leys o f A fghan istan a nd Ba luch istan .

Th is was t he s o lu tion f avoured

b y t he mi li tary , b u t n o t t he c ivi l a dm in istra tors, a nd b eca me k nown a s t he s cien ti f ic f ron tier ' i na rmy c ircles. The most f avoured a l ignmen t was t he Kandahar - G hazn i -K abu l a x is which f ro m t imes i m me mor ia l h ad b eenthe s tar t l i ne f or s uccessive i nvaders o ft he I ndian s ubcon t inen t . Af ron tier s yst em b ased o n t ha t l i ne wou ld h ave i t ss ou thern f l ank p ro tected b y t he e x tensive d eser ts o f R egistan a nd t he D ash ti- Margo o ft he d esicca ted H e l mund b asin , a nd i t s n or thern f l ank p ro tectedby t he h igh , g lacia ted n or theastern r anges o f t he H indu K ush a nd P a mirs. K abu l was t he s tra teg ic k ey t o t he r ou tes l ead ing o ver t he l ower p asses o ft he H indu K ush a nd t o t he a ncien t h ighway t ha tl ed e astwards f ro m H era t a longthe v a l ley o f t he Har i R ud . K andahar was t he f ocus o f r ou tes f ro m c en tra la nd s ou thern P ersia v ia F arah , a nd t he k ey t o t he a pproaches t o t he B o lan P ass a ndtha t o ther a ncien t h ighway t ha t l ed t hrough t he Z hob Va l ley t o D era G hazi K han a nd Mu l tan .

I n t he e ven t , h owever , t he

p o li tica l n ego tia tions which r esu l ted i n t he e rection o f A fghan istan a s ab uf fer s ta te , w i th i n terna tiona l ly a greed b oundar ies, p u t t his a l ignmen t o u t o f r each . I n 1 873 a nA fghan b oundary t owards Russia was d e limi ted a long t he l i ne o ft he O xus a nd i n 1 893 a n A fghan b oundary t owards Bri tish I ndia was d e l i m i ted b y

4 2

S ir Mor timer D urand . The s o-ca l led

Durand L ine ' was a wa ter-shed-cu m-

c rest c o mpro mise l ine t ha t t ook a ccoun t o ft he e x tension o fA fghan a dm in istrat ion b u t s a ti sf ied n ei ther mi li tary n or a dm in istra tive n eeds f ro m t he Bri t ish p o in t o fv iew .

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H owever , o nce c rea ted a nd d e marca ted i tb eca me a p er man-

e n t f ea ture t o which v arious f ron tier e cono mic a nd s ocia l s yste ms h ad t o a d just . Among o ther t h ings i tl ef t many o ft he Pa than t r iba l t erri tor ies o n t he Br i tish s ide o ft he b oundary —po li t ica l ly w i thin I nd ia b u t , a t l east w i th in t he h i l ls, o u tside n orma l Br i tish I ndian a dm in istra t ion . Thus a l though t he macrofor ms o f t he d efence s yste m c rea ted b yt he Bri tish o n t he Nor thwestern f ron tier o fI ndia r ef lec ted t he p ossibi li ty o f a ma jor c onf l ict w i th Russia , d ay t o d ay mi l i tary o pera t ions were l arge ly c oncerned w i th t he p ac if ica tion o f p roud a nd war like t r iba l g roups who h ad n ever t hroughou t t heir l ong h istory b een b rough tu nder i mperia l c on tro l .

Caroe 8 a rgues c on-

v incing ly f or t he a n tiqui ty o ft hese h i ll f olk —Afridi , K ha tack , O rakzai , Yusufzai Wazirs, Mahsuds —genera l ly r eferred t o a s Pa thans ( Pakh tuns o r Pash tuns) , a nd o u t lines t he h istorica l b ase f or t heir c odes o fb ehaviour — their g lor if icat ion o f mi l i tary h onour , t heir b ravery a nd h ardiness, t heir r u les o f h osp i ta li ty , t heir b lood f euds, t heir l oya l ty t ot r iba l c hiefs, t heir e n joy men t o f h un t ing w i th h awks a nd h ounds a nd h orses, t heir p roneness t o r e lig ious i nci te men t t o J ihad ( ho ly war ) , t heir l ove o f war p ar ties, r aids a nd c a t t le r ust ling p ar ticu lar ly o n e f fe te s ub jects o fo ther s ta tes. r ecorded b y Taci tus,

9

A sw i th most h igh landers —and f ro m h is s peech

Ca lgacus t he P ict , migh t we l l h ave b een a Pa than — the

h i l l f o lk v iewed w i th d is may t he way i n which t heir l ow land n e ighbours a nd k i thf o lk h ad b eenbrough t u nder a dm inistra t ive c on tro l .

O ther d ynasties h ad i n tro-

d uced e le men ts o f a dm in istra tion , b u t t he Bri t ish were i n troducing a n e n tire s yste m —roads, f or ts, t owns, t axa tion , l aw c our ts, p o lice , l and t enure —fro m which t here a ppeared t o b e n o e scape , —"they c rea te a d eso la t ion a nd c a l l i t p eace " .

Pax B ri tann ica a lso a ppeared t o b e t hrea ten ing t heir r igh ts t o c ol lect

t o l ls f ro m merch a n ts a nd p astora l n o mads p assing t hrough t heir l ands, a nd t r ibu te t radi tiona l ly d ue f ro m l ess war like l ow landers.

The t hrea t was t ot heir

p urses a s we l l a st heir p o li t ica l i ndependence — indeed t o t heir e n tire way o f l i fe —and i ti sh ard ly s urprising t ha t t hey r eacted v io len t ly .

S o meti mes s uch

t roub les were h igh ly l oca li sed , a t o ther t imes t he who le f ron tier was a b laze . I n r esponse t o s uch p rob le ms v ar ious mi li tary a nd a dm in istra tive t echn iques h ad p erforce t o b e d eve loped b y t he Bri t ish f ron tier a u thor i ties. Each o ft he Depu ty Co m m issioners o f e stab lished f ron tier d istricts was g iven t he r esponsibi li ty n o t o n ly o f a dm in istering h is own d istr ict b u t a lso o f d ea l ing w i th t he t r ibes a d jacen t t o h is t erri tory ( e .g . P eshawar w i th t he Mohmands ;

K oha t

w i th t he Orakza is ; Bannu w i th t he Wazirs; D era I s mai l K han w i th t he S heran is e tc.) . P o li tica l a gen ts were s en ti n to t r iba l t erra in s a nd l oca l a f fa irs were d ea l t w i th b y f ron tier p o lice a nd n a tive mi li tias ( Pi f fers

1 0

i n t he n or th ) .

On t he

P un jab s ector o f t he f ron tier t hese were s ta tioned u n ti l 1 886 i n an u mber o f sma l l f or ts a long t he a d min istra t ive b oundary , c onnected b y ag ood mi li tary r oad ; b u t o nthe S ind s ector , where c a t t le r aid ing b y t he B ug tis f ro mthe Ba lu ch istan h i lls was a f requen t o ccurrence , ap o l icy o f a ctive p a tro l ling b y t he ' Scinde I rregu lar Horse ' a longthe s trip o f d eser t b e tween t he s et t led d istric ts a nd t he h i l ls was a dop ted i n p reference t o f orts.

I n s o me c ases g ran ts ( Muwa jib)

were p a id t o t he t r ibes b y way o f c o mpensa tion f or l oss o ft o l ls a nd l oo t , a nd p o li tica l a gen ts d rew u p f or ms o f a gree men ts w i th t he c h ief s ( ma liks) o ft he 4 3

t r ibes.

When ma jor d isturbances o ccurred v ar ious p un ish men ts were i nf licted .

F ines c ou ld b ee xacted ( or s toppages f ro m c usto mary a l lowances) . B lockades ( band ish ) c ou ld b e i mposed , which h ad t he e f fec t o f c u t t ing t he t r ibe o f f f ro m i t s marke ts,

l and , o r g razing g rounds i n n eighbour ing d istricts.

Proper ty o r

i nd ividua ls c ou ld b e s eized ( bara m ta ) , f o l low ing t he c ode t ha t a tr ibe h ad c o ll ect ive r esponsibi l i ty f or i t s i nd ividua l me mbers.

I n t he c ase o f s erious d is-

t urbances, h owever , t he a r my was c a l led i n t o moun t p un i tive e xpedi t ions i n to t he h i l ls ( e .g . b e tween 1 849-1890 f or ty t wo 'e xped i tions ' t ook p lace , i nvo lving 2 173 Br i tish c asua l ties, i ncluding 9 00 i n t he Ambela u pr ising o f 1 863 ) .

I n

a ddi tion t he a r my were r esponsib le f or k eep ing o pen s tra teg ic r oads s uch a s t he K hyber a nd main ta in ing k ey f or ts a nd t heir g arrisons i n r e la tion t o s uch r ou tes —opera tions wh ich u l tima te ly were c odi f ied i n to s tandard mi li tary t ra ini ng p rocedures a nd l oca l war g ames , w i th t he P a thans e n tering i n to t he s p ir i t o f s uch mi li tary e xercises.

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The i mpac t o f s uch f ron t ier o pera t ions c an b e e xamined f rom v ar ious p o in ts o f v iew , b ut i n t he c on tex t o f t h is p aper i ti s p oss ib le t o c a l l a t tent ion e specia l ly t o t he d emands p laced o n l oca l r esources i n o rder t o ma in ta in s ubs tan t ia l mi li tary f orces i n s uch t erra ins f or a ny l ength o ft ime . This c an , among o ther c ases, b e i l lustra ted b y r eference t o t he l og ist ics o ft he s o-ca l led K abu lKandahar F ie ld F orce wh ich G enera l R ober ts l ed f ro m Kabu l i n1 880 t o r e lieve t he b e leaguered g arr ison o fK andahar .

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The f orce c onsisted o f 9 ,986 men ( 273 Br i t ish o f f icers; t roops ;

2 ,562 Bri tish

a nd 7 ,151 Na tive t roops) , d ivided i n to t hree b r igades o f i nfan try , o ne

b r igade o f c ava lry a nd t hree b a t teries o f moun ta in a r ti l lery w i th 1 8 g uns. a ddi tion t here w ere o ver 8 ,0 00 c ivi lian

I n

f o l lower s ' ,i nc lud ing b earers, g roo ms

f or t he n a t ive c ava lry r eg i men ts, a nd t ranspor t a n ima l a t tendan ts.

The c av-

a lry u n i ts h ad 1 ,7 79 c ava lry h orses, a nd t he g unners 4 50 Ar ti l lery Mu les, whi le f or g enera l t ranspor t p urposes t he f orce r equired 1 ,589 A fghan p on ies, 4 ,510 p ack mu les, 1 ,2 44 I ndian p on ies, 9 12 d onkeys a nd , t o c arry t he b aggage o ft he F ie ld Hosp i ta l, 6 c a me ls.

I n v iew o ft he n a ture o ft he t erra in t he u se

o f whee led c ar ts was r u led o u t , a nd t he s ca le o fb aggage , t en ts a nd o ther i mp ed i men ta r educed t o a min i mu m .

Each Bri tish s o ldier was a l lowed 3 0 l bs —

i nc luding a g rea tcoa t a nd wa terproof s hee t ;

e ach n a tive s o ldier 2 0 l bs, a nd

e ach 'f o l lower ' 1 0l bs o fpersona l b aggage .

F ood s upp lies were c arried a s

f o l lows —for Br i tish t roops: 5 d ays b read-stuf f , 1 5 d ays o f p reserved v eget ab les, 3 0d ays o f t ea , s ugar , s a l t a nd r um ;

f or Na t ive t roops a nd f o l lowers :

5d ays o f f l our , 3 0 d ays o f d a l a nd s a l t , b u t t hese were c onsidered a s r eserves a nd wherever p ossib le f ood , a nd f odder f or t he a nima ls, were t o b e p urchased e n r ou te .

I ndeed i n a ddi tion t o t he s heep a nd g oa ts t hey s e t o u t w i th , s o me

5 000 s heep were b ough t o n t he march t o f eed t he t roops a nd f o l lowers.

Each

t ranspor t a nima l h ad t o c arry o ne d ay ' sc orn i n a ddi tion t o i t s o rd inary l oad . S ince t he march o ccurred d uring August a g ood d ea l o f h arvested I ndian c orn was a vai lab le a s f ar a s Ghazn i , b u t b eyond t ha t t he f orce h ad t o d epend f or f orage o n s tand ing c rops.

A t t he e nd o f ad ay ' s march e ach b r igade was a l lo t-

4 4

t ed a c er tain c rop a rea a s af orage z one .

This was Ih arvested ' ,a long w i th

a ny f rui t a nd v egetab les t ha t were a vai lab le .

The f i e lds w ere t he m measured

a nd a ssessed b yt he p o li tica lo f f icers who a cco mpanied t he f orce a nd were r esponsib le f or p ay ing c o mpensa tion t o t he owners.

Much d epended o n t he

s eason , e xcep t f or t he p rovision o f f ue l f or c ook ing wh ich , i n t his t ree less e nviron men t , was ac onstan t s ource o f d i f f icu l ty .

I n s o me c ases h ouses were

p u l led d own f or t he t imber t hey c on ta ined a nd t his t oo was a ma t ter f or o nthes po t c o mpensa tion p ay men t . I ndeed e ach p o l i tica l o f f icer c arr ied a l i st o f i t e ms s ub ject t o q uan ti f iab le amoun ts o f c o mpensa tion a rising f ro m d a mage i ncurred b y t he t roops o n t he march .

S imi lar a rrange men ts were a lso made ,

i nciden ta l ly , f or a r my t ra in ing e xercises o n t he f ron tier , On a verage t h is p ar ticu lar c o lu mn c overed 1 2 mi les p er d ay a nd f o l lowed ar egu lar d ai ly r ou tine a d justed t ot he t errain a nd c lima te .

Each d ay t he c a mp

was r oused a t 2 .45 a .m ., a nd b y 4a .m . t en ts were s truck , b aggage l oaded a nd t he f orce r eady t o move i n t he o rder-of- march a ssigned f or t ha t d ay . The Cava lry l ef t f i rst , p roviding a mobi le s creen , w i th t wo r egimen ts i n f ron t a nd o ne o n e ach f l ank . Two o f t he I nfan try b r igades w i th t heir r espective Moun ta in Ba t teries f o l lowed . Then c a me t he F ie ld H osp i ta l , t he O rdnance a nd Eng ineer Parks , F orce H eadquar ters, a nd t he b aggage t ra in , a rranged t o r ef lect t he o rder-of- march .

The t hird I nfan try b r igade w i th i t s Moun ta in Ba t tery

a nd o ne

o r t wo t roops o f Cava lry p rovided a r earguard f or t he e n tire c o lu mn . The f orce was t hus s trung o u to ver s evera l mi les o ft rackway .

Ten minu tes r est was

a l lowed i n e ach h our o f march ing , w i th a b reak f or t wen ty minutes a t 8a . m. f or b reakfast a nd b y middaythe l ead ing e le men ts

were a rr iving a tthe c a mp

s i te s e lected f or t he n ex t e ven ing . This a l lowed f or d efensive works a nd d isp osi tions t o b e made , f orage u n i ts t o b e d e ta i led , a nd t he c a mp l aid o u t i n a r egu lar f ash ion s o t ha t u n i ts a s t hey a rr ived k new e xact ly where t o g o .

The

r earguard of ten d id n o t a rrive u n ti l l a te i n t he a f ternoon s o much p repara tory work h ad t o b e d one o n t heir b eha lf a nd t hey t ook u p af ron ta l p osi tion

i nthe

c a mp , t o b eco me t he l eading b r igade t he f o l low ing d ay . T he i n terva l b e tween march ing c a mps i sc lear ly ar ef lection o f t he l ogistics o f move men t a s we l l a s t he n a ture o ft he e nviron men t . The c ondi t ions t ook t heir t o l l o n men a nd a n i ma ls, q ui te a par t f ro m t he a ctua l f i gh t ing .

P oor wa ter s upp lies a nd t he e nor mous d iurna l r ange o f t e m-

p era ture t ha t v ar ied f ro m f reezing p oin t a t d awn t o 10°F a t midday h ad d eb i li ta t ing e f fects o n t he men , a s we l l a s e xhaus t ion r esu lt ing f ro m c arry ing e quip men to ver c onsiderab le g radien ts ( e .g . 1i n 4o n t he a pproach t o t he 8 ,1 00 f th igh Z a mburak-Ko ta l Pass) .

I ndeed 7 11 p ack a n i ma ls d ied o n t he

3 13 mi les march b e tween 8 th-31st A ugust —and t his was n o t c onsidered e xcess ive .

Much g rea ter p rob le ms h ad b een e ncoun tered o n o ther r ou tes i n t he

h i l ls a nd many o ft he mi l i tary t racks were l i t tered w i th t he r e ma ins o f a n i ma ls a nd b roken d own c ar ts.

A s R ober ts e lsewhere r ecords..." i ti s n o

e xa ggera tion t o s ay t ha t i n t he Au tu mn o f 1 880 when Il ef t K andahar , i t wou ld h ave b een p ossib le t o h ave p icked o u tt he r oad t hence t o Q uet ta a nd o nwards t o S ibi , ad istance o f 2 50 mi les w i th n o o ther g uide t han t ha t o f t he l ine o f d ead a ni ma ls a nd b roken d o w n c ar ts l ef t b eh ind b y t he s evera l c o lu mns e nd c onvoys t ha t h ad marched i n to A fghanistanby t ha t r ou te".

Then t here i s t he e xa mp le

o ft he ma in ta inance o f a Br i tish f orce , o n ly o ne b r igade s trong t ha t moved t hrough t he s and-b lasted a rea s ou thwest o f Q ue t ta i n 1 915 t oe stab lish c on tact

4 5

w i th t he P ersian a r my a t Z ahidan . A long t he 4 40 mi les o ft his p arched t rackway o ver 3 0 ,000 c a me ls d ied . S uch p rod igious c onsu mp tion o f a n ima l r esources c ou ld o n ly b e ma in ta ined b y t he e stab lish men t o f aw ide n etwork o ft rade a nd d ea ling i n av ar ie ty o ft ranspor t a n ima ls.

F or tuna te ly , f ro m a mi l i tary p o in t

o fv iew , t he N or thwest F ron tier l i es w i th in t he e astern marg in o ft he most e x tensive p astora l-grass land a ni ma l z one o n e ar th , a t t he c onvergence o f c a me l a nd h orse c u ltura l r ea l ms, a nd l oca l s upp lies were g ood .

I ndeed t he

p resence o ft he f ron tier a rmy a nd t he a ctivi ties o f i t s r e moun ts, t ranspor t a nd s upp lies o f f icers s t imu la ted a n ima l b reed ing f or s a le i n t he f ron tier t err a ins, t he e xpansion o ft radi t iona l mar ts ; t he d eve lopmen ts o f d rove r oads t o t he mar ts a nd t he i ncreased c u l tiva tion a nd t rade i n f orage c rops.

E ven

s o al oca li ty c ou ld b e q u ick ly e xhausted a nd t he s ize o f ag arrison a d justed t o t he a vai labi li ty o f s upp lies i n i t s s urrounding r egion .

Thus when t he K abu l-

K andahar F ie ld f orce e ven tua l ly r eached i t s o b jective a nd r e lieved t he Bri tish g arr ison a t K andahar i tc ou ld n o t s tay t here . The b u lk o ft he f orce h ad t o w i thdraw t o Q ue t ta a l most i m med ia te ly , l eav ing o n ly a s cat ter o f sma l l mob i le u n i ts i n t he e xhausted K andahar r eg ion .

C lear ly i n t he i n i tia l p hases o f

o ccupa tion o f af ron tier z one b y as tand ing a rmy t he s ize a nd p er manency o f t he mi li tary p resence , i n wha t migh t b e c a l led t he a n ima l e ra o f warfare , was t o al arge measure d e ter m ined b y t he e co logica l-character o f t he f ron tier t erra in . The d efence o f s upp ly a nd s torage p oin ts f or f ood a nd f odder , a nd p ro tec tion o fs upp ly r ou tes was a n i n tegra l p ar t o f mi li tary s tra tegy .

*

I t was e xper iences s uch a s t h is t ha t p ersuaded t he I ndian D efence C om mi tt ee t ha t t he c onstruction o fn u merous f or ts a nd f or ti f ica tions wou ld n o t s uf f ice t o s ecure t he f ron tier a nd t ha t o f e qua l i fn o t g rea ter i mpor tance was t he b ui ldi ng o f an e twork o f r oad a nd r ai l c o m munica tion wh ich wou ld n o t o n ly a l low t he swi f t r edistr ibu tion o f f orces t o mee t at hrea t o f i nvasion b u t wou ld p rov ide ameans o f s upp lying t roops s ta tioned i n t he f ron tier z one .

I t wou ld b e

i mpossib le t o g arr ison p er manen t ly a l i ne o f f or ts a nd f or t le ts a long t he e n tire l eng th o ft he f ron tier a nd t herefore i t was n ecessary t o f ocus a t ten tion a nd r esources o n an u mber o fc arefu l ly s e lected s tra teg ic l oca tions t ha t c ou ld p rovide n odes i nt he t ranspor t n e twork . The d eve lop men t o ft he t ranspor t n e twork i n Western I ndia d ur ing t he s econd h a lf o ft he 1 9th c en tury c lear ly r ef lects t he n eeds o ft he f ron tier a nd i ti s p ossib le t o r ecogn ize t hree c o mponen ts i n t he s yste m v iz, a n or thern c o mponen t r epresen t ing t he e x tension o f ar oad a nd r ai l s yste m f ro m t he p or t o f Ca lcu t ta a nd t he G anges b asin a cross t he P un jab t o t he P eshawar b asin ;

a

s ou thern c o mponen t l ead ing f ro m t he p or t o f K arach i a nd t he l ower I ndus b asin ( S ind ) t o t he S ibi embay men t b e tween t he K ir thar a nd S u la iman r anges a nd t o t he Bo lan P ass a nd Q ue t ta ; a nd a n i n ter media te c omponen t a f ford ing l a tera l c o m munica tion b e tween t he n or thern a nd s ou thern a xes. The f i rst p roduct o ft he n or thern s yste m was t he s o-ca l led Grand Trunk R oad , a n i mproved v ersion o ft he a ncien t h ighway o f Nor thern I ndia t ha t r an f ro m t he K hyber P ass v ia D e lh i t o p or ts i nt he B enga l D e l ta .

4 6

I tp rovided t he

a xis o f a dvance o ft he Benga l Ar my a nd was improved b y mi l i tary e ngineers t o as tandard c apab le o ft ak ing whee led v ehic les a s f ar a s De lh i b y 1 839 a nd t o P eshawar b y 1 859 .

The g rea t t reelined r oad w i th i t s h ard-core c en tre

a nd d usty o u ter l anes a nd d i tches f unctioned a s mi li tary a nd c o m mercia l a r tery w i th c a mp s i tes , p rovision ing p o in ts, r est h ouses, p er manen t mi l i tary a nd c ivi l c an ton men ts , c aravansera is, d efended r iver c rossings, p osta l s tat i ons , a n i ma l r e lay s ta tions, wayside b azaars , t owns a nd f or ts a long i t s 1 400 mi le c ourse .

I n i t s v ar ious s ections i tr ef lected t he l i fe a nd c haracter o f t he

d i f feren t r egions t hrough which i tp assed , f ro m t he p addy f i e lds a nd h um id t rop ica l e nviron men ts o f B enga l t o t he s e mi-deser ts, whea tf ie lds a nd o rchards o ft he f ar n or th west .

A t t imes a l l I ndia s ee med t o b e p assing a long i t—si len t

p edestr ians i n s ing le f i le ;

p rocessions o n f estive o ccasions ; n o tab les a nd

h igh-born l adies i n t heir s edans a nd p a lanquins w i th t ea ms o fb earers;

s tr ings

o f c a me ls, e lephan ts a nd mu les; b rowsing c a t t le a nd g oa ts w i th t heir h erdsmen ;

h o ly men w i th t heir f o l lowers; b ands o f e n ter ta iners; g roups o f f ar mers

o r merchan ts o n t heir way t o markets; t ra ins ;

c o lu mns o f i nfan try w i th t heir b aggage

s quadrons o f c ava lry a nd t he c la t ter ing g un-carriages o ft he H orse

Ar ti l lery ; b u t a bove a l l t he e ver p resen t b u l lock c ar ts.

These c ar ts w i th

t heir l arge i ron-rim med , wooden whee ls a nd s ing le s haf t f or a y oke o f t wo b u l locks were t he u niversa l c arriers o ft he I nd ian emp ire.

S low , d e libera te

i n p ace , a verag ing a bou t 2 m.p .h . b u t c apab le o f c arrying a g rea t v arie ty o f g oods, t hey were a dap tab le t o ac onsiderab le r ange o f r oad s urfaces a nd c ond i tions , i nclud ing n o t o n ly l ong h au ls o n ma jor h ighways s uch a s t he Grand Trunk R oad , b u t e ar then r oads a nd t racks s erving t he t housands o fv i l lages o ft he g rea t p la ins.

On

t he f or mer t hey of ten t rave l led i n c onvoy a nd i n t he

f ron tier z one , p ar t icu lar ly i n t he Va le o f P eshawar , i t was a c o m mon e xperie nce t o mee t h undreds o f c ar ts p i led h igh w i th h ay o r s traw moving n osetot ai l d own t he r oad a t a l l t i mes o f d ay a nd n igh t .

A t b est t hey c ou ld c over a bou t

2 5 mi les i n ad ay , b u t at hrough j ourney f ro m P eshawar t o t he s ea i n Benga l c ou ld t ake a y ear .

The p ace o ft he b aggage c ar ts i mposed c onsiderab le c ons-

t ra in ts o n t he mobi li ty o ft roops a nd c ivi l a dm inistra tor s e .g . t he v ice-rega l p rocession o f L ord C ann ing u nder taken i n 1 859 , t o i mpress t he n a tive p opu lat ion o ft he r ea li ty o f Q ueen V ictoria ' sa u thori ty t wo y ears a f ter t he I ndian Mu t iny , t ook s ix mon ths t o make t he j ourney f ro m Ca lcut ta ( t he Capi ta l ) v ia A l lahabad , Cawnpore ( Kh a npur ) , L uckn .ow , F a tegarh , Agra , Meeru t , D e lhi , A mba l la , J u l lundur , L ahore a nd Rawa lp indi , t o P eshawar . There were a t te mp ts t o s peed u p r oad t ranspor t .

I n 1 865, f or e xa mp le ,

R . E . C ro mp ton , aT h irsk man s ta t ioned a t N owshera , e xperimen ted w i th v ar ious k inds o f s tea m e ng ines a nd f or many y ears r oad s tea mers p u l led t ra ins o f c ar ts a long t he Grand Trunk R oad b e tween Rawa lp ind i a nd P eshawar .

1 2

Bu t c lear ly f or b u lk c arriage o f men a nd ma ter ia ls f ro m r ear b ases t o f ron tier s ta tions n o th ing c ou ld e qua l t he r a i lway .

1 3

I n 1 859 t he East I ndia Rai lway

f ro m Ca lcut ta h ad o n ly b een b ui lt a s f ar a s Ranigan j o n t he Da modar Va l ley C oa lf ie ld , b u t d ur ing t he f o l low ing s ix y ears i t was p ushed r ap id ly a head t o De lh i .

Beyond t ha t t he P un jab Nor thern S ta te R ai lway was b ui l t a cross t he

Pun jab , a nd b r idg ing o ft he J he lu m , Chenab a nd Ravi R ivers was a cco mp lished i n t he y ears 1 871-76.

The b ridge a cross t he J he lu m was a mi le l ong a nd

s panned t he r iver a f ew h undred y ards u pstrea m f ro m where t he Grand Trunk R oad c rossed t he r iver o n ab ridge o fb oa ts.

F ro m t he a ncien t t own o f J helu m

t he r a i l a nd r oad r an t hrough t he g ap b e tween t he S a l t Range a nd t he f oo thil ls 4 7

o ft he K ash m iri H i ma layas, c rossed t he P o twar P la teau t o Rawa lp indi a nd i n 1 881 r eached I ndus a t A t tock w i th i t s c o m manding Moghu l ( Akbar ) f or t .

The

I ndus i n t h is s ect ion f l ows t hrough a g orge wh ich p resen ted many e ng ineer ing p rob le ms.

A s e ar ly a s 1 86 0t r ia ls were made t o t unne l u nder t he g orge —a

s igh t s o s trange a s t o d raw t r ibes men d own e ven f ro m t he K hyber t o wa tch — b u t t his s che me was a bandoned a nd i t was n o t u n ti l t he A fghan war o f 1 879 made a r ai l l ink t o P eshawar i mpera tive t ha t money was made a vai lab le f or b ridg ing o pera tions.

I n 1 883 a d oub le d ecker r oad-and-ra i l b r idge was o pened —

t he f i rst e ver p er manen t b ridging o ft he I ndus —and r a i l c o m munica tion Ca lcu tt a-Peshawar was c o mp le ted .

P eshawar r e ma ined t he r ai lhead f or a c onsid-

e rab le p er iod , a nd i t was n o t u n ti l t he 1 920s t ha t ab ranch l i ne was o pened f ro m Nowshera t o Durga i t o s uppor t t he a r my i n o pera tions i n t he Moh mand H igh lands , a nd t he K hyber Rai lway was e x tended i n to t he P ass a t L andi K ho ta l . The s ou thern t ransport s yste m t o t he f ron tier a rose f ro m r ea lisa tion o f t he s tra tegic i mpor tance o f K andahar d ur ing t he f i rst A fghan war .

D efea t o f

t he Am irs o f Ba luchistan i n 1 843 a nd t he a nnexa tion o ft heir t erri tor ies, i nc lud ing S ind , t o t he P residency o f Bo mbay p rovided a n a l terna tive r ou te t o t he A fghan h igh lands.

The sma l l p or t o f K arach i was c hosen a s t he mar i t ime

b ase a nd d ur ing t he n ine teen th c en tury i t s h arbour was g rea t ly i mproved , i t s p or t f aci li ties f or t he t ransi t o ft roops a nd e quip men t c onsiderab ly e nhanced , a nd o n t he n or thern o u tsk ir ts o ft he t own a s izeab le mi li tary c an ton men t c onst ructed .

I tc onsti tuted t he p or t b ase f ro m which c o m mun ica tions c ou ld b e

o pened u p t o t he i n ter ior — to t he I ndus v a l ley a nd t he Ba luchistan h igh lands. A c a me l t rack r an t o Hyderabad ( S ind ) o n t he I ndus a nd n or thward o ft hi s t here was a n a ncien t h ighway t ha t f o l lowed t he l ine o ft he I ndus, b e tween t he r iver a nd t he Thar Deser t t o R ohri a nd Mu ltan , whi le o n t he western b ank a p ara ll e l r oad r an t o L arkana , S ukkur a nd J acobabad .

F ro m t he l a t ter a r oad

s truck o u t t hrough t he Kacchi t err i tory t o S ibi a nd t he Bo lan Pass l ead ing t o t he sma l l s et t le men t o f Q uet ta a nd K andahar .

These r oads were i mproved f or

t roop move men ts, w i th s ta tions l oca ted w i th p ar ticu lar r eference t o wa ter s upp lies i n t h is h o t , d eser tic r eg ion , whi le b y 1 85 1a f l ee t o f s ha l low d raf t s tea mboa ts p rovided a r egu lar s ervice o n t he I ndus a s f ar a s Mu l tan ( 60 0 mi les f ro m t he s ea ) , b u t c lear ly a ga in t here was much n eed f or r a i lways. I n 1 855 t he

S c inde Ra i lway Co mpany '

1 4

was f or med w i th c api ta l s ubscr ibed

t o b ui ld a r ai lway f ro m K arachi t o Hyderabad ( 108 mi les) , a s we l l a s t o b uy i n terests i n t he I ndus s tea m f l o ti l la o pera t ing t o Mu l tan a nd p ossible n ections f ro m t here t o L ahore i n t he P un jab .

r a i l c on-

The c o mpany u nder took t o c arry

mai ls f ree a nd t roops a nd mi l i tary s tores a t r educed r a tes.

The l i ne t o H yder-

a bad was o pened i n 1 86 1 , a nd i n t he f o l low ing y ear t he l ine f ro m Mu l tan t o Amr i tsar a nd L ahore was u nder c onstruction , u sing among o ther t h ings b a l last f ro m t he r u ins o f Harappa . t ions ;

I n 1 878 t he I ndus Va l ley S ta te Rai lway b egan o pera-

r ai l l inks were e stab lished o n b o th b anks o ft he I ndus, t o R ohri o n t he

l ef t b ank a nd S ukkur o n t he r igh t b ank ;

a nd i n 1 880 t he K andahar S ta te Ra i lway

was c rea ted w i th t he s tra tegic n eed f or f orward s upp ly b ases p ar ticu lar ly i n mind .

S ukkur a nd R ohri were c onnected b y af erry a cross t he I ndus a nd i t

was n o t u n ti l 1 889 t ha t t his was r ep laced b y t he L ands c lown b r idge —a t t ha t t ime t he l ongest r ig id g irder b ridge i n t he wor ld , u n ti l t ha t h onour was t aken w i th in a y ear b y t he F or th b ridge .

The b road g auge ( 5 ' 6 " )l ine o ft he K andahar

4 8

S ta te Rai lway was o pened a s f ar a s S ibi i n 1 880 , b u t S ibi i s o n ly 4 30 f ta bove s ea l eve l a nd t he more d i f f icu l t c onstructiona l p rob le ms l ay a head .

To Q uet ta

t wo r ou tes were p ossible , o ne v ia t he B o lan Pass ( 5 ,500 f t ) a nd t he o ther v ia t he Harna iv a lley —a d if f icu l t r ou te a long r iver g orges, b u t w i th t he a dvan tage o fc oa l d eposi ts a t K host .

I n 1 883 k now ledge t ha t t he R ussian a r my h ad r eached

Me w r esu lted i n G ladstone i ssu ing o rders f or t he c onstruction o f wha t was a nnounced a s t he 'Harna i R oad Improve men t S che me ' —a b road-gauge l ine t ha t was o ne o ft he g rea t f ea ts o f r ai lway e ng ineer ing , c ost 2 ,000 l i ves i n i t s b ui ld ing , a nd o pera ted u n ti l 1 942 when i t was washed o u t . r eached Q ue t ta i n 1 887 .

The f i rst t ra in

A t t he s a me t ime a l i gh t r ai lway was b ui lt v ia t he

Bo lan Pass a nd t he t wo l ines me t b eyond Q uet ta a nd c on t inued t o Cha man o n t he A fghan b order .

This n ecessi ta ted t he e xcava tion o ft he K ho jak Tunnel , b y

al abour f orce d rawn f ro m many p ar ts o f t he f ron tier , p lus 6 5 We lsh miners, a nd t he l ine r eached Cha man i n 1 892 .

Here a g rea t s tore o f r ai lway ma ter ia ls

was g a thered f or t he e x tension o ft he l i ne f or t he r e ma in ing 8 0 mi les t o K andah ar i ft he mi li tary n eed a rose —which i tn ever d id . The t h ird c o mponen t i n t he f ron tier n etwork c o mpr ised l a tera l c o m mun icat ion b e tween t he n or thern a nd s ou thern s yste ms.

I n i tia l ly t his i nvo lved r iver

t ranspor t a nd t he d eve lop men t o ft he r ou tes o ft he I ndus S tea m F lo ti l la t o t he r ivers o ft he P un jab .

The Mu l tan s ervice f or e xa mp le was e x tended f or a

f ur ther 2 00 mi les a long t he J he lu m r iver t o t he t own o f J helu m , o n t he Grand Trunk R oad .

Bu t n av iga tion o n t he b raided ,

a nd c hang ing c hannels o ft he

I ndus was u nre liab le —a t t imes i tt ook f i ve weeks t o make t he j ourney u pstrea m c on trasted t o at en d ay j ourney d ownstrea m f ro m t he P un jab t o t he s ea —and f ue l f or t he wood-f ired b oi lers b eca me i ncreasing ly d i f f icu l t t o p rocure . Never the less t he I ndus F lo ti l la c on t inued t o o pera te u n ti l 1 878 — the y ear o ft he o pen ing o ft he I ndus Va l ley S ta te R ai lway .

F ro m Mu l ta n r a i l c onnection h ad

a lready b een e f fec ted w i th L ahore , a nd t his was f o l lowed b y ab road g auge l ine o n t he e as ternban .k o ft he I ndus f ro m Mu l tan t o K a labagh a nd t hence t o j unctions w i th t he Rawa lp ind i —Ca mpbel lpore a nd A t tock l ine — the r ou te o ft he f a mous F ron tier Mai l .

This p rovided t he b ase line f ro m which n arrow g auge

( 2 '6" )r a i lways were b ui lt i n to t he f ron tier z one —fro m K a labagh t o t he B annu b asin , w i th a l a tera l s pur t hrough t he P ezu Gap t o Tank i n t he Dera ja t ;

a nd

f ro m t he P o twar-p la teau t o t he K oha t b asin a nd t hence t o Tha l i n t he u pper K urra m Va l ley .

These l ines f ed s upp ly p o in ts o n t he l a tera l s yste m o f moun-

t a in t racks t ha t r an p ara l le l t o t he f ron tier s ou thward f ro m P eshawar .

These

t racks i n t urn l i nked u p w i th t hose b ased o n F or t S ande man , which was c onn ec ted t o Que t ta b y an arrow-gauge r ai lway r unn ing t hrough t he Zhob Va l ley . I t i s t hus p ossib le t o d iscern a p ara l le l s er ies o f l a tera l c o m mun ica tions s erv ing t he f ron tier z one —a l ow land s yste m a ssocia ted w i th t he I ndus a nd a h igh land s yste m c loser t o t he A fghan b oundary .

These f aci li ta ted t he move-

men t o ft roops a long t he f ron tier t o p oin ts o f d anger a nd a voided t he c o m mi tmen t o f l arge f orces i n n u merous s ta tic f orward p osi tions i n t he h igh lands, where i t wou ld b e d if f icu l t t o ma in ta in t he m . The t ranspor t s yste m , d esigned t o f u lf i l mi l i tary n eeds , p roduced c ons ide rab le s ocio-econo mic e f fects.

N odes w i th in t he n e twork s erved a s market ,

c o m mercia l a nd a dm inistra tive c en tres a s we l l a s mi li tary s ta tions .

I n s o me

c ases t his r esu l ted i n g row th b y a ccretions t o e xist ing t owns , i n o ther t o t he c rea tion o f n ew t owns.

Thus Rawa lp ind i , o r igina l ly a sma l l t own t ha t owed

4 9

i t s e xistence t o t he c on tro l i te xercised o n t he J helu m Va l ley r ou te i n to K ash mir , g rew a pace o nce i t was e ar marked a s t he ma in s upp ly b ase f or t he n or thern a pproaches t o t he f ron tier . I td eve loped a s ag rea t a rsena l , r a i lway workshop , a nd c an ton men t t own , a nd i t s s tra tegic p osi tion h as b een c onf i r med s ince i ndependence b y i t s s e lect ion a s t he l oca le f or t he modern c api ta l c i ty ( I sla mabad ) o f Pak istan ( i n p lace o f K arachi—ano ther Br i tish R a j d eve lopmen t ) .

Q uet ta , t he o ther g rea t b ase o f f ron tier o pera tions, h owever , was

a l most e n t ire ly a Bri tish c rea t ion .

P rior t o t he e nhance men t o f i t s t ranspor t

l oca tion i t was a v ery sma l l h i l l v i l lage c o mpr ising a f ew mudbr ick h u ts, b u t f o l low ing i t s l easing b y t he Bri tish i n 1 877 i tb eca me a s ubstan tia l g arr ison t own , w i th a n e x tensive mi l i tary c an tonmen t a nd u l t ima te ly a s taf fc o l lege f or t he I ndian Ar my .

T o i t s mi li tary f unctions i ta dded c o mmercia l a nd marke t

a ct ivi ties —and a t t he e nd o ft he Br i tish R a j h ad g rown t o at own o f 6 0 ,000 p eop le , i n s p i te o f ad estructive e ar thquake i n 1 935 .

F or t S ande man , a no ther

c rea tion o ft he ' Sande man S yste m ' ,1 5 a lso d eve loped c en tra l p lace f unct ions a nd a ch ieved a p opula t ion o f s o me 6 ,000 .

I n t he P eshawar b asin t here a lready

was a n a ncien t t radi tion o fu rban l i fe b ased o n l oca l a gricu l tura l marke t ing b u t a lso o n t hrough t rade a nd P eshawar i t se lf was t he f ron tier t own p ar e xce ll ence .

I t s o ld c o m mercia l h ear t , w i th i t s t hree- s tor ied h ouses w i th s hops i n

t he l ower s torey , i t s s pecia list s tree ts a nd b azaars s e l l ing c arpets, g e mstones , s add les a nd s hoes, d ried f rui t , b rassware , h ardware a nd b a les o f c lo th , a nd i t s a ncien t s erais a long t he t own wa l ls was s t imu la ted b y t he Br i t ish p resence a nd t he marke t p rovided b y t he mi li tary c an ton men t l a id o u t b y Co lin Campbe l l i n 1 849 t o t he n or thwest o ft he o ld t own .

O ther c rea tions w i th p lacenames

s uch a s Ca mpbe l lpore a nd Abbo t tabad t e ll t heir own s tories. I n g enera l u rb an isa t ion p rocesses were e ncouraged , t rade s timu la ted , a nd a gricu l tura l p roduc tion e xpanded b y i rr iga tion s che mes t o mee t t he d emands o f t he a rmy a nd t he g row ing u rban p opu la tion . I ndeed t he e x tension o f s eden tary a gr icu lt ure , i nc luding t he s et t le men t o ft ime-exp ired n a tive s o ldiers, b eca me a n e le men t i n f ron tier p o licy t o r educe t he r est lessness o f p astora l n o mads a nd t ranshu man ts s uch a s t he P ow indahs.

1 6

*

*

*

A s i ndica ted a t t he o u tse t t here a re c lear ly many d i f ferences i n d etai l b e tween t he f ron tier e xperiences o ft he Bri tish i n I ndia a s o u t l ined a bove a nd t hose o ft he R o man a rmy i n Bri ta in b u t t here a re a lso s uf f icien t r ese mb lances t o make a t l east c ross-referencing wor thwh i le .

B o th r epresen t c er ta in f orms

o f s pa t ia l b ehaviour i n ac o lonia l c on tex t a t s o me d istance f ro m t he h o me b ase o f i mperia l p ower .

B o th a re c oncerned w i th t he i n terp lay o f p o li tica l p o licy-

mak ing a nd mi li tary d ecisiontak ing a t v arious l eve ls , w i th s o me times d i f fere n t o b ject ives i n m ind . B oth i nvo lve t he i n terface b e tween mi li tary a nd c ivi lian l i fe i n ap rescr ibed e nviron men ta l s et t ing . B o th l a id c onsiderab le s tress o n t he t he c rea t ion o f at ranspor t s yste m wh ich whi le mi li tary i n i nsp ira tion h ad i mp or tan t c ivi l e f fec ts —not t o ment ion r esemb lances i n t he g eome try o ft he n e twork i t se lf w i th i t s t w in t ransverse c ords a nd l a tera l c onnections. Bo th were f aced w i th t he p rob le m o f a l terna tive a l ignmen ts o ft he b order t o s a tisfy p o l i tica l a nd mi li tary n eeds , a nd s o me o ft he R o man f or ts i n t he mou ths o ft he

5 0

( a )

F ig . 2

A Mode l f or F ron t ier Progression

5 1

H igh land G lens o f S co t land b ear a n u ncanny r ese mb lance t o t hose l a ter t o b e o ccupied b y S co t tish t roops i n t he v a l ley e xi ts o ft he S u la iman Range ( c f . F endoch a nd F or t Munro ) .

Bo th were b ese t w i th l ogistica l p rob le ms, o n t he

b asis o f a n ima l p ower , a nd i t wou ld b e i n terest ing t o k now more a bou t t he R o man s yste m o f p rovision ing t heir f ron tier f orces a nd t ranspor t a n i ma ls. One wou ld e xpect , f or e xa mp le , t he p astora l e cono my o ft he S ou thern U p lands o f S co t land t o b e s timu la ted b yt he p resence o f R o man g arr isons o n Hadr ian ' s Wa l l a nd i tc ou ld we l l b e t ha t t he c a t t le t rade a nd d rove r oads r ecorded i n l a ter t i mes h ad o r ig ins i n t h is p er iod .

I ti s a lso h igh ly p robab le t ha t mi l i tary

markets w i th in t he f ron tier z one e ncouraged t he c learance o f wood land , i n it ia l ly f or c onstructiona l p urposes a nd f ue l b u t l a ter , a s p opu la tion i ncreased , f or a gr icu lture .

C er ta in ly t he a n ima l manure p roduced b y s o me o f t he mi l i-

t ary s ta t ions w ou ld e nhance t he a gr icu l tura l s ta tus o f s o i ls i n t he ir v icin i ty a nd t he f er ti l i ty o ft he i n-f ie lds a round t he s et t le men ts.

Evidence o f a gr icu l-

t ure i n t he v icin i ty o f H ousesteads a ppears t o s uppor t t his c on ten tion a nd o ne s hou ld n o t f orge t t he a gr icu ltura l p o ten tia li ties o ft he Tyne Va l ley , t he E den Va l ley a nd t he c oasta l l ow lands a t b o th e x tre mi ties o f t he f ron tier .

P resu m-

a bly s upp lies were a lso c ar ted n or thward f ro m t he s et t led t erra ins o f t he Va le o f York a nd t he Chester

r eg ion .

Possib ly , t he most s tr ik ing f ea ture o ft he t wo f ron tier s yste ms, h owever , i s t he way i n wh ich t hey a ppear t o c onfor m t o t he mechanis m o f i mperia l f ron tier p rogression f i rst e nuncia ted b y P rince G orchakov t o e xp la in t he a dv ance o f Russian f orces i n Cen tra l A sia d uring t he n ine teen th c en tury .

1 7

The s pa tia l f or m o ft h is mode l o f F ron tier t urbulence i s d ep icted i n F ig . 2 . This r epresen ts a n i n i tia l s tage o f f ron tier p rogression i n wh ich u n i la tera l e xpansion i s o ccurr ing f ro m a f ocus o f p ower ( A) d own a g radien t o f p ower i n to e ssen tia l ly t r iba l c oun try .

A t p articu lar p hases o ft his a dvance t he

a u thori ties a t ( A ) ( Ro me : L ondon : Ca lcu t ta ) a re c onfron ted w i th t he l aw o f d im inish ing r e turns. F urther a dvance o ft he Fron tier b eco mes more a nd more e xpensive a nd l ess a nd l ess r e munera tive a nd t he c en tra l a u thori ties c ry h a l t a nd a t te mp t t o e stab lish a l imes mark ing t he e dge o f a dm in istra tion a nd r esponsibi li ty . The f ron tier f orces , h owever , f ind t he mse lves i n ac on tex t t ha t e ncourages f ur ther a dvance . Tr iba l g roups l i ving i n z one ( a )— (b ) a d just t heir e cono my a nd way o fl i fe t o t he p resence o f f ron t ier g arrisons a long t he l ines ( a ) .

They b eco me l ess h osti le a nd i ndeed a re d rawn i n to t he mi l i tary

s yste m o ft he f ron tier e i ther a s t raders, o r a s n a tive mi li tia .

I n t he p rocess,

h owever , t hey b eco me v ulnerab le t o a t tacks f ro m h osti le t r ibes l i ving i n z one ( b )(c) a nd t o d e mands f or ' tr ibu te ' p ay men ts. They t urn t o t he i mper ia l p ower f or p ro tection a ga inst t he ir n e ighbours a nd t he b oundary i s a dvanced b y t he f ron tiers men t o ( b ) , t hereby i nclud ing t he m w i th in t he i mperia l a dmin ist ra tion , f requen t ly i n o pposi tion t o h o me ' p o licy . The p rocess t hen b egins a ga in i n z one ( b )(c) .

F ron tiers men t hus t end t o f avour a f orward ' p o licy

whi le a u thor i ties r e mo te f ro m f ron tier o pera tions c ry h a l t , w i th of ten a t ime l ag o f s izeable d ura tion b e tween t he i ssue a nd r eceip t o f o rders f ro m t he h o me b ase .

The r e la t ionsh ip o f Hadrian ' s Wa l l a nd t he An ton ine Wa l l i n R o man

Bri ta in a ppears t o b e ac lassica l e xamp le o ft his mode l o f f ron tier t urbu lence a nd b oundary p rogression a nd i ti s p ossib le t o i den tify o ther l imes i n t he mi l i tary a dvance t hrough Br i ta in . The f ron tier i s i ndeed z ona l , w i th z ones c hang ing i n f unct ion a nd c haracteristics a s t roops a re d rawn f orward i n to t r iba l c oun try .

The i mpact o n t he z ona l l andscapes i s r e la ted t o t he d ura t ion 5 2

o f s ti l l-stands o n p ar ticu lar b oundary l ines, a nd c er ta in ly i n I ndia mi li tary f ea tures t ha t were e stab lished i ni tia l ly o n l eading e dges o f i mper ia l a dvance l a ter b eca me e le men ts i n t he s tra tegica l p ursui t o f

d efence i n d ep th '

The

k ey t o mean ing a nd p urpose s ough t b y L u t twak may i ndeed b e f ound i n t he f act t ha t imper ia l f ron t iers g enera te t heir own g eographies a s ar esu l t o f c o m mon b ehavioura l s tructures

NOTES

1 . L ut twak , E . N .

The Grand S tra tegy o ft he Ro man Empire ( 1c entury A .D . -

3c en tury A .D .) .

Ba l t imore a nd L ondon 1 976 p . 6 1 .

2 . F ie ld Marsha l Ear l R ober ts o f K andahar . L ondon 1 908 p . 5 13 .

F or ty-one Years i n I ndia .

( Referr ing t o a Me morandu m h e s ub mi t ted t o t he

Govern men t o f I nd ia i n 1 886 .) 3 .

F or g enera l a ccoun ts o ft he N or thwest F ron tier s ee Davies C . C . Proble ms o ft he Nor thwest F ron tier 1 890-1908 . D .

The NW F ron tier o f W. Pak istan :

Oxford 1 967 ; 1 947 .

Sw inson , A .

L ondon 1 967 ;

S pa in , J . W. The Pa than B order land . Pa thans 5 50 B .C.-A .D . 1 957 . 1 839-1947 .

L ondon 1 968 ;

D ich ter ,

as tudy i n r egiona l g eography .

Nor thwest F ron tier ;

H old ich , T . H .

L ondon 1 975 ;

The

P eop le a nd Even ts 1 839-

The Ga tes o f I ndia . The H ague 1 963 ;

L ondon 1 962 ;

L ondon 1 910 ; Caroe , 0 . The

E l liot t , J . G .

The F ron tier

Toynbee , A . J . B e tween Oxus a nd J u mna .

L ondon 1 961. 4 . S ee K irk , W.

The I nner A sian F ron tier o fI ndia .

o f Br i tish G eographers 3 1 1 962 .

1 31-168 ;

l ands, i n The Chang ing Map o f A sia . a nd C . A . F i sher . 5 . Crooke , W.

Ed i t . W. G . East , 0 . H . K . S pa te

1 93-219 .

The NW P rovinces o f I nd ia :

Ad m in istra tion . 6 .

L ondon 1 971 .

Transactions I nst i tu te

a nd The S inoIndian March-

Their H istory , E thno logy a nd

( 1897 .) New E di t . L ondon 1 972 .

I n i t ia l ly Ch ief C o m missioner o ft he P un jab ( 1856) , b u t V iceroy o f I ndia 1 864-1869 .

7 . The Durand L ine n ow c onsti tu tes t he i n terna tiona l b oundary b e tween A fghan istan a nd Pak istan a nd i n tersects Pa than t r iba l t erra ins. 8 . Caroe 2 p.. c i t . ;s ee a lso S pa in , J . A . 1 962 .

The Way o ft he Pa thans.

L ondon

The c o m mon c auses o f t roub le were t hreefo ld v iz ., z ar ( gold ) , z an

( wo man ) a nd z amin ( l and ) . 9 . Taci tus Agr ico la

XXX.

The s peech o f Ca lgacus p r ior t o t he b a t t le o f Mons

Graup ius a nd t he measured s peech o f Agr ico la t o t he Ro man t roops c ou ld a l most b e t aken o u t o f t he h istory o f Pa than-Br i tish c on fron ta tion i n t he h igh lands o ft he NW F ron tier . 1 0 .

P un jab F ron t ier F orce .

1 1. There e x ists a c onsiderab le l i tera ture r ecording mi li tary o pera tions o n t he Nor thwest F ron tier a nd d escr ip tions o ft he t r ibes e ncoun tered , b u t

5 3

s ee e .g . P age t , W. H .

AR ecord o f e xpedi tions a ga inst t he NW F ron tier

t r ibes s ince t he a nnexa tion o ft he Pun jabs.

L ondon 1 884 ;

NW F ron tier

o pera tions 1 850-1908 i n F ron tier a nd O verseas Expedi tions f ro m I ndia ( i n 6v o lu mes) Vo lu me 2 S im la 1 908 ; NW F ron tier . e xpedi t ion .

L ondon 1 889 ;

L ondon 1 900 ;

Nevi 1 1 , H . L .

Ca mpa igns o n t he

L ondon 1 912 ; Congreve-Schneider , S . M . D urand , A .

Churchi l l , W. S .

The Z hob Val ley

The Mak ing o f aF ron t ier .

The S tory o f t he Ma lakand F ie ld F orce .

L ondon 1 899 ; Bruce , R . I . The F orward P o l icy a nd i t s r esu l ts o n 3 5 y ears work among t he t r ibes o f o ur NW F ron tier o f I nd ia . L ondon 1 900; R ober tson , W. R . Ca lcu t ta 1 908 .

An o f f icia l a ccoun t o ft he Chi tra l Expedi tion o f 1 895.

Much ma teria l ( e .g . r egimen ta l h istor ies, p ersona l

me moirs , p ho tographs , maps) i s a lso s tored a t t he I mperia l War Museu m a nd t he Na tiona l Ar my Museu m i n L ondon . The e xpedi tion d escr ibed i s b ased o n t he a ccoun t b y R ober ts 9 2 .c i t . 4 68-487 .

R ober ts was a r e mark-

a b le i nd ividua l whose mi li tary c areer v ir tua l ly s pans t he p er iod w i th wh ich we a re c oncerned .

S ee Hannah , W. H . 'B obs ' . K ip l ing ' sG enera l .

L i fe o f F ie ld Marsha l Ear l R ober ts o f K andahar V .C . 1 2 . S ee B err idge , P . S . A . Rai lway . 1 3 .

Coup lings t o t he K hyber :

L ondon 1 972 .

The S tory o ft he NW

L ondon 1 969 .

F or g enera l a ccoun ts o f I nd ian Rai lways s ee I ndian Ra i lways. y ears 1 853-1953.

Min istry o f Rai lways ( Ra i lway Board ) .

De lhi 1 953 a nd A Hundred Years o f Pak istan Ra i lways. ways a nd Co m mun ica tions . 1 4. S ee Brun ton , J .

Gov t . o f Pak istan .

One Hundred

Gov t . o fI ndia .

Min istry o f Rai l-

Karach i 1 962 .

Descr ip tion o ft he l ine a nd works o ft he S cinde Rai lway .

M .P . I nd . C ivi l Eng ineer ing x x i i . 1 5. S ee Thorn ton , T . H . o ur I ndian F ron t ier . 1 6.

The

1 863 4 51-455.

C o l . S ir Rober t S ande man . . H is L i fe a nd Work o n L ondon 1 895 .

Pastora l , s easona l t ranshu mance i s ac haracter istic o f t he e n tire f ron t ier z one , a nd i n tima te ly c onnected w i th t rade .

The P ow indahs g a ther o n t he

p la ins o f Ghazn i i n t he a utu mn a nd migra te w i th t heir l i vestock a nd merc hand ise f ro m K andahar a nd Hera t b y t radi tiona l r ou tes a nd c a mp ing g rounds ( k irris) d own t o t he I ndus p la ins.

They s pread o u t w ide ly i n s earch o f

t rade a nd w in ter emp loy men t a nd t hen r e turn i n t he s pr ing t o t heir h ighl and g razing g rounds c arrying w i th t he m p roduce o fI ndia .

S i mi lar t rans-

h u man t p a t terns c haracterised t he S cot t ish a nd We lsh h igh lands e cono my u n t i l modern t imes a nd a l most c er ta in ly were a f actor i n f ron tier l i fe d ur ing t he Ro man p eriod . 1 7 .

This r efers t o t he c ircu lar b y Pr ince A lexander M . Gorchakov ( Ghorchakof f ) o f 1 864 ( see Par l . Papers 1 873 . 1 . xxv . ( c . 4 07 ) Append ix 7 2-73) The c ircul ar was n ever o f f icia l ly c o m mun ica ted t o t he Bri tish G overn men t b u t r eached t he F oreign O f f ice v ia t he Bri tish Charge d 'A f fa ires a t Constan t inop le ( F .O . 6 5. 1 150 Me mo . 8F eb . 1 882 ) .

The r e levan t s ection r eads:

"The p osi t ion o f Russia i n C en tra l A sia i s t ha t o f a l l c iv i lized S ta tes which c o me i n to c on tact w i th h a lf-savage wander ing t r ibes p ossessing n o f ixed s ocia l o rgan iza tion .

I t i nvariab ly h appens i n s uch c ases t ha t t he i n terests

o f s ecuri ty o n t he f ron tier , a nd o f c o m mercial r e la t ions, c o mpe l t he more 5 4

c ivi lized s ta te t o e xercise a c er ta in a scendancy o ver n eighbours whose t urbu lence a nd n o madic i nstincts r ender t hem d i f f icu l t t o l i ve w i th ... S uch h as b een t he l o t o f a l l c oun tries p laced i nt he s ame c ondi tions.

The

U n i ted S ta tes o f America , F rance i n A lg iers, H o l land i n h er c o lonies , Eng land i n I ndia—a l l h ave b een i nevi tab ly d rawn i n to a c ourse where in ambi tion p lays a sma l ler p ar t t han i mper ious n ecessi ty , a nd where t he g rea test d if f icu l ty l i es i n k now ing where t o s top" .

5 5

I NVAS ION AND RESPONSE I N RO MAN BR ITAIN b y G . D . B . J ones

I n troduct ion The h is tor ians o ft he modern c o lon ia l p er iod whose p apers a ppear i n t h is c onference r epor t h ave n ot o n ly c on tributed a f asc ina t ing s e t o f c omparanda : f or me , t hey h ave a lso g one b eyond t ha t i n i l lu m ina t ing , p r incipa l ly f ro m t he n ine teen th c entury , t hose v ery a t t i tudes t o emp ire wh ich h ave c o me t o c ond i t ion s o many o fo ur a pproaches t o R o me 's i mper ia l e xpans ion . Whe ther t hey l i ke i to r n ot , F rench , G er man a nd B ri t ish a rchaeo log is ts a nd h is tor ians b ring t o R o man p rov inc ia l s tud ies a s e t o f i mper ia l p reconcep t ions d er ived f ro m t he ir own p eriod my tho logy , t hough t h is c ommon t rend , a s Is ha l l a rgue b e low , c onc ea ls c ons iderab le v aria t ions i n t he c oncep tua l a pproach i nvo lved . B r i ta in i s ac ase i n p oin t :

R o man

p erhaps t he mos t s tud ied p rov ince o f t he emp ire ,

t he a rchaeo log ica l minu t iae n ow a va i lab le f rom R o man B r i ta in make i tp ar t icu lar ly d if f icu l t t o a ch ieve o b ject iv i ty . r e igns .

I n t h is s i tua t ion i mperia l my tho logy

P rofessor K irk 's g raph ic d escr ip t ion o ft he N or th- Wes t f ron t ier , a nd

s uch o u tpos ts a s F or t Munro , r ap id ly e qua te w i th o ur men ta l i mage o f t he a ux i liary f or ts b lock ing t he e x i ts f rom H igh land g lens .

T he a na log ies a re i r-

r es ist ib le i n p laces l i ke F endoch . I tb locked t he e x i t f rom t he Sma ' G len w i th t he h e lp o f i t s e ye , t he l i t t le wa tch-tower , p erched o n t he moun ta ins ide o n ly a f ew me tres b e low t he l i ne c hosen b y G enera l Wade f or h is mi l i tary r oad d ur ing wha t i s a f ter a l l ar e la t ive ly r ecen t e xamp le o f t he a r t o f s uppress ing i n terna l r es is tance i n t h is c oun try . S uch e qua t ions , wh i le v a l id i n t heir i m med ia te a pp l ica t ion , d o ad isserv ice when d if fused . L ike t he r ed a reas o n maps o ft he f or mer B r i t ish Emp ire , t he c rea t ion o f t he R o man p rov ince o f B r i tannia h as c o me t o b e r egarded a s as teadfas t , i nev i tab le p rocess o f t err i toria l g a in . S uch a n a pproach i s a l l t oo u nders tandab le ; a f ter a l l i th as a l ong e nough p ed igree . Tac i tus ' r e marks a bou t h is f a ther-in-law 's c ampa igns h ave f i rm ly c harac ter ised o ur a pproach t o t he e xpans ion is t p er iod o f R o man c o lon ia l is m i n t h is c oun try .

S uccess was j udged o n t he b as is o f American f oo tba l l , y ardage

g a ined . G overnors u nfortuna te ly s erv ing a t t imes o f r e trenchmen t o r c onso li da t ion a re d a mned w i th f a in t p ra ise i n t he f ace o f c o mparison w i th Agr ico la 's n or thward e xpans ion . T he maxima l p o l icy f or R o man B r i ta in , n ame ly t ota l c onques t , i s i mp l ici t ly a ssu med t o b e t he c orrec t a nd o n ly a nswer . S ub jec tive ly a l l modern c o mmen ta tors t end t o v iew t he a dop t ion o f medium ( An ton ine Wa l l ) o r min i ma l ( Hadr ian 's Wa l l ) p o l ic ies a s r e la t ive d ec l ines o n as ub jec t ive s ca le l i t t le a f fected b y t he d evo lu t ionary a sp ira t ions o f r ecen t y ears . Y e t s uch i ngra ined j udge men ts man ifes t ly i gnore t he r ap id c hanges i n i mp er ia l p o l icy i n t he i s t C en tury A . D . a nd , Iw ou ld a rgue , f a i l t o u nders tand t he r e la t ive s uccesses o f d efence-in-dep th i nt he r e la t ive t err i toria l s tagna t ion o ft he 3 rd a nd 4 th c en tur ies .

More e spec ia l ly , h owever , t he emphas is o n t he

i ne luc tab le p rogress o f R o man a rms , t he p resu mp t ion o f R oman t erri tor ia l 5 7

i mpera t ives , b ring a n u naccep tab ly r es tr icted a pproach , e specia l ly t o t he p er iods o f r apid c hange . C o mpare t he c oncep ts a pp lied b y a nother s e t o f a rchaeo log is ts a nd h is tor ians , e qua l ly b red b y ac o lon ia l my tho logy . F rench s cho lars , s uch a s C our tois ( 1 955 ) , L esch i ( 1942 ) , B aradez ( 1949 ) a nd T rousse t ( 1 974 ) , w ou ld i n troduce a f ar b roader r ange o f c ons idera t ions t han a re n or ma ll y f ound i n a na lyses o f R o man B r i ta in . Wh i le a dm i t ted ly w e mus t t ake a ccoun t o f t he v ery d if feren t e nv ironmen ts o ft he N or th A fr ican p rov inces , t he ir a rgumen ts w ou ld i nc lude a f ar g rea ter emphasis o n ab road r ange o fq ues t ions . These s cho lars h ave c oncen tra ted a t ten t ion o n s uch i t e ms a s i den t ify ing t he a reas o f i n terna l o pposi t ion t o t he c o lon ia l a dmin is tra t ion .

Wh i le o ne migh t a rgue t ha t r ecen t F rench c o lon ia l

h is tory l eads t o a n o vere mphas is o n t h is a spect , t hey t end t o s ee a c onf l ic t b e tween t he s e t t led a nd t he n o mad ic way o f l i fe .

B u t t h is i s n o t n ecessari ly

v iewed a s as tra igh tforward c leavage . I n many o ft he ir a rgumen ts a ccoun t i s t aken o fp robab le c o l lus ion b e tween moun ta in p eop les w i th in t he p rov ince a nd n o mads w i thou t . E qua l ly , t he p resence o f an o mad ic t ranshu m ing e le men t w i th in t he p opu la t ion i s a lso r ecogn ised .

Y e t t h is e lemen t , t o a rgue s imp ly

f rom o ne e xamp le , n ame ly t he s a l t t rade , was c o mmerc ia l ly i n terdependen t w i th p ar ts o ft he s e t t led p rov incia l c o mmun i ty—whe ther t he n o mads o rig ina ted o u ts ide o r i ns ide t he p rov ince . F ur thermore , t h is p ar t icu lar f am i ly o f a rgumen ts t akes more a ccoun t o ft he b road c hrono log ica l s pread i nvo lved .

I tr e-

c ogn ises , i n f ac t , t ha t t he c rea t ion o f f ron t iers a c tua l ly p ro mo ted t he g row th o ft r iba l f edera t ions o uts ide t he m , a nd t ha t e qua l ly s e t t led c o m mun i t ies c ou ld e x is t b eyond t he R o man f ron t iers .

P o l i t ica l ly b y t he 3 rd a nd 4 th c en tur ies ,

a s i s c lear ly d e mons tra ted i n Mauri tan ia b u t e qua l ly e v iden t i n S co t land , f or i ns tance , t he t r iba l a gg lo mera t ions g rew i n s ize t o p resen t more c o-ord ina ted o ppos i t ion o r o therw ise t o t he l a te emp ire . Mos t impor tan t o f a l l i s p erhaps t he emphas is o n t he t riba l b ackground t o R o man t err i tor ia l e xpans ion . Wh i le we r egard s ome o f t he maps o f e ar ly mi l i tary p rogress i n R o man B r i ta in a s i nev i tab le a nd n ecessary a t te mp ts t o p lot d eve lopmen ts , t hey g ive n o r ea l i nd ica t ion o ft he e bb a nd f l ow wh ich I b e l ieve c harac ter ises t he mi li tary c ampa igns .

Th is , f or i ns tance , i s w e l l

a t tes ted i n C orbu lo 's a dvances i n to t he a reas a round E rzerum a head o ft he e ventua l l eg ionary b ase e s tab l ished a t S a ta la . B orrow ing f ro m t he c o lon ia l h is tor ians , Iw ish t o emphas ise a bove a l l t he efec ts o ft he l ong d eve lopmen t i nvo lved w i th in t he p rov ince .

A ccord ing ly , Is ha l l d iscuss t he e ar ly y ears o f

wha t P rofessor O l iver w ou ld t erm c oas ta l i nf i l tra t ion u nder t he h ead ing o f " Inf i ltra t ion a nd R evo l t" . T he f or ma t ive y ears o n t he n or thern f ron t ier a re n ex t d escribed u nder " The Carve t i i a nd C u l tura l D iv is ion" u s ing t he e xamp le o f t he C arve t i i o ft he S o lway . There we c an s ee t he d iv is ion e s tab lished i n t he d eve lop men t o ft he t r ibe u nder t he p ressure o ft he R o man f ron t ier . L as t ly at h ird s ect ion i s d evoted t o t he d eve lopmen t o f d efencein-dep th i n B ri ta in when t he i mper ia l f açade h ad d ispersed . An u mber o fp la tes ( I -IV ) d ocumen t o ther a spec ts o ft he s ub jec t u nder d iscuss ion .

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I . I NF ILTRATION AND REVOLT P rofessor O liver 's p aper o u t lined t he e nor mous ' conf idence t r ick ' i nvo lved i n t he c on tro l o f an a t ive p opu la t ion o f s o me s even teen mi l l ion Wes t A fr icans b y aE uropean o f f icer c orps o f l ess t han t wo t housand .

I ti s e qua l ly a pp licab le ,

o fc ourse , t o t he h is tory o ft he wh i te R a j i n I nd ia , where , a s i s of ten p o in ted o u t , a n a dm in is tra t ive c lass o f 3 000 s ah ibs c on tro l led a p opu la t ion a pproach ing 4 50 mi l l ion .

I n b r ing ing a g rea ter c hrono log ica l d i mens ion t o t he d eve lopmen t

o f R o man B ri ta in ( s ee a lso Mann , 1 977 ) s uch a c oncep t c an b e o fp ar t icu lar v a lue , a nd c oas ta l i n f i ltra t ion i s p ar t icu lar ly a pp licab le t o t he f i rs t y ears o f R o man c on tro l i n s ou th-eas t B ri ta in . It ake t he e xamp le o f t he T rinovan t ian t err i tory a round Camu lodunum b ecause t he c lassic R o man mis judge men t i nv o lved l ed t o t he B oud iccan r evo l t a nd i s p ar t ly d ocu men ted b y Tac i tus ( Anna ls X I I . 3 2 ; X IV 3 1 ) . The a pparen t ly w i l ling a bsorp t ion o f ma ter ia l , r a ther t han p o l i t ica l , R o ma n isa t ion b y a t l eas t p ar t o ft he t r iba l a ris tocracy h as l ong b een r ecogn ised f ro m t he S heepen e xcava t ions ( Hawkes a nd H u l l , 1 947; D unnet t , 1 975 ) .

T h is

i s amp lif ied i n t he p os t-conques t s tage b y S eneca 's c anny r eca l l o f h is l oans t o T rinovan t ian n o tab les o n t he e ve o f t he r evo l t .

Tac itus t e l ls o f t he i nf lam-

ma tory p rob le ms c aused b y t he p resence o ft he f or ma l ised c o lony a nd t he t e mp le o ft he i mper ia l c u l t i n i t s mids t . Why t he l a t ter c aused p ar t icu lar o f fence i s n ot p erhaps s o much r e la ted t o r e lig ious s uscep t ibi li t ies i n ap an theis t ic s oc iety b u t t o h ard f act . The c o mp la in t b y T rinovan t ian n ob les , ' ad h oc t e mp lu m d ivo C laud io c ons t itu tu m q uas i a rx a e ternae d om ina t ion is a sp icieba tur , d e lect ique s acerdotes s pecie r e lig ion is omnes f or tunas e f fundeban t ' ( Ann . X IV , 3 1) c ou ld h ave a h igh ly s pecif ic i mp l ica t ion r a ther t han b e ing s imp ly a g enera l c o mp la in t . The k ey , Ib e l ieve , i s t o u se t he w ord d e lec t i , ' chosen ', a d escr ipt ion wh ich h as r ece ived l i t t le a t ten t ion . Y e t i n t he J u lio-C laud ian p er iod i t was s tandard p ract ice , p ar t icu lar ly u nder A ugus tus , t o p ress r ich f reedmen i n to s erv ice a s Augus ta les , p r iests o ft he i mperia l c u l t .

L iber t i h ad o bv ious

r easons f or w ish ing t o e xpend money t o make a mark i n t he ir s ociety , a s i s e v iden t f ro m t he s tudy o f e xamp les i n S ou thern E truria .

F ur ther away f ro m

h o me a nd a t s o mewha t l a ter d a tes , C h i lver h as d ocu men ted t he p ress ing o f t he t r iba l a r is tocracy i n to s erv ice a s A ugus ta les .

C lear ly s uch a p rocess

c ou ld i mpose c ons iderab le f i nanc ia l s tra in a nd i ti s p laus ib le t ha t i n t he c ase o ft he T r inovan t ian n ob les , s evera l h ad s uf fered f ro m e nro l men t o n t he R o man p ropaganda s ys te m . On t he o ther h and t h is was a s pecia l p rob lem wh ich a f fec ted a l im i ted n u mb er o f a r istocra ts e asi ly a ccused o f c o l labora t ion .

S ocia l ly a much more d if-

f i cu lt p rob le m was p resen ted b y l and u se , a n i nf la mma tory i ssue a t a l l t imes , b u t o ne wh ich was s urfacing a l l t oo i nfrequen t ly i n l i terary s ources . Y e t i t i s men t ioned b y T aci tus , a lbe i t o b lique ly . T he s ta te men t ( Anna ls X I I , 3 2 ) t ha t t he R o man c o lony was f ounded i n a gros c ap t ivos s hou ld i mp ly l and e xpropr iat i on . Tha t i th as n ot r eceived g rea ter a t tent ion i s d ue p erhaps t o H averf ie ld 's a t te mp ts t o t race c en tur ia t ion g r ids s ome t wen ty mi les f ro m C o lches ter o ver f if ty y ears a go .

S uch f anc ies were r igh t ly c ondemned b y R ichmond i n t he

V ic tor ia C oun ty H is tory o f E ssex .

I fa ny t races o f l and d iv ision s urv ived t hey

s hou ld l i e c lose t o c o lon ia C amu lodunu m .

5 9

N ow a rchaeo logy a nd a eria l

0

u

0

.

e n

•

0

6 0

F ig . 1

The western e nvirons o f Co lchester s how ing k nown R o man r oads a nd f ur ther a l ignmen ts r ecen t ly l oca ted f ro m t he a ir .

The ma in

r oad f ro m L ondon a pproaches t he East- West a l ign men t f ro m Braugh ing o n aS ou th- West Nor th-East a x is. Tha t t here was a s equence i nvo lved i n t his d eve lopmen t i s s hown b y t he d iscovery o f ac on t inua tion o ft he L ondon r oad a l ign men t f ur ther n or th-east a t F ordha m H ea th .

An ew ly r ecogn ised r oad a l ignmen t r uns

p ara l le l t o , a nd p recise ly t hir ty R o man a ctus f ro m , t he p revious r oad . The t wo p aral le l r oads a t ar ecogn isab ly Ro man d istance a par t s uggest t he e xistence o f d ecu man i f ro m a l and d ivision s yste m s e t i n t he t r iba l h ear t land a d jacen t t o t he ma jor s et t le men t a t G osbecks.

6 1

p hotography c an c hange o ur p ercep t ion i n t wo c o mp lemen tary ways .

F irs t i t

i s n ow k nown t ha t t he ma jor t r iba l c en tre w i th in t he a rea e nc losed b y t he d ykes l i es n o t a round S heepen , a s p rev ious ly t hough t , b u t t o t he s outh a nd s ou the as t o ft he G osbecks s i te . I ndeed a R o man a uxi l iary f or t h as r ecent ly b een r ecogn ised o n i t s n or thern p er iphery . Moreover a g lance a t t he R o man r oad s ys te m s ugges ts t ha t i tw en t t hrough a d eve lop men t s equence , mos t c lear ly d e mons tra ted b y t he way i n wh ich t rave l l ing d is tance was i ncreased a long t he L ondon-Co lches ter r oad b y i t s n or th-eas tward c on t inua t ion t o j oin t he B raugh ingC o lches ter r oad n ear S tanway , w e l l t o t he wes t o f C o lches ter .

There i s n o

s pace h ere t o g o i n to t he a rchaeo log ica l d e ta i ls o ft he r oad d eve lop men t . B r ief ly , a er ia l r econna issance ( Jones , 1 978a ) h as s hown t ha t t he L ondon r oad a l ign men t ( s ee F ig . 1 ) o rig ina l ly c on t inued n orth-eas t a nd c an b e s een a t F ordham H ea th . Ano ther r oad , p rev ious ly u nknown , emerged a long a p ara l le l a x is r unn ing s ou th-wes t—nor th-eas t t o ap o in t c lose t o t he G osbecks t r iba l c en tre .

More i mpor tan t ly , t he d is tance b e tween t hese e xac t ly p ara l le l a l ign-

men ts i s 3x 2 0 R o man a ctus , t he a c tus ( 7 10 m) b e ing a s tandard R o man l and measure men t a nd 2 0 a c tus d iv is ions b e ing t he s tandard ma jor c en tur ia t ion u n i ts . Wh i le more f avourab le s easons f or c rop- mark ing w i l l i ncrease t he d e ta i l o ft he i nfor ma t ion a va i lab le , ap rior i t here e x is ts t he e v idence f or ma jor p re-Boud iccan l and e xpropria t ion i n t he t r iba l h ear t land o ft he T rinov an tes . H ence a ma jor c ause o f a n tagon ism a cross t he who le t riba l s oc ie ty ; a nd h ence a ma jor c ause o ft he B oud iccan r evo l t . I .

THE CARVETI I AND CULTURAL D IV IS ION

The e f fec t o ft he c rea t ion o f H adr ian 's Wa l l o n c iv i lian p opu la t ions i s mos t c lear ly s hown b y t he l arge s ca le s urvey w ork c arr ied o u t b y t he a u thor i n a ssocia t ion w i th D r N . J . H igha m i n t he S o lway a rea . I ti s b ased o n a er ia l r econna issance a nd t he d is tr ibut ion o f s i tes e s tab lished o n t he s ou thern s ide o ft he S o lway mosses , a nd h as a lready b een d escr ibed i n c ons iderab le d eta i l . S ince t ha t s urvey was p ub l ished f ur ther r out ine r econna issance d es igned t o t ake i n s uch f ac tors a s c rop r o ta t ion , e tc ., h as i ncreased t he a vai lab le d ist r ibu t ion b y s ome 5 % . I t was a pparent f rom t he s tar t , h owever , t ha t t h is k ind o f a pproach w ou ld b e mos t v a luab le i fa pp l ied b o th s outh a nd n or th o ft he S o lway . F ortuna te ly i tb ecame p oss ib le t o embark o n t he l a t ter i n t he p er iod 1 976-78 ( J ones , f or thcoming a ) w i th r esu l ts t ha t o f fer a r adica l ly d if ferent p ic ture f rom t ha t t o t he s outh o f Hadrian 's Wa l l . Wha t was t he p ic ture f ro m t he s ou th S o lway? F ly ing i n 1 973-4 away f ro m t he R o man r oad s ys te m h ad q u ick ly i nd ica ted t he p o ten t ia l o f t he s ou th S o lway a rea . The e ar ly d rough t o f 1 975 f o l lowed b y t he v ery d i f feren t d rough t p a t tern o ft he s u m mer o f 1 976 p roduced t he l oca t ions o fn ear ly t wo h undred p rev ious ly u nknown s i tes t hrough a c arefu l p a t tern o f f l y ing , r a ther t han f l y ing r e la ted t o t he d is tr ibu t ion o fk nown R o man s i tes a nd r oads .

I n t h is way i t was p oss ib le

t o s ee t ha t a l though f or ts c lear ly h ad s o me s a te l li te s e t t le men ts ( J ones , f orthc om ing a ) ( t hough t h is i s l ess e v iden t w i th B eckfoot t han w i th O ld C ar lis le ) , f ar l arger c oncen tra t ions o fn a t ive f ar ms teads a nd f i e ld s ys te ms e x is ted e lsewhere t han t he i m med ia te h in ter land o f f or ts .

Thus t wo ma jor a gg lo mera t ions

were l oca ted w es t o f H o l me Abbey , a nd b e tween K irkbride a nd Wig ton ( J ones , i b id . ) . B o th c oncen tra t ions l ay n ear mosses , s tress ing t he i n teres t o f e ar ly man i n a l terna t ive a nd u nre la ted s ources o f f ood s upp ly f ro m b oth t he f i sh ,

6 2

f ow l a nd g a me o ft he mosses , a s w e l l a s t he p as ture o r a rab le o f t he h igher l and .

Wha t i s o fp ar t icu lar i mpor tance f or t he p resen t a rgu men t i s t he c har-

a cter o ft he s e t t le men t c oncerned : s ee F igures 2 a nd 3 .

f or a d e ta i led b reak-down o f t he i nfor ma t ion

S o me 7 1% o f t he s i tes b e long t o t he e l lip t ica l u n iva l la te

v ar ie ty . The s ub-rec tangu lar s i tes , o n t he o ther h and , a ccoun t f or 1 8% o ft he t ota l . The n u mber o fb iva l la te s i tes i s min ima l ( 1 .17% ) . S ign if ican t ly 6 .6% o ft he s i tes a re a ssoc ia ted w i th s o me f or m o f s ubrectangu lar f i e ld s ys te m o r e quiva len t .

E xc lud ing a reas o f o bv ious mosses o r t ida l warp , p erhaps t he

mos t s ign if ican t e le men t i n t he who le p a t tern c oncerns t he o vera l l d ens i ty o f s et t le men t r ecovered .

A n a rea o f a pprox ima te ly 6 90 s q km h as p roduced a

t ota l o f 1 83 s i te n uc le i ( Jones , f or thcoming b ) . C o mpare t he s i tua t ion n or th o f t he S o lway .

Ar ecen t a r t ic le b y Dunnet t

a na lys ing t he s e t t lemen t d is tr ibu t ion p a t tern o f e as tern D u mfr iessh ire emphas ised a l acuna wh ich was o bv ious a t t he t ime ; t he s urvey was c oncerned w i th t he k nown r a ther t han p o ten t ia l d is tr ibu t ion p a t tern a nd l arge ly r e la ted t o s i tes s urv iv ing o n t he r ougher h igher g round a bove t he 6 00 f tc on tour .

I t was

c lear a t t he t ime t ha t a er ia l p hotography o r s o me o ther r ef ine men t o f s i te l oca t ion t echn ique was l i ke ly t o p roduce s ubs tan t ia l t races o f s e t t le men t o n t he l ower g round , i .e . i n t he more f er t i le a reas , n otab ly t hose o f t he N i th a nd Annan v a l leys a nd a long t he e dges o f t he L ochar Moss , a ga in a n i n terface o f a l terna tive f ood s upp l ies f or t he l oca l p opu la t ion .

I n 1 976-8 a eria l s urvey

p red ic tab ly b egan t o r ecover t he l oca t ion o f al arge b ody o fn ew s i te l oca t ions i n t he a rea o ft he n or th S o lway r ough ly e qu iva len t i n t er ms o fl and g rade a nd p oten t ia l t o t ha t a lready s urveyed t o t he s outh . H ere a c on tras t was i m med ia te ly a pparen t .

T he d ens i ty o f s i te s e t t le men t t o t he n or th i s f ar l ess .

S o me

8 2 f ar ms teads were r ecovered a cross a n a rea o f 8 00 s q km , a verag ing 1p er 9 .75 s q km , a s o pposed t o t he a verage d ens i ty o f 1s i te p er 3 .77 s q km o n t he s ou th S o lway .

Wh i le t h is i s as tr ik ing d if ference i t migh t a t f i rs t b e i n terpre-

t ed a s r ef lec t ing g rea ter d if f icu l ty i n t he r ecovery o f c rop mark p heno mena t o t he n or th .

I n f ac t t he r everse i s t rue .

Much o ft he s ou thern s ide i s l a id o u t

t o p er manen t p asture wh ich o n ly p roduced d if feren t ia l mark ing i n t he e xcept i ona l e ar ly d rough t o f 1 975 , wh i le t he n or thern s ide , n o tab ly b e tween Annan a nd Du mfr ies , i s l arge ly d evo ted t o a rab le d is tr ibu t ions i n l i gh t s oi ls , wh ich c an y ie ld c lear c rop mark ings . S o a ny d is tor tion i n t he b a lance o f t he s ta t ist i ca l s a mp le i s l i ab le t o l i e i n t he o ther d irec tion . F ur ther more t here a re f undamen ta l d if ferences i n t he n a ture o f t he s i tes r evea led .

S ub-rec tangu lar s i tes a re r e la t ive ly f ew a nd f ar b e tween i n t he

n or th ( 3 .6% ) ; t he n or m i s more l i ke ly t o h ave b een t he e l l ip t ica l e nc losure g enera l ly u n iva l la te i n f or m . Y e t ah igh p ropor t ion ( 19 .5% ) o f t h is g enera l c lass o f s i te i s b iva l la te o r e ven mu l t iva l la te i n c haracter . Th is emphas is o n d efence i s t herefore n o s ub jec t ive j udge ment . F ur ther more when we e xamine t he p resence o f f i e ld s ys te ms i n a ssoc ia t ion w i th f arms teads , we l ook a l mos t i n v a in , e xcep t c lose t o t he f or t o f B irrens a nd a long t he r oad t o C ar lis le . O n ly a h andfu l ( 1 .8% ) o f f i e ld s ys tems a re a t tes ted a t s i tes t o t he wes t .

A l though n a tura l ly o ne mus t a ccep t t ha t a t l eas t ap ercen tage o f t he

s i tes r ecovered g o b ack i n to t he p re-Ro man I ron Age ( and Iw ou ld a rgue f or c onsiderab le s pread i n t he c hrono logy i nvo lved ) t he e v idence s ugges ts t ha t s i te s e t t le men t d ens i ty was b as ica l ly t h inner t o t he n or th o ft he S o lway , t ha t t he s i tes were more h eav i ly d efended , a nd were l arge ly e l lip t ica l i n f or m ,

6 3

F ig . 2

T he S et t le men ts o ft he Carve t i i n or th a nd s ou th o ft he S o lway 1 : ah istogra m s how ing t he r e la tive o ccurrence o f morpho logica l i nd ica tors o n s i tes l oca ted i nt he S o lway s urvey .

6 4

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) 9 -40

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p e r 10 0 %

k i lome t re,

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S ITES

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ZA S ou th

North

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F ig . 3

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SOL WAY

NORTH

SO I WAY

NORTH

1 9 -5 %

S ub-re c t

SO MA ,'

The S e t t le men ts o ft he Carveti i n or th a nd s ou th o ft he S olway 2 :

g enera l a na lysis o f morpho logica l i nd ica tors,

6 7 % .

a nd l acked a ssoc ia ted f i e ld s ys te ms a l mos t e nt ire ly .

Th is i s a lready a f ur ther

a rgu men t f or s uppos ing t ha t , a s o ne migh t s uspect , t he g rea t ma jor i ty o f t he s ub-rec tangu lar s i tes w i th a ssoc ia ted f i e ld s ys tems o n t he s ou th s ide o ft he S o lway o r ig ina ted i n t he R o man p er iod . The g row th i n t he s econd a nd t h ird c en tur ies o fa n a pparen t ly p rosperous a nd s tab le a gricu l tura l e cono my t o t he r ear o ft he Wa l l c an t herefore b e s een ma in ly a s t he r esu l t o ft he c rea t ion o f t he l i near b arr ier i n t he wes t .

T he h undreds o f f arms n ow a t tes ted i n t he

wes tern h in ter land o ft he Wa l l i n c on tras t t o t he l ack o f s uch g row th a cross t he S o lway n ow a l lows u s t o e s t ima te t he s ocio-econo m ic e f fec t o ft he Wa l l a nd t o u nders tand a f u l ler mean ing b eh ind t he s i mp l is t ic v ers ion o f i t s r o le t o b e f ound i n t he L ife o f H adr ian : q u i R o manos b arbarosque d iv ideret .

I I .

THE DECL INE OF IMPER IAL E nADE The e ven ts o ft he f a mous b arbarian c onsp iracy o f A .D . 3 67 , wh ich b rough t

t he R o man p rov ince o f B r i ta in a l mos t t o t he p oin t o fd is in tegra t ion , a re k nown t o u s a l mos t e n t ire ly f ro m a p assage i n Am m ianus Marce l l inus XXV I I ( 8 . 1 -8) . I mpor tan t b ackground i nfor ma t ion , h owever , i s g iven i n as ubsequen t d iscuss ion ( Xcvm .3 . 1 -9 ) p r imar i ly c oncerned w i th a d escr ip t ion o ft he T heodos ian r eorgan isa t ion o fA .D . 3 69 . t i oned f or t he o n ly t ime

I ti s i n t he l a t ter p assage t ha t t he A rcan i a re men-

( X o (vm .3 .8 ) , a l though t hey c lear ly p layed a ma jor p ar t

i n t he t roub les o ft he p iev ious y ears .

The p assage mer i ts q uo ta t ion i n e x tenso :

" In t he mids t o f s uch impor tan t e ven ts t he Arcani , ac lass o f men e s tab l ished i n e ar ly t imes ( av e teribus i ns t i tu tum ) , a bou t wh ich Is a id s o me th ing i n t he h istory o f C ons tans , h ad g radua l ly b eco me c orrup ted a nd c onsequen t ly h e [ Theodosius ] r e moved t he m f rom t he ir p os ts ( g _ . s ta t ion ibus ... r e mov i t ) . F or t hey were c lear ly c onv ic ted o fh av ing b een l ed b y t he r ece ip t , o r t he p ro m ise , o fg rea t b oo ty a t v arious t imes t o b e tray t o t he s avages wha t was g oing o n amongs t t he R o mans . F or i t was t he ir d uty t o move f ar a nd w ide a nd g ive i nforma t ion t o o ur g enera ls o f i mpend ing r ebe l lion amongs t n e ighbour ing p eop les ( v icinaru m g en t iu m s trep i tus ... i n t i maren t ) . U nfortuna te ly t he i n i t ia l d iscuss ion o f t he Arcan i ( re la t ing p resu mab ly t o C ons tans ' v is i t t o B r i ta in i n A .D . 3 42-3 , when h e p robab ly made a t rea ty w i th t he P ic ts a nd S cots ) i s i n al os t b ook o f Am m ianus . S o we a re l ef t i n t he f i rs t p lace w i th t he p rob le m o fp rec ise ly who were t he A rcani . Th is t op ic r equires more s pace t han i s a va i lab le h ere . B ehind i t , h owever , l i es t he q ues t ion o f t he s et ting o ft he n or thern f ron t ier a t t he t ime . h ow d id t he f ron t ier o pera te?

Wha t were t he s ta t iones a nd

Ib e l ieve t ha t t he o vera l l f ramework h as b een p rov ided b y L u t twak i n h is r ecen t , i mpor tan t s tudy o ft he d eve lopmen t o f R oman f ron t iers i n g enera l a nd l a te d efence-in-dep th i n p ar t icu lar ( 1977) . I n t he t h ird c en tury t he i dea l o f a u n i tary emp ire s t i l l p reva i led a nd w i th s ta tic f ron t iers t h is mean t t ha t t he p er iods o f i mperia l r econs truc t ion were c oncerned t o c rea te a f or tress s upp or ted b y t axa t ion i n k ind , s upp ly ing t he n eeds o ft he l a te , h igh ly mod if ied R o man a r my .

I n t he p rocess t he r o le o f t he f ron t iers c er ta in ly c hanged f ro m

t he c onf iden t , t err i toria l d efence o ft he s econd c entury t o s o me th ing v ery d iff eren t .

Apar t f ro m e las t ic d efensive s tra teg ies a t te mp ted b y Dec ius a nd 6 6

Va ler ian a t t he c os t o ft he ir l i ves , t here r e ma ins t he a l terna t ive r esponse o f d efence-in-dep th a s e labora ted b y L u t twak , n a me ly a c o mb ina t ion o f s e lfc on ta ined s trongho lds w i th l arger mob i le f orces d ep loyed t o t he r ear .

The

f ormer h ad t o b e s uf f icien t ly r es i l ient t o s urv ive a t tack w i thou t r equiring t he p resence o ft he ma in a r my ; t he l a t ter , p erhaps c en tred o n a ma jor d efended t own , h ad t o c oun ter a t tack b efore t he f or mer c api tu la ted o r e xhaus ted t he ir l oca lised f ood s upp lier . The c onceptua l f ramework i s i l lus tra ted i n t he a cc o mpany ing f i gure ( 4A a nd B ) , wh ich a lso s hows t he i dea o fd efence-in-dep th a pp l ied t o t he n or thern f ron t ier o f B r i ta in ( Jones , 1 978b ) . Th is a ppraoch may we l l h e lp u s i ncrease o ur u nders tand ing o ft he l a te n or thern f ron t ier , p ar t ly b ecause o f r ecen t a rchaeo log ica l d eve lopmen ts o n t he Wa l l .

The c onven t iona l v iew o f P er iods I I a nd I V s pann ing t he f our th c en-

t ury c on t inues t o p lace t he emphas is o n t he r e ten t ion o f t he o vera l l l i near b arr ier .

On t he o ther h and e xcava t ions a re i ncreas ing ly s how ing c hrono log ica l

v ar ia t ions i n f or t o ccupa t ion , e .g . t he p er iod o f a bandonmen t p r ior t o r eo ccupa t ion n ow a t tes ted a t H a l tonches ters .

T urn ing t o t he o vera l l p a t tern ,

t he l a te a r my l i s t k nown a s t he N o t i t ia D ign i tatum , g ives u s ap icture wh ich p robab ly r e la tes t o t he f i na l q uar ter o ft he f our th c en tury . d rawn o u t i n p lan f or m , a s F rere h as a lready d one , we h o ld o n t he eas tern a pproaches t o t he Wa l l .

When t he l i s t i s

a n s ee t he mi li tary

There i s a n o bv ious s im i lari ty w i th t he i deas o f d efencein-dep th , b ut o ne omiss ion f ro m t he a c tua l N o t i t ia l is t i s p erhaps more s tr ik ing .

C a t terick was

t he s tra teg ic b ack-s top f or n or thern warfare t hrough t he c on tro l o fb o th t he S ta in more P ass a nd t he e as tern a pproaches t o t he Wa l l . We k now t ha t i t was o ccup ied i n t he l a te f our th-cen tury—ear ly f if th-cen tury b y as ubs tan t ia l mi l it ary p resence o f s o me k ind ( Wacher 1 971 1 65f f . ) . I fC a t ter ick i s t herefore a dded a s t he miss ing b ase c o mponen t i n af ron t ier s ys te m d efended i n d ep th b u t om it ted f ro m t he N o t i t ia b ecause o f i t s c iv i l ian s ta tus , t hen Ib e l ieve o ur p ic ture o ft he w ork ing o f t he l a ter n or thern f ron t ier b eco mes c learer . Moreover w e c an s ee w i th in t h is s truc ture t he f requen t i so la t ion o f t he i nd iv idua l o u tpos t f or ts , p resu mab ly t he s ta t iones o f t he Arcan i who e ventua l ly s ided w i th t he i nsurgen ts i n t he g rea t b arbar ian c onsp iracy . The ir i so la t ion , t aken w i th c hanges i n t he n a ture o ft he a r my , was i n p laces a l l t oo e v iden t ; f our th c en tury H ouses teads w i th i t s g arrison o f l im i tane i i s b es t r egarded a s af or t if ied v i l lage o ft he k ind l ong r ecogn ised f ro m t he w ork o f P o idebard a nd T cha lenko o n t he S yr ian l imes .

The c u l t iva t ion t erraces , s t i l l v is ib le a round

i t , were t he s ource o f t he f ood a nd f odder wh ich g ave t he o utpos t f or t i t s i mmun i ty t o a t tack f ro m a n e ne my w i thou t s e ige mach ines .

The i nsurgen ts f ound

t he mse lves i n ap er iphera l c o mba t a rea , w i th in wh ich f or ts a nd f ort if ied g ranar ies ( s t i l l t o b e f ound i n R o man B r i ta in ) c ou ld s urv ive i n tac t f or s o me t ime , a nd a t t he s ame t ime t hrea ten a r e trea t ing e nemy . De lay ing t he e nemy was a f ter a l l p ar t o ft he s tra teg ic o b jec t ive p rior t o c oun ter-a t tack . The s ys te m worked a nd w orked t o lerab ly we l l a cross much o ft he e ar lier f ourth c en tury . The i nciden t o ft he Arcan i e xp la ins o ne ma jor r eason why i t b roke d own .

C ons ider f our th c en tury H ouses teads a ga in .

F or i t s p art-

T eu ton ic , b are ly l i tera te ( t o j udge f ro m a s urv iv ing i nscrip t ion ) g arr ison , t he i mper ia l f açade mean t l i t t le , p erhaps n ever e x is ted ; t he p rop inqu i ty o fl ikeminded n a t ives c la im ing a u tono my a nd p ro mis ing b ooty mean t f ar more .

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• • • • • •

0

0 F or ts c er ta in ly

D IGN ITATUM

9-

+F or ts e mp ty a f ter

c r i

t he s oc ia l c hanges i n t he R o man a r my , d efence-in-dep th c arried t he s eeds o f i ts own d es truc t ion a nd w i th i tt he c oncep t o f emp ire .

B IBL IOGRAPHY COURTO IS , C ., 1 955 . BARADEZ , J ., 1 949 . A lger ien :

L es V anda les e t l 'Afrique . V ue Aerienne d e P organ isa t ion r o ma ine d ans l e S ud-

F ossa tu m A fricae .

DUNNETT , R ., 1 975 .

The T r inovan tes .

Duckwor th .

HA WKES , C . F . C . a nd HULL , M . R ., 1 947 . JONES , G . D . B ., 1 978a .

C a mu lodunu m .

' The C o lches ter-Ipsw ich Aer ia l S urvey ' Aeria l

Arch . 1 . JONES , G . D . B ., 1 978b .

' Concep t a nd Deve lop men t i n R o man F ron t iers '

J ohn Ry lands B u l le t in . JONES , G . D . B ., f or thco ming a .

' The S o lway F ron t ier '

JONES , G . D . B ., f or thco ming b ( w i th 1 E [GHA M , N . J . ) .

An t iq . J ourn . The Carve t ii .

Duckwor th . LESCH I , L ., 1 942 .

' Ru ne e t l es n o mades d u S ahara C en tra l ' Tray . I .R . S .

1 , 4 7f f . LUTT WAK , E ., 1 977 .

The G rand S tra tegy o f t he R o man Emp ire .

J ohns

H opk ins P ress . MANN , J ., 1 977 i n TE MPOR IN I , H . r om ischen We l t . TROUSSET , P ., 1 974 .

( ed .) .

Aufs t ieg u nd N iedergang d er

I i5 08 . R echerches s ur l e L imes T r ipo l i tanus ( E tudes

d 'Ant iqui tes A fr ica ines ) . WACHER , J . S ., 1 971 i n BUTLER , R . M ., ( ed .) . R o man Y orksh ire 1 65f f .

7 0

S o ld ier a nd C iv i l ian i n

P l . I

Confron ta t ion : The h i l lfor t o f B urnswPr i z a nd ( t o r igh t ) t he a ssocia ted B o man s iege c a mp . r epresents

9

The d eba te whe ther t he l a t ter

p ractice s iege work r e ma ins u nreso lved .

7 2

P l .II

P o licing : t he c ircu lar c rop- mark r epresen ts t he r e ma ins o f at wo p eriod R o man wa tchtower e xcava ted a t Easton n ear Burgh-by-Sands. I n t he s econd p eriod t he 2 0 m d ia me ter o ft he t ower was s l igh t ly e xpanded t o b r ing i ti n to c on tact w i th a d efensive d i tch l oca ted b enea th t he l inear c rop- mark .

7 4

P l . I I

P o licing i n F orce :

B urgh-by-Sands.

A wa tchtower s i mi lar i n

e ssen tia ls t o t ha t s hown i n P l . I was o ver laid b y a n a uxi l iary f or t t he d i tches o f which s how c lear ly i n t he c erea l f i e ld .

The s i te

l i es we l l a way f ro m t he S o lway f oreshore a nd i t s l oca tion was c on tro l led b y t he a vai labi li ty o f w ide v iews.

7 6

P l . I V

O ccupa tion i n d e ta i l:

as ection o ft he t imber p a l isade s et i n ac lay

ma tr ix e xcava ted a t S i l lo th o n t he S o lway f oreshore .

Two s uch

f ea tures were f ound f or m ing a l inear b arrier b e tween mi lefor t le ts a long t he c oast .

S imi lar e vidence f or a t wo-per iod p a lisade was

f ound o n t he p en insu la west o f Bowness.

7 8

AR MY S UPPLY I N RO MAN GAUL : a n h ypo thesis f or Ro man B ri ta in b y P au l Midd leton

S u m mary I n t he l a te emp ire , when Ro me was f orced i ncreas ing ly t o a ssess h er p riori t ies i n d efence, t he l a tent t ru th o f Br itain 's p eripheral s i tua t ion w as l a id b are f or a l l t o s ee : e ndage o f G au l .

i t was n o more t han a n a pp-

I ti s t herefore n ot p oss ible t o u nderstand Ro man

B rita in i n i solat ion .

The G al l ic e v idence a l lows s o me a pproach t o

t he q uest ion o f a r my s upp ly.

The p ic ture wh ich emerges s uggests

ac lose l ink b etween t he n ecessary move men t o fb u lk g oods i n s upp ort o f t he s tand ing g arrisons o f Gau l a nd e n trepreneur ial a c t iv ity . Th is l a t ter , l ong d istance t rade , was d ependen t , i ndeed p arasi t ic , u pon of ic ial s upp ly l i nes, a nd was a l most c erta in ly d irec ted t o t he ' needs , o f t he m il i tary market wh ich was t he g oal o f t hose s upp ly l ines. There i s n o e v idence t ha t c iv i l ian markets g enera ted l ong d istance t rade. S uch a n h ypothesis, i fa ccep ted , o pens u p af ru i t fu l l i ne o f e nqu iry o n t he B ri t ish ma ter ial , s o me o f t he i mp l ica t ions o f wh ich a re h ere e xp lored.

I ti s my i n ten t ion i n t h is p aper f i rst ly t o r ev iew t he e v idence f or l ong d istance t rade a nd a r my s upp ly i n Ro man Gau 1. 1

Is hal l b r ief ly c onsider t he

e p igraph ic r ecord f or b oa t men a nd t raders i n G au l i n r ela t ion t o t he f ac il i ty o ft ransport c ond i t ions , a nd t he p robable p at tern o f a r my s upp ly , a nd a ssess t hese p at terns i n r elat ion t o t he d istribu t ion o f ac o mmod i ty w i th a p oten t ial i nb o th c iv il ian a nd m il i tary markets.

C erta in c onclusions s ee m t o b e

meri ted b y s uch a s tudy a nd a re h elpfu l i n e stabl ish ing s o me g round r u les f or p ursu ing s im i lar l i nes o f e nqu iry i n t he l ess w el l d ocu men ted c ase o f Ro man B rita in , w ith wh ich t he s econd p art o f t h is p aper i s c oncerned. Ro man Gau l ( a )

P ersonnel o f Trade

I t i s a x io ma t ic i n s tud ies o f t he p re-indus tr ia l w or ld t ha t wa ter t ranspor t i s c heaper , a nd f requen tly q u icker , t han l and c arriage. I tw as t he r iver s yste m o f Gau l wh ich i mpressed t he Ro mans, c ond i t ioned a s t hey w ere t o t he s hort , o f ten s easonal water c ourses o f t he Med iterranean z one. S trabo 's w el l k nown o bserva t ions i nd ica te a c onsiderable amoun t o f t raf f ic o nb oth p ri mary a nd s econdary r ivers i n Gau l , a l though i ti s worth n ot ing t he p ride o f p lace g iven t o t he Rhöne b y S trabo.

8 1

( S trabo G eog. i v 1 . 2 , 1 .14).

I ti s p ossible t o e st i mate t he u pper l im it o f n av igab il ity o n t he ma jor r ivers i n Ro man t imes f ro m a v ar iety o f e v idence ( Bonnard 1 913). Th is makes i tc lear t ha t a l l t he ma jor r ivers w ere a lmost c erta in ly n av igable f or much o f t heir c ourses. There i s l i t tle d oubt t hat t he Rhöne a nd S ahne r ivers f or med t he most i mportan t a x is o f move men t t hrough Gau l , a s h as b een t he c ase i n a l l p er iods, b u t g eography h as b een k ind t o F rance i n i t s p rov ision o f n av igable w a terways a long a l l t he ma in a xes o f c o m mun icat ion . On ly t he t wo ma jor massifs o fA r morica a nd t he Massif C en tral p resen t s erious o bs tac les t o t he move men t o f g oods c ross-coun try.

The e f fec t o f t h is w as

c learly t o e ncourage l ong d istance move men t o f g oods when t he c ond it ions , b oth s oc ial a nd e cono m ic , w ere c onduc ive t o t rade. The r oad s yste m o f G au l , d eveloped f ro m t he p ri mary n etwork o f m i l i tary r oads l a id d own i n t he e arly emp ire b y A gr ippa , a dded l i t t le c om mercia l ly t o t he n a tural a dvan tages o f t he r iver ine r ou tes. When w e c o me t o l ook a t t he i nc idence o f t he p ersonnel i nvolved i n n av igat ion a ga inst t h is b ackc loth , t he most s trik ing f eature i s t he o verwhel m ing c oncen trat ion o f i nscrip t ions o n t he Rhine-Saöne a x is ( f ig. 1 ) . B onnard , d iscussing t he G aronne b asin , c onsidered t he a bsence o f e p igraph ic e v idence r elat ing t o b oat men a n a cc iden t o f s urv ival o f t he e vidence wh ich i s , o f c ourse , p ossible. Bu t t h is p ecu l iar ' i sola t ion ' o f Aqu i tan ia f ro m t he r est o f G au l i s n ot i ceable wherever r eg iona l c o mparisons a re p ossible , s uggest ing r ather more p osi t ive f ac tors f or t he c on tras t.

G iven t he s u itabil ity o f a l l t he r ivers o f Gau l f or wa ter t ransport ,

a nd S trabo 's c o m men ts , t h is c on tras t d oes r equ ire e xp lana t ion . There w ere t hree i mportan t g roups o fb oa t men .

The l argest o perators

w ere t he s h ippers ( nav icu lar i i ) , w el l k nown f or t he ir a ssoc iat ions i n t he l a te emp ire w i th t he i mperial a nnona s upp ly t o Ro me. O f c ourse, n av icu lar i i were n ot s olely s h ippers, b u t m igh t a lso b e t raders i n t heir own r igh t.

N ever-

t heless , t he e ssen t ial p o in t t o n ote i s t he ir r egu lar a nd p r i mary a ssoc ia t ion , n ot w i th p r iva te t rad ing , b u t w i th s tate s upp ly . A s econd g roup , t he u tr ic lari i , o r r af ts men/ l igh ter men , whose d istribu t ion i s c on f ined t o t he Rhöne b asin a nd p redo m inan t ly a ssoc iated w ith s hal low w aters, c o mp le men t t he d istr ibu t ion o fo ur t h ird c ategory , t he r iver b oatmen ( nau tae ). Th is n o t o n ly r ef lec ts s o me o f t he d i f f icu l t ies p ecu l iar t o t he Med iterranean c oast l ine , s uch a s t he s a l t marsh l agoons a nd s h if t ing e stuar ine s ands, b ut a lso i nd ica tes t he d egree t o wh ich move men t a nd t ransport w ere c o-ord inated i n t h is r eg ion , p resu mably i n r esponse t o t he v olu me o f g oods wh ich w as s h ipped a long t h is r ou te. What i s o f p art icu lar i n terest i s t ha t s uch c iv i l ian c orporat ions a ppear t o h ave g rown o n ly i n t h is o ne p art o f G au l . I n l a ter i mperial t imes, t he a ttested u n i ts o fb arcar i i a t , f or i nstance , B regenz o n L ak e C ons tance a re l ikely t o h ave t rans-sh ipped c argoes a cross s ha l lower wa ters . Occ. mow 3 2 c f .

I s idorus Or ig. 1 9 .1.19 :

c o mmerc ia a d l i tus p orta t ).

( No t . D ig .

b arca e st q uae c unc ta n av is

We c annot b e s ure t hat t hese m il i tary u n i ts

s ucceeded e arl ier d etachmen ts w ith r esponsib i l ity f or l i ght s h ipp ing , b u t i t i s p erhaps p ossible t o i n fer t hat t he f unc t ions o f t he u tr ic lar i i w ere p erformed b y m i l i tary p ersonnel w ith in t he m il i tary z one.

S uch a n i n ference i s s up-

p orted b y t he a nalagous s i tuat ion o f c orporat ions o f r iver b oat men . A l though w e k now o f i nd iv idual n au tae w ith in t he m il i tary z one , t here i s n o e v idence t ha t c ol leg ia o f r iver b oatmen w ere e ver t hus f or mal ly r ecogn ized i n t ha t a rea. By c on trast , c ol leg ia te s tatus s ee ms t o h ave b een t he n or m f or t he b oat men

8 2

c Z )

F ig . 1 B oatmen Nav icu lani

•

Nautae U tr ic lani R at iar i i

8 3

o f t he R höne-Saöne c orr idor where t he ma in c oncen tra t ion o f i nscr ip t ions l i es . There i s n o q ues t ion t ha t t hese c orpora t ions were a nyth ing a k in t o t he g u i ld s ys te m o f t he Med iaeva l p er iod ( Wa l tzing 1 896 1 .161-333 ;

F in ley 1 973 :81 ,

1 38 ) . On t he c on trary , t here i s e very r eason t o s uppose t ha t t he p urpose o f f or m ing s uch a ssocia t ions was s oc ia l a nd r e l ig ious .

C o l leg ia c ou ld b e man i-

p u la ted f or p o l i t ica l e nds , a s P l iny t he Younger 's c e lebra ted r e ference s hows ( i l lus tra t ing a lso t ha t t he i mper ia l a dm in is tra t ion was a lways f ear fu l a nd s usp ic ious o f a ssoc ia t ion o f a ny k ind ).

( P l iny

LE.x .33-4 )

. Bu t t here i s n o

e v idence a t a l l t ha t t h is p o ten t ia l was e ver d irec ted i n a ny c oncer ted f ash ion f or t he f ur therance o f b us iness o r c o m mercia l e nds . The r ecogn i t ion o f t he c lubs a s c o l leg ia b y t he imper ia l a dm in is tra t ion d id h owever g ive l ega l s ta tus a nd e ncouraged l oca l p a tronage , a nd i ti s a pparen t t ha t t he g ran t o f s uch s ta tus was a v id ly s ough t a f ter .

P recise ly b ecause o f t he p oss ible p o l i t ica l o ver tones

o f s uch a ssocia t ions , t he a dm in is tra t ion j ea lous ly r eserved s uch g ran ts , a nd t he ir o vera l l i ncidence i s t here fore l i ke ly t o b e ar e f lec t ion o f t he i mpor tance a t tached t o t he c orpora tions ' f unc t ion b y t he R o man g overnmen t .

There were

i nd iv idua l n au tae a nd a ssoc ia t ions c a l led c on tubern ia w i th in t he mi l i tary z one wh ich i n a l l b u t n a me l ook i den t ica l t o t he c o l leg ia .

Tha t t hey were n o t a ccorded

s uch s ta tus i nd ica tes , Is ugges t , t he ir c orrespond ing ly r educed v a lue t o t he a u thor i t ies . I t may b e t ha t t h is l acuna i s e xp la ined b y t he r o le p layed b y t he mi l i tary f l ee ts i n t he move men t o f g oods w i th in t he f ron t ier a reas o f t he R h ine a nd Danube. I n a dd i t ion t o b e ing b oa t men a nd p resumab ly u nder c on trac ts , s o me n au tae were a lso p et ty t raders i n t heir own r igh t .

There i s r eason t o b e l ieve h owever ,

t ha t a s w i th t he n av icu lar i i , t he ir p r i mary c oncern was w i th t he s h ip men t o f o f f icia l s upp l ies .

As j us t n oted , t he a dm in is tra t ion 's w i l l ingness t o g ran t

t he l ega l s ta tus o f c o l leg ium a ppears t o b e a n i nd ica t ion t ha t t he n au tae p layed a n impor tan t r o le o n b eha lf o f t he g overn men t .

G iven t he d is tr ibu t ion a long

wha t was t he c rucia l c orr idor o f s upp ly t o t he Rh ine land g arr isons , s uch a r o le c an h ard ly h ave b een o ther t han t he s h ip men t o f s ta te s upp l ies .

I n terna l

e v idence f ro m s o me o f t he i nscr ip t ions r ein forces t h is i n terpre ta t ion o f al ink b e tween t he n au tae a nd s ta te s upp ly , i n t ha t t he e ar ly e xa mp les c an b e c lose ly t i ed t o k nown mi l i tary a ct iv i ty . We may s u m mar ize t he ma in c onc lus ions t ha t s ee m t o b e i nd ica ted b y a d iscuss ion o f t he b oa t men a nd s h ippers o f G au l .

I n t he f irs t p lace t he o ver-

whe lm ing c oncen tra t ion o n t he R höne-Sa6ne r ou te i s r e markable i n v iew o f t he f aci l i ty o f wa ter t ranspor t t hroughou t G au l , e specia l ly when v iewed i n c on junc t ion w i th t he d egree o f s pec ia l isa t ion o f wa ter t ranspor t o therw ise o n ly e qua l led i n t he mi l i tary z one .

S econd ly , i ti s n o table t ha t t hose g roups a ccor-

d ed t he s ta tus o f c ol leg ium a re c en tred o n t he r iver s ys te m o u ts ide t he mi l i tary z one , a l though s im i lar ly emp loyed i nd iv idua ls d id e x is t i n t he Rh ine land . Th is l a t ter i s p recise ly t he a rea where mi l i tary f l ee ts may b e p resu med t o h ave o pera ted f or t he f errying o f a r my s upp lies .

Th ird ly , t he i nc idence o f

e ar ly n au tae , a l though o n ly a sma l l s a mp le i s a va i lable , d oes s ugges t ad irec t l ink w i th s ta te s upp ly , al ink wh ich i s a l mos t c er ta in i n t he c ase o f t he n av ic u lar i i .

8 4

When we t urn t o t raders ( nego t ia tores ) , t he i nscr ip t ions s how t ha t t hey , l i ke t he b oa t men , were c oncen tra ted o n t he Rhöne a nd t he Rh ineland , w i th L yon a ccoun t ing f or mos t o f t he R höne v a l ley d is tr ibu t ion ( f ig . 2 ) . Th is a pp aren t g row th o f t rade i n t he i mper ia l p er iod h as b een a t tr ibu ted t o t he d eve lopmen t o f a mone t ized e cono my f ac i l i ta t ing e xchange ( Sch l ippschuh 1 974 :129f ) . The c oncen tra t ion o f t roops i n t he f irs t c en tury o n t he Rh ine land f ron t ier a nd i n t he v ic in i ty o f L yon , w i th c ash p ay i n t he ir h ands , migh t s ee m t o b ear o u t t he p laus ible h ypo thes is t ha t c o inage s ign i f ican t ly f ac i l i ta ted t rad ing a c t iv i ty. We c an g o f ur ther h owever , b y l ink ing s uch e n trepreneur ia l a c t iv i ty s peci f ic a l ly t o t he mi l i tary p resence a nd t he s a t is fac t ion o f i t s ma ter ia l wan ts , r a ther t han t o a ny g enera l g row th i n t rade r ou tes amongs t t he c iv i l ian p opul a t ion .

Ac ons idera t ion o f t wo c o m mod i t ies wh ich we k now were t raded o ver

c ons iderable d is tances i s i ns truc t ive i n c o mpar ing t he p u l l o f t he mi l i tary marke t a ga ins t o ther , c iv i l ian markets .

O f t h ir teen p o t tery t raders , n o l ess

t han e igh t a re f ound w i th in t he R h ine land mi li tary z ones ;

t wo more , a t T r ier

a nd Me tz , a re s carce ly b eyond i t , a nd t he o ther t hree , a t L yon , were a t t he p ivo t o f move men t a long t he R höne-Rh ine a x is .

One o f t hese i nd iv idua ls was ,

s ign i f ican t ly , av e teran o f l eg io IM inerva , s ta t ioned i n G er man ia I n fer ior . ( C.I .L . x i i i .1906) .

I ti s wor th s tress ing t ha t n o p o t tery t raders , e xp lic i t ly

s o s tyled , a re k nown e lsewhere i n G au l .

The i nc idence o f w ine t raders r e-

v ea ls a s im i lar emphas is o n mi l i tary marke ts . In o ted e ar l ier t he p oss ible c onnec t ion b e tween a n a bsence o f r ecords o f c orpora o f b oa t men a nd t he a c t iv i ty o f t he i mper ia l f l ee ts i n t ranspor t ing g oods w i th in t he f ron t ier z one .

I n v iew o f t he l inks a t tes ted b e tween n au tae

a nd n ego t ia tores i ti s wor th c ons ider ing t he l inks b etween t he mi l i tary f lee ts a nd t raders .

There i s r egre t tab ly l i t t le e v idence o n t h is s core , b u t wha t t here

i s s uppor ts t he g enera l h ypo thes is h ere p roposed , n ame ly t ha t e n trepreneur ia l a c t iv i ty was c lear ly t i ed t o mi l i tary marke ts .

The we l l k nown s er ies o f d edi-

c a t ions f ro m t he s anc tuary o f N eha lenn ia a t t he Do mburg i n t he S che ld t e s tuary h igh l igh ts t he l ink b etween B r i ta in a nd t he R h ine land .

A t n earby Wa lcheren

h owever , t he p rox im i ty o f t he s i te t o f inds o f s ta mped t i les o f t he c lass is G erman ica s ee ms l arge ly t o h ave p assed u nno t iced . 1 4 ) .

( Hond ius-Crone 1 955 :

Ye t t he imp l ica t ion t ha t t he D o mburg was f requen ted n o t s i mp ly a s t he

t raders ' f irs t c on t inen ta l f oo t fa l l , b u t r a ther b ecause o f i t s a ssoc ia t ion w i th af l ee t b ase c an h ard ly b e i gnored . I f we l ook more g enera l ly a t t he o r ig ins o f t hose who s tyled t he mse lves a s n ego t ia tores , we c an s ee t ha t o f t wen tyt wo c ases , s even teen , o r p oss ib ly e igh teen , were f ro m t he f ron t ier z one o f t he Rh ine land a nd i t s h in ter land —prec ise ly t he a rea wh ich was mos t f avourable t o e n trepreneur ia l a c t iv i ty .

I n o ther words , e cono m ic a ct iv i ty o f t h is s or t

was n o t g enera l t hroughou t G au l , b u t a ma t ter o f s ta te s upp ly a nd/or p r iva te s a le t o mi l i tary s e t t le men ts . I n r esponse t o t hose who wou ld emphas ize t he impor tance o f e n trepreneur ia l a c t iv i ty , we may n o te t he l ow s ta tus o f t he g rea t ma jor i ty o f t raders a nd t he f act t ha t t he n ine ty i nscr ip t ions c over a p er iod o f c lose o n t hree c en tur ies . B y a ny c onven t iona l e s t i ma te o f t he r a te o f s urv iva l o f t he e v idence , we c an h ypo thes ize a t o ta l o f p erhaps n ine h undred t raders o ver t ha t who le p er iod , wh ich works o u t a t a round s even tyf ive n ego t ia tores i n o pera t ion i n a ny o ne g enera t ion . T he d egree o f o ver lap b e tween t he b oa t men a nd t raders a nd e ven p erhaps mi l i tary p ersonne l , s hows t ha t much o f t h is a c t iv i ty c anno t h ave b een

8 5

8 6

more t han p ar t t ime.

The g rea ter d egree o f s pec ia l isa t ion i n merchand ise

wh ich t he R o man p er iod w i tnessed was a l mos t c er ta in ly t i ed t o mi l i tary r eq u ire men ts , a l though i t wou ld b e f oo lhardy t o d eny s o me s p in-o f f i n t he c iv i l ian s phere a lso . I ti s t rue t ha t t he Rhöne-Sa8ne c orr idor h as a lways b een t he ma jor a x is o f move men t t hrough G au l , a nd i t s p redo m inance i n t he e pigraph ic r ecord i s t herefore e n t ire ly t o b e e xpec ted .

Bu t i ft here was l arge s ca le i n ter-reg iona l

t rade t hroughou t G au l , t hen s ure ly we s hou ld s ee t he G aronne , t he L o ire , a nd t he S e ine , a s t hree o f t he p r i mary r ivers o f G au l , r epresen ted o n o ur maps t o ad egree c o m mensura te w i th t he ir i mpor tance .

I f we a ccep t t he i ncidence

o f i nscr ip t ions a s ar e f lec tion o f t he wea l th g enera ted i n t rade a nd s h ipp ing , wha tever i t s s ca le , t hen a ga in , we s hou ld e xpec t a much more e ven d is tr ibu t ion i fc iv i l ian l ong d is tance t rade was i mpor tan t i n o ther r eg ions b es ides t he mi l it ary z one a nd i t s ma jor s upp ly a r tery. T ak ing t he b oa t men i nd iv idua l ly , i t i s d i f f icu l t t o k now whe ther t hey a re e xc lus ive ly p r iva te o r o f f ic ia l i n o r ig in . C umu la t ive ly , h owever , t he ir d is tr ibu t ion , t he i nc idence o f t hose o f e ar ly d a te , a nd t he p oss ibi l i ty t ha t o f f ic ia l r ecogn i t ion o f c o l leg ia was r eserved t o a reas w i thou t mi l i tary f lee ts wh ich migh t h ave f u l f i l led t he s a me r ole , a l l c o mbine t o i nd ica te a c lose a ssoc ia t ion w i th mi li tary a c t iv i ty.

S im i lar ly w i th t he t ra-

d ers—the d ivers i ty o f c o m mod i t ies i ncludes o b jec ts o f e veryday u se a nd e xc hange a l l o ver G au l .

Ye t o n ly i n c onnec t ion w i th t he mi l i tary z one d oes a

l ong d is tance t rade i n s uch g oods s ee m t o h ave g enera ted t he f or ma t ion o f c orpora t ions . O f c ourse e ach i nd iv idua l e le men t c an b e e xp la ined i n a no ther way.

Cumu-

l a t ive ly h owever , If ind i td i f f icu l t t o s ee a ny o ther e xp lana t ion t han t he r o le • o f mi l i tary s upp ly a s t he d e ter m in ing f ac tor i n t he p a t tern o f l ong d is tance t rad ing .

I n o rder t o p roceed f ur ther i n t h is a na lys is , i tw i l l b e h e lp fu l t o

c ons ider t he l ikely c onsu mp t ion n eeds o f t he R h ine a r my a nd t he p robable s ources o f s upp ly. Th is w i l l e s tab l ish a f ra mework w i th in wh ich t o c ons ider t he d is tr ibu t ion o f manu fac tured g oods . ( b )

A r my S upp ly

I n t erms o f n umbers , i ti s u n l ike ly t ha t t he t roop d ispos i t ions o f t he e ar ly f irs t c en tury A .D. i n t he i n ter ior o f G au l amoun ted t o a ny c ons iderable b urden o n a ny o ne a rea , o r t ha t t hey c rea ted p ar t icu lar p roble ms o f s upp ly. o f i n teres t a nd i mpor tance h owever ,

Wha t i s

i st he k nown s ca t tered d is tr ibu t ion i n

N or th G au l a nd A qu i tan ia o f a mi l i tary p opu la t ion w i th c ash i n t he ir h ands ( c f . Wigh t man 1 977, f or n or th G au l ) .

I ti s i ns truc t ive t hen t o c o mpare w i th t h is

d is tr ibu t ion , t ha t o f t he t raded c o m mod i t ies o f t he p er iod . Iam a ware o f t he i nheren t d anger o f c ircu lar i ty i n a rgu ing p o t tery b o th a s aw i tness o f mi l i tary o ccupa t ion a nd a s a n i ns tance o f mi l i tary c onsump t ion , b u t s ugges t t ha t t here a re s u f f ic ien t c rosschecks t o make t he c o mpar ison wor thwh i le. The e ar ly d is tr ibu t ions o f A te ius A rre t ine wares i n Aqu i tan ia h ave b een s hown t o b ear a marked r ese mblance t o t he k nown t hea tre o f mi l i tary a c t iv i ty i n t he Augus tan p er iod a nd t he e ar ly d is tr ibu t ions o f L ezoux a nd Mon tans t erra s ig i l la ta ( I. § ) c o inc ide i n as ign i f ican t way w i th s o me A qu i tan ian s i tes where a n e ar ly mi l i tary p resence c an b e e s tabl ished .

( Et t l inger 1 962 :33 + k ar te 1 2 ) .

Wha t Iam s ugges t ing t hen , i s t ha t ad ispersed mi l i tary p opu la t ion w i th c ash i n t he ir h ands a c ted a s as t i mu lus t o t rade . 8 7

T h is i s n o more t han we s hou ld

e xpec t i n an ew ly p ac if ied p rov ince i n t he Ro man West , where t he r ole o f t he o ccupy ing a r my was p ara moun t i n t he p rocess o f e arly u rban g row th .

Th is c an

b e c onv inc ingly a rgued i n G er many w i th s upport f ro m t he l i terary s ources, a nd , Ib el ieve , a lso i n p arts o f Gau l .

R ivet h as r ecen tly a pp l ied t he s a me

methods w i th n otable , a nd e n t irely p red ic table , s uccess t o B r i tain ( Ger many : D io l v i.18.2, Wel ls 1 972:239 ; B r itain : R ivet 1 977 ). When w e t urn t o l ook a t t he s i tua t ion i n Gau l when t he Rh ine f ron t ier h ad b een f u l ly e stabl ished , ad eta i led c ons iderat ion o f t he c rop p oten t ial o f v arious r eg ions o f Gau l , a nd t he b u lk f ood r equ ire men t o f t he f i rst c en tury A .D . Rh inel and g arrisons i nd ica tes t ha t t he t roops c ou ld n ot p ossibly h ave b een s upported s olely b y t he m il i tary z one. F or a t l east p art o f t he f i rst c entury , i ti s p roba ble t ha t t he a gr icu l tural s urp lus o f Aqu i tan ia was d rawn o f f t o f eed t he Ro man g arr isons o f n ew ly s ubdued n orthern S pa in , wh i lst t he r est o f Gau l s ee ms l ikely t o h ave b een d irec t ing

i t s r esources t o ag rea ter o r l esser e x ten t t o t he p ro-

v ision o f s upp l ies f or t he Rh ineland . C onsiderat ion o f t he b asic c o mmod i t ies o f g ra in a nd me tals g ives r eason t o b el ieve t ha t , i n t er ms o f s upp ly, t he Rh ine a r my may b e c onven ien t ly d iv ided i n to t hree d iscrete z ones : he l ower Rh ine i nc lud ing Mainz , wh ich most ly l ooked t o i t s i mmed i( i ) t

a te h in terland a nd n orthern Gau l more g eneral ly , a l though o n o ccasion

a lso t o B rita in . ( i )

A lsace, c en tred o n t he l eg ionary b ase a t S trasbourg , wh ich t o a n i nc reas ing e x ten t ( w i th t he d evelopmen t o f t he Agri D ecumates ) w as a s el f s upport ing f ron t ier z one, b u t w i th i mportan t r eserves i n L orra ine.

( ii )

The u pper Rh ine-Danube a rea wh ich d rew s upp l ies f ro m s ou thern a nd c en tral Gau l v ia L yon a nd t he B elfort g ap .

These s upp l ies w ere o f n ecessi ty s h ipped i nb u lk f ro m t he s upp ly z ones, t hus e stabl ish ing a r egu lar t raf f ic o fo f f ic ial s upp l ies a long t he r ou tes i nd icat ed i n s imp l if ied f orm o n t he map , F ig . 3 . Th is was , Is ugges t , i mposed move men t wh ich was i n l arge p art t he r endering o f t ax o bl igat ions, n ot t rade. I f Iwas c orrec t i n t he c onc lusions Id rew f ro m t he s tudy o f t he e p igraph ic e v idence, n a mely t hat p r iva te e n trepreneur ia l a c t iv i ty was p aras i t ic o n s uch of ic ial s upp ly r ou tes, t hen i ts hou ld b e p ossible t o s ee t he i n f luence o f t hese d iscrete s upp ly z ones o n t he a va i labi l i ty a nd d is tr ibu t ion o f t raded g oods. I s hal l t ake a s ingle c o mmod i ty , TS. I fw e c onsider t he ma jor f i rst c en tury p roduc t ion s i tes, i ti s w el l k nown t hat t he p roduc ts o f l a Grau fesenque w ere t raded p redo m inan t ly t o t he n orth a nd e ast i n Gau l , a nd was l ess c o m mon o f Mon tans was more s uccessfu l .

i n Aqu itan ia where t he l oca l c en tre

Wha t i s l ess w el l k nown h owever, i s t ha t

w ith in t he Rh ine land t here a ppear t o b e u neven d istr ibu t ions o f l a G raufesenque T S.

I n p art icu lar t he u pper Rh ine c en tred o n S trasbourg h as a s parse d is-

t r ibu t ion r elat ive t o t he l ower Rh ine a nd t he u pper Danube. There a re o f c ourse p roble ms w i th u sing o ld d ata c ol lec t ions, a nd i n p art t h is p a t tern may b e ar ef lec t ion o ft he sma l ler n u mber o f f ort s i tes i n t he a rea, b u t t h is d oes n ot e xp la in t he s carc i ty o ff inds f ro m t he F lav ian f orts o n t he r iver N eck ar, a nd t here i s p erhaps h ere a h in t o f s hort s upp ly o f l a Graufesenque T S. There was n o s uch p roble m w i th t he d istribu t ion o f Rheinzabern T S , t he p roduc t ion s ite b eing j ust a f ew k i lo metres d ownstrea m f ro m S trasbourg. 8 8

b ase

G raufesenque

L eg ionary

A rmy S upp ly

z

z

8 9

There was, t hen , n o s hortage o f a mark et f or T S , i ft he g oods c ou ld b e d el ivered , wh ich i n t he c ase o f Rheinzabern w as a p roble m o f l ocal market ing r a ther t han o f l ong d istance t rade.

A lsace w ith i t s f ortress a t S trasbourg

s ee ms t o h ave l ack ed t he r egu lar c on tac t w i th t he s upp l iers o f l a Graufesenque TS wh ich was e stabl ished w i th t he g arr isons o f t he l ower Rh ine a nd o f t he u pper Danube . Tha t w e may n ot a t tribu te t h is t o t aste i s a pparen t f ro m t he d istr ibu t ion o f l ocal ly p roduced T S s uch a s Rheinzabern ware. N or may we a t tribu te i tt o p r ior ity i n marke t o ppor tun i t ies o f t he l ocal c en tres wh ich a l l p ost-date t he e arl iest i mports o f l a G rau fesenque TS. The g arrisons o f A lsace a nd t he Agri D ecu mates w ere, Ih ave s uggested , r easonably s elf s u f f icien t i n t er ms o f t he b asic e ssen t ials o f g ra in a nd me tals, a nd i n s o f ar a s t hey n eeded t o i mport , much o f t h is a dd i t ional r equ ire men t c ou ld h ave b een d erived f ro m L orra ine. I ti s t herefore u n l ikely t ha t t hese g arrisons r equ ired a r egu lar b u lk s upp ly o ver l ong d istance i n t hese t wo b asic c o m mod i t ies.

I n t h is c on tex t t he p a t tern o f TS d istr ibu t ion i n t he m il itary z one

i s s een t o h ave s ign if icance a s ar ef lec t ion o f t he p a t tern o f imposed move men t o f b u lk s upp l ies t o t he t roops.

The g row th o f t he e ast Gau l ish TS c en tres o ther

t han R he inzabern c an a lso b e i n terpreted i n s harper f ocus when v iewed f ro m t he a spec t o f s upp ly r ou tes, a s ar ef lec t ion o f t he s upp ly r ou te f ro m L orra ine t o t he g arrisons i n a nd a round S trasbourg. The e v idence o f TS t herefore i nd icates t ha t t here w ere t hree f a irly d isc rete z ones i n t he Rh ine land : S ou th Gau l ish wares r eached t he l ower Rh ineland a nd t he h eadwaters o f t he Rh ine/upper Danube r eg ion i n q uan t i ty , b u t w ere ! _ ess s uccessu l i n t he Rh ine v al ley b etween Ma in z a nd B asel .

Th is a rea a ppears t o

h ave b een s upp l ied w i th TS b y an u mber o f c en tres l oca ted i n L orra ine wh ich d el iberately f ocused t heir a c t iv i ty o n t he m il itary r oad f ro m Metz t o S trasbourg. These a re t he i den t ical d iv isions wh ich Ih ypothesised i n t he c on tex t o f a r my s upp ly z ones. We may s u m marize t he ma in c onc lus ions o f t h is b rief s urvey o f t he Gal l ic e v idence.

Ac ons iderat ion o f t he b asic s upp ly r equ ire men ts o f t he Ro man

a r my o n t he Rh ine i nd icates t ha t t hese c ou ld n ot c onceivably h ave b een c a tered f or w i th in t he f ron t ier z one.

We must t herefore a ssu me r egu lar b u lk s h ip men t

o fb asic f oodstuf fs o ver l ong d istance t o t he Rh ine land.

I n t he f i rst t wo c en-

t ur ies A .D. a s i n t he l a te emp ire, a l though w e n ever h ave more t han t he b arest h in t f or t he e arly emp ire, t here i s e very r eason t o s uppose t ha t t he b urden o f t he p rov ision o f t hese s upp l ies, a nd p ossibly t he ir t ransport a lso, was r egarded a s at ax o b liga tion . There i s n o c onf l ic t b e tween s uch a v iew a nd t he e vidence a t p resen t k nown a nd t h is was a dm inistra tive ly t he most e cono mica l way o f e nsur ing r egu lar d e livery o f e ssen tia l g oods. Ep igraphic e vidence f or t he a ctivi ty o fb oa t men a nd s hippers s uggests a s trong a nd p rimary a ssocia tion b e tween s uch a ctivi ty a nd t he t ranspor t o f s ta te s upp lies a long c er ta in k ey r ou tes . Where mi li tary f l ee ts were a b le t o e nco mpass t he s a me r o le , i nd ividua l b oa t men a nd t heir a ssocia tions a re c orr espond ing ly i nsign i f ican t . The e n trepreneuria l a ctivi ty o f p r iva te t raders ( negot ia tores ) was a l most c er ta in ly g eared t o t he s a tisfaction o f mi l i tary wan ts a nd was p arasi tic o n t he r egu lar s h ip men t o f o f f icia l g oods. Thus, t he l ong d istance t rade i n ac o m modi ty d epended u pon t he a bi li ty o f t he t rader t o e xp loi t a n o f f icia l s upp ly r ou te .

9 0

I .

The c ase o f Ro man B r ita in I n a ssessing t he r elevance o f t he Ga l l ic e v idence f or Br i ta in , i ti s n ot

my i n ten t ion t o a t te mp t ad eta iled a ppra isa l o f a l l t he i mp l ica t ions.

Wha t I

s ha l l t ry t o d o, h owever , i s i nd ica te t he u sefu lness o f t he h ypo theses Ih ave o u t l ined f or Gau l , a s af ramework f or g iv ing c learer f ocus t o af ew p ar t icul ar a spec ts o f t he B r it ish e v idence, i n t he h ope t ha t f ur ther r esearch a long s im i lar l i nes w i l lb e t hough t d esirable. Ih ave a rgued t ha t i nv iew o f t he a r my 's n eed t o i mport b u lk s upp l ies o f b asic n ecessi t ies, i ti s p robable t ha t t he p rov ision o f t hese b y t he p rov inc ia l p opu la t ion was, a s f ar a s p ossible, a t ax o b l iga t ion . I ts eems t ha t c er ta in a reas i n Gau l , f avoured b y l oca t ion a nd t ran sp or t f ac i l i t ies w ere a ble, i n a dd i t ion , t o s el l t heir s urp lus p roduc t ion , a nd t ha t t h is p rof i table t ransact ion c an b e t raced i n t he i nvest men t i n l uxur ies a nd s tructures wh ich a rchaeology r evea ls.

The imp l ica t ion o f my s uggest ion t ha t l ong d istance t rade was a

r esponse t o t he p rox im i ty o f am il i tary s upp ly r ou te i s i den t ica l —na mely , t ha t g row th i s l ikely t o h ave b een g enera ted i n a reas t ouched b y t he n ozzle o f t he m il itary v acuu m s uck ing s upp l ies t o t he f ron t ier . I ft h is i s a ccep ted t hen t he c orol lary i s s i mp le a nd o bv ious : e arly v il la g row th must i n s o me s ense b e ar esponse t o t h e o u t let f or p rof i table e xchange ofered b y t he i nc id ence o f m il i tary d e mands a nd t he a va ilab i l i ty o fo f f ic ia l t ranspor t l ines. There a re c erta in c ond i t ion ing f ac tors, o f c ourse :

t he a bi l i ty o f a n a rea t o

p roduce a s urp lus o ver a nd a bove t he t ax d e mand made b y t he a dm in istra t ion , a nd e ven more impor tan t ly t he n eed o f t he g overnmen t t o p urchase s uch a s urp lus. I n Bri ta in i n t he f i rst c en tury , t hen , e arly g row th m igh tb e e xpec ted g enera l ly i n t he s ou th-east , wh ich w e k now was more d eveloped a nd h ad a lready e xported g ra in , b u t more p ar t icu larly i n a reas a ccessible t o t he t hea tres o f war. ( More d eveloped : Caesar BG. v .14; Exports: S trabo G eog. i v .5.2 ). The t r iba l a reas o f t he Trinovantes , t he Ca tuvel laun i , t he Can t i i a nd t he Regn i a re t hose t o wh ich w e m igh t most o bv iously l ook , a nd a l l h ave p roduced e v idence f or a n umber o f f i rst c en tury v il las ( Perciva l 19 76 :91-7 ). I ti s t he l ast a rea , t ha t o f t he Regn i , wh ich Iw ish b r ief ly t o c onsider h ere . T he l eg ionary o ccupa t ion o f Ch ichester i n t he e ar ly p ost-conquest p er iod i s n ow w el l a t tested a nd a s er ies o f s hore d epots, most c learly d ef ined a t F ishbourne, h as b een d iscovered a long t he s ou th c oast , wh ich a re p lausibly a ssoc ia ted w i th Vespasian ts s ou th w estern c a mpa igns a s l ega te o f l eg io I Augusta ( Cun l if fe 19 73:24-6 ).

Upon t he w i thdrawa l o f t he m il i tary g arr ison s

f ro m t he a rea , t here f ol lowed ab urst o fb u i ld ing a nd e arly v il la c onstruct ion a t an u mber o f s i tes o no r n ear t he c oast. Most f amous o ft hese was F ishb ourne, a l though i n t heir e arl iest p hases Ang mer ing a nd p erhaps Eastbourne were o f e qua l s pendour.

I ndeed , i ti s o n t he p lausible a ssu mp t ion t ha t t he

s im ilar i t ies o f c onstruc t ion i nd ica te c on te mporanei ty t ha t S ou thw ick a nd Pu lborough h ave b een a dded t o t h is g roup o f e arly v i l las ( Cun l if fe 19 73:74-9 ). There i s a t p resen t n o a dequa te e xp lana t ion o f t h is s pec tacu lar b urst o f a ct iv i ty —the a ppo in t men t o f C og idubnus a s imperia l l ega te a nd h is p lausible a ssoc ia t ion w i th t he F lav ian p a lace a t F ishbourne i s n o e xp lana t ion o f t he wea l th o f t he a rea , e ven i fi ts uggests why F ishbourne a pparen t ly s et t he p ace 9 1

i n a rch i tec tura l s ty le a nd d ecora t ion ( Frere 1 978 :231). I ti s p ossible t ha t s o me o ft h is e arly i nvest men t was t he r esu l t o f l oans f ro m Ro man f i nanc iers , w el l k nown f or t he ir a c t iv i ty i n p re-Boud iccan Br ita in . N evertheless , s uch i nvest men t was o n ly e ver made w i th t he e xpec ta t ion o f ag ood r eturn , t ha t i s , r ap id g row th o fw ea l th i n ar eg ion , wh ich Iw ou ld c on tend c ou ld o n ly h ave r esu l ted a t t h is e arly p er iod f ro m p rox im i ty t o a nd e xp loi ta t ion o f m il itary markets. Ano ther u nusua l f ea ture o f t he e arly d evelopmen t o f t he Ch ichester a rea may b e i n troduced i n to t he d iscussion a t t h is p o in t .

The wel l k nown C og idubnus

i nscr ip t ion f ro m Ch ichester r ecords t he d ed ica t ion o f ac lassica l t e mp le i n t he F lav ian p er iod , a nu nder taking f i nanced b y t he c ol leg iu m f abroru m , t he c orpora t ion o f sm i ths ( R.I .B. 9 1).

Th is r e markably e arly i nstance o f s uch

ac orpora t ion , a nd i t s s t i l l more r e markable w ea l th h as g enera l ly b een a t tribu ted t o t he Ro man iz ing i n f luence o f C og idubnus h i msel f . But a s w i th t he v il las, t h is i s n o e xp lana t ion o ft he w ea l th o f t he g roup e ven i fi te xp la ins t he f or m o f t he d ed ica t ion .

I ti s moreover , i f Iam c orrect a bou t t he c ir-

c u mstances o ft he g ran t o fc ol leg ia te s ta tus, e x tre mely u n l ikely t ha t t he c orp ora t ion o f sm i ths c an i n a ny s ense b e a t tr ibu ted t o t he c l ien t k ing.

Ic annot

a gree w i th Wacher t ha t we h ave h ere a n i nstance o f ac l ient k ing l i censing c orpora t ions ( Wacher 1 978 :172 ).

On t he c on trary , Iwou ld s uggest t ha t t h is

i nstance o f ac ol leg iu m i nd ica tes c onsiderable of ic ia l i n terest i n t he r eg ion a nd more p art icu larly i n t he a c t iv ity o ft he sm i ths, a t av ery e arly s tage o f t he Ro man o ccupa t ion .2 I tw i l lb e o bv ious f ro m my e arl ier c o m men ts t ha t Iwou ld a t tr ibu te t h is t o t he r equ ire men ts o f a r my s upp ly , i n t h is c ase most p robably a ssoc ia ted w i th t he s econd l eg ion a nd a ux i l iary u n i ts c ampa ign ing i n t he s ou th w est. Ib el ieve s uch a n i n terpreta t ion i s s upported b y t wo o ther f actors wh ich a lso h igh l igh t t he e x ten t t o wh ich c iv i l ian d istr ibu t ion s o f i mported manufactures d epended u pon m il i tary s upp ly r ou tes.

The C og idubnus s tone i t self was

c arved o n Purbeck marble, l arge q uan t i t ies o f wh ich w ere a lso u sed i n t he c onstruct ion o f F ishbourne a nd A ng mer ing v i l las ( Cun l if fe 1 973:122).

Th is

c oasta l t rade i n marble i s n ot o f c ourse impossible i n ac iv il ian c on tex t , b u t a t t h is e arly d a te, i s much more l ikely i n a ssoc ia t ion w i th a m i l i tary s upp ly r oute.

More c onc lusive i n g iv ing p r i macy t o t he of ic ia l m il i tary r ole i s t he

d istribu t ion o ff i rst c en tury T S i n t he Ch ichester a rea . Br ief ly , e xcava t ions o n t he e arly m i l i tary l evels h ave r evea led ag ood q uan t i ty o f TS ( Down 1 968 ). F ol low ing t he m il i tary p hase, ag row th i n w ea l th s t i mu la ted t he b urst o fb u ild ing a c t iv ity i n t he a rea a nd l oca l p roduc t ion o f f i ne ware i n Ch ichester , b u t t he t own c eme tery i ndica tes t ha t TS was f a irly s parse i n t h is p er iod c o mpared w i th t he m il i tary o ccupa t ion ( Clark 1 939 ; Down a nd Ru le 1 971:53-126 ). I n t he m inor s et t le men ts o ft he s urround ing c oun tryside , T S was v ery r are, b u t n ot u nco m mon ly im i ta ted i n l oca l f abr ics f ro m t he l a ter f i rst t o t he m id-second c en tury ( Cun l if fe 1 973:70 , 15 ). The imp l ica t ion s ee ms t o b e t ha t TS was k nown a nd a dm ired , b u t d if f icul t t o o bta in o nce t he p ri mary m il i tary market h ad moved o n.

The sma l l amoun t o f TS

wh ich d id r each t he a rea , a s a lso t he i mport o fP urbeck marble, i sb est u nderstood , Is uggest , i n t er ms o f t he p arasi t ic e n trepreneur ia l a ct iv i ty a lways a ssoc ia ted w i th m il itary s upp ly l i nes.

9 2

I ti s a nu n fortuna te f ac t t ha t t he e p igraph ic r ecord i n B rita in i s i nsuf f icient t o make s uch a na lys is o f t raders a nd s h ippers a s Ih ave a t te mp ted f or Gau l , p oss ible h ere.

N ever theless , t he i mp l ica t ion o f t he Ga l l ic s tudy , t ha t l ong

d istance t rade i n p ot tery i s l ikely t o r ef lec t m il itary s upp ly l ines , i nd ica tes t he p ossib il i ty o f g et t ing b eyond t he b a ld f i gures o f s upp ly r equ ire men ts o f fe red b y v ar ious s cholars ( R ivet 19 69 : 19 5-7 ; Wacher 19 78 :1 7 3 ). Th is i s n ot t he p lace t o f ol low t he a rgu men t t hrough i n d eta il , b u t Iwou ld l ike t o f ocus o n t wo p ot tery d istr ibu t ions a nd a ssess t he ir s ign if icance i n r espect o f p oten t ia l a r my s upp ly s ources. G il la m ( 1973 ) a nd more r ecen t ly W il l iams ( 1 978 ) , h ave n oted t he c o inc id ence o ft he f i rst a ppearance o fb oth c a tegories o fb lack b urn ished ware ( BB 1a nd BB2 ) i n t he n orth o f England w ith t he e stabl ish men t o f t he Hadrian ic ( BB 1 ) a nd An ton ine ( BB 2 ) f ron t iers. G il lam s uggested t ha t t h is i nd ica ted as pec ia l s upp ly a rrangemen t wh ich h e s eems t o h ave a ssu med was s pecif ica l ly r ela ted t o p o t tery. Th is may h ave b een s o , a nd a n i n terest ing p ossibil i ty wh ich w ou ld b e worthy o f a t ten t ion i s t ha t p ot tery may h ave b een a ccep table a s ar ender ing o f t ax o bl iga t ions —in p rinc ip le t here i s n o r eason why t h is s hou ld n ot b e s o. 3 L et u s f or t he mo men t a ssu me h owever t ha t t he p ot ters w ere a t t hese p art icu lar t imes a ble t o e xp lo i t am il i tary s upp ly r ou te , t he mechan is m wh ich Ih ave s uggested was n eeded t o g enera te l ong d istance t rade. The d evelopmen t o ft he b lack b urn ished p o t teries a ppears t o b e much a s f o l lows ( W i l l ia ms 1 978 : 1 99-213 ).

I n D orset , a nd i n p art icu lar a round Poole h arbour, a p re-Ro man

p ot t ing t rad i t ion ( BB 1 ) c on t inued i n to t he e arly Ro man p eriod a nd was u sed b y t he e arly g arrisons i nt ha t a rea .

When t he t roops moved o n , t he i ndustry

s ee ms t o h ave b een d or man tu n t i l t he e arly s econd c en tury when , a s n oted a bove , i tb egan t o a ppear i n q uan t ity o n Hadrian 's wa l l , a nd g radua l ly f ound i t s way t o many s i tes t hroughou t t he n orth a nd w est. r ou te i s c learly imp l ied .

A west c oast s upp ly

Ag enera t ion l a ter a s im i lar a nd p ossibly d eriva t ive

g roup o f p ot ter ies b egan l arge s ca le p roduc t ion i n t he C olchester-Tha mes e stuary r eg ion ( BB 2 ) , a nd d uring t he o ccupa t ion o f t he An ton ine Wa l l , C olc hester BB 2 a ppears t o h ave f ound a s pec if ic mark et i n t ha t a rea . Wi th t he m il i tary w ithdrawa l t o t he l i ne o f Hadr ian 's Wa l l , BB 2 a ppeared i n t ha t p art o f t he c oun try w i th a d ist inc t b ias t o t he e astern s ect ion o f t he wa l l z one, a l though i n much r educed q uan t ity. Th is r e ma ined t he p a t tern u n t il t he m idt h ird c en tury when BB 2 v irtua l ly c eased t o a ppear b eyond i t s h o me r eg ion a nd i t s p lace was a l most e n t irely t aken b y a n e xpansion ( ? ) o f N ene Va l ley p roduc t ion ( Fu l ford 1 973:165 ).

BB 1 c on t inued i n p roduc t ion o n as ign if ican t

s ca le u n t il t he wars o f t he 3 60s A .D. when d isrup t ion o f t he western s ea r ou tes h as b een i nvoked t o e xp la in t he c essa t ion o f t he n orthern d istribu t ion o f t he ware, a l though i tc on t inued t o f ind a market i n t he S evern e stuary. A f ter t he Theodosian r ecovery t he n orthern g arrisons u sed l oca l p roduc ts f ro m Hun tc l if f a nd C rambeck a l most t o t he e xclusion o f a l l o ther wares. We must n ow c on sider i n o u t l ine t he l ikely s upp ly a rrange men ts o f t he Ro man a r my i n B ri ta in . The s teady a dvance o f t he t roops t hrough n orthern England a nd Wa les b etween t he r e igns o f C laud ius a nd T ra jan l ef t ad eep mi l i tarized z one r igh t a cross t he c oun try f ro m n orth e ast t o s ou th w est . i s g enera l ly a greed t ha t t he Fosse Way r epresen ts t he \ s upp ly l i ne o f t h is 9 3

I t

a dvance f orce, d raw ing i t s s upp l ies f ro m t he l ow land z one. Th is was p robably e f fec ted l argely b y r oad a t f i rst , w i th t he t ransport o bl iga t ion b eing t hrown o n to t he n a t ive p opu la t ion i n a dd i t ion t o t he r endering o fg ra in , a nd p resu mably o ther g oods t oo ( c f . Tac i tus Agricola 19 .4 ). The a dvance t o t he Tren t-Severn l ine b y O storius S capu la was a n a tura l a nd n ecessary e x tension o f mil i tary a c t iv i ty , b u t c arried w i th i tt he o pportun ity o f s upp ly ing t he M id land g arr isons b y r iver. Once t he p roble m o ft he S ilures h ad b een o verco me, t he S evern i n p art icu lar was o pened u p f or s upp l ies t o b e s h ipped t o l eg io ) 0 ( Va leria V ictrix a t G loucester a nd f urther u pstream t o a ux il iary g arrisons.

Iw ou ld

s uggest t ha t s uch a n a rrang men t c ou ld i n p art e xp la in t he e arly d evelopmen t o fS ea Mil ls a nd Ba th , ( Bran igan a nd F ow ler 19 76 :1 0 2-4 , 2 4-5 ) a l though t he e xp lo i ta t ion o ft he m ines a t Charterhouse o n Mend ip w i l l h ave p layed a s ign if i can t r ole i n t h is t oo . On t he whole h owever, t he m i l i tary d isposit ions w ere s t i l l s o d ispersed t ha t many l oca l a rrangements were n eeded t o a rrange a deq ua te s upp ly . I ne f fec t t herefore , n ot u n t il t he e stabl ishmen t o f as ubstan t ia l s tand ing g arrison o n Hadr ian 's Wa l l , d id t he a dm in istra t ion n eed t o c onsider r egu lar l ong d istance t ransh ipmen t o ff ood s upp l ies f ro m t he g ra in g row ing a reas o f t he s ou th t o t he g arrisons o ft he n orth . Tha t t h is p eriod i s t he s ame a s t ha t a t wh ich t he e arl iest i nstances o f l arge s ca le l ong d istance d istribu t ion o f B rit ish p ot tery f abrics o ccur , i s n o c o inc idence. The f ac tors wh ich d etermined t he d esigna t ion o f p art icu lar a reas f or s upp ly t o t he n orthern g arr isons, t he Durotr iges a nd t he T rinovan tes i f my i n terpreta t ion i s c orrec t , n eed t o b e r esearched , f or t here a re p roble ms w i th t he f or mer a rea i n p art icu lar t o e xp la in t he l ack o f a ny a pparen t e cono m ic g rowth a part f ro m t he p ot ter ies p roduc ing BB 1—hard ly i n t he mselves i nd ica tors o fg rea t wea l th .1 The m id-second c en tury a t trac t ions o f Colchester f or e n trepreneurs h owever d o s ee m t o b e i l lustra ted b y t he a t te mp ts t o e stabl ish aTS i ndustry t here ` (Hu l l 1 963 :20-34 ). The s hort l i ved s uccess o ft ha t v en ture may n ot o n ly h ave b een c ond i t ioned b y p roble ms w ith t he a va i labil ity o f r aw ma teria ls, b u t a lso p erhaps , ac hange i n t he o f f ic ia l s upp ly l i ne when t he An ton ine Wa l l was a bandoned ( E meleus a nd S i mpson 1 964 :23-4; An t. J . 3 6.202 n . 5 ). I t i s i n c onnec t ion w ith t h is t ha t t he g row th o ft he N ene Va l ley p o tteries h as p robable s ign if icance, s ince t he s econd c en tury was t he t ime o f t he d evelopmen t o f t he F en land ( Ph i l l ips 1 970 ).

F rere h as d rawn t he a na logy b etween t h is

a rea a nd t he A gri D ecu ma tes i nt er ms o f s ett le men t ( Frere 19 78 :313 ). I ti s p ossible t ha t Ro man i n terest i n t he l a t ter a rea may h ave b een r ela ted t o s pec i f ic s upp ly p roble ms i n A lsace.

Perhaps t he imperia l i nvestmen t i n F en land

d ra inage work s was s im i larly i nsp ired ( c f . Wh i t tak er 1 976 :159 ). O f c ourse a rrangemen ts w i l l n o t h ave b een s o c u t a nd d r ied a s t he a bove s uggest . The c on t inued p resence o f BB 2 i n t he n orth i n t he l a ter s econd a nd e arly t h ird c en tur ies s hows t ha t t here was s o me c on t inu ing c on tac t. Bu t i ts hou ld b e n oted t ha t t he o rig in o f t h is l ater r educed d istr ibu t ion was n o l onger e xc lusively f ro m t he C olchester r eg ion , b u t f ro m a d iverse n umber o f c en tres a long t he Tha mes e stuary ( W i l l iams 1 978 :211 ) . Th is imp l ies a l ess d irec t l i nk , a nd c ou ld b e t he r esul t o f c asua l c abotage t rade. Th is i s n ot t o d eny t he e x istence o f s o me c iv i l ian t rade: I ts ee ms t o me h owever t ha t t he a bö-v e s ketch c ou ld e xp la in many o ft he p ecu l iar f ea tures o f t he d istr ibu t ion o f BB 2 , a nd c erta in ly i nd ica tes t he d esirab il ity o ff ur ther r esearch o n t hese l ines. 9 4

F ina l ly i n t h is s ketch o f s o me o f t he imp l ica t ions o f a r my s upp ly a rrangemen ts i n B ri ta in , i ti s w orth n ot ing t he r ela t ive s carc i ty o f e p igraph ic e v idence f or e i ther n egot ia tores o r n au tae. The l a t ter a re most e as ily d ea l t w i th f i rst , a l though i ti s i mportan t t o r e me mber t he g enera l p overty o f t he i nscrip t iona l r ecord i nB ri ta in . The n au tae s ee m f ro m t he Ga l l ic e v idence t o h ave p rospered a s c onveyors o f of ic ia l s upp l ies ma in ly where t here was n o m il i tary f l eet a va ilable t o d o t he s a me j ob. I n B ri ta in t here i s l i t t le d oubt t ha t t he c lass is B ri tann ica f u l f i l led t h is r ole. I t may b e t ha t t here w ere a lso d etach ments d elega ted i n t he e arly emp ire t o s uperv is ing i n land , s ha l low wa ter t ransport , a s we k now was t he c ase b oth i n B r ita in a nd t he Rh ineland i n t he t h ird a nd f ourth c en turies, n u meri b arcari i b eing a t tested i n B r ita in a t Ha l ton o n L une ( Lanes ) a nd a t S ou th S h ields ( N 'land ) ( R.I .B. 6 01;

N ot . D ig. Occ. x i , 2 2 ) .

When we l ook f or e v idence o f n egot ia tores i n B ri ta in , t here i s , c on trary t o t he v iew o f s o me c o m men ta tors , v ery l i t t le e xp l ic i t e v idence.

A s we h ave

s een , p ot tery d istribu t ions p robably , t hough n ot n ecessarily i n a l l c ases, d o i nd ica te t rade , b u t t h is e v idence i s v ery d i f f icu l t t o q uan t ify , a nd much more c are n eeds t o b e t ak en i n d ist ingu ish ing t he p ri me marke t f ro m t he s pread wh ich w i l l i nev itably o ccur , o r f ro m t he c asua l a nd e cono m ica l ly marg ina l c abotage t rade wh ich c an g ive ag rossly d istorted i mpression o f t he s ign if icance o f ap art icu lar t raded i t em . A s i n Gau l , t he e p igraph ic e v idence s uggests a s trong l ink b etween e n trep reneur ia l a c t iv i ty a nd t he m il i tary p resence. A n umber o f t rders i n t he Rh ineland who t raded f ro m B ri ta in c an b e f i rm ly a ssoc ia ted w i th t he mil itary s upp ly l ines a s t he f indspots o f t he ir i nscrip t ions, a t t he Do mburg , 1 0In a nd Ma in z, s how ( C.I .L . x i i i 8 793 , 8 164a , 7 300 ).

S ecund inus, a nother t rader

c onnected w ith Br ita in b u t who i s a t tested o n t he c on t inen t , h as b een l oca ted a t ,Bordeaux ( CI .L . x i i i 6 34 ).

Th is l a t ter t own i s l in k ed w i th Br i ta in b y t wo

f urther i nd iv idua ls u sua l ly a ssu med t o h ave b een t raders ( J .R IS . 1 1,101; A .E. 1 922 :116-M. Aurel ius L unaris;

R. I .B. 6 78-D iogenes ).

I ts hould b e

n oted h owever t ha t n ei ther L unar is, n or D iogenes i s e xp l ic i t ly i den t if ied a s an egot ia tor, a nd i f , a s Ib el ieve, D iogenes i s c orrec tly i den t if ied a s as h ipp er 5 t hen b y a nalogy w i th t he G a l l ic s h ippers , t rade i s l i ke ly t o h ave b een av ery m inor p art o f h is a c t iv i ty .

I ti s o f i n terest , b earing i n m ind t he l i nks

b etween s h ippers a nd s ta te s upp ly , t ha tb oth L unar is a nd D iogenes a re e xp l ic i t ly l i nked ( as r el ig ious of ic ials ) w i th York , a ma jor mi l i tary c en tre. The o n ly o ther i nd iv idua l who m w e c an i den t ify i n t he p resen t c on tex t i s ac erta in An ton ianus who d ed ica ted a n a l tar a t Bowness o nS olway p rior t o s et t ing o u t o n a( co m meric ia l ? ) v en ture ( R.I .B . 2 059 ); o nce a ga in h e i s f i rm ly l oca ted w i th in t he mi l itary o rb i t. S uch e v idence a s t here i s , t hen , f or e n trepreneuria l a c t iv i ty i n Ro man B ri ta in s uggests c lose c o mparabi l i ty w i th t he Ga l l ic e v idence i n i t s p ri mary a ssoc ia t ion w i th m il i tary s upp ly o r p riva te s a le t o m i l itary s et t le men ts. Fro m t he a bove d iscussion , i tw il lb e o bv ious t ha t c onsiderable r ef ine men t o f a pproach i s n ecessary , b u t t he c ase o f Ro man B ri ta in i nb road t er ms s ee ms t o u phold t he c onc lusions wh ich Id rew f ro m t he Ga l l ic ma teria l w i th r eference t o l ong d istance t rad ing a c t iv i ty , a nd t hus i nd ica tes t heir a ppropria teness a s t ools f or f urther e nqu iry.

We may b e s ure t ha t t here w ere n ego t ia tores i n

9 5

Bri ta in , b u t w e c annot a ssu me t ha t t heir n u mber was g rea t , t ha t t heir p rof i ts w ere l arge , o r t ha t t heir r ange o f a c t iv i ty was e x tended s ign if icab tly b eyond t he o f f ic ia l s upp ly r ou tes. A l l t he Ga l l ic e v idence p o in ts i n q u i te t he o pposi te d irec t ion .

NOTES 1 .

The f i rst p art o f t h is p aper i s as u mmary o f s ec t ions o f my f orthco ming PhD t hesis a t t he Un iversi ty o f Cambridge, where t he r eader w il l f ind t he d eta i led e xpos it ion o f t he i deas h ere p resen ted .

Iw ou ld l ike h ere t o

a cknow ledge my d ebt t o C . R . Wh i t taker whose e ncourage men t a nd a dv ice h ave b een i nva luable. 2 .

c f. a bove p . 8 4 ,

where Is uggested t ha t t he g ran t o f t h is o f f ic ia l s ta tus

was a r ecogn i t ion o f t he u sefulness o f t he a ssoc ia t ion t o t he a dm in istra t ion. 3 .

Iowe t h is s uggest ion t o C . R . Wh i t taker.

4 .

The Durotrigan C iv i tas was a n a rea o f l a te v il la d evelop men t , a ccord ing t o B ran igan ( 1976:36 , 4 4-5 ).

Cau t ion i s r equ ired h owever g iven t he s o me-

wha t a rb i trary d at ing o f t he v i l las o f A tworth a nd Box ( i b id :40 ). 5 .

c f. J . R.S. 5 7 (1967 ) 2 28 , where t he r ead ing i de mque moritex i s p referred t o i de m q u inquenna l is

B IBL IOGRAPHY BONNARD , L ., 1 913.

L a n av iga t ion i n terieure d e l a Gau le.

BRAN IGAN , K ., 1 976.

Ro man v il la i n S ou th-west Eng land .

BRAN IGAN , K . a nd FO WLER, P . J ., 19 76. CLAR K , G . M., 1 939.

' Ro man c e metery a t Ch ichester ' SAC 8 0 :1 7 1-192.

CUNTIFFE, B . W., 1 973. DO WN , A ., 1 968.

Ro man West Coun try.

The Regn i.

' Excava t ions i n Chapel S treet , Ch ichester ' SAC 1 06 :113-132.

DO WN , A . a nd RULE, M., 1 971.

Ch iches ter Excava t ions.

EMETFUS , V . M. a nd S I MPSON , G ., 1 964. ' Neut ron a c t iva t ion a na lysis o f s am ian ware s herds ' A rchaeo metry 6 :16-24. ETT L INGER, E ., 19 62.

Torbe merkungen z u e iner D iskussion d es A te ius-

Proble ms ' RCRF A c ta 4 :27-44. F INLEY, M. I . , 19 73. FRERE, S . S ., 1 978.

Anc ien t Econo my. Br i tann ia .

FULFORD , M. G ., 1 973. Britann ia 4 :160-1 7 8.

' D istr ibu t ion a nd Da t ing o f N ew Forest Pot tery ' ,

G ILLAM , J . P ., 19 73. ' Sources o f Pot tery ' D ets icas A . e d. Ro mano-Br i t ish C oarse Po ttery :53-62.

9 6

HONDIUS-CRONE, A ., 19 55. HULL , M. R ., 1 963.

T e mp le o f N eha lenn ia .

Ro man Pot ters ' K i lns o f Colchester.

PERCIVAL , J ., 19 76.

Ro man V il la .

PH ILL IPS, C . W. ( ed . ) , 19 70. R IVET , A. L . F ., 1 969 .

Fen land i n Ro man T i mes.

e d . Ro man v i l la i n Bri ta in .

R IVET, A . L . F ., 1 977.

' Or ig ins o f c i t ies i n Ro man Br ita in ' i n Duva l P . M

a nd F rezou ls E . ( Eds.) Col loques i n terna t ionaux d u CNRS N o 5 42. The me d e Recherches s ur l es V i l les a n t iques d 'Occ iden t. S CHIIPPSCHUH , 0 ., 1 974. WACHER, J . S ., 1 978.

Paris 1 61-1 7 2

D ie Hand ler im r dm ischen K a iserreich.

Ro man Br ita in .

W ALTZ I NG , J . P ., 1 896.

E tudes h istoriques s ur l es c orpora t ions p ro-

f ess ionel les. WE LLS , C . M., 1 972.

The G er man P o licy o f Augus tus .

WH ITTAKER, C . R ., 19 76.

' Agri D esert i ' F in ley M. I . e d . S tud ies i n Ro man

P roperty :137-165. WIGHT MAN , E . M., 19 77 .

Mi l itary A rrange men ts, Na t ive S et t le men ts a nd

r elated d evelopmen ts i n e arly Ro man Gau l '. WILL IAMS , D .

F ., 1 978 .

I n Hel in iu m 1 7 ( 19 77 ) 10 5-26.

' Black-Burn ished i ndustry ' Peacock D . P . S . e d.

Pot tery a nd e arly c o m merce :163-220.

9 7

I NVAS ION AND RESPONSE: POTTERY AND THE RO MAN AR MY 1 b y K ev in G reene

S u m mary Ev idence o f mi l i tary p o t tery s upp ly f ro m S pa in , G er many a nd B r i ta in s hows t ha t where p oss ib le , l oca l n a t ive s ources were u t i l ized f or b as ic k i tchen wares : o n ly where t hese were i nsu f f ic ien t d id t he a r my make i ts own p o t tery.

Migra t ions o f p o t ters o r n ew b ranches o f e x is t ing

i ndus tr ies migh t f o l low n ew c onques ts , a nd n a t ive p o t ters e x tended t he r ange o f t he ir o u tpu t f or R o man t as tes : t hese e f fec ts a re d iscussed .

an u mber o f mechan is ms f or

E v idence i s p resen ted t o min im ise t he

a c t ive r o le o f t he a r my i n c hang ing p o t tery , a nd mi l i tary c on trac ts w i th p o t ters a re l arge ly d iscoun ted .

There a re t wo a spec ts t o t he p roble m o f t he i n f luence o f t he R o man a r my o n p ot tery i n B r i ta in .

The f irs t i s t he e f fec t o n n a t ive p o t tery , a nd i t s s ca le o f

p roduc t ion ; t he s econd i s o n t he ways i n wh ich p o t tery was made , s o ld , a nd u sed i n g enera l b y t he p opu la t ion o f Br i ta in a f ter t he c onques t .

B o th a re r e la ted ;

a nd

b o th h ave a f or ma t ive i n f luence o ver t he l ong ter m d eve lop men t o f R o mano-Br i tish c era m ics . An a r my o f c onques t h ad v ery l i t t le n eed o f p o t tery .

U se was made o f a

c o mprehens ive s e t o f me ta l c ook ing a nd e a t ing v esse ls b e long ing t o i nd iv idua ls o r t o g roups o f s o ldiers .

These a re c lear ly v is ible o n Tra jan 's c o lu mn , where

mess t ins d ang le f ro m t he s ha f ts o f l eg ionary p i la ( S trong , 1 976 , P l . 8 0 ) ;

c on-

f i r ma t ion i s p rov ided b y t he l ack o fp o t tery f i nds f ro m t e mporary march ing c a mps .

On ly when a g arr ison f or t was e s tab l ished wou ld q uar ter mas ters '

a t ten t ion b e t urned t o t he s upp ly o fp o t tery . The Empire h ad e xpanded r ap id ly o ver t he c en tury p reced ing t he c onques t o f Br i ta in .

The s i tua t ion i n R epubl ican S pa in a nd Augus tan G er many w i l l b e

e xam ined b r ie f ly i n o rder t o e xam ine t he t rad i t ions a nd e xper ience g a ined b y t he a r my wh ich migh t b e a pp l ied t o n ew ly c onquered B r i ta in .

L i t t le i n for ma t ion

c an b e a sse mb led f or S pa in , e xcep t f or t he i mpor tan t p ubl ica t ion o f s i tes a round Nu man t ia , t o t he wes t o f S or ia , i n O ld C as t i l le , wh ich c an b e a ssoc ia ted w i th v ar ious c a mpa igns f ro m C a to t o P o mpey b e tween 1 95 a nd 7 4 B .C . ( Koenen , 1 929 ) .

The p o t tery a ssocia ted w i th Nu man t ia i t sel f a nd t he R en ieblas c amps i s

a n i n teres t ing mix ture o f l oca l C e l t-Iber ian a nd La T bne I I wares , a nd I ta l ic v esse ls w i th s peci f ic f unc t ions f or wh ich n o l oca l ly- made e qu iva len ts e x is ted . These a re b lack-g lazed Ca mpan ian t able v esse ls , t h in wa l led d r ink ing b eakers , f lagons , a nd mor tar ia .

These may e i ther h ave b een b rough t f ro m I ta ly , o r f ro m

o ne o f t he G reek c o lon ies o n t he c oas t , s uch a s Ampur ias .

Na t ive v essels were

p er fec t ly a dequa te f or g enera l c ook ing a nd s torage p urposes . 9 9

E v idence i s much more p len ti fu l i n Augus tan G au l a nd G er many.

I n t he

f ron t ier g arr ison f or ts o n t he L ippe , i n t he We t terau a nd i n Rae t ia c ons idera ble c on tras ts c an b e f ound amongs t t he b as ic ' k i tchen wares ' . l oca l n a t ive c eram ics were c o mpara t ive ly p r im i t ive ;

I n t he n or th ,

t here , p o t tery was made

f or ( and b y?) t he a r my o n t he s po t b y p o t ters who were e i ther I ta l ian o r who made p o t tery i n a n I t a l ian t rad i t ion ,

2

a s c an b e s een a t t he k i ln s i tes a t Xan ten

( Hagen , 1 912 ) a nd Ha l tern ( von S chnurbe in , 1 974 ) , a nd f ro m t he f inds a t RUdgen , Bad N auhe im , a nd n eighbour ing s i tes ( Sch t inberger & S i mon , 1 976 , V erg leichs ta f . 6 -11 ). I n S w i tzer land a nd s ou th G er many t he p ic ture i s c o mp le te ly d i f feren tt he n a t ive p o t tery c ons is ted o f e xce l len t La U ne I I f or ms wh ich were p er fec t ly a dequa te f or b as ic mi l i tary u se .

3

The p rov is ion o f t able wares was much more v ar ied .

A l though I t a l ian

s am ian a nd t h in-wa l led v esse ls were r ap id ly c op ied o r a dap ted b y n a t ive p o t ters ( resu l t ing i n wha t B r i t ish a rchaeo log is ts a re a cus to med t o c a l l G a l lo-Be lg ic wares — t erra r ubra , t erra n igra , b u t t-beakers , e tc .) , t here r e ma ined a n im mense d e mand f or ' t rue ' s am ian ware a nd i ti s h ere t ha t t he f ine l ine d iv id ing mi l i tary a nd c iv i l ian i n f luences i s e ncoun tered .

I n t he p as t . mos t o f t h is was

a ssumed t o h ave b een i mpor ted f ro m I t a ly , n o tab ly f ro m A rezzo , a f ter wh ich t he ware i s n amed .

N ow , t he ma jor i ty o f t ha t f ound i n G er many i s k nown t o h ave

b een made i n L yon , a t a' branch f actory ' o f A rezzo ( P icon , 1 975 ).

Tha t f ine

whee l thrown a nd mou lded d r ink ing v esse ls were made a t L yon i n s im i lar c ircums tances i s s hown b y ACO-ware , wh ich i s s igned b y t wo d i f feren t s e ts o f s laves , whose n a mes a re f ound e xc lus ive ly e i ther n or th o r s ou th o f t he A lps ( Vegas 1 9697 0 ) .

The o pen ing o f t hese workshops i s o bv ious ly d irec t ly l inked t o t he Augus tan

o ccupa t ion o f G ermany , b u t d oes i t s how o f f ic ia l e ncourage men t i n o rder t o f u l f i l a n t icipa ted mi l i tary r equ ire men ts , o r t he a cumen o f workshop o wners , who c ou ld a pprec ia te n o t o n ly t he p ro f i ts t o b e d er ived f ro m s a les t o t he a r my , b u t t he l i kel ihood o f a n e xpand ing n umber o f i ncreas ing ly R o man ised c iv i l ian c en tres?

I n

e i ther c ase i t was a r esponse t o i nvas ion — b u t t o wha t e x ten t was t he a r my t he a c t ive a gen t o f c hange? The i mpress ion wh ich c an b e d er ived f ro m b o th S pa in a nd G er many i s t ha t i fc oarse wares c ou ld b e a cqu ired f ro m l oca l n a t ive s ources , t h is wou ld b e d one , b u t t ha t i t wou ld u sua l ly p rove n ecessary t o p rov ide ' Ro man ' mor tar ia , f lagons e tc .

I fn o l oca l n a t ive s upp l ies were a va i lable , c o mprehens ive mi l i tary p o t tery-

works wou ld b e e s tab l ished .

F or f iner wares , i m i t ia t ions f ro m r e la t ive ly l oca l

s ources wou ld b e p ar t ly a ccep table , b u t g enu ine s am ian ware a nd t h in-wa l led d r ink ing v esse ls were o bv ious ly c ons idered a s ine q ua n on .

The e s tabl ish men t

o f n earer manu fac tur ing c en tres o f t he l a t ter was a n i n tegra l p ar t o f t he s upp ly o f t he G erman g arr isons . Around h a l f ac en tury e lapsed b e fore t he i nvas ion o f B r i ta in , b y wh ich t ime c iv i lian l i fe i n G au l a nd G er many h ad d eve loped many R o man c haracter is t ics . Meanwh i le , t he t r iba l a r is tocracy o f s ou th-eas t Eng land h ad b egun t o d e mand R o man me ta l a nd p o t tery t ablewares , a nd f inds o f mor tar ia a nd amphorae d e mons tra te t ha t t hey c ou ld — in t heory — b e a cco mpan ied b y c orrec t ly-prepared r ec ipes a nd a ppropr ia te w ines . w idely f ro m a rea t o a rea .

The n a t ive p o t tery o f t he l a te I ron Age v ar ied

The ' Be lg ic ' s ou th-eas t was we l l s upp l ied w i th

whee l thrown La U ne I I p o t tery o f h igh q ua l i ty , a nd t he s ou th-wes t p ossessed p ract ica l i fl ess e legan t h and made wares o f e ar l ier d er iva t ion .

Fur ther n or th

a nd wes t , much c oarser a nd l im i ted r anges o f v esse ls were i n u se , t heir f abr ics 1 00

o f ten v ery h eav i ly f i l led w i th s he l l o r g r i t . E as t Ang l ia were

o s y

Much o f Wa les , t he N or th a nd

R o man s tandards ) v ir tua l ly a cera m ic .

The e v idence

f ro m S pa in a nd G er many wou ld s ugges t t ha t t here wou ld b e v ery d i f feren t s o lu t ions t o a rmy s upp ly i n t hese v arying a reas : t h is i s i n f ac t v ery c lear ly d e mons tra ted b y t he c o mpara t ive s tudy o f p o t tery f ro m e ar ly mi l i tary s i tes . C ons iderable emphas is h as b een p laced o n t he q ua l i ty o f l oca l n a t ive p o t tery i n r ecen t y ears ( Webs ter , 1 973 , 2 -3 b y i mp l ica t ion ;

G reene , 1 973a , 3 1 ;

3 3-5 ;

Fu l ford , 1 977 , 3 01-2 ;

B idwe l l , 1 977) , a nd a n impress ive s urvey h as b een made

b y Dar l ing ( 1 977) , who

h as i l lus tra ted s evera l c on te mporary a sse mblages f ro m

U sk , Wroxe ter , K ingsho lm , G louces ter a nd Exe ter .

A t U sk a nd Wroxe ter ,

c on t inen ta l p o t ters w i th t he a rmy made t he b u lk o f t he r equ ired v esse ls , wherea s a t Exe ter ( and s evera l Dorse t s i tes ) , Duro tr ig ian p o t tery was d om inan t , w i th t he a dd i t ion o f s pecia l r equ ire men ts s uch a s mor tar ia a nd f lagons f ro m e lsewhere .

The r e f lec t ion u pon t he s ta te o f p re-ex is t ing n a t ive wares i s o bv ious ,

a nd t he p ara l lels b etween Wa les a nd t he Rh ineland , a nd s ou th-wes t Eng land a nd S w i tzer land/sou th G er many s tr ik ing . The o pen ing o f ' branch f ac tor ies ' o f s am ian a nd f ine ware p roducers d id n o t o ccur i n e ar ly R o man B r i ta in . The p sycho log ica l e f fec t o f t he s ea a round Br i ta in h ad n ever i nh ibi ted t raders , a nd n ow worked t o e veryone 's a dvan tage , a nd t he e xce l len t S ou th G au l ish s am ian a nd L yon c o lour-coa ted c ups a nd b eakers c ou ld b e b rough t b y r iver a nd s ea t o a ny n umber o f s u i table l and fa l ls .

The s am ian i s

u biqu i tous ; U r L yon ware ( and e ven more e xo t ic r e la t ives ) a ppears o n v ir tua l ly e very mi l i tary s i te u p t o t he e ar ly s even t ies A .D. ( Greene , 1 979 ) . There were h owever move men ts o f s pec ia l is t c oarse ware p o t ters .

One p robab le migra t ion

i s o f mor tar iu m makers f ro m G a l l ia B e lg ica t o K en t ( Har t ley , 1 977 ) , a nd t here a re c ases o f n on- m i l i tary p re-F lav ian c oarse ware k i ln s i tes o f R h ine land a nd G au lish o r ig in s pr ing ing u p i n Eng land ( Brock ley H i l l , H er t fordsh ire — C as t le , 1 973 ; Rushden , N or than ts .; S e lk irk , 1 972 ) . S o me l a ter migra t ions , a ssoc ia ted w i th t he v agar ies o f t he n or thern f ron t ier , a re a t tes ted b y f or i ns tance l inks b etween Wi lderspoo l a nd E den Va l ley Mor tar ia ( Har t ley a nd Webs ter , 1 973 , 9 7-8 ) a nd S ARR IUS o f Har tsh i l l/ Mance t ter a nd R oss ing ton Br idge , who ( l ike ACO o f N or th I ta ly a nd L yon ) h ad d i f feren t workers s ta mp ing t he ir n a mes o n v esse ls i n t he t wo c en tres ( Har t ley , 1 977 , 1 3 ) .

A t b o th p a irs o f s i tes , t he n or thern i s mos t

c lose ly l inked w i th t he mi l i tary marke t : t he An ton ine r eoccupa t ion o f S co t land was a n i nvas ion , t h is was a r esponse . The p r incipa l r esponse o f n a t ive p o t ters i n Br i ta in was t o e x tend t he r ange o f t he ir p roduc ts t o i nclude t he f lagons , c ook ing b ow ls , e tc ., wh ich t as tes a nd c u l inary h abi ts r equ ired — i n i t ia l ly i n t he a r my , b u t s oon amongs t t he c iv i l ian p opu la t ion . The p rocess h ad a lready b egun w i th t he p re-Conques t a ris tocracy ; t he i nvas ion a nd i t s a f terma th n ow g radua l ly e x tended i tt hroughou t s oc ie ty . Wha t i s n o t a t a l l c lear i s h ow d irec t ly t he a r my was i nvo lved i n t hese c hanges .

D id

s avage q uar ter mas ters wh ip n a t ive p o t ters i n to mak ing f lagons a s we l l a s n a t ive c ook ing p o ts f or t he m t o r equ is i t ion?

Or d id a w ide r ange o f mechan is ms , s o me

o rgan ised a nd l arge s ca le , o thers i nd iv idua l a nd a l mos t r ando m o pera te i n d i f fere n t a reas t o p roduce t he o bservab le e f fec t t ha t v ir tua l ly n o t wo f or ts h ave i den t ica l p o t tery? Af ew p roposa ls c an b e made .

N one o f t he m c an b e p roved , b u t a l l a re

p oss ib le w i th in t he f ra mework o f wha t we k now o f t he e ar ly Empire .

1 01

A .

An a t ive p o t ter ( whe ther f ree , u n free , o r d ependen t ) r es iden t o n t he e s ta te

o f an a t ive l andowner r e ta in ing h is p ossess ions i n ac onquered a rea migh t p rod uce n ew ' Ro man ' f orms d e manded b y h is n a t ive mas ter 's d eve lop ing t as tes , a nd b ecause a n i ncreased r ange o f p roduc ts wou ld c o me i n u se fu l e i ther a s p ar t o f s o me g enera l l evy o f f oods tu f fs a nd e qu ip men t t o t he a r my , o r f or n orma l s a le . B .

An a t ive p o t ter o f t h is k ind migh t f ind h i mse l f s ub jec t t o n ew o ver lordsh ip —

whe ther t he a rmy i n a n o ccup ied a rea , o r t he c iv i l ian R o man r ec ipien t o f c on f isc a ted o r p urchased l and .

The a dd i t ion o f r o man ised f orms t o a n e x is t ing f unc-

t iona l r ange o f p o t tery wou ld b e a n o bv ious r esu l t . C .

A mi l i tary q uar ter mas ter , o r more p robably a c iv i l ian a gen t o f an ego t ia tor

e ngaged i n a r my s upp lies migh t make a rrange men ts w i th a p o t ter o r h is s uper ior t o b uy c er ta in we l l-de f ined c lasses a nd n umbe i so f v esse ls .

S uch o pera t ions ,

c o mbined w i th o ther b us iness i n s upp l ies , c ou ld we l l r esu l t i n a mix ture o f p o t tery f ro m d i f feren t —and n o t c ons tan t— s ources r each ing t he a rmy , d epend ing o n t he p ar t icu lar a reas o ver wh ich t he n ego t ia tor was o pera t ing , wh ich p robab ly v ar ied c ons iderab ly . D .

F ree c ra f tsmen migh t move t he ir k i ln s i tes ( c lay p er m i t t ing ) t o an ew l oca-

t i on , a nd a dap t t he ir r ange o f p roduc ts t o s u i t n ew p urchasers .

The v icus o f a

n ew f or t wou ld b e a n a t trac t ive l oca t ion , o r t he o u tsk ir ts o f ad eve loping t own . E i ther f oreign o r n a t ive p o t ters c ou ld make s uch moves . E .

Un free/dependen t p o t ters m igh t h ave b een moved b y t he ir o wners o r p a trons

i n t he s ame manner a s p roposa l D .4 O bv ious ly , t he a rchaeo log is t i s u nab le t o i den ti fy a ny o f t hese , a nd i ti s e asy t o i nven t f ur ther p oss ible b u t more i nvo lved mechan is ms b y wh ich n a t ive p o t ters migh t c hange t he ir o ü tpu t a nd/or l oca t ions .

A ct ive mi l i tary c o mpu ls ion

i s among t he l eas t e asi ly c once ivab le mechanisms . There i s o ne g enera l f ea ture o f R o mano-Br i t ish p o t tery wh ich p rov ides a l im i ta t ion t o t he e xaggera t ion o f t he i mpor tance o f t he a rmy.

A l though many

c iv i l ian p o t ters ' p roduc ts were s o ld i n l arge q uan t i t ies t o t he a r my , t hey were n ever e xc lus ive ly made f or mi l i tary u se . Fur ther more , t he c iv i lian marke t was s u f f ic ien t ly d ominan t t o p reven t a ny l arge-sca le migra t ion o f p o t ters t owards t he g arr isoned a reas .

One may n o te f or i ns tance t he G a l lo-Be lg ic mor tar ia

makers c i ted a bove ( p .101) who s ee m t o h ave moved f ro m Bava i t o K en t .

Their

p roduc ts a re i ndeed f ound o n many mi l i tary s i tes i n t he f irs t c en tury , b u t t he a t trac t ions o f t he s ou th-eas t were o bv ious ly t oo g rea t t o make a f ur ther move t o , s ay , n or th-wes tern Eng land i n t he wake o f t he a rmy d es irab le .5 F ro m t he t ime o f H adr ian , b lack-burn ished c a tegory 1 ( BB1 ) c ook ing p o t tery h e ld a s pec ia l p lace i n t he s upp ly o f t he n or thern f ron t ier ;

i t wou ld b e

i mposs ib le t o h ave a g rea ter d is tance b e tween t he c onsu mers o n H adr ian 's Wa l l a nd t he k i ln s i te o n t he D orse t C oas t . The ware i s c o m mon o ver mos t o f c iv i l ian B r i ta in a s we l l , h owever , wh ich mus t h ave c onsumed t he ma jor i ty o f t he o u tpu t . An o u tpos t o f t he i ndus try i s r epresen ted b y s o me p roduc t ion b y D orse t p o t ters work ing a t R oss ing ton B r idge n ear D oncas ter , b u t as uccessfu l r iva l t o BB1-BB2 — was made i n E ssex/Nor th K en t . I n b o th c ases e xpor ts t o t he mi l i tary n or th c an o n ly h ave f or med a sma l l p ropor t ion o f t he o u tpu t , c o mpared w i th t he c ons um ing p o ten t ia l o f t he c iv i l ian t owns a nd c oun trys ide a d jacen t t o t he k i ln s i tes .6 1 02

T he c oncen tra t ion o f a rchaeo log is ts u pon mi l i tary a f fa irs , f ro m t he C laudi an c onques t t o t he e nd o f Hadr ian 's Wa l l h as c er ta in ly f ocussed t oo much a t ten t ion o n mi l i tary s upply .

The mi l i tary marke t , i t wou ld s ee m , was o n ly a

minor p ar t o f t he ' ro man ised ' d e mand f or n ew f or ms a longs ide t rad i t iona l v esse ls . F ur ther more , t he s upp ly o ft he a r my i s of ten e xpressed i n t er ms o f a d irec t r e la t ionsh ip b e tween q uar ter mas ter a nd p o t ter , w i th t he f requen t s uggest ion o f c on trac ts b etween t he m .

I t wou ld s ee m more a ppropr ia te , i n t he l igh t o f

o ur k now ledge o f Med i terranean c o m merce , t o e nv isage p o t tery a s p ar t o f a much l arger s phere o f s upp ly o f f ood a nd e qu ip men t , a nd n o t a s as ing le i t em a cqu ired a nd d is tr ibu ted s epara te ly .

I t migh t we l l b e t ha t D orse t p o t tery was

s o i mpor tan t o n H adr ian 's Wa l l b ecause a n ego t ia tor was s h ipp ing?gra in a nd ? tex t i les f ro m s ou th-wes tern Eng land t o t he s a me a rea , a nd t ha t p o t tery made g ood b a l las t f or t he u ncer ta in wes tern s ea r ou tes .7

The n eares t a n a r my

q uar ter mas ter migh t g et t o t h ink ing a bou t BB1 a nd BB2 was n o t ing w i th s a t isf ac t ion t ha t t he s o ld iers were a b le t o b uy c heap , e f f ic ien t p o t tery i n t heir l oca l v icus .

H ow i tg o t t here was n o t h is p roble m ( Breeze , 1 977) .

I n t he s ou th-eas t o f Eng land , i tc ou ld e ven b e s a id t ha t t he a r my h ad n o r ea l e f fec t o n n a t ive p o t tery . a r is tocracy ;

R o man isa t ion h ad a lready s tar ted amongs t t he B e lg ic

t he i nvas ion merely s peeded u p t he p rocess , a nd e nsured i t s s pread

t hrough s ocie ty t hrough t he c iv i l ian d eve lop men ts wh ich f o l lowed .

Once t he a r my

b eca me e s tabl ished b eyond t he a reas o f c o mpeten t c eram ic p roduc t ion , i t was f orced t o make i t s own , o r t o a cqu ire i tf ro m f ur ther a f ie ld .

The n a t ive p o tters

d id n o t r e jec t t heir t rad i t ions ; t hey modif ied a nd a dded t o t he m .

The s e t t led

a r my i n t he N or th a nd Wes t was c on ten t t o wa i t u n t i l t he d eve lop men ts o f t he i ndus tr ies o f t he c iv i l ian z one made i tu nnecessary t o c on t inue mak ing p o t tery f or i t sel f . I t was n o t u n t i l we l l i n to t he s econd c en tury t ha t t he p o t tery o f Wa les a nd t he N or th b egan t o l ook R o mano-Br i t ish r a ther t han R o man , a nd r us t ica ted j ars a nd r eeded-r im b ow ls g ave way t o BB1 c ook ing p o ts a nd p ie d ishes .

8

NOTES 1 .

The ma in t ex t o f t h is p aper i s p reserved i n t he f or m g iven a t t he c on ference i n C a mbr idge i n March 1 979.

Thus , mos t o f t he d eta i led a rgumen ts a nd

e v idence a re t o b e f ound i n f oo tno tes .

I ti s h oped t ha t t he r esu l t ing i ncon-

v en ience w i l l b e o f fse t b y a n i ncreased f luency o f t he ma in t ex t . 2 .

There i s ad i fference : Vegas h as r ecen t ly emphas ized t ha t t here i s a n i n ter med ia te s tage b etween I t a ly a nd t he A ugus tan f or ts , t he p er iod f o l low ing C aesar 's c a mpa igns d ur ing wh ich a t wo way i n terchange o f i nf luences may h ave b egun i n C en tra l G au l , b o th i n mi l i tary a nd c iv i l ian c irc les . M i l i tary p o t ters o f I t a l ian o r ig in may h ave r eceived G au l ish i deas a nd f or ms , s o t ha t t he ' I ta l ic ' p o t tery o f t he Augus tan p er iod n eed n o t s t i l l b e p ure ly ' Ro man '. Fur ther more , t he i n termed ia te s tage g oes a l ong way t owards e xp la in ing h ow s u f f ic ien t d eve lop men t o f t he G a l lo-Be lg ic i ndus tr ies h ad t aken p lace f or t heir p roduc ts t o f igure s o l arge ly amongs t t h e f inds f ro m H a l tern a nd O beraden , a nd t he v ery e ar ly c haracter o f s o me o f t he s am ian/ca mpan ian f or ms wh ich t hey c opy ( Vegas , 1 975 ;

3 .

G reene , 1 977) .

S o me p re l im inary o bserva t ions o n t hese s epara te a reas a nd t he o ver lap b e tween t he m h ave b een p ub l ished ( Greene , 1 973a , 3 1 ) . 1 03

Af u l ler a ccoun t

i s c on ta ined i n G reene , 1 973b , 2 72-283 ;

as l igh t ly r ev ised a ccoun t w i l l

a ppear i n af or thco m ing f asc icu le o f t he U sk Excava t ion R epor t S er ies , e d i ted b y Dr . W. H . Mann ing .

Ag ood i mpress ion o f p o t tery f ro m Augus tan

s i tes o n t he n or thern f r inge o f t he A lps a nd t he ir C laud ian-Neron ian s ucc essors o n t he Danube c an b e g a ined f ro m U lber t 's p ubl ica t ions o f t he L orenzberg-bei-Ep fach ( 1965 ) a nd A is l ingen a nd B urght l fe ( 1959 ) r espect ive ly .

V indon issa d e mons tra te s t he o ver lap o f t he a reas ;

E t t l inger a nd

S i mone t t , 1 952 , a nd more s peci f ica l ly o r ien ted t owards t he q ues t ion o f l oca l a nd e x terna l i n f luences , E t t l inger , 1 977. 4 .

T he l i ke ly o u tco me o f p roposa l Aa nd B i s c lear ly s een a t t he much-c i ted k i ln s i te a t C or fe Mu l len , D orse t ( Ca lk in , 1 935 ) , o r o n al arger s ca le a t C o lches ter i n t he f irs t c en tury , where t he e f fec ts o f s i tua t ion B a re we l l e xpressed b y Webs ter ( 1973 , 3 -4 ). d e mo l i t ion c on tex ts a t U sk ( Greene ,

The mix tures o f p o t tery i n t he f or tress1 973a , 3 6 , f ig . 2 ) , o r a t K ingsho lm

a nd G louces ter p er iod l a ( Dar l ing , 1 977 , 8 6 f ig . 6 .9 ;

9 0 , f ig . 6 .10 ) a re

e xac t ly wha t o ne wou ld e xpec t t o r esu l t f ro m p roposa l C .

The f our th p ro-

p osa l h as b een e xpressed c lear ly b y Webs ter ( 1973 , 3 ) a s t he r eason f or ' Be lg ic ' p o t tery s pread ing t o t he M id lands a nd G louces tersh ire .

F oreign

p o t ters o f t h is s or t a re r epresen ted b y t he mor tar ium makers , a nd t he B rock ley H i l l a nd R ushden c oarse ware p roduct ion a lready c i ted .

The

r esu l ts wou ld o bv ious ly b e i nd is t inguishab le f ro m p roposa l D . 5 .

Th is p o in t i s made b y Fu l ford ( 1977 , 3 09 ) , b u t Iwou ld p lace much more emphas is o n t he s amp l ing b ias wh ich l eads h im t o s ay t ha t u p t o t woth irds o f t he o u tpu t o f B rock ley H i l l , C o lches ter , Mancet ter a nd Wi lderspoo l f ound i t s way t o t he N or th a nd wou ld s ugges t t ha t t he p ropor t ion i s c er ta in t o b e r educed b y i nves t iga t ion o f n on- m i l i tary s i tes i n t he a ppropr ia te a reas .

6 .

The b lack b urn ished ware i ndus tr ies a re e xhaus t ive ly d iscussed b y Wi l l ia ms , 1 978 .

7 .

The c ase o f Mess ius F or tuna tus i s i ns truc t ive :

l oca ted a t S ume locenna ,

Rae t ia , h e d ea l t i n b o th p o t tery a nd c loaks ( C.I .L. X I I I 6 366 ) ; c argoes a re impor tan t i n a ny p ro f i table s h ipp ing b us inesses .

r e turn Mos t o f t he

e p igraph ic e v idence f or n egot ia tores i n s pecif ica l ly n a med merchandises s ee ms t o c lus ter a round t he l a te s econd-ear ly t h ird c en tur ies A .D. ( f or i ns tance a t Do mburg/Co l i jnsp laa t — H assa l l , 1 978 ) , b y wh ich t ime t he s ca le o f o pera t ions i mp l ied b y t he t er m h ad p robably d ec l ined ( Rougg , 1 966 , 2 74-283 ). 8 .

The who le p rocess i s a dm irab ly c har ted b y G i l lam ( 1973 ) .

1 04

B IBLIOGRAPHY

B ID WELL , P , 1 977, ' Ear ly b lack-burnished ware a t Exeter ', i n Dore a nd G reene , 1 977, 1 89-198 . BREEZE , D .J , 1 977,

' The f or t a t B earsden a nd t he s upp ly o f p o t tery t o t he

Ro man a r my ' , i n Dore a nd G reene , 1 977, 1 33-145 . CALK IN , J .B , 1 935 , ' An Ear ly R o mano-Br i t ish P o ttery K i ln a t C or fe Mu llen , Dorset ', An t iq . J ., 1 5 ( 1935 ) , 4 2-55 . CASTLE , S ,1973 , Tr ia l E xcava t ions i n F ie ld 4 10 , Brock ley H i l l , Par t 1 . The L ondon Archaeo log is t , 2 , p p . 3 6-9 . DARLING , M , 1 977,

' Pot tery f ro m e ar ly mi l i tary s i tes i n wes tern Br i ta in ' ,

i n Dore a nd G reene , 1 977 , 5 7-100. DETS ICAS , A . P . ( Ed .) , 1 973 ,

Curren t R esearch i n R o mano-Br i t ish C oarse

P o t tery , C ounci l B r i t . Archaeo l ., Res . Rep., 1 0. DORE , J . & GREENE , K , 1 977, Ro man P ot tery S tud ies i n Br i ta in a nd B eyond , Br i t . Archaeol . R ep ., S upp l . S er ., 3 0 , Ox ford . ETTLINGER , E , 1 977 ,

' Cook ing p o ts a t V indon issa ' , i n Dore a nd G reene ,

1 977, 4 7-56. ETTLINGER , E . & S I MONETT , C , 1 952 , Rö m ische Kera m ik a us d em S ch t it : t hugel v on V indon issa , Verö f f . G es . V indon issa , 3 , Base l , 1 952. FULFORD , M , 1 977 ,

' The l oca t ion o f R o mano-Br i t ish p o t tery k i lns :

i ns ti tu-

t iona l t rade a nd t he marke t ', i n Dore a nd Greene , 1 977, 3 01-316. G ILLA M , J . P , 1 973 , ' Sources o f p o t tery f ound o n n or thern mi l i tary s i tes ' , i n Dets icas , 1 973 , 5 3-62 . GREENE , K , 1 973a , ' The P o t tery f ro m U sk ' , i n Dets icas 1 973 , 2 5-37. GREENE , K , 1 973b , The P ot tery f ro m t he Pre-F lav ian For ts a t U sk , Monmou thsh ire , Ph . D. Thes is , Un ivers i ty C o l lege , Cardi f f . GREENE , K , 1 977 , R ev iew o f Vegas , 1 975 , Br i tann ia , 8( 1977) , 4 86-7. GREENE , K , 1 979 , Usk Excava t ion R epor t :

The Pre-Flav ian F ine Wares ,

Card i f f , f or thco m ing . HAGEN , J , 1 912, ' Augus teische Töp fere i a u f d e m Furs te mberg ' , Bonn . J b., 1 22 ( 1912 ) , 3 43-62. HARTLEY , K . F , 1 977 , ' Two ma jor p o t ter ies p roducing mortaria i n t he f irs t c en tury A . D.' , i n Dore a nd G reene , 1 977, 5 -18 . HARTLEY , K .F , & WEBSTER , P .V , 1 973 ,

' Ro mano-Br i t ish p o ttery k i lns

n ear Wi lderspool ' , Archaeo l . J ., 1 30 ( 1973 ) , 7 7-103.

1 05

HASSALL , M. W. C , 1 978 ,

' Br i ta in a nd t he Rh ine p rov inces :

e pigraph ic

e v idence f or Ro man t rade ' , i n Taylor a nd C leere , 1 978 , 4 1-48 . KOENEN , K , 1 929 ,

' Die K era mik a us d en Lagern d es S cipio u nd d en Lagern

b ei R en ieblas ' , i n S chu l ten , 1 929 , 2 84-305 . PEACOCK , D . P . S , ( Ed .) , 1 978,

P o ttery a nd Ear ly C o m merce :

Charac ter i-

z a tion a nd Trade i n R o man a nd La ter C era mics . P ICON , M , 1 975 ,

' Cera mique a n tique e t d e ter mina tion d es p rovenances ', Les

Doss iers d e l 'Arch6o log ie , 9( 1 975 ) , 8 5-93. ROUGE , J , 1 966 , Recherches s ur l 'Organ isa t ion d u C o m merce Mar i ti me e n Mgd i terrange s ous l 'E mpire R o ma in , Par is . S CHNURBEIN , S , v on , 1 974 ,

' Be merkenswer te Funde a us e iner Töp ferei d es

Haupt lagers v on Ha l tern ' , G er man ia , 5 2 ( 1974 ) , 7 7-88 . SELK IRK , A , 1 972 , SCHÖNBERGER ,

' Rushden t , C urren t Archaeology , 3 1 ( 1972 ) , 2 04-5.

H , & S I MON , H -G , 1 976 , Rö mer lager E t t idgen , L i mes for

s chungen , 1 5 , Ber lin . SCHULTEN , A , 1 929 , Nu man tia ; d ie E rgebn isse d er Ausgrabungen 1 9051 912 , I V: D ie Lager b ei R en ieblas , MUnchen . S TRONG , D , 1 976 , R o man Ar t ,

Har mondsworth .

TAYLOR , J . d u P , & CLEERE , H ,

( Eds .) , 1 978 , R o man S h ipp ing a nd Trade:

Br i ta in a nd t he Rh ine Prov inces , C ounci l Br i t . Archaeol ., R es . Rep ., 2 4 , 1 978 . ULBERT , G , 1 959 , D ie R t i mischen Donau-Kas tel le A is lin e n u nd Burghö fe , Rö m .-Ger m . Ko m m ., L i mes forschungen , 1 , B er lin . ULBERT , G , 1 965 , Der Lorenzberg-bei-Epfach , Veröf f .

K o m m. Archäol .

Er forsch . S pä trö m . Raet ien , 3 . E pfach I I , Mun ich . VEGAS , M , 1 969-70 ,

T ACO-Becher ' , Acta Re i C retar iae R o m. Fau toru m ,

1 1-12 ( 1969-70 ) , 1 07-24 . VEGAS , M , 1 975 , ' D ie Augus t ische G ebrauchskera m ik v on N euss ' , N ovaes ium V I

L i mes forschungen , 1 4 ,

WEBSTER , G , 1 973 ,

B er lin , 1 975 , 3 -76.

' I n troduc t ion a nd n otes o n t he p o t tery o f t he f irs t c en tury

A .D. i n u se b y t he R o man a r my ' , i n De ts icas , 1 973 , 1 -5 . WILLIA MS , D . F ,

1 978, ' The R o mano-Bri t ish b lack-burn ished i ndus try:

a n

e ssay o n c haracter iza tion b y h eavy minera l a na lys is ' , i n P eacock , 1 977, 1 63-220.

1 06

S ECTION 3 : THE I MPACT OF AN I NVAS ION ON I NDUSTRY AND TRADING PATTERNS

T h is n ew s ec t ion r epresen ts a t o ne a nd t he s a me t ime b oth a n e x tens ion o f t he s ec t ion o n as tand ing a r my a nd a t he me i n i t s own r igh t .

O f t he f our

p apers i nc luded , o n ly o ne , b y Mann ing , was o r ig ina l ly i nc luded , t hough n ot p resen ted a t t he c on ference. a nd Dannel l

The r e ma in ing t hree p apers , b y Wild , Rodwe l l

a re n ew a dd i t ions k ind ly p repared a f ter t he c on ference a nd r e-

p resen t mere ly t hree a spec ts o f a much w ider f i eld : i t wou ld h ave b een p oss ible t o i nc lude h ere many o thers s uch a s b u ild ing t echn iques , w oodwork ing o r t he l i ke. The p apers o n t ex t i les , s a l t a nd meta lwork ing a re a l l t rea ted b y t he ir a u thors i n more o r l ess a s im i lar way a nd a l l s eem t o emphas ise i n g enera l t ha t wh i lst v ary ing g overnmen t c on trols may h ave b een a pp l ied i n d i f fer ing d egrees t o e ncourage , s h if t o r c oncen tra te t he l oca t ion o f p roduc t ion , t he t echnolog ies o f t he i ndustr ies u nderwen t o n ly r ela t ive ly m inor c hanges , p erh aps l east o f a l l i n t he t ex t ile i ndustry. More i mportan t ly , a l l t he p apers s trengthen t he c onc lus ion o f t he p rev ious s ect ion , t ha t t he i mpac t o f ap er man en tg arr ison ( even i fp osted o n d istan t f ron t iers ) , a nd t he g overn men t a genc ies , i s t o ma in ta in e x tens ive a nd w ide r anging n e tworks t hroughou t t he c iv il i an z one o f t he p rov ince. Th is r ef lec ts t he f ac t t ha t e ven t he s o-ca l led m i l i tary-c iv i l ian z one i s a n a bs trac t ion f ro m r ea l i ty ; i ndeed t he s trik ing a spec t o f a l l t he e xa mp les i s t he i mpress ive i ncrease , d ocu men ted e spec ia l ly i n t he meta l i ndustr ies, i n t he a c tua l p roduc t ion w i th in t he c iv i l ian z one u nder Ro man g overn men t .

Th is s hou ld p o in t t o t he i mportan t c onc lus ion , emphasised

i n S ec t ion 1b y O l iver a nd imp l ic it i n t he a r my s ec t ion , t ha t t he c olon ia l a dm in istra t ion h ad a t l east t o p ay f or i t sel f ( both a gr icu l tura l ly a nd i ndustr ia l ly ) b y s t imu la t ing o u tpu t e i ther f or i t s own d irec t c onsu mp t ion o r f or e xport t o p rov ide i ncreased r evenues. The s ec t ion e qua l ly emphasises t ha t i ndustry i s a n a rt if ic ia l t op ic , b ecause i ti s h eav i ly l i nked a lso t o t he c iv i l ian d evelopmen t p art icu larly i n t he u rban c en tres , b u t e x tend ing e qua l ly t hroughou t t he r ura l p opu la t ion : f ur ther w ork i s v i ta l t oc onsider t he i mpor tance o fe cono mic d eve lopmen ti n t own a nd c oun try a nd i t s i mpac t o n t he d eve lop men t o f i ndus try a nd t he l oca l a nd l ong-dis tance t rading o f manufac tured g oods . The f i na l p aper b y Danne l l f i ts l ess c omf or tab ly i n t he s ec t ion a s a who le a nd c ou ld e asi ly h ave g one i n to a s ec t ion o n p ot tery w i th Greene :

i n a t te mp t ing a w ider t rea t men t w i th i t s ma in empha-

s is o n p re- a nd e arly p ost-conquest t rad ing p a tterns , h e makes s o me i n terest i ng s uggest ions t o c on tribu te t o o ur s ketchy p icture o f e arly c onnec t ions b et ween Br ita in a nd Gau l i n t he p er iod b etween Caesar a nd C laud ius ; i ndeed , s o me o f h is c o m men ts o n s am ian o ugh t t o b e r ead i n c onnec t ion w i th t he h yp otheses p resen ted b y Midd le ton .

1 09

I n i nc lud ing t h is m ixed a sse mblage a nd a l ly ing i tt o t he s ec t ion o n t he a r my , w e t rus t t ha t t he r eader w i l l f ind b o th g enera l a nd s pec if ic f ea tures o f i n terest t o t he b roader p roble ms o f t he c onference t he me.

1 10

THE NATIVE AND ROMAN CONTRIBUTION TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF METAL INDUSTRIES IN BRITAIN by W. H. Manning Summary Roman influence had two effects on the metal industries of Britain; it introduced new techniques, and produced fundamental changes in the economy. The presence of the army will have led to an increase in production, but techniques are more likely to have been influenced by discharged veterans and imported craftsmen. Little is known of the late Iron Age metal industries, but there is evidence that they expanded rapidly after the conquest, probably initially as a result of military requirements. Although there is evidence for the introduc­ tion of new furnace types the main expansion was the result of an increase in the number of productive units. A number of new metal­ lurgical techniques may have been introduced with the invasion, par­ ticularly in iron working, and a large number of new tool types became available. Even so, the economic changes which followed the conquest will have play�d an equally great, if not greater, part in the develop­ ment of the metal industries . The Roman invasion had two main effects on the metal industries of this country. Firstly, it introduced a whole range of new techniques, and, secondly, it produced fundamental changes in the cultural and economic structure within which those industries worked. Of the two the second may have been the more significant. The mechanism by which technological innovations are introduced into an area is a complex one, and whilst we can construct models for Roman Britain we cannot show that they are necessarily valid. The process by which aspects of classical technology reached Britain had, of course, begun before the conquest. The massive importation of pottery and, on a smaller scale, of metalwork is a measure of the degree of contact between the Roman world and eastern England in the years before the conquest, in the course of which a number of technological innovations could have been introduced. Certainly the evidence of the hoards and of such massive pieces as firedogs suggests that the production of iron was increasing in the pre-conquest period (Manning 1972). The conquest itself will have introduced various groups of people who will have brought with them many of the more advanced aspects of Roman technology. The most obvious was the army itself, an organisation which was as well equipped and as technologically advanced as any in the Roman world. To what extent it was concerned with the technology of the metal industries of the new province is, however, another matter. My own guess, and it is no more than 111

t ha t , i st ha t i th ad l i t t le i m media te e f fect o n t he t echno logy , b u t c onsiderably more o n t he s ca le o f p roduction o ft he more c o m mon me ta ls, main ly b y c reat ing a g rea t a nd s tab le d e mand wh ich h ad o fn ecessi ty t o b e s a tisf ied . A more d irect i nf luence was p robab ly e xer ted b y t he d ischarged v eterans, a l though t he p a tronage o f i ndividua ls o ldiers may h ave h ad s o me e f fec t . Wi th t he a r my c a me t he c a mp f o l lowers i nc luding , n o t o n ly t he r a ther d ubious g roups o ne u sua l ly t h inks o fu nder t ha t n a me , b u t a lso t he s pecia l ist c raf ts men who t hrived o n t he mi l i tary marke t a nd who may h ave t ra ined l oca l a ssistan ts. A long w i th t hese men w e must c lass t he s pecu la tors a nd e n trepreneurs, of ten work ing f or w ea lthy a nd i nf luen tia l b ackers o n t he C on tinen t , who f o l lowed t he a rmy i n to a ny n ew p rov ince i n o rder t o e xp loi t i t s n a tura l r esources.

A s t he

t owns d eve loped t hey t oo w i ll h ave a t tracted g roups o f c raf ts men e i ther worki ng o n t heir o wn o r e stab lished b y e xist ing f i r ms f ro m t he C on t inen t . The mass o f f i rst a nd s econd c en tury i ronwork f ro m t he Wa lbrook i n L ondon makes i tc lear t ha t t he ma jori ty o ft oo ls a nd u tens i ls u sed , a nd p robab ly made a nd s o ld t here , w ere o f R o man t ypes , a nd whi le c hance may h ave g iven u s more i nforma t ion o n L ondon t han o ther c i ties, Id oub t i fi t was a l toge ther a typ ica l . F ina l ly t here was t he d e libera te p o licy o f R o mani ' sa tion which w i l l h ave e nc ouraged t he n a tives, p ar ticular ly t he a ristocracy , t o a bsorb a l l i deas R o man , a nd wh ich wou ld h ave h elped t o o verco me , b o th d irect ly a nd b y e xa mp le , t he s usp icion wh ich w ou ld n or ma l ly mee t a l l i nnova tions. I n t his c on tex t i ti s i mportan t t o r ea lise t ha t i n most f i e lds R oman t echno logy d if fered f ro m t ha t o ft he I ron Age i n d egree r a ther t han i n k ind . O nly o ccasional ly w ere p rocess es o r t echn iques u sed which w ere r ad ica l ly d i f feren t f ro m t hose i n u se b ef ore t he i nvasion , a nd t his b asic s i mi lari ty w i l l h ave made i te asier f or n ew i deas t o b e a ccep ted . A t t his p o in t i t wou ld b e c onven ien t t o g ive a s hor t s u mmary o ft he me ta l i ndustries o fI ron Age B ri ta in b efore t urn ing t o t he R o man i nnova tions. S uch wou ld b e al ogica l a nd s ensib le a rrange men t , w ere i tp ossible , b u t i n r ea li ty we k now v ir tua l ly n o th ing o ft he m in ing o r sme lt ing i ndustries o f t he B ri tish I ron Age . S uch mines a s h ave b een c la imed a s p reh istor ic a re v ery v ague ly d a ted i ndeed , a nd n one t ha t Iam aware o f c an b e s hown t o b e I ron Age i n d a te . I Tha t i s n o t t o s ay t ha t t hey d id n o t e xist .

B o th c opper a nd i ron must h ave

b een mined , f or s uperf icia l d eposi ts c an s carcely h ave b een a dequa te t o s a tisfy t he d e mands o ft he l a ter I ron Age , b u t i n t he c ase o f c opper t he mines h ave p robab ly b een d estroyed b y s ubsequen t w ork ings , whi lst t he i ron mines were a l most c er ta in ly o ft he v ery s i mp lest t ype , n o more t han s ha l low t unne ls o r p i ts.

L ead i s n o t a meta l f or which I ron Age t echno logy h ad much u se , a nd

t here i s n o r eason t o s uppose t ha t i t was w ide ly m ined . The f ew l ead a r tifacts o ft h is d a te c ou ld e asi ly h ave b een p roduced f ro m o res r ecovered f ro m s uperf i cia l e xposures, a nd whi lst t he e vidence o f H eng istbury H ead ( Gow land i n B ushe-Fox 1 915 , 7 2 ) i ndica tes t ha t t he e x traction o f s i lver f ro m b ase me ta ls b y c upe l la tion was p ract iced b efore t he c onquest , t here i s n o e vidence t ha t l ead was mined f or t his p urpose . Nor i sg o ld l i ke ly t o h ave b een mined s yst e ma tica l ly ; s uch g o ld a s was p roduced a l most c er ta in ly c a me f ro m p ann ing , a s p robably d id most o ft he t in u sed . This s a me l ack o f i nfor ma tion a pp lies t o many a spects o ft he e x traction o f me ta ls f ro m t heir o res a nd o ft heir s ubsequen t f abrica tion .

We h ave a

n u mber o f f urnaces o fe ar ly I ron Age d a te , o f c ourse ; t ha t e xcava ted b y

1 12

L ady F ox a t K estor i n D evon i s p erhaps t he b est k nown e xa mp le ( Fox 1 955, 9 7 ) . A l l a re s i mp le , sma l l b ow l f urnaces, p robably o r iginal ly d o med , a nd worked w i th a f orced d raugh t p roduced b y b el lows, a nd t his must h ave r e ma ined t he n orm t hroughou t t he p eriod , a l though a s we s ha l l s ee , i ti s p ossib le t ha t a more a dvanced f or m was i n troduced i n to Eastern Eng land s hort ly b efore t he R o man c onquest . F or t he me thods o f f abrica tion w e a t l east h ave s o me o ft he f i nished p roducts f ro m which we c an d educe v ar ious t echniques, a nd i n s o me c ases we h ave t he t oo ls a s we l l .

B u t h ere we f air ly r apid ly r ea lise t ha t i ft he t ools

wh ich h ave s urvived were a l l t ha t were a vai lab le , t hen many o ft he p ieces which we a c tua l ly h ave c ou ld n ever h ave b een made .

I n o ther words, t here

must h ave b een who le c lasses o ft oo ls o f which w e h ave n o s urviv ing e xa mp les ; af act which was c onf ir med b y t he d iscovery o ft he Wa l tha m Abbey h oard o f l a te I ron Age i ronwork c on ta in ing a s er ies o f o therwise u n ique t oo ls ( Mann ing , 1 977 ) .

I ti s i mpor tan t t o a pprecia te t ha t t he a bsence o f e vidence i n t hi s f i e ld

s hou ld n ever b e t aken a s n ega t ive e vidence . The Ro man a t ti tude t o t he n a tura l r esources o f an ew ly o ccup ied p rov ince was t o e xp loi t t he m a s r ap id ly a s p ossib le , a nd t he e vidence s uggests t ha t t his was d one w i th t he me ta l d eposi ts o f Br i ta in . t he i nvasion i s a no ther mat ter .

Whe ther t hey w ere a r eason f or

The Western Empire a lready c on ta ined

p rov inces r ich i n me ta ls, a nd t here i s l i t t le e vidence t o s uggest t ha t Br i ta in was r egarded a s e xcep t iona l ly we l l p rovided i n t his r espect , o r t ha t m in ing h ere was p ar ticu lar ly i n tensive . Ad m i t ted ly t he e lder P l iny ( N .H . 3 4 , 1 7 , 1 64 ) s ta ted t ha t Bri tish l ead c ou ld b e mined w i th e xcep t iona l e ase , b u t t he f act t ha t h e t hen r ecorded t ha t i t s e xp loi ta t ion was t herefore l imi ted t o p ro tect t he e xist ing i ndustries o f S pa in a nd Gau l s carce ly s uppor ts t he v iew t ha t i t was a r eason f or t he i nvasion .

The c ost o ft ranspor t ing t he c o m moner me ta ls t o t he

c on tinen ta l marke ts wou ld u ndoub ted ly h ave a f fec ted t heir c o mpe ti tiveness. Tha t l ead was e xp loi ted a t a n e ar ly d a te we k now f or c er ta in , f or t he e ase w i th w hich t he me ta l c ou ld b e c ast a nd s ta mped l ed t o t he p igs b e ing i nscr ibed w i th d e ta i ls o ft he p roducers.

The I ron Age c u ltures o f Bri ta in h ad h ad r e la tive ly

l i t t le u se f or t his me ta l , a l though a f ew l ead n e t-sinkers a nd s p ind le-whor ls f ro m s uch s i tes a s G lastonbury s how t ha t s o me was u sed ( Bu l leid a nd Gray 1 911 , 2 41 ) , whi lst t he p ract ice o f a dd ing l ead t o c er ta in b ronzes a ppears t o h ave c ont inued f ro m t he Bronze Age ( Ty leco te 1 962 , 5 1 ) .

B y c on trast , t he Ro man wor ld

h ad t wo g rea t u ses f or l ead , f i rst ly a s as ource o f s i lver , a nd s econd ly a s t he ma in me ta l u sed i n p lu mbing .

I t was, t herefore , p robably t he o n ly n ew me ta l

i ndustry i n troduced i n to Br i ta in w i th t he c onquest , a l though i n a ctua l f act t he min ing a nd sme l t ing o f l ead d i f fer l i t t le f ro m t ha t o f c opper . •

There i s ac o m mon a ssu mp tion among a rchaeo logists, p erhaps l ess w ide-

s pread n ow t han a f ew y ears a go , t ha t t he l ead p roduced i n B ri ta in was e ssent ia l ly a b y-product o ft he s i lver i ndustry.

S i lver c o m mon ly o ccurs w i th l ead

o res, a s i td oes w i th many o ther me ta ls i nclud ing c opper , a nd t he l ead p igs o f Ro man Br i ta in of ten b ear t he i nscrip t ion EX ARG , e ven where a na lysis h as p roved c onclusive ly t ha t t hey h ave n o t b een d esi lvered .

A s Ty leco te h as

s hown ( 1962 , 8 2 ) , i n R o man t imes i t was e cono m ic t o e x trac t s i lver f ro m l ead o n ly i fi tc on ta ined more t han 0 .06% ( 20 o z ./ ton ) .

On ly t he o res f ro m t he

Mendips, Devon a nd Cornwa l l , a nd p erhaps F lin tshire a re l ike ly t o h ave a pp roached t his f i gure a t a l l c onsisten t ly . 1 13

I t i s most d oub tfu l i ft hose o f D erby-

s hire ,Yorkshire o r S hropshire e ver j ust if ied c upe l la tion ( Ty leco te 1 962 , 9 1) , wh ich , o ne must r e me mber , c ost a bou t t hree t imes a s much a s p roducing t he o r ig ina l l ead .

B y c on trast w i th t he Br i tish o res, t he mines o f L aurion , wh ich

s upp lied s o much o f t he wea l th o f C lassica l A thens a nd wh ich were e xp loi ted b y t he Ro mans t o t he p o in t o f d estruction , c on ta ined a round 6 00 o z ./ ton . S ince t he Ro mans c onsisten t ly e xp loi ted t he n orthern o re f i e lds where c upe ll a tion was i mpract ica l , a nd s ince s o me o ft he p igs f ro m t he Mendips c an b e s hown n o t t o h ave b een c upe l led , w e must a ccep t t ha t t he ma in r eason f or work ing t hese f i e lds was f or t he l ead , a l though where t he s i lver c on ten t was h igh e nough i t migh t b e e x tracted . Ih ave emphasised t his p o in t b ecause i tp rovides v a luab le e vidence t ha t t he r ap id i ty w i th which e ach n ew d eposi t o f l ead was e xp loi ted a s i tc a me i n to R o man h ands was n o t p r imari ly t he r esu l t o f ad esire f or s i lver , b u t f or t he l ead i t se lf .

F ur ther more , Iwou ld s uggest t ha t t hi s d e mand was c rea ted i n i-

t ia l ly b y t he f or t b ui ld ing p rogra mmes o ft he Ro man a r my , a nd t hen b y t he p rocess o f R o manisa t ion wh ich was e ncouraged i n t he c ivi lian a reas. e vidence f or t he e xp loi ta tion o f t he o re f i elds i s we l l k nown .

The

B y A .D . 4 9 t he

Mend ip f i e ld was b eing worked , a nd s oon a f ter we f i nd p roof o ft he i nvo lve men t o f t he a r my i n t h is o pera tion i n t he f or m o f a n i nscr ibed p ig b earing t he n a me o f N ero c oup led w i th t ha t o f t he S econd A ugus tan L eg ion ( Frere 1 978 , 3 22 ) . It h ink i ts ign if ican t t ha t we n ow k now t ha t a t a bou t t his t ime t ha t L egion was b ui lding t he f or tress a t Exeter wh ich i ncluded a l arge b a th b ui ld ing f or wh ich v ery l arge q uan t i ties o f l ead w i l l h ave b een r equired .

Bu t t his d irect mi li tary

i nvo lve men t i n t he mines d oes n o t s ee m t o h ave l asted f or v ery l ong f or b y c . 6 0 c ivi lian i n terests were i nvo lved .

The b est k nown o f t hese i s C . N ip ius

A scan ius who i s t hough t t o h ave b een a ctive i n t he Mendip mines i n c . 6 0 b ef ore moving o n to t he F l in tsh ire f i e ld ( Frere 1 978 , 3 22 ) . Th is i s n ot t he mo men t t o r esta te t he e vidence i n d e tai l , b u t t he i nscrip tions o n t he p igs make i t q u i te c lear t ha t t he o ref ie lds o f D erbyshire a nd Yorkshire w ere e xp loi ted b y l essees w i th e qua l r ap id i ty a s s oon a s t hese a reas c a me u nder Ro man c on tro l. The e vidence o ft he i n i tia l mi li tary i nvo lve men t i s k nown o n ly f ro m t he Mendips a nd i s p resu mab ly t he r esu lt o ft he a r my h aving a n eed f or l ead i n t he f ron tier a rea b efore t he n or ma l p rocesses o f c o m mercial e xp loi ta tion h ad made i t a va i lab le .

The c oncep t o ft he Ro man a r my n or mal ly a ct ing a s p rospectors i n

n ew ly a cquired t err i tor ies i s b o th u nnecessary a nd i mprobable. Wi th t he u se o f l ead c a me t he who le r ange o f p roducts made f ro m i t , i n p ar ticu lar s hee t c on ta iners a nd p ipes o fv ar ious f or ms.

Actua l ly mak ing

t hese w i l l h ave r equired f ew s k i l ls which w ere n o t a lready f a mi liar t o t he n a tive b ronze smi th , b u t wha t was q u i te n ew were t he p urposes f or wh ich t hey were b eing made — the p rovision o f r unn ing wa ter , t he c onstruction o f b a th b ui ld ings, a nd t he r e la t ive ly h ygen ic d isposa l o f waste wa ter a nd

s ewage .

These , r a ther t han t he e xp loi ta tion o f l ead i t se lf , w ere t he ma jor i nnova tions. Throughou t t h is d iscussion i ts hou ld n ever b e f orgot ten t ha t t he me ta l i ndust ries were mere ly o ne p ar t o f a much w ider t echno logica l a nd e cono m ic c hange , a nd were c o mp le te ly i n tegra ted w i th t he o ther a spects o f t ha t t ransfor ma t ion . Un for tuna te ly , t he e vidence f or t he e xp loi ta tion o ft he o ther me ta ls i s l ess c lear c u t .

W e

l ack e ar ly c opper i ngo ts, p robably b ecause i t was a f ar more

v a luab le me ta l a nd s o l ess l ike ly t o b e mislaid , b u t It hink t ha t we c an a ssu me

1 14

w i th c er ta in ty t ha t c opper d eposi ts w ere worked a s e ar ly a s l ead , t he more s o a s t hey c o m mon ly o ccur i nt he s a me a reas.

An i n i tia l mi li tary e xp loi ta tion

i s , h owever , l ess p robab le , f or w hi lst t he R o man a rmy u sed a g rea t d ea l o f c opper i t was i n t he f or m o f manufactured a r tic les, most o f which w ere p roba b ly s pecia list p roductions.

U n ti l t hose i ndustries were e stab lished i n B r i ta in

t hey w i ll h ave c on t inued t o b e i mpor ted . An u mber o f c opper mines h ave b een c laimed a s R o man , a l though n one o ft he m wou ld a ppear t o b e e ar ly i n d a te .

A l l a re e ssen tia l ly s i mp le, l ack ing

a ny o ft he s ophistica tions o f d ra inage o r e ng ineer ing which c haracter ised t he a dvanced m ines f ound i n s o me o ther p arts o ft he R o man wor ld . I ndeed , n one a re a s e labora te a s t he f ar e ar lier Ha l lsta t t mines o ft he Austrian Tyro l , a nd n one n eed b e s upposed a marked a dvance o n s uch mines a s e xisted i n Br i ta in b efore t he c onquest . h ave e xisted .

Th is i s n o t t o s ay t ha t more e labora te mines may n o t

The v a lue o f c opper was s uch t ha t i n s o me a reas t hey migh t

h ave b een j usti f ied , b u t i fs o we h ave n o e vidence . The o n ly mines f or wh ich w e h ave f i rm e vidence o f R o man e ng ineer ing a re t hose f or g o ld a t Do lauco thi , a nd t hey may h ave b een e xcep tiona l p recise ly b ecause t hey w ere g o ld mines. We h ave n o e xa mp les o f c opper sme l t ing f urnaces f ro m e i ther t he I ron Age o r R o man p eriod .

A s w i th most meta ls t he o res w i l l h ave b een p repared

a nd sme l ted n ear t he mines a nd t he i n tensive e xp loi ta tion o ft he o re f i e lds i n more r ecen t t imes h as made t he r ecovery o f e vidence o f e ar ly sme l t ing e xcess ive ly d if f icu l t i fn o t i mpossib le .

I ti s c lear f ro m t he i ngo ts p roduced i n t he

l a ter R o man p eriod t ha t t he f urnaces t hen i n u se w ere c onstructed s o a s t o a l low t he s lag t o b e t apped d ur ing f i r ing , a nd t he meta l t o b e r un o f ft o f or m t he c haracteristic b un i ngo t ( Ty leco te 1 962 , 2 9 ) .

I n t his t hey a re l i ke ly t o

h ave d i f fered f ro m t he f urnaces o f t he I ron Age where t he t app ing o f s lag was p robably n o t p ossib le . Whe ther t he R o man c onquest l ed t o many s igni f ican t c hanges i n t he t echn iques o f f abr ica tion i s d oub tfu l . O ft he ma in methods o f c asting , moulds o f s o me c o mp lexi ty h ad b een i n u se s ince t he Bronze Age , whi lst c ire p erdue , o r l ost w ax , c asts were n orma l i nt he I ron Age , a s t he e vidence f ro m G ussage A l l S a in ts h as c onf irmed ( Wa inwrigh t a nd S pra t l ing 1 973 , 1 22 ) . R o man t echn o logy c ou ld , o f c ourse , p roduce f ar l arger c as t ings t han were e ver t hough t o f i n p reh istory , b u t t his was a ma t ter o f s ca le , a nd s uch c ast ings were n o t r eq uired i n t he c u l tura l c on tex t o ft he L a te I ron Age . To wha t e x ten t t hey w ere p roduced i n Bri ta in e ven i n t he R o man p er iod may b e d oub ted . I n t he ma t ter o fd ecora t ion a nd h and l ing s heet me ta l , t he I ron Age smi th h ad r e la t ive ly l i t t le t o l earn , a l though b o th mercury g i ld ing a nd t he p roduction o f me ta l v ess e ls b y s p inn ing were a l most c er ta in ly R o man i n troduc tions.

The f i e ld i n

wh ich R o man e xper ience h ad most t o o f fer was t ha t o f o rganisa tion a nd marke ti ng , a nd i t was t his r a ther t han a ny t echn ica l a dvance , wh ich l ed t o t he mass p roduc tion o n av ery l arge s ca le o f s uch sma l l p ieces a s b rooches, b race lets a nd t he l i ke. O ne i n troduction which d id c o me w i th t he c onquest was t he w idespread u se o fb rass, i n wh ich z inc r ep laces t in e i ther who l ly o r i n p ar t ( Ty leco te 1 962 , 5 3 ) .

I t was a n a l loy much u sed i n R o man c o ins, b u t r ecen t work h as

s hown t ha t i t was a lso u sed f or many sma l l p ieces o f me ta l work , a t l east s o me o f wh ich may h ave b een made u sing c o ins a s as ource o f t he r aw ma teria l .

1 15

I ti s a lso c lear f ro m a na lyses t ha t t he R o man me ta l lurgist h ad c lose c on tro l o ver h is a l loys, v ary ing t he p ropor tions o f l ead , t in , z inc a nd c opper t o c rea te a meta l whose p roper ties w ere s ui ted t o i t s f unctions. There i s l i t t le d oub t t ha t t he R o man me ta l lurgist was more c o mpe ten t t han h is n a t ive p red ecessors, b u t h ow l ong i tt ook f or t his s ta te o f a f fa irs t o d eve lop i s a no ther ma t ter . One o ft he most s igni f ican t e f fects o ft he i nvasion was t he f act t ha t B ri ta in b eca me a p ar t o f a n i m mense t echno logica l c o m monwea l th i n wh ich c raf ts men a nd i deas w ere a b le t o move w i th c onsiderab le f reedo m . N or c an w e i gnore t he p ossibi li ty , i ndeed t he p robabi l i ty , t ha t t he n ew marke ts were e xp loi ted b y e xist ing f irms a nd e n trepreneurs s e t t ing u p b ranches w i th in t he n ew t err i tories. I ft he R oman a r my a cted a s as t imu lus t o t he d eve lop men t o ft he l ead i ndustry , i t must a lso h ave h ad a c onsiderab le e f fec t o n t he e xist ing i ron i nd ustry . The p robabi li ty i s t ha t t hi s h ad a lready e xpanded i n t he y ears b efore t he R o man c onquest . C er ta in ly t here i s a marked i ncrease i n t he amoun t a nd s ize o ft he p ieces o f i ronwork which s urvive f ro m t ha t p eriod . B u t t his f ades a l most i n to i nsigni f icance when c o mpared w i th t he i ncrease which o ccurred w i th in a f ew y ears o ft he c onquest .

The a rmy i t se lf w i l l h ave p layed s o me

p ar t i nt his f or i t s n eed f or i ron must h ave b een i m mense a nd c on t inu ing . Whe ther i t was s a tisf ied b y r equisi tion , t axa tion i n k ind o r p urchase i s i rre lev an ti n t his c on tex t f or t hey w ou ld a l l h ave f orced t he i ndustry t o i ncrease p roduct ion . Aga in i tw i l l h ave b een i n t he f i e ld o f min ing a nd sme l ting t ha t t his w i l l h ave b een f e l t , a nd i tn eed h ave h ad l i t t le e f fect o n t he n a tive t echn iques o f f abr ica t ion .

O nce t he a r my h ad t he r aw ma teria l i tw i l l h ave u sed i t

f or u ti li tarian t oo ls a nd i n p ar ticu lar f or c onstruction , r a ther t han f or a r ms a nd a rmour , wh ich , w i th t he e xcep tion o f e xpendab le w eapons s uch a s missi le p o in ts, w ere u ndoub ted ly s pecia list p roducts. The i mpor tance o f i ron f or c onstruction p urposes i n t he R o man p eriod i s of ten o ver looked ; f ew I ron Age b ui ldings c an h ave i ncorpora ted much i fa ny i ronwork . Na i ls w ere n o t u sed , n or were h inges , n or a ny o ft he d ozens o f f i t t ings which R o man b ui lders a ppear t o h ave r egarded a s n ecessary .

O ne c anno t e asi ly c a lcu la te h ow much i ron was

n eeded f or t he c onstruction o f at imber a ux i liary f or t , f or e xa mp le , b u t i t must h ave r un i n to many t ons. A t t he s a me t ime , R o man c onstruction t echn iques were b eco m ing f ashionab le i nt he c ivi lian p ar ts o ft he p rovince a nd t hese t oo w i l l h ave g enera ted a g rea t d e mand f or i ronwork .

C lear ly t he r equire men ts

o ft he y ears f o l low ing t he c onquest w i l l h ave i ncreased b y l eaps a nd b ounds, a nd t he s heer q uan ti ty o fd iscarded s crap me ta l f ound o n s i tes o ft his p eriod makes i tc lear t ha t t his d e mand was s a tisf ied a nd t ha t t he v a lue o ft he me ta l was s o l ow t ha t sma l l p ieces w ere r are ly wor th t he t roub le o f r eforg ing . The q uestion r e ma ins o f h ow t his i ncrease i n p roduction was o bta ined . Was i tb y t he i n troduction o fn ew t echn iques o f min ing , o r b y n ew a nd i mproved f urnaces, o r mere ly b y i ncreasing t he n u mbers o ft hose a lready e xisting? O r was i t ac o mbina tion o ft hese? I ron o res a re n o t r are , a s a re t hose o f c opper . I n smal l q uan ti ties t hey o ccur t hroughou t t he Br i tish I s les, e ven i n s uch a pparen t ly u n l ikely a reas a s t he c ha lk d own lands. B u t t hese c ou ld n o t h ave s upp l ied R o man d e mands, a nd t here i s g ood e vidence t ha t t he l arger d eposi ts o f t he Wea ld o f K en t , t he F orest o f D ean , a nd Nor tha mp tonshire w ere n ow e xp loi ted o n a n i ncreasing s ca le .

This i s s hown n o t b y t he mines t he mse lves b u t b y t he v ast q uan ti ties 16

o f s lag p roduced b y t he a d jacen t f urnaces. A s T yleco te ( 1976 , 5 3 ) h as s aid , 'Whereas t he amoun ts o f s lag f ound o n p re-Ro man i ron sme lt ing s i tes a re measured i n k i logra ms o r h undreds o f k i logra ms, t he s lag h eaps o ft he Ro man p eriod a re measurab le i n h undreds o f t onnes.' F ro m wha t i s k nown o f t he mines o ft he F orest o f D ean , which e xcep t f or L ydney i s n o t v ery much ( Whee ler a nd Whee ler 1 932 , 2 0 ) , o r o ft he b el l-p i ts o ft he Wea ld , i ti s c lear t ha t t he i ncrease i n t he R o man p er iod was p roduced n o t b y n ew min ing t echniques b u t b y g rea t ly i ncreasing t he n u mber o f mines o ft ypes s o s i mp le t ha t aN eo li thic miner wou ld h ave r egarded t he m a s ama teur ish .

Nor was t here a ny n eed f or

more a dvanced t echn iques , f or v ast amoun ts o f t he o re l ay c lose t o t he s urf ace , a nd t he o n ly i mprove men t wh ich R o man t echnology p robab ly o f fered was t o make i ron t oo ls a va i lab le t o t he miners t he mse lves. F or tuna te ly , w e h ave s l igh t ly more e vidence f or sme l ting f urnaces ( Cleere 1 972 ) .

The n or ma l I ron Age f urnace , a s w e h ave s een , was t he b ow l f urnace ,

p robably d o med t o r edv .ce h ea t l oss, a nd w i th a d raugh t p rovided b y b e llows. This f or m o f f urnace c on t inued i n to t he R o man p er iod , b u t c er ta in ly b y t he s econd c en tury a no ther f or m , t he s haf t f urnace , h ad a ppeared i nt he p rovince . This a ppears t o h ave b een t he n or ma l f or m o f f urnace u sed i nt he c lassica l wor ld , a nd i tc an b e u sed f or sme l ting b o th i ron a nd c opper . I ti s e asi ly a dap ted t o e nable t he s lag t o b e d ischarged wh i lst t he f urnace i s i n o pera tion , a nd , a s w e h ave s een , i t was a v arian t o ft his f or m o f f urnace wh ich was a lmost c er ta in ly u sed f or sme l t ing c opper i n t he R o man p eriod . I n t hese e ar ly i ron sme lt ing f urnaces t he me ta l d oes n o t b eco me mo l ten b u t f orms a s ab loo m which h as t o b e r e moved when r eduction i s c o mp le te. I ft he s lag i s n o t t apped i n s o me way t he b loo m b eco mes s et i n i ta nd b o th h ave t o b e r e moved t oge ther . Wi th a s haf t f urnace t he r esul tan t b lock wou ld b e s o l arge t ha t i t wou ld i nvo lve t he d e mo li tion o ft he e n tire f urnace t o e x tract i t , b u t b y t app ing t he s lag o ne i s l ef t w i th t he b loo m a nd a min imu m o f s lag , a nd i tc an b e r e moved t hrough t he a rch . S uch f urnaces a re t herefore r e la tive ly e cono m ica l i n l abour , f or t hey c an b e r eused a nd h ave a l arger c apaci ty t han a ny e f fective b ow l h ear th . The i n troduction o ft his f or m o f f urnace , p robab ly e ar ly i n t he R o man p eriod , w i l l u ndoubted ly h ave i ncreased t he o u tpu t o f i ron s ubstan tia l ly . U n ti l q ui te r ecen t ly i t was t hough t t ha t i fs ui tably a l igned t hey wou ld r un o n n a tura l d raugh t a lone , b u t e xper imen ts w i th r ep lica f urnaces h ave c ast d oub t o n t his, a nd i ti s n ow t hough t t ha t a l l sme l ting f urnaces w i l l h ave r equired b e l lows ( C leere 1 971 ) . B y l a ter s tandards , t hese f urnaces w ere sma l l a nd o fv ery l imi ted c apaci ty , p robab ly p roducing n o more t han 1 5 t o 5 0 l bs o f i ron a t at ime , p robably more c o mmon ly t he f or mer .

The marked i ncrease i n p roduc tion must , t herefore ,

h ave b een l arge ly a cco mp l ished b y av ery c onsiderab le i ncrease i nt he n u mber o f p roduct ive u n i ts. There i s , h owever , s o me e vidence t ha t a n i mprove men t i nt he d esign o f sme l t ing f urnaces h ad a lready t aken p lace a t t he e nd o ft he I ron Age .

U nfor-

t una te ly , t he e vidence i s amb iguous f or t he a ctua l f urnaces a re o f e ar ly Ro man d a te , b u t t hey a re o f af or m wh ich i s c lear ly d erived f ro m t he d o med h earth r a ther t han t he c lassica l s haf t f urnace .

They d o h owever , h ave p rovision f or

t app ing t he s lag , a nd t h is , o n e xist ing e vidence , a ppears t o b e aR o man r a ther t han Ce ltic i dea . I ti s n o t iceab le , f or e xamp le , t ha t t he l arge a nd h igh ly p rod uctive f urnaces o f C zechoslovak ia a nd t he Ho ly Cross Moun ta ins o f Po land , which a re b asica l ly l ow s haf t f urnaces, h ad n o p rovision f or t he r e mova l o f

1 17

t he s lag , h aving i nstead a d eep p i t b e low t he s haf t i n which i ta ccu mula ted w i th t he i ron b loo m f orm ing o n t op o f i t ( Cleere 1 972 , 2 0 ) .

The Eng lish f ur-

n aces a re t hus a c ross b e tween t he t rad i tiona l I ron Age b ow l f urnaces a nd t he R o man t apped f urnaces.

A t p resen t t hey a re k nown o n ly f ro m S ussex .

A t

Minep i t Wood ( Money 1 974) a nd P ipp ingford Park ( C leere 1 972 , 1 3 ) t hey j ust p ost-da te t he R o man c onquest , b u t Henry C leere i n for ms me t ha t t he n eighb our ing s i te a t Cow l Park h as n ow p roduced i den tica l f urnaces which a re b e lieved t o d a te f ro m t he e ar lier p ar t o ft he f i rst c entury A .D .

The t ype a p-

p ears t o h ave b een r ep laced b y t he s haf t f urnace w i th in a r e la tive ly s hor t t ime o ft he c onquest . R ecen t a na lyses h ave s uggested t ha t t he s e lec tive u se o f s tee l h ad b egun b efore t he Ro man c onquest .

Wrough t i ron , which was t he n or ma l f or m o f

t he me ta l , h as a v ery l ow c arbon c on ten t , l ess t han 0 .5% ; b u t i ft his i s i ncreased t o 1 -1 .5% t he me ta l b eco mes s tee l , a n a ppreciab ly h arder ma teria l . I ft he c arbon c on ten t r ises a bove t ha t l eve l i tf or ms c ast i ron , av ery b r i t t le a l loy wh ich was n o t u sed i n t he R o man p eriod , p robably b ecause t heir t echn o logy h ad n o u se f or i t , r a ther t han b ecuase t hey c ould n o t p roduce i t .

To g e t

t he f u l l a dvan tage o f s tee l i th as t o b e q uenched b y h ea t ing a nd t hen p lung ing i ti n c o ld wa ter .

Th is t rea t men t r ad ica l ly a l ters i t s c rysta l line s tructure a nd

p roduces a v ery h ard b u t b ri t t le ma teria l .

I ndeed w i th a p iece o f p ure s tee l

t his t rea t men t a lone wou ld make i ti mpractica l ly b ri t t le , b u t a ncien t s tee l was n o t n or ma l ly p ure , b e ing i nstead a mix ture o f wrough t i ron a nd t rue s tee l wh ich when q uenched wou ld b e h ardened w i thout b eco m ing t oo b r i t t le.

Me ta l lurg ica l

a na lyses a nd l i terary e vidence ( Hea ly 1 978 , 2 31) s how t ha t q uench ing was u nderstood i n t he R o man p eriod , b u t i ti s l ess c er ta in t ha t i t was i n I ron Age Bri ta in .

Here o ne s uspects t ha t t he u se o f s tee l f or s uch a r ti facts a s t he L lyn

Cerr ig Bach whee l t yres was d ic ta ted b y t he i ncreased h ardness o ft he u n trea ted me ta l r a ther t han a f u l l u nderstand ing o f i t s p o ten tia l .

I fs o , a nd t he q uestion

i s b y n o means s et t led , t he i n troduction o f q uench ing was o ne o ft he most i mp or tan t t echn ica l a dvances o ft he Ro man p er iod .

Whe ther t he a l lied t echnique

o ft e mper ing s tee l wh ich h as b een h ardened b y q uench ing t o r educe i t s b ri t t len ess, was e qua l ly w ide ly p ractised i s a no ther ma t ter .

L i terary e vidence s ug-

g ests t ha t i t was u nderstood , b u t p ure s tee l was t oo e xpensive i n t he a ncien t wor ld f or i tt o b e u sed o n i t s own v ery of ten a nd , a s we h ave s een , i n a n i rons tee l mix ture q uenching a lone wou ld n or ma l ly h ave b een s uf f icien t . A l though a t h in l ayer o f s tee l was i nevi tab ly p roduced when i ron was h ea ted i n t he smi th 's h ear th , t he r egu lar p roduction o ft he a l loy was a s low a nd e xpensive p rocess which i nvo lved t he p ro longed h ea t ing o f i ron i n c harcoa l. Whe ther t h is p rocess was p ractised b y p re-Ro man smi ths , o r whether t hey mere ly s e lected p ieces o f i ron which h ad b eco me s tee led d ur ing f abrica tion i s a n o pen q uestion .

Tha t i t was i n ten tiona l ly p roduced i n Ro man Bri ta in n ow

a ppears b eyond d oub t , b u t a t wha t d a te t his b egan i s s ti l l u ncer ta in , a l though t here i s n o i nheren t r eason why i ts hould n o t h ave b een a n e ar ly i n troduc tion . The v ar ie ty o f i ron t oo ls u sed i n t he R o man wor ld was u ndoub ted ly f ar

w ider t han t ha t k nown i n Br i tain b efore t he c onquest , e ven i f we make a l lowa nce f or t he f ac t t ha t t he r ange a ctua l ly u sed t hen may h ave b een g rea ter t han t he a rchaeo log ica l e vidence wou ld s uggest .

A l arge n u mber o ft hese n ew

t ypes w i l l h ave e n tered t his c oun try i n A .D . 4 3 i n t he b aggage o ft he Ro man a rmy , i nc lud ing n o t o n ly s uch o bvious t h ings a s e n trench ing t oo ls, b u t a lso 1 18

smi ths , e quip men t a nd e ven a gricul tura l t oo ls.

Wi th in a c en tury o r s o ,

many o ft hese a re f ound i n u se t hroughou t t he c ivi l ian p ar ts o ft he p rovince . This a dvance was made p ossible a s much b y t he i ncrease i n t he s upp ly o f t he r aw ma teria l a s b y t he v arie ty o f n ew t ypes a va i lab le , a nd t hey must i n t urn h ave s ubstan tia l ly a f fec ted t he p roductivi ty o ft he i ndustries a nd c raf ts i nvo lved .

T o wha t e x ten t , f or e xamp le , was t he i ncreased p roductivi ty o f

t he min ing i ndustry t he r esu lt o ft he g rea ter u se o f i ron p icks, o fg ads a nd s ledge h a m mers, a nd o ft he n ew me ta l-edged s hovel?

How f ar d id t he sm i ths

t he mse lves b enef i t f ro m t he w idened r ange o f s pecia lised t oo ls ? B u t p erhaps t he most i mpor tan t f i eld i n which t he n ew i ron t oo ls were u sed was a gr icu lt ure .

N o t o n ly were n ew t oo ls , s uch a s t he s cy the i n troduced , b u t e ven more

s igni f ican t ly , t he i ncreased p roduction o f i ron made t he u se o f i ron f i t t ings a nd t oo ls c om mon p lace . Wha t was t he e f fect o f t he a l most u n iversa l u se o f i ron p loughshares, a nd l a ter o f c ou l ters, o n t he o u tpu t o f R o mano-Bri tish a gr icu l ture? S uch c hanges d id n o t o ccur o vern igh t , b u t t hey d id o ccur a nd t he e f fect o n t he e cono my o ft he p rovince must h ave b een v ery c onsiderable . A t t he b eg inn ing o ft his p aper i t was s uggested t ha t t he e cono mic a nd c u l tura l c hanges which f o l lowed t he R o man c onquest were , i fa ny th ing , more i mpor tan t f or t he d eve lop men t o ft he me ta l i ndustries t han t he n ew t echn iques w hich c a me w i th t he c onquest , ap oin t which may n ow b e d eve loped . A s we h ave s een , t he c onquest d id i n troduce c er ta in t echn ica l i nnova tions, b u t c onsidered d ispassiona te ly i ti s d i f f icu l t t o s ee h ow o n t heir own t hey c ould a ccoun t f or t he v ery g rea t i ncrease i n me ta lwork o f a l t ypes which w e s ee i n B ri ta in i nt he y ears a f ter 4 3 . S ta ted i n t he b a ldest t erms, i ta ppears t ha t t he d e mand f or me ta ls r ose r apid ly a nd was s a tisf ied b y ag rea t i ncrease i n p rod uction b y u n i ts wh ich were r ea l ly n o t much more a dvanced t han t hose which c an b e p ostu la ted f or t he I ron Age .

I t i sv ery e asy t o a sk t he q uestion , why

d id t h is o ccur? b u t ag rea t d ea l more d i f f icu l t t o a nswer i tc onvincing ly .

None-

t he less, It h ink t ha t we c an s uggest a n u mber o f f actors which t aken t oge ther h e lp t o e xp la in i t . Ih ave a lready emphasised t ha t t he d e mands o f t he a r my , p ar t icu lar ly f or i ron a nd l ead , must h ave h ad a marked e f fect o n t he p roduction o ft hose meta ls, a s w i l l t he p rov incia l b ui ld ing p rogram me wh ich f olowed R o man isa t ion . The i mpact o f R o man c o inage o n Br i ta in i s d iscussed e lsewhere i nt h is v o lu me , a nd t he i n troduction o f ad eve loped mone tary e cono my wh ich a l lowed f or t he b uy ing a nd s e l l ing o f r e la tive ly l ow-va lue manufactured g oods, c anno t h ave f a i led t o f aci li ta te t he t rade i n s uch t h ings.

A t t he o ther e nd o f

t he s ame s ca le was t he d esire o f Ro man f i nanciers t o i nvest i n p rospective ly p rosperous i ndustries i nc lud ing , n o d oub t , min ing , whi lst t he b ank ing s ystem , a s w e l l a s p r iva te f i nanciers, was a ccusto med t o p rovid ing t he l oans wh ich m igh t b e n eeded f or t he d eve lop men t o f i ndustry . One s hould n o t f orget t ha t i f t he t echno logica l k now ledge o ft he Ro man wor ld b eca me a vai lab le t o t he c raf tsmen o f Br i ta in af ter t he c onquest , i t s f i nancia l a nd marketing e xper tise b ec a me e qua l ly a va i lab le . Af actor which w i l l h ave r evo lu tionised t he move men t o f r aw ma teria ls a nd f i nished p roduc ts was t he c onstruction o f t he n ew r oad s yste m , a nd t he a l most c er ta in g row th i nt he c oasta l a nd r iver ine t ranspor t wh ich w i l l h ave a cco mpan ied i t . N o t o n ly w i l l i th ave e nab led t he meta l sme l ted a t t he mini ng s i tes t o b e moved t o t he p roduction c en tres, b u t i tw i l l h ave r educed t he 1 19

n eed f or t he c raf ts men t o move f ro m c usto mer t o c usto mer , wh ich o n t he r a ther s l igh t e vidence o f G ussage A l l S a in ts, a ppears t o h ave b een t he c ase d ur ing a t l east p ar t o ft he I ron Age.

The d eve lop men t o ft he t owns mean t n o t

o n ly a g rea t i ncrease i n t he d e mand f or t he c o m mon me ta ls f or c onstruc tion p urposes, a nd i n t his c on tex t we must r e me mber t ha t a wooden b ui ld ing may r equire e ven more i ronwork t han a s tone o ne , b u t t hey p rovided t he f aci li ties f or marke t ing t he manufactured g oods.

Doub t less, s uch f aci li ties h ad e xisted

i n t he I ron Age , p ar ticu lar ly i n t he B e lg ic a reas, b u t we c an s carce ly d oub t t ha t t he g row th o f u rbanisa tion i n t he R o man p eriod w i l l h ave mu l tip lied t hese f aci l i ties manyfo ld .

F ina l ly t here was t he i nca lcu lab le e f fect o f t he p ax R o mana

w i th a l l t ha t t ha t mean t f or t he s table g row th o f i ndustry a nd t rade , f ree , p erh aps f or t he f i rst t ime , f ro m t he c onstan t h azard o ft r iba l warfare. I ndividua l ly t hese f actors migh t h ave c oun ted f or l i t t le ;

c ol lect ive ly t hey

w ere o f f unda men ta l i mpor tance .

NOTE 1 .

My c o m men ts o n mines a nd min ing owe much t o my d iscussions w i th Mr . A lan Ty ler , a nd o n f urnace t ypes t o i nfor ma tion p rovided b y Mr . H enry C leere .

B IBLIOGRAPHY BULLEID , A . a nd GRAY , H . S t . G ., 1 911.

The G las tonbury Lake V i l lage

Vo l . IG las tonbury. BUSHE-FOX , J . P ., 1 915 .

E xcava t ions a t H eng is tbury H ead , Hampsh ire

1 911-1912 , O xford . CLEERE , H . F ., 1 971.

' I ronmak ing i n aR o man Furnace ' B r i tann ia 2 , 2 03-217.

CLEERE , H . F ., 1 972 . ' The C lass i f ica t ion o f Ear ly I ron-S me l t ing Furnaces ' An t iq . J ourn . 5 2 , 8 -23 . FOX , A ., 1 955 .

' Ce l t ic F ie lds a nd Far ms o n Dar t moor i n t he L igh t o f R ecen t

E xcava t ions a t K es tor ' PPS 2 0 ( 1954 ) , 8 7-102 . FRERE , S . S ., 1 97 8 . HEALY , J . F ., 1 97 8 . L ondon .

' Br i tann ia ' L ondon . M in ing a nd Meta l lurgy i n t he G reek a nd R o man Wor ld

MANN ING , W. H ., 1 972.

' I ronwork H oards i n I ron Age a nd R o man B r i ta in '

B r i tann ia 3 , 2 24-250. MANN ING , W. H ., 1 977. i n O ddy W. A . ( Ed .) ,

' B lacks m i ths ' T oo ls f ro m Wa l tham A bbey , E ssex ' A spec ts o f Ear ly Me ta l lurgy , L ondon .

MONEY , J . H ., 1 974 . ' I ron Age a nd R o mano-Br i t ish I ron-work ing S i te i n M inep i t Wood , R other f ie ld , S ussex ' H is tor ica l Meta l lurgy 8 , N o . 1 , 1 -20 TYLECOTE , R . F ., 1 962.

Me ta l lurgy i n Archaeo logy, L ondon .

1 20

TYLECOTE , R . F ., 1 976.

A H is tory o f Meta l lurgy , London .

WA IN WR IGHT , G . a nd SPRATLING , M ., 1 973.

' The I ron Age S et t le men t

o f Gussage A l l S a in ts ' An t iqu i ty 4 7 , 1 09-130. WHEELER , R . E . M. a nd WHEELER , T . V ., 1 932.

Repor t o n t he Excava-

t ion o f t he Preh is tor ic , Ro man a nd Pos t-Ro man S i te i n L ydney Park , G louces tersh ire , Ox ford .

1 21

RO MAN AND NATIVE I N TEXTILE TECHNOLOGY b y J ohn P e ter Wi ld

S u m mary C on t inu i ty o f t ex t i le t rad i t ion a nd me thod f ro m I ron-Age t o R o man B r i ta in may o f ten b e p roved , a nd o f ten p resumed .

D is t inc t ive ly

R o man t echn iques i n troduced i n to B r i ta in were f ew , b u t h ad c ons idera b le e f fec t i n s o me b ranches o f t he i ndus try .

The a r my s t i mu la ted

t he o u tpu t o f t ex t i le p roducers , b u t n o t t he q ua l i ty o f t he ir work . N ever the less , t he B r i t ish t ex t i le i ndus try i s k nown t o h ave made a s ign i f ican t c on tr ibu t ion t o R o man i mper ia l t rade . i n ter iores p ler ique f rumen ta n on s erun t , s ed l ac te e t c arne v ivun t , p e l l ibusque s un t v es t i t i .

omnes v ero s e B r i tann i v i tro i n f ic iun t ,

q uod c aeru leum e f f ic i t c o lore m .

( Caesar , BG V , 1 4 )

The t rad i t iona l p ic ture o f t he woad-pa in ted warr iors o f I ron-Age Br i ta in , c lad ( away f ro m t he s ou th-eas t ) i n s k ins , i s c on f ined t oday t o af ew p r i mary s choo l t ex tbooks .

T o b e s ure , t he woad a nd t he s k ins , s een i n t he ir c orrec t

c on tex ts , make s ense ; b u t C aesar 's c o m men ts d o n o t l ead o ne t o e xpec t much t echn ica l s oph is t ica t ion f ro m I ron-Age s p inners a nd weavers : There i s n o d enying t ha t t he e v idence t hrough wh ich t he t ex t i le t echno logy o f t he Br i t ish I ron-Age c an b e s tudied i s meagre i n t he e x tre me . 1 R e la t ive ly f ew t ex t i le f ragmen ts s urv ive , e i ther t hrough t he a cc iden t o f h av ing l a in i n d a mp , a naerobic , d epos i ts o r t hrough h av ing b een impregna ted w i th t he c orr os ion-produc ts o f meta l o b jec ts w i th wh ich t hey were i n c on tac t .

2

I n a dd i t ion ,

t he f unc t ion o f a t l eas t o ne t ype o f b one i mp le men t wh ich h as b een c o m mon ly a ssocia ted w i th weav ing h as r ecen t ly b een c a l led i n to q ues t ion ( Hodder a nd H edges 1 977 , 1 7f f .). C on t inen ta l I ron-Age ma ter ia l may h e lp t o o f fse t o ur d efec t ive k now ledge o f t he s i tua t ion i n B r i ta in ; b u t i t s u se mus t b e h edged w i th a ppropr ia te r eservat ions i n l ine w i th c urren t v iews o n t he i nsu lar i ty o f B r i t ish I ron-Age c u l ture . The mos t i n for ma t ive t ex t i le c o l lec t ion was r ecovered f ro m t he e ar ly I ron-Age s a l t- m ines a t H a l ls ta t t a nd Ha l lein , p ub l ished i n a n i mpor ta n t s er ies o f p apers b y Pro fessor H -J . H und t ( 1959 , 6 6f f .; 1 974 , 1 35 f f .).

1 960 , 1 26f f .;

1 961 , 7 f f .;

1 970 , 5 3f f .;

P erhaps b et ter k nown , s ince who le g ar men ts s urv ive , a re t he

t ex t i les f ro m t he p ea t moors o f N or th G er many a nd Denmark ( Ha ld 1 950 ; b ow 1 976) .

S ch la-

There i s o f ten a p roble m h ere , h owever , i n d is t ingu ish ing e ar ly

I ron-Age f ro m R o man I ron-Age a nd M igra t ion P er iod r e ma ins .

3

I tw i l l b e mos t c onven ien t f irs t t o e xa m ine t he impac t made b y R o me o n I ron-Age t ex t i le p roduc t ion me thods , a nd s econd ly t o a t te mp t t o e va lua te t h is impac t i n t er ms o f t he v o lume a nd c haracter o f t ex t i le o u tpu t . 1 23

1 .

Methods o f T ex t i le P roduc t ion a .

Raw ma ter ia ls a nd t he ir p repara t ion

The c harac ter o f t ex t i le t echno log y i s c ond i t ioned t o al arge e x ten t b y t he n a ture o f i t s r aw ma ter ia ls . I n B r i ta in s heeps ' woo l a nd f lax were t he b as ic f i bres . The s tandard s heep o f e ar ly B r i ta in i s e xe mp l i f ied i n t he modern S oay , a f era l b reed s t i l l f lour ish ing o n S t K i lda ( Jewe l l , M i lner a nd Mor ton B oyd 1 974 ; Wi ld 1 970 , 4 f f .) .

The S oay i s p redo m inan t ly b rown , a nd t he woo l ly t ype h as a

f l eece w i th a g enera l ised med ium-f ine woo l ( Ryder 1 966 , 1 092 ; a nd Mor ton B oyd 1 974 , 1 1O f f .) .

J ewe l l , M i lner

Ana lys is o f R o man t ex t i les s hows t ha t t he S oay

t ype o f s heep was t he p r inc ipa l woo l-supp l ier o f t he p rov ince , a nd p resuma b ly t he ma in I ron-Age s heep , t oo .

The R o mans i n troduced a n i mproved wh i tef leeced

s heep t o Br i ta in ; b u t i ti s u n l ikely t o h ave b een r eared i n a ny n u mber b e fore t he g row th o f t he v i l la e s ta tes i n t he l a te f irs t a nd e ar ly s econd c en tur ies A .D. 4 I ti s p robab le , h owever , t ha t I ron-Age f ar mers were c apable o f s e lec t ive b reedi ng t o improve t he f leece a nd S trabo 's s ta te men t t ha t t he R o mans k ep t f ine-woo l ( ' jacke ted ') s heep i n N or th G au l i s a s l i kely t o r e fer t o e x is t ing s tra ins o f i mproved s heep a s t o t he i n troduct ion o f n ew b reeds . 5 E v idence f ro m R o man I ta ly , where t ranshu mance was a n i mpor tan t a spec t o f l arge-sca le c o m mercia l s heep f ar m ing s ugges ts t ha t t he R o mano-Br i t ish v i l la-far mers wou ld h ave j o ined i n , a nd n o t i n ter fered w i th , t he s easona l f l ock migra t ions o f t he I ron-Age .

6

H ard ing ( 1974 , 8 5 ) ma in ta ins t ha t s heep s hears were n o t k nown t o t he I ronAge f ar mer . I ft h is i s c orrect ( and Iam s cep t ica l ) , t hen t he i n troduct ion o f s prung i ron s hears b y t he R o mans was s ign i f ican t .

' i "

S heep , h owever , were r egu-

l ar ly p lucked — a p rac t ice s t i l l c urren t i n t he f irs t c en tury A .D. a nd s t i l l n or ma l o n Orkney a nd S he t land i n t he n ine teen th c en tury ( P l iny , NH V I I I , 1 91 ;

R yder 1 965-

6 , 9 4 f f .; 1 968 , 1 53f f .) . I ti s n o t s o p r im i t ive a s i t s ounds ; f or p luck ing , wh ich t akes p lace when t he n ew woo l i s b eg inn ing t o g row more r ap id ly i n l a te S pr ing , r e moves t he f iner woo l f i bres a nd l eaves t he c oarser h a irs b eh ind .

N a tura l

mou l t ing l as ts f or s evera l weeks a nd s o me s e lec t ive b reed ing may h ave t aken p lace t o p ro mo te s hor t-per iod mou l ts a nd t hereby r ecovery o f more o f t he f leece b y p luck ing .

The a dvan tage o f s hear ing i s t ha t t he f l eece i s r ecovered who le .

The R o mans i n troduced w oo l-co mbing t o s epara te s hor t f ro m l ong f i bres ; b u t i ron woo lco mbs h ave t o d a te o n ly b een f ound i n s ou thern a nd e as tern Eng land , a nd t he ir man ipu la t ion was p robably a s pecia l ised c ra f t . The s econd s tap le f i bre o f a nc ien t Europe was f l ax .

8

F lax-grow ing a nd t he

s i mp le , b u t e x tre me ly l abor ious , p rocesses r equ ired t o e x tract t he b as t f i bres f ro m t he f lax s te m a re a t tes ted a t av ery e ar ly d a te .

The s a l t- m ines c on ta ined

s o me we l l-preserved s pec i mens o f I ron-Age l i nen c lo th ( Hund t 1 961 , 2 3 ;

1 976 ,

6 2 ) .We k now v ir tua l ly n o th ing o f l inen p roduct ion i n B r i ta in b e fore o r a f ter t he R o man c onques t ( W i ld 1 970 , 1 3 f f ., 2 7) ; b u t f ro m wha t we k now o f t he t rea t men t o f f lax i n R o man Egyp t ( W ipszycka 1 965 , 1 7f f .) , t here i s n o r eason t o s uppose t ha t t he R o mans i n troduced a ny r evo lu t ionary n ew t echn iques t o B r i ta in . b .

S pinn ing a nd weav ing

S p inn ing w i th a s uspended s p ind le was t he s tandard me thod i n u se i n N or thern Europe t hroughou t a n t iqu i ty ( La B aume 1 955 , 1 17f .; Wi ld 1 970 , 3 1f f .) . The

1 24

q ua l i ty o f t he i mp le men ts ( hand-he ld s hor t d is ta f f a nd s p ind le w i th whor l ) were s econdary t o t he s heer d ex ter i ty o f t he s p inner , a nd t he R o mans h ad n o monop o ly o f t ha t .

T he j e t d is ta f fs a nd f ine ly t urned b one s pind les f ound i n t he R o man

p rov inces a re c er ta in ly s oph is t ica ted i n a ppearance ; b u t t he s p inner o f R o man B r i ta in , r o ta t ing h er s p ind le c ons is ten t ly t o t he r igh t ( Z-spin d irect ion ) , works d irec t ly i n t he I ron-Age t rad i t ion ( W i ld 1 970 , 4 4f .). The warp-we igh ted v er t ica l l oo m i s a t t he c en tre o f a l mos t a l l t ex t i le p rod uc t ion i n E urope b e fore t he Midd le Ages ( Ho ff mann 1 964 ) . s uch l oo ms h ave b een r ecogn ised y e t i n Br i ta in .

N o wooden p ar ts o f

There i s n o d irect e v idence i n

t he R o man p rov inces f or t echn ica l d eve lop men t o f t he i mp le men t a f ter t he c onq ues t ; b u t i t may b e s ign i f ican t t ha t t he t r iangu lar c lay l oo m-we igh ts o f t he i nsu lar I ron-Age were r egu lar ly l arger ( say 1 4 cm b y 1 4 cm b y 1 4 cm b y 5 cm t h ick ) t han t he p yra m ida l R o man weigh ts ( averag ing 1 2 cm h igh ) .9 R o man weavers may h ave s pread t he l oad c arr ied b y t he warpthreads more e ven ly ; o ne migh t a rgue t ha t t hey u sed f iner-spun warp , b u t t ex t i le f inds d o n o t b ear t h is o u t . T oo ls f or b ea t ing u p t he we f t c hanged w i th t ime .

The R o mans may h ave

p re ferred t he wooden weav ing-sword , i fl i terary s ources a re t o b e t rus ted ( W i ld 1 970 , 6 7 n o te 4 ) ; b u t i n l a ter I ron-Age Br i ta in b one o r a n t ler c o mbs a nd p inb ea ters were t he n orm .1 0 A s trea m l ined v ers ion o f t he p in-bea ter a ppeared a f ter t he c onques t , b u t where weav ing-co mbs o ccur i n t he f irs t c en tury A .D., a s a t N ews tead , t hey a re r es idua l i n t rad i t ion — i fn o t i n a rchaeo log ica l f act ( Cur ie 1 911 , p l . LXVL II , 1 -4 ) . The t wo-bea m v ert ica l l oo m r eached I t a ly f ro m t he Eas tern Med i terranean b y t he f irs t c en tury A .D ., b u t may n o t h ave p enetra ted f ar i n to t he n or thern p rov inces .

I t was ma in ly u sed f or , a nd we l l s u i ted t o , t apes try weav ing , i t sel f

at echn ique o f E as t Med i terranean o r ig in ( W i ld 1 967a ).

Tex t i les w i th t apes try-

woven d ecora t ion were k nown i n B r i ta in , b u t t here i s n o p roo f t ha t t hey were woven h ere ( W i ld 1 977 , 2 7 , 3 2 n o te 1 5 ).

I ft he t wo-beam l oo m h ad a p lace i n

t he B r i t ish t ex t i le i ndus try , i t was a s as pecia l ised i mp le men t .

Ha ld ( 1950 ,

2 11f f .) h as a rgued t ha t at wo-beam l oo m was u sed i n I ron-Age S cand inav ia f or mak ing ' t ubu lar-woven ' f abr ics . e ded t he R o mans .

I f s o , i t s a rr iva l i n B r i ta in may h ave p rece-

More r ecen t ly , h owever , K . S ch labow ( 1976 , 9 5 f . )h as

c la i med t o b e a ble t o weave ' t ubu lar-woven ' f abr ics o n t he c onven t iona l warpwe igh ted l oo m . I f we a ccep t t h is , t he e v idence f or t he t wo-bea m l oo m i n p reh is tor ic Europe f a l ls a way . P la in weave ( 1 -over-1 ) , b aske t weave a nd 2 -over-2 t w i l l , t he mos t p opu lar b ind ings f or c lo th ing a nd s o f t f urn ish ings i n R o man B r i ta in , were a lso t he s tocki ntrade o f European I ron-Age weavers ( Hund t 1 970 , 5 7f f .; Wi ld 1 970 , 4 5f f .) . Bu t t he R o man d ia mond t w i l ls a nd 2 -over-1 t w i l ls p resen t p roble ms . The l arge g roup o f f ine a nd med ium d ia mond t w i l ls f ro m V indo landa

A .D . 100 ) ( W i ld

1 977, 2 8 ) , t aken w i th c on te mporary o r e ar l ier f inds f ro m C orbr idge ( W i ld 1 970 , 9 8 f ., n os 4 6-8 ) a nd C o lches ter ( i n p ress ) , c ou ld b e a ccep ted a t f irs t s igh t a s a n i n fus ion o f R o man t ex t i le t echno logy.

Moreover , t he b es t k nown d ia mond t w i l ls

f ro m Denmark a nd N or th G er many a re a l l o f R o man I ron-Age d a te , a nd t he r emarkab le s tandard isa t ion o f t he Dan ish t wi l ls h as l ed Dr B ender J 9 frgensen ( 1976a , 1 58 f f .;

1 977 , 1 0 f f . )t o s ugges t t ha t many o f t he m a re R o man impor ts .

N ever the less , t here a re Ear ly I ron-Age d iamond t w i l ls f ro m Kar lby Mose i n

1 25

Denmark , f ro m t he D t irrnberg c e me tery ( l a te Ha l ls ta t t ) a nd f ro m B ur ton F le m ing i n Eas t Yorksh ire .

1 1

The p opu lar isa t ion o f d ia mond t w i l l may b e

Ro man p erhaps , b u t t he i nven t ion o f t he weave i s e ar l ier . A s im i lar d i f f icu l ty s urrounds 2 -over-1 t w i l l , at wo-s ided p a t tern weave . The e ar l ies t e xa mp le i n Br i ta in i s i n t he C orbr idge h oard o f c .A .D. 1 10 ( W i ld 1 970 , 1 01 n o .5 0 ) ; b u t o n t he C on t inen t i ti s r ecorded i n t he Ha l ls ta t t p er iod , i s c lear ly a t h o me i n N or th G er many i n t he R o man I ron-Age a nd c o mes t o Br i ta in i n q uan t i ty w i th t he Ang lo-Saxons .1 h The mos t p opu lar p a t tern weave o f I ron-Age E urope was t he c heck i n wh ich y arns o f d i f feren t c o lours were s e t u p i n t he warp a nd i n troduced i n s equence i n t he we f t .

The s a me i s t rue o f t he n or th-wes t R o man p rov inces i nc lud ing B r i ta in

( W i ld 1 970 , 5 3 f f .) .

I ron-Age weavers a lso c o mbined g roups o f S -spun a nd Z -

s pun y arn i n t he ir f abr ics wh ich g ave r ise t o as ub t le b anded o r c heckered e f fec t ( Hund t 1 970 , 5 8 A bb .3 ) .

Ik now o f o n ly t hree e xa mp les o f t h is i n B r i ta in , a l l

a t V indo landa ( W i ld 1 977 , 2 7 n os 2 8 ,37 , 3 9 ) .

I t a l ians p referred t he more o bv ious

c o loured t apes try-woven b ands a nd f ree f igure d es igns , a dded b y h and d ur ing t he ma in weav ing o pera t ion o n t he t wo-bea m l oo m ( W i ld 1 967a ).

I t wou ld b e d i f f i-

c u l t t o a rgue f ro m t he sma l l amoun t o f t h is f ound i n Br i ta in t ha t t apes try weav ing d id much t o d isp lace t he o ld e s tabl ished I ron-Age p a t tern-weav ing t echn iques . c .

D yeing a nd f in ish ing

Dye ing a nd f in ish ing p rocesses d e manded e ven i n a n t iqu i ty a c ons iderable amoun t o f c ap i ta l e qu ip men t , s o me o f i tv ery c o mp lex .

R o man a ch ieve men ts

i n t h is f i e ld a re d ocumen ted b o th b y t he e x tan t l i tera ture a nd b y t he p lan t i n P o mpe i i a nd Os t ia ( Moe l ler 1 976 , 2 9 f f .;

F orbes 1 956 , 9 8 f f .) .

There was

n oth ing t o ma tch t h is i n I ron-Age Br i ta in ; b u t e ven a f ter t he i nvas ion i ti s d i f f icu l t t o t race i n t h is c oun try t he workshop e qu ip men t k nown f ro m I ta ly. I th as r are ly p roved p oss ib le t o i den t i fy t he d yes tu f fs a pp l ied t o e ar ly t ex tt i les i n n or thern Europe ( W i ld 1 970 , 7 9 f f .; 8 5 ;

B ender J 9f rgensen 1 976b , 2 0O f f .).

S ch labow 1 976 , 3 5f f .;

Hund t 1 959 ,

We k now t ha t t he C e l ts were p as t- mas ters

o f t he a r t o f d ye ing w i th v ege table d yes tu f fs , a nd t ha t t rad i t ion l i ves o n t oday. 1 3 The R o mans were g rea t ly a t trac ted ( and l a ter a l mos t o bsessed ) b y t he p urp le d yes won f ro m t hree v ar ie t ies o f Med i terranean whe lk .

The d ebr is o f c rushed

s he l l a ssoc ia ted w i th t he d yeworks c an s t i l l b e s een a t p laces o n t he Med i terr anean c oas t .1 4

On ly t hrough t he med ium o f e xpens ive i mpor ted g oods d es tined

f or a l im i ted marke t c ou ld t he metropo l i tan R o man d yers h ave h ad a ny e f fec t o n t he n a t ive i ndus tr ies . N one the less , i ti s p robable t ha t t he R o mans i n troduced s ubs tan t ia l i mprove men ts i n t he v a ts a nd d ye ing p lan t u sed i n B r i ta in . The p h i lo log ica l e v idence f or t he f u l l ing o f c lo th i n R o man B r i ta in i s p arad ox ica l ly s tronger a t p resen t t han t he a rchaeo log ica l .

T echn ica l j argon n ew t o

R o man B r i ta in i nc luded l ix iv iu rn ( l ye , s ta le u r ine , f or c lo th f in ish ing ) , p annus ( f in ished c lo th ) a nd ( ves t is ) p exa ( so f t-f in ished t ex t i le ) .1 5 The u rban c ra f t o f f u l l ing , b o th f or f in ish ing a nd l aunder ing c lo th , was e v iden t ly w ide ly p rac t ised i n t he p rov ince a nd may h ave b een f or B r i ta in v ir tua l ly a n ew b ranch o f t he t ex tt i le i ndus try . 2 .

Tex t i le Ou tpu t

R ive t ( 1969 , 1 89f f .) h as s ough t t o q uan t i fy t he d e mands wh ich t he a r my g arr isons made u pon t he c orn-grow ing c apac i ty o f t he B r i t ish . The i n i t ia l 1 26

impac t mus t

h ave b een d evas ta t ing ; b u t i n d ue c ourse i tl ed t he more e n ter-

p r is ing n a t ive f ar mers t o improve t he ir a gr icu l tura l me thods ( i nc lud ing d eve lopi ng h igher-yie ld ing s tra ins o f whea t a nd b ar ley ).

I n t he E ar ly Empire t he a r my

c o m mand d educted r egu lar amoun ts f ro m t he s o ld ier 's p ay t o mee t t he c os ts o f h is f ood a nd u n i for m .

They t hus c o mm i t ted t hemse lves t o s upplying t hese

1 6

c o m modi t ies t o t he t roops , a nd s add led t he mse lves w i th a p er manen t s upp ly p roble m .

I ti s c lear , f or i ns tance , f ro m t i e Egyp t ian p apyr i t ha t t he q uar ter-

mas ters o f many u n i ts w en t t o g rea t l eng ths t o o bta in g ar men ts f ro m sma l ls ca le weavers s ca t tered o ver a w ide a rea ( W ipszycka 1 966 , 4 ff .). The b oos t g iven t o t he B r i t ish d o mes t ic i ndus tr ies o f s p inn ing a nd weav ing mus t h ave b een e nor mous .

I f , a s s ee ms l ike ly , e ach u n i t was r espons ible f or mee t ing i t s own

c lo th ing n eeds , ag ood s ource o f s upp ly , o nce d iscovered , wou ld s oon b e t apped b y o ther u n i ts u p t o t he l im i t o f i t s c apac i ty . The i mpor tan t T ra jan ic c o l lec t ion o f woo l len t ex t i les f ro m t he V indo landa f or t g ives u s ag ood i dea o f wha t t he s o ldiers were a ble t o o bta in ( W i ld 1 977). There i s a n u nexpec ted ly h igh p ropor t ion o f v ery c o mpe ten t ly woven d ia mond t w i l l c loth ; b u t t he h em m ing a nd s ewing b y c on tras t i s e x tre me ly c lumsy. The g enera l c harac ter o f t he c o l lec t ion , t he t ypes o f woo l f l eece f ro m wh ich t he y arns were s pun a nd t he t hr ice-repea ted t echn ique o f c o mbin ing b ands o f Z s pun a nd S -spun y arn p o in t t o n a t ive w eavers a s t he s ource o f s upp ly , whose work ing me thods were s t i l l I ron-Age .

They may n o t h ave worked f ar a way ;

f or b one weav ing-co mbs o f I ron-Age s ty le a re n o t u nco m mon i n t he g arr ison p os ts o f N or th Br i ta in .

1 7

Weavers were p robab ly among t he e ar l ies t s e t t lers

i n t he v ic i . The d iamond t w i l ls o f V indo landa may p ara l le l t he b lack-burn ished p o t tery f ro m Dorse t a nd t he S ou th-Eas t .

B o th were s tap le c o m mod i t ies o f at ype t ha t

may b e t hough t o f a s ' regu la t ion i ssue '.

P r iva te s o ld iers c o m mon ly s upple-

men ted t he ir o f f icia l i ssue f ro m o u ts ide s ources ( W i ld 1 977) .

The t as tes o f t he

o f f icers were p robably s a t is f ied t hrough t he o pen marke t o n wh ich h igher q ua l i ty i mpor ted t ex t i les w ere a va i lab le , e qu iva len t t o t he s am ian ware a nd p re-Flav ian f ine-ware c ups a nd b eakers d escr ibed b y G reene .

The p roduc ts o f t he S yr ian

s i lk i ndus try were r each ing B r i ta in b y t he t h ird c en tury , b u t t here i s n o s ign t ha t t he weavers t hemse lves — u n l ike t he e as tern p o t ter a t H o l t ( Greene 1 977) — moved f ar w es twards ( W i ld 1 970 , 5 O f f .).

The B r i t ish t ex t i le i ndus try r e ma ined

f irm ly i n t he h ands o f t he f e ma le me mbers o f t he f am i ly a nd a ma le-do m ina ted f ac tory s ys tem d id n o t b eco me e s tabl ished i n B r i ta in u n t i l l a te a n t iqu i ty ( W i ld 1 976b , 5 4 ) . 3 .

C onc lus ions The p ace o f t echno log ica l c hange i n t he Br i t ish t ex t i le i ndus try a f ter t he

R o man c onques t was e v iden t ly s low . t o h ave b een u na f fected .

S pinn ing a nd weav ing me thods s ee m a l mos t

On t he o ther h and d ye ing a nd f u l l ing may h ave b een

g rea t ly improved b y t he i n troduc t ions o f Med i terranean me thods a nd p lan t , a nd b y t he h igher q ua l i ty o f f in ish wh ich d iscern ing c us to mers i n t he a r my a nd t he t owns may h ave e xpec ted . I n t he f ie ld o f c lo th ing ma le a nd f e ma le c os tume i n t he C e l t ic-speak ing p rov inces s howed a n u nexpec ted r es is tance t o c hange .

There i s v ir tua l ly n o

p ure ly I t a l ian f ash ion t o s peak o f i n G au l o r Br i ta in ( W i ld 1 968 , 2 33f f . ) . The I ta l ians c a me t o a dop t many G a l l ic g ar men ts , a nd t he ir f ash ion f or c heck c lo th 1 27

was s a id t o h ave d eve loped u nder Ga l l ic i n f luence ( W i ld 1 964 , 2 63f f .).

S ince

t he Ro man c loth ing t rade was ma in ly i n f in ished o r s e mi-f in ished g ar men ts , i t wou ld n ot b e f ar-fe tched t o s uppose t ha t t he imper ia l Ro man t ex ti le i ndus try — f ragmen ted a nd c os mopo li tan a s i t was — l earn t s o me th ing o f t echn ica l v a lue f ro m t he weavers o f N or th- Wes t Europe. Br i t ish t ex t i le p roducers , Iwou ld a rgue , r ece ived a g rea t e cono m ic impe tus f ro m t he p resence o f t he R o man a r my.

Weavers n or th o f t he f ron t ier b arr iers

may h ave b een s t i mu la ted , t oo ( P iggo t t 1 958 , 2 6f .) .

The a r my was i n n o p os i t ion

t o p roduce i t s own t ex t i les , a s i n emergenc ies i tp roduced i t s own p o ttery , a nd a t l eas t u nder t he Ear ly Empire i tp a id f or g oods d el ivered o ver a nd a bove t he l eve l l a id d own f or t axa t ion i n k ind ( von P e tr ikov i ts 1 974 , 1 3 ;

Wi ld 1 976b , 5 5 ).

Weavers o f t he R o man I ron-Age i n N or th G er many e v iden t ly d evoted a p roport ion o f t he ir t ime t o mak ing s p lend id c loaks l ike t he Thorsberg ( Prach t man teln ( Sch labow 1 976 , 6 3 f f .) , wh ich c an b es t b e v iewed a s g i f ts w i th in a t r iba l s ocia l s ys te m .

I ft h is was t he n a ture o f Br i t ish I ron-Age weaving , t hen t he R o man

a r my c rea ted a t horough-going c o m mercia l d eve lop men t wh ich c u l mina ted i n t he f a mous f our th-cen tury Br i t ish b yrr i ( capes ) a nd t apet ia ( rugs ) o f D ioclet ian 's Ed ict ( X IX ,2 8 ,4 8 ) ( ed .S . Lau f fer 1 971).

NOTES 1 .

H ensha l l ( 1950 ) , 1 30f f .

Mr J ohn Hedges h as r ev iewed t he e v idence i n a n

u npub lished M. A . d isser ta t ion l odged i n S hef fie ld Un ivers i ty L ibrary: Tex t i les a nd T ex t i le Product ion i n Preh is tor ic Br i ta in ( 1973 ). 2 .

For c ircu ms tances o f s urv iva l s ee Wi ld ( 1970 ) , 4 1ff . w i th f ur ther l i tera ture.

3 .

Ha ld ( 1950 ) , 1 87f f ., 4 35 .

F or c r i t ica l c o m men t o n S ch labow 's d isregard

f or c hrono logy s ee H -J . Hund t i n Präh is tor ische Z ei tschr i f t 5 2 , 1 977, 2 63f f . 4 . . I t h as n ot y et p roved p oss ible t o d is tinguish s heep-breeds — let a lone f leecet ypes — f ro m s ke leta l r e ma ins ; b u t t he e x is tence o f l arge f locks o f s heep i s we l l a t tes ted b y t he f auna l r e ma ins f ro m l a te I ron-Age a nd e ar ly R o man s i tes i n Br i ta in . 5 .

G eog .IV , 1 96 ;

f or t rue f ine woo l i n ( Ro man ) I ron -Age Denmark , p robably

b eyond Ro man i n ter ference , s ee R yder a nd H edges ( 1973 ). 6 .

S Kydsgaard ( 1974 ).

Transhuming i s s t i ll a t tes ted i n s ix th-cen tury B r i ta in :

G i ldas , d e Excid io Br i t .3 ,3( ed . M. Win terbo t to m ( 1978 ) ). 7 .

There i s a n i n tr iguing j ux tapos i t ion o f s hears a nd s heep-bur ia ls a t t he Ro man f ar m o n t he Thames g rave ls a t Bar ton C our t Far m : E xcava t ions 1 976 ( H MSO 1 976) , 9 5 ;

8 . Wi ld ( 1970 ) , 2 5f f .

Archaeo log ica l

Br i tann ia V I I I , 1 977 , 4 19.

F or f ur ther f inds o f woo lco mbs s ee An t iquar ies J ourna l

L I I , 1 972 , 3 33ff . 9 .

For s o me I ron-Age l oo m-weigh ts s ee Whee ler ( 1936) , 1 50 , 1 78 f ig .2 5 ; Wi ld ( 1970 ) , 1 36.

1 28

1 0. Wi ld ( 1970 ) , 6 5f .; 1 1.

Kar lby Mose : e v idence ) ;

s ee n ow H odder a nd H edges ( 1977) , 1 7f f .

Ha ld ( 1950 ) , 4 1f . n o .26 , f ig .1 41 ( no i ndependen t d a ting

D t irrnberg :

Hund t ( 1974 ) , 1 35 , 1 39 ;

p ubl ished d e ta i ls f ro m Miss E . Crowfoo t ;

Bur ton F le ming :

u n-

S oh labow ( 1976 ) , 4 4 ) r igh t ly

q ues t ions t he d a t ing o f t he Bronze-Age d ia mond t w i l l f ro m G eru msberg . 1 2.

Hund t ( 1963 ) , 1 80 14

S ch labow ( 1976) , 8 1 ;

Brace- M i t ford ( 1975 ) , 4 58 ff .

a nd u npubl ished i n for ma t ion f ro m M iss E . C rowfoo t . 1 3.

P l iny , NH XX I I ,2 ;

f or S het land d yes tu f fs :

R yder ( 1965-6) , 9 7f .

Na tura lly

p ig men ted woo ls were u sed f or p a t tern e f fect i n a n t iqu i ty w i thou t d yeing . 1 4 .

J od in ( 1 967) , 2 53 f f .

For murex a t Ost ia s ee Carand in i a nd Panel la ( 1973 )

1 33 , 2 73 . 1 5 .

1 6.

L ewis ( 1943 ) , 5 1 1 ., 4 1 , 4 4 ; Wi ld ( 1976a ) , 5 8 ; w i th a r a ised n ap : Wi ld ( 1967b ). Cavena i le ( 1958 ) , n os 1 06, 1 09 ;

f or s of t-f in ished t ex t i les

f or p r iva te workshops s upp lying weapons

t o t he a r my s ee Mac Mu l len ( 1960 ) , U lber t ( 1974 ) . 1 7. Wi ld ( 1970 ) , 1 35 . S o me may b e a rchaeo log ica l ly r es idua l , a s Ih ave s uggest ed a bove ; b u t i t wou ld r equire s pecia l p lead ing t o s ee t he m a l l a s r es idua l . The d is tr ibu t ion p a t tern s ee ms t o b e more t han a c oincidence.

B IBLIOGRAPHY BENDER JeRGENSEN , L , 1 976a .

' Ana lyse e ines Tex ti l-fragmen tes a us G rab

1v on Harpe ley ' , Ac ta Archaeo log ica 4 7 , 1 976 , 1 58 f f . BENDER JORGENSEN , L , 1 976b. ' Tex t i l fundene iS tengade ' i n J . S kaarup , S tengade I , Medde lelser f ra Lange lands Museu m , 1 976. BENDER JORGENSEN , L , 1 977, BRUCE- M ITFORD , R , 1 975 .

' K laede f ra Ro merr iget ' , S ka lk 2 , 1 977 , 1 0ff .

The S u t ton Hoo S h ip-Bur ia l I .

CARANDIN I , A , a nd PANELLA , C , 1 973. CAVENA ILE , R , 1 958 . CURLE , J , 1 911.

Os t ia I I .

C orpus Papyroru m La t inaram .

N ews tead , a Ro man Fron t ier Pos t a nd i t s Peop le.

FORBES , R .J ., 1 956. GREENE , K ., 1 977.

S tud ies i n Anc ien t Techno logy I V . ' Leg ionary p o t tery a nd t he s ign i f icance o f H o l t ' i n J . Dore

a nd K . G reene ( eds .) ,

R o man P ot tery S tudies i n B ri ta in a nd B eyond , BAR

S upple men tary S er ies 3 0 , 1 977 , 1 13f f . HALD , M ., 1 950 .

O lddanske Teks ti ler , N ord iske F or t ids minder V , 1 950 .

HARDING , D . W., 1 974. HENSHALL , A .S., 1 950 .

The I ron Age i n L ow land Br i ta in . ' Tex t i les a nd weav ing a pp liances i n p reh is toric

Br ita in ' , Proceed ings o f t he Preh is tor ic S ociety NS XV I , 1 950 , 1 3Of f . HODDER , I . , a nd HEDGES , J . W., 1 977.

" Weav ing c o mbs" —the ir T ypology

a nd D is tr ibu t ion w i th s o me I n troductory R e marks o n Da te a nd Funct ion ' i n J . C o ll is ( ed .) , The I ron Age i n Bri ta in —a Rev iew , 1 977, 1 7f f . 1 29

HOFF MANN , M , 1 964 . The Warp -Weigh ted Loo m . HUNDT , H -J , 1 959.

' Vorgesch ich t l iche G ewebe a us d e m Ha l ls tä t ter S a lzberg ' ,

J ahrbuch d es Rö misch-Ger man ischen Z en tra l museu ms Ma inz 6 , 1 959 , 6 6ff . HUNDT , H -J , 1 960.

' Vorgesch ich t liche G ewebe a us d e m Ha l ls tä t ter S a lzberg ' ,

J ahrbuch d es R t lm isch-Ger man ischen Z en tra l museu ms Ma inz 7 , 1 960 , 1 26f f . HUNDT , H-J , 1 961.

' Neunzehn T ex ti lres te a us d em D t irrnberg i n HaHein ' ,

J ahrbuch d es Rö m isch-Ger man ischen Z en tra l museu ms Ma inz 8 , 1 961 , 7 f f . HUNDT , H-J ., 1 963.

' Eine l einu mwicke lte S chwer tscheide d er Ha l ls ta ttze i t ' ,

Ma in fränk isches J ahrbuch 1 5 , 1 963 , 1 80 f . HUNDT , H -J ., 1 970 .

' Gewebefunde a us Ha l ls ta t tzei t ' i n Kr ieger u nd S a lzherren :

Ha l ls ta t tku l tur im O sta lpenrau m , Ma inzer Auss tel lungska ta l9ge 4 , 1 970. HUNDT , H-J ., 1 974 .

' D ie Tex t i lres te a us d en G r eern v om D t irrnberg ' i n

F . Moos lei tner , L . Pau l i a nd E . Penn inger , Der Dürrnberg b ei Ha llein I , 1 35f f . HUNDT , H-J ., 1 976.

i n C . Radda tz , G rabfunde d er r öm ischen Ka iserzei t

u nd Vö lkerwanderungszei t v on K irchweh le a nd O sterho lz , Ma ter ia lhef te z ur Ur- u nd Frügesch ich te N iedersachsens 1 0 , 1 976, 6 2. JE WELL , P . A ., MILNER , C . a nd MORTON BOYD J ., 1 974 . S urv ivors :

I s land

The E co logy o f t he S oay S heep o f S t K i lda .

JODIN , H ., 1 967.

L es E tablisse men ts d u Ro i J ube I a ux I l es Purpura ires

( Mogador ). LA BAU ME , W , 1 955. LE WIS , H , 1 943.

D ie En twick lung d es Tex t i l-Handwerks i n A l teuropa .

Yr E l fen Ladin y n y r I a i th G y mraeg .

MAC MULLEN , R , 1 960.

' I nscr ip tions o n Ar mor a nd t he S upply o f Ar ms i n

t he R o man Emp ire ' , Amer ican J ourna l o f Archaeo logy 6 4 , 1 960 , 2 3f f . MOELLER , W. 0 , 1 976.

The Woo l Trade o f Ancien t P o mpei i .

VON PETR IKOV ITS , H , 1 974.

' Rö m isches Mi l i tärhandwerk :

a rchäo log ische

Forschungen d er l e tzten J ahre ' , Anzeiger d er p h i l .h is t . Klasse d er ö s terreich ischen Akade mie d er Wissenscha f ten I I , 1 974 , l f f . P IGGOTT , S , 1 958 .

' Na t ive e cono m ies a nd t he R o man o ccupa tion o f N or th

Br i ta in ' , i n I .A. R ich mond ( ed .) , Ro man a nd N a t ive i n N or th Br i ta in , l ff . R IVET , A . L.F , 1 969.

' Socia l a nd E cono m ic Aspects ' i n A . L.F. R ive t ( ed .) ,

The Ro man V i lla i n Br i ta in , 1 969 , 1 73f f . RYDER , M. L , 1 965-6. ' Shet land S heep a nd Wool ' , J ourna l o f t he B rad ford Tex t i le S ocie ty 1 965-6, 9 1f f . RYDER , M. L ,

1 966.

' Coa t s tructure i n S oay s heep ' , Na ture 2 11 , 1 966 , 1 092f .

RYDER , M. L , 1 968 . ' The Evolu t ion o f S co tt ish B reeds o f S heep ' , S co t t ish S tud ies 1 2 , 1 968 , 1 27f f . RYDER , M. L. a nd S TEPHENSON , S .K , 1 968 .

1 30

Woo l G rowth .

RYDER , M. L. a nd HEDGES , J .W , 1 973.

t l i t i merzei t liche Wol lres te a us Deu t-

s ch land u nd Dän mark t , Archäolog isches Korrespondenzbla t t 3 , 1 973 , 3 59ff . S CHLABO W , K , 1 976.

Tex til funde d er E isenzei t i n N orddeu tsch land , G ö t t inger

S chri f ten z ur Vor- u nd Frühgesch ich te 1 5 , 1 976. SKYDSGAARD , J .E , 1 974.

' Transhu mance i n Ancien t I ta ly ' , Ana lecta Ro mana

I ns t i tu t i Dan ici V I I , 1 974 , 7 f f . ULBERT , G , 1 974.

' S traubing u nd N yda m :

z u r öm ischen Langschwer ten d er

s pä ten L i meszei t ' i n G . Kossack , G . U lber t ( edd .) , S tud ien z ur v or- u nd f rühgesch ich t l ichen Archäo log ie ( Festschr i f t J . Werner ) , 1 974 , 1 97ff . W HEELER , R .E. M , 1 936. WILD , J .P , 1 964.

Veru la mium :

aB elg ic a nd t wo Ro man C i t ies .

' The Tex ti le Ter m s cu tu la tus ' , C lass ica l Quar ter ly NS X IV ,

1 964 , 2 63f f . WILD , J .P , 1 967a .

' Two t echn ica l t er ms u sed b y R o man t apes try weavers ' ,

Ph i lo logus 1 11 , 1 967 , 1 51f f . WILD , J .P , 1 967b.

' So f t-f in ished t ex ti les i n Ro man B r i ta in ' , C lass ica l

Quar ter ly NS XVI I , 1 967 , 1 33f f . WILD , J .P , 1 968 .

' C lo th ing i n t he N or th- Wes t P rov inces o f t he Ro man Empire ' ,

Bonner J ahrbücher 1 68 , 1 968 , 1 66f f . WILD , J .P , 1 970 . WILD , J .P , 1 976a .

T ex t i le Manufacture i n t he N or thern R o man Provinces . ‚L oanwords

a nd R o man Expans ion i n n or th-wes t Europe ' ,

Wor ld Archaeology 8 , 1 976, 5 7f f . WILD , J .P , 1 976b.

' The C enaecea ' i n R . G oodburn , P . Bar tho lo mew ( edd .) ,

Aspects o f t he N o ti t ia D ign i ta tu m , BAR S upple men tary S er ies 1 5 , 1 976 , 5 1f f . WILD , J .P , 1 977.

The Tex ti les , V indo landa I I , 1 977.

WIPSZYCKA , E , 1 965.

L 'Indus tr ie t ex ti le d ans l 'Egyp te r o ma ine.

WIPSZYCKA , E , 1 966.

' Das Tex ti lhandwerk u nd d er S taa t im r öm ischen

Aegyp ten ' , Arch iv f ür Papyrus-forschung 1 8 , 1 966 , l f f .

1 31

I RON AGE AND RO MAN S ALT- W INN ING ON THE ESSEX COAST b y Warw ick R odwe l l

The a rchaeo log ica l s tudy o f e ar ly b r ine-evapora t ion s i tes i n B r i ta in h as b een more i n t i ma te ly c onnec ted w i th E ssex t han w i th a ny o ther a rea , a nd t he f irs t a ccoun t was p ub l ished o ne h undred y ears a go ( S topes 1 879 , f o l lowed b y A tk inson 1 880 a nd S topes 1 887) .

I n t h is c en tenary r ev iew o f t he e v idence p er-

t a in ing t o I ron Age a nd R o man S a l t p roduc t ion i n E ssex , we s ha l l f irs t c ons ider t he p hys ica l r e ma ins o f t he i ndus try , a nd t hen i t s p lace a nd f unc t ion i n s ocie ty . Three g enera l s urveys o f p reh is tor ic s a l t p roduct ion i nc lude b r ief s ec t ions o n Essex ma ter ia l ( Nenqu in 1 961 , G ou le tquer 1 974 a nd H opk inson 1 975 ). THE NATURE AND D ISTR IBUT ION OF RED H ILLS R ed H i l ls d er ive t he ir n ame f ro m t he f ac t t ha t t hey a re s i mp ly mounds o f f ire-reddened d ebr is .

E ach mound u sua l ly c o mpr ises many l ayers o f f r iab le

b urn t e ar th a nd f ired ' f loors ' , i n terspersed w i th l ayers o f a l luv ia l s i l t . s ize r ange i s f ro m 0 .25 a cre t o p erhaps 3 0 a cres ; a cres .

The

t he a verage b eing a f ew

The g ross d is tr ibu t ion o f R ed H i l ls i n Essex i s s hown o n F ig . 1 , where

t hey a re d iv ided f or c onven ience i n to f ive r eg iona l g roups .

F ie ldwork i n K en t

h as s hown t ha t t here a re n umerous s a l terns o n t he s ou th b ank o f t he Thames a nd a round t he Medway e s tuary ( M i les 1 975 ). De ta i led maps s how ing s o me o f t he g roups o f R ed H i l ls i n E ssex a re s hown o n F igs . 1 1 , 1 2 a nd 1 3 . 1 S TRUCTURES RECORDED I N RED H ILLS 1 .

H ear ths The l ayers a nd t i ps o f b urn t d ebr is i n R ed H i l ls may v ary i n t h ickness

f ro m a f ew c en t i me tres t o c1 .75 m.

L ikew ise i n tegra l l ayers o f a l luv ium

may e x tend i n t h ickness u p t o c0 .5 m.

S o me t i mes ab urn t e ar th l ayer h as a

r ela t ive ly h ard s ur face , o r c on ta ins a s er ies o f s uper i mposed ' f loors ' , o f b r iquetage .

These l eve ls a re s o met i mes r e ferred t o i n r epor ts a s ' work ing

f loors '. G enera l ly , t he e v idence s hows c lear ly t ha t b urn t e ar th a nd b r ique ta ge were s pread t o f or m ' work ing f loors ' , a nd t ha t t ramp l ing a nd f ur ther f ir ing o f t he s ur face r esu l ted i n t he f or ma t ion o f ah ard c rus t . I n af ew r are i ns tances t races o f h ear ths a nd t he emp lace men ts f or h ear th f urn i ture h ave b een n o ted o n work ing s ur faces .

Doubt less e x tens ive e xcava-

t i on wou ld r evea l more v i ta l e v idence o f t h is n a ture . H ear ths h ave o n ly b een n o ted s a t is fac tor i ly o n t wo s i tes ; G o ldhanger V I I I a nd O sea R oad . I n s evera l o ther c ases s truc tures h ave b een o bserved d ur ing d es truct ion , b u t n o t a dequa te ly r ecorded .

A t G o ldhanger t he r e ma ins o f as er ies o f b urn t f loors a nd l ong ,

k i ln-l ike s tructures , t ermed ' f lues ' i n t he r epor t , were f ound : 1 910 ) .

Fur ther d iscuss ion w i l l b e p os tponed u n t i l l a ter .

1 33

F ig . 2( Reader

S ALT PRODUCT ION

4

G rea t C hes te rfo rd

* R adw in ter R . S tour

* A rd le igh C amu lodunum

R ivenha l l

R B taca wa te r

R ed

H i l ls :

• o ne • s evera l A l luv iu m W ickfo rd B r iquetage

f inds

( i n land )

R . R oach

M uck ing 20

R . T ha mes

Km .

T i lbu ry

R Medway. W .J .FC79

F ig . 1

The l oca tion o f Red H i l ls i n Essex a nd n or th K en t i n r ela tion t o c oasta l a l luviu m .

1 34

F ig . 2

P lan o ft he s ou th-east p ar t o f Go ldhanger V I I I ( no . 7 8 ) , s how ing t he f i ve g roups o f s econdary ' f lues '.

1 35

The h ear th a t P e ldon s i mp ly c o mpr ised a h o l low o f o va l p lan , w i th a f ired c lay l in ing , c 1 .0 b y 2 .0 m.

There was n o i nd ica t ion t o s ugges t t he f or m o f

t he s upers truc ture o f t he f urnace ( de B r isay 1 978a ) .

E v idence f or a no ther

k ind o f s tructure was f ound a t O sea R oad , Ma ldon , where ab urn t work ing f loor c on ta ined a p a ir o f i nden ta t ions , 0 .35 m a par t , where sma l l p edes ta ls h ad o nce s tood ( de B r isay 1 972 , 3 2-3 ) . These c ons t i tu te t he o n ly e v idence r ecorded i n s i tu f or a no ther , a lbei t e n igma t ic , t ype o f h ear th s tructure . D esp i te t he p auc i ty o f e v idence f or i n tact s tructures , t here i s amp le ma ter ia l t o d e mons tra te t ha t h ear ths o f s o me k ind were b u i l t , p ar t ly u s ing p or table f urn i ture , i n e very R ed H i l l s o f ar e xam ined . 2 .

C layl ined Tanks R ed H i l ls a lso c on ta in u n f ired s tructures , p ar t icu lar ly i n t he f or m o f c lay-

l ined t anks s unk i n to t he g round . s e ts o f t anks o n t h is R ed H i l l : t hree , a nd a s ing le p a ir :

E xcava t ions a t O sea R oad r evea led s evera l

t here was o ne g roup o f f our , t hree g roups o f

F ig . 3( de B r isay 1 972 a nd 1 974 ) .

A t P e ldon a g roup

o f t hree t anks h as b een e xcava ted ( de Br isay 1 978a , F ig . 2 ) . I n a l l c ases t he t anks a ppear t o h ave b een f ormed b y d igg ing a k idneys haped h o le i n t he g round ( cu t t ing t hrough e ar l ier l ayers o f r ed e ar th a nd d ebr is ) a nd t hen l in ing t h is w i th r aw a l luv ia l c lay , wh ich w as p erhaps p udd led b eforehand . I n terna l ' wa l ls ' made o f t he s a me ma ter ia l d iv ided t he s tructure i n to t he s evera l s epara te t anks .

E ach t ank h as a s ur face a rea o f a bou t 1 .5 s q . m. a nd a max i-

mu m d ep th o f c1 .0 m. The mos t r easonab le i n terpreta t ion o f t he t anks i s t ha t t hey were u sed f or s tor ing wa ter ;

a nd o ne t ank a t Osea R oad c on ta ined a p o t tery v esse l wh ich

c ou ld h ave s erved a s ab a ler .

I th as b een c la i med b y d e B r isay ( 1978a , 3 9 )

t ha t t he p urpose o f t he c lay-l ined t anks was f or i n i t ia l , n a tura l e vapora t ion o f s ea wa ter , b u t t h is s i mp ly w i l l n o t work i n t he B r i t ish c l i ma te .

C er ta in ly t hese

d eep t anks , s e t i n to t he g round where t hey were p er manan t ly k ep t c o ld a nd d a mp , c an h ave h ad n o th ing t o d o w i th t he a c tua l e vapora t ion p rocess .

2

HEARTHS AND HEARTH FURN ITURE The t erm ' br ique tage ' c overs a w ide r ange o f d ebr is , mos t i fn o t a l l o f wh ich i s made o f af a ir ly f ine ly t ex tured s andy c lay , t e mpered w i th v ar iab le amoun ts o f c hopped v ege tab le ma ter ia l . s hows s igns o f b e ing k n i fe t r i m med ;

A l l b r ique tage i s h and made a nd o f ten

t here i s n o e v idence f or t he u se o f t he

p o t ter 's whee l o r mou lds . I np rev ious d iscuss ions o f b r ique tage t here h as b een a t endency t o d we l l u pon i nd iv idua l p ieces , a t t he e xpense o f aw ider c ons idera t ion o f t he ma ter ia l a s a who le . H ence , we s ha l l c ons ider h ere t he f u l l r ange o f b r ique tage f ound i n E ssex a nd t he e v idence f or a ssocia t ions b etween t ypes .

The f irs t p o in t t o

n o te i s t ha t t here a re t wo t ypes o f b r ique tage a sse mb lage wh ich d i f fer i n s evera l f unda men ta l a spec ts . The ma ter ia l w i l l b e c ons idered u nder t hese t wo h eadings . Asse mblage T ype A : 1 .

C o mponen ts

H ear th L in ing The e v idence f or c lay f l oor ing a t O sea R oad h as b een men t ioned a bove ,

a nd t here a re many p ieces o f b o th f loors a nd wa l ls o f h ear ths f ro m t he G o ld1 36

i

D

A

3 1

F ig . 3

M .

A .

Twin h ear th a nd f our wa ter s torage t anks, F un ton , K en t ;

B .

S quare b ui lding w i th i n terna l h ear th , a nd t wo wa ter s torage

t anks, F un ton , K en t ; D .

Ma ldon ; F .

C .

Group o f h ear ths, Goldhanger V II I ;

P lan a nd p rof i le o f c laylined t anks ( x , ya nd z ) , O sea R oad , E .

P lan o f c laylined t anks ( L t o Q ) , O sea Road , Ma ldon ;

P lan a nd s ection o f c layl ined t anks ( R , Sa nd T ) , O sea Road ,

Ma ldon .

1 37

F ig . 4

F irebars: E .

A , B .

L angenhoe I I ;

L angenhoe I I ; F .

P e ldon ;

G .

Ma ldon .

1 38

C .

P e ldon ;

D .

Gol c ihanger X ;

Goldhanger X ; H , J .

O sea R oad ,

h anger e xcava t ions .

I ti s c lear t ha t h ear ths c ou ld b e c ons tructed b y a pp lying

al in ing o f c lay 1 .0 t o 2 .5 cm t h ick t o t he i ns ide o f a wa t t le-work f ra me . Ev iden t ly s uch h ear ths were c ons truc ted o n t he g round s ur face , b e ing p acked a round w i th t ur f o r s o i l .

Were t hese h ear ths s unk i n to t he g round t hen a

wa t t le a nd c lay l in ing wou ld h ave b een s uper f luous , a nd f urnaces t he mse lves wou ld h ave s urv ived , a s t hey h ave , e xcep t iona l ly , a t G o ldhanger V I I I . A l though p edes ta l s ocke ts h ave o n ly b een n o ted a t O sea R oad , t he g enera l p r inc ip le o f s tand ing p edes ta ls o n t he h ear th f l oor i s c on f ir med b y t he a ppeara nce o f c ircu lar marks , c aused b y d i f feren t ia l b urn ing , o n f ragmen ts o f l in ing f ro m G o ldhanger . S o me f ragmen ts o f h ear th l in ing e xh ibi t c orners , s how ing t ha t r ec tangu lar h ear ths were i n u se a t G o ldhanger V I I I , a t a n e ar l ier d a te t han t he l ong ' f lues ' men t ioned a bove.

R ough ly f in ished e dges h ave a lso b een n o ted o n s o me p ieces

o f l i n ing , a nd i nden ta t ions i n t hese e dges h ave l ong b een r ecogn ised a s t he s ea t ings f or f irebars ( Reader 1 908 , F ig . 1 7 .1 ; 2 .

d e B r isay 1 978a , F ig . 1 0 1 .

F irebars These p refabr ica ted b ars , o f e longa ted t r iangu lar f or m , were p roduced

i n v ary ing s izes .

They a re h and made a nd were p robably b locked i n to s hape

u s ing p ieces o f wood .

S o me t i mes t here i s e v idence o f k n i fe t r imm ing , a nd

d oubt less t hey were o r ig ina l ly made i n s e ts , a l though t here i s n o e v idence t o s how h ow many migh t b e u sed t ogether .

I n l eng th , t hey mos t ly f a l l i n t he

r ange o f 2 0 cm t o 4 0 cm , a nd were e v iden t ly u sed w i th t he l ong f la t e dge u ppermos t ( i .e. w i th t he o btuse a ng le h ang ing d own ) . t ypes o f f irebar :

There a re b as ica l ly t wo

t he s hor ter o nes , wh ich a re t ru ly t r iangu lar ( F ig . 4A -F ) ,

a nd t he s l igh t ly l onger o nes wh ich h ave t he o b tuse a ng le c u t o f f ( Fig . 4G ' -J ). At ypo logy o f f irebars , r epresen t ing f our c hrono log ica l p hases , h as b een p roposed b y d e B r isay ( 1 978a , F ig . 6 ) , b u t t he s uppor t ing e v idence h as n o t b een a dequa te ly p ubl ished . e ar l ies t t ype . 3 .

The s hor t , t r iangu lar b ars a re s a id t o b e t he

P edes ta ls L ike f irebars , t hese a re i t e ms o f h and- made , p or table h ear th f urn i ture

f ound i n g rea t n u mbers o n R ed H i l ls .

R eader 's e xcava t ions y ie lded h undreds

o f f ragmen ts , b u t n o c o mp lete e xa mp les , a nd t he d iscovery o f p edes ta ls i n a v ir tua l ly c o mp le te s ta te a t O sea R oad a nd T o l lesbury i s o f s ign i f icance ( de B r isay 1 972 , 3 3 a nd 4 2 ;

1 978b , F ig . 2 ) .

Ap edes ta l c o mpr ised a r ough ly

c ircu lar s ha f t , w i th a f la t , mushroo m-shaped b ase a nd a T -shaped t op ( Fig . 5 ) . The c o mp le te p edes ta ls s tood c 2 8 cm a nd 3 0 cm h igh . Mos t o ther f ragmen ts o f s ha f t a re s hor ter t han t h is , b u t af ew e xceed 3 0 cm . O r ig ina l ly , t he b ases a nd t ops o f t hese s uppor ts were c lass i f ied s epara te ly , b e ing c a l led ' pedes ta ls ' a nd ' T-pieces ' , r espec t ive ly ( Reader 1 908 ) . n ow b e a bandoned .

T he l a t ter t er m c an

I th as n o t h i ther to b een p o in ted o u t t ha t p edes ta ls a re , i t s ee ms , g enera l ly f ound i n a ssocia tion w i th f irebars o f t he s econd g roup , i .e . t hose w i th a f la tt ened p ar t i n t he c en tre o f t he l ower e dge .

Thus a t P e ldon t he f irebars were

a l l o f t he t r iangu lar t ype a nd p edes ta ls were a bsen t ( save f or o ne s tray e xa mp le f ound o n t he e dge o f t he R ed H i l l ) .

Wh i le t h is p heno menon c ou ld b e t he r esu l t

o f ac hrono log ica l d i f ference , i ti s more l i ke ly t o b e r e la ted t o f unc t iona l f ac tors .

1 39

F ig . 5

P edesta ls:

A .

O sea Road , Ma ldon ;

Mersea ;

C .

To l lesbury .

Wedges:

D .

L angenhoe I I ;

E .

B .

L angenhoe V I ;

G .

L angenhoe I I ;

H .

Canvey I X ;

L .

Canvey I IIV ;

M .

Go ldhanger X ;

1 40

Cooper 's B each , East

J .

F .

Canvey I I ; N .

P eldon .

L angenhoe I I ; K .

Canvey I X ;

4 .

Wedges These a re t r iangu lar s labs o f f ired c lay , made i n t he s a me way a s f irebars .

They u sua l ly t ake t he f orm o f e qu i la tera l o r i sosce les t r iang les , b u t s o me a re a l mos t h ear t-shaped ( e .g . d e B r isay 1 978a , F ig . 9 , n os . 9 -12) . p erpendicu lar d i mens ion i s u p t o 1 0 cm ( F ig . 5 ) .

The a verage

There i s n o e v idence , e ven i n

t he f or m o f s ur face mark ings o r s ign i f ican t d isco loura t ion , t o g ive a h in t o f h ow wedges were u sed . 5 .

Pack ing P ieces Mrs d e Br isay h as d rawn a t ten t ion t o sma l l l u mps o f f i red c lay wh ich were

c lear ly u sed a s p ack ing p ieces , o r ' p inch p rops ' ( de B r isay 1 978a , 4 5 ).

They

were n o t p refabrica ted , o r t e mpered w i th v egetable ma ter ia l , b u t were s i mp ly p ieces o f p las t ic c lay wh ich were u sed t o f i l l g aps b etween o ther c o mponen ts a nd wh ich i n d ue c ourse b eca me h ard f ired .

The s hapes o f p ack ing p ieces

s ugges t t ha t t hey were p oss ib ly u sed o n t op o f p edes ta ls a nd u nder f irebars . 6 .

Br iquetage Vesse ls A c ons iderable p ropor t ion o f a l l b r iquetage i s i n v esse l f or m , b u t o n a ccoun t

o f i ts e x tre mely f r iable n a ture t he p ieces f ound a re s eldo m more t han a f ew c en t imetres a cross .

F ro m t he f ew l arge , o r r econs tructable , p ieces wh ich h ave b een

r ecovered i t i s e v iden t t ha t t he v esse ls were o f r ec tangu lar a nd s ub-rectangu lar f or m . The v esse ls a re h and made , w i th i rregu lar s ur faces a nd t he a verage wa l l t h ickness i s b etween 1 .5 a nd 2 .0 cm.

There a re c o m mon ly s igns o f k n i fe t r i m-

ming , e specia l ly o n t he r i ms a nd b ase a ng les .

The wa l ls a re u sua l ly u pr igh t ,

o r n ear ly s o , a nd t he r i ms p la in a nd s quare t opped .

I n s o me i ns tances t here

i s as l igh t l i p o r f lange e i ther i n terna l ly o r e x terna l ly , wh i le a f ew v esse ls h ad f r i l led o r c abled r i ms ( e .g . d e B r isay 1 978a , F ig .

1 1 ) .

These may b e e arlier

i n d a te t han t he ma in s er ies o f p la in r i ms ( d iscussed f ur ther b e low ). C orners s how t ha t t wo a d jacen t s ides c ou ld meet a t as harp r igh t-ang le o r b e r ounded ( wi th a r ad ius o f 5t o 8 cm ).

F ew p ieces a l low f or a n a ccura te

measure men t o f t he f u l l d ep th o f b r iquetage v esse ls , b u t t o b e t he min i mum .

c1 5 cm wou ld s ee m

A s ign if ican t f ind f ro m Osea R oad n o t o n ly c on fir ms t he

v er t ica l d i mens ion b u t a lso s hows t ha t t h is p ar t ic lar p an was c 3 0 cm w ide : F ig . 6B ( de Br isay 1 973 , 3 2 ). 3 0 cm o r more.

I ts l eng th r e ma ins u nknown , b u t was p robably

Wh i le t he a ng les o f t h is p ar t icu lar v essel were a l l s harp , i n

o ther c ases t hey were a l l a pparen t ly wel l r ounded ( F igs . 6D -E a nd Reader 1 910 , F ig . 1 2).

Ano ther v esse l f ro m Osea R oad was s a id t o measure c 5 0 cm

b y 3 0 cm . Wh i le t he ma jor i ty o f v essel f ragmen ts c ou ld b e s een a s b e long ing t o o ne o r o ther o f t hese f orms , af ew p ieces a re c lear ly a berran t .

One i s ar im s herd

f ro m G o ldhanger X , where t wo s ides meet a t a n a cu te a ng le ( Fig . 6F ) a nd a no ther i s t he e nd o f at rough f ro m C ooper 's B each , Eas t Mersea ( de Br isay 1 978a , F ig . 1 2 ).

The t rough a pparen t ly h ad a s em i-cyl indr ica l i n ter ior a nd

t he e nd wa l ls were r a ised l ike g ables ( Fig . 6C) .

The d ia meter o f t he c ylinder

may b e r econs truc ted a s c2 3 cm . F ina l ly , i t may b e men tioned t ha t , wh i le many b r iquetage v essels h ave smooth b ases , s o me s how impress ions o f w icker-work .

1 41

Th is was a p reva len t

F ig . 6

Briquetage v esse ls: C .

A .

O sea Road , Ma ldon ;

Cooper 's Beach , East Mersea ;

V I I I ;

F .

Go ldhanger X ;

G .

D .

B .

S a lco t t ;

Pe ldon ; E . Go ldhanger

S uggested f or m o f r ectangular t ank .

1 42

f ea ture a t O sea R oad , i nd ica t ing t ha t t he v esse ls w ere made a nd p robab ly f i red o n as imp le p a l let ( de B r isay 1 978a , 4 8 ) .

Af ew f ragmen ts o f r ec tangu lar s labs

o f b r iquetage , w i th t h in e dges , h ave b een r ecogn ised a s p robable l i ds f or t he c on ta iners d escr ibed a bove ( de B r isay 1 974 , 3 8 F ig . 2 ) .

F la t l i ds wou ld b e

d i f f icu l t t o r e move f ro m v esse ls o f h o t b r ine u n less t hey were p rov ided w i th k nobs o r h and les , a nd e xa mp les o f t he l a t ter h ave b een f ound o n s o me s i tes . Hand les t ook t he f or m o f c rude c lay r ods , s l igh t ly c urved , a nd s howing c lear f inger marks where t he ir e nds were l u ted o n ( Reader 1 908 , F ig . 1 5 , n os . 1 -3 ). A l though r ecogn ised f or wha t t hey a re b y R eader , d e B r isay ( 1978a , 4 5 ) c a l led t hese h and les ' shor t r ods ' a nd s ugges ted t ha t t hey were s o me k ind o f p rop .

Y et

a no ther p iece o f e v idence wh ich s ugges ts t ha t s o mebr ique tage v essels were c overed b y l i ds i s t o b e i n ferred f ro m t he sma l l r ounded n o tches wh ich a re o ccas iona l ly f ound o n t he t ops o f v esse l r i ms ( Fig . 6D ) .

These s i mp ly s erved

a s s tea m v en ts . A sse mblage T ype A :

R econs truct ion o f t he P rocess

H av ing n o ted a l l t he c lasses o f ma ter ia l e v idence , we may n ow p roceed t o c ons ider p oss ib le i nterpre ta t ions . The f i rs t p oin t t o s tress i s t ha t n o o ne r econs truc t ion w i l l a ccoun t f or a l l t he ma ter ia l d escr ibed :

t here a re c lear d i f ferences

b e tween f inds a sse mb lages f ro m s i tes wh ich a re r e la t ive ly c lose t oge ther . A l though l oca l v ar ia t ions migh t h ave b een p resen t a t a ny o ne t ime , i ti s p erhaps more l i ke ly t ha t c hrono log ica l f ac tors a re o f g rea ter s ign i f icance .

H ence i t

mus t b e b orne i n mind t ha t l arge R ed H i l ls w i th l ong h is tor ies o f u se may we l l c on ta in mixed a sse mb lages wh ich c an o n ly b e d isen tang led b y l arge s ca le e xcav a t ion a nd t he r igorous a na lys is o f f inds . F irs t , b r iquetage v esse ls a nd p or tab le h ear th f urn i ture h ad t o b e p roduced ; n o k i lns h ave b een f ound i n wh ich t hese i t e ms migh t h ave b een f ired , a nd f ro m t he ir f u l ly o x id ised a ppearance i ti s r easonable t o i n fer t ha t f ir ing s i mp ly t ook p lace i n a n o pen h ear th .

S ince c he m ica l e xa m ina t ion h as s hown t ha t t he c o m-

p os i t ion o f b r ique tage i s e n t ire ly c ons is ten t w i th i t s manu fac ture o u t o f t he l oca l a l luv ium ( Jenk ins 1 908 ) , t here i s n o g ood r eason t o d oubt t ha t i t was made o n t he R ed H i l ls . E vapora t ion h ear ths p robably a ppeared i n more t han o ne f or m a nd u n t i l s o me r easonab ly wel l p reserved s pec i mens a re f ound , we c an o n ly c on jec ture a long t he f o l low ing l ines .

I n p lan t hey were p robably r ec tangu lar a nd b u i l t u p

f ro m t he g round s ur face :

i .e . o n a' work ing f l oor '.

S tokepi ts migh t h ave b een

r ecessed i n to t he g round , a nd o ne i n terpre ta t ion o f t he P e ldon ' hear th ' i s t ha t i t was j us t s uch a s tokep i t .

The s ides o f a n e vapora t ion h ear th c o mpr ised e ar th

a nd t ur f , l ined w i th wa t t les a nd d aubed w i th c lay. f in ished t o al eve l t op , u pon wh ich f irebars r es ted .

T he c lay r ender ing was The i n terna l w id th c ou ld

o n ly h ave b een 3 0 t o 4 0 cm , i f as ing le f irebar was t o s pan t he g ap .

I ti s

i mposs ible t o g uess h ow l ong e ach h ear th was a nd h ow many f irebars were u sed t o f or m i t s s uspended f loor . I th as b een n o ted a bove t ha t t here s ee ms t o b e ac orre la t ion b e tween t he l ong f irebars w i th a f la t tened o btuse a ng le a nd p edes ta ls , a nd t he i n ference may t here fore b e made t ha t t he T -shaped t op o f ap edes ta l was d es igned t o s uppor t t he c en tra l p or t ion o f a .l ong f irebar . s uppor t .

S hor ter f irebars h ad n o s uch

I ti s o bv ious t ha t t he T -shaped t op r e f lec ts s o me s pec ia l s hape i n

t he o b jec t b eing s uppor ted .

Were p edes ta ls u sed f or t he d irect s uppor t o f 1 43

e vapora t ion v esse ls t hen ab road , f la t t op s im i lar t o t he l ower e nd wou ld h ave p rov ided g rea ter s tabi l i ty , a s we l l a s b e ing q u icker t o manu fac ture . Ac ur ious ' open h ear th ' a rrange men t was p roposed b y d e B r isay ( 1978a , F ig . 4 ) , whereby p a irs o f f ree-s tand ing p edes ta ls were made t o s uppor t t he e nds o f t he f irebars , o n t op o f wh ich were p laced e vapora t ion c on ta iners . N o t o n ly i s s uch ab iped a rrange men t o bv ious ly p recar ious a t t he b es t o f t imes , b u t i n t h is i ns tance i ti s a lso a n imposs ib le c ons truct ion .

Im med ia te c o l lapse

c ou ld b e e xpec ted when a v esse l o f b r ine was p laced u pon t he f irebars , t he t apered e nds o f wh ich wou ld s erve t o p ush t he p edes ta ls a par t i n o ppos i te d irec t ions .

R easonab le s tabi l i ty i s ap rerequ is i te o f ab r ine b o i l ing s tructure ,

a nd t h is c an o n ly b e a ch ieved i ft he f irebars wh ich a re p resumed t o c arry t he e vapora t ion t anks a re t he mse lves s o l id ly s uppor ted a t t he ir e nds . B r iquetage v esse ls mus t h ave s erved a s e vapora t ion t anks , p laced u pon a s uspended f loor o f f irebars .

These v esse ls n or ma l ly e xh ibi t s evera l i n terna l

h or izon ta l l ines o r az one d e f ined b y marked d iscoloura t ion , a t ad ep th o f c 1 .0 t o 4 .0 cm b e low t he r im .

Th is i s u nequ ivoca l e v idence t ha t l i qu ids were

b eing h ea ted i n t hese v esse ls a nd t he i n terpre ta t ion i s t ha t t he d isco loured b and r epresen ts t he g enera l l eve l t o wh ich t he b r ine was ma in ta ined b y t opping u p . A l though mos t b r iquetage v esse ls were e v iden t ly o f r ec t i l inear o r s ubr ec t i l inear f or m , i ti s n o t y et c lear whe ther s tandard s izes o r v o lumes were a i med a t o r a ch ieved .

Ap an d ep th o f c1 5 cm a nd w id th i n t he o rder o f 3 0 cm

h as a lready b een s ugges ted .

I n t er ms o f wa l l t h ickness a nd g enera l s treng th

al eng th o f n o t more t han 3 0 cm may b e s ugges ted ; l i tres ( 2 .75 g a l lons ) .

t ha t i s ac apac i ty o f 1 3

The we igh t o f ap an a l mos t f u l l o f b r ine wou ld h ave b een

i n t he o rder o f 1 1 .3 Kg ( 25 l bs ).

Th is i s c ons iderab le , a nd i s i n e xcess o f t he

l oad ing wh ich a p a ir o f ' unsuppor ted ' f irebars c ou ld h ave c arr ied .

A we igh t o f

t h is o rder c ou ld c er ta in ly h ave b een r es is ted b y f irebars w i th c en tra l p edes ta l s uppor ts .

F or u se w i th t he s l igh t ly s hor ter f irebars we s hou ld p robab ly t h ink

i n t erms o f e vapora t ion t anks o f a bou t h a l f o f t he a bove s ize a nd weigh t . An o b jec t ion wh ich m igh t b e r a ised t o t he s ugges ted u se o f t he c en tra l p edes ta l u nder a f irebar i s t he i nconven ience o f h av ing s evera l o f t hese o bs tac les s tand ing o n t he f loor o f t he h ear th . The e x ten t t o wh ich t hey were r ea l ly i nconven ien t c anno t b e d eter m ined w i thou t k now ing h ow t he h ear th was s toked a nd i n wha t f or m t he f ue l was a pp l ied .

The p rob le m o f we igh t mus t h ave b een

ap ara moun t c ons idera t ion : f irebars c ou ld h ave b een made more r obus t , b u t t hey n ever were ; o r , a l terna t ive ly , n u merous f irebars c ou ld h ave b een u sed t o s uppor t e ach p an , r a ther t han t he t wo s ugges ted . T o t h is t here a re t wo o b jec t ions : f irs t , t he more f irebars t here a re ( or t he t h icker t hey a re made ) , t he l ess h ea t w i l l g et t o t he e vapora t ion p an ; s econd ly , a nd p erhaps more s ign if ican t ly , i ti s v ir tua l ly i mposs ib le t o p rov ide e ven s uppor t f or a c rude , h and made v esse l o n as er ies o f p ara l le l b ars . I nev i tably , t he we igh t wou ld a l l f a l l o n t wo o r t hree p o in ts o f c on tact , t hus d e fea t ing t he o b jec t o f t he e xerc ise . I th as b een c la i med t ha t o n ly a g en t le h ea t i s n eeded t o p roduce s a l t c rys ta ls f ro m b r ine ( de B r isay 1 975 a nd 1 978a ) , a nd wh i le t h is i s t heore t ica l ly t rue , i td oes n o t a ccord v ery we l l w i th t he ma ter ia l r e ma ins . F irs t , i ti s c lear f ro m t he v as t amoun t o f b urn t e ar th f ound o n R ed H i l ls , t he d ep th o f 1 44

f i r ing o bserved o n h ear th wa l ls a nd f loors , a nd f ro m t he e x tens ive v i tr i f icat i on o f v esse l a nd h ear th s ur faces t ha t h igh t e mpera tures were r eached a nd ma in ta ined o ver c ons iderable p er iods . S econd ly , i fb r ine b o i l ing was a n e cono m ic i ndus try , wh ich we b e l ieve i tt o h ave b een , t hen mu l t ip le p ans o f s a l t c rys ta ls w ou ld h ave h ad t o b e p roduced f ro m e ach h ear th o n e very work ing d ay .

The ma ter ia l e v idence i s c ons is ten t n o t w i th p ans s tea m ing g en t ly f or

d ays o n e nd , b u t w i th c on t inuous b o i l ing a nd c ons tan t t opp ing u p . I ti s i n c onnec t ion w i th t he t opping u p p rocess t ha t t he c lay l ined t anks may b e s een t o h ave f u l f i l led a n ecessary f unc t ion .

The t anks p resu mab ly

e i ther f i l led t he mse lves a t h igh t ide , o r wa ter was b a led i n to t he m f ro m a d jac en t c reeks ; t hus when t he t ide wen t o u t t here was a lways a r eady s upp ly o f s a l t wa ter f or t opping u p .

E qua l ly i mpor tan t i s t he f ac t t ha t s ea wa ter n eeds

t o b e a l lowed t o s tand f or a wh i le b efore b e ing b o i led , s o t ha t a l l t he i nso luble i mpur i t ies c an b e s epara ted o u t , p roducing a c leaner s a l t y ie ld .

Thus t he c lay-

l ined h o les w ere n o t j us t r eservo irs , b u t were a lso s e t t l ing t anks . Th is l eaves o n ly o ne e le men t i n t he T ype A a sse mblage f or wh ich a p lausi b le a nd n ecessary f unc t ion h as n o t b een a t tr ibu ted , n a me ly , t he c lass o f t r ia ngu lar o b jec ts k nown a s ' wedges '.

H i ther to , o n ly o ne s ugges t ion h as b een

made a s t o t he ir u se , a nd t h is a s s uppor t ing ' bracke ts ' f or t rough-shaped e vapora t ion p ans ( de B r isay 1 978a , 4 5 , F ig . 9 ) .

Wh i le i ti s a dm i t ted ly i ngen i-

o us , s uch a c ons truc t ion wou ld b e a l mos t i mposs ible t o b u i ld s o t ha t t he we igh t o f ap an o r t rough was t aken e ven ly o n , s ay , f our wedges .

E ven i fi t were

s uccess fu l ly c ons truc ted , u s ing wedges l arge e nough f or t he p urpose , i tw ou ld b e i nheren t ly t oo weak t o h o ld u p when t he t ank was f i l led w i th b r ine .

I n a ny

c ase , many wedges a re t oo sma l l o r t oo i rregu lar f or u se i n t h is way. I f wedges were e ver p u t t o a ny c ons is ten t c ons truc t iona l u se t hey o ugh t t o e xh ibi t more o bv ious d i mens iona l g roup ings , a s we l l a s s o me f or m o f t e l lta le e v idence o n t heir s ur faces . They a re f requen t ly d isco loured i n v ar ious ways , b u t n o e v idence o f mean ing fu l p a t tern ing h as y et b een n o ted .

They make n o

s ense i n t er ms o f s uppor ts , p ack ing p ieces , r ad ia l o ven p la tes , s pacers o r a ny o ther s truc tura l e le men t . Ad eta i l wh ich i s n o t iceable i s t ha t a wedge w i l l a lways s tand u pr igh t i f p laced o n i t s ' basa l ' e dge , a nd i ti s t here fore p oss ib le f or t he m t o h ave b een p laced i ns ide t he e vapora t ion t anks w i th t heir a p ices u pper mos t .

H ere t hey

wou ld p erfor m a n o bv ious f unc t ion i n a cce lera t ing t he r a te o f c rys ta l liza t ion o f t he b r ine . There i s a wel l k nown e xper i men t i n p rac t ica l c he m is try wh ich d e mons tra tes h ow s a l t c rys ta ls f irs t f or m a ga ins t t he e dge o f a n e vapora t ing d ish a nd a round a ny o b jec t ( such a s as t irr ing r od ) wh ich i s p laced i n t he b r ine s olu t ion . S evera l wedges , w i th t he ir r e la t ive ly l arge s ur face a rea b u t l ow v o lume , wou ld b e i dea l a s c rys ta l l iza t ion p la tes i n at ank o f b o i l ing b r ine . A sse mb lage T ype B :

C o mponen ts

Mos t o f t he e v idence f or t h is b r ique tage a sse mblage t ype c o mes f ro m C anvey I s land . 1 .

H ear th L in ing N umerous f ragmen ts w i th i rregu lar s ur faces b e long t o t he wa l ls o r f loors

o f h ear ths o f u nknown f or m a nd d i mens ions .

1 45

These d o n o t c o mpare w i th t he

F ig . 7

S tructura l e le men ts u sed i n s uspended f l oors o f h ear ths: A .

Canvey I I , r econstructed f i rebar g rid ;

C . D .

Canvey V II I ;

E .

Canewdon ;

1 46

F .

B .

Canvey I IIV ;

Canvey L X ;

G .

Canvey M.

h ard , wa t t le b acked l i n ings o f T ype A ; f irebar i mpress ions .

n or d o t hey e xh ibi t c lear e dges o r

O f ten t he ' l in ing ' i s n o th ing more t han a h ardf ired

' sk in ' o n a mass o f f r iab le a nd p oor ly f ired c lay .

Wh i le work ing f loors o f a

s i mp le k ind h ave b een n o ted a nd masses o f d isp laced l in ing f ound o n t he m , s tructures i n s i tu h ave y et t o b e r epor ted .

Once a ga in i ti s c lear t ha t l arge

q uan t i t ies o f t ur f a nd s oi l were i ncorpora ted i n t hese h ear ths , wh ich b eca me b urn t t o v arying d egrees . 2 .

P ierced F loor ing S ec t ions o f s uspended f l oor ing a re c o m mon ly f ound .

These a re u sua l ly

i n t he f orm o f c urved l edges , t he o u ter e dge h av ing b een l u ted t o ah ear th wa l l , wh i le t he i nner i s smoo th ly r ounded ( F ig . 7B -D ) .

On a verage , t hese l edges

a re c 6 .0 cm w ide a nd a re p ierced v er t ica l ly w i th sma l l h o les ( de B r isay 1 978a , f ig . 1 4 .32 ).

As we l l a s b e ing v egetable t e mpered , l edges o f ten e xh ibi t marks

o f s uppor t ing wa t t les o n t he u nders ide . 3 .

F irebar G r ids Prefabr ica ted f i rebars ( or a ny o ther r eady- made o b jec ts ) a re n o t o f ten

f ound i n t h is a sse mb lage , b u t g r ids o f im movable f irebars a re a t tes ted .

The

b ars were made o f c lay wrapped o ver w i th ies a nd t hen f ired , g iv ing t he m a c harac ter is t ica l ly r ounded , c rescen t ic c ross-sec t ion .

The l arges t s ec t ion o f

f irebar g r id c o mes f ro m L e igh B eck , C anvey I s land ( Fig . 7A ) a nd s ugges ts t ha t t he h ear th was e i ther o f s ub-rec tangu lar p lan o r was l ong a nd n arrow , w i th ar ounded e nd .

O ther g r ids a re p robab ly r epresen ted b y t he b ar f ragmen ts ,

F ig . 7F -G . 4 .

Wedges These a re e xac t ly s im i lar t o t he wedges o f T ype A , b u t c an b e v ery much

sma l ler i n s ize . 5 .

S pacers Var ious c rude ly f ormed p ieces o f f ired c lay e v iden t ly a c ted a s s pacers o r

p ack ing p ieces a nd o ne r ecurr ing t ype may b e d iscerned .

I ti s ac urved , b anana-

l ike p iece o f c lay wh ich may b es t b e l i kened t o t he s pacers u sed f or s tack ing mor tar ia i n k i lns . T he i t e ms f ro m t he R ed H i l ls c ou ld h ave s erved a s im i lar f unc t ion i n r e la t ion t o t he s tack ing o f c ircu lar e vapora t ion p ans , f or f ir ing . 6 .

Br iquetage Vesse ls These a re u t ter ly d i f feren t f ro m t hose o f T ype A , b e ing much sma l ler

a nd t h inner wa l led .

They were a l l g enera l ly manu factured i n t he s a me way ,

b u t t he T ype B v esse ls n or ma l ly h ave wa l ls n o t h icker t han 0 .5 t o 1 .0 cm ; f ew e xamp les r eached a t h ickness o f 2 .0 cm .

a

S o me T ype B v esse ls were

r ec tangu lar a nd h ad r ounded c orners , wh i le o ther p ieces s ee m c er ta in ly t o b e f ro m f u l ly c ircu lar v esse ls . Wa l ls may b e u pr igh t o r o u tward l ean ing ; r i ms a nd b ase a ng les may b e t r i m med i n av ar ie ty o f ways ( Fig . 8A -J ) . There i s n o e v idence f or l i ds o r h and les . A s i mp le t ypo logy f or t hese v esse ls , b ased o n f ragmen ts a nd f irs t p repared i n 1 964 , h as s tood t he t es t o f t ime a nd may b e s um mar ised h ere ( Rodwe l l 1 966, 2 3 , f ig . 8 ) :

1 47

1

A

U1 1 7 1 0 l cm

F ig . 8

Briquetage v essels: r ectangular p an ;

A-J .

L -M .

Canvey I n ;

K .

Reconstruction o f

Reconstruction o f c ylindrica l p ans.

1 48

F ig . 8 K

R ec tangu lar p an w i th r ounded c orners a nd u pr igh t wa l ls c 8 t o 1 0 cm h igh .

The t h ickness i s 5t o 1 0 mm .

The ma in d i mens ions o f t h is t ype

a re n o t k nown , b u t t o b e i n k eep ing w i th t he o ther t wo t ypes t hey were p resumably i n t he o rder o f 2 0 cm t o 3 0 cm s quare . F ig . 8 L

C ircu lar p an w i th t h ick wa l ls ( 2 _15 t o 1 9 mm ) .

The r im a nd b ase d ia-

me ter a re c ons tan t a t c3 0 cm a nd c 2 0 cm r espec t ive ly , a nd t he b ase a ng le v ar ies b e tween 1 10° a nd 1 20 ° . The h e igh t i s t here fore a bou t 1 1 cm . F ig . 8M

C ircu lar p an w i th t h in wa l ls ( 9 _ 5m m ) .

The b ase d ia meter may b e u p

t o 3 0 cm , t he r im d iame ter 3 0 t o 4 0 cm , a nd t he b ase a ng le v ar ies b etween 9 5° a nd 1 10°.

The h e igh t o f t hese v esse ls i s t here fore a bou t

8 cm . A sse mb lage T ype B :

R econs truc t ion o f t he p rocess

H ere , o n ly t he b r ique tage v esse ls were p refabr ica ted , b u t t here i s a ga in n o e v idence a s t o h ow t hey were p roduced .

Wh i le t hey a re sma l ler a nd b e t ter

f or med t han T ype A v essels t here i s s t i l l n o r eason why t hey s hou ld n o t h ave b een b aked i n a n o pen f ire ;

i ndeed L inder ( 1941a , 5 7-8 ) d e mons tra ted t he

p robabi l i ty t ha t t h is was t he c ase .

H e a lso s howed c onv inc ing ly t ha t t he b urn t

e ar th a nd b r iquetage was a l l d er ived f ro m f ir ing t he l oca l s andy a l luv iu m wh ich o ver l ies t he L ondon c lay o n C anvey I s land ( L inder 1 939 , 1 43-5 ). E vapora t ion h ear ths may b e i mp l ied f ro m t he d ebr is t o h ave b een s i mp le s ur face-bu i l t t ur f a nd e ar th s tructures ; t hey embod ied n o p or tab le f urn i ture , b u t h ad r a ised f loors wh ich were c ons tructed a nd f ired i n s i tu . c lear ly t wo t ypes o f r a ised f loor :

There were

t he p er fora ted l edge wh ich d e f ined o ne o r

more l arge c ircu lar h o les i n t he o rder o f 1 5 cm t o 2 0 cm d ia me ter ; a nd t he f irebar g r id . The f or mer t ype wou ld a ppear t o h ave b een s u i table f or t h e s upp or t o f t he c ircu lar b r iquetage p ans , wh i le t he l a t ter wou ld s u f f ice t o c arry t he s quare ( or r ec tangu lar ) t anks . Presumably t he f irebar g r ids were s uppor ted o n l edges o r c lay wa l ls w i th in t he h ear ths . The r econs tructed f irebar g rid ( Fig . 7A ) i nd ica tes a r ound-ended f urnace w i th a n i n terna l w id th o f s o me 4 0 cm .

I ti s p oss ible , b u t n o t c er ta in , t ha t

s o me o f t he c urved a nd p er fora ted f ragmen ts o f l edges f i t ted i n to r ound-ended f urnaces : s ee e specia l ly F ig . 7B . The s o-ca l led ' horned ' o b jec t f ro m C anewd on h as n ever b een s a t is factor i ly i n terpre ted , a nd i s p erhaps b es t s een a s a no ther c o mponen t i n , o r v ar ia t ion o n , t he v en ted f loor w i th c ircu lar a pert ures ( F ig . 7 E) . F ina l ly i ti s s ign i f ican t t o n o te t ha t , d esp i te a l l t he d i f ferences b e tween T ype A a nd B a sse mblages , t he wedge i s t he o n ly a r te fac t c o m mon t o b o th . I n T ype B i ti s o n a verage sma l ler , s e ldo m r each ing a p erpend icu lar h e igh t o f 1 0 cm , a nd s o met i mes o n ly 5 cm .

Th is l ends s uppor t t o o ur c on ten t ion t ha t

t he wedge was n o t as tructura l a r te fac t l i ke t he f irebar a nd p edes ta l .

The sma l l

T ype B wedges wou ld b e we l l s u i ted f or u se i n sma l l e vapora t ion p ans a s c rys ta ll i za t ion p la tes . TYPE A AND TYPE B ASSE MBLAGES CO MPARED AND CONTRASTED Despi te t he n u mber o fp oin ts o n wh ich a sse mb lages o fb r ique tage o f Types Aa nd B d i f fer , d e B r isay ( 1978a , 5 2 ) f e l t a b le t o a sser t t ha t ' i t i s a n i n teres t ing 1 49

F ig . 9

Briquetage v esse ls f or c o mparison w i th E ssex ma teria l : A .

I ngold me l ls, L incs. ( af ter May 1 976) ;

( af ter Mi les 1 975, modi f ied ) .

1 50

B , C .

F un ton , K en t

f act t ha t t he b as ic e qu ip men t o f t he E ssex R ed H i l ls i s c ons is ten t t hroughou t ... ' ;

t h is c anno t p ass u ncha l lenged .

I th as l ong b een c lear , a l though n o t

p rev ious ly s ta ted e xp l ic i t ly , t ha t t he t wo a sse mb lage t ypes a re mu tua l ly e xc lus ive :

T ype A i s f ound i n r eg ions 2 , 3a nd 4 o n F ig . 1( i .e . a round t he r ivers

C o lne a nd B lackwa ter ) , wh i le T ype B i s r ecorded o n ly i n r eg ions 1 a nd 2 .

The

e xact l i ne o f d iv is ion i s n o t k nown , b u t i ti s s o mewhere b e tween t he C rouch a nd t he B lackwa ter ( i .e . t he D eng ie p en insu la ) , a n a rea where t here h as b een h ard ly a ny e xcava t ion o n R ed H i l l s i tes ( s ee C o le 1 906 ).

V ery l i t t le i s k nown f ro m

r eg ion 5 . I t may a lso b e n o ted t ha t t he T ype B a sse mblage i s f ound o n t he s ou th b ank o f t he Tha mes , t hroughou t t he a rea o f t he n or th K en t ish s a l terns .

I tw i l l b e

i ns truc t ive , t here fore , t o c ons ider b r ie f ly t he e v idence f ro m K en t , s ince t h is h e lps t o i l lum ina te t he E ssex ma ter ia l .

Au se fu l s urvey h as b een c o mp i led b y

M i les ( 1 975 ) , b u t t he p ub lica t ion i n d e ta i l o f s truc tures a nd f inds i s s t i l l a wa i ted . A t C oo ling r ec tangu lar h ear ths were f ound o ver wh ich t he e vapora t ion t anks were p resumab ly moun ted o n r a ised f loors .

T he f irebar g r ids a nd p ierced

f loors n o ted a t C anvey wou ld f i t we l l i n to t he C oo l ing h ear ths ( M i les 1 975 , F ig . 1 4 ) .

O va l h ear ths were r ecorded a t C l i f fe , wh ich . may b e c o mpared w i th t he

h ear th a t P e ldon ( M i les 1 975 , F ig . 1 3 ) .

O nce a ga in , a t C lif fe i t s ee ms v ir tua l ly

c er ta in t ha t t he s urv iving ' hear th ' i s r ea l ly o n ly t he s tokeho le o r f urnace b e low as ur face-bu i l t h ear th s truc ture . A l though n o c lay-l ined t anks h ave b een r ecorded o n R ed H i l ls i n s ou thern Essex , t here mus t h ave b een a n eed f or s e t t l ing a nd s torage t anks , b u t i t s hou ld n o t b e f orgo t ten t ha t t he r equ ired f ac i l i ty c ou ld h ave b een o b ta ined b y d a m ming u p ar i l l o r d igg ing a p oo l .

Tha t s e t t l ing t anks d id e x is t o n Tha mes-s ide i s

h owever p roved b y t he e v idence f ro m C oo l ing , where o ne p a ir was f ound b es ide as ing le h ear th a nd t wo p a irs b es ide a t w in h ear th ( M i les 1 975 , F ig . 1 4 ) : F ig . 3A -B .

s ee

The d ouble h ear th c a l ls t o mind a s im i lar s tructure f ro m Br i t tany

( W i l mer i n R eader 1 908 , F ig . 2 6 ) . The b r iquetage v esse ls u sed f or e vapora t ion i n K en t were c lear ly s im i lar t o t hose r ecorded f ro m Canvey I s land , a l though t he r econs truct ions o ffered a re o f s l igh t ly d i f feren t p ropor t ions ( M i les 1 975 , F ig . 1 2 ) . wedges , b u t n o t p edes ta ls ;

K en t ish s i tes y ie ld

wh i le s o me s i tes a lso i nc lude f irebars amongs t

t he ir d ebr is , t here i s n o o verwhe lm ing e v idence a t p resen t t o a ssoc ia te t hese w i th s a l t-w inn ing .

S o me , i fn o t a l l , a re t he d ebr is f ro m t he manu facture o f

R o man p o t tery , wh ich was a lso t ak ing p lace o n t he marshes . h as n o t s o f ar a r isen o n t he s ou thern E ssex s i tes .

Th is c on fus ion

The r econs truct ions o f v esse ls o f fered b y M i les a re o f s l igh t ly l arger c apac i ty t han o urs f ro m Canvey I s land , b u t i n r espec t o f t h is i t s hou ld b e r e me mbered t ha t s o me , b u t b y n o means a l l , o ft he C anvey b rique tage i s v ery t h in a nd f rag i le ( co mpare F igs . 8B -C a nd 9 ) . I t maybe n o ted t ha t as er ies o f v esse ls l i ke t he r ec tangu lar o ne f ro m Fun ton ( F ig . 9 B ) , p laced s ide b y s ide , wou ld f i t n ea t ly a cross t he f irebar g r id f ro m C anvey ( F ig . 8 A ).

J us t a s t here

a re r ec tangu lar a nd c ircu lar v esse ls r epresen ted a t C anvey , s o t here a re a t Fun ton ;

M i les r econs tructed t he ' c ircu lar ' v esse l i n t he f or m o f a n o va l d ish

( M i les 1 975 , F ig . 1 2 .2 ) , b u t t here i s n o r eason why i ts hou ld n o t b e r econs tructed a s ac yl indr ica l v esse l o f r a ther i rregu lar c urva ture . I t s b asa l d iame ter wou ld b e i n t he o rder o f 3 5 t o 4 0 cm ( Fig . 9C ).

1 51

c i i ID

Compara tive p lans o f s a l tern h ear ths:

B .

Go ldhanger V I II , ' f lue l a ';

0 4 ->

, 1 • •

c n

1 52

A s ub-rec tangu lar b r ique tage d ish , h a l f t he s ize o f t ha t f ro m Fun ton , h as b een f ound a t i ngo ld me l ls , L incs . ( unpub l ished ); t he s ame s i te h as a lso y ie lded al arge c o f f in-shaped p an , r ough ly t w ice t he s ize o f t he K en t ish e xa mp le ( Fig . 9A a nd May 1 976 , F ig . 7 2 ).

The I ngo ld me l ls p an i s q u i te s ha l low b u t i s v ery

f rag i le a nd wou ld h ave r equ ired c are fu l s uppor t i n t he h ear th . The g enera l c onc lus ion wh ich may b e d rawn i s t ha t t he s tructures a nd f inds r epresen ted b y a sse mblages o f T ypes A a nd B r epresen t s a l t-w inn ing p rocesses c arr ied o u t i n t he s a me f undamen ta l way , b u t u s ing d i f feren t f or ms o f h ardware . The t wo t ypes , a s a lready n o ted , h ave g eograph ica l ly s epara te a reas o f o perat ion .

R ed H i l ls y ie ld ing t he T ype A a sse mblages may b e l abe l led t he ' Eas t

C oas t g roup ' , a nd T ype B t he ' Tha mes- mou th g roup '.

I t may b e a ppropr ia te

t o s tress h ere t ha t t hese a re o n ly t wo o f s evera l c lear ly d e f inable a sse mblages o f s a l tern ma ter ia l :

e qua l ly d is t inc t ive , f or e xa mp le , a re t he ' Sou th L inco ln-

s h ire g roup ' o r t he ' Nor th S o merse t g roup '. On a verage , R ed H i l ls o f t he Eas t C oas t g roup a re f ar l arger t han t heir Tha mes- mou th c oun terpar ts a nd t hey c on ta in much more v o lum inous d epos i ts o f r ed b urn t e ar th .

The b r iquetage a sse mb lages f ro m t he Eas t C oas t s i tes

s how t ha t t he h ear ths a nd h ardware were c ons truc ted t o al arger s ca le a nd i n ac oarser a nd more r obus t f ash ion , a l though t he t echn iques o f manufac ture a ppear t o b e b as ica l ly s im i lar i nb o th r eg ions . THE GOLDHANGER ' FLUES ' I n c ons ider ing t he ma ter ia l e v idence f ro m R ed H i l ls we mus t f ina l ly r e turn t o t he e n igma t ic ' f lues ' wh ich were r ecorded i n t he l a tes t l eve ls o f G oldhanger V I I I ( Reader 1 910 ) .

N ine o f t hese t roughl ike ' f lues ' were r ecorded : f our p a irs

a nd a s ing le o ne ( F ig . 2 ) .

They c lose ly r ese mble l a te I ron Age a nd e ar ly Ro man

p o t tery k i lns , ar e la t ionsh ip wh ich h as b een c ons idered i n d e ta i l e lsewhere ( Rodwe l l 1 979 , f o r t hco m ing ) ;

b u t more i m med ia te ly r e levan t i s t he ir s im i lar i ty

t o t he b r ine e vapora t ion h ear ths a t I ngo ld me l ls , L incs . a nd C oo l ing , Ken t . The G o ldhanger h ear ths were s i mp ly r ecorded a s t roughl ike f ea tures w i th r ounded e nds , wh ich i s n o t s urpr is ing s ince t hey were e xcava ted b y u nt ra ined workmen .

H owever , f lue n o . 1 A o n F ig . 1 0B was e xcava ted b y R eader

h i msel f a nd y ie lded more d eta i l .

I tc ons is ted o f as ub-rec tangu lar c ha mber

C1 .05 m b y 0 .45 m , i n terna l ly l edged o n a l l s ides , a nd w i th a sma l ler f urnace b e low .

One e nd was o pen a nd c onnected w i th a l ong n arrow s tokepi t .

The wa l ls

a nd f loor o f t he c hamber a nd f urnace were o f h ard f ired c lay a nd t he c lear ly d e f ined i n terna l h or izon ta l l edge s ugges ts t ha t i th ad a s peci f ic f unc t ion ;

t he

s tructure s urv ived t o ah e igh t o f 0 .3 m. F irebars f ro m G o ldhanger V I I I i nc luded f ragmen ts wh ich r econs truc t a s b ars 4 0-45 cm i n l eng th .

These wou ld c onven ien t ly s pan t he c hamber , r es t ing

o n t he l edges , t o f orm a r a ised f loor u pon wh ich p ans o f b r ine c ou ld b e p laced . A l though p oor ly p reserved , t he p a irs o f s a l tern h ear ths a t I ngo ld me l ls ( Baker 1 959 ) may b e r econs truc ted i n as im i lar way ( Fig . 1 0A ) , a nd t he t w in h ear ths a t C oo l ing , a l though n o t y e t p ub l ished i n d e ta i l , c lear ly p o in t t o as im i lar a rrangemen t , F ig . 1 0C ( M i les 1 975 , 2 9 F ig . 1 4 ) . The c onc lus ion wh ich may r easonably b e d rawn r egard ing t he G oldhanger ' f lues ' i s t ha t t hey were b r ine e vapora t ion h ear ths wh ich h appened t o b e e xcept iona l ly wel l p reserved ;

t h is was a r esu l t o f t he ir b e ing d ug s ubs tan t ia l ly i n to 1 53

t he mound , r a ther t han b eing b u i l t u pon i t s s ur face .

G o ldhanger V I I I p rov ides

g ood e v idence f or o ne h ear th a rrange men t , b u t , a s we h ave a lready n o ted , t here were e v iden t ly o thers t oo . THE DAT ING OF RED H ILLS L i t t le h as b een s a id s o f ar o n t he p rob le m o f d a t ing R ed H i l ls , s ave t o n o te t ha t t hey a re b road ly o f t he I ron Age a nd R o man p er iods .

There i s n o

s hor tage o f f inds o f d o mes t ic p o t tery f ro m R ed H i l ls , b u t o f o ther c lasses o f a r te fac t t here a re v ery f ew e xa mp les .

Thus d a t ing i s , f or a l l p ract ica l p urposes ,

e n t ire ly d ependen t u pon p o t tery t ypo log ies ; b u t t here i s as er ious d i f f icu l ty s ince v ery l i t t le p o t tery h as b een f ound , o r a t l eas t p roper ly r ecorded , f ro m i n o r u nder b urn t e ar th l ayers . R eader ( 1908 ) i l lus tra ted a u se fu l s e lec t ion o f l a te I ron Age p o t tery f ro m Langenhoe a nd G o ldhanger , s o me o f wh ich may b e a ss igned t o mean ing fu l l ocat ions .

At er m inus p os t q ue m f or Langenhoe n Tis p rov ided b y t he p edes ta l j ar

a nd c urv i linear-decora ted ompha los b ow l wh ich were f ound i n ar i l l b e low t he mound ( Reader 1 908 , F ig . 8 ) .

The j ar a nd i t s t ype h ave r ecen t ly b een d iscus -

s ed b y P . J . D rury ( 1978 , 6 3 , F ig . 1 3 ) a nd c urv i l inear b ow ls b y t he wri ter ( i n Drury a nd R odwe l l 1 973 , 9 3-4 ;

a nd R odwe l l 1 976b , 5 0-1 ) .

Tha t t he Langen -

h oe v esse ls were d epos i ted i n t he f i rs t c en tury B . C . i s p robab ly n o t i n d oub t , b u t c loser d a t ing i s n ot a t p resen t p oss ib le .

The w ri ter i nc lines t o ad a te n o t

l a ter t han t he midd le o ft he c entury . The t wo p o t tery v esse ls c ons t i tu ted p ar t o f ag roup o f f inds wh ich migh t b e c ons idered more a s ar i tua l d epos i t t han a u ti l i tar ian o ne . The g roup i nc luded o x s ku l ls , r ed d eer a n t lers a nd o ther u nspeci f ied b ones , a s wel l a s o b jects o f b r iquetage ( Reader 1 908 , 1 72 ) .

The b r ique tage i s o f e spec ia l i n teres t ,

b e ing o f s o mewha t d i f feren t c haracter , a s R eader n o ted , f ro m t he s tra t igraph ic a l ly l a ter ma ter ia l o n t he s i te : f rag men ts o f h ear th l in ing , p or table f urn i ture a nd t anks a re r epresen ted . ( Reader 1 908 , F ig . 1 8 ) . F irs t , i t may b e n oted t ha t t he f irebars a re o f t he t r iangu lar p o in ted t ype , b u t a re s hor ter t han a l l o ther k nown e xamp les a nd a re d ished o n t he l ong s ide ( Fig . 4A -B ) .

S econd ly , t he

v ar ious f ragmen ts o f ' pedes ta l ' s ha f t s ee m t o t aper t o ab lun t e nd , w i thou t mushr oo m o r T -shaped t erm ina t ions , a t wha t was p resumed t o b e t he l ower e nd ( Reader 1 908 , F ig . 1 8 , n os . 9 -12 ) .

These may p erhaps b e i n terpre ted a s s up-

p or ts wh ich were i n tended t o b e p ushed i n to t he g round , r a ther t han s tood u pon af la t s ur face ;

s uch a n a rrange men t i s r em in iscen t o f Bronze Age a nd Ear ly

I ron Age t echn iques ( c f R ieh m 1 961 ;

K le inmann 1 975 ;

J ones 1 977).

F inds f ro m t he b urn t e ar th l ayers i n Langenhoe I , I I a nd V I a nd G o ldhanger V I I I a nd X c o mpr ises La te I ron Age p o t tery o f ' Be lg ic ' t ype , t he mos t d iagnos t ic p ieces o f wh ich a re a ss ignable t o t he l a ter f irs t c en tury B .C. a nd t he e ar ly d ecades o f t he f irs t c en tury A .D.

R eader s peci f ica l ly n o ted t he a bsence o f

R o mano-Br i t ish wares f ro m t hese l ayers .

Ap iece o f s ig i l la ta , n o t n ow i den t i-

f iab le , was f ound i n t he b urn t e ar th a t G o ldhanger X a nd was i den t i f ied b y H . B . Wa l ters a s ' Arre t ine ware '; a l l t ha t c an n ow b e s a id i s t ha t i ti nd ica tes a d a te o f a f ter c 2 0 B .C. f or t he l ayer . The ' f lues ' a t G o ldhanger V I I I were s epara ted f ro m t he b urn t e ar th l ayers b y a midden d epos i t wh ich c on ta ined R o mano-Br i t ish p o t tery o f t he s econd c en tury ; t hese h ear ths were p robab ly n o t c ons truc ted b e fore t he l a t ter p ar t o f t ha t c en tury

1 54

( Reader 1 910 , 7 4-5 ) .

N o ma ter ia l was i l lus tra ted f ro m C anewdon a nd n one

h as b een t raced b y t he wr i ter ;

e v iden t ly v ery l i t t le was f ound a nd t h is was

s i mp ly d escr ibed a s ' La te C e l t ic ' ( Reader 1 910 , 8 2 ) . A l though L inder f ound a c ons iderab le q uan t i ty o f p o t tery i n h is e xcava t ions o n Canvey I s land , h e o n ly men t ioned i ti n p ass ing i n h is r epor ts .

H is r ecord ing

o f f inds was , h owever , me t icu lous a nd t h is ma ter ia l h as b een p repared f or p ubl ica t ion ( Rodwe l l f or thco m ing ) .

I n s harp c on tras t t o R eader 's f inds , t here

i s s care ly a h and fu l o f s herds wh ich migh t p re-da te t he R o man c onques t f ro m Canvey V , V I I I a nd I X .

The p o t tery f ro m t he b urn t l ayers i s l arge ly d a table

t o t he s econd h a l f o f t he f irs t c en tury , b u t s o me may b e long t o t he e ar ly s econd c en tury. The e xcava t ion o f Canvey X I I , a l though n o t e x tens ive , p rov ided r easonably g ood e v idence f or p lac ing t he s a l tern a c t iv i ty i n t he s econd h a l f o f t he f irs t c en tury ( Rodwe l l 1 966 , 2 1-7) . R egre t tab ly , t h is i s t he o n ly R ed H i l l i n E ssex f ro m wh ich t he p o t tery h as b een f u l ly p ub l ished a nd d iscussed i n r e la t ion t o s tra t igraphy . L im i ted work b y t he wr i ter o n Canvey I I p rov ides f ur ther s uppor t f or t he g enera l d a t ing o f t he R ed H i l ls o n t he I s land t o t he l a ter f irs t c en tury.

The

a rea a round Canvey I , I I a nd I V b ecame a n e x tens ive s e t t le men t i n t he s econd a nd t h ird c en tur ies , a nd p o t tery f ro m t he T ra jan ic/Hadr ianic p er iod o nwards a bounds ( F ig . 1 1 ) .

O f t he many h undreds o f s herds o f s econd-cen tury s am ian

p o t tery r ecovered f ro m t h is a rea n o t as ing le p iece h as b een r epor ted f ro m i n o r u nder t he b urn t e ar th l ayers , whereas a sma l l amoun t o f F lav ian s ig i l la ta h as b een r ecovered f ro m t he m .

The n ega t ive e v idence i s t hus p ower fu l h ere

i n e s tabl ish ing a t er m inus a n te q ue m . The p ubl ished p o t tery f ro m Osea R oad , Ma ldon , i s l arge ly o f t he l a ter I ron Age a nd i s c o mparable t o t he Langenhoe-Go ldhanger ma ter ia l . O f p ar t icul ar i n teres t i s t he p o t ( de B r isay 1 972 , 4 0 , n o . 1 ) f ound i n o ne o f t he s e t t l ing t anks , a nd p robab ly u sed f or b a l ing : t h is i s r e la ted t o M idd le I ron Age wares a nd may b e a ss igned t o t he f irs t c en tury B .C.

A r im s herd o f a Dresse l f or m

1B amphora i s a n u nusua l f ind f ro m a R ed H i l l ( regre t tably u ns tra ti fied ) a nd b elongs t o t he s econd h a l f o f t he s a me c en tury. O ther s herds o f p o t tery d esc r ibed a s c o ming f ro m ' work ing f loors ' a re o f c o mpa t ible d a te . Ap i t o r d i tch n ear t he s ou thern e dge o f t he O sea R oad R ed H i l l , d escr ibed b y t he e xcava tor a s t he ' m id-sou th b as in ' s ee med t o b e as econdary f ea ture t o t he s i te ( de Br isay 1 973 , 2 5 ) a nd y ie lded a s herd o f N eronian s ig i l la ta f ro m i t s l owes t f i l l .

I ti s n o t c lear wha t f unct ion

t he p i t h ad , i fa ny , i n r e la t ion t o s a l t

p roduct ion o n t he s i te . I ti s r epor ted t ha t l i t t le p o t tery was f ound a t P e ldon , a nd o n ly o ne v esse l i s d escr ibed o r i l lus tra ted ( de Br isay 1 978a , F ig . 5 ) , b u t n o d e ta i ls o f i t s s tra t igraph ic a ssocia t ion a re g iven . The v esse l i s ab ut t-beaker o f o void f or m , C a mu lodunu m f orm 1 17-18 : i tp robab ly d a tes f ro m t he l a te f irs t c en tury B .C. o r e ar ly f irs t c en tury A .D. One c onclus ion i s s tr ik ing ly e v iden t f ro m t he f orego ing d iscuss ion , n a mely t ha t R ed H i l ls wh ich y ie ld b r ique tage a sse mblages o f T ype A a re a ssoc ia ted w i th l a ter I ron Age p o t tery , wh i le t hose w i th a sse mb lages o f T ype B b e long t o t he e ar ly R o man p er iod .

H ence , t he d is t inc t ion b etween t he t wo R ed H i l l g roups 1 55

1 56

,

R ed H i l ls o n Canvey I s land a nd a d jacen t ma in land .

wh ich we h ave a lready n o ted a s b e ing g eograph ica l i s a lso c hrono log ica l . S evera l l ines o f e nqu iry h ave l ed u s t o s ugges t t ha t s i tes o f T ype A c o l lec t ively s pan a f a ir ly l ong p er iod , s ay f ro m t he e ar ly f irs t c en tury B .C . t o t he mid f irs t c en tury A .D.

T he b u lk o f t he p ub l ished ( and u npubl ished ) p o t tery s ee ms

t o b elong t o t he midd le p ar t o f t h is p er iod .

S o me s i tes , e spec ia l ly t hose o f

v ery l arge s ize , mus t h ave b een l ong l i ved , wh i le o thers may o n ly h ave b een i n o pera t ion f or a f ew y ears :

h ence t he d i f ferences b e tween a sse mb lages o f

f inds a nd s truc tura l ma ter ia ls e ven f ro m a d jacen t s i tes . Un for tuna te ly , i ti s n o t p oss ib le t o d iscuss t he c hrono log ies o f i nd iv idua l R ed H i l ls more p rec ise ly , o r t o make mean ing fu l c o mpar isons , s ince f inds h ave b een d is m issed i n t he mos t s um mary f ash ion , e ven i n r ecen t e xcava t ion r epor ts .

F ina l ly , o ne o ther p iece o f d a t ing e v idence s hou ld b e men t ioned ,

f ro m Osea R oad , Ma ldon , where a r ad io-carbon d e ter m ina t ion was made o n ac harcoa l s a mp le .

S tra t igraph ic d eta i ls o f t he i t em a re n o t g iven ;

i ty ie lded

a n u nca l ibra ted d a te o f 1 80 + 4 0 b .c . When t he s ugges ted c a l ibra t ion i s a pp l ied i tg ives a d a te o f 2 39 + 6 3 b .c . ( Sw i tsur 1 974 , 4 4 ) , wh ich i s c lear ly much e ar l ier i n t he I ron Age t han a ny o f t he o ther e v idence h as s o f ar i nd ica ted f or s a l tern works . D ISCUSS ION Throughou t l a ter p reh is tor ic , p ro toh is tor ic a nd modern t imes , Man h as p roduced c rys ta l l ine s a l t o nt h e Essex c oas t b y t he e vapora t ion o f b r ine ;

b u t

i t was i n t he l a ter I ron Age a nd R o man p er iods t ha t t he i ndus try l e f t i ts mos t e x tens ive a nd t ang ible r e ma ins . The e ar l ies t e v idence c o mes f ro m Muck ing , where p i ts c on ta in ing b r iquetage , d a ted t o t he l a ter Bronze Age , h ave b een e xcava ted o n t h is h i l l top s e t t le men t 0-o nes 1 977 ) .

I ti s i nconceivab le t ha t

b rine e vapora t ion was b e ing p rac t ised o n t h is s i te , a nd t he f inds a re mos t l ike ly t o r epresen t t he p or table e qu ip men t o f as a l t b o i ler who l i ved i n t he s et t le men t .

I t may b e t ha t d ur ing w in ter mon ths h e made a nd s tock-p i led

e qu ip men t h ere :

t here i s amp le e v idence t ha t c lay f or p o t t ing was b rough t

u p f ro m t he marshes a nd s tored i n p i ts o n t he g rave lterrace s e t t le men t . C hrono log ica l ly , t he n ex t p iece o f e v idence f or s a l t p roduc tion c o mes f ro m t he n earby h i l l top s e t t le men t a t G un H i l l , Wes t T i lbury , where many f ragmen ts o f sma l l , t h in-wa l led , c ircu lar p ans were f ound i n a n Ear ly t o M idd le I ron Age c on tex t i n t he b u t t e nd o f . ad i tch ( Drury a nd R odwe l l 1 973 , 7 4 , 9 2-3 ).

Ab asa l f ragmen t o f a more r obus t b r ique tage v esse l was f ound

i n as im i lar ly d a ted d i tch .

The i mpor tan t d i f ference b e tween t he Muck ing

a nd G un H i l l b r ique tage i s t ha t t he f or mer i s ac o l lec t ion o f h ear th f urn i ture ( wh ich may o r may n o t h ave b een u sed f or i t s i n tended p urpose ) , whereas t he l a t ter c o mpr ised e vapora t ing v esse ls o n ly.

These e xh ibi ted t he t yp ica l

i n terna l b ands o f d i f feren t ia l b urn ing , wh ich p rov ide u nequ ivoca l e v idence f or t he ir u se a s e vapora t ing v esse ls . The e v idence f ro m G un H i l l i s , t hen , n e i ther f or t he manu fac ture o f b r iquetage n or f or s a l t b o i l ing o n s i te.

Wh i le

t he v esse ls f ound c ou ld b e p ar t o f t he s tock o f e qu ip men t o f ar es iden t s a l t b o i ler , a s a t Muck ing , i ti s r a ther more l i ke ly t ha t t hey were b rough t t o t he s i te a s c on ta iners o f c rys ta l l ine s a l t a nd were d iscarded a f ter t he c o m mod i ty h ad b een c onsumed . Desp i te t h is e v idence f or p reh is tor ic s a l t b o i l ing o n Tha mes-s ide , n o h ear ths a re k nown a nd n one o f t he R ed H i l ls o f t he a rea h as y ie lded r easonable 1 57

e v idence f or a p re-Ro man o r ig in .

H ence t he s ugges t ion p u t f orward i n 1 973

t ha t s a l t mak ing a n ter ior t o t he ' Be lg ic ' I ron Age was u nder taken o n a sma l l s ca le a nd was l oca l ly b ased , r e ma ins v a l id ( Drury a nd R odwe l l 1 973 , 9 2-3 ) . We s hou ld t here fore b e s earch ing f or i nd iv idua l h ear ths o n t he n ow s ub merged p reh is tor ic s hore l ine , r a ther t han l ook ing f or g rea t mounds o f i ndus tr ia l was te .

I ft h is i s c orrec t , t hen t he t ang ib le e v idence may b e a na logous t o t ha t

o n t he H a mpsh ire —Sussex c oas t ( Brad ley 1 975 ) a nd p erhaps t he e ar l ier p hases o f s a l t work ing o n t he L inco lnsh ire c oas t .

I t may we l l b e t ha t i n E ssex , where

t here h as b een s o much c oas ta l s cour ing , p reh is tor ic ' s a l t-bo i l ing h ear ths h ave b een s wep t a way , e xcep t where t hey migh t f or tu i tous ly h ave b een s ea led b elow l a ter R ed H i l l go r o ther b u lk d epos i ts . The e v idence f or R ed H i l ls , p er s e , s ee ms f i rs t t o b e r e la tab le t ot he c lose o f t he M idd le I ron Age . _ We h ave a lready d rawn a t ten t ion t o t he r adio-carbon d a te f or c harcoa l f ro m Osea R oad , a nd a l though ' pre-Be lg ic ' p o t tery i s s a id t o h ave b een f ound o n s o me s i tes ( e .g . d e Br isay 1 973 ) d e ta i ls a re l ack ing .

The e ar l i-

e s t v esse ls p ub l ished a re t he p a ir f ro m u nder L angenhoe I I a nd t he b a ler f ro m as e t t l ing t ank a t O sea R oad . Af ur ther p o in t wor thy o f n o t ice i s t ha t , wh i le t he ma jor i ty o f b r ique tage p ans h ave p la in k n i fe-tr i m med r i ms , af ew a re f in ished w i th f r i l l ing o r f inger-t ip d ecora t ion ( Reader 1 908 , F i g . 1 5 , n os . 1 5 a nd 1 6 ; d e Br isay 1 978a , F ig . 1 1 ). Th is i s n o t j us t al oca l q u irk o f o ne b r ique tage maker , b u t i s af ea ture o f s o me p ans f ro m s evera l s i tes i n t he Eas t C oas t g roup .

The

d ecora t ion o f p o t tery r i ms i n t h is way i s t yp ica l o f c oarse wares i n t he r eg ion i n t he Midd le I ron Age.

H ence , i ff inger d ecora t ion o n b r ique tage i s ac onsc ious

c opying o f t ha t o n d o mes t ic p o t tery , ap re-Be lg ic d a te i s e s tabl ished f or t hose d is t inc t ive p ans , a nd , b y i n ference , f or t he o r ig in o f t he R ed H i l ls i n wh ich t hey a re f ound . The f inds f ro m t he r i l l b enea th Langenhoe I I a re p ar t icu lar ly t an ta l is ing , a nd h ave a lready b een d iscussed . The p oss ib i l i ty n eeds t o b e c ons idered t ha t t h is ma ter ia l d a tes f ro m t he e ra im med ia te ly b e fore t ha t i n wh ich R ed H i l ls b egan t o t ake o n t he ir c onsp icuous f or m . T o s um mar ise t he f orego ing , we c an o n ly s ay t ha t t he R ed H i l l a s a n a r tef ac t i n t he E ssex l andscape , was p resen t i n t he f irs t h a l f o f t he f irs t c en tury B .C. a t t he l a tes t , a nd was q u i te p oss ibly a n emergen t f ea ture o f t he p reced ing c en tury.

A l though i n c eramic t er ms , b r iquetage i s c rude , a nd t he h ear ths were

p robably s i mp le , t he s heer b u lk o f ma ter ia l f ound i n R ed H i l ls o f t he E as t C oas t g roup a nd t he u biqu i ty o f t he s i tes t he mse lves a re a t es t i mony t o t he magn i tude a nd o rgan isa t ion o f t he i ndus try.

There c an b e n o d oub t t ha t we s ee h ere , w i th

t he o nse t o f t he L a te I ron Age , t he emergence o f a ma jor e x tract ive i ndus try. The e v idence f ro m t he h ear th f urn i ture i nd ica tes p ro longed o r mu l t ip le f ir ings , w i th t e mpera tures i n t he o rder o f 8 00 -1000° c en t igrade b e ing r eached .

There

i s n o th ing t o c on trad ict t he v iew t ha t , o nce s e t u p , b r ine e vapora t ion t ook p lace o ver a nd o ver a ga in u s ing t he s ame h ear ths , u n t i l t hey were d e mo l ished b y a s pr ing t ide o r a bandoned a t t he e nd o f as eason 's work . H ow many h ear ths were i n o pera t ion a t o ne t ime a nd f or h ow many y ears a R ed H i l l was i n u se c anno t b e e st i ma ted a ccura te ly o n p resen t e v idence , b u t i ti s c lear t ha t t h is mass ive i ndus try was b e ing r un a s ac o m merc ia l e n terpr ise . t ion i n 1 908 i s s t i l l a ppos i te ;

H enry L ayer 's o bserva-

" Dr Laver r e marked o n t he v as t amoun t o f ma te-

r ia l i n t he R ed H i l ls , a nd a sked t he mee t ing t o r ea l ize t he c on ten t o f 2 6 a cres , 6f ee t d eep . There were 2 40 R ed H i l ls r ound t he c oas t ... " ( Laver i n R eader 1 908 , 1 89-90 ). 1 58

I f we d eve lop Layer 's o bserva t ion , wh ich r e la tes t o o ne o f t he l arger R ed H i l ls o f t he Eas t C oas t g roup , s o me i ns truc t ive p o in ts emerge .

F irs t ,

t he v o lu me o f R ed H i l l ma ter ia l i n q ues t ion i s 1 90 ,000 c ubic me tres .

S econd ly ,

i f ag enerous a l lowance i s made f or l ayers o f a l luv ium , c lay t anks , e tc , a f igure o f , s ay , 1 50 ,000 c u m may b e p roposed f or t he v o lume o f b urn t e ar th a nd b r iquetage .

I fo ne t hen p os tu la ted t ha t as ing le h ear th was r espons ible f or

g enera t ing o ne c ub ic me tre o f d ebr is p er mon th ( and t ha t i s n o mean a l lowance ) , o ver a f our- mon th s eason ( f or wh ich s ee b e low ) , a nd t ha t 2 50 y ears was a l lowed f or t he l i fe o f t he R ed H i l l , t hen i t wou ld mean t ha t 1 50 b o i l ing h ear ths were i n f u l lt i me o pera t ion . Th is i s , o f c ourse , ap ure ly h ypo the t ica l c a lcu la t ion , b u t h owever o ne r ea rranges t he f igures t he o rder o f magn i tude o f t he o pera t ion c anno t b e s ign i f ic an t ly d im in ished .

Moreover , i ft he r a te o f p roduct ion o f i ndus tr ia l was te was

n o t a s h igh a s s ugges ted , t hen t hese c a lcu la t ions r epresen t a n u nder-es t i ma te o f t he a c t iv i ty i nvo lved . I ti s f ur ther i ns truc t ive t o t ake o ur c a lcu la t ions o ne s tage f ur ther a nd n o te t ha t i fe ach h ear th p roduced o n ly o ne p an o f c rys ta l l ine s a l t p er d ay ( i .e . o ne f ir ing ) , t he v o lu me o f t h is wou ld b e a t l eas t 0 .01 c u m ( i .e . 1 0 l i tres ).

I f

s ucess fu l f ir ings t ook p lace o n 1 00 d ays i n as eason , t hen o ur n o t iona l R ed H i l l wou ld h ave a n o u tpu t o f 1 50 c u m o f s a l t p er a nnum .

C lear ly t he o u tpu t o f a

h and fu l o f R ed H i l ls w ou ld h ave b een amp le t o s upply t he n eeds o f t he e n t ire Tr inovan t ian a rea ( rough ly t he a rea o f E ssex ) . Ih ave f e l t i tn ecessary t o dwe l l o n t hese c a lcu la t ions , h owever f ar s hor t o f r ea l i ty t hey may b e , s ince n o p rev ious wr i ter h as p aused t o c ons ider t he imp l ica t ions wh ich t he ma ter ia l e v idence p rov ides f or t he s ca le o f t he i ndus try. Thus when t he Eas t C oas t g roup o f R ed H i l ls was a t i t s z en i th i n t he l a t ter h a l f o f t he f irs t c en tury B .C. i t was c lear ly g eared t o p roduc t ion f or a n e xpor t marke t . I th as b een n o ted e lsewhere ( Rodwe l l 1 976a , 3 00-1 ) t ha t t he g rea tes t c onc en tra t ion o f p re-Ro man R ed H i l ls , c er ta in ly i n t he S ou th E as t a nd p robab ly i n Br i ta in ,

i s i n t he e s tuar ies a round t he C o lches ter a rea , a nd t ha t t he f ocus o f

t h is i ndus try i n t he n or th-eas tern p ar t o f t he t err i tory o f t he T r inovan tes c anno t b e f or tu i tous .

More s pec i f ica l ly , i ti s s ugges ted t ha t t he d eve lop men t o f s a l t

b o i l ing f ro m a p urely l oca l t o a n e xpor t i ndus try i s o ne o f t he c o mp lex f ac tors i n t he p os t-Caesar ian r ise o f w ea l th a nd p ower o f t he Tr inovan tes . A t ten t ion h as a lso b een d rawn t o t he f ac t t ha t R ed H i l ls a nd s a l t p roduc t ion c an b e s hown t o h ave p layed a n i n tegra l p ar t i n t he l a te I ron A ge c o m mun i ty , a s e v idenced b y t he t rans ference o f a r te fac ts .

Thus t he r im o f a Dresse l f or m

1 B amphora was f ound o n t he O sea R oad R ed H i l l , t he mos t p laus ible e xp lanat ion f or wh ich i s t ha t a n emp ty v esse l was b rough t o n t o t he s i te b y as a l t worker who l i ved i n as et t le men t where g ood I ta l ian w ine was a va i lab le f or c onsumpt ion . An amphora w i th t he r im a nd n eck k nocked o f f wou ld make a s tou t c on ta iner f or c rys ta l l ine s a l t ( Rodwe l l 1 976a , 2 40-1 ).

The a l leged ' Arre t ine l p o t tery f ro m

G o ldhanger X was a lso p resumably b rough t o n t o t he s i te b y as a l t worker whose h ouseho ld u sed h igh c lass t ab leware . I ft he p r incip le e nuncia ted s o c onv incing ly b y B rad ley ( 1975 ) f or t he Hamps h ire —Sussex b order — t ha t s a l t w inn ing was a s easona l o ccupa t ion , c arr ied

1 59

o u t f or n o more t han f our mon ths — i s a pp l ied t o E ssex , i ti s e asy e nough t o a pprec ia te h ow sma l l q uan t i t ies o f h igh q ua l i ty a r tefac ts c an a ppear o n R ed H i l ls w i thou t t here b e ing e v idence f or a d jacen t s e t t le men ts .

The s a l t workers

mus t h ave b een d rawn f ro m i n land s et t le men ts s uch a s C a mu lodunum , K e lved on a nd A rd le igh . A s o ne wou ld e xpec t , t he c onverse i s t rue , a nd f inds o f s a l tern ma ter ia l t urn u p o n i n land s i tes .

These f inds a re r es tr ic ted s ole ly t o f rag men ts o f

b r ine c on ta iners made o f b r iquetage .

Those e xa m ined b y t he wr i ter a re ma in ly

i fn o t e n t ire ly f ragmen ts o f e vapora t ion v esse ls wh ich h ave b een h ea ted o ver h ear ths a nd wh ich d isp lay t he c harac ter is t ic i n terna l ly d isco loured b ands j us t b e low t he r im .

H ence , t hese a re n o t s pec ia l v essels made f or t he s a le a nd

t ranspor ta t ion o f s a l t .

T o d a te b r iquetage o f l a ter I ron Age d a te d er ived f ro m

Eas t C oas t g roup o f s i tes h as o n ly b een r ecorded o n ah and fu l o f i n land s i tes i n n or thern E ssex ;

t hese s tre tch a s f ar i n land a s G rea t C hes ter for 'd .

T he

magn i tude o f t he i ndus try , p resupposes , a s we h ave n o ted , ad is tr ibu t ion o f s a l t f ar b eyond t he b ounds o f t he Tr inovan t ian t err i tory .

H ence , f inds o f

b r ique tage c on ta iners o ugh t t o a ppear w ide ly i n e xcava t ion r epor ts .

I ti s h ow-

e ver a r egre t table f ac t t ha t t he ma jor i ty o f e xcava tors s eem t o b e u n fa m i l iar w i th b r iquetage , w i th t he r esu l t t ha t i tt ends t o b e s ubsumed u nder t he h ead ings o f misce l laneous f ired c lay , o r c oarse p o t tery o f s toragejar t ype . A l l t he b r ique tage f ound o n i n land s i tes i n E ssex , b o th I ron Age a nd R o man ( F ig . 1 a nd A ppend ix I ) , h as b een i den t i f ied b y p ersons w i th s peci f ic k now ledge o f R ed H i l ls a nd t he ir d ebr is .

O bv ious ly , i fc onven t iona l p o t tery v esse ls were

p r incipa l ly , o r a l terna t ive ly , u sed f or t he t ranspor ta t ion o f s a l t t o i n land marke ts , t he t e l lta le e v idence i s a t o nce l os t . The c oncen tra t ion o f I ron Age R ed H i l ls i n n or th-eas t E ssex i s as trong p oin ter t o s o me f or m o fp ro mo t ion o r c on tro l b y t he T rinovant ian r oya l h ouseh o ld a t C amu lodunu m , o r t he a ris tocracy o ft h is r ich a rea . Ar e markable c hange t ook p lace a round t he midd le o f t he f irs t c en tury A .D., when t here a ppears t o h ave b een a d ra ma t ic d ec l ine i n t he s a l t i ndus try o n t he E as t C oas t .

V ery l i t t le e ar ly R o man p o t tery h as b een f ound o n t he R ed

H i l ls o f t h is a rea , a nd i ti s i nconce ivable t ha t s uch a s i tua t ion wou ld o bta in i f t hese s i tes h ad s t i l l b een i n u se a f ter t he c onques t .

I fp roduc t ion d id n o t a c tu-

a l ly s top a l together i t was c er ta in ly r educed t o am in i ma l l eve l .

I t wou ld s ee m

r a ther u n l ike ly t ha t t hose s i tes u pon wh ich e xcava tion a nd f ie ldwork h ave b een u nder taken were t he o n ly o nes t o h ave f a l len i n to d em ise b y t he m id f irs t c en tury. E qua l ly r e markable i s t he emergence o f ac ons iderable n umber o f R ed H i l ls i n s ou thern E ssex a nd n or thern K en t ; t he Tha mes- mou th g roup .

A s we

h ave s hown , p ar t icu lar ly o n C anvey I s land , t hese a ppear t o b e ap heno menon o f t he p re-F lav ian p er iod , a nd o ne wh ich d id n o t l as t f ar i n to t he s econd c en tury. The d a t ing e v idence f ro m K en t , a l though n o t y e t f u l ly p ubl ished , wou ld s ee m t o b e i nb road a gree men t w i th t ha t f ro m s ou thern E ssex , a l though s o me s i tes a re b el ieved t o h ave b een s t i l l i n u se a s s a l terns i n t he t h ird c en tury ( M i les 1 975 ) . Wh i le t he n eed t o p roduce c rys ta l l ine s a l t f ro m s ea wa ter e v iden t ly d id n o t d ec l ine f or a t l eas t t he f irs t h a l f-cen tury a f ter t he R o man c onques t , t he c hange o f l oca t ion f or t he i ndus try f ro m t he r ich a rea a round C o lches ter t o t he s o mewha t p oorer Thames-s ide i s s o empha t ic a s t o r equ ire e xp lana t ion . The s ocia l a nd c o m mercia l impl ica t ions o f u proo t ing a l ong e s tabl ished i ndus try 1 60

a nd moving i t who lesa le t o an ew l oca t ion a re s o f ar r each ing t ha t t hey c an o n ly b e e nv isaged i n t he c on tex t o f g over men t p o l icy. a r ises : wha t was t ha t p o l icy?

The q ues t ion n a tura l ly

C o m mercia l c onven ience c anno t h ave b een a

s ign i f ican t f actor , s ince i f s a l t was b e ing t ranspor ted b y r oad t o i n land marke ts , C o lches ter was b e t ter s i tua ted a s ac o l lec t ing p o in t t han s ou th-eas t E ssex . D is tr ibu t ion b y wa ter migh t h ave b een s l igh t ly e as ier f ro m t he Tha mes t han t he C o lne . The r e mova l o f a n i ndus try f ro m a g iven l oca t ion t ends t o imp ly n o t s o much a ma t ter o f c onven ience f or t he i ndus try b u t t he a l lev ia t ion o f i nconv en ience t o o thers .

I ti s s ure ly i n t he c on tex t o f t he f ounda t ion o f t he C laud-

i an c o lony a t C o lches ter t ha t we s hou ld s ee t he r e mova l o f t he s a l terns .

The

c o lony n a tura l ly a t tracted a round i t an u mber o f s ubs tan t ia l v i l las , p resuma bly w i th l arge a t tendan t e s ta tes ;

s o me o f t hese l ay a long t he r iver b anks a nd

o ne o f t he r iches t was o n Mersea I s land ( Rodwe l l 1 978a , F igs . 1 , 4a nd 5 ) . H owever , a s F ig . 1 3 s hows , t he marg ins o f t he i s land a nd a l l t he c reeks a round i t were s war m ing w i th R ed H i l ls .

Ih ave a lso a rgued t ha t t he g roup

o f v i l las a round t he C o lne e s tuary was e s tab l ished b y R o man o f f icia ls o r o ther im m igran ts , a nd n o t b y n a t ive a r is tocra ts .

I ti s t here fore n o t i n t he l eas t

s urpr is ing t o f ind t ha t t he owners o f s eas ide v i l las wou ld n o t wan t t o b e s urr ounded b y s a l terns .

They wou ld s ee c o lu mns o f smoke r is ing f ro m s cores

o f b r ine h ear ths f or weeks o n e nd t hroughou t t he b es t o f t he s um mer .

Fur ther-

more , i t mus t b e r e me mbered t ha t c harcoa l a na lyses h ave s hown t ha t s crub l and was c leared a nd b urn t — p resu mba ly o n ac ons iderable s ca le — f or f uel , r a ther t han marsh p lan ts . The e s tabl ish men t o f an ew s a l t-bo i l ing i ndus try , o r p erhaps t he d eve lop- , men t o f al a ten t o ne , s ou th o f t he B lackwa ter mus t h ave b rough t a bou t c ons idera ble c hanges i n s ou th-eas t E ssex .

The f irs t p oin t t o n o te i s t he d i f ferences

i n t he b as ic e qu ip men t u sed b y t he t wo i ndus tr ies .

Un less a g roup o f ' t rans i-

t i ona l ' s i tes a wa i ts d iscovery , s o me e xp lana t ion f or t he c hange mus t b e s ough t : an ew a nd i mproved t echno logy o f s a l t p roduc t ion may h ave b een i n troduced b y t he g overnmen t , o r t he a rea may s i mp ly h ave h ad a d i f feren t t rad i tion o f manuf ac ture i n t he I ron Age , wh ich was d eve loped . H ere i t may b e r e levan t t o r ec a l l t ha t t he b r ique tage o f t he M idd le I ron Age a t G un H i l l h as much c loser a f f in i t ies w i th i t s R o man c oun terpar t o n Thames-s ide , t han i th as w i th t he l a ter I ron Age ma ter ia l f ro m t he Eas t C oas t .

Fur ther more , b r ique tage f ro m

Thames-s ide s i tes c o mpares f a ir ly c lose ly w i th t ha t f ro m G a l lo-Ro man B r i t tany ( c f . f or e xamp le , G ou letquer 1 966 , F ig . 1 1 ). The g enera l i mpress ion o ne g a ins o f t he Thames- mou th s a l t i ndus try i s t ha t i t was o rgan ised i n sma l l , c o mpac t u n i ts , o pera t ing a t a more s oph is t ic a ted l eve l t han i t s p redecessor o n t he Eas t C oas t , a nd i tg enera ted l ess i ndus tr ia l was te . I n K en t t here was a n a ssoc ia t ion w i th t he p roduc t ion o f b lack-burn ished p o t tery , wh i le i n E ssex , a l though n o k i lns h ave b een f ound , t here s ee ms t o h ave b een a n i n t i ma te r e la t ionsh ip w i th c er ta in t ypes o f s he l lt e mpered p o t tery .

Thus , f or e xa mple , o n Canvey I s land i ti s u sua l t o f ind a

d is t inc t ive t ype o f v ery c oarse s he l lte mpered s torage j ar o n t he R ed H i l ls , b u t t h is ware h as o n ly r are ly b een n o ted o n t he ma in land . One wonders whe ther t hese v esse ls were made c heap ly o n s i te , f or t he s torage a nd t ransp or ta t ion o f c rys ta l l ine s a l t .

1 61

1 62

I6 3

D istr ibu tion o f R ed H i l ls i n n or th-east E ssex .

A t t he s a me t ime i ti s c lear t ha t b r ique tage e vapora t ing p ans were u sed a s c on ta iners f or s a l t wh ich was t raded i n land .

Once a ga in , t he ma ter ia l h as

r are ly b een i den t i f ied b y e xcava tors . Wh i le many o f t he R ed H i l ls i n s ou thern E ssex b eca me s ub merged u nder s e t t le men t d ebr is i n t he s econd a nd t h ird c en tur ies , a nd s evera l h ave y ie lded c re ma t ion b ur ia l g roups , t here i s l i t t le e v idence y e t f or f irs t-cen tury s e t t lemen t o n t hese s i tes . Do mes t ic p o t tery —so me o f i to f h igh q ua l i ty ( e .g . p reF lav ian d ecora ted s ig i l la ta )— i s u sua l ly t o b e f ound i n t he mounds , w i th t he p resump t ion t ha t i t was b rough t t here b y s a l t workers whose h o mes were e lsewhere . S ou thern E ssex , a nd i n p ar t icu lar t he s ou th-eas t c orner , i s r e markab le f or t he n umber o f ways i n wh ich i td i f fers f ro m t he r e ma inder o f t he c oun ty i n t he R o man p er iod .

T he p resence o f s a l terns i s o ne f ac tor , t he p auc i ty o f

v i l las a nd t he a bsence o f at own o f a ny s ize a re o thers .

P erhaps o f e ven

g rea ter s ign i f icance i s t he e v idence f or l arge s ca le l andscape p lann ing :

t here

a re many r oads a nd o ther b oundar ies — e x tan t , r ecorded o n e ar ly maps o r d e tec ted t hrough a er ia l p ho tography — wh ich d e f ine r ough ly r ec tangu lar b locks o f l and a nd o f ten c on ta in f a ir ly r egu lar s ubd iv is ions i n to f i elds . • Ear ly a t te mp ts t o s tudy t h is l andscape f oundered o n t he p re m ise t ha t a l l t hese b oundar ies h ad t o c ons t i tu te p ar t o f at runk r oad s ys te m , where o r ig ins a nd d es t ina t ions were s een t o b e impor tan t ( Chr is ty 1 926 , 9 2 map ).

Once t he

c oncep t o f r oad p lann ing i s a bandoned i n f avour o f s ys te ma t ic l and d iv is ion , t he r e ma ins b eco me i n te l l ig ible.

The Deng ie P en insu la i s c o mp le te ly c overed

b y o ne o f t hese r ec t i l inear s ys tems wh ich , i th as r ecen t ly b een s hown , i s o f R o man d a te ( Drury a nd Rodwe l l 1 978 ) .

The G rays-Thurrock a rea i s a no ther

s im i lar ly p lanned l and-b lock i n s ou th-eas t E ssex f or wh ich a R o man d a te h as b een A rgued ( Rodwel l 1 978b ) . Yet a no ther a rea where t he s a me k ind o f l ands cape may b e d etec ted , b u t a wa i ts f u l ler s tudy , i s t he e as tern p ar t o f t he R äch ford Hundred ( around S ou thend-on-Sea ) .

F ina l ly , i t s hou ld n o t b e f orgo t-

t en t ha t t he p lanned l andscape i n t he Thurrock a rea e x tends a cross t he Thames i n to n or th K en t . There i th as l ong b een r ecogn ised , a l though mis taken f or c en tu ,r ia t ion ( N igh t inga le 1 952 ) . We may n ow s u m mar ize a nd b r ing t oge ther t he v ar ious s trands o f e v idence . S ou th-eas t E ssex was d ense ly s e t t led i n t he p reh is tor ic a nd R o man p er iods ;

i t

was c er ta in ly n o t ap oor o r b ackward a rea , b u t a t t he s a me t ime i td id n o t d iXp la .y t he p hys ica l man i fes ta t ions o f wea l th .

The t wo p r incipa l f ea tures wh ich

i td id d isp lay ( as s een t hrough t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord ) a re t he s a l t i ndus try a nd t he p lanned l andscape .

B o th were c lear ly i mposed o n al arge s ca le , wh ich

mus t i n t he c ircums tances imp ly g overnmen t i n terven t ion . S a l t p roduc t ion was a n e x trac t ive i ndus try a nd i ti s t here fore a rguab le t ha t , l ike l ead , s i lver o r i ron min ing , i tc ou ld we l l h ave b een ma in ta ined u nder i mper ia l c on tro l. The c ase may t hus b e a rgued t ha t a n i mper ia l e s ta te was c rea ted i n s ou th-eas t Essex i n t he p re-F lav ian p er iod , n o t s i mp ly f or t he c on tro l o f t he n ew s a l t i ndus try , b u t a lso f or l arge s ca le c orn p roduct ion , a f unc t ion t o wh ich t he l and i s e specia l ly we l l s u i ted . I ndeed t he o n ly p laus ib le r eason f or t he e x tens ive o rder ing o f t he l andscape wou ld b e t o f aci l i ta te e f f ic ie n t a gr icu l ture ;

a nd wha t more s u i tab le p lace t o e s tab l ish a n imper ia l g ranary

i n B r i ta in t han a t t h e mou th o f t he Tha mes? 1 64

Ag rea t d ea l more c ou ld b e s a id o n t he s ub jec t o f a n imper ia l e s ta te i n s ou thern E ssex , b u t t ha t mus t b e r eserved f or a no ther o ccas ion , a nd i t mus t s u f f ice h ere t o n o te t ha t f or s o me u nexp la ined r eason t he s a l t i ndus try d wind led o r c eased a l together i n t he e ar ly s econd c en tury.

Ev idence f or l a ter p roduc-

t ion i n n or th K en t h as b een c i ted , a nd t he G o ldhanger ' f lues ' may r epresen t a r ev iva l o f a ct iv i ty i n t ha t a rea . p roduc t ion f or l oca l n eeds .

Bu t t hese n eed o n ly b e i ns tances o f sma l l s ca le

I n teres t ing ly , s a l t p roduc t ion o n t he Ha mpsh ire-

S ussex c oas t s ee ms a lso t o h ave c eased a round A .D. 1 00 ( Brad ley 1 975 ) .

One

migh t c on jec ture t ha t t here h ad b een a ma jor s h i f t o f i n teres t i n s a l t w inn ing , p erhaps t o t he F en land o r t o t he b r ine s pr ings o f t he M id lands , b y t he e ar ly s econd c en tury . I n t erms o f s ocia l a nd e cono m ic o rgan isa t ion t here i s e very r eason t o s uppose t ha t s a l t w inn ing i n E ssex d id n o t d i f fer s ign i f ican t ly f ro m t ha t i n H a mpsh ire-Sussex ;

a nd B rad ley 's p ercep t ive c o m men ts o n t he l a t ter s ee m

e qua l ly a pp l icab le t o t he a rea a nd p er iods u nder d iscuss ion h ere .

We h ave

d e mons tra ted t ha t t he R ed H i l ls mus t h ave b een o pera ted b y s a l t workers who l i ved o n i n land s e t t le men ts a nd who mus t , p er force , h ave b een e ngaged i n o ther a ct iv i t ies f or much o f t he y ear . F or a t l eas t s ix mon ths o f t he y ear i t wou ld h ave b een e i ther i mposs ib le o r as heer was te o f e f for t t o a t te mp t s a l t b o i l ing , a nd s ince t he i ndus try i n E ssex c lear ly o pera ted o n ag rand s ca le we mus t r e me mber t ha t p ro f i t , a nd h ence e f f ic iency , were s ign i f ican t f ac tors . B rad ley 's a rgumen t f or a s a l t ing s eason o f n o more t han f our mon ths i s p owerf u l a nd c onv inc ing ( Brad ley 1 975 , 2 1-2 ). O f t he c oas ta l a c t iv i t ies wh ich p robab ly o pera ted i n s o me k ind o f a ssoc iat i on w i th s a l t b o i l ing , we h ave a lready men t ioned p o t tery manu fac ture i n K en t a nd p robab ly i n t he C anvey a rea .

The r e ma ins o f s he l l-f ish , p ar t icu lar ly

o ys ters , h ave b een r ecorded i n l ayers o r t i ps i n ter leaved w i th b urn t d ebr is o n R ed H i l ls , a nd wh i le v ery sma l l q uan t i t ies o f f ine ly c rushed s he l l were u sed a s at e mper ing ma ter ia l i n s o me t ypes o f l a te I ron Age p o t tery i n Essex , i t was i n t he l a ter f irs t c en tury t ha t s he l l t e mper ing i n p o t tery r ea l ly b eca me a s ign i f ican t f ea ture .

I ndeed , i tc an h ard ly b e ac oinc idence t ha t t he o n ly a ppear-

a nce i n E ssex o f l oca l R o mano-Br i t ish p o t tery wh ich was h eav i ly t e mpered w i th c rushed s he l l was o n t he Thames-s ide i n t he s econd h a l f o f t he f irs t c en tury. S evera l s he l l t e mpered f abr ics were b e ing p roduced , b eg inn ing i n t he C laud ian p er iod a nd e nd ing a round t he t urn o f t he s econd c en tury , wh ich i nc luded t he d is t inc t ive ' gra f f i to ware ' ( Jones 1 972 ). Another a c t iv i ty wh ich t ook p lace a longs ide s a l t w inn ing was t he r ear ing o f s heep a nd c a t t le , t he b ones o f wh ich a re f ound , b u t o n ly i n modes t n umbers , i n t he R ed H i l ls . I ti s c lear f ro m s o me f auna l a sse mblages t ha t t he b ones d o n o t r epresen t mea t t aken o n t o s i tes f or c onsu mp t ion b y s a l t workers , s ince i ti s t he e ssen t ia l ly i ned ible p ar ts o f a n i ma ls wh ich t end t o b e mos t r epresen ted ( e .g . s ku l ls a nd f oo t b ones ; R eader 1 908 , 1 87) . One e xp lana t ion i s t ha t c arcasses were b e ing p repared a nd s a l ted o n s i te , r eady f or t ranspor t i n land . The c onnec t ion b e tween s a l t work ing a nd a gr icu l ture h as b een d iscussed i n r e la t ion t o H a mpsh ire-Sussex b y B rad ley ( 1975 , 2 3 ) a nd h is c onc lus ions w i l l b ear w ider a pp l ica t ion .

I n E ssex t he p r inc ipa l t e mper ing ma ter ia ls u sed

i n b r iquetage were s pel t , b ar ley a nd o a ts ( de B r isay 1 978a , 5 4 ).

1 65

The i mp l i-

c a t ion i s t ha t b r iquetage was made i n Augus t a nd S ep te mber , u n less t he l ongt er m s torage o f s acks o f u n threshed g ra in i s t o b e e nv isaged : o f t h is o nb o tan ica l g rounds h as b een s tressed b y B rad ley.

t he i mprobabi l i ty

I ti s t here fore

s i mples t t o e nv isage f resh ly c u t e ars o f g ra in b e ing t aken t o t he R ed H i l ls f or i nc lus ion i nb r iquetage wh ich was b eing made o n-s i te f or i m med ia te u se .

The

impl ica t ion , i n t er ms o f t he a gr icu l tura l c a lendar , migh t b e t ha t t he s a lt ing s eason was c ons iderably s hor ter t han f our mon ths . F ina l ly , men t ion h as b een made s evera l t imes o f t he t ranspor ta t ion o f s a l t i nb r iquetage o r p o ttery v esse ls , a nd many p rev ious wr i ters h ave d iscussed t he s ub jec t o f s a l t-cake mou lds .

I f s a l t p roduct ion i n t he L a te I ron Age a nd

R o man p er iods was a c o m merc ia l e n terpr ise , a s we h ave a rgued , i tn a tura l ly f o l lows t ha t u n i ts o f measure men t f or s torage a nd s a le were r equ ired .

I n

s o me p ar ts o f t he wor ld s tandard s ized c on ta iners wh ich c ou ld s erve a s e vap ora t ing v esse ls a nd/or mou lds h ave b een n o ted : e .g . s em i-cyl indr ica l v ess e ls i n N or mandy , a nd c yl indr ica l a nd r ec tangu lar ' auge ts ' i n Br i tanny ( Gou le tquer 1 974 , 6 -8 ) .

I n E ssex .

h owever , t here i s l i t t le e v idence a s y e t

f or r ea l ly sma l l v esse ls , a l though c er ta in f ragmen ts o f b r iquetage s ee m c apable o n ly o f i n terpre ta t ion i n t er ms o f s em i-cyl indr ica l f orms .

One o f t he mos t

impor tan t p ieces i n t h is c on tex t i s t he t rough f ro m C ooper 's B each , E as t Mersea ( de B r isay 1 978a , F ig . 1 2 ). T oo l i t t le i s k nown o f t he s ize a nd v o lume o f t he r ec tangu lar b r ique tage v esse ls wh ich a re f ound o n R ed H i l ls o f t he E as t C oas t g roup t o a l low c o m men t o n p oss ib le u n i ts o f measure , b u t t he sma l ler v esse ls f ro m Tha mes-s ide s i tes , p ar t icu lar ly t hose o f c y l indr ica l f or m , were s ure ly b e ing made t o o ne o r more s tandards .

N o t o n ly wou ld t h is f aci l i ta te t he measure men t o f c rys ta l l ine s a l t ,

b u t i t was a lso a f unc t iona l r equ ire men t o f t he d es ign a nd c ons truc t ion o f h ear ths wh ich were b u i l t t o h o ld mu l t ip le c on ta iners w i th in a f ixed f ra mework ( c f . G ou le tquer 1 974 , 7 ) .

I t wou ld t hetefore s ee m r easonab le t o s ugges t t ha t

c rys ta l l ine s a l t p roduced i n E ssex i n t he R o man , a nd p oss ib ly I ron Age , p er iods was marketed n o t i n sma l l , p re- mou lded b locks , b u t i nb r iquetage ' t ubs ' o f

k nown weigh t o r v o lume .

ACKNO WLEDGE MENTS The a ss is tance g iven , o ver t he c ourse o f many y ears , b y t he s ta f f o f t he f o l low ing i ns t i tu t ions i s g ra tefu l ly a cknow ledged :

C he l ms ford a nd E ssex Mu-

s eum , C o lches ter a nd E ssex Museum , E ssex C oun ty C ounc i l ( Archaeo log y S ec t ion , P lann ing D ep t .) , Thurrock Museum a nd S ou thend Museum .

F or p o in ts

o f i n for ma t ion , o r t he b ene f i t o f d iscuss ion , Iam a lso g ra te fu l t o R ichard Brad ley , P . J . Drury , Dr . P . L . G ou le tquer , Dav id G urney a nd K irs ty R odwe l l .

NOTES . The o r ig ina l , l oca l ly b ased , n u mber ing s ys te m f or R ed H i l ls i s r e ta ined i n t h is p aper . 2 .

Fu l ler d e ta i ls o f l oca t ion a re g iven i n A ppend ix I .

I th as b een c la i med t ha t ' on ly 4 8 h ours were n eeded t o r educe t he c ont en ts ' o f o ne o f t hese c lay-l ined t anks ' t o as ha l low r es idue o f s trong b r ine ' 1 66

( de B r isay 1 978a , 3 9) , b u t n o measure men ts o f v o lu me o r s a l in i ty a re g iven .

Th is i s s urely a f au l ty o bserva t ion :

n o b ucket o f wa ter p laced

i n t he o pen a ir w i l l e vapora te a way i n t wo d ays .

One mus t s uspec t t ha t

wa ter was l os t i n t he P eldon ' exper i men t ' t hrough s eepage , n ot e vaporat ion .

Th is i s h ard ly s urpr is ing , s ince a c lay-l ined t ank wh ich h as b een

s ub jected t o t wo mi l lennia o f wor m a nd r oot a c t ion w i l l n o t n ow b e wa tert igh t , e ven i fi ta ppears s uper ficia l ly t ha t i to ugh t t o b e.

APPEND IX I Gazet teer o f R ed H i l ls i n Essex A l though f igures o f u p t o 2 40 h ave b een q uoted f or t he n u mber o f R ed H i l ls i n Essex , n o d eta i led l i s ts h ave b een p ubl ished .

I n t he p resen t c en tury t here

h as b een who lesa le d es truct ion o f t hese s i tes , b y a genc ies o ther t han n a tura l e rosion , a nd s o me mus t h ave b een l os t e n t irely w i thou t r ecord . s t i l l b eing d iscovered .

O thers a re

The f o l lowing l i s t c o mpr ises o n ly t hose Red H i l ls

f or wh ich t here i s r easonably c lear e v idence , e i ther r ecorded i n t he p as t o r r ecen t ly o bserved ; i nc luded .

d ubious s i tes a nd mounds o f u ncer ta in d a te h ave n o t b een

L ikewise i th as n o t b een

p oss ib le t o r ecord h ere d eta i ls o f R ed

H i l ls wh ich a re s a id t o e x is t i n c er ta in p ar ishes , b u t where p recis ion a nd f ie ldwork a re b oth l ack ing :

many s uch a re r eferred t o i n VCH 1 963 .

Wh i le l oca l n ames a nd p aroch ia l n umber-sequences a re o f ten c onven ien t , a nd h ave b een u sed i n t he p as t , an ew s er ies b ased o n c on t inuous n u mber ing h as b een i ns t iga ted o ver t he p as t 1 5 y ears , p rov iding a more c onven ien t method o f o vera ll r e ferencing . a re g iven ;

Where p oss ible , p ublished r eferences t o s i tes

i n o ther i ns tances t he s ource o f i n for ma t ion i s c i ted a s f ol lows :

C . M. map - marked o n t he 1 :10 ,560 O .S . maps i n t he C o lches ter a nd E ssex Museu m E .C .C . r ec. - n oted i n t he S i tes a nd Monu men ts R ecord ( f ro m u npubl ished s ources ) i n t he Archaeo log ica l S ec t ion o f t he P lann ing Depar tmen t , Essex C oun ty C ounc i l . The f irs t t wen ty n umbers f o l low t hose u sed b y R . H . Farrands i n r ecording Red H i l ls s ou th o f Harwich . 1 .

Ramsey

TM 2 3772806

2 .

Ramsey

TM 2 3701856

( Farrands 1 959 )

F ig . 1 3.

3 .

Ramsey

TM 2 3372862

( Farrands 1 959)

F ig . 1 3.

4 .

Ra msey

TM 2 3102840

( Farrands 1 959 )

F ig . 1 3.

( Farrands 1 959 )

F ig . 1 3.

5 .

L t . Oak ley

TM 2 3102830

( Farrands 1 959 )

F ig . 1 3.

6 .

L t . Oak ley

TM 2 3182790

( Farrands 1 959 )

F ig . 1 3.

7 .

L t . Oak ley

TM 2 3212785

( Farrands 1 959 )

F ig . 1 3 .

8 .

L t . Oak ley

TM 2 3142785

( Farrands 1 959 )

F ig . 1 3 .

9 .

L t . Oak ley

TM 2 3252769

( Farrands 1 959 )

F ig . 1 3.

1 0.

B eau mon t-cum- Moze

TM 2 0422500

( Farrands 1 959)

F ig . 1 3.

1 1.

B eau mon t-cum- Moze

TM 2 0172475

( Farrands 1 959 )

F ig . 1 3.

1 2.

Beau mon t-cum- Moze

TM 1 9502440

( Farrands 1 959 )

F ig . 1 3.

1 3.

B eau mon t-cum- Moze

TM 1 9302450

( Farrands 1 959 )

F ig . 1 3.

1 67

1 4.

Thorpe-le-Soken

TM 2 0572361 TM 2 1582378

( Farrands 1 959 )

1 5 .

Thorpe-le-Soken

1 6.

K irby-le-Soken

1 7.

Wa l ton-on-the-Naze

TM 2 4562277

( Farrands 1 959 )

F ig . 1 3.

1 8 .

Wa l ton-on-the-Naze

TM 2 4882279

( Farrands 1 959)

F ig . 1 3.

1 9 .

Thorpe-le-Soken

TM 2 1462420

( Farrands 1 959 )

F ig . 1 3 .

TM 2 3522450

( Farrands 1 959 )

F ig . 1 3.

TM 2 3092280

2 0.

Thorpe-le-Soken

2 1.

Wa l ton-on-the-Naze

( Farrands 1 959 )

F ig . 1 3.

( Farrands 1 959)

F ig . 1 3. F ig . 1 3.

TM 2 6752459

( VCH 1 963 , 1 98 ) F ig . 1 3.

2 2.

Wa l ton-on-the-Naze

TM 2 6552340

C . M. map

F ig . 1 3.

2 3.

Wa l ton-on-the-Naze

TM 2 6592350

C . M. map

F ig . 1 3.

2 4.

Wa l ton-on-the-Naze

TM 2 6602361

C . M. map

F ig . 1 3 .

2 5 .

K irby-le-Soken

TM 2 2732255

( VCH 1 963 , 1 51)

2 6.

C lacton-on-Sea

TM 1 6851385

( VCH 1 963 , 8 9 )

F ig . 1 3 . F ig . 1 3 .

2 7.

Langenhoe

TM 0 2951818

( VCH 1 963 , f ig . 6 , Langenhoe V I I ) , F ig . 1 3.

2 8 .

Langenhoe

TM 0 2951792

( VCH 1 963 , f ig . 6 , Langenhoe V I II ) , F ig . 1 3.

2 9 .

Langenhoe

TM 0 2921776

( VCH 1 963 , f ig . 6 , Langenhoe I X ) , F ig . 1 3.

Langenhoe

Three mounds i n c lose p rox im i ty , p oss ibly a l l c onnected :

3 0 .

TM 0 34173 , 0 35172 , 0 3551726 , C . M. map ; 3 1.

Langenhoe

E . C. C. r ec .

Langenhoe V I ).

F ig . 1 3 .

TM 0 3561718

( Reader 1 908 :

Excava ted .

TM 0 2951667

( Reader 1 908 , F ig . 1 , Langenhoe V ) ,

TM 0 2101656

( Reader 1 908 , f ig . 1 , Langenhoe I V ) ,

TM 0 1661674

( Reader 1 908 , f ig . 1 , Langenhoe I I ) .

F ig . 1 3. 3 2.

Langenhoe

3 3.

Langenhoe

3 4.

Langenhoe

F ig . 1 3. F ig . 1 3. Excava ted . 3 5.

Langenhoe Excava ted .

3 6.

Langenhoe

F ig . 1 3. TM 0 1351665

( Reader 1 908 , f ig . 1 , Langenhoe I ) .

F ig . 1 3. TM 0 1271690

( Reader 1 908 , f ig . 1 , Langenhoe I ) ,

F ig . 1 3. 3 7.

Pe ldon

TM 0 0901650

C . M. map.

F ig . 1 3 .

3 8 .

Peldon

TM 0 0931630

C . M. map.

F ig . 1 3.

3 9.

Pe ldon

TM 0 1031650

C . M . map.

3. F ig . 1

4 0 .

Pe ldon

TM 0 0791618

Pe ldon

TM 0 1351553

C . M. map. C .M . map.

F ig . 1 3 .

4 1. 4 2 .

Pe ldon

TM 0 1271554

C . M. map.

F ig . 1 3.

4 3 .

Peldon

TM 0 0981545

C . M. map.

F ig . 1 3 .

4 4 .

E . Mersea

TM 0 6621550

( Co le 1 906 , 1 76) .

Excava ted .

4 5 .

E . Mersea

TM 0 5861561

( VCH 1 963 , 1 58 ) .

F ig . 1 3.

4 6.

E . Mersea

TM 0 4601555

( VCH 1 963 , 1 57).

F ig . 1 3 .

4 7.

E . Mersea

TM 0 6001410

( VCH 1 963 , 1 57) .

F ig . 1 3.

3. F ig . 1

4 8 .

E . Mersea

TM 0 6011398

C . M. map .

F ig . 1 3.

4 9.

E . Mersea

TM 0 5801391

C . M. map.

F ig . 1 3.

5 0 .

E . Mersea

TM 0 5721380

C . M. map.

F ig . 1 3.

5 1.

W. Mersea

TM 0 3551524

C . M. map.

F ig . 1 3 .

5 2.

W. Mersea

TM 0 2881532

( VCH 1 963 , 1 58 ) .

F ig . 1 3 .

5 3.

W. Mersea

TM 0 2201541

( Co le 1 906 , 1 73 ) .

Excava ted .

5 4 .

W. Mersea

TM 0 1481481

C . M. map .

F ig . 1 3.

5 5 .

W. Mersea

TM 0 1261433

C . M. map ;

a n u ncer ta in s i te .

5 6 .

W. Mersea

TM 0 1151421

( VCH 1 963 , 1 58 ).

1 68

F ig . 1 3 .

F ig . 1 3.

F ig . 1 3 . F ig . 1 3.

5 7.

W. Mersea

TM 0 2441240

TM 0 0001562

( VCH 1 963 , 1 58 ) .

( VCH 1 963 , 1 66).

F ig . 1 3.

5 8 .

P e ldon

5 9.

L t . Wigborough

TL 9 86144

( VCH 1 963 , 2 01).

F ig . 1 3 . F ig . 1 3.

6 0.

L t . Wigborough

TL 9 85142

( VCH 1 963 , 2 01).

F ig . 1 3 .

6 1.

L t . Wigborough

TL 9 8681410

C . M. map.

F ig . 1 3.

6 2.

L t . Wigborough

TL 9 8661393

C . M. map.

F ig . 1 3.

6 3.

L t . Wigborough

TL 9 8431395

C . M. map.

F ig . 1 3 .

6 4 .

L t . Wigborough

TL 9 8251390

C . M. map.

F ig . 1 3.

6 5 .

S a lcot t

TL 9 5661357

C . M. map.

F ig . 1 3 .

6 6.

S a lco t t

TL 9 5651357

C . M . map.

F ig . 1 3.

6 7.

S a lcot t

TL 9 5791300

C . M. map.

F ig . 1 3.

6 8 .

S a lco tt

TL 9 5751293

C . M. map.

F ig . 1 3.

6 9.

To l lesbury

TL 9 5841152

C . M. map.

F ig . 1 3. F ig . 1 3.

7 0.

To l lesbury

TL 9 6800929

C . M . map .

7 1.

To l lesbury

TL 9 4840847

( Reader 1 910 , f ig . 2 , G o ldhanger X I I I ) ,

7 2.

To l lesbury

TL 9 4610840

( Reader 1 910 , f ig . 2 , G o ldhanger X I I ) ,

TL 9 4280837

( Reader 1 910 , f ig . 2 , G oldhanger X I ) ,

F ig . 1 3 . F ig . 1 3 . 7 3.

To l lesbury F ig . 1 3.

7 4 .

To l leshun t D 'Arcy G o ldhanger X ).

7 5 .

TL 9 2590870

Excava ted .

To l leshun t D 'Arcy

( Reader 1 908

a nd 1 910 , f ig . 2 ,

F ig . 1 3.

TL 9 1900866

( Reader 1 910 , f ig . 2 , G o ldhanger

I X ) , F ig . 1 3 . 7 6.

G o ldhanger

TL 9 1260848

( Reader 1 910 , f ig . 2 , G o ldhanger V II ) ,

TL 9 0890840

( Reader 1 910 , f ig . 2 , G o ldhanger V I ) , ( Reader 1 910 , f ig . 2 , G o ldhanger V I I I ) ,

F ig . 1 3. 7 7.

G o ldhanger F ig . 1 3.

7 8 . 7 9.

G o ldhanger

TL 9 0850820

Excava ted .

F ig . 1 3.

G o ldhanger

TL 9 0550795

( Reader 1 910 , f ig . 2 , G o ldhanger V ) ,

TL 8 9950777

( Reader 1 910 , f ig . 2 , G o ldhanger I V ) ,

TL 8 9740780

( Reader 1 910 , f ig . 2 , G o ldhanger I I ) ,

TL 8 8960770

( Reader 1 910 , F ig . 2 , G o ldhanger I ) ,

F ig . 1 3. 8 0.

G oldhanger F ig . 1 3.

8 1.

G o ldhanger F ig . 1 3.

8 2. 8 3.

G o ldhanger F ig . 1 3. Heybr idge

TL 8 8700750

Br isay 1 972 a nd 1 973 ). s i te.

( Reader 1 910 , f ig . 2 , G oldhanger I ; Excava ted ;

d e

t h is i s t he ' Osea R oad , Ma ldon '

F ig . 1 3.

8 4.

S t . Lawrence

8 5 .

Burnham-on-Crouch

TL 9 5980553

TQ 9 82974

( Co le 1 906 , 1 70 ).

F ig . 1 2.

8 6.

Burnham-on-Crouch F ig . 1 2.

TQ 9 80969

( Co le 1 906 , 1 70 ).

Excava ted .

8 7.

Creeksea

8 8 .

S . Fa mbr idge

TQ 9 82974

C . M. map.

( Cole 1 906 , 1 70 ),

TQ 8 57960

F ig . 1 3.

F ig . 1 2 .

N oted b y t he wr i ter .

F ig . 1 2.

8 9.

Canewdon

TQ 8 7659583

( Reader 1 910 , f ig . 8 , Canewdon V I ) ,

9 0.

Canewdon

TQ 8 8399561

( Reader 1 910 , f ig . 8 , Canewdon V ) , F ig . 1 2.

9 1.

Canewdon

TQ 8 8839546

( Reader 1 910 , f ig . 8 , Canewdon I V ) , F ig . 1 2 .

1 69

F ig . 1 2.

9 2 .

Canewdon

TQ 8 8869535

Excava ted . 9 3.

Canewdon

( Reader 1 910 , f ig . 8 , Canewdon I ) .

F ig . 1 2 . TQ 8 8929532

( Reader 1 910 , f ig . 8 , Canewdon I ).

TQ 8 8789524

( Reader 1 910 , f ig . 8 , Canewdon I I ) ,

TQ 8 9899538

( Reader 1 910 , F ig . 8 , Canewdon V I I ) ,

F ig . 1 2. 9 4.

Canewdon F ig . 1 2.

9 5 .

Canewdon F ig . 1 2.

9 6.

Canewdon

TQ 9 0459538

( Reader 1 910 , f ig . 8 ) , F ig . 1 2 .

9 7.

Canewdon

TQ 9 1419532

( Reader 1 910 , f ig . 8 ) , F ig . 1 2.

9 8 .

Canewdon

TQ 9 1899432

C .M . Map .

9 9 .

G t . S ta mbr idge

TQ 9 24915

TQ 9 47931

F ig . 1 2.

( VCH 1 963 , 1 65 ) .

( VCH 1 963 , 1 65 ) .

F ig . 1 2.

1 00 .

Pag lesha m

1 01.

G t . Waker ing

TQ 9 54901

( VCH 1 963 , 1 94 ).

F ig . 1 2.

1 02-3 .

G t . Waker ing

TQ 9 51897

( VCH 1 963 , 1 95 ) .

F ig . 1 2.

1 04 .

F ou lness I s land

TQ 9 80905 .

F ig . 1 2

Th is s i te i s s o me ti mes r e ferred t o a s

at umu lus , b u t t he mound a ppears t o h ave b een a R ed H i l l f ro m wh ich as econdary c re ma t ion was r ecovered

( VCH 1 963 , 1 32 ) , F ig . 1 2.

1 05 .

Had leigh

TQ 8 17859

( VCH 1 963 , 1 35 ).

F igs . 1 1 a nd 1 2.

1 06.

Had leigh

TQ 8 18858

( VCH 1 963 , 1 35 ).

F igs . 1 1 a nd 1 2 .

1 07.

Canvey I s land ;

N o . I I

W. J . Rodwe l l ).

TQ 8 2408328

( Unpubl ished , f ieldwork b y

F igs . 1 1 a nd 1 2.

1 08 .

Canvey I s land ;

N o . I V

1 09.

C anvey I s land ;

N o . I C . TQ 8 38837.

TQ 8 2408318

1 10 .

Canvey I s land ;

( Unpublished ) .

F igs . 1 1 a nd 1 2 .

Des troyed b y t he s ea .

F igs . 1 1 a nd 1 2. N o . V

TQ 8 05828 .

( L inder 1 939 ).

Excava ted .

F igs . 1 1 a nd 1 2 . 1 11.

Canvey I s land ; Excava ted .

1 12.

N o . I X . TQ 7 9618269 .

( Linder 1 939 a nd 1 941b ).

F igs . 1 1 a nd 1 2 .

Canvey I s land ;

N o . V I I I

TQ 7 9808263

( VCH 1 963 , 6 2 ) , F igs . 1 1

a nd 1 2. 1 13.

C anvey I s land ;

N o . V I I

TQ 7 98825

( L inder 1 939 ).

Excava ted .

F igs . 1 1 a nd 1 2 . 1 14.

Canvey I s land ;

N o . V I

1 15 .

Canvey I s land ;

N o . X

TQ 7 98824

( VCH 1 963 , 6 2 ) , F igs . 1 1 a nd 1 2.

C . TQ 7 94819

( Des troyed b y t he s ea ;

u npubl ished f ieldwork b y W . J . Rodwe ll ). 1 16 .

Canvey I s land ;

N o . X I I

TQ 7 88821.

F igs . 1 1 a nd 1 2.

( Rodwel l 1 966).

Excava ted .

F igs . 1 1 a nd 1 2 . 1 17.

Canvey I s land ;

N o . X I

1 18 .

C anvey I s land ;

N o . I

TQ 7 9148357

1 19.

Canvey I s land ; N o . XL I I TQ 7 7958425 b y W. J . Rodwe ll ) . F igs . 1 1 a nd 1 2 .

1 20 .

Canvey I s land ;

1 21.

S ou th Fambr idge

1 22 .

C orr ingha m

TQ 7 17819 TM 0 50190

TQ 8 2308316

N o . X IV

TQ 7 74843 ;

( Unpublished ). ( Unpubl ished ). ( Unpub lished ;

1 23 .

F ingr inghoe

1 24.

Br igh t l ingsea

1 25 .

Br igh t l ingsea

1 26.

Br igh t l ingsea

TM 0 70176

C . M. Map .

F ig . 1 2 .

( VCH 1 963 , 1 23 ). E . C.C. r ec.

F igs 1 2.

F ig . 1 3.

E. C. C . r ec .

F ig . 1 3.

TM 0 75173

E .C .C . r ec .

F ig . 1 3 .

TM 0 78170

E . C.C. r ec.

F ig . 1 3.

1 70

f ie ldwork

p robable R ed H i l l ( unpubl ished ).

F igs. 1 1 a nd 1 2. TQ 8 62957

F igs . 1 1 a nd 1 2. F igs . 1 1 a nd 1 2.

1 27.

W. Mersea

1 28 .

Pe ldon

TM 0 14157

TM 0 15122

1 29.

Pe ldon

TM 0 0601565

1 30.

E . Mersea

E . C.C. r ec .

E .C . C. r ec.

F ig . 1 3.

F ig . 1 3 .

( de Br isay 1 978a ) .

TM 0 5681561

E . C.C. r ec .

Excava ted .

1 31.

E . Mersea

TM 0 40156

E . C. C. r ec.

F ig . 1 3.

1 32.

E . Mersea

TM 0 60158

E .C . C. r ec .

F ig . 1 3.

1 33.

W. Mersea

TM 0 02134

1 34.

Pe ldon

1 35 .

Langenhoe

TM 0 0901550

E . C. C. r ec .

E . C. C. r ec .

TM 0 20163 .

F ig . 1 3. F ig . 1 3 .

E . C.C. r ec .

E . C. C. r ec .

F ig . 1 3 .

1 36.

Pe ldon

TM 0 0901650

1 37.

Pe ldon

TM 0 04157

( de Br isay 1 974 , 2 5 ).

F ig . 1 3.

1 38 .

Pe ldon

TM 0 04155

( de Br isay 1 974 , 2 5 ).

F ig . 1 3 .

1 39 .

Pe ldon

TM 0 03155

( de Br isay 1 974 , 2 5 ).

F ig . 1 3.

1 40 .

Pe ldon

TM 0 03154

( de Br isay 1 974 , 2 5 ).

F ig . 1 3.

1 41.

Pe ldon

TM 0 04152

( de Br isay 1 974 , 2 5 ).

F ig . 1 3.

1 42.

Bradwel l-on-Sea

TM 0 2300650

F ig . 1 3 .

F ig . 1 3.

F ig . 1 3 .

C . M. Map ( Gurney 1 978 ).

1 43.

Deng ie

TM 0 05014

1 44 .

Deng ie

TM 0 0530145

C . M. Map .

1 45 .

T i l l ingha m

1 46.

T i l l ingha m

1 47.

Bradwel l-on-Sea

1 48 .

T i l l ingha m

TM 0 07051:

C . M. map ,

F ig . 1 3.

1 49 .

T i l l ingha m

TM 0 07048

C . M. map.

F ig . 1 3 .

F ig . 1 3.

F ig . 1 3 .

C . M. map.

( Gurney 1 978 ).

F ig . 1 3.

TM 0 29025

C . M. map.

D iscoun ted b y Gurney 1 978 ,

TM 0 30026

C . M. map.

F ig . 1 3 .

F ig . 1 3. TM 0 1600810

1 50.

T i ll ingha m

TM 0 0600470

1 51.

T i l l ingha m

TM 0 10043

C . M. map.

C . M. map.

1 52.

B eau mon t-cum- Moze

1 53.

Thorpe- k-Soken

1 54.

E . T i lbury

1 55 .

La tch ingdon

1 56.

L t . Wigborough

1 57.

To l lesbury

TL 9 6411282

1 58 .

S . B en f leet

C . TQ 7 65863

TM 2 00245

TM 2 13236

TQ 6 92771

E . T i lbury

F ig . 1 3.

F ig . 1 3.

F ig . 1 2. F ig . 1 3 .

E . C. C. r ec.

F ig . 1 3.

( de Br isay 1 978b ).

Excava ted .

F ig . 1 3.

R ed H i l l n o t p roper ly d ef ined ( f or f inds ,

F igs . 1 1 a nd 1 2 .

TQ 6 75770

Thurrock Museu m .

F ig . 1 3.

E .C.C. r ec .

E . C. C. r ec .

TL 9 93151

F ig . 1 3.

F ig . 1 3 .

E . C. C. r ec .

E . C. C. r ec .

TL 8 86016

s ee R odwel l 1 7 976c ). 1 59-61.

C . M. map ( Gurney 1 978 ) .

Three Red H i lls , n ot i nd iv idua l ly d e fined .

F ig . 1 2 .

1 62.

Bradwel l-on-Sea

TM 0 0400540

( Gurney 1 978 )

1 63.

Bradwel l-on-Sea

TM 0 0950875

P oss ible s i te.

F ig . 1 3 . ( Gurney 1 978 ).

F ig . 1 3. 1 64 .

Bradwe l l-on-Sea

TM 0 1100620

( Gurney 1 978 ) .

F ig . 1 3 .

1 65 .

Bradwel l-on-Sea

TM 0 1300635

( Gurney 1 978 ).

F ig . 1 3 .

1 66.

Bradwel l-on-Sea

TM 0 2400680.

Poss ible s i te.

( Gurney 1 978 ).

F ig . 1 3. 1 67.

Deng ie

1 68 .

T i l l ingha m

TM 0 0470166

TM 0 0700545

( Gurney 1 978 ).

( Gurney 1 978 ).

F ig . 1 3 .

1 69.

T i l l ingham

TM 0 0750497

( Gurney 1 978 ) .

F ig . 1 3.

1 70 .

T i l lingha m

TM 0 0880451

( Gurney 1 978 ) .

F ig . 1 3 .

1 71.

T i l l ingha m

TM 0 1500280

( Gurney 1 978 ).

F ig . 1 3.

1 71

F ig . 1 3.

APPENDIX I L is t o f S a l tern Br ique tage f ro m I n land S i tes i n Essex For l oca t ions s ee f ig . 1 . Muck ing

S a ltern h ear th f urn i ture , f ro m p i ts o n h i l l top s et t le men t . Bronze Age .

Wes t T i lbury

J ones 1 977.

Vessel f ragmen ts f ro m d i tches o n h i l l top s e t t le men t . Midd le I ron Age .

Wick ford

Vessel f ragmen ts f ro m s et t le men t ( 1s t c en tury f ea tures ). R o man .

Woodha m Wa l ter

Drury a nd R odwe l l 1 973.

Unpubl ished e xcava t ions b y W. J . R odwel l.

Vessel f ragmen ts f ro m s et t le men t ( 1s t c en tury f ea tures ). R o man .

Excava t ions b y D . G . Buck ley a nd J . D . H edges ,

p ubl ica t ion f or thco m ing . Che l msford

Vessel f rag men ts f ro m t own s i te .

R o man .

Unpubl ished

e xcava t ions b y P . J . Drury , who k ind ly s uppl ied i n for ma tion . R ivenha l l

Vessel f ragmen ts f ro m v i l la s i te , u ns tra ti f ied .

Ro man .

Excava t ions b y W. J . a nd K . A . Rodwe l l , p ubl ica t ion f or thco m ing . Ke lvedon

V esse l f rag men ts f ro m d i tches o n s e t t le men t s i te. I ron Age .

La te

Unpub l ished e xcava t ions b y Mrs . K . A . Rodwe l l ,

who k ind ly s upp l ied i n forma t ion . Co lches ter

Vesse l f rag men ts f ro m C a mu lodunu m e xcava t ions .

Hawkes

a nd Hu l l 1 947. Ard le igh

Vessel f ragmen ts f ro m s et t le men t s i te. Unpubl ished ;

La te I ron Age .

i n for ma t ion f ro m t he l a te M. R . Hu l l a nd

F . H . Er i th . Radwin ter

Vessel f ragmen ts f ro m s et t le men t s i te. U npubl ished ;

La te I ron Age .

i n for ma t ion f ro m B . Hooper .

G rea t Ches ter ford Vessel f ragmen ts f ro m s et t le men t s i te .

La te I ron Age .

Unpubl ished e xcava t ions b y t he l a te J . G . S . Br inson .

B IBLIOGRAPHY ATK INSON , J . C ., 1 880 .

' So me Fur ther N otes o n t he S a l ting Mounds o f

Essex ' , Archaeol . J . x xxv i i , 1 96-9. BAKER , F . T ., 1 959.

' The I ron Age S a l t I ndus try i n L inco lnsh ire ', L incs .

Arch i t . Archaeo l . S oc. R eps . Papers v i i i ( ns ) , 2 6-34. BRADLEY , R . J ., 1 975 .

' Sa l t a nd S et t le men t i n t he Ha mpsh ire-Sussex

Border land ', i n d e Br isay a nd Evans 1 975 , 2 0-5 . d e BR ISAY , K ., 1 972.

' Preli m inary R epor t o n t he Exp lora tion o f t he R ed

H i ll a t Osea R oad , Ma ldon , Essex ' , C olches ter Archaeol . G p. Bu ll . x v , 2 3-43 .

1 72

d e BR ISAY , K ., 1 973 .

' A Fur ther R epor t o n t he Excava t ion o f t he Red H i ll

a t Osea R oad , Ma ldon , Essex , 1 972 ' , C olches ter Archaeol . G p. Bu l l. x v i , 1 9-38 . d e BR ISAY , K ., 1 974 .

' The Excava t ion o f a Red H i ll a t P e ldon , Essex :

R epor t o n t he F irs t Year ' , C olches ter Archaeol . G p. Bu l l. x v i i , 2 5-42. d e BR ISAY , K ., 1 975 .

' The Red H i l ls o f Essex ' , i n d e Br isay a nd Evans

1 975 , 5 -10 . d e BR ISAY , K ., 1 978a .

' The Excava t ion o f aR ed H i l l a t Pe ldon , Essex ,

Wi th N o tes o n S o me O ther S i tes ' , An t iq . J . d e BRISAY , K ., 1 978b. a nd Excava t ion .

3 1-60 .

l v i i i ,

' A Red H i l l a t T ol lesbury , Essex :

I t s Background

R epor t o n t he F irs t Year ', C o lches ter Archaeol . G p.

Bu l l . x x i , 5 -10. d e BR ISAY , K . W. a nd EVANS , K . A . ( eds .) , 1 975 .

S a l t :

The S tudy o f a n

Anc ien t I ndus try. CHR ISTY , M ., 1 926.

' On Ro man R oads i n Essex :

Trans . Essex Archaeol . S oc . COLE , W., 1 906.

S econd S upple men t ' ,

( ns ) x v i i , 8 3-100.

' Exp lora t ion o f s o me "Red H i l ls" i n Essex , w i th Re marks

u pon t he O b jects F ound ', Essex Na tur . x iv , 1 70-83 . DRURY , P . J ., 1 978 .

' Li t t le Wa l tha m a nd Pre-Be lg ic I ron Age S et t le men t

i n Essex ', i n Cun li f fe B . W. a nd R owley , T . ( Eds .) , Low land I ron Age C o m mun it ies i n Europe

B . A. R . S upp. S er ies 4 8 .

DRURY , P . J . a nd ROD WELL , W. J ., 1 973.

' Excava t ions a t G un H i l l ,

Wes t T i lbury ' , Essex Archaeo l. H is t . v , 4 8-112. DRURY , P . J . a nd ROD WELL , W. J ., 1 978 .

' I nves t iga t ions a t Asheldha m :

An I n ter i m Repor t o n t he Church a nd t he H is tor ic L andscape ' , An t iq . J . l v i i i , 1 33-51. FARRANDS , R . H ., 1 959.

' Essex R ed H i l ls i n t he Ha m ford Wa ter Area ' ,

C o lches ter Archaeol . G p . Bu l l . i , 2 5-7. GOULETQUER , P . L ., 1 966.

' Etudes s ur l es Briquetages I ' , Anna les d e

Bretagne l xx i i i , 5 5-118 . GOULETQUER , P . L ., 1 974.

' The Deve lop men t o f S a l t Mak ing i n Preh is tor ic

Europe ' , E ssex J . i x , 2 -14. GURNEY , D . A ., 1 978 .

I ron Age a nd R o mano-Br i t ish S a l t Produc tion o n

t he Essex C oas t ( Unpub lished B . A. D isser ta t ion , Un ivers i ty o f Durha m ) . HA WKES , C .

F . C . a nd HULL , M . R ., 1 947 .

HOPK INSON , B ., 1 975 .

Ca mu lodunu m .

' Archaeo log ia l Ev idence o f S a l t mou ld ing a t Impor tan t

European S a l ts i tes a nd i ts R e la t ionsh ip t o t he D is tr ibu tion o f Urn f ielders ' , J . I ndo-European S tud ies 3 , 1 -52. J ENK INS , J . H . B ., 1 908 .

' The Che mica l Exa m ina tion o f s o me S ubs tances

f ro m t he R ed H i l ls o f Essex ' , i n R eader 1 908 , 1 82-6. JONES , M. U ., 1 972.

' Po tters ' G ra f f i t i f ro m Muck ing , Essex ' , An t iq . J .

l i i , 3 35-8. 1 73

JONES , M. U ., 1 977.

' Preh is tor ic S a l t E qu ip men t f ro m a P i t a t Muck ing ,

Essex ' , An t iq . J . l v i i , 3 17-19. KLEIN MANN , D ., 1 975 .

' The S a l t S pr ings o f t he S aa le Va l ley ' , i n d e Br isay

a nd Evans 1 975 , 4 5-6. L INDER , E ., 1 939 .

' The Red H i l ls o f Canvey I s land ' , Essex Na tur . x xv i ,

p t . 3 , 1 36-160 . L INDER , E ., 1 941a .

' The R ed H i l ls o f Canvey I s land .

S upp le men tary

Ar t ic le ' , E ssex Na tur . x xv i i , p t . 2 , 4 8-63 . L I NDER , E ., 1 941b.

' No tes o n C er ta in O b jects f ound i n Red H i l l Excava t ions

a t C anvey I s land ' , Essex Na tur . x xv i i , p t . 3 , 9 8-101. MAY , J ., 1 976.

Preh is tor ic L inco lnsh ire .

MILES , A ., 1 975 .

H is tory o f L ines I .

' Sa l t-Pann ing i n R o mano-Br i t ish K en t ' , i n d e B risay

a nd Evans 1 975 , 2 6-31. NENQU IN , J ., 1 961.

S a l t :

A S tudy i n Econo m ic Preh is tory.

Archaeo log icae G andenses V T . N IGHT INGALE , M. D ., 1 952 .

D isser ta t iones

( Brugge ).

' A Ro man Land S et t le men t n ear R oches ter ' ,

Archaeo l. Can t iana l xv , 1 50-9 . READER , F . W., 1 908 .

' Repor t o f t he R ed H i l ls Explora tion C omm i t tee ,

1 906-7 ' , Proc . S oc . An t iq . L ondon ( ser . 2 ) , x x i i , 1 64-214 . READER , F . W., 1 910 .

' Repor t o f t he R ed H i l ls Exp lora tion C o m mi t te ,

1 9089 ' , Proc . S oc . An t iq . London ( ser . 2 ) , x x i i i , 6 6-96. R IEH M , K ., 1 961.

' Preh is tor ic S a l t-Bo i l ing ' , An t iqu ity x xxv , 1 81-91.

ROD WELL , W. J ., 1 966.

' Excava t ion o f aR ed H i l l o n Canvey I s land ' ,

Trans . Essex Archaeo l. S oc . ( ser . 3 ) , i , 1 4-33 . ROD WELL , W. J ., 1 976a .

' Co inage , Oppida a nd t he R ise o f B elg ic P ower

i n S ou th-Eas t Br i ta in ' , i n Cun l i f fe , B . W., a nd R ow ley , R . T .,

( eds .) ,

The B eg inn ings o f Urban isa t ion i n Barbar ian Europe , 1 81-367.

B . A. R .

S -11

•

ROD WELL , W. J ., 1 976b.

S et t le men t a nd E cono my i n t he Terr i tory o f t he

Tr inovan tes , c . 5 00 B .C . t o A . D. 5 0 ( unpubl ished D . Ph i l . Thes is , Un ivers i ty o f Ox ford ). ROD WELL , W. J ., 1 978a .

' R ivenha l l a nd t he Emergence o f F irs t C en tury

V i l las i n N or thern Essex ' , i n Todd , M.,

( ed .) , S tud ies i n t he Ro mano -

Br i t ish V i l la , 1 1-32. ROD WELL , W. J ., 1 978b. a nd F owler , P . J .,

' Re l ic t Landscapes i n Essex ' , i n Bowen , H . C .,

( eds .) , Ear ly Land A llo t men t i n t he Br i t ish I s les ,

8 9-98 , B . A. R . 4 8 . ROD WELL , W. J ., 1 979 , f or thco ming .

' The Product ion a nd D is tr ibu t ion o f

P ot tery a nd T i les i n t he Terr i tory o f t he Tr inovan tes ', Essex Archaeo l. H is t . x i . ROD WELL , w . J ., f or thco m ing .

' The Archaeo logy o f Canvey I s land '.

1 74

S TOPES , H ., 1 879.

' The S a l t ing Mounds o f E ssex ' , Archaeo l . J . x xxv i ,

3 69-72 . S TOPES , H ., 1 887.

' The S a l t ing Mounds o f E ssex ' , E ssex N a tur . i , 9 6-105 .

SW ITSUR , V . R ., 1 974 .

' Repor t o n t he Rad iocarbon Da t ing o f t he R ed H i l l ,

Osea R oad , Ma ldon , E ssex ' , C o lches ter A rchaeo l . G p . B u l l . x v i i , 4 3-4 . VCH 1 963 .

V ic tor ia H is tory o f t he C oun ty o f E ssex , I I .

1 75

EATING AND DRINKING IN PRE-CONQUEST BRITAIN: THE EVIDENCE OF AMPHORA AND SAMIAN TRADING, AND THE EFFECT OF THE INVASION OF CLAUDIUS by G. B. Dannell

The most prolific remains of Roman trade with late Iron Age Britain comprise amphorae and samian ware. (Peacock (1971, 165) has suggested that the wine trade may have begun in the second-century B.C., but impor­ tation of fine pottery, made in the same area, was not established for another century. The purpose of this paper is to discuss these two appurtenances of eating and drinking by examining the backgrounds of their trades and trade­ routes. Direct links between Britain and the Mediterranean are postulated because the distribution of Dressel 1 amphorae includes Britain, but not northern Gaul (QQ.cit., fig. 36). Two forms are involved, 1A and 1B, and if the date of change from one style to the other has been correctly assessed, it is appropriate to examine the literary evidence to take stock of trading conditions at that time (cf. 212,.cit., 173). In Britain finds of Dressel 1A are scanty, and confined so far to an area in the neighbourhood of Hengistbury Head (212,.cit., fig. 36), which has been postulat�d as a defended trading-post (£f. Cunliffe 1978). Dressel 1B is more co:r:nmon, with a considerable concentration in the Hertfordshire-Essex area (P�acock 1971, and cf. Rodwell, 1976, fig. 18). This contrasts sharply with the blank in Northern Gaul, but reflects the comments of Caesar. He spoke disparagingly of the Gallic tribes near the Province, which had taken up im­ ports of Roman luxuries and had their morale, if not morals, undermined @.G., 1.1). By contrast the Belgic Nervii preserved their virility by eschew­ ing such contact, and it is notew�rthy that wine is singled out among the other merchandise 'nihil pati vini reliquarumgue rerum inferri, quod eis rebus relanguescere animos eorum et remitti virtutem existimarent', (Caesar,. B.G., 11.15, and cf. Diod. Sic., V. 26.3). The rapid penetration of Gallic markets in the wake of the Caesarian cam­ paigns by mercatores is attested (Caesar, B.G., VII.3 and cf. VII.42). The traders who were with Gaius Fufius Cita at Cenabum (Orleans) were operating in an area devoid of Dressel I amphorae, so trade at this time is not concomi­ tant with wine. The traders were useful as go-betweens, and could be used to leak official propaganda (Caesar, B.G., IV. 21), the credulous disposition of the Gauls at least must have helped these tactics (ibid., IV.5). Roman generals apparently had commercial opportunities well in mind (Pliny, N.H. xxvi.19),. and in hearing the comments of Caesar, quoted earlier, it seems likely that Rome saw the activities of the traders as a legitimate means of non-belligerant infiltration. Success brought tax-income, and still more, political influence. 177

Peacock ( 1971 , 1 73 ) p o in ts o u t t ha t t he l i ke ly d a te o ft he Dresse l I amphorae i n Br i ta in , a nd t heir d istr ibu tion r e la ted t o t he p o li tica l s cenario , i nvo lv ing t he Vene ti o n t he o ne h and , a nd t he Tr inovan tes o n t he o ther , makes i tl ike ly t ha t c hanges i n t he t rad ing p a t tern r esu lted f ro m Caesar 's a ctivi ties. D isloca tion o ft he o ld t rade-rou tes must h ave r esu lted f ro m t he v ir tua l emasc u la tionof t he V ene ti ( Caesar , B .G . ,, M. 1 6) . 1 They a nd t heir a l lies a ppear t o h ave c on tro l led n o t o n ly t he s ealanes a pproaching t he Channe l , b u t t he L oire o u t le t ( t hrough t he Na mne tes a nd Ambi lia ti , c f . Caesar , B .G ., I l . 9 ) , a nd t his r e mained a ma jor c onnection w i th Bri ta in . The r estr icted q uan ti ties o f Dresse l I A a nd t heir t igh t g eographica l d ist r ibu tion c ou ld mean t ha t t hey w ere n o t t he a r ticles t raded , b u t t he d e tri tus o f t he t raders t he mse lves. The o b jects t raded a t t his t ime a re d if f icu l t t o i dent i fy a rchaeo logica l ly .

Wi th t he e xcep tion o f minera ls a nd me ta ls, t hey a re

ma in ly p er ishables a nd p erhaps q u i te u n looked f or i n t he a bsence o ft ex tua l e vidence .

2

Much more work i s n eeded i n t he Dorse t-Ha mpshire h in ter land

b efore t he e xact n a ture o f t he t rade i n t he a rea i s e stab lished . The c hange i n emphasis t o t he H er tfordsh ire-Essex r eg ion f or t he d ist r ibu tion o f Dresse l I B i s j ust a s s igni f ican t f or t he t r iba l a reas omi t ted . Whi le t he Tr inovan tes a re d escr ibed a s 'p rope f i r missima e aru m r egionu m c ivi tas ' ( Caesar , B .G ., V .20 ) , t his r e la t ive r e mark p robab ly r efers t o s o me o ft he a l lied o r d ependen t t r ibes wh ich s urrendered a f ter t he Tr inovan tes g a ined p ro tection .

There i s as trong h in t t ha t o ne o r more c a me f ro m t he western

p ar t o ft he r egion b y t heir c lose k now ledge o f Cassivel launus ' c a mp s i te ( Caesar , B .G ., V .21) .

The Trinovan tes were n o t warleaders , a nd n eeded

t he r e inforce men t o f Ro me t o ma in ta in t heir p o li tica l i n tegr i ty a ga inst t he more p owerfu l Ca tuve l laun i .

I t may b e a n o versi mp li f ica tion t o s ee t he am-

p hora p a t tern i n t he s ucceed ing y ears o n ly i n t er ms o f a n e cono mic r e la tions hip w i th R o me .

To t he west a nd s ou th-wes t , t wo s trong t ribes h ad l eaders

w i th n o r eason f or s uch c on tact ;

Cassivel launus was c onstra ined f ro m h is

e astward e xpansion , a nd h is s uccessors r espected t he p o li tica l s ta tus q uo f or ag enera tion . C o m mius h ad t w ice p roc la i med h is w ish n o t t o l ook u pon a no ther R o man f ace ( Caesar , B .G ., V II I . 2 3 a nd V I II .48 ) . Moreover , t he q uan ti ties o fw ine i mp lied b y f i nds among t he Tr inovan tes a re n o t g rea t , c onsider ing t he t ime-sca le i nvo lved .

The u se o f amphorae a s r i tua l g rave g oods may

h ave a g rea ter p o l i tica l s ign if icance i n r epresen ting t he b oundar ies o ft he p rot ected a rea , t han i n ap rofound c hange i n s ocia l h abi t . Ac oup le o f amphorae f or a l i fe ti me ' sq uiet i mb ibing d oes n o t i mp ly t ha t b eer was a bandoned a s t he ma in a lcoho lic b everage , which h ad i t s own f ine-pot tery d r ink ing v esse ls, made i n r egions o f Gaul , b o th i nside a nd o u tside t he Dresse l Iamphora d ist r ibu tion t here . The l abk o f w ine e xpor ta tion t o al arge n u mber o f Ga l lic t r ibes a t t his t ime i s r e markab le , a nd c anno t b e f u l ly e xp la ined i n ap ost-Caesarian c on tex t b y f ear o f i t s d ebi li ta ting e f fects u pon p rowess.

The B e lgic a rea r e ma ins

b lank , a nd i t migh t b e t ha t d eeper s ocia l a nd c u l tura l mechanis ms a re a t work , b ased u pon d ie t a nd t aboo .

The d ie t o ft he G er mans was s i mi lar t o t ha t o ft he

Bri tons, c oncen tra t ing u pon mi lk a nd mea t ( Caesar , B .G . V .14 a nd V I . 2 2 ) , a nd we a re t o ld t ha t t he B e lgic t r ibes d erived f ro m G er man f orebears ( i bid . 1 .4) .

I t wou ld b e i n teresting t o s ee whe ther we c ou ld d e tect t he d em ise o ft he

1 78

Bri tish f ood t aboos c oncern ing h are , f ow ls a nd g eese ( i bid ., V .12 ) , o r e ven t o s ee i ft hey h ad a g eographica l d istr ibu tion . The e xistence o f s uch s uperst i tions l i f ts a c orner o ft he c ur ta in , which d ivides modern i n terpre ta tion o f a rchaeo log ica l e vidence f ro m t he a ctua li ties o f I ron-Age l i fe , a nd a ny j udgemen ts o ft he w ine-dr ink ing h abi t s hould b e c au tiously a pproached . I ft he Tr inovan tes embraced w ine a s p ar t o ft heir c u l ture i ti s s trange t ha t i n t he p er iod o f Dresse l I , t here

was

n o t a n e qu iva len t move men t o ft he

f i ne p o t tery made i n t he s a me a rea o f I ta ly .

Ca mpanian b lack-ware was

b eing made i n f actories which f l ourished a t t his t ime , a nd t heir p roducts h ave b een f ound i n wrecks w i th Dresse l Iamphorae , a nd s ubindustries h ad s pread f ro m I ta ly t o Gau l , s how ing h ow p opu lar t his t ab le-ware h ad b eco me ( 21 . P eacock 1 971 , 1 65 a nd A lbenque a nd Ba lsan 1 950 , 1 0 f or i mi ta t ion Ca mpanian ware f ro m L a Graufesenque , n ow c lassi f ied b y A . Vernhe t ).

The meri ts o f

p o t tery f or w ine c ups were e xpounded b y Mar tia l ( Ep ig . X IV .C I I , CV II I a nd c f . P l iny , N .H . XLV I , 1 60-161 ) , a nd r em inds u s t ha t t here was a p ractica l s ide t o t he p reference , n o t mere ly o ne o f p r ice . Dresse l I B amphorae b egan t o d i minish i n n u mbers i n t he s econd d ecade B .C., a nd P eacock ( 1971 ,165) n o tes t ha t s a mian ware f ro m t he f actories a t Arezzo i s n o t f ound i n t he wrecks.

The d istr ibu tion o ft h is c lass o f p ot tery

i s i mmedia te ly w ider t han t he b oundaries o f t he amphorae i n Gaul ( 9 1 . E t t linger 1 962 , p lans 1 -11 , a nd Hof fman 1 968 , 1 57-174 ) .

Wi th in a f ew y ears, Ga l lic

p o t ters were p roducing b o th t heir own i mi ta tions o ft he I ta lian f or ms, a nd a h ea lthy s ubindustry i n B e lgic Gau l p roduced n a tive t ypes b ased u pon Ro man p ro to types.

I n t his t here i s c lear e vidence o f a ma jor b reak through o f

R o man isa t ion p rogressing n orthwards f ro m t he P rov ince . I ts ee ms t ha t n one o f t his p o t tery r eached Bri ta in u n ti l c . 1 5/10 B .C. , b ecause t he e ar liest g roup o f p ot ters mak ing s a mian a re n o t r epresen ted ( p l . E t t l inger a nd Hof fman , 2 2 .c i t . ) , a nd t here a re o ther p o in ters t oo .

Ca mulodun-

um h as b y f ar t he l argest c o l lection o f e ar ly s am ian f ro m a ny B ri tish s i te , b u t Hawkes a nd H u l l ( 1947 , 2 8 ) , n o ted t ha t f ew p ara l le ls c ou ld b e d rawn w i th t he ma teria l f ro m O beraden , 3 whi le t hose w i th Ha l tern were c lear , a nd t his p icture h as n o t c hanged w i th more r ecen t f i nds

Da rne l l 1 978 ) .

Radia l

s ta mps a re r are i n Br i ta in ( 21 . Ox ea nd Co mfor t , p . XXV , where t hey a re d a ted t o c . 1 2-10 B .C.) , a nd t he ' Aco b eaker ' i s a bsen t a s ac lass ( 91 . K am 1 965 , P l . 4 , a lb . 8 9/90 f ro m t he K ops P la teau ) .

The c o mbina tion o f d a t ing

i ndica tors a bove s uggest t ha t t he e ar liest s am ian r eached Bri ta in s o me t i me s hor t ly a f ter c . 1 5 B .C., b u t t echn ica l ly a d a te a s l a te a s c . A .D . 9i s t ena b le ( c f . v on S chnurbein 1 974) .

The q uan ti ty o fv esse ls which were t hen i m-

p orted t ends o n ly t o h igh l igh t t he p auci ty o f t he t raf f ic o ver t he p revious y ears, p ar ticu lar ly when o ne c onsiders t ha t a n amphora i s u sed b u t o nce f or i t s p r i mary p urpose , whi le c ups a nd p la tes l ast f or s o me t ime . The l i terary s ources a re v ery h e lpfu l f or t racing t he p oss ible t rade r ou tes o ft h is e ar ly s a mian t raf f ic, a nd t his h as b eco me more a pparen t a s o ur k nowl edge o ft he p rovincia l workshops h as e x tended ( L i . Wi l liams, 1 978 ) .

To t hese

must b e a dded t he p o t teries o f P isa , p ro li f ic s upp liers t o t he Rh ine land , f or wh ich p osi tive i den ti f ica tion i s l ack ing i n Bri ta in . S trabo ( Geog ., 4 .5.2 ) g ives f our s ea-rou tes f or t rade b e tween t he Con t ine n t a nd Br i ta in , e ach b eg inn ing a t a n e stuary ; 1 79

h e d oes n o t men tion a d irect

c onnection b y s ea w i th t he Medi terranean , wh ich may b e s igni f ican t f or h is p eriod . The r ou tes s tar t f ro m t he mou ths o ft he Rh ine , S eine , L oire a nd Garonne ( a lthough t ha t f ro m t he Rh ine was worked b y c oast ing s ou th t o B oulogne b efore c rossing t he Channel ) .

They were f ed b y r iver-based r ou tes a cross

Gau l : v ia t he R höne-Sa ne-Doubs-Seine ; t he t err i tory o ft he Arvern i-Loire ;

f ro m t he Rhöne , t hen o ver land t hrough

f ro m Narbonne , t hen o ver land t o t he Garonne-

B ordeaux , a nd f i na l ly b y ap ro ject ion o f t he Rhöne-Doubs r ou te , p resu mab ly t o t he Mose l le-Rh ine ( S trabo , G eog ., 4 .1 .14) . A l l o ft hese r ou tes were o pen t o Ga l lic , a s we l l a s Med i terranean t raf f ic, a nd t he c on trast b e tween t hi s d eve loped n e twork a nd Caesar ,s d escr ip tion o f t he V ene tian s trange lho ld o n B ri tish t rade i mp lies a c onsiderab le i ncrease i n v o lu mes.

Ear ly s a mian h as b een i den ti f ied i n Bri ta in f ro m workshops a t

Arezzo , P u teo li a nd i n t he r eg ion o f Ro me i n I t a ly , a nd f ro m L yons ( La Muet te ) , L ezoux a nd L a Graufesenque i n Gau l ( W i l liams 1 978 ) .

I n terpre t ing t he marke t-

i ng o ft hese wares i s c o mp lica ted b y t heir c hrono logy , which a ppears t o p lace. t he d eve lop men t o f B ri tish t rade a t at ime when t he p urchasing p ower o ft he Rhine land a rmies was p u l l ing l arge q uan ti ties o f merchandise t o t he n or thern f ron tier (f . Taci tus, Ann . 1 1.8 f or t he

f ossa Drusiana ' ,a nd X I .2 0 f or t he

work b e tween t he R hine a nd t he Mose l le c onducted b y Corbu lo , a lso X I I I .53 f or t he p ro jected u nion o f t he S aöne a nd Mosel le ) . I ti s c onceivab le t ha t t he s a mian was r edistr ibu ted a s p ar t o f as econdary t rade , t oge ther w i th o ther c on te mporary p o t tery i mpor ts wh ich a re f ound o n Bri tish a nd R hen ish s i tes. On t he o ther h and , u n like t he p a t tern o f Dresse l I B d eposi ts , t here a re g ood g roups , f ro m v aried s ources e lsewhere.

The Chichester a rea h as p rov ided

ma ter ia l f ro m Arezzo , L yons, L a Graufesenque a nd L ezoux ( Donne l l 1 971, a nd c f . Donne l l 1 978) , a nd f i nds o f L ezoux ware a t S i lches ter ( Boon 1 967 ) a nd Bagendon ( Donnel l 1 977 ) , s uggest t ha t t here was a s epara te i n le t o n t he S ussex c oast .

The c onsiderab le q uan t i ties o f i mpor ted ma teria l f ro m S ke leton Green

( Par tr idge , f or thco m ing ) may i nd ica te a t h ird s ta tion , u sing t he n avigab le wa terways o f ft he Tha mes, f eed ing i n land s i tes l ike Ba ldock a nd L e tchwor th . The n or thern l imi ts o ft he d istr ibu tion s hould b e a pproached w i th c au t ion _ t f . R odwe l l 1 976 , f i g . 4 4 ) . n o t o ft his p er iod ( c f .

An u mber o ft he p ieces q uo ted a re a l most c er ta in ly Todd 1 967 ) a nd t he o ne f ro m O und le i s a misiden ti f ica-

t ion o f a Cen tra l Gau lish b eaker b y L iber tus. 4 The t ypes wh ich a re a ssocia ted w i th t he e ar ly t rade , b ased u pon I ta lian p rogen i tors , l as ted f or a bou t s ix ty y ears w i th a p rogress f ro m t he I ta lian t o Ga l lic workshops which h as y e t t ob e p u t i n to a n e xact s equence f or i nd ividua l f actory s i tes.

I ndeed t he I ta lian workshops

a re k nown t o h ave c on tinued we l l i n to t he f irst-cen tury ( c f . Co mfor t 1 962 ) a nd i ti s i mpor tan t t o d ist inguish t he v arious wares i fc lose c hrono logica l p roposit i ons a re i n tended . The s pread o ft he ma teria l e ncourages t he v iew t ha t t he t rade was o n a b road f oo t ing , a nd n o t i n c on tro l o f as ing le t r ibe .

The I ta lian wares p rob-

a b ly c a me u p t he R höne , f or t here i s al ack o f t his c lass a t Bordeaux .

A t

L yons, t he l oca l p roducts c ou ld j oin t he r ou te , w i th t he c hoice o f e i ther g o ing n or th o n to t he R hine , o r n or th-west o n to t he S e ine ( 9 1 . C .I . L ., x i i i .3 026 , f or s a i lors a t Paris) .

The a ppearance o f t he e xecrab le e ar ly p roducts o f L ezoux

s ure ly i nd ica tes t ha t t he r ou te t hrough Arvern ian t erri tory was work ing , a nd we s hou ld l ook f or o ther C en tra l Gau lish p roducts u sing t he L oire o u t le t .

1 80

The ways l ead ing f ro m L a Graufesenque p resen t g rea ter p rob le ms.

The

C evennes a nd t he Causses a re i n tractab le p ieces o fg round t o c over , e xcep t i n l a te s pr ing a nd s u m mer .

I n w in ter t hey a re s nowed i n , a nd t he Cevennes

were r egarded a s i mpassab le ( Caesar , B .G . ,V I I . 8 ) , a nd t he e ast-west r iver g orges a re n arrow c anyons f or t he most p ar t f i l led w i th f ast f l ow ing wa ter u n t i l l a te s pr ing , when t hey d ry o u t q uick ly t o r ock-f i l led g ut ters.

Mu le

t ra ins i n s u m mer s ee m t he b est a l terna tive a nd t his s o lu tion a dm i ts t wo l ike ly r ou tes ; t o t he s ou th t he way i s o pen t o Narbonne , a nd t o t he west , Rodez . The s ou thern r ou te s ee ms t o h ave b een f avoured , a nd Narbonne h as a n u mber o f e ar ly s ta mps, a g ood c ol lection o f marb led ware , a nd i nd ica tions o f a warehouse ( Poncin a nd G uy , 1 956) f or s a mian .

Narbonne i s d escr ibed b y

S trabo ( Geog . 4 .1 .12 ) a s t he g rea test o ft he Ga l lic e n trepö ts o n t he Medi terr anean , a nd i t s c onnections w i th I ta ly p robab ly s aw t he v esse ls f or t he P o mpei i h oard l oaded t here o n t heir way t o t he merchan t who r epacked t he m w i th o ther g oods i n N . I ta ly , b efore s end ing t he m o n ( Atk inson 1 914) . The l ong s ea-rou te a round S pa in i s a t l east f our t imes t he d istance o ft ha t o ver t he r iver p assage u sing t he R höne , a nd whi le s ea-go ing v esse ls were u ndoub ted ly more e cono mic, g iven e qua l c ondi tions o f s afe ty , t he e ase o f b arge t raf f ic u p t he Rhone i s l ike ly t o h ave r e ta ined i t s t rade f or a c onsiderab le t ime ( c f . S trabo , G eog ., 4 .1 .14) . ways a ppear t o h ave o pened u p .

B u t b y t he s econd-century a t l east , s ea-

The P udd ing Pan wreck a nd f inds r ecen t ly

f ro m t he New F resh Wharf s i te i n L ondon ( Dep t . o f U rban Archaeo logy , f or thc om ing ) g ive a c lear p icture o f t he L ezoux t rade , a nd t e l l u s o nce more t ha t t he L oire mou th was s ti l l a n i mpor tan t o u t le t .

Work n eeds t o b e d one t o s ee

i ft he l and r ou te f ro m L a Graufesenque v ia Rodez a nd Poi tiers a lso u sed t he L oire . Wi th t he C laud ian i nvasion much l arger q uan ti ties o f s a mian r eached B ri ta in , n o t o n ly f or u se b y t he a r my , b u t f or a b urgeoning c ivi lian t rade . A l l s i tes o ccupied a nd i nvo lved i n t he Boud iccan r evo l t h ave s ign if ican t q uant i ties o f s am ian v esse ls i n t he b urn t r e mains, s how ing t ha t t he merchan ts were we l l g eared-up b y t his t ime .

A t C a mu lodunu m . ( Hul l , 1 958 ) t wo ' shops ' h ave

b een i den ti f ied a nd t here a re c oncen tra tions o f ma teria l i n t he L ondon c o llect ions which s uggest s i mi lar a rrange men ts.

The a r my were c er ta in ly b ig

b uyers o f s a mian , b u t t he e vidence a t L ong thorpe ( Frere a nd S t .Joseph 1 974 , a nd Wi ld & Dannel l , f or thco m ing ) s uggests t ha t e ven o n af or tress s i te o ccup ied f or s o me 1 5 y ears, t he u se o f s a mian was p a tchy , a nd t he a r my-con tro l led l oca l p o t ters made t heir own i mi ta t ions o f p la t ters, a nd o f Po mpeian r edwares a nd t he v arn ished L yons c ups.

This s uggests t ha t t he a r my r e la tionsh ip

w i th t he p o t teries was n o t ad irect a nd r egu la ted a f fa ir .

The h istogra m o f

s tamp c o l lections o n s i tes c on t inuously o ccup ied f ro m t he i nvasion ( E t . D ick inson e t a l . 1 968 , 1 46 ) t yp ica l ly s hows a n u mber o f p eaks a nd t roughs, w i th t wo ma in

h ighs ' i n t he F lavian a nd t he Hadrian ic-An ton ine p eriods.

T here i s ad ecided t rough a t t he e nd o ft he f i rst-cen tury , which r epresen ts t he d ec line o f L a Graufesenque , a nd i ti s n o t u n ti l c . A .D . 1 25 , t ha t L ezoux t akes u p t he marke t .

I n b e tween t imes t he me teor ic r ise a nd f a l l o f L es

Mar tres-de-Veyre s hows a n a t te mp t t o p lug t he g ap , a nd i n Bri ta in t here i s a n i m media te r esponse i n t he p roduction o f l oca l f ine-wares, a nd t his f i nds i t s e cho i n a r my work l i ke t he l egionary p o t teries a t Ho l t ( Gri mes 1 930 , a nd c f . g enera l ly , Ar thur a nd Marsh 1 978 ) .

1 81

F ro m t he e vidence i ti s more l ike ly t ha t s am ian p roduction was r espons ive t o i t s own i n terna l e cono m ic c onsidera tions , a nd was t raded a s a vai lab le . Wi th t h is i n mind we n eed t o e xam ine t he s upp ly o f e ar ly s a mian r each ing B ri ta in b e tween t he c lose o f t he p rovincia l Arre t ine workshops a nd t he i nvasion . There i s ap eriod o f a bou t 1 5 y ears when L a Graufesenque , i t se lf i n ad eve lopmen t s tage , was t he o n ly s ubstan tia l p roducer .

Progress was b e ing made i n

f i r ing t he h arder p astes l oaded w i th c a lcareous ma t ter which a re f ound i n t he C laud ian p er iod , a nd s o me o f t he i n ter media te wares c er ta in ly a rr ived i n Br i ta in ( c l . Dannel l 1 977 ) .

The R h ine a rm ies r e ma ined s tab le a t t his t ime

b ased u pon e igh t l egions ( Parker 1 958 , 1 18-129 , a nd c f . Rö mer am Rhein 1 967 , 2 2 ) .

Thus t he d e mand o ft he mi li tary marke t m igh t h ave b een e xpec ted

t o h ave r e ma ined c onstan t , b u t t he d ec line i n a rretine t ypes d oes n o t s eem t o h ave b een i m media te ly c o mpensa ted a t L a Graufesenque.

We n eed t o e xamine

o ur d a ting o ft he ma teria l a t t his t ime w i th p ar ticu lar c are , t o d e termine whe ther t here was a b reak i n s upp ly , as carci ty , o r t he S ou th Gau l ish works hops a dvanced t heir t echno logy , s o t ha t o ur a ssu mp tions a bou t t he a ppearance o ft he h ard-f ired wares i s f au l ty . To s um u p , i ti s a pparen t t ha t t he s econd-decade B .C. s aw a n i mpor tan t c hange i n i mpor t d istr ibu t ion i n Br i tain , s o t ha t t he s l igh t c hrono logica l d i ff erence b e tween t he e nd o f Dresse l I B amphorae a nd t he b eginn ing o f s amian i mpor ta tion r ef lects a n a ctua l c hange o f s ocia l a nd c u ltura l s igni f icance .

A t

S ke le ton Green ( Par tridge , f or thco m ing ) , mor taria h ave b een f ound i n t he e ar ly l eve ls i n a ssocia t ion w i th I ta lian s am ia n , a nd t he a dop tion o ft he f oo tr inged d ish , b o th i n s amian a nd Ga l lo-Belg ic wares s uggests a R o man ised t ab le b eyond t ha t i mp lied b y w ine-dr ink ing . p ro-Ro man s tance a t tr ibu ted t o Cog ibudnus

This c hange a n ticipa tes t he more

( .

F rere 1 967 , 4 4 ) , a nd i s more

l ike ly t o h ave o ccurred i n t he r eigns o f Tasciovanus , T inco m mius a nd A dded o marus .

P erhaps i th e lps t o e xp la in t he c on t inuing r eferences t o c on tact

b e tween t he n a tive c h iefs a nd t he Augustan p r incipa te .

Any t hough ts wh ich

t ha t c au t ious r u ler may h ave e n ter ta ined a bou t i n terven tion i n Bri tish a f fa irs were c er ta in ly t e mpered b y t he f act t ha t h is p urse d id v ery we l l f ro m t he t rade , w i th h igh d u ties b eing p a id b y t he e ager Bri tons o n b o th i mpor ts a nd e xpor ts ( S trabo , G eog . 4 .5.3 .) . a dvan tageous ( i bid . 2 .5 .8 ) .

A mi l i tary a dven ture was p o ten tia l ly d is-

The e f fect o ft he i nvasion was t o s ee a s teady

g row th i n t he d e mand f or s a mian , e nhanced b y t he s tand ing a r my , a nd t he u rban c o m mun i ties, s o t ha t i n b o th w ine a nd f ood h abi ts, R o me a lso c onquered .

NOTES 1 .

The Vene t i a re n u mbered among t he t r ibes who s upp lied t roops f or t he r evo l t o f Vercinge tor ix ( Caesar , B .G ., V I I . 7 5 ) .

Nu mbers a re n o t g iven ,

t here a re s o me t hirty t housand among e igh t t r ibes , b u t i ti s c lear t ha t men o f f i gh ting , a nd t hus s ai l ing a ge s urvived . 2 .

Caesar r ecords a t rade i n h orses w i th t he G au ls, which t he G er mans wou ld n o t f o l low ( B .G ., I V . 2 ) .

H e was f orced t o r ehorse c ava lry r ecrui ts

f ro m G er many a gainst V ercinge torix ( i bid . V I I .6 5) . t o s uspect s uch a ctivi ty f ro m s kele ta l r e ma ins a lone .

1 82

I t wou ld n o t b e e asy

3 .

A r ecen t r e-appra isa l o f t he d a te o f t h is s i te based o n i ts d endrochrono logy s ugges ts t ha t t he f or t may h ave b een b u i l t a s l a te a s 1 1 B .C.: H o l ls te in , Das H olzda ten Aus Augus teischer Z ei t . Korrespondenzb la t t 9( 1979) p . 1 31f f .

c f . E .

Archäo log isches

Iam i ndebted t o J . P . Wi ld f or

d rawing my a t ten t ion t o t h is r eference a f ter my a r t ic le h ad b een c o mpleted . 4 .

B y c o inc idence , Ash ton , wh ich i s l ess t han a k i lo metre a way h as r ecen t ly p roduced t wo c oins o f Tasc iovanus , a nd impor ted f ine-wares , b u t n o s am ian o f t he p er iod .

B IBLIOGRAPHY ALBENQUE , A . a nd BALSAN , L ., 1 951.

' Les f ou i l les d e l a G rau fesenque

( 1950 ) ' , R ev . d u Rouergue , J an .- Mar ., 1 951. ARTHUR , P . a nd MARSH , G .,

( Eds .) 1 978 .

' Ear ly F ine Wares i n Ro man

Br i ta in ' B . A. R . 5 7 , Ox ford . ATK INSON , D ., 1 914.

' A h oard o f s am ian ware f ro m Po mpei i ' , J . Ro m.

S tud ., 4 ( 1 914 ) , 2 6-64. BOON , G . C ., 1 967.

' M icaceous S ig i l la ta f ro m L ezoux a t S i lches ter ,

Caer leon a nd o ther S i tes ', An t iq . J ., 4 7 ( 1967) , 2 7-42 . CAESAR ,

' De Be l lo G a l ileo ' , L oeb C lassica l L ibrary .

CO MFORT , H ., 1 962.

' I ta lian S ig i l la ta Cra ter i n Br i ta in ' , i n R enard ( ed .)

H o m mages a A lber t G ren ier , C o l l. La to mus , 1 962 , p . 4 55 . CUNLIFFE , B . W., 1 978 . DANNELL , G . B ., 1 971.

H eng is tbury H ead . ' The S am ian Po t tery ' , i n Cun li f fe B . W., Excava-

v a t ions a t F ishbourne. DANNELL , G . B ., 1 977.

' The s am ian f ro m Bagendon t , i n Dore J . a nd

G reene , K . ( eds .) R o man Pot tery S tud ies i n Br i ta in a nd B eyond , Br i t ish . Archaeo l. Reps . S . 3 0 Ox ford . DANNELL , G . B ., 1 978 .

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Excava t ions , 3 . D ICK INSON , B ., HARTLEY , B . R . a nd PEARCE , F ., 1 968 .

' Makers '

s ta mps o n p la in s am ian ' , i n Cun li ffe , Excava t ions a t R ichborough , V . D IODORUS S ICULUS .

L oeb C lassica l L ibrary .

ETTL INGER , E ., 1 962.

' Vorbe merkungen z u e inen D iskuss ion d es A teius-

Proble ms ' , R . C .R . F. , Acta I V , 1 962 , 2 7-44 . FRERE , S . S ., 1 967.

Br i tann ia .

FRERE , S . S . a nd ST . JOSEPH , J . K ., 1 974 .

' The R o man For tress a t

L ong thorpe ' Br i tann ia 5 1 -129. GR IMES , W. F ., 1 930.

H ol t , Denbighsh ire :

L eg ion a t C as t le L yons .

1 83

The Works-Depö t o f t he Twen t ieth

HA WKES , C . F . C . a nd HULL , M. R ., 1 947. HOFF MAN , B ., 1 968 . HULL , M. R ., 1 958 . KA M , W. H ., 1 965 .

Ca mu lodunu m.

N otes d e C era molog ie a n t ique V ' , Oga m , XX , 1 57-184. Ro man C olches ter . De Vers terk ing o p h e t K opsep la teau t e N i j megen .

MARTIAL , Epigra ms .

L oeb C lassica l L ibrary .

OXE , A ., a nd CO MFORT , H ., 1 968 . PARKER , H . M. D ., 1 958 .

C orpus Vasoru m Arre tinoru m .

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PEACOCK , D . P . S ., 1 971.

' Ro man amphorae i n p re-Ro man Br i ta in ' , i n

J esson M. a nd H i l l D . ( eds .) , The I ron Age a nd i ts H i ll-for ts . PLINY , Na tura l H is tory . L oeb C lassica l L ibrary . PONCIN ,

L . a nd GUY , M ., 1 956.

' Rappor t p rel im ina ire s ur l es f ou i l les

d e " La Nau t ique" p rds Narbonne ' , Bu l l . d e l a C omm iss ion Archgo log ique d e Narbonne , To me x x i i i 2 e p ar t ie ( 1953-55 ). ROD WELL , W. J ., 1 976. ' Coinage , Oppida a nd t he r ise o f B elg ic p ower i n s ou th-eas tern Br ita in ' , i n Cun li f fe , B . W. a nd Row ley , T . ( eds .) , Oppida :

t he b eg inn ings o f Urban isa t ion i n Barbar ian Europe , Br i t ish

Archaeol . Reps . S 2. RÖ MER AM RHEIN , 1 967.

Ox ford . Aus tel lun .g d es Rö m isch- Ger man ischen museu ms

Kö ln , Kuns tha l le Kö ln ( Ca ta logue ) . S CHNURBEIN , S . v on , 1 974. S TRABO .

D ie r öm ische Mi l i täran lager b ei Ha l tern .

G eography. L oeb C lassica l L ibrary .

TACITUS .

Anna ls . L oeb C lassica l L ibrary .

TODD , M ., 1 967.

' An Arret ine b ow l f ro m Marg idunu m i , An t iq. J ., 4 7

( 1967) , 2 84-5 . WILLIA MS , D . F ., 1 978 . s am ian :

' Petro log ica l a na lys is o f Arret ine a nd e ar ly

ap rel im inary r epor t ' , i n Ar thur a nd Marsh 1 978 .

1 84

S ECT ION 4 : THE I MPACT OF AN I NVAS ION ON CURRENC IES

Recen t a rchaeo log ica l l i tera ture r ef lec ts a g row ing i n terest i n q uest ions o f e cono my a nd c urrenc ies , a nd i ti s n o t s urpr is ing t ha t s o me o f t he n ew i deas h ave i nf luenced t h ink ing o n a spec ts g er mane t o t he t he me o f t h is s ec t ion . E thnograph ic a nd c olon ia l h istory s ources i nd ica te t ha t a n i nvasion may h ave e spec ia l ly i mportan t c onsequences i n t he impac t o f c olon ia l c urrency s yste ms o n t he p re-ex ist ing r ed istr ibu t ion o r c urrency n e tworks.

I n s o me c ases t he

c hangeover may h ave b een e f fected w i thou t a ny v ery c onsiderable d isloca t ion , b u t i n o thers , t he impac t l ed t o d rast ic r epercussions w i th in t he p re-ex ist ing s oc io-econo m ic f ra mework .

I n t he c on tex t o f t he Ro man i nvas ion o f Br i ta in ,

t he q uest ions o f e cono my a nd c urrenc ies a re o f c ons iderable importance , a nd y et , i n t he p ast , s cholars h ave t ended t o g enera l ise a bou t t he ma terial .

Th is

s ec t ion , h owever , r ef lec ts s o me t ota l ly n ew ways o f t h ink ing o n t hese s ub jec ts a nd i ti s t o b e h oped t ha t f urther r esearch w il l s hed more l i gh t o n t hese p rob le ms. N o s pec if ic h istor ica l p ara l lel h as b een i nc luded h ere , ma in ly b ecause Hodderts g enera l p aper , i n d raw ing h eavi ly o n t he work o f P olany i e t a l ., a c ts a s as u f f ic ien t i n troduc t ion t o t he s ub jec t .

I t emphasises a f actor wh ich

many p reh istor ians n ow a cknow ledge , t ha t modern e cono m ic c oncep ts a nd t heories may we l l b e whol ly i nadequa te i n a reas o f p reh istory where q uest ions o f e cono my c annot r igh t ly b e a bs trac ted f ro m t he s oc ia l r ea l m where t hey a re f ir m ly ' embedded '.

I n t he l i gh t o f r ecen t c la i ms t ha t b ronze c oinages

r ef lec t t he d evelopmen t o f a monetary e cono my , t h is i dea o f a n ' e mbedded ' e cono my o f fers a c ha l leng ing c on trast f or f u ture r esearch a nd h as c ons iderable imp l ica t ions f or t he s ubsequen t p apers b y Hase lgrove a nd Reece.

Wh ilst t he

a rgu men t a s p resen ted h ere i s v ery g enera l ised , i to f fers a whole n ew d i mens ion t o t he importance o f c oinage i n t he p re-Ro man p er iod a nd more p art icul arly t he i mportance o f i t s v ary ing f unct ions i n t he s oc io-econo m ic world : i ts hou ld b e s tressed h owever t ha t t he model p roposed n eeds much r ef ine men t , a s i t s a u thor a dm i ts.

I tw il lb e i n teres t ing i n p art icu lar t o e xa m ine more

c losely t he c onsequences o f t he importan t c ross-Channel c on tac ts i n t he p eriod Caesar-Claud ius o n t he n a ture o f t he s oc io-econo m ic w orld o f t he S ou thEast , where o ne s ees t he d evelop men t o f t he o pp ida a nd t he b ronze c urrenc ies , a s o pposed t o t he h i l l fort z ones a nd a reas o f Wa les a nd t he N or th .

Here t he

q ues t ions o f c urrenc ies i n t he mselves b eco me v ery much more i n tegra ted i n w ider q uest ions o f s oc io-econo m ic c hange. S o me o f t hese n ewer i deas a re i ndeed r ef lec ted i n t he c on tr ibu t ion b y Raselgrove o n t he p re-Ro man c urrenc ies wh ich i t sel f c on trasts marked ly w i th p rev ious i n terpre ta t ions.

The i deas o f fered c an b e s hown t o s te m f ro m

a n importan t s tudy o f r ela ted ma ter ia l f ro m o ther d isc ip l ines a nd a reas. Wh ilst t he q uest ion o f t he f unct ion o f t he v ar ious c o in t ypes may wel lb e v ery d if f icu l t t o e luc ida te , most i n teres t r evolves a round t he n a ture o f t he b ronze 1 87

coinages of the South-East in relation to the nature of the impact, particularly as these have been claimed as evidence of a monetary economy in this region. Indeed, in the light of the contributions by Hodder and Haselgrove, the paper and short addendum by Reece emphasise the importance of the question of the impact, since it suggests that taken at face value the impact of Roman coins was a complete replacement with remarkable speed of existing coinages. This has often been explained by assuming a similarity of function for the two coinages and arguing the development in the Iron Age and continuation within the Roman period, of a monetary economy-the changeover being a matter of policy and ease. This, however, is a point for considerable discussion and the very nature of bronze coinages in the Iron Age must now be open to debate; it may be that the changeover was indeed swift-a matter of policy and ease-but it may reflect the use of Roman coinages to pay Roman dues and taxes and even in place of Iron Age ones within the 1 embedded 1 systems. Hodder's point that the army may have encouraged 'disembedded' exchange may suggest another aspect of impact worthy of consideration. In general terms however, this might suggest that there was little direct impact upon the broader socio-economic spheres consequent upon the invasion. Reece, stimulated by Hodder, seems to favour this alternative and if so, this raises many problems of related nature pertaining to the development of the market economy as a whole within Britain and the Empire. Indeed we must hope that while the section raised more questions than answers, it will at least have stimulated a greater understanding of the problems and opened lines of communication for cross-cultural discussions.

188

PRE-RO MAN AND RO MANO-BRITISH TRIBAL ECONO MLES b y I an Hodder

The s ubstan tivistview o ft he p r i mi tive e cono my ( Po lanyi e t a l . 1 957 ; Da l ton 1 967 ) i s t ha t e xchange , p rior t o marke t t rade , i s ' e mbedded ' i n s ocia l r e la t ions. The e cono mic p rocess t akes p lace t hrough k insh ip , marriage , a geg roups, r i tua l a nd s o o n .

The e cono mic s phere i s n o t s een a s s epara te f ro m

t he s ocia l s phere . The t er m

e cono mic l i fe ' h as n o mean ing , a nd t here i s

of ten n o word f or ' the e cono my '.

The e xchange o f g oods i s r ea l ly a r eciproca l

t ransaction w i th in t he s ocia l r e la tions i nvo lved . g ives mean ing t o t he s ocia l a ct .

S uch

The t ransaction b inds a nd

embedded ' e xchange c an t ake p lace a t

d if feren t l eve ls —for e xa mp le , f ro m t he e xchange o f e ssen tia lf oods a tt he l oca l l eve l t o t he e xchange o fv a luab les b e tween e li tes a t ah igher l eve l.

B u t i ti s

a lso p ossible f or l ong -d istance move men t o f g oods t o o ccur — typ ica l ly t hrough wha t i s c a lled a 'p or t o ft rade '

( Revere 1 957 ) .

The p or to f t rade d eve lops o u to ft he n eed f or a p o l i tica l ly a nd s ocial ly n eu tra l mee t ing p lace.

I n r ecen t t i mes t hey o ccur o n c oasts, r ivers a nd

t r iba l b orders, u sua l ly i n p o li tica l weak s po ts.

I n t hese p eriphera l a reas t he

t raders were l ess f earfu l o ft he s trong , c en tra lised mi l i tary p owers.

The

p ro tection o fl i ves, s upp lies a nd p roperty h ad t o b e g uaran teed , a nd f aci li ties were n eeded f or d ise mbark ing , s tor ing , g rad ing o f g oods, e tc.

S o t he b est

p ossible l oca tion i s o n ac oast , p referab ly a t a n e stuary o n t he b order b etween t r iba l o rk ingdo m a reas. A tt hese p or ts o f t rade , t he r a tes o f e xchange were p re-arranged . l ong t er m .

Co mpe ti tion was e xc luded a nd p rices were a rranged o ver t he

The n ego t ia tions a nd t ransfer o fg oods u nder t rea ty were c arried

o u t b y ad ist inct p ersonne l who f or med a f air ly d ist inct s ocia l g roup .

The

t raders worked w i th r epresen ta tives o ft he l oca l e li te ; t hey were s een a s f oreigners, s trangers, ac aste a par t .

They t raf f icked ma in ly i n l uxury i t e ms

a nd r aw ma teria ls a nd a f fected l i t t le t he l oca l n on-e li te . The p or to f t rade , t hen , i s as ocia l ly a nd p oli tical ly c on trol led mechan is m t o a l low l ong -distance l uxury t rade w i th in t he c on tex t o f a n embedded p r i m i tive e cono my . The embedded e cono my b eg ins t o c hange t o d ise mbedded marke t t rade w i th t he i ncrease i n h agg l ing a nd b ar ter .

Th is i nvo lves b uy ing a nd s e l ling

o u tside a s ocia lc on tex t i n o rder t o g a in p rof i t .

The e cono my i s s ub ject t o

t he v a lues o fs upp ly a nd d e mand a nd marke t p lace e xchange a nd f ood r etai ling d eve lop .

U l ti ma te ly t he d eve lop men t o f smal l c hange e ncourages f ur ther

c o m merc ia l a ctivi ty .

Marke t p lace a ctivi ty of ten d eve lops a t t r iba l p eripheries

i n t he e xchange o f g oods b etween d i f feren t t r ibes;

a nd i t may a lso b ee ncouraged

b y t he a rriva l o f a rm ies wh ich p ro mote f ood e xchange .

1 89

The l ead ing s ubstan tivist , K ar l Po lanyi , i n a n a na lysis o f Aristo t le 's wri t ings o n t he e cono my ( Po lanyi 1 957 ) s uggests t ha t C lass ica l G reece s aw t he f i rst c hangeover f ro m t he Iembedded ' p rimi tive e cono my t o d is embedded ' marke t t rade .

B efore Ar isto t le , p r ices h ad b een d ependen t o n t he r e la tive

s tand ing i nt he c o m mun i ty o ft he p ar ties i n t he e xchange .

Bu t i n t he 4 th

c en tury , G reece g radua l ly d eve loped t he f i rst market t rade. The e cono my b eca me g overned b y l aws o f s upp ly a nd d e mand o u tside t he s ocia l s phere . P riva te e n terprise d eve loped a nd marke t t rade was i n sti tu tional ly s epara te f ro m t he p o li tica l a nd g overn men ta l c en tre . There was n o s udden c hangeover , b u t t he r esu l t was l ast ing a nd p rofound . Now , i fP o lanyi was r igh t i n h is a na lysis o f Ar isto t le a nd i f Archaic Greece r e ta ined a p rimi tive e cono my , t hen i t wou ld s een t o b e h igh ly u n like ly t ha t I ron A ge Br i ta in wou ld h ave d eve loped b eyond t ha t s tage o n ly a f ew c en turies l a ter . I ti s p erhaps more l i ke ly t ha t t he R o man i nvasion c ou ld h ave s een a c lash b e tween t he embedded i ndigenous e conomy a nd t he r e la t ive ly d isembedded e cono my o ft he c lassica l wor ld .

B u t e ven i fP o lanyi i s i ncorrect i n h is p ar-

t i cu lar r ead ing o f Aristo t le , h ea nd h is a ssocia tes h ave p resen ted a p rovoca tive i dea wh ich a rchaeo logists h ave r a ther a voided .

The mode l t ha t c an b e s uggested

f ro m t he s ubstan t ivist wri t ings i s t ha tt he l a te I ron Age i n B r i ta in r e ta ined a n e cono m ic l i fe i nd istinguishable f ro m s ocia l r e la tions. The R o man i nvasion b rough t t he p o ten tia l a nd s tructure o f av ery d if feren t , d ise mbedded e cono my. Two u t ter ly d i f feren t a nd i nco mpa t ib le e cono m ic f or ms h ad s o mehow t oa d just t o e ach o ther . A t t he mo men t Iwould s uggest t ha t t here a re i nadequa te d a ta c ol lected i nt he r igh t s or t o f way t o a l low t his mode l o r i dea t o b e f uly t ested . A l l Iw ish t od o i st o s uggesttha t t he mode l c ou ld b e t ested a nd t o s how s o me o ft he ways i t migh t b e d one . F irst , i ti sn ecessary t o d e ter m ine whe ther t he l a te I ron Age i n B ri ta in r ea l ly d id s eethe e cono my embedded i n s ocia l r e la tions.

S o me o ft he c learest

s ta te men ts f or t he e xistence o f market t fade i n I ron Age Eng land h ave r esu l ted f ro m P eacock 's ( 1968 , 1 969 ) work o n t he p e tro log ica l s ources o f I ron Age p o t tery . The f act t ha t t he p roduction o f I ron A ge p ot tery was c en tra lised was of ten t aken t o mean t ha t d ispersa l was t hrough marke ts.

A s many p eop le h ave

p o in ted o u t ( Co l lis 1 977 ) , t his i s n o t n ecessar i ly t he c ase . D ispersa l f ro m t he p roduc tion a reas c ould e qua l ly wel l h ave b een b y r eciproca l g i f t e xchange — a s p ar to f s oc ia lr e la tions.

The p ot tery d istr ibu t ions d o n o t n ecessar i ly i nd ica te

marke t a reas i nthe s ense o f i nvo lving marke t t rade , b u t c ou ld i ndica te n etworks o fs ocia l r e la tions. The p o t tery marke t ing h ypo thesis h as a lso b een c ri ticised o no ther g round ( Brai thwai te 1 980 ) . The s ocia l mean ing a t tached t o p ot tery t ypes h as b een f ur ther d e monstrat ed i n ar ecen t s tudy b y Andrew Cha mbers ( 1 978 ) o f Durotr igian b urial . I n a v ery d e tai led a na lysis o ft he a ssocia tion p a t terns i nt hese l a te I ron Age b ur ia ls, h e s hows h ow g raves c on ta in ing p ot tery o ro ther g rave g ood s, a re s y mbo lica l ly d ist inguished b ythe p lacing o ft he b odies, o n t heir r igh t s ide w i th a p ar ticu lar a lignmen t . G raves w i thou t g oods h ave a d i f feren t b ody p lacing a nd a l ignmen t . A lso , t he p ercen tages o f p o t t ypes i n b uria ls d i f fer f ro m t hose i nt he s et t lemen ts, f ur ther i ndica t ing d if feren t s oc ia l mean ing a t tached t o a r t ifac ts . V ar iat i on i n t he r ichness o fg rave g oods o ccurs amongst y oung a nd o ld i n t he b uria ls. Archaeo log ists u sua l ly i n terpre tt hi s a s mean ing t he s ta tus a nd r igh ts t og oods

1 90

were handed down-that is ascribed at birth rather than achieved. Now all this does not mean that market exchange did not occur, but it does show the way in which pots and other artifacts were embedded within a set of social meanings. They conveyed more than simple economic profit. If it is possiblethat Iron Age pots were not distributed through market trade, the same may be true for Iron Age coins. It seems generally accepted that the earliest uninscribed coinage was for social purposes rather than for small daily transactions and trade. This idea derives from the high value of the coins struck (gold or high quality silver), and their restricted distribution. But, according to John Collis (1971, p. 7 _ 7), the later 'appearance of bronze coinage represents something different, a new way of life. It is suitable not for the social function that gold and high value silver performed, but for the minor transactions of the market'. Collis suggests that the earliest bronze . coinage (Allen's British Ly). potin in Kent, silver minims in Sussex and billon in Gloucestershire all document the adoption of the money market (ibid.). This is a big claim. It appears to mean that pre-Roman England developed a moneyed market economy where the highly complex civilisation of Archaic and early Classical Greece did not. John Collis supports his argument by showing that, as in Gaul (Nash 1976), bronze coins are more common in larger centres in the late Iron Age, with gold more common in the minor 'rural' sites. The two types of coin are sup­ posed to have had two functions-the gold a social function, the bronze a marke­ ting function in the big centres only. This is an interesting idea, but it can now be seen to be based on a sampling bias in the data (Rodwell, pers. comm. ). In any case it is extremely difficult to see how the supposed market exchange involving bronze coinage would not have led to di stribution s outside the market centres . If the Iron Age coin patterning is to be understood, a clearer definition of money is needed. The substantivist definition of money is 'quantifiable objects employed in payment or standard 2.£. exchange. ' Payment involves obligations and tribute. Standard means the accounting use of money in storage or barter. It concerns summing, balancing and budgeting. This use is �portant where tributes of produce are being paid to centres because it allows the equating of many staples such as corn, wool and so on. The use of a money standard means that there is more flexibility; a greater convertability of goods. By money for 'exchange' is meant quantifiable objects for indirect exchange. One thing- is exchanged for money and something else is bought with the desire to obtain profit. Money for profitable exchange involves moving across spheres and levels. In these terms, the most likely explanation for the late Iron Age bronze coins is that they acted as payment in the form of tribute and obligations and as a local standard. The socially and politically controlled collection of goods from the local tribal areas and the elite exchange of valuables between centres, all involved a high frequency of interchange, accounting and conversion. Bronze coinage occurs because of the higher rates of conversion in the later Iron Age, to allow accounting and convertability as a standard. As the substantivist definition of money emphasises, such uses of money need have nothing to do with free or competitive market exchange. The bronze coinage aided exchange at fixed rates as a controlled, socially embedded process.

191

If there is little evidence that the late Iron Age economy in England was disembedded, how was long-distance trade organised? We lmow historically (Strabo) of the export in the first century A.D. of corn, cattle, gold, silver, iron, hides, slaves and hounds. Much of this is an elitist trade an d there is evidence of close diplomatic relations maintained by some British rulers across the channel. It is in exactly this type of context that we might expect high-value goods to move across the channel as part of socio-political rela­ tions. Caesar's reference to the Veneti (De B.G. II.3) trafficking with the British tribes, emphasises the tribal basis and reasoning behind the cross­ channel movements. In the S. E. of England the associations of long-distance trade with elitist control is clearly seen in the archaeological evidence. Wine amphorae and other imported valuables are distributed in and around the major oppida and in the rich burials of the Welwyn group. Cunliffe (1974, p. 156) suggests that the medallion in the Lexden tumulus indicates diploma­ tic links with the classical wor Id. As already noted, another way in which long-distance trade can be carried out within the context of a socially embedded economy is by the 'port of trade', and there have been some suggestions for this in the case of Hengistbury Head on the south coast. This site has produced a large amount of imported Roman amphorae, a wealth of imported pottery, while certain bronze handles which are widely distributed in Europe occur in Britain only at Hengistbury Head (Collis, 1976). The site is on a coast and at the head of a river in exactly the position in which 'ports of trade' usually occur. It is also at a tribal border, the 'neutral' zone between the Durotr"iges and Atrebates. Here the socially controlled and negotiated exchange typical of ports of trade could have existed . There seems to be little good evidence to refute the hypothesis derived ultimately from Polanyi' s examination of Aristotle. On the whole it seems possible that the late Iron Age did not see the development of a disembedded market trade. Much more detailed analytical work needs to be carried out before we can assess _this with any confidence. One possible context for late Iron Age market exchange is at between-tribe temple-markets (Hodder, 1977) but at present there is insufficient evidence for such pre-Roman forms. If market trade did not exist in the late Iron Age, or if it was very slightly de­ veloped, the impact of the invading economy in the first century A.D. becomes of greater interest . In examining the development of the economy in the early Roman period in England, it may be refreshing to consider that even today, after years of colonial and post-colonial rule in Africa, 'tribalism' and social and political relations remain a strong force in the distribution of goods in many areas. The Romano-British archaeologist rarely seems to look at his material as being potentially produced by a primitive economy. How far can we get if we do suggest the hypothesis that many aspects of the embedded economy of the late Iron Age continued on within the less embedded Roman economy? Perhaps the first point to stress is that the Roman economy itself may have been not all that developed. Finley (1973) suggests that the neglect by Roman writers of economic affairs, reflects the slight role of the economy. Crawford has suggested that it was only in the later Roman period that coins were involved in small market tra·nsactions. Paul Middleton (in this volume, 192

p. 91) has suggested that many types of long-distance trade in En gland were fully and thoroughly associated with and organised by the army. He suggests that the numbers of traders may have been small and their profits not large. If Roman long-distance trade did not necessarily involve a highly devel­ oped 'market trade' in the substantivist sense, it is usually accept.ed that the forts placed in lowland England encouraged vici settlements which had a trade and exchange emphasis. It is certainly true that the army may have encour­ aged local exchange which moved out of the social sphere. Another area in which disembedded exchange may have developed or perhaps continued from the late Iron Age, is in tribal border areas • It is widely accepted that markets frequently grow up on tribal borders where bartering and haggling can occur within a profit-making context-outside the inner spheres of social relations. The frequent occurrence of RomanoCeltic temples, often associated with possible evidence of markets, at tribal borders suggests such a development (Hodder 1977). But the very association of mar k.ets with temples suggests that this type of profit-making exchange was abnormal, something to be surrounded and watched over by ritual and the gods. In fact there seems to be considerable evidence that many aspects of the early Roman economy in lowland Britain remained embedded within a social matrix. Many of the pre-Roman Iron Age coins occur in Roman contexts and their distribution is affected by the positioning of Roman roads (Hodder and Orton 1976). If it is the case that many Iron Age coins were retained into the Roman period, then it is of interest that tribal units remain visible in the overall Iron Age coin distributions. But perhaps the clearest example of a continuity between a pre-Roman Roman exchange network is provided by Peacock (1967). In his analysis and of Malvernian ware, he shows that the distribution of the early Roman type is almost identical to the Iron Age type. A similar pattern does not mean a similar mechanism but the hypothesis of a partly social early Roman local economy at least remains possible. A social effect is perhaps also visible in another early Roman type of pottery. It has been suggested (Hodder 1974) that the distribution of Saver­ nake war.e in the Wiltshire area reflects the marketing area of Mildenhall. Vivien Swan (1975) has attempted to show that this distribution is much affected by the army. There are extremely few data which could support the proposed military control of Savernake ware finds. For example, there is no evidence that the Mildenhall well is a military deposit (ibid., p. 44). Where small amounts of Savernake pottery do perhaps occur on military sites, s uch as Nettleton Shrub, this is not necessarily an indication of centralised control and production. Some outside int:luences, perhaps through the army, may have affect.ed Savernake ware styles, but this is not to accept full dependence on military control. In any case, the vast majority of the production and distribution of Savernake ware into the late first and second centuries occur­ red after any garrison at Mildenhall would have left. Other, non-military, factors need to be considered in order to explain fully this pattern. The marketing hypothesis for Savernake ware (Hodder 1974) has always had difficulties explaining the westward bias in the distribution. Most of the 193

S avernake p o ttery moves w estwards f ro m t he p roduc t ion c en tre ( i bid ., f i g. 5 ) , a nd t h is l op-s idedness may o ccur b ecause o f s o me s oc ia l b oundary t o t he e ast .

The s a me b oundary o ccurs i n s everal I ron Age p o t tery s ty le z one

d istribu t ions ( f or e xa mp le, t he e astern e dge i s t he e astern e dge o f Cun l if fe 's ( 1974 ) Yarnbury-High f ield s tyle ). The s a me w esterly l op-s ided p at tern o ccurs i n a n a nalysis o f t he d istr ibu t ion o f I ron Age d esign mo t ifs ( Hodder 1 977 ). Market ing c an o ccur w i th in s oc ia l ' reg ions ', s o t hat t he i den t if ica t ion o f r eg ional b oundar ies t o p o t d istribu t ions d oes n ot n ecessar ily e xclude t he p oss ib i l ity o f marke t e xchange o f S avernake p ot tery .

However , s o me c on-

t inu i ty b etween I ron Age a nd Ro mano-Brit ish p rocesses i s s uggested a nd t here i s n o s trong e v idence f or market t rade. I n g eneral , t here a re s everal p ieces o f e v idence wh ich s uggest t hat many a spec ts o f t he e arly Ro mano-Br it ish e cono my c ou ld h ave r e ma ined p art o f s oc ial r elat ions.

When t aken i n c on junc t ion w i th Pau l Midd leton 's c o mmen ts

( t h is v o lu me p . 8 1 ) a nd w i th R ichard R eece 's

( 1973) s uggest ion t ha t t he e arly

c oinage i n Br ita in w as n ot s u i table f or sma l l-scale c o m mer ical t ran sac t ions, t h is e v idence p erhaps b eco mes more a ccep table. I ti s n ot u n t il t he l a ter Ro man p eriod t hat t he e cono my c hanges i n n a ture , w ith l arge n umbers o f l ow-value c o ins a ppearing a nd l ocal p ot tery d istr ibu t ions b reak ing o u t o f a nd c u t t ing a cross t he a nc ien t s oc ial l i nes a nd n e tworks . The l ate s econd c en tury , b u t ma in ly t he t h ird c en tury , s how a r e markable e xpansion o f t he ma jor p o t tery p roduc t ion c en tres a t N ene v al ley , N ew Forest a nd Oxford .

There i s l i t t le e v idence o f at r ibal o r s oc ial c on trol o f t hese

p ot tery e xchanges.

The p roduc t ion c en tres a re l oca ted , a s Fu lford ( 1973 )

h as s uggested , m idway b etween t he ma jor marke t t owns a nd w i th e asy a ccess t o t he ma jor m il i tary markets. b orders.

The d istr ibu t ions c u t a cross t he o lder t r ibal

For e xa mp le , N ew F orest p o t tery c u ts a cross t he Durotr iges a nd

Artreba tes , a nd Ox fordsh ire wares c ross t he C a tuve l laun i a nd Dobunn i. t here a re n o marked p la teaus

a nd

A lso ,

k ink s i n t he f a l l-of f c urves wh ich c ou ld s ug-

g est r eten t ion o f t he p ots w i th in i den t i ty c onsc ious s oc ial g roups ( Fu lford a nd Hodder 1 973 ).

Fu l ford ( 1973, p . 1 64 ) r ela tes t h is e xpans ion o f p ot tery

p roduc t ion -to t he g eneral p rosper i ty s een i n t he r ebu i ld ing i n t own a nd c oun try i n s ou th B ri ta in i n t he l a te t h ird c en tury. The g radual i ncrease i n t he d ise mbeddedness o f t he p ot tery p roduc t ion i n t he Ro man p eriod i s s een i n M il let t 's ( 1977 ) s tudy o f t he A l ice Hol t p rod uc t ion . I n t he e ar ly p er iod ( 4 3 A .D . 150 A .D . )t he p roduc ts a re d istribu ted l ocal ly w i th in 5 0 kms o f t he k i lns i n a n a rea o f p re-Ro man I ron Age s i tes. Mi l let t s uggests t ha t t h is d istribu t ion r epresen ts t he market ing a rea o f t he smal l t own o f N ea tha m , a l though t he d istribu t ion i s main ly s ou thwards f ro m t he k i lns , r estra ined w i th in t he A trebat ic t ribal a rea.

I n t he m idd le p er iod

( 150-270 A . D.) a nd a ga in i n t he l a test p eriod , t he market a rea i ncreases u p t o 1 25 kms f ro m t he k i lns.

I n t he l a t ter t wo p er iods t he d istribu t ions o f

t he p roduc ts b reak o u t o f a nd c u t a cross e arl ier t r ibal g roup ings.

The ma in

d e ter m inan t i n t he l a ter d istrubu t ion i s o pen market c o mpet i t ion w ith t he N ew F orest a nd Row lands C ast le c en tres. Thus i ti s o n ly i n t he l a ter Ro man p eriod t ha t o ne c an c on f iden tly t alk o f af u l ly d eveloped market t rade ( a l though e ven h ere t he d istribu t ion o f c er ta in mosa ic s chools c orresponds t o t he l ate I ron Age t r ibal g roup ings ( Hodder 1 972 ) ).

1 94

I t i s c lear t ha t v ery l i t t le o f t he e v idence d iscussed a bove i s v ery c onc lusive.

Af ra mework , d er ived f ro m t he s ubstan t iv ist s chool o f e cono m ic

a n thropolog ists , h as b een p rov ided f or t he d iscussion o f t he e cono m ic e f fec ts o ft he Ro man i nvasion .

The s uggest ion i s t hat most o f t he e cono my r e ma ined

p art o f s oc ial r ela t ions i n Eng land u n t i l t he l a ter Ro man p eriod.

Bu t f urther

d a ta c ol lec t ion a nd t he a pp l ica t ion o f more a dvanced a naly t ical t echn iques a re n ecessary b efore t h is h ypothet ical f ra mework c an b e t ested . I ft he f ra mework d oes p rove t o h ave s o me v al id i ty , i td ecreases t he importance o f t he i nvasion i t self i n t he d evelop men t o f t he B ri t ish e cono my. Rather, t here i s as low d evelop men t o f c o m merc ial e xchange.

The i n terest

o f s tudy s h if ts t o t he s oc ial p rocesses wh ich i nh ib i ted t he d e-soc ial isa t ion o f t he e cono my i n t he e arly Ro man p er iod .

There h ave b een s everal s tud ies

b y a n thropolog ists o f t he d rast ic s oc ia l e f fec ts t ha t may r esu l t f ro m t he s udd en a ppearance o fg oods mov ing o u tside s oc ial c on trol ( e .g. S harp 1 952). I nt he embedded e cono my , t he s oc ial a nd e cono m ic a re o ne , s o t ha t s oc ial s tatus, r igh ts a nd p r iv i leges a re d ependen t o n t he c on trol o ver g oods.

I f

t hese g oods t hen b eco me a va ilable t o a l l i n t he o pen market , t he v ery b asis o f s oc ial p osi t ion a nd s tatus i s d estroyed.

I n t he e ar ly Ro man p eriod , t he

t rad i t ional s oc ial h ierarchy may h ave f el t t hrea tened b y t he p o ten t ial f or a w ider a vai lab i l i ty o f g oods a nd f or t he move men t o f t he e cono my o u tside t heir c on trol.

These s oc ial f ac tors may h ave c on tribu ted t o t he s low d evelop-

men t o f t he e cono my a nd may p rov ide s o me o f t he u nderly ing r easons b eh ind t he v iolen t r evol ts a ga inst t he Ro man p resence.

B IBL IOGRAPHY BRAITH WA ITE, M., 1 980. s ou thwestern England. CHA MBERS , S . A ., 1 978.

The i n terpretat ion o f G lastonbury ware f ro m S ub m i t ted t o An t iquaries J ournal . An a nalysis o f I ron Age i nhu ma t ion b urials i n

t he Durotriges a rea a nd a n a ssess men t o f t heir v alue a s i nd icators o f s oc ial o rgan isa t ion .

C ert if ica te D issertat ion , Depart men t o f Ex tra-

Mural S tud ies, Un iversi ty o f L eeds. COLT , TS, J ., 1 971. c oinage.

F unc t ional a nd t heoret ical i n terpre tat ions o f B r it ish

World A rchaeology 3 , 7 1-84.

COLL IS , J ., 1 976.

Town a nd market i n I ron Age Europe.

a nd Row ley T . ( eds.) Opp ida i n Barbarian Europe.

I n C un l if fe B .

B .A .R .s upp le-

men tary s er ies 1 1. COLL IS, J . ( ed .) , 1 977.

The I ron Age i n B ri ta in :

ar ev iew.

S hef f ield

Un iversi ty. CUNL IFFE, B ., 1 974.

I ron Age c o m mun i t ies i n Br ita in .

DALTON , G . ( ed .) , 1 967. F INLEY , M. I . , 1 973.

Tribal a nd p easan t e cono m ies.

The a nc ien t e cono my.

FULFORD , M. G ., 1 973. B ri tann ia 4 , 1 63-172.

L ondon . N ew York .

L ondon.

The d istr ibu t ion a nd d at ing o f N ew F orest p ot tery.

1 95

FULFORD, M. G . a nd HODDER, I . , 1 975. l ate Ro mano-Bri t ish p ot tery : HODDER, I . , 1 972.

A r egression a nalysis o f s o me

ac ase s tudy.

Oxon iensia 3 9 , 2 6-33.

The i n terpretat ion o f s pa t ial p a t terns i n a rchaeology :

t wo e xa mp les.

A rea 4 , 2 23-9 .

HODDER , I . , 19 74.

The d istribu t ion o fS avernak e ware.

Wil tsh ire A rch-

a eolog ical Magaz ine 6 9 , 6 7-84. HODDER, I . , 19 77 . d istribu t ions.

N ew d evelop men ts i n t he a na lysis o f a rchaeolog ical I n D . L . C larke ( ed.) S pat ial a rchaeology .

Acade m ic

Press. HODDER, I . a nd ORTON , C ., 1 976.

S pa t ial a nalysis i n a rchaeology

Ca mbridge Un iversi ty P ress. MILLETT, M., 1 977 . p ot tery.

The d a t ing a nd d istribu t ion o f Farnha m ( Al ice Hol t )

Unpubl ished t ypescrip t.

NASH , D ., 1 976.

The g row th o fu rban s oc iety i n F rance.

a nd Row ley T . ( eds.) Opp ida i n Barbar ian Europe.

I n Cun l iffe B .

B .A . R. s upp le men tary

s er ies 1. PEACOC K , D . P . S ., 1 967.

Ro mano-Br it ish p ot tery p roduc t ion i n t he

Malvern d istric t o f Worcestersh ire.

T ransac t ions o f t he Worcestersh ire

A rchaeolog ical S oc iety n . s . 1 , 1 965-7 , 1 5-28 . PEACOC K , D . P . S ., 19 68. f ro m W. England .

A p etrolog ical s tudy o f c erta in I ron Age p ot tery

P roceed ings o f t he Preh istoric S oc iety 3 4, 4 14-26.

PEACOC K , D . P . S ., 19 69 .

A c on tr ibu t ion t o t he s tudy o f G lastonbury ware

f ro m s ou th-western Br i ta in . POLANYI , K ., 19 57 .

An t iquar ies J ournal 4 9 , 4 1-61.

Aristot le d iscovers t he e cono my.

I n P o lany i e t a l .

( eds.) p p . 6 4-96. POLANYI , K ., ARE NSBERG , C . M. a nd PEARSON , H . W. ( eds.), 19 57 . Trade a nd market i n t he e arly emp ires. REECE, R ., 1 973.

F ree P ress, N ew York .

Ro man c o inage i n t he w estern Emp ire.

B r itann ia 4 ,

2 27-51. REVERE, R . B ., 1 957. Med iterranean . SHARP, L ., 1 952.

' No man 's c oast ' :

p orts o f t rade i n t he e astern

I n Polany i e t a l . ( eds.) p p. 3 8-63. S teel a xes f or s tone-age Austral ians.

Hu man O rgan i-

s a t ion 1 1, 1 7-22. SWAN , V . G ., 1 975. Oare r econsidered a nd t he o rig ins o f S avernake ware i n Wil tsh ire. Br i tann ia 6 , 3 6-61.

1 96

THE S IGN IF ICANCE OF CO INAGE I N PRE-CONQUEST BR ITA IN b y Co lin Hase lgrove

I fo ne i s t o f or mu la te a p roper e va lua tion o ft he i mpact o f a ny c o lon ia l i nvasion o n t he p re-ex ist ing s ocio-econo mic s tructure o ft he g eographica l t erri tory t aken u p a s ap rov ince , t wo r a ther s epara te s ets o f i nfor ma tion a re r equired .

The f i rst o f t hese i s ak now ledge o ft he e cono mic o rganisa tion ,

r equire men ts a nd p o licies o ft he i mperia l p ower c oncerned , i n o ur c ase t he Ro man emp ire , t he s econd a k now ledge o ft he s ocio-econo m ic o rganisa tion o f t he v ar ious c o m mun i ties i nhabi t ing t he a ssi mi la ted a rea —for my p urposes, Eng land a nd Wa les s ou th o ft he Tyne-So lway l i ne —prior t o t he a ct o f c o lonisat ion .

I t i s o ne a spect o ft he l a t ter which f or ms t he s ub ject o ft h is p aper ; wha t

t he p resence o f p re-Conquest c oinage i n p ar ts o f wha t b eca me Bri tann ia c an t e l l u s a bou t t he s ocio-econo m ic s tand ing o ft he i ndigenous i nhabi tan ts. However , t here a re t wo c o mp lica t ing f actors which s hou ld b e men tioned b rief ly b efore embark ing o n t his t ask .

The f i rst o ft hese , t he n a ture o f o ur

i nfor ma tion b ase i s p erhaps t he more i mpor tan t a s i ts evere ly c onstra ins o ur a pproach .

To a ssess t he a i ms a nd o u tco me o f Ro man a dm inistra tive a nd

e cono m ic i n terven tion , w e h ave a f a ir amoun t o f t ex tua l a nd e p igraphic e vid ence a t o ur d ispos .a l , a s wel l a s t he ma teria l r e ma ins, whereas o ur k nowl edge o f i nd igenous s ocia l f or ma tions must b e d rawn a l most e n tire ly f ro m t he l a t ter s ource t hrough i nference a nd t he u se o f a na logy .

I ti s t hus a c hang ing

q uan ti ty , d ependen t a s much o n s hif ts i n a cade m ic f ashion a s o n t he a cquisi tion o f n ew a nd c on trad ictory d a ta .

Prehistor ians d o n o t a gree , i ndeed a re n ever

l i ke ly t o a gree , o n h ow b est t o i nfer s ocio-econo mic s tructure a nd p rocess f ro m ma teria l r e ma ins, a nd s pace p reven ts me f ro m e xp lor ing t h is i ssue f ur ther o ther t han t o make t he p oin t t ha t i n ag iven p rehistoric s i tua tion , o ne s hou ld c lear ly c onsider t he w idest p ossible r ange o f mode ls a nd s eek t o t est f ur ther t hose which s ee m most r e levan t , r a ther t han , a s h as of ten h appened i n t he p ast , r e lying o n an arrow r ange o f a na log ies d rawn f ro m F euda l E uropean s ocie ty ( c f . F rankenste in a nd R ow lands, 1 978 ) , o r o n t wen tieth c en tury e xperience a nd Westernised c oncep ts.

This i s p ar t icu lar ly i mpor tan t

when c onsider ing t he s igni f icance o f p rehistoric c o in p roduction a nd u se , a s t his p aper w i l l s eek t o d e monstra te. I ti s a lso a s wel l t o r e me mber t ha t wha t f rag men tary t ex tua l e vidence we h ave f or t he p re-conquest p er iod i n Bri ta in —Caesar , S trabo , e tc. —ste ms f ro m t he Med i terranean wor ld a nd c arries w i th i tt he v a lue j udge men ts a nd p reconcep tions o f t ha t s ocie ty .

1

Thus, t he o ne c on te mporary r eference we

h ave t o c o ins i n p re-Conquest Bri ta in , t he we l l-known p assage f ro m Caesar ' s d escrip tion o f Bri ta in , "U tun tur a u t a ere , a u t n u m mo a ureo , a u t t a leis f ereris a d c er tu m p ondus e xa m ina tis p ro n u m mo ..."

1 97

( DBG , V , 1 2 )

may well be more of a hindrance than a help. If Mansel Spratling's (1976) reading of the passage is correct, it provides evidence for the existence and use of gold coins, bronze of unspecified form and iron bars 'pro nummo', and for the significance of the weight of all three categories, but also intro­ duces a series of uncertainties. In terms of what functions would Caesar have regarded an item as nummus? Were there other items which we would regard as money in some sense, but Caesar would not have? To what part of Britain does the passage refer? Could Caesar have conflated information relating to various parts of Britain which he had obtained from traders or native inform­ ants? The second complicating factor with which we have to contend is that while formal incorporation of Britannia as a province is an event we can tie down precisely in time, some regions of the island had clearly enjoyed con­ tact, although not necessarily either intensive or long-lived, with the expand­ ing Roman world over the century leading up to the invasion, as witnessed by the imports-amphorae, metalwork, Gallo-Belgic wares, etc. -found in burials and on settlement sites (e.g. Cunliffe, 1978; Rodwell, 1976) and by coin designs and the Latin inscriptions they carry (Allen 1944; Scheers,1978). This interaction, in terms of both information and material flows, is likely to have stimulated certain processes of social and economic change, both in the areas directly in trading contact and beyond their boundaries.2 Similarly, the military conquest and administrative consolidation of the island was a rela­ tively long drawn-out process, opening up a range of possibilities for post­ invasion, pre-colonisation change in regions which either temporarily retained semi-automonous status such as East Anglia or which lay for a while beyond the successive military frontiers. In short, therefore, in considering the socio-economic organisation of pre-Conquest Britain, we are dealing with a highly dynamic situation to which no s tatic description and interpretation will do full justice. It is therefore against this assumed background of change in Britain during the period. £. 100 B. C. to£. A.D. 50, and both regional and temporal variation in socio-economic process, that the rest of this paper will focus on a particular series of developments-those associated with the intro­ duction, production and use of coinage. Let us begin then by looking at the structure of the numismatic data. There have been several detailed studies of the chronological development and geo­ graphical expansion of coinage in pre-Roman Britain, notably those of Allen (e.g. 1944, 1960) and more recently Kent (1978) and Rodwell (1976). I shall do no more than reiterate the major points. Six main phases of coin possession and production can be recognised (Haselgrove, in preparation): · Phase 1: import in some quantity o,f gold staters and their quarters by weight originating in Belgic Gaul. The principal concentrations of these coins are in the counties at the mouth of the Thames estuary and in Sussex. The dating of their introduction is problematical, but likely to lie within the last quarter of the 2nd century B.C. or the first quarter of the 1st century B.C. Phase 2: further import in large quantity of gold staters and unrelated quarters also originating from Belgic Gaul. They are again concentrated in the Home Counties, but reached areas further away in some number. This phase also saw the first indigenous production of gold staters, with two major 198

series in an arc stretching from Es_sex to the Isle of Wight, another concen­ trated in Dorset and a fourth in the East Midlands; a possible fifth group is the so-called Wolf series localised in Norfolk. There are also a number of minor series copying the major types and found in Essex and Hampshire. Phase 2 covers the second quarter of the 1st century B.C. Phase 3: third quarter of the 1st century B.C. Production of an extremely heterogeneous range of gold, silver, and bronze types, usually in rather limi­ ted quantities as far as we can judge, although the fact that large hoards of one or two types have been found e.g. at Whaddon Chase, engenders caution on this point. In central southern England, however, an extensive series of gold staters and quarters were struck, with a triple-tailed horse on the re­ verse, while Norfolk, the East Midlands and Dorset all produced their own distinctive stater series, the latter in silver. Superimposed over the content of these three phases, two further groups of coins should be mentioned. The first of these are the enigmatic potin coins (Allen, 1971), concentrated in Kent, but also thinly scattered to the north and west. At some point in time these were hoarded in vast numbers; whether Allen was correct to link this phenomenon with Caesar' s invasions will remain a point of argument (e.g. Collis, 1974) but what does seem certain from site finds is that potins were in production before the middle of the 1st century B. C. and in use well into the 1st century A.D. (Haselgrove, in preparation). The second group comprises miscellaneous continental issues, mostly North-West French types found in Dorset and adjacent counties and Belgic bronzes in the south-east, although many of the latter may have been brought across the Channel far later by individuals in the Roman army. Phases 4-5: the major features of these phases can be briefly summarised as the introduction before the end of the 1st century B.C. of inscriptions on coins throughout the south-east, the exercise of a greater degree of control over production and the striking of an extensive bronze coinage in the Home Counties, and the striking of silver issues as well as gold in peripheral areas, including now the counties bordering the Severn estuary. The first century A.D. (Phase 5) saw the use of inscriptions spreading to all the peripheral coin­ using areas with the exception of Dorset which retained its own peculiar series, and the achievement of a high degree of both centralisation and technical profi­ ciency in coin production in the south-east (cf. Allen, 1975; Allen and Haselgrove, forthcoming). Phase 6: the question of the continued use or even production of British �oinage after the invasion is considered by Reece in this volume (page 211). It is, of course, central to the theme of "invasion and r espon se", but. to answer it even partially requires a far more detailed consideration of the chronology of site finds and hoards than has presently been undertaken; on general grounds we would suppose the Roman administration forbade the striking of precious metal coinage even in the client kingdoms, while, as Kent (1973) has shown, large quantities of British coinage were available to be hoarded with Roman issues until well on into the Roman period in certain of the peripheral areas at least. In the period immediately preceding the invasion, the following patterns of coin production can be discerned. In the Essex-Herts-Beds-Cambridge

199

region, we find a trimetallic system of gold staters and quarters, silver and bronze types bearing the name of Cunobelin. The silver coins are rare, the large number of bronze types have rather restricted distributions, 3 while the limited range of gold types are found over a large region. Kent and the Upper Thames valley appear to share this system, although the quantity of finds is smaller, with a marked predominance of gold in the former area. In Norfolk, in the East Midlands and in Rants-Sussex extending into the Middle Thames Valley, there are bimetallic gold-silver systems, with the addition of fraction­ al silver types. The latter are relatively rare although this may simply be due to ease of missing them on excavations. The Severn estuary region apparently possessed a similar system, although at present only two fractional silver examples are known. The final area to be considered, the south-west centred on Dorset, poses rather more of a problem. 'Durotrigian' coinage has generally been seen as having undergone a gradual devolution from gold and silver staters to struck and then finally cast bronze issues with the silver issues remaining in circulation over a long period of time (Allen, 1968). However, chemical examination of the coins found at South Cadbury has shown that all but one of the apparent bronze coins were in fact of silver of varying degrees of purity (Alcock, 1972)-the other being a core-while many of the cast coins from Hengistbury show traces of a silver or even gold wash. We must await Melinda Mays' detailed study of this series, but in the meantime it would be rash to assert dogmatically that the region pos,sessed a bimetallic silver and bronze system. In view of the relatively rapid diffusion of coinage across the zone hither­ to discussed and its presence in most areas for up to a century before the Roman conquest, it is of considerable interest that apart from scattered finds and the occasional hoard, there is no evidence for the indigenous production of coinage in the Devon-Cornwall peninsula, in Wales other than in Gwent or in England to the north of the Trent and Humber. Those coins which are found are either completely outside their cultural mili eu, as in the hoards trom Carn Brea, Netherud or Paul, at coastal sites with far flung contacts such as Mount Batten, or in post-invasion contexts, often with military connections e.g.the coin of Tasciovanus found at South Shields (Allen, 1960). The failure to adopt coinage could be viewed as a result of the 'cultural isolation' of the areas concerned (e.g. Thomas, 1966) or if one allows the probability of inter­ action with the coin-using zone, for which there is some evidence, in the south­ west at least (e.g. Clarke, 1972), the outcome of social rejection of the p�e--. nomenon. Whatever the truth of the matter, this dichotomy introduces a further element of variation to the pattern already discussed and if the latter explanation is to be preferred, hints at a sharp distinction between those societies for which coinage met an existing need and those for which it did not, a question which must now be pursued in detail. What factors then lie behind the introduction of coinage to Britain in the first place, and what significance should we attach to its subsequent diversifi­ cation into a series of regional systems ? As far as the former is concerned, there are really two questions. By what mechanism did the earliest coins cross the Channel and what was their function? Until recently the usual ans­ wer to the first question was that coinage was brought over by the Belgic im­ migrants to whom Caesar refers (e.g. Allen, 1960; Hawkes, 1968), but in 200

r ecen t y ears a n u mber o f o ther s uggestions h ave b een a dvanced e .g . t ha t i t was t rans mi t ted t hrough e xist ing s ocio-econo mic n e tworks ( Co l lis, 1 971 ) , t ha t s o me t ypes were a cquired t hrough t rade ( RodweD, 1 976) b rough t b y r efugees o r e ven o bta ined a s p lunder , o r t ha t t he c o ins f or med p ar t o f p aymen ts u sed t o r ecrui t Br i tish mercenar ies f or warfare i n Gau l ( Ken t , 1 978 ) . U nfor tuna te ly , ow ing t o t he d i f f icu l ty o f i so la t ing t he e x ten t o r e ven d a te o f B e lg ic s et t le men t u sing o ther a rchaeo logica l c ri teria ( c f . Hard ing , 1 974) a nd b ear ing i n mind t he p oss ibi li ty t ha t t he c oin d istr ibu tion o bserved b y a rchaeo logists c ou ld b e as econdary o ne r ef lect ing t heir d ispersa l among t he p opu la t ion af ter t heir i mpor t i n b u lk , i ti s i mpossib le f or u s t o c hoose f i na l ly b etween t he h ypo theses o f fered .

This h as r epercussions a s f ar a s t he c lose ly

r e la ted q uestion o f f unction i s c oncerned , a s we c anno t d ist ingu ish b e tween t he f o l low ing p ossibi li ties: ( 1 )

t he c o ins were i n troduced b y c o in-using i mm igran ts a nd t hus c on t inued t o b e u sed i nt he s a me way a s t hey h ad b een i n t he h o me land .

( 2 )

Co inage was a n i nnova tion w i th in a s ocia l n etwork s pann ing b o th s ides o f t he Channe l o r c a me i n to t he p ossession o ft he i nd igenous p opula tion b y o ne o ft he o ther mechanis ms s uggested a bove , i n e i ther c ase i mp lying t ha t t he i nhabi tan ts o f B ri ta in d eve loped u ses f or i to n t he ir own a ccoun t . B u t c an t here r ea l ly b e a ny d oub t a s t o t he f unction o f t he e ar liest g o ld

c o inage i n Br i ta in —prehistoric c oinage , j ust a s modern c o inage , w i l l s ure ly h ave f unct ioned p r imari ly a s a mediu m o f e xchange? n eed n o t n ecessar i ly b e t he c ase.

Iwou ld a rgue t ha t t his

A s K ar l P o lanyi h as p u t i t , a f ter a c arefu l

a na lysis o fe xchange a nd money-uses: " Because o ft he e xchange-use o f money u nder o ur marke t o rgan isat i on o f e cono m ic l i fe we a re a p t t o t h ink o f money i n t oo n arrow t er ms. No o b ject i s money p er s e a nd a ny o b ject i n a n a ppropria te f i eld c an f unct ion a s money .

I n t ru th , money i s as yste m o f s y mbo ls s i mi lar

t o l anguage , wri t ing o r weigh ts a nd measures ..[i t ] i s a n i nco mp lete ly u n if ied s yste m , as earch f or i t s s ing le p urpose i s ab l ind a ley .... We must b e c on ten t w i th l i st ing t he p urposes t o which o b jects c a l led money a re a ctua l ly p u t . This i s a chieved b y p o in t ing t o t he s i tua t ion i n which w e o pera te t hese o b jects a nd w i th wha t e f fect ." ( Po lanyi , 1 968 :175) Money , i nc lud ing c o in , a cquires i t s mean ing f ro m t he d ef ini te s ocia l s i tua tion i n wh ich i to pera tes — i t i s as ymbo l a nd t hus i t s i n for ma tion c on ten t may c hange w i th c u l tura l c on tex t . Thus, i fP o lanyi i s c orrect , t here a re n o ap r iori g rounds f or t he b e lief t ha t a l l t he a r tefacts wh ich c an b e c lassi f ied a s c o ins o n t he b asis o ft heir p hysica l c haracter istics, p erfor med t he s a me f unctions, t o t he s a me d egree , i n e very s ocie ty t ha t a cquired o r p roduced t he m , a ny more s o t han w i th a ny o ther p o ten tia l money o b ject . Thus, a l though t he morpho logica l mode l f or most o ft he e ar liest c o ins f ound i n Bri ta in was p rovided b y a Medi terranean t ype , t he s ta ter o f P h i l ip I o f Macedon , t h is c an b e n o g uaran tee t ha t i t s C e l tic d eriva tives p erfor med t he s a me f unction o r c onveyed t he s ame mean ing t o t heir p roducers. I ndeed , we c anno t e ven b e e n tire ly c er ta in a s t o t he p ro to type ' sp ri mary f unct ions w i th in 2 01

the Mediterranean world-far from being produced to facilitate exchange, it seems increasingly likely that the principal use of Greek gold and silver coin­ age was as a means of payment for services and to meet obligations, particu­ larly those of the state (Kraay, 1964). If the earliest gold coinage in Britain was not a medium of exchange, what function is it likely to have served? Polanyi (1968) and other workers before· him, identify three recurring money uses, which although unified in the case of modern money on the basis of its exchange-use, were often performed by different objects in different situations. These are: (1) Means of payment. The handing over of quantifiable objects in dis­ charge of obligations. In primitive societies, many payments are of a cus­ tomary nature, determined by political, religious or social obligations rather than by economic considerations e.g. reciprocal gift-exchange, payment of compensations, fines, tribute, bridewealth or for services. In many societies, the capacity to make such payments conferred prestige and status on an in­ dividual, and thus the social importance of wealth lay in a person's capacity to make large payments without undermining their status. (2) Storage of wealth. Clearly this money-use had its origin largely in the the need to make payments. In early societies, ther� seem to have been two pri ncipal forms of stored wealth-firstly prestige items, both valuables and ceremonials and secondly, subsistence goods, wealth accumulated in the form of cattle and other perishable goods. (3) Standard of value. This use of money seems more closely linked with its exchange use than is either payment or wealth storage. It seems to have its origins in the fact that both administration and exchange transactions without a fixed rate frequently require some sort of unit of account in order to equate amounts of different goods.

I would argue that it is in the context of the first two money uses that gold coinage can best be understood as· an innovation in pre-Roman Britain, i.e. that coinage was adopted because of its ability to meet existing social needs of the kind mentioned above as well as or better than objects already performing those functions. We can point to many artefacts of broadly similar date e.g. torcs, decorated bronzes, etc., which could have performed in a payment and wealth storage role within existing prestige or ceremonial spheres, bearing in mind that our knowledge of many of these artefact types rests on the peaks in hoarding which occurred in the mid 1st century B.C. and after the Roman in­ vasion (Spratling, 1972). That gold coins were also items of considerable value is, of course, an� priori assumption, but seems to be in keeping with their hoarding in quantity, their low incidence as site finds and the large number of off-site single finds, which surely should be treated as instances of deliberate concealment and not as casual losses. Given Caesar's observations on weighing (p. 197 above) and Spratling's (1976) demonstration of the significance of total hoard weights and of metro­ logical relationships between gold coins and other objects e.g. the Tayac tore and local staters, one can therefore perhaps envisage the initial assimilation of gold coinage to existing prestige spheres to perform a payment and wealth storage role on the basis of their weight in metal. The subsequent decline in 202

t he weigh t a nd p uri ty o fg o ld c o ins, t he i ncreased i ncidence o f p la ted f orgeries a nd t he s trik ing o f a n i ncreasing ly d iverse r ange o ft ypes, n ow i n s i lver a s we l l a s g o ld , would a l l s ee m c onsonan t w i th t he f ur ther h ypo thesis t ha t w i th t ime , p recious me ta l c o inage b ecame f u l ly a ccep ted s ocia l ly a s as y mbo l , c onvey ing i n for ma tion r egard ing o bl iga tion a nd s ta tus b e tween d onor a nd r eceiver i n a n i ncreasing ly w ide r ange o f p ay men ts made w i th in t he p rest ige s phere . The h igh i ncidence o fp la ted f orgeries o n s i tes which a ppear t o h ave h ad a r e l igious f unction , s o me times i n a ssocia tion w i th a r ange o f o ther p rest i ge g oods a s a t Hay l ing I s land ( Downey , K ing a nd S of fe , 1 978 ) c ould we l l i mp ly c hea t ing o n p ay men ts t o s uperna tura l a u thori ties, r a ther t han t he u se o f s uch c o ins i n i ndividua l e xchange t ransactions a f ter t heir r ecogn i tion a s f orger ies a s C o l l is ( 1971 ) h as s ugges ted . The r eturn t o more c on tro l led c oin p roduction i nt he s ou th-east d ur ing P hase 4 a ppears t o c o incide w i th t he emergence o f a n i ncreasing d egree o f s ocia l s tra ti f ica tion i nt he i nd igenous p opu la tion , a s e videnced b y t he We lwyn b ur ia ls ( S tead , 1 967 ) . Whi le i ti s s tr ict ly o u tside t he s cope o ft his p aper t o t ry a nd i den ti fy t he p rocesses b eh ind s uch a s h if t , i td oes s ee m l ike ly t ha t t he k ind o fc o mpe ti tive mode l p roposed f or t he h ierarchica l e labora tion o f a p rest ige g ood s yste m t hrough d if feren tia l a ccess t o n onloca l p rest ige i t e ms ( Frankenste in a nd R ow lands, 1 978 ) f or t he Ha l lsta t t I ron Age i n s ou thern G ermany , wou ld b e p lausib le f or t he l a te I ron Age i n S ou th-Eastern Bri ta in a s we l l , t he p rest ige i mpor ts i nt he l a t ter c ase b e ing Medi terranean manuf actures, w ine , e tc .

Two p o in ts s ee m r e levan t i n t his r espect —f irst ly t ha t

t he b ur ia ls o f me mbers o ft he emergen t h ierarch ies i nc lude a h igh p roport ion o f i t e ms s y mbo lising t heir a ccess t o t he R o man emp ire , a nd s econdly t ha t i t i s a t p recise ly t h is t ime t ha t t he p aramoun t i ndiv idua ls b egan t o man ipu la te t he p o ten tia l o f c o inage a s a mediu m f or c onvey ing i n for ma tion a bou t t heir s ta tus t o s ubord ina te i nd ividua ls t hrough t he u se o f i nscrip tions. I n o ther w ords, wh i le c on tro l o f R o man i mpor ts may h ave e nab led t he p ro mo tion o f s uch i ndividua ls i n t he h ierarchy , o ne c an p erhaps s ee t he d e l ibera te u se o f c o inage t o ma in ta in t heir p osi tion v is av is t he i nd igenous p opu la tion , u l tima te ly w i th R o man a ssistance i n d ie-cut t ing , a nd emp loy ing d esigns t aken f ro m R o man c o ins ( S cheers, 1 978 ) t o emphasize t he i mpor tance o ft he l i nk . The i dea o fu sing c o inage t o c onvey i n forma tion a bou t t he s ta tus o f i t s i ssuers t hrough t he u se o f i nscrip tions s pread t o a l l t he p eriphera l a reas w i th t he e xcep t ion o f Dorse t . 4 Duro tr igian c o inage r e ma ins a n e n igma i n t ha t i t i s t he o n ly s eries t ha t d oes n o t d eve lop a r ange o ft ypes o r u se i nscrip t ion b y t he t ime o ft he Ro man i nvasion .

However , i fo ne a ssu mes t ha t a t t he t ime o f

manufacture , most Duro tr igian c o ins d id h ave t he a ppearance o f s i lver , t hen t he a rea c on for ms t o ap a t tern o bservab le i n a l l t he o ther r egions w i th e x tensi ve s i lver c o inages —East Ang lia , t he East Mid lands, a nd t he S everan e stuary — i n o ne i mpor tan t r espect — tha t c o ins a re b y n o means r are , a l though n ever p len t ifu l , o n an u mber o f o ccupa tion s i tes, wh i le c on t inu ing t o b e h oarded a nd l ost o r more l ike ly d e l ibera te ly d eposi ted o n s i tes w i th a r e l igious f unction . Aq uestion o ne must a sk i s whe ther t he c on t inued u se o f s i lver f or p ay men t a nd wea l th s torage e xclusive ly w i th in a p rest ige o r c ere monia l c on tex t c an a ccoun t f or t he r e la tive ly h igh i ncidence o f c oin l oss o n s et t le men t s i tes, b u t b efore t ry ing t o a nswer i t we s hou ld p erhaps c onsider t he l i ke ly o vera l l f or m t aken b y e xchange r e la t ions i n p re-Ro man Bri ta in . 2 03

I n r ecen t y ears, a n i ncreasing n u mber o f s cho lars, f olow ing P o lanyi a nd h is a ssocia tes ( 1957 ) , h ave r eacted a ga inst t he p reva i ling i n terpre ta tion o f e cono m ic o rganisa tion i n n onindustria l s ocie ties a s d if fer ing o n ly i n d egree f ro m t ha t f ound i n t he modern Western wor ld , where marke t e xchange i s t he d om inan t i n tegra tive p rincip le .

I n modern p r imi tive s ocie ties, a s w e ll a s i n

many o ft he a rchaic s ta tes, t hey s ee t he e cono m ic s phere a s i nseparab le f ro m s ocia l o rganisa tion a t l arge ;

i ti s s a id t o b e 'embedded ' i n t he s ocia l s truc-

t ure , w i th t he d istr ibu tion o f ma teria l g oods a nd s ervices b eing g overned b y t he p r incip les o f r eciproci ty a nd r edistr ibu tion .

B y i mp lica tion , t he s a me i s

t herefore t rue o f p reindustria l s ocie ty i n g enera l , a nd i ndeed , Hodder a rgues t he r e levance o f s uch a mode l f or t he l a te I ron Age c o m mun i ties o f B ri ta in e lsewhere i n t his v o lu me ( page 1 89 ) . A c haracteristic f eature o f t his s i tua tion i s t he mu lt i-cen tric n a ture o f e xchange r e la tionships;

as ociety ' se xchangeab le g oods f a l l i n to t wo o r more

mu tua l ly e xc lusive t ransact iona l s pheres, of ten d istingu ished b y d i f feren t p r incip les o f e xchange a nd mora l v a lues ( Bohannon a nd Da l ton , 1 962 ) e .g . i n t he h istor ica l c ase o f t he T iv o f C en tra l N igeria , t here

was

as ubsistence

s phere o f c onveyance , ap restige s phere a nd t hird ly t he e xchange o f p ersons i n marriage ( Bohannon , 1 959 ) , whi le f or t he S iane o f N ew G uinea , S a l isbury ( 1962 ) i den tif ied s pheres o f c onveyance f or s ubsi stence , l uxury a nd c ere moni a l g oods r espective ly .

Nor ma l ly t hese s pheres r e ma in d ist inct , b u t u nder

e xcep tiona l c ircu mstances c onversions may o ccur f ro m o ne s phere t o a no ther o r g oods which a re s epara te ly c lassi f ied may b e c o mbined i n as ing le s phere o f c onveyance ( MacCor mack , 1 979 ) .

Wi th in s epara te t ransactiona l s pheres,

i ti s n o t u nusua l t o f i nd o ne o r more t ypes o f o b ject p erfor m ing s o me o r a l l o ft he money u ses l i sted a bove —exchange , p ay men t , s tandard o r w ea l th s torage —bu t wha t i s u n iversa l ly a bsen t i s ag enera l-purpose money s erving t hese f unctions i n a l l t he d i f feren t t ransactiona l s pheres;

i fi t were p resen t ,

t he n orma l b oundar ies b e tween s epara te s pheres wou ld o f n ecessi ty b e b roken d own , a s u l tima te ly h appened i n t he c ase o ft he T iv w i th t he i n troduct ion o f European money .

F ar f ro m r ecogni sing t he a dvan tages o f fered b y ac o m mon

mediu m o f e xchange o ver p re-exi sting modes o f e xchange , a s an u mber o f t heor ies f or t he o r ig ins o f money a ssu me , t he T iv a ctua l ly s aw European money a s at hrea t t o t heir t radi t iona l s ocia l s tructure a nd t ried t o p ro tect t he l a t ter b y i nven ting a n ew e xchange s phere i n which European money was e xchangea ble o n ly f or i mpor ted European g oods.

Their f a i lure a nd t he p rofound e f fects

i t wrough t i s we l l d ocu men ted b y Bohannon ( 1959 ) . I th as a lready b een a rgued t ha t t he a dop tion o f p recious me ta l c o inage i n Bri ta in i s e xp licab le w i th in t he s ocia l c on tex t o f p ay men ts a nd a w ea l th s torage r o le i n ap re-exist ing p rest ige s phere.

I t r e ma ins t o c onsider , h owever ,

whe ther t he r e la tive ly h igh i ncidence o f s i lver c o in l oss o n s et t le men t s i tes i n t he p er iphera l c oin-using a reas a nd t he a dop ti on o f p o t in a nd b ronze c oina ge i n t he s ou th-east i s c o mpa t ib le w i th t he c on t inued e xistence o f wha t Hodder ( t his v o lu me p age 1 89 ) c a l ls a f u l ly s ocia l e cono my r igh t u p t o t he t ime o f t he R o man i nvasion .

A s f ar a s s i lver i s c oncerned , o ne p ossibi li ty must b e

t ha t o ver t ime s i lver c o ins b egan t o b e u sed i n o ccasiona l c onversions b e tween t ep rest ige a nd o ther s pheres o f c onveyance a nd a s ar esu l t o ft his a ssociai on , b egan t o b e u sed i n a no ther s phere a s w e l l , most l ike ly o ne c oncerned w i th t he c ircu la tion o f u ti li tarian o r s ubsistence g oods.

2 04

The merging o f i t e ms

o f d i f feren t c lassi f ica tion i n as ing le s phere t o s ti mu la te p roduction i s ad ev ice n o ted b y MacCor mack ( 1979 ) a nd i n t he c on tex t o f d e mands made o n t he p eriphera l a reas b y t he i ncrease i n t rade b e tween t he s ou th-east a nd t he c ont inen t a f ter t he R o man c onquest o f Gau l , migh t b e c onsidered a s a no ther p oss ibi li ty . The a ppearance o f p o tin a nd s truck b ronze c oinage i n t he s ou th-east p oses s o me th ing o f ap roble m .

A l though o therwise h o lding s o mewha t d ivergen t

v iews o n t he o r igins o f c oinage i n Bri ta in , an u mber o f a u thors e .g . A l len ( 1971 ) , C o l lis ( 1971 ) a nd Rodwe l l ( 1976) u n i te i n v iew ing t he a dop tion o f wha t i s s o mewha t a nachron istica l ly c onsidered t o b e l ow-va lue p o t in a nd b ronze c oinage a s i ndica tive o f t he d eve lop men t o f ar e tai l marke t e cono my i n t his r egion , w i th p o tin i n K en t t he r a ther e ar lier c oun terpar t o f s truck b ronze n or th o ft he Thames.

B road ly s peaking , i n t er ms o f t heir a rchaeo log ica l

c on tex t , p o t in a nd b ronze c oins h ave much i n c o m mon a nd i ndeed a re s o met imes f ound t oge ther o n t he s a me s i te e .g . a t Braughing , Can terbury , R ochest er a nd K e lvedon .

Among t he d i f ferences o ne c an o bserve a re t he p resu mp-

t i ve ly much g rea ter v o lu me o fb ronze c oinage , t he n u mber o fb ronze t ypes s truck a nd r e la tive ly l imi ted d istr ibu tions o f many o f t hese , a nd t he f act t ha t o n ly C lass 1p o t in h oards h ave b een r ecovered ,

5

b u t t hese d o n o t s ee m c o m-

p e l ling r easons f or r egard ing t he m a s o ther t han d i f feren t f ace ts o f as ing le p heno menon . A l though i ti s d i f f icu lt t o s ubstan tia te s uch a p roposi tion , It h ink t ha t r a ther t han v iew ing t he e ar lier p o t in a s i nd ica tive o ft he s pon taneous emergence o f ar e ta i l marke t o f u n limi ted r ange , i ts hou ld b e s een a s as pecia l-purpose money , t o ac er ta in e x ten t i mi ta t ing g o ld i n t he p restige s phere , b u t p roduced b y t he t r iba l a u thor i t ies t o f unction i n d i fferen t s pheres o f c onveyance a l tog e ther , most l ike ly t ha t c oncerned w i th t he c ircu la tion o f s ubsistence a nd u ti li tarian i t e ms.

P o tin migh t p lausib ly h ave f unctioned a s as ubsti tu te means

o f p ay men t i n r edistr ibu tive t ransactions i nvolving s ubsi stence i t e ms;

a l terna-

t ive ly i tm igh t p erhaps h ave b een i ssued a s a means o f e xchange a nd s tandard o fv a lue f or u se i n b ar ter e xchanges.

Ac onnection b e tween p o tins a nd e x-

c hanges w i thou t a f i xed p rice ' c ou ld b e i mp l ied b y t he p ractice o f d e libera te h a lv ing a nd q uar ter ing o f p o tin .s, f or which w e h ave s o me e vidence ( Hase lgrove , i n p repara tion ) .

I n t ha t m inor markets a re n o t u nco m mon a s as upp le men tary

means o f d istr ibu tion i n mu l ticen tric e cono mies ( Bohann a n a nd Da l ton , 1 962 ) , t he i n troduct ion o f p o t in a s as y mbo l o f e xchangeab le g oods wou ld s imp ly r epres en t t he e x tension o f p rincip les a lready p resen t i n t he s ocie ty.

However , p er-

h aps t he most i mpor tan t p oin t t o make w i th t hi s mode l i s t ha t e ven i fp o tin h ad t he a t tr ibu tes o f ag enera l-purpose money , t hi s n eed b e s o o n ly w i th in a p art i cu lar s phere o f e xchange ( c f . Bohannan , 1 959 ) —i ts a dop tion wou ld n o t i mp ly t he emergence o f af u l l marke t e cono my i n t he modern s ense . Turning t o b ronze c oinage , i t may we l l b e s igni f ican t t ha t when i t s p roduct i on b eco mes q uan ti ta tively i mpor tan t , b ronze was i ssued b y ac en tra l a u thor i ty i n ac on tro l led manner , i .e . i t s p roduction may we l l r epresen t a n

'a d minis-

t ra t ive ' r esponse t o an ew s ocia l n eed . G iven t he h igh i ncidence o f f i nds o n n uclea ted s e t t le men ts s uch a s Ca mu lodu mu m which h ave a lso p rovided c onside rab le e vidence f or i ndustr ia l a ctivi ty , as ui table c on tex t i s l ike ly t o h ave b een as harp g row th i n t he n u mber o f f u l lt i me s pecia lists r esiden t i n s uch c en tres 2 05

a s ar esu l t o ft he p a tronage p rovided b y i ndividua ls i n t rading c on tact w i th t he R o man w or ld .

I ft he o u tpu t o f s uch c raf ts men was p r i mari ly i n p rest ige

i t e ms, o r i ndeed i n a ny i t e ms which4 lid tno t c ircula te w i thin t he s ubsistence s phere , t hen s uch s pecia lists wou ld h ave l acked t he means w i th wh ich t o a cquire t heir means o f s ubsistence .

Iwou ld s uggest t herefore t ha t t he r o le

o fb ronze c oinage may w e l l h ave b een a s ag enera l-purpose money w i th in t he s ubsistence s phere , i ssued t o s pecia list p roducers a nd o ther i ndividua ls p rov id ing s erv ices f or t he c en tra l a uthor i t ies i n p aymen t a nd u sed b y t he m t o o bt a in f oodstuf fs, d o mestic u tensi ls a nd s uch l i ke a t l oca l marke ts e stab lished f or t his p urpose , u l tima te ly l eading t o t heir g enera lised u se a s a mediu m o f e xchange a nd s tandard o fv a lue i nt he market p lace ( c f . Nash ,

1 97 6) .

C er-

t a in ly t he p a t tern o fb ronze s i te f i nds s uggests t ha t t heir ma jor f oci o f u se were t he ma jor a nd minor n uclea ted s e t t le men ts, w i th sma l l q uan ti ties r eachi ng t he h in ter land s i tes which a re l i ke ly t o h ave s upp lied s uch c en tres w i th t heir f ood r equire men ts.

One c an a lso p erhaps s uggest t he u se o f b ronze c oins

i n p lace o f s ubsistence i t e ms i n p ay men ts made b y t he p r imary p roducers t o t heir s ocia l s uper iors.

The l arge n u mber o fb ronze c oins a t t he r e lig ious s i te

o f Har low , i n ter m ixed a s t hey a ppear t o h ave b een w i th b rooches a nd v o tive i t e ms, which a rgues a ga inst t heir i n terpre ta tion a s l osses i n t he c ourse o f marke t p lace e xchange , c ou ld b e s een a s r esu l t ing f ro m t he s ubsti tu tion o f b ronze c oins f or p erishable s ubsistence g oods i n p ay men ts o r o f fer ing t o t he s uperna tura l a u thor i ty . B y i mp lica tion t hen , t he a dop tion o f p o tin a nd p ar ticu lar ly b ronze c oinages d o r epresen t d eve lop men ts o f s o me s ophistica tion i n t he s ou th-east d ur ing t he l a te p re-Ro man I ron Age , b u t n o t n ecessar i ly t he emergence o f af u l ly c o mmercia l e cono my w i th a n u nrestricted r ange o f g oods a nd s ervices a vai lab le t o b e b ough t a nd s o ld i n t he marke t p lace .

O n t he c on trary , t heir u se i s p er-

f ect ly c o mpa t ib le w i th t he c on tinued e xistence o f a n e cono my embedded ' i n s ocia l r e la tions , p rovided o n ly t ha t w e c an s hed t he t wen tie th c en tury c oncept ion o f c oinage b e ing o f n ecessi ty a g enera l-purpose money o f u n limi ted r ange . Had t he R o man c onquest n o t i n tervened , i ti s p ossib le t ha t t he u se o f c oinage i n c onversions b e tween h i ther to mu tua l ly e xclusive t ransactiona l s pheres, a s may p ossibly h ave a lready h appened i n t he c ase o f s i lver c o inage i n t he p erip hera l z one , wou ld h ave p layed a c ri tica l r o le i n b reak ing d own t he b oundar ies b e tween t he m , a nd t ha t Bri ta in wou ld h ave s een t he d evelop men t o f a n i nd igeno us marke t e cono my .

A s i t was, a n a l ien e cono m ic a nd a dm inistra tive s yste m

was i mposed f ro m w i thou t a nd t he p rocess o f e cono mic d eve lop men t t ook a r a ther d i f feren t c ourse .

NOTES 1 .

The i n terpre ta tion o f t he e p igraphic e vidence a f forded b y t he l a ter B ri tish c oinage s eries —w i th L a tin t he n or ma l l anguage f or i nscrip tions — is c lear ly s ub ject t o t he s a me k ind o f b ias.

2 .

Areas b eyond t he b oundaries o ft hose d irect ly i n c on tact w i th t he Ro man w or ld a re l ike ly t o h ave b een p rofound ly a f fected b y a n i ncreased d e mand f or s uch i t e ms a s a gricu l tura l p roduce , r aw ma teria ls a nd s laves, wha te ver t he mechan is ms b y which t hese were a cqu ired .

2 06

3 . 4 .

F or r ecen t d istr ibu tion maps o f many o f t hese t ypes, s ee Rodwel l , 1 976. One c anno t d iscoun t t he p ossibi li ty

t ha t v arious mo ti fs o n t he u ninscr ibed

c oinage c onveyed s i mi lar i nfor ma tion a bou t t heir i ssuers o r t he i den ti ty o ft he g roups t o which t hey b elonged e .g . t he r ange o f s y mbo ls which a ppear b enea th t he h orse o n t he r everse o ft he e ar ly g o ld s eries, Bri tish AE. 5 .

On t he b asis o ft his d iscrepancy Co llis ( 1974 ) h as p u t f orward t he v iew t ha t p o tin c o ins u nderwen t ac hange i n f unction f ro m a wea lth s torage r o le t o u se a s a mediu m o f e xchange. s uppor t t his s uggestion .

Id o n o t b elieve t he e vidence n eed

F irst ly , s i te f inds o f C lass 1 p o tins a re a l most

i den tica l t o t hose o f C lass 2-51 p o t ins f ro m 1 7 s i tes a s a ga inst 4 9 f ro m 1 8 s i tes ( Hase lgrove , i n p repara tion ) —w i th e nough o ft he C lass 1 f i nds f ro m e ar ly c on tex ts t o r efu te t he s uggestion t ha t t hey were l ost o n ly af ter ac hange i n f unction h ad o ccurred .

S econd ly , i t must b e r e me mbered

t ha t whi le a c onsiderable n u mber o f h oards were c oncea led a nd n o t r ec overed i n t he I st c en tury B .C., h oards o f I st c en tury A .D . d a te c ont ain ing a ny k ind o f c oinage a re r e markably s carce i n t he a reas w i th in which p o tin a nd s truck b ronze c oinage c ircu la ted .

B IBLIOGRAPHY ALCOCK , L ., 1 972 .

' By S ou th Cadbury i s t ha t C a melo t ... '.

ALLEN , D . F ., 1 944.

L ondon .

" The B elg ic d ynas t ies o f Br i ta in a nd t he ir c oins ."

Archaeo log ia 9 0 :1-46. ALLEN , D . F ., 1 960 .

" The o r ig ins o f c oinage i n Br i ta in :

ar eappra isa l ."

I n S . S . Frere ( e d .) , Proble ms o f t he I ron Age i n S ou thern B r i ta in : 7 7-308 .

L ondon .

ALLEN , D . F ., 1 968 .

" The c hrono logy o f Duro tr ig ian c o inage ."

R ich mond , H od H i l l 1 :45-55 . ALLEN , D . F ., 1 971.

" Br i t ish p ot in c o ins :

ar ev iew" .

D . H i ll ( eds .) , The I ron Age a nd i t s H i l l-for ts :127-54. ALLEN , D . F ., 1 975 .

" Cunobel in 's g o ld ."

J . E cono m ic H is tory 4 :491-503. " In troduct ion ."

a nd G . Da l ton ( eds .) , Markets i n A fr ica :1-26. CLARKE , D . L ., 1 972.

I n P . B ohannan

Evans ton .

" A p rov is iona l model o f a n I ron Age s ocie ty a nd i t s

s et t lemen t s ys te m ."

I n D . L . C larke ( ed .) , Models i n Archaeology:

L ondon .

COLLIS , J . R ., 1 971. c oinage."

" The g o ld c oinage

" The impact o f money o n a n A fr ican s ubs is tence

BOHANNAN , P . a nd DALTON , G ., 1 962.

8 01-70.

S ou thamp ton .

Br i tann ia 1 0.

BOHANNAN , P ., 1 959. e cono my."

I n M . J esson a nd

Br i tann ia 6 , :1-19.

ALLEN , D . F . a nd HASELGROVE , C . C ., f or thco m ing . o f Ver ica ."

I n I . A .

L ondon .

" Func t iona l a nd t heoretica l i n terpre ta t ions o f Br i t ish

Wor ld Archaeo l . 3 :71-84. 2 07

COLLIS , J . R ., 1 974 .

" A f unc t iona l a pproach t o p re-Ro man c oinage."

I n

P . J . C asey a nd R . R eece ( eds .) , C oins a nd t he Archaeolog is t: 9 7-104. Ox ford ( B. A. R . 4 ). CUNLIFFE , B . W., 1 978 .

H eng is tbury Head .

DO WNEY , R ., K ING , A . a nd SOFFE ,

L ondon .

G ., 1 978 .

The R o man T e mple o n

Hayl ing I s land . S econd I n teri m R eport o n e xcava t ions 1 977 . FRANKENSTEIN , S . a nd RO WLANDS , M. J ., 1 97 8 .

L ondon .

" The i n terna l s truc ture

a nd r eg iona l c on tex t o f Ear ly I ron Age s oc iety i n S ou th- Wes tern G er many" . Bu l l . I ns t . Arch . L ond . 1 5:73-112. HARDING , D . W ., 1 974 .

The I ron Age i n L ow land B ri ta in .

HASELGROVE , C . C ., i n p repara tion . Age c oinage i n Br i ta in :

L ondon .

The a rchaeo log ica l c on tex t o f I ron

aq uan t i ta t ive a pproach .

Ph .D . d isser ta t ion ,

Un ivers i ty o f Ca mbr idge. HA WKES , C . F . C ., 1 96 8 . KENT , J . P . C ., 1 973.

"New t hough ts o n t he B elgae" .

An t iqu ity 4 2:6-16.

" Les r e la t ions e n tre l e monnayage d es R o ma ins e t

c eux d es p eup les v o is ins d e l 'ouest ."

C ercles d 'Etudes Numis ma tique ,

Bu l l . Tr i mes t ie l 1 0 :3-11. KENT , J . P . C ., 1 97 8 . i n Br i ta in ."

" The o r ig in a nd d eve lop men t o f C e l t ic G old c oinage

Actes d u C o l loque I n terna tiona l d 'Archeo log ie - R ouen

1 97 8 :313-324 . KRAAY , C ., 1 964.

" Hoards , sma l l c hange a nd t he o r ig ins o f c oinage ."

J . H e l len ic S tud ies 1 964:76-91. MACCOR MACK , C . P ., 1 979.

" Exchange a nd h ierarchy."

Paper g iven t o

t he c on ference o n E cono m ic Archaeo logy , C a mbr idge , J anuary 1 979. NASH , D ., 1 976.

" The g rowth o f u rban s ocie ty i n France."

C un li f fe a nd R . T . R owley ( eds .) , Oppida : i n Barbar ian Europe :135-62 . POLANY I , K ., ARENSBURG ,

Ox ford ( B. A. R . S -11).

C . M. a nd PEARSON , H .,

a nd Markets i n t he Ear ly Emp ires . POLANYI , K ., 1 96 8 .

' The s e man t ics o f money u ses ."

Trade

I n G . Da l ton ( ed .) ,

E ssays o f Kar l P olanyi :

Bos ton , Mass .

ROD WELL , W. J ., 1 976.

" Co inage , o pp ida a nd t he r ise o f B e lg ic p ower i n

S ou th-Eas tern B r i ta in ." Oppida :

( eds.) , 1 957.

N ew Y ork .

Pr im it ive , Archa ic a nd Modern E cono m ies : 1 75-203.

I n B . W.

t he b eg inn ings o f u rban isa t ion

I n B . W. C un l i f fe a nd R . T . Rowley ,

( eds .) ,

t he b eg inn ings o f u rban isa t ion i n B arbar ian Europe :181-367 .

S AL ISBURY , R . F ., 1 962. S CHE PS , S ., 1 97 8 .

Fro m S tone t o S tee l . Ca mbr idge .

" Imi ta t ions o f R o man c o ins i n C el tic Br i ta in ."

Paper

g iven t o t he R oya l Nu m is ma t ic S ociety , F ebruary , 1 97 8 . SPRATLING , M. G ., 1 972. Ro man I ron Age .

SPRATLING , M. G ., 1 976. La ' nne I ron Age ." 1 976.

S ou thern Br i t ish d ecora ted b ronzes c f . ' t he p re -

Ph . D. d isser ta t ion , I ns t i tu te o f Archaeo logy , L ondon . " Currency , s ys te ms o f weigh t , a nd t rade i n t he

Paper g iven t o t he P reh is tor ic S oc iety , Dece mber ,

i

S TEAD , I . M., 1 967.

" A La U ne I I b ur ia l a t We lwyn G arden C i ty."

Archaeo log ia 1 01:1-62 . THO MAS , A . C ., 1 966. I n A . C . Tho mas ,

" The c harac ter a nd o r ig ins o f R o man Du mnon ia ." ( ed .) , Rura l S et t le men t i n R o man Br i ta in :74-98 .

London ( C. B.A. R es . R ep. 7 ).

2 09

RO MAN MONETARY I MPACT b y R ichard R eece The i mpac t o f R o man c o inage o n B r i ta in i s a t o nce s i mp le a nd c o mp lex . I n s u m mary i ti s p oss ible t o c u t t hrough a l l t he p roble ms t o s ay t ha t b efore A .D. 4 3 t here was p robably R o man b u l l ion i n B r i ta in , b u t n o R o man c o inage , wh i le a f ter 4 3 B r i t ish c o inage r ap id ly d ropped o u t o f mone tary c ircu la t ion . The i mpac t i s t herefore t he r ep lace men t o f an a t ive c oinage b y a n I mper ia l c o inage .

A l l t ha t i s l e f t i s t he j us t i f ica t ion f or t hese s weep ing s ta te men ts

a nd t he e xp lora t ion o f d e ta i ls . L e t u s f irs t l ook a t f ive d i f feren t s i tes i n B r i ta in wh ich h ave , o n e xcava t ion , p roduced c o in f inds o f t he mid f irs t c en tury A .D.; ma ter ia l f or d iscuss ion .

t h is s hou ld p rov ide s o me

Bagendon may b e au se fu l s tar t ing p o in t f ro m t he

B r i t ish p o in t o f v iew s ince i th as 3 1 B r i t ish c o ins a nd n o R o man e ar l ier t han t he t h ird c en tury. o n ly b e i n ferred .

I ti s aB r i t ish s i te o n wh ich Ro man mone tary i mpact c an The c orrespond ing s i te o f C irences ter h as t he R o man

ma ter ia l , b u t o n ly o ne s i lver D obunn ic c o in h as b een f ound i n at o ta l o f 3 ,715 e xcava ted c o ins .

Aga in , R o man impac t c an o n ly b e i n ferred f or t here i s , a s

a t B agendon , n o i n teract ion .

C a mu lodunu m i s q u i te d i f feren t , f or t here i ti s

p oss ible t o f o l low o n o ne s i te t he c hange f ro m B r i t ish c o ins o n ly , b e fore t he c onques t , t o a mix ture o f B r i t ish a nd R o man c o ins af ter t he c onquest .

The

t o ta ls o f 1 98 B r i t ish a nd 2 36 R o man c o ins e xcava ted g ive a v ery g ood p ic ture o f c o inage u sed a nd l os t f ro m a bou t A .D. 1 0-70 a nd t he r epor t e nables e very c o in t o b e r e la ted t o i t s c on tex t .

T he c o ins f ro m e xcava t ions i n t he a rea o f

t he C o lon ia — the modern t own o f C o lches ter—are q u i te d i f feren t i n c haracter a nd f or m a s tandard R o man s equence w i th s o me B r i t ish a dd i t ions .

As n ei ther

t he C irences ter n or t he C o lches ter c oins h ave y e t b een p ubl ished t hey w i l l n o t b e c ons idered e xp l ic i t ly a ny f ur ther i n t h is p aper a l though a nyth ing e xpressed may b e t aken a s a t l eas t c onsonan t w i th t ha t u npubl ished ma ter ia l . I n t he C laud ian d epos i ts e xcava ted b y F rere i n I nsu la X IV a t Veru la m iu m t here a re o n ly 1 3 c oins a nd a l l o f t hese a re R o man .

O f t he 8 B r i t ish c oins

f ound i n Whee ler 's e xcava t ions o n ly o ne c ame f ro m t he p re-Ro man s e t t le men t a nd t here i s t here fore n o t e nough e v idence t o j us t i fy f ur ther e xa m ina t ion . Two f ur ther s i tes may h e lp t o b a lance t he p ic ture o f B agendon a nd C amu lodunu m b y p resen t ing a mi l i tary a spec t— these a re H od H i l l a nd R ichborough .

A t H od

H i l l aR o man f or t h as b een s uper i mposed o n aB r i t ish H i l l-For t a nd t h is s hou ld b e a n e xcel len t c hance t o s ee s o me f or m o f c on t inu i ty.

Un for tuna te ly o n ly o ne

B r i t ish c o in was f ound i n t he e xcava t ions , i n aR o man c on tex t ; p robab ly a nd 4 p oss ib ly c o me f ro m t he s i te .

af ur ther 2 8

S ix ty R o man c o ins o f t he f irs t

c en tury B .C.-A .D. a re a ssoc ia ted w i th t he s i te , b u t t he s ub jec t i s c o mp l ica ted b y a n a s ton ish ing ly l arge n umber o f c oins o f C a l igu la ( 32 , o n ly 1 6 o f C laud ius ) . When p ubl ish ing t hese c o ins R ichmond d id n o t c ons ider t he p oss ible p resence o f ah oard t hough t h is s ee ms a v ery s trong p robabi l i ty .

A t C a mu lodunum t he

r a t io o f C a l igu la t o C laud ius i s r ough ly 4 1 t o 9 8 , a t R ichborough r ough ly 6 8 2 11

t o 3 39 , a nd a ga ins t t he b ackground f or med b y t hese s i tes , k nown t o b e o ccup ied v ery e ar ly i n t he c onques t p er iod , t he H od H i l l f inds mus t c o me u nder s usp ic ion . I f2 3 o f t he C a l igu lan c o ins , p reserved i n t he P i t t R ivers c ol lec t ion , a re r e moved f ro m t he t o ta ls t hen t he r a t io o f 1 1 c o ins o f C a l igu la t o 1 6 o f C laud ius wou ld s ee m much more l ike ly , w i thou t i n a ny way d e tract ing f ro m R ich mond 's a rgumen ts . F ina l ly , a s s ee ms t o b e of ten t he c ase i n c oin s tud ies i n B ri ta in , Ir e turn t o R ichborough . When D erek A l len s um mar ised t he p re-Ro man c o ins h e was a ble t o b e a bso lu te ly c er ta in o f 1 4 , mos t o f wh ich were n o t a va i lable t o b e c hecked .

I td oes s ee m l i ke ly t ha t af ur ther f i ve a re g enu ine f inds , a nd s o me

o f t hese h ave t urned u p i n t he c o mp le te r e-ca ta logu ing o f t he R o man ma ter ia l . At o ta l o f p erhaps 2 0 p re-Ro man c o ins h as t here fore t o b e s e t a ga ins t at o ta l o f a bou t 5 50 R o man c o ins u p t o c . A .D. 6 0 .

I f we t ake s pec ia l n o te o f t he

c o mp le te a bsence o f p re-Ro man— s tructura l e v idence , a nd Derek A l len 's r e mark t ha t i n t he p re-Ro man ma ter ia l we h ave ' a mixed l o t o f B r i t ish a nd G au l ish c o ins f ro m t he v ery l as t p hase o f t he p re-Ro man e ra ' , t hen i t s ee m c lear t ha t R ichborough i s ap ure ly R o man s i te t o wh ich a v ery f ew p re-Ro man c o ins c a me s o me t ime a f ter t he c onques t . H ow t hen d o my g enera l isa t ions g row f ro m t he ma ter ia l t ha t Ih ave c o l lect ed , a nd wha t p roble ms emerge f or f u ture work i n t ha t g row th? p rob le m o f R o man c o ins i n p re-Ro man B r i ta in .

F irs t ly t he

N one o f t he s i tes men t ioned

s o f ar a nd n o o thers t ha t Ih ave y e t d iscovered g ive a ny r eason t o t h ink t ha t R o man b ronze c oinage c ircu la ted , o r e ven a ppeared , i n B r i ta in b e fore A .D. 4 3.

N o p ubl ished s i te t ha t Ih ave b een a ble t o f ind h as g iven a ny c redence t o

t he i dea o f R o man s i lver c o ins i n p re-C laud ian B r i ta in .

B ronze c o ins n eed

n o t b e c ons idered f ur ther f or e very R o man b ronze c oin s truck b efore A . D.41 h as b een f ound i n B r i t ian o n ly i n c on tex ts wh ich a re t o ta l ly u nda table o r c ont ex ts f ir m ly d a ted b y t he i nc lus ion o f p os t-conques t c o ins . more o f ap rob le m .

S i lver c o ins a re

S u ther land , i n t he C amu lodunu m r epor t , was a l i t t le

d oubt fu l o f t he c on tex t o f aR epubl ican d enar ius , a nd ' i ndependen t e v idence f or o ccas iona l p re-conques t p ene tra t ion o f R o man s i lver ' i s men t ioned ( p . 1 61 ) b u t n o t q uo ted .

More i mpor tan t i s t he t e mp le a t H ayl ing I s land ( Han ts ) a t

p resen t u nder e xcava t ion b y D owney , K ing a nd S o f fe where R o man R epubl ican d enar i i a re o ccurr ing w i th G au l ish c oins a nd c oarse p o t tery i n c on tex ts wh ich p re-da te t he F lav ian r econs truct ion .

T hese c on tex ts c anno t a t p resen t b e

g iven a c loser d a te t han c . A .D . 3 0 t o C . A .D. 6 0 t hough t he a bsence o f b ronze c o ins o f C laud ius d oes p erhaps s ugges t ad a te b e fore 4 5 r a ther t han a f ter .

I

a vo id t he y ear 4 3 b ecause i n ar e l ig ious o r a gr icu l tura l c on tex t i ti s i rrelevan t a nd mean ing less .

T he o ther r eason f or s uppos ing t ha t R o man s i lver a rr ived

i n p re-conques t B r i ta in i s t he r ecen t d e mons tra t ion b y Dr . S i mone S cheers o f t he n u mber o f B r i t ish c oins wh ich c opy , o r a re i n f luenced b y , p re-C laud ian c o ins f ro m t he Med i terranean .

A t p resen t i tt here fore s ee ms f a ir t o s ay t ha t

wh i le R o man b u l l ion e n tered B r i ta in , b efore A .D. 4 3 R o man b ronze c o inage d id n o t . The r e mova l o f B r i t ish c oinage f ro m c ircu la t ion i s a more i n tractable s ub jec t .

We c an n ever k now wha t money was i n c ircu la t ion i n a ny p ar t o f

t he R o man Empire a t a ny d a te , f or , b y n a ture , c ircu la t ion i s ad yna m ic p roc ess , a nd o n ly o nce , a t P o mpe i i , h as i tb een a rres ted a nd p reserved ( t hough n o t p ub l ished ).

We j udge wha t c o inage was i n c ircu la t ion f ro m t wo v ery b iased 2 12

s a mples l e f t t o u s , t he s a mp le o f l oss a nd t he s a mp le o f h oards .

C asua l

l osses a re h eav i ly b iased t owards t he wor th less , f or wha t was t hrown a way was o f n o c onsequence , a nd wha t was l os t a nd n o t s earched f or was u n i mpor tan t . Purposefu l h oards a re b iased t owards v a lue ;

t he l arge n umber o f h oards o f

d enar i i i n t he e ar ly Empire c o mpared w i th a sma l l n umber o f h oards o f b ronze c o ins b ear amp le w i tness t o t ha t .

The e vidence i n B r i ta in o f t he c ircu la t ion

o f p re-conques t c o inage i s n o t g rea t .

C o l in H ase lgrove ( above , p age 1 97 )

d iscusses t he c on tex ts o f s uch c o ins ;

h ere we n eed o n ly n o te t ha t B r i t ish

c o ins d o n o t o ccur c o m mon ly i n R o man h oards , t hough t hey d o o ccur s pas mod ic a l ly i n to t he s econd c en tury ;

a nd t he e ar ly R o man l eve ls e xcava ted a t

Veru la m iu m ( Frere ) , F ishbourne ( Cun li f fe ) , C irences ter ( Wacher a nd Mc Wh irr ) , C o lches ter ( Crum my ) , a nd R ichborough ( Bushe-Fox ) h ave f ew B r i t ish c oins i n t he e ar l ies t d epos i ts .

The e v idence s uch a s i ti s , a t p resen t s ugges ts

t ha t i n C laud ian , N eron ian a nd F lav ian B r i ta in , B r i t ish c o inage was t o lera ted b u t d id n o t f or m a l arge p ar t o f t he mone tary c ircu la t ion , s o t ha t i t s d isappearance was f a ir ly s wi f t . Th is s ee ms t o b e af a ir d escr ip t ion o f t he i mpac t o f R o man c o inage o n B r i ta in ;

wha t o f i n terpre ta t ion?

T he d i f ference i nb ehav iour b e tween s i lver

c oins a nd b ronze i s p ar t icu lar ly i n teres t ing .

There i s v ery g ood r eason f or

s i lver t o t rave l o u ts ide t he R o man Emp ire f or , a s l ong a s i ti s r easonably p ure , a nd n o t h eav i ly o verva lued a t i t s o r ig in , i tc arr ies i t s o wn v a lue w i th i t . Th is was o nce t rue o f t he b ronze c oinage —as t he a u thor o f t he t rea t ise D e R ebus B e l l ic is s ays ' Va l idus i pso p ondere i —bu t b y t he midd le o f t he f irs t c ent ury A .D . b ronze h ad b een a t oken c o inage f or o ver a c en tury.

I fb y A .D. 7 0

t he d enar ius was o verva lued b y p erhaps 1 0% , t he As h ad a f ace v a lue o f a t l eas t t wice i t s meta l l ic v a lue.

C opper a nd t in moreover were mined i n B r i ta in

a nd t hus made a ny i mpor t o f o verva lued R o man b ronze d oubly n onsens ica l . B u t a t t he c onques t t h is i s j us t wha t h appened :

t he i mpos i t ion o f R o man r u le

made p oss ib le t he i n troduc t ion o f ah eav i ly o verva lued b ronze c o inage . Wh i le t h is s ee ms s ound i n t heory , p rac t ice d iverges , f or a t t he c onques t B r i ta in was n o t d e luged i n o verva lued R o man sma l l c hange .

I n p ar t t h is i s

a cciden ta l , f or t he p roduct ion o f b ronze c o in b y t he min t i n R o me was e rra t ic i n t he f irs t c en tury , a nd t he c onques t o f B r i ta in c oinc ides w i th a p er iod when l i t t le b ronze c o inage was s truck .

A t t h is p o in t t he c onques t o f B r i ta in d iverges

f ro m t he s equence e s tab l ished i n t he c onques t o f G au l ac en tury e ar l ier .

I n

G au l i n t he mid f irs t c en tury B .C. t here h ad b een f i erce s trugg le f o l lowed b y c ap i tu la t ion , a nd t he mi l i tary e f for t h ad moved n or thwards i n to B e lg ica . Daphne N ash 's work i n c en tra l G au l s hows t ha t R o man c o inage f o l lows t he R o man a r my a nd t ha t ab ronze c o inage f or e ach G a l l ic t r ibe was a t l eas t t o lera ted f or t he n ex t f ew d ecades , i fn o t e ncouraged .

On ly w i th t he g rea t

p roduct ion o f b ronze c o ins u nder Augus tus d id t he G a l l ic c oinages d ie o u t . I t wou ld make e xce l len t s ense i ft he s ame t h ing h ad h appened i n B r i ta in u nder C laud ius a nd N ero . A f ter a n i n t ia l b urs t o f a c t iv i ty t he m in t u nder C laud ius was d is t inc t ly s lugg ish , a nd u nder N ero n o b ronze c o inage was s truck f ro m 5 4 t o 6 4 . A t t he t ime o f t he c onques t a l l a u thori t ies s ee m a greed o n t he a c t iv i ty o f t he B r i t ish min ts a nd s o me o f t he l a tes t B r i t ish i ssues a re t hough t t o b e marg ina l ly s ub-conques t .

B y A .D . 5 0 t here was a s hor tage o f c o in a nd

t he d ef ic iency was b e ing me t o n t he s po t i n B ri ta in , b u t n o t b y t he c on t inua t ion o f Br i t ish c o inages ; t he Br i tann ic c o inage p roduced c opied t he r egu lar i ssues o f t he min t o f R o me . 2 13

P erhaps t h is i s n o more t han f ash ion .

I ti s d i f f icu l t i fn o t imposs ib le t o

t a lk c onv inc ing ly o f R o man mone tary p o l icy , a nd d i f f icu l t a lso t o t a lk o f p o l icy i n t he f or ma t ion o f p rov inces .

The t wo t oge ther —Ro man mone tary p o l icy

f or n ew ly c onquered p rov inces wou ld b e n o more t han a j ung le o f s pecu la t ion . I f we r egress t o d escr ip t ion t hen wha t h appened i n G au l a t t he c onques t was s imp ly wha t was h appen ing a nyway : W ha t h appened i n B ri ta in was a lso wha t was h appen ing a nyway —prov ided we a re n o t b l inkered b y t he Eng l ish C hanne l . I n t he N or th o f G au l a nd i n S pa in a l ack o f c oinage was b eing me t b y t he c opying o f R o man Imper ia l i ssues o f C laudius , why s hou ld a n ew ly c onquered p rov ince d iverge f ro m t he I mper ia l p a t tern?

Th is i s d escr ip t ion .

I t wou ld b e o n ly

t oo e asy t o a ssume t ha t wha t d id h appen was mean t t o h appen a nd t a lk o f t he p rag ma t ic a nd emp ir ica l mone tary p o l icy o f t he R o mans .

Th is s t i l l s k ir ts

t he p roble m o f why , f aced w i th t he a l terna t ives o f c on tinued B r i t ish c o inage a nd c opying R o man i ssues , t he l a t ter h appened .

I ti s a n a l terna t ive b ecause

i td id a c tua l ly i nvo lve , o n c urren t c hrono logy , t he d iscon t inua t ion o f B r i t ish c oinage . More h e lp fu l t han a mee t ing o f t he l as t B r i t ish c o inages a nd t he f irs t c op ies o f R o man c o ins may b e t he i dea o f ag ap b e tween t he t wo . c o inage was o bv ious ly p roduced f or B r i t ish n eeds .

B r i t ish

C on fron ted w i th R o man

u sage i t may h ave b een i rre levan t . Two u ses wh ich s pr ing t o mind a re c o mmerce w i th t he a r my , p a id i n R o man c o in , a nd p ay men t o f s ta te d ues , a ccep ted a l mos t c er ta in ly o n ly i n Imper ia l c o in .

I f we a ssume f or i ns tance a d ua l

s e t t le men t o f B r i tons a t B agendon a nd R o mans t hree mi les a way a t p ro toC orinu m

t hen B r i t ish c o inage a nd B r i t ish n eeds a re r eserved t o t he o ne , a nd

R o man c o in a nd R o man u sage t o t he o ther .

A s ' t he c onques t ' merged i n to

' t he Emp ire ' s o R o man u sage p reva i led a nd i n f our o r f i ve y ears c o inage c ou ld we l l b e s ynony mous w i th R o man c o inage , w i th B r i t ish c o inage d ecreas ing ly r es idua l .

A s c oinage f ro m t he min t o f R o me d ecreased , t he n eed f e l t wou ld

b e f or R o man c o inage , f or R o man u sage , f irs t , b y t he R o mans .

The p rac t ice

r esor ted t o wou ld b e t he c urren t p rac t ice e lsewhere —copying o f imper ia l i ssues . I ft h is p ic ture i s t rue , a nd i th as t he v ir tues o f b e ing a t l eas t c onsonan t w i th t he e v idence , we migh t g o al i t t le f ur ther i n t he e xa m ina t ion o f ap oss ible ' c lash o f c urrenc ies ' o r impos i t ion o f R o man c o inage . f i ed , wh ich , i n i t sel f , l eads o n t o f ur ther t hough ts .

N e i ther c an b e j us t i-

We h ave n o means o f

k now ing wha t B r i t ish c oinage was u sed f or . Daphne N ash h as s ugges ted t ha t G au l ish s i lver was min ted t o p ay G au l ish t roops ; J ohn K en t h as s ugges ted t ha t t he G a l lo-Be lg ic g o ld f ro m wh ich B r i t ish c oinage d er ives , i s a n t i-Caesar mi l i tary p ay b rough t b ack t o B r i ta in b y Br i t ish mercenar ies .

B ronze c o inage

i n c en tra l G au l Dr . N ash a ssocia tes w i th u rban is m a nd u rban marke ts , av iew a lso h e ld b y J ohn C o l l is . On t he R o man s ide Ih ave g iven s o me i deas o n R o man c oin u se i n t he f irs t c en tury A .D. b ased o n t ex ts a nd s i te f inds . Fur ther t han t h is a t p resen t we c anno t g o i n d escr ibing wha t c o ins were u sed i n wha t n u mb ers a nd f or wha t p urposes . I n t he c o mpany o f C o l in H ase lgrove Iam n o t s o f oo lhardy a s t o p lay w i th t he me tro logy o f B r i t ish c o inage . c o m men t .

Is ha l l r es tr ic t myse l f t o d escr ip t ion a nd

I f we j udge f ro m t he B r i t ish c o ins f ound i n p re-conques t l eve ls a t

Bagendon a nd C a mu lodunu m t hen t he B r i t ish s i lver c o in , r are ly we igh ing more t han 1 g , i s much l igh ter t han i t s R o man c oun terpar t , f or e ven t he q u inar ius 2 14

we ighs o ver 1 .5 g a nd t he o bv ious c o mpar ison i n t er ms o f s tandard c o in i n u se wou ld b e w i th t he d enar ius o f o ver 3 g .

B ronze c o ins f ro m t he s ame

d epos i ts may r each a we igh t o f 3o r 4g , b u t mos t o f t he m wou ld c o mpare u n favourably w i th R o man s e misses ( over 3 .5 g ) o r q uadran tes ( over 2 .5 g ) . Aga in , t he c o m mon ly u sed R o man c o in w i th wh ich c o mpar ison may b e i nv i ted i s t he A s wh ich n or ma l ly weighed more t han 1 0 g . There a re t wo p o in ts a t i ssue h ere ; o r u se f or u se . s ense .

whe ther t o c o mpare weigh t f or we igh t

T o me , t he f or mer may b e l og ica l , b u t i t l acks c o m mon

There i s n o r eason t o c o mpare t he B r i t ish c o inage s ys te m b efore

c onques t t o t he c on te mporary R o man s ys te m b ecause t here i s n o n ecessary , o r e ven d e mons trab le c on tac t .

The t wo s ys te ms f unc t ioned s epara te ly , i n

t heir o wn r ea l ms , i n t he ir o wn ways , a nd w i th t he ir o wn mo t ives .

The B r i t ish

s i lver c oin d oes n o t c o mpare f avourab ly w i th t he d enar ius —exac t ly wha t o ne wou ld e xpect i n a sma l l f l our ish ing e cono my c o mpared w i th a c umberso me I mper ia l mach ine ;

t he s a me f or b ronze.

Is hou ld b e t o ta l ly u nsurpr ised i f

s o meone were a ble t o s how t ha t i n A .D. 3 0 aB r i t ish c o in b ough t i n C a mu lodunum t he s a me amoun t o f whea t t ha t ad enar ius b ough t i n N arbonne ; s im i lar ly f or t he As .

B u t when t he t wo t rade s ys te ms c a me i n c on tac t , t he l arger mus t

h ave p reva i led , a nd , p erhaps a f ter a n i nves tors ' h oney moon i n wh ich Br i t ish p r ices r e ma ined b e low t hose o f t he Emp ire , R o man p r ices mus t h ave g a ined g round .

A s t rade c hanged t owards R o man u sage s o t he r e levance o f R o man

d eno m ina t ions i ncreased a nd B r i t ish d eno m ina t ions d ecreased .

I ft here i s

o ne t h ing o f wh ich we may b e c er ta in i ti s t ha t i ti s t he p lace o f t he s ub jec t p eop le t o a ccep t t he t oken c o inage o f t he I mper ia l p ower ;

f or R o me t o a ccep t

B r i t ish c o inage o n a ny s tep o f e qua l i ty s ee ms v ir tua l ly i mposs ib le. B y A .D. 7 0 B r i ta in , i n t he l ow lands a t l eas t , was c onquered .

S o , w i th

t he e xpend i ture o f n e i ther e f for t , i l l-fee l ing n or c os t t o t he s ta te , was t he B r i t ish c o inage .

B IBL IOGRAPHY ( a ) S i te f inds R ichborough :

F i f th r epor t o n t he e xcava t ions o f t he R o man F or t a t R ichborough ,

K en t , E d . B . W. C un li f fe , Ox ford , 1 968 . H od H i l l :

H od H i l l V ol . I :

R ichmond . Veru lam iu m : Bagendon : 1 961.

E xcava t ions c arr ied o u t b e tween 1 951-8 .

I . A .

L ondon , 1 968 . V eru lam iu m E xcava t ions I .

Bagendon :

AB e lg ic O pp idum .

S heppard F rere . E ls ie M . C l i f ford .

L ondon , 1 972. Cambr idge ,

C amu lodunu m : C amu lodunu m : F irs t r epor t o n t he e xcava t ions a t C olches ter 1 930-9. C . F . C . H awkes a nd M. R . H u l l . Ox ford , 1 947. ( b ) D iscuss ion Hayl ing I s land : F irs t a nd S econd I n ter im R epor ts b y Downey , K ing a nd S o f fe ( dup l ica ted , a va i lab le f ro m 1 8 De lancey S tree t , L ondon NW 1 ) ,

2 15

B r i t ish C op ies :

L ec ture b y Dr . S i mone S cheers t o t he R oya l N um is ma t ic

S oc ie ty F ebruary 1 978 . R o man a nd B r i t ish C o in U se :

Papers b y S cheers , Nash , C o l l is , K en t , R eece

a nd H aselgrove i n Or ig ins o f C o inage i n NW Europe

E d . C un l i f fe .

F or thco m ing .

A ddendum I an H odder 's p aper r a ises many i mpor tan t q ues t ions a bou t t he i n terpretat ion o f c o in f inds , a nd a lso s ugges ts i n teres t ing i deas o n t he i n i t ia l r ise o f t he f irs t l ow v a lue c o inages .

T o d ea l w i th t he s econd p o in t f irs t , H odder 's t ime

s ca le may b e t oo s hor t b ecause i t r es ts o n t he b ackward e xa mp le o f A thens . H is s ugges t ion , a s Iu nders tand i t , i s t ha t P olanyi 's r ead ing o f A r is to t le s ugges ts a c hange t o a marke t e cono my i n A thens i n t he f our th c en tury B .C. My c ho ice o f t he emo t ive word ' backward ' a par t f ro m w ish ing t o a nnoy c lass ic is ts , a pp l ies o n ly t o t he ma t ter o f c o lon ies , f or A thens was v ery d i f feren t f ro m , f or i ns tance , C or in th , a nd o ther c i t ies t ha t w ere i n t he t hroes o f c o lon izing s evera l c en tur ies b e fore A r is to t le .

I t may b e , f or Ih ave n ei ther t he

k nowledge t o h and , n or t he t ime n ecessary t o work o u t t he c ase i n d e ta i l , t ha t l ow v a lue c oinage a nd a c onco m i tan t market e cono my d eve loped i n r esp onse t o d ea l ings b e tween c o lony a nd mo ther c i ty.

I ft here i s a ny th ing i n t h is

s ugges t ion t hen A thens may h ave c o me t o a marke t e cono my r a ther l a ter t han many o ther c i t ies s i mp ly b ecause i t was n o t n ecessary.

I t may t herefore b e

t ha t t he c hange-over t o a marke t e cono my i n t he E as t Med i terranean t ook p lace i n g enera l we l l b e fore t he f irs t d ocumen ted c ase o f A thens .

I ti s i n teres t ing

a lso t o n o te a t t h is p oin t t ha t , j udged b y r ecord , a nd b y c o inage , R o me was a v ery l a te s tar ter i n t he ma t ter o f money c o mpared w i th h er S ou th I ta l ian n eighbours . I ti s a rguable t ha t t he i dea o f sma l l c hange a s u sed i n a marke t e cono my c an o n ly b e s een i n t he r eign o f Augus tus ; t h is i s t he p ic ture t ha t h as a lready b een d ocumen ted b y C raw ford ( JRS , LX , 1 970 , 4 0-48 ) who , I t h ink , wou ld h ave e ven s tronger d oub ts o n t he marke t r o le o f money i n t he R epubl ic a nd t he e ar ly Emp ire . Turn ing t o t he mean ing wh ich may b e d er ived f ro m t he s tudy o f s i tef inds o f R o man c o ins , H odder 's mode l o f a n embedded e cono my c hang ing o n ly g radua l ly i n to a marke t e cono my i n t he l a ter p er iod o f R o man B r i ta in n eeds d e ta i led t hough t a nd t es t ing .

A l l Ic an d o h ere i s t o s ay t ha t If ind t he i dea

r e l ief , a nd a v ery a t tract ive

mode l w i th wh ich t o work .

ag rea t

E ven i ft he c oins f ound

i n t he Med i terranean a rea i n t he f irs t c en tury A .D. d o i n f act r esu l t f ro m l oss es f ro m a marke t e cono my i n o pera t ion , a nd t h is i s v ery f ar f ro m a greed , t hen B r i ta in j us t d oes n o t p rov ide t he s ame n umber o r q ua l i ty o f c o ins l os t a s I t a ly o r P rovence ( Br i tann ia I V , 1 973 , 2 3Of f . ) . B y t he e nd o f t he t h ird c en tury h owe ver t he p os i t ion h ad c hanged a nd B r i ta in t hen a ppears t o l ead t he c on t inen t i n c o in l oss ( i .e. p resumab ly , c o in u se ).

I t s hou ld n ow b e o bv ious why It ake t o

H odder 's i dea w i th s uch a lacr i ty f or h e h as p rov ided a means o f u nders tand ing wha t h as b een t o t he p resen t mo men t mere p uzzle . Wha tever t he s ta tus o f t he c lass ica l e cono my i n t he f irs t c en tury A .D., a t t he t ime o f t he C laud ian c onques t , B r i ta in l agged b eh ind .

I ft he c lass ica l e cono my was b eco m ing a

marke t e cono my t hen , j udged b y c o in f inds , B r i ta in was a bou t t wo c en tur ies b eh ind .

Wha tever h appened t o t he Med i terranean e cono my i n t he t h ird c en tury ,

2 16

B r i ta in s ee ms t o h ave c arr ied o n i n i ts own way t o ar a ther i nd iv idua l t ype o f c o in u se , wh ich , f ro m s heer n umbers a nd d eno m ina t ions l os t , l ooks t he n eares t t h ing t o af l our ish ing marke t e cono my t ha t t he a nc ien t wor ld e ver h ad .

Fro m

t he p ic ture o f c oin l oss , o n i t s o wn mer i ts , a nd e ven more s trong ly when c o mp ared w i th t he c ase o f I t a ly , H odder 's i dea makes v ery g ood s ense . Ough t we t o g o f ur ther?

C an we a sk whe ther t he i n terna t iona l t rade c r is is

o f t he t h ird c en tury was t he c o l lapse o f ap re ma ture ly b orn marke t e cono my f or wh ich t he R o man Emp ire was n o t p repared?

I n t he t er ms o ft he c onference , was

t h is t he r esu l t o f a n Imper ia l p ower e ncourag ing i n i t s t err i tor ies a n e cono m ic s tyle f or wh ich t he t err i tor ies were j us t n o t we l l e nough d eve loped ? O r i s t he q ues t ion e ven more h ear ten ing f or t he R he in-Tha mes a x is?

D oes t he c ol lapse

c o me i n t he c en tre , l eav ing , a s M ike Fu l ford h as s ugges ted , a more f lour ish ing e cono my i n t he N .W . Prov inces wh ich c auses t he s h i f t o f p ower n or thwards i n t he e ar ly med ieva l p er iod .

N o , we o ugh t n o t t o g o t h is f ar ;

t han i n for med s pecu la t ion , mos t i mproper i n a n a ddendu m .

2 17

s uch i s n o more

S ECTION 5 : THE I MPACT OF AN I NVAS ION ON URBAN DEVELOP MENT

The q ues t ion o f ' t owns i n t he p re-Ro man a nd Ro mano-Br i t ish p eriods i s o ne wh ich h as r a ised a c ons iderable amoun t o f d iscuss ion i n r ecen t y ears. I n ,th is s ec t ion p refaced b y a n i n troduc tory p aper b y Hodder o n t he q uest ion o f E uropean u rban is m i n West A fr ica , f our p apers e ach e xam ine t he q uest ion f ro m v ary ing s tandpo in ts a nd e ach r ef lec t i n t he ir own way h ow much t he p rob le m i s c louded b y q uest ions o f s e man t ics a nd s cholarly a l leg iance.

The i n-

t roduc tory p aper b y Hodder e stabl ishes t he i mpor tan t p o in t , emphas ised l a ter b y Burnha m , t ha t t he s tuden t o f u rban i mpac t mus t c ons ider t he p re-ex ist ing s et t le men t p a t terns a nd c en tra l p laces a s a n i mportan tb ackc loth a ga inst wh ich p rocesses g enera ted b y t he c onquest c an b e s tud ied i ng rea ter d e ta il .

T he

A fr ican e xa mp le i l lus tra tes mos t c learly t ha t where a p re-ex ist ing u rban p a t tern o f d evelopmen t i s a lready a pparen t , t he e nd-produc t may wel l c hange i n emphas is u nder c olon ia l n eeds , b u t w il l t end n evertheless t o r ef lec t t he e arl ier t rends a s wel l . C ol l is a nd Hassa l l h owever a pproach t he q uest ion f ro m t he ir r espec t ive s tandpo in ts a s ap reh istor ian a nd a Ro man ist : t he f ormer i s i n n o d oubt t ha t p re-Ro man ,o pp ida l r epresen t ap rocess o fu rban d eve lopmen t a nd s eeks t o s uggest t ha t o ne o f t he d if ferences b etween t he t opp ida t-based a nd Med i terraneanb ased t own s yste ms i s t ha t b etween t he c ol lec t ion , s torage a nd r ed istribu t ion o f p roduced g oods i n c en tra l l oca t ions a nd t he p roduc t ion a nd marke t ing o f g oods i n s hops. The l a t ter , a pproach ing f ro m t he Ro man s tandpo in t , emphas ises t he a dm in istra t ive s ide o f t he Ro man t owns a nd t he ir p hys ica l a ppearance , a s wel l a s t he importan t a spec ts o f f unc t ion w i th in aRo man c on tex t. Desp i te as erious a t te mp tb y b oth c on tr ibu tors t o a ssess t he n ature o f t he u rban s i tes , b o th p re-Ro man a nd Ro mano-Br it ish , t here i s n evertheless a l i nger ing p olari sa t ion i nheren t i n t he ir p apers.

On a more g enera l l evel , t he p aper b y

Burnha m i s a n a t te mp t t o p u t t he q uest ion o f u rban is m i n to p erspec t ive b y e xa m in ing c o m mon e le men ts w ith in t he t wo p er iods a nd emphas is ing t he n eed t o a na lyse h ow t he i mpac t o f p rocesses g enera ted b y Ro man n eeds —e.g. a dm in istra t ion , r oad c o m mun ica t ions e tc. —wou ld h ave e ncouraged o r o verr idden p re-ex ist ing o r d evelop ing e cono m ic p rocesses. l argely e xp lana tory.

The u nderly ing i n terest i s

The f ina l c on tr ibu t ion b y Frere i s a n i mportan t r eg iona l s tudy o f o ne p art icu larly i n for ma t ive s i te a t Veru la m iu m t oge ther w i th s o me d iscuss ion o f i t s l i nks w i th t he s e t t le men t p a t tern o f t he s urround ing a rea . The Ro man impac t a nd t he d evelopmen t o f Ro man n eeds w ith in t he c on tex t o f ap re-ex ist ing s i te a re e xa m ined i n d e ta i l a nd t he s peed o f d evelopmen t a nd a dop t ion o f Ro man isa t ion i s u nderl ined . The e d i tors h ope t ha t t he s ec t ion a s a whole w il l e n l igh ten a t t itudes t o t he n eed f or ab roader s tudy o fu rban s e t t le men t p a t terns a nd t he n a ture o f

2 21

t he p rocesses o f c hange wh ich o pera te o n t he u rban f ron tu nder t he impac t o f Ro man a dvances.

N evertheless , we f ee l t ha t wh i lst t he p ackage i s ac on-

v en ien t o ne , t here a re g rounds f or a b roader e xa m ina t ion o f t he t ota l s e t t lemen t p a t tern , b oth u rban a nd r ura l , i n a much more s yste m ic way . a pproach i n I ron Age a nd R o mano-Br i t ish t er ms migh t p rove f rui tfu l

2 22

S uch a n

T IEE EUROPEAN IMPACT ON I ND IGENOUS NUC LEATED S ETTLE ME NTS I N WEST AFRICA b y B . W. Hodder

The c ase o f West A fr ica i s o f r e levance t o t he t he me o ft his c onference b ecause t he r egion i s k nown t o h ave h ad a w el l-deve loped s yste m o f n uclea ted s et t le men ts b eforethe E uropean c o lonia l

i nvasions t o f t he l a te n ineteen th

c en tury . Whereas i n most o f t rop ica lA frica t owns were o f r are o ccurrence b efore t he E uropean c o lonia l p eriod , i n West A frica i mpor tan t u rbantype n uclea tions h ad l ong b een f or med b y many i nd igenous p eop les ( Morgan a nd P ugh 1 969 , 4 6) . b ands.

T hese n uc lea ted s e t t le men ts o ccur i n t wo b road west-east

The n or thern b and , i nc lud ing T imbuk tu , D jenne , G ao , K a tsina ,

Z ar in a nd K ano , l i es i n t he s avanna l ands s ou th o ft he S ahara Deser t ; t owns h ere o f ten r epresen t n uc lei o ft he g rea t s udan ic k ingdo ms o f Ghana , Ma li , S onghay a nd Bornu-Kane m .

These e ar ly k ingdo ms t raded a cross t he S ahara

w i th t he Medi terranean wor ld a nd a lso e stabl ished c on tacts e astwards w i th t he u pper N i le r egion .

A ccord ing t os o me wr i ters, t he s ou thern l imi t o fthese

n or thern t owns was d e ter mined b y t he s ou thern e x ten t o f c a mel t ranspor t a nd b y t he n or thern l imi t o ft he t setse f l y .

I n a ny c ase t rade was c lear ly t heir

r aison d te tre , a nd medieva lu rbani sm i n t he r egion was b u t p ar t o ft he r eviva l o f i n terna tiona l a nd i n terreg iona l t rade s t i mu la ted e lsewhere , n o tab ly i n Western Europe ( Mabogun je 1 968 , 4 5-7 ) . 1 The s econd b road b and o f i nd igeno us c entres—inc luding s uch t owns a s K u mas i , Abo mey , B enin a nd a bove a l l t he r e markab le c oncen tra t ion o ft owns i n t he Y oruba c oun try o f wha t i s n ow s ou th-wes tern N iger ia— lies f ur ther s ou th a long t he n or thern f r inges o f t he f ores t ;

i n many c ases t hese t owns were a lso a ssoc ia ted w i th e ar ly k ingdo ms—

Ashan t i , Daho mey , B infand Y oruba . Characterist ics o f I nd igenous Nuc lea ted S e t t le men ts D e tai led , i fh igh ly s e lective , d escrip tions o f s o me o ft hese i nd igenous s e t t le men ts e xist i n t he l i tera ture o f t he e igh teen th a nd e ar ly n ine teen th c ent uries. I n t he n or th , s evera l European t rave l lers r eached T i mbuk tu a nd w ere c lear ly d isappo in ted w i th wha t h ad b y t hen b eco me a p oor c i ty o f sma l l mud h ouses s epara ted b y n arrow a l leys a nd w i thou t a ny c lear s treet p a t tern ; t he mono tony was r el ieved o n ly b y t he mosques a nd marke ts.

K ano , d escr ibed

s o v ivid ly b y Bar th ( 1857-8 )h ad s i mi lar c haracteristics, b u t h ere t he i mport ance o ft rade , l oca l t radi tiona l c raf t i ndustries a nd c rop c u l tiva tion w i thin t he wa l ls were s tr ik ing f ea tures.

I n t he s ou th C lapper ton ( 1829 ) a nd L ander

( 1838) w ere among many who d escr ibed t he Yoruba t owns i n e ssen tia l ly s imi-

l ar t er ms:

mud wa lls, mud h ouses c rowded t oge ther w i thou t a ny f or ma l s tree t

p a t tern , v igorous t rade b eing c arr ied o n i n t he marke t p laces, l i ve ly l oca l i ndustr ies a nd v ery c lose l inks e viden t b e tween t own a nd c oun try . was t yp ica l o ft hese s ou thern t owns: ( Af i n ) o ft he A laf in ;

O ld O yo

i t sn ucleus was f or med b y t he p a lace

al arge market was h eld i n t he f ron t o ft he A f in ; a nd t here

was a n i mpressive mud w a l l ( Goddard 1 971 , 2 07-11 ) .

2 23

C lear ly , a ma jor c haracter ist ic f ea ture o ft hese p re-European t owns was t he n eed f or d efence , f requen t ly e xpressed i n wa l ls o r d i tches, t hough i ti s n o tewor thy t ha t most o ft he wa l led t owns o f West A fr ica a re t o b e f ound o n ly i n t he e ast o ft he r egion ;

i th as b een s uggested t ha t t h is t radi tion d er ives f ro m

i nf luences emana ting f ro m t he N i le v a l ley t o t he e ast .

I n s o me c ases, a s i n

K ano , t rave l lers c o m men ted o n t he v ery l arge a rea c on ta ined w i th in t he wa l ls, r ef lecting t he n eed t o l eave r oo m w i thin t he p ro tective r ing f or f ood c rop p rod uction .

At own l ike l badan owed i t s v ery o r ig ins t o t he n eed f or d efence ,

h av ing b een f ounded b y sma l l a r mies o f r efugees f l eeing f ro m t he F u lani a r mies sweep ing d own f ro m t he n or th d ur i ng t he J ihad o ft he e ar ly n ine teen th c en tury . S i mi lar ly , s o me t owns s ough t p ro tection f ro m r ings o f r ocks o r h i l ls, o r l ocat ed t he mse lves o n t he t ops o f h i l ls.

Cu l tiva tion w i th in t he d efended s e t t le men t

was a n ecessary c oro l lary o f t he n eed f or d efence t hese wa l ls a nd l oca tions r epresen ted , a nd i n many c ases t his f ea ture s urvives i n t he e xist ing s e t t le men ts. B u t a gr icu l ture h ad n or ma l ly t o e x tend we l l b eyond t he d efensive works. Yoruba t owns t he

I n

w i th inthe-wa l ls ' c u l tiva tion was s upp le men ted b y c u l tiva-

t ion o u tside t he wa l ls f or u p t o f i ve mi les a nd r eached b y t ownspeop le migrat ing d a i ly o u tt o t heir ' near f ar ms '

( oko e t i le) , a nd b y f ar ms e x tend ing f or u p

t o f if teen mi les f ro m t he t own ( t he 'f ar f ar ms ' ,o r o ko e gan ) . Ano ther c haracterist ic o ft hese p re-co lon ia l s et t le men ts was t he e xistence o f d ist inctive a nd f requen t ly g eographica l ly d iscre te c o m mun i ty g roup ings w i thi n t he t own .

The p opu la t ion o ft hese n uc lea tions t ended t o b ee thn ica l ly a nd

o ccupa tiona l ly h e terogenous a s we l l a s s ocia l ly s tra ti f ied ( Mabogun je 1 968 , 6 3) . Q uar ters were o ccup ied b y k insfo lk , b y d istinct g roup s o f c raf ts men —weavers, d yers, sm i ths, p o t ters a nd c arpen ters —or b y

s tranger ' g roups g a ther ing

t oge ther f or p ro tection i n o rder t oa ct a s t rading midd le men ;

a nd s uch

s tranger '

q uar ters a re s ti l l v ery e viden ti n t hese t owns t oday — the s ou therners ' S abon Gar i i n t he n or thern Hausa t owns o f N igeria , a nd t he Muslim Hausa ' sS abo i n t he t owns o ft he s ou th .

Many o ft hese q uar ters h ad t heir own marke ts, t r ibu-

t ary t o t he ma in marke t which was u sua l ly c lose b y t he r u ler ' sp a lace .

The

p a lace was n orma l ly t he a dm inistra tive f ocus o ft he a gg lo mera tion a nd i n many n or thern t owns t he mosque was a dded t o t he marke t a nd p a lace t o emp hasise t heir e cono mic , a dm in istra tive a nd s ocia l i mportance .

Everywhere ,

h owever , t he t own c o mb i ned t he f unctions o ft rade a nd a dm in istra tion a nd i n most c ases was a r eg iona l a nd n o t s imp ly a l oca l c en tre .

The s ize o ft he t own

d epended more o n t he i mpor tance o ft he l oca l marke t a nd i t s a uthori ty t han o n t he s urround ing a gr icu l tura l p roduction . The f ac t t ha t p eop le were of ten c u lt iva tors a s w e l la s t owns men d id n o t mean t ha t t he ma in f unc tion o ft he t own was a gricu l tura l ;

p eop le were g a thered t ogether f or t rade , d efence a nd s ocia l

a nd a dm in is tra t ive c onvenience . The European Impact I ti s i mpossible t o d isen tang le e n tirely t he E uropean i mpact o n West A frican i nd igenous n uc lea ted s et t le men ts f ro m t he g enera l p oli t ica l , s ocia la nd e cono m ic c ondi t ions t he Europeans e stablished i n t he r egion .

G enera l p eace ,

l aw a nd o rder , n ew l i nes o ft ranspor t a nd c o mmunica tions, s yste ms o fl oca l a nd r egiona l a dm inistra t ion , t he i n troduction o f a money e cono my a nd t he o ppor tun i ty a nd means t o g row c ash c rops — these a nd many o ther f actors a dd u p t o a n

i nvasion ' o f which u rb a ni sm i s o n ly o ne e xpression .

2 24

N ever the less, s evera l e f fects o ft he European i mpact r e levan t t oo ur t he me may b e i den ti f ied .

F irst , a s t he European a dm in istra tors e x tended t heir mi li-

t ary a nd a dm in istra tive c on tro lo ver t he i n terior o f West A frica , t hey made p ossib le t he d ownhi l l move men t o f many n uc lea ted s e t t le men ts wh ich h ad p rev io usly b een l oca ted o n h iL ltop r efuge s i tes.

I n t he A fen ma i d istrict o fn or thern

B en in , f or i nstance , f or ti f ied h il l s i tes w ere a bandoned a nd s e t t le men ts moved d own t o t he p la ins af ter Br i tish a dm inistra tion e n tered t he d istrict i n 1 904 ( Morgan 1 959 , 5 8 ) .

Move men td ownhi l l was f requen t ly e ncouraged b y t he

Bri t ish a dm in istra tion work ingthrough t he t radi tiona l c hief s who p ersuaded t heir s ub jects o f t he w isdo m o f s uch moves ( G leave 1 963 , 3 45 ) .

Y e t l i t t le c hange

o ccurred i n t he p o l i tica l , e cono m ic o r s ocia l s tructure o f t hese r e loca ted s et t le men ts. The ma jor c hange was s imp ly i n p lan , t he o r ig ina l , c lustered , f or m less s tree t p lan g iving way t o ag r idiron p a t tern .

I n many c ases t he

r e ma ins o ft he h i l l top s e t t le men ta re t oday c lear ly v isible a nd t he s o lid r ock i s p i t ted w i th o va l-shaped g r ind-ho les i n which w o men u sed s tones t o c rush ma ize , c assavaand y a ms ( G leave 1 963 , 3 44) . S econd ly , a s i n many p ar ts o ft he wor ld , t he E uropean i mpact o ni nd igenous n uc lea ted s e t t le men ts i n West A frica e xpressed i t se lf i n d ist inctive a ccretions o n t o t he o r ig ina l s e t t le men ts.

This was e specia l ly t rue i n t he Br i tish c o lonia l

t erri tor ies. The B ri tish i n many c ases p reserved t he o ld c en tres, p ar t ly b ec ause o ft he s heer n u mber a nd c lusters o f i ndigenous n uclea ted s et t le men ts i n t heir t err i tories, p ar t ly b ecause t he n u mbers o f Bri tish a d mini stra tors were a lways s o sma l l , a nd p ar t ly b ecause t he B r i tish p o l icy was o ne o f i nd irect r u le —of t ry ing , a t l east o stensib ly , t o p reserve l oca l p oli tica l i nsti tu tions a nd o rganisa t ions a nd wherever p ossible t o work t hrough t hese e xi st ing i nd igenous s yste ms.

C er ta in ly t he Bri tish t ended t o p reserve t he t wo e ssen tia l f ea tures

o ft he i nd igenous t own — the r u ler ' sp a lace , e ssen tia l i ft he i ndirect r u le p o licy was t o work , a nd t he marke t p lace . p ro tected b y l aw :

I nd igenous marke t p laces w ere i ndeed

' the d irect i nf luence o ft he Europeans o n t he n or ma lc ondi-

t ions o ft rad ing i n marke t p laces was n eg lig ib le [ i n N igeria ].

H owever i mpor-

t an t t he i nd irect e f fects o f European p enetra tion were , E uropean t raders k ep t o u t o ft h is s tage o ft he d istr ibu tion p rocess. S yrian t raders, t rying t o t rade c o mpe ti tive ly i n t he marke t p lace ... were s oon f orced t o d esist ...the Governmen t [ proh ibi ted ] t he s e l ling o fg oods b y n on-na tives i n a ny marke t ' ( Hodder a nd Ukwu 1 969 , 4 2 ) .

B u t i ndirect r u le was p erhaps b est e xpressed i n t he

Townships ', where t he R esiden t , o ther Europeans a nd t he mi li tary q uarters were t o b e f ound a nd f ro m where t he R esiden ts a dvised t he A fr ican r u lers i n t he o ld t owns.

I n most c ases t he r esu lt was t he d eve lopmen t o ft w in t owns,

l i ke K ano , where t he c i ty .

Township ' l i es i m media te ly a d jacen t t o t he o ld wa l led

I n f ormer F rench c on tro l led West A frica , h owever , t he t w intown n uclea-

t ion i s ar are p heno menon .

The F rench t err i tor ies i nc luded f ew i nd igenous

n uc lea t ions, t he F rench h ad r e la tive ly l arge n u mbers o f a d min istra tors o n t he g round , a nd t hey f o l lowed a p o licy o f d irect r u le .

F or t he most p ar t t he F rench ,

l ike t he G er mans i n Togo , t ended t o e stab l ish n ew t owns a s t heir c en tres o f p o li t ica l a d min istra tive a u thori ty . Third ly , t he European i mpact o pera ted v ery s e lective ly , s o me i nd igenous s e t t le men ts b eing c hosen a nd p referred f or mi l i tary , s tra tegic, t rad ing , p o li t ica l o r a dm inistra t ive r easons; o thers were i gnored o r b y-passed , w i th t he r esu l t t ha t t hey d ec lined , a t l east i n r e la tive i mpor tance , a nd s o f orfei ted

2 25

t heir p osi t ion i nthe s e t t le men th ierarchy .

Moreover , s o me s e t t le men ts were

e stab lished i n e n tire ly n ew l oca tions; t his was e specia l ly s o i n F rench a nd G er man West A frica .

O u tside N igeria , i ndeed , most 'c o lon ia l ' t owns a re

who l ly o f r ecen tc rea tion , a nd i th as b een r e marked t ha t west o f Daho mey ( now B en in ) t he l arge t owns o ft oday i n West A frica a re a l l c o lon ia l f ounda tions. Everywhere Europeans i nsti tu ted p or ts a nd r a i lway f oci t owns, a nd t o t his e x ten t t hey a f fected t he s ign if icance a nd p rest ige o ft hose i nd igenous s et t lemen ts which were b y-passed b y t he n ew c o lon ia l t ranspor t a nd s e t t le men t s yste ms.

T his h e lps t o e xp la inthe d ec l ine o f s uch f or mer g rea t i nd igenous

c en tres a sD ikwa , K ukawa , Agades a nd T imbuk tu .

A l l t he n ew t owns h ave

f unctions a ssocia ted w i th modern a d min istra tion a nd c o m merce a nd o pera te a s c en tres f or e duca tiona l , medica l a nd o ther p rofessiona l a ctivi ties.

The

n ew t owns, o r t he n ew s ections a dded t ot he o ld t owns, were n o d oub t n ecess ary i nthe c hangeover f ro m a ne cono my l ook ing a l most e n tire ly t o i n terna l marke t ingto o ne l ook ing t o o verseas marke ts f or minera l a nd a gricu l tura l r aw ma ter ia ls.

Bu t t he i nevi table r esu l t was a d isloca t ion o ft he i ndigenous

c en tra l-p lace s yste m o f n uclea ted c en tres. F ina l ly , i ti s a n i n terest ing p aradox t ha t whi le t he p eace a nd s ecuri ty , l aw a nd o rder , a nd n ew s yste ms o ft ranspor t a nd c o m mun ica tions e stab l ished b y t he Europeans e ncouraged mobi li ty , t he c o lonia l g overn men ts s ough t a t t he s a me t ime t o "i m mobi lise" t heir p opu la tions.

Govern men ts t ried t o e stab lish

f i xed s i tes f or many s et t le men ts, e specia l ly where t hey w ere t he r es idence o f al oca l r u ler o r g overn ing b ody .

I n s o me c ases t hey a lso t r ied t o g roup p eop le

i n to l arger f ixed s e t t le men ts a nd t o r everse t hose t rends away f ro m n uclea tion t ha t t heir v ery p resence h ad e ncouraged .

The u sua l o verr id ing c onsidera tion

was o f c ourse t of aci li ta te a dm in istra tion a nd c on tro l .

The G er mans i n

Ca meroon a nd Togo f orced s o me c o mmun i t ies t o n uclea te w i th t he q ui te e xp lici t a im o f f aci l i ta t ing t he a cquisi t ion o f f orced l abour .

The F rench were r a ther

more ambiva len t a bou t t his who le ma t ter : t hus t hey f orced t he Tuareg n o mads t o s et t le a nd c oncen tra te i n 1 916 b u t r eversed t h is p o l icy i n 1 928 . S o me C o mmen ts Three g enera lc o m men ts c an p erhaps b e made a t t his s tage .

F irst , i n

c onsider ing t he r e levance o ft he Wes t A fr ican c ase t o t he s tudy o ft he R o man i mpact o n t he i nd igenous n uclea ted s e t t le men ts o f Bri ta in , i ti s i mpor tan t t o emphasise t ha t t hese i nvasions i n West A frica o ccurred o n ly v ery r ecen t ly , t ha t t hey were u t ter ly d i f feren ti n s ca le a nd p urpose f ro m t he R o man i nvasions o f B r i ta in , t ha t t he a rea o ver which t hey t ook p lace was much l arger a nd e co logica l ly a nd h istorica lly much more v ar ied , a nd t ha t European c on tacts, h owever t enuous a nd i nd irect , h ad l ong e xisted e i ther a t t he c oast i n t he s ou th o r f ro m a cross t he d eser t i n t he n or th .

Moreover , many , i fno t most , o ft he

i nd igenous n uclea tions e ncoun tered b y t he Europeans s ti l l e xi st t oday , n o t a s f ossi l ized c uriosi ties f ro m t he p ast b u t a s l i ving o rgan is ms.

The n a ture ,

e x ten t a nd l eve l o f s ophistica tion o f u rban d eve lop men t i n West A frica b efore t he European i nvasions which t ook p lace i n t he n ineteen th c en tury w ere o f a q ui te d i f feren t o rder f ro m t he s et t le men t c ondi t ions e ncoun tered b y t he Ro mans i n Br i ta in .

The West A fr ican

p re-co lon ia l , i nd igenous n uc lea ted c en tres were

f or t he most p art a lready v ery l ike t he medieva l t owns o f Western Europe a nd p ossessed many o ft he c haracteristics o ft he p reindustria l c i ty .

2 26

Whi le t he

u se o ft he p hrase ' i nd igenous n uc leated c en tre ' i s d es irable i n t hat i tp rec ludes a ny a rid s e man t ic d iscussion o ver t he t er ms ' t own ' o r ' urban is m ' , t here i s l i t t le d oub t t ha t b y a ny c riteria West A frica c on ta ined many t rue t owns a nd s everal d ist inc t u rban s yste ms i n t he p re-colon ial p eriod . S econd ly , many o f t he s o-cal led e f fec ts o f t he European c olon ial i nvasion i n West A frica s ee m t o h ave o ccurred i n t he r eg ion o n s everal e arl ier o ccas ions.

Thus i ti s m islead ing t o a t tribu te t he d ownh i l l move men t o f s et t le men ts

t o t he European n ature o f t he i mpac t.

P rev ious p er iods o f r elat ive p eace a nd

s ecurity h ad r esu lted i n as im ilar r esponse.

C erta in ly d ownh il l move men t

i n Yorubaland o ccurred i n s everal p re-European p er iods, t he l a test t ak ing p lace i n t he m idd le o f t he n ineteen th c en tury a t t he e nd o f t he Fu lan i J ihad . I n Yoruba t owns, t oo , i ti s n ow k nown t ha t t he f ar ms ' w i th i n-the-wal ls' w ere o f ten l e f t d erel ic t d uring p eacefu l p eriods ( Mabogun je 1 968 , 6 8 ). S im i larly , t he d efens ive , wal led a nd c on ta ined n a ture o f s o me o f t he Hausa t owns o f n orthern N iger ia i s n ow k nown t o h ave b een b y n o means a p er manent f ea ture o f p re-colon ial H ausaland :

u rban-rural s et t le men t p at terns h ad l ong b een

f l u id , d epend ing o n t he d egree o f s ecuri ty e xperienced o r e xpected.

Aga in ,

t he t w intown d evelop men t i n c olon ial West A frica w as n o n ew p heno menon i n t he r eg ion.

Func t ional s eparat ion h ad p rev iously f requen t ly l ed t o g eograph ical

s epara t ion .

Thus t he c ap ital o f a nc ien t Ghana ( 8 th-13th c en tur ies ) i n w ha t i s

n ow s ou th-eastern Maur i tan ia was a t w intown , o ne h a lf h ousing Mosle ms a nd t raders , t he o ther h al f h ousing u nbel ievers a nd t he r u ler.

The e arly Akan

t owns w ere o f ten t w in t owns, o ne u n i t o ccup ied b y t he r u lers a nd t he o ther b y t he t raders. The c ap i tal o fS onghay a t Gao was a lso a t w in-town , t he w est b ank o f t he N iger c on ta in ing t he r u lers a nd t he e ast b ank t he Mosle ms, t raders a nd c h ief market. I n B ornu , Barth v isi ted K ukawa , d escr ibing i ta s c onsist ing o f t wo t owns —Kuka Fu tebe a nd K uka G ed ibe;

t he g rea t marke t p lace l ay j ust

o u tside t he f or mer, wh ile t he c h ief 's a u thori ty was e xerc ised i n t he l a t ter. Aga in , t he i nd igenous s yste m o fu rban c en tres h ad n ever b een s ta t ic : p rev ious c entra l-p lace s ys tems h ad f requen t ly b een d is loca ted b y t he r ise a nd f a l l o ft he v arious k ingdo ms. I n n orthern N igeria , f or i nstance , t he Fulan i J ihad l ef t i t s mark , n ot p ri mar ily b y d estroy ing c i t ies, b ut b y a l ter ing t heir r ela t ive importance ( Mabogun je 19 68 , 6 8 ).

Above a l l , h owever , West A fr ica h ad e x-

p erienced c olon ial i nvas ions o fo ne k ind o r a nother b efore t he European c olon ial p eriod i n t he r eg ion ;

a nd t hese p rev ious c olon ial i nvasions h ad f requen t ly l ed

t o t he g row th o f t owns a nd u rban s yste ms, s upport ing Sma i les t t hesis ( 19 53, 7 5 ) t hat ' t he t own i s t he n or mal s et tle men t f or m o f imperial e xpans ion a nd i n trus ion o f c iv il ised p eop les i n to t err i tories a lready o ccup ied b y s oc iet ies e ngaged i n p rac t ising a l ess a dvanced e cono my '.

Even t he Yoruba t own s ee ms

t o h ave r esu l ted f ro m t h is s a me u n iversal p rocess —fro m c olon ial c onquest when t he Yoruba moved i n to what i s n ow t heir h o me a rea many c en tur ies b ef ore t he a rrival o f t he European : ' Yoruba t owns a rose l argely a s af or m o f c olon ial s ett le men t among i nd igenous, more b ackward a nd p erhaps h ost ile p eop les... [ Towns] r esu l ted f ro m a c onsc ious a t te mp t t o d om inate a nd c on trol t he d isorgan ised mass o fa borig ines f ound i n t he r eg ion a nd v i l lages w ere f orced t o b reak u p a nd move i n to t he t own

many h am lets Th is method

o f f ound ing t owns s ee ms t o h ave b een e leva ted t o t he s tatus o f at rad i t ion ' ( Mabogun je 19 68 , 7 6 ).

2 27

Excep t a t t he most s uperf ic ial l evel , i ndeed , i ti s d if f icu l t t o p o in t t o a ny r eal ly f unda men tal c harac terist ic o f t he i nd igenous t owns o f t oday wh ich c an c onf iden t ly b e t raced b ack t o t he European n ature o f t he c olon ial i mpac t. I n t he c on tex t o f o ur p resen t d iscuss ion , t he f ac t t ha t i n West A fr ica t here was a n i nvasion i s p erhaps o f more s ign if icance t han t he f ac t t hat t he i nvasion h appened t o b e B r it ish , French , G er man o r Portuguese.

The d anger o f

a t tribu t ing t o Europeans, e f fec ts wh ich were s i mp ly c o m mon , u n iversal a nd c o m monsense r espon ses t o i nvasions b y t echnolog ical ly r ela t ively a dvanced p eop les i s p resu mably n o t p ecu l iar t o West A fr ica. F ina l ly , n o o ne who h as worked o r l ived i n West A fr ica , a nd e spec ial ly i n o ne o f t he Yoruba o r Hausa t owns o f N igeria , c an a vo id b eing s truck b y s uch p assages a s t he f ol low ing :

' t he Ro man s yste m o f u rban l i fe was s uper-

imposed o n a n a lready e x ist ing s et o f t owns , a nd t he Ro mans c on t inued t he p rocess o f mov ing s et tle men ts f ro m t he h i l l top t o t he v al leys.

I n s o me c ases

t he Ro mans p lan ted t owns o n v irgin s o il , b u t i n s everal i nstances t hey e n larged o r mod if ied t he e x ist ing s et tle men t o r merely moved i t s s i te a s hort d istance f ro m a n o ld t own '(G i lbert 19 51, 4 2 ).

Bu t t he d raw ing o f s uch a nalog ies, h ow-

e ver t e mp t ing , n eeds f urther c o mparat ive a nalysis a nd s tudy —certa in ly much more t han h as y et b een a t te mp ted. t he mselves.

For a whole h ost o f q uest ion s s uggest

Why was t he West A frica i nd igenous t own s o s uccessfu l i n r e-

s ist ing t he European—or a t l east t he Br i t ish — invasion?

Were t he West

A frican n uc leat ions c on tac ted b y Europeans med ieval o r p reindustrial r ather t han t he e qu ivalen t o f p re-Ro man s et t le men ts i n B ritain?

D id t he Ro mans

h ave a ny d irec t o r i nd irec t ( v ia t he Berbers ) i n f luence i n West A frica?

Was

t he B ri t ish s yste m o f i nd irec t r u le i n N iger ia s im i lar i n a ny way t o t hat u sed i n a t l east t he l a t ter s tages o f R o man o ccupa t ion i n B ri ta in?

What s im ilar-

i t ies a re t here b etween t he t r ibal s yste m o f e xchange a nd market ing i n p reRo man B rita in a nd t he i n tr icate s yste m o f t rade a nd market ing wh ich i s s t i l l s uch a f ea ture o f West A fr ica t oday?

And o f wha t s ign if icance f or t he Ro man

i nvasion o f Br ita in i s t he f ac t t hat s o many West A fr ica i nd igenous t owns h ave l ong b een c ere mon ial c en tres man ifest ing t he d ichoto my , c haracter ist ic o f a nalogous f or ms e lsewhere , i n to s acral a nd p redo m inan t ly s ecu lar e nclaves? ( Wheat ley 19 70 ).

NOTE 1 .

Mabogun je d iv ides t h is n orthern b and o f t owns i n to t wo , t he more n ortherly i nc lud ing T i mbuk tu , t he o ther i ncluding D jenne. B IB L IOGRAP HY

BARTH, H ., 1 857-8. T ravels a nd D iscover ies i n N orth a nd C en tra l A frica 18 49 -1 8 55 L ondon . CLAPPERTON , H ., 1 82 9 . o f A fr ica L ondon . G ILBERT , E . W., 19 51.

J ournal o f aS econd Exped i t ion i n to t he I n terior

' The Hu man G eography o f Ro man Bri ta in ' i n

Darby H . C . ( Ed.) 1 951 1 800 C a mbridge.

An H istorical G eography o f England b efore A .D .

2 28

GLEAVE, M. B ., 1 963 .

' Hi l l S ett le men ts a nd t heir a bandon men t i n Western

Yorubaland ' A frica 3 2. GODDARD , S ., 1 971.

' Ago t hat b eca me Oyo :

a n e ssay i n Yoruba h istor ical

g eography ' G eograph ical J ournal 1 37 , 2 07-11. HODDER , B . W . a nd

UKWU , U . I . , 1 969 .

LANDER, R . a nd J ., 1 838.

MORGAN , W. B ., 1 959 .

I badan .

J ournal o f a n Exped it ion t o e xp lore t he C ourse

a nd Ter m inat ion o f t he N iger MABOGUNJE, A . L ., 1 968.

Markets i n West A frica

L ondon .

Urban isa t ion i n N igeria

L ondon .

' The i n f luence o f European c on tac ts o n t he l and-

s cape o f S ou thern N igeria ' Geograph ical J ournal 1 25. MORGAN , W. B . a nd PUGH , J . C ., 1 969. SMA ILES , A . E ., 1 953. WHEATLEY , P ., 1 970.

' West A fr ica ' L ondon .

AG eography o f Towns

L ondon .

' The s ign if icance o f t rad it ional Yoruba u rban is m '

Co mpara t ive S tud ies i n S oc iety a nd H istory 1 2, 3 93-423.

2 29

C ITY AND STATE I N PRE-RO MAN BRITA IN b y J ohn C ol l is

S u m mary I ron Age a nd Ro man s pec ial ists d isagree f unda men tal ly i n t he s tatus t hey a ssign t o t he I ron Age ' opp ida '. I n t h is p aper Ia rgue t hat t he ma jor d if ference b etween t he o pp ida a nd Ro man t owns l i es i n t he amoun t o f n uc lea t ion u l t i ma tely f or r easons o f d efence. The ir r ole w i th in t heir s epara te s oc iet ies was a lso s o mewhat d if feren t , t hough b o th w ere e ssen t ial ly c en tres f or e xchange, i ndustry a nd a dm in istra t ion. T rade w ith in t he B ri t ish s tates may h ave b een u nder monopol ist ic c on trol , a nd e quates w i th t he c oncep t o f t he ' cen tral s olar s yste m ' i n c on trast w i th t he ' co mpet it ive mark et ing s yste m ' o f t he Ro man s ta te.

These d if ferences i n t he t rade o rgan isat ion may b e r ef lec ted

i nt he n a ture a nd s ize o f t he s hops a nd work shops wh ich a re much smal ler o n t he o ppida t han i n t he R o man t own .

One a rea i n wh ich I ron Age a nd R o man s cho lars s eem t o b e i n t ota l d isa gree men t i s o ver t he s ta tus o ft he ma jor s e t t lemen ts o f s ou th-eastern B r i ta in a t t he e nd o ft he I ron Age , t he d yke c o mp lexes o r o pp ida , s uch a s C o lches ter , S t . A lbans o r Bagendon .

T o d e mons tra te t h is c onf l ic t , Iq uote h ere a s amp le

o f v iews : On ly t owards t he c lose o f t he p re-Ro man I ron Age d id r ecen t s et t lers, t he B e lgae, b eg in t o d evelop l arge s et t le men ts o n l ower g round a t r iver c ross ings , wh ich h in t a t t he g row th o f t rade. S uch s i tes a s C an terbury o r Colc hester i l lustrate t h is p rocess, b ut t he l arge s et t le men ts w ere h ard ly t o b e d escribed a s t owns ( Frere 1 967 :4 ). I ti s q u i te c lear f ro m wha t c a me a f ter t ha t t he Ro mans, when t hey a rrived i n B ri ta in , s aw n o th ing i n B ri ta in wh ich e ven r e motely r ese mbled t heir i dea o f at own , l e t a lone a c i ty ( Wacher 1 978 ). N one , whether a h i l l-fort o r ad yked e nc losure, wou ld h ave c on ta ined more t han a h aphazard ly p laced c ol lec t ion o f h u ts ( Wacher 1 975 :36 ).

I ti s g enera l ly

a ccep ted b y p reh istorians t ha t immed ia tely b efore t he Ro man i nvasion o f A .D. 4 3 t here e x isted i n s ou th-eastern B rita in c en tres o f o ccupa t ion wh ich m igh t r easonably b e c al led t owns ( Cun l if fe 1 976 :135 ). Wacher h as s uggested w e s hou ld g o o ne s tage f urther w i th a d is t inc t ion b etween a c i ty a nd t own , t he f or mer p ossessing a c harter ( pace C ol l is 1 976 :3 — my a polog ies f or misrepresen t ing h is v iews ! ) , b u t a s q uoted a bove, h e i s u nw i l l ing t o e nv isage e ven t owns i n t he p re-Ro man I ron Age. S uch n icet ies a s l egal d ef in i t ion a re n o t a va i lable f or t he p reh istorian , a nd Iu se t he t er m c i ty n ot i n a ny l egal s ense, b u t s i mp ly b ecause Ie nv isage t he c ap itals o f t he p re-Ro man s tates a s s et t le men ts wh ich w ere l ikely t o h ave h ad b oth s pec ial r oles a nd p riv ileges. 2 31

The c ause o f t h is d ivergence o f v iews i s i n p ar t d ue t o t he b ackwardl ook ing P reh istorian v iew ing t hese s oc iet ies a s t he most c o mp lex w ith wh ich h e h as t o d eal , t he r esu l t o f al ong p rocess o f d evelopmen t f ro m s i mp ler a nd more p ri m i t ive s yste ms, whereas t he f orwardlook ing Ro man ist w ou ld emp hasise t heir s i mp l ic i ty i n c o mparison w i th wha t w as t o c o me. Bu t more i t i s c aused b y d if feren t s chools o f t hough t , t he Ro man ist l ook ing a t t he e v idence o ft he " bricks a nd mortar" — the t imber h u ts , t he l ack o f p lanned l ay-ou t , e tc . —whereas t he P reh istor ian t alks r a ther i n t er ms o f f unc t ion— the i mp l ica t ions o f t rade, c o in-using , a nd t he c harac ter o f t he p re-Ro man s ta te. H owever , s e man t ic a rgu men ts o n t he u rban o r n on-urban s ta tus o f t hese s i tes p roduce as terile d eba te. O ur ma jor q uest ion i s h ow t hese s i tes f unct ioned w i thin p re-Ro man s oc iety, a nd t h is must i nev i tably b e p ar tly t ack led i n c o mpara t ive t er ms , t o s ee h ow much d if ference t here w as b etween t he p re-Ro man a nd Ro man s yste ms. F or a n e xpanded d iscussion o f t he d ivergence o f v iews s ee Burnha m ( b elow , p age 2 55 ) . The C ity The ma jor 'opp ida ' o f t he p eriod i m med ia tely b efore t he Conquest a re l arge e nclosed a reas of ten o f s everal s quare k i lo metres w ith in wh ich t here a re o ccup ied a reas o f g rea ter o r l esser d ensity a nd s ize, b u t a lso l arge t rac ts wh ich w ere n ot i nhab i ted. The t yp ical Ro man t own was much smal ler w i th a max i mu m e nc losed a rea o f 1 30 h a ( London ) , b u t t he more n or mal s ize f or ar eg ional c ap i ta l b eing c . 4 0 h a.

Bu t t hese a re i deal ised e x tre mes , a nd

t he p re-Ro man a nd e ar ly Ro man t own may n o t a lways h ave b een s o d if feren t. C olchester c erta in ly , a nd S t. A lbans p robably h ad c ore a reas wh ich w ere e nclosed , a n a rea o f o ver 3 0 h a i n t he c ase o f t he S heepen d yke a t C olchester, wh i le t he Ro man t owns t he mselves a re u sual ly o n ly t he n uc leus o f a n a rea o f d ense o ccupa t ion w i th v ar ious s uburbs a round t he t own .

A lso s o me a t l east

o f t he Early Ro man t owns w ere l arger i n a rea t han t heir ' t yp icaP l a te s econd c en tury s uccessors, a nd s o p resu mably l ess d ensely o ccup ied. I fw e t urn t o t he c on t inen tal e vidence i n t he L a te I ron Age , w e f ind t here a re t hree ma in p a t terns o f s et t le men t when s oc iet ies a re a round t he u rban t hreshold ( Col l is f orthco m ing 1 ) : 1 . A v i l lage s et t le men t t hat g radual ly i ncreases i n s ize i n c o mparison w i th o ther s e t t le men ts u n t i l i tr eaches u rban s ta tus . T h is i s i n f ac t v ery r are , t he o n ly we l l d ocu men ted c ase b e ing Manch ing o n t he D anube i n B avar ia ( S töck li 1 974 ) .

C ircu ms tances were p ecu liar—the s i te s tradd les a n arrow n eck o f

g rave l b e tween t he a l luv ia l p la in o ft he r iver i t se lf , a nd b oggy g round t o t he s ou th , c on tro l l ing b oth t he e as t-wes t l and r ou te a long t he D anube a nd a r iver c ross ing .

The e as t-wes t l i near l ay-ou t o f t he s i te i mp l ies t ha t i n ter-reg iona l

t rade was a ma jor f actor i n i t s d eve lopmen t .

O ther s uch n uc lea ted o pen s e t t le-

men ts s uch a s Bad Nauhe im o r R oanne may e x is t where s o me k ey r esource i s c oncen tra ted , b e i t a minera l s uch a s s a l t , o r a n e x terna l t rade n e twork , b ut k now l i t t le o ft he ir o r ig ins . 2 .

G radual i ncrease i n t he s ize o f an umber o f s et tle men ts, wh ich

j o in t ly t ake o n t he c harac terist ics o f a n u rban c o mp lex .

S o me s et t le men ts

may b e l arger o r h ave h igher s oc ial s tatus , b u t n one b y i t self s ee ms t o h ave u rban s tatus.

Th is s ee ms t o b e t he s ituat ion a round C ler mon t F errand where

2 32

F ig . 1

Genera lised t own l ayou ts. w i th s ing le a ccess r ou te .

a ) C lassica l t own .

b ) Mon t Beuvray,

c ) Bri ti sh d yke c o mp lex

2 33

'o ppidu m ' .

smal l f ar m ing s et t le men ts s uch a s Au lna t o n t he r ich a gricu l tural l and a lso s how e v idence o f e x tensive i ndustrial a c t iv i ty a nd e x ternal t rade. The a band onmen t o f t hese s i tes a t t he t ime o f t he f ounda t ion o f t he o pp idu m o f G ergov ie i mp l ies t ha t t hey w ere i nvolved i n t he u rban p rocess ( Col l is f orthco m ing 2 ) . 3 . D efended o pp ida. During t he L ate I ron Age t he t ypes o f s i tes o u tl i ned a bove t ended t o b e a bandoned , a nd t he p opu la t ion n uc leated o n n ew ly d efended s i tes.

These s et t le men ts i n t er ms o f s ize , f unc t ion a nd l ayou t w ere

c losely c o mparable w i th t he c lassical Med iterranean t own. C on trary t o what h as o f ten b een w ri t ten , t he B ri t ish o pp ida d o n ot c losely r ese mble t heir c on t inen tal c oun terparts , a nd t he p a t tern o f s et t le men t s ee ms t o b e s o mewhere b etween 1 a nd 2 a s o u t l ined a bove —a c luster o f smal l s et t lemen ts b u t w i th o ne o r t wo a reas s how ing a n i ncrease i n s ize.

The d if ference

b etween t he B r it ish s i tes o n t he o ne h and , a nd t he c on t inen tal o pp ida a nd t he Ro man t own o n t he o ther w ou ld s ee m t o l i e p ri mar ily i n t he n eed f or d efence, wh ich p roduces n uc lea t ion o ft he p opu lat ion b eh ind a c on t inuous d efensive w al l . The Br i t ish o pp ida s ee m t o h ave b een s ub jec ted t o n o s uch p ressure, a nd s o a re d ecen tral ised , w ith c oncen tra t ions o n ly t ak ing p lace f or r easons s uch a s t rade a s o nt he S heepen s i te a t C olchester. T own l ay-out The k ey f ac tor i n t he l ay-ou t o ft he C lass ica l C i ty s eems t o b e a ccess ib i l i ty . I fw e a ssu me t ha t t he g ateways w ere t he p o in ts o f most c oncen trated t raf f ic w e wou ld e xpec t t o f i nd c lustered a round t he g a tes t hose f unc t ions wh ich r eq u ire max i mu m a ccessib il ity — the s hops a nd smal l-scale i ndustries t hat r el ied o n d irec t s ale o ft heir g oods ( Fig. l a ).

A t t he o ppos ite e x tre me a re t he u pper

c lasses who w ou ld r equ ire s ec lusion f ro m t he n o ise a nd b ust le , a nd s o w ou ld b e f ound i n t he q uarters o f t he t own f urthest f ro m t he ma in t horough fares. The ma jor a dm in istra t ive b u i ld ings a re u sua l ly a t t he c en tre o f t he t own , t hough t ranslat ing t h is i n to a ccess t er ms, t hey a re f ound a t t he p o in t f urthest f ro m t he g a tes.

Thus, i n t he c ase o f t he I ron Age o pp idu m o f Mon t B euvray

( t he a nc ien t B ibrac te ) where t here i s o n ly o ne ma jor a ccess p o in t , t he ma in a dm in istra t ive c en tre i s d isp laced t o a n e x tre me e dge o f t he e nc losed s i te ( Fig. l b ) . I n t he c ase o f t he B ri t ish o pp ida a ccess i s r estr ic ted n ot b y ac on t inuous d efensive c ircu i t b u t b y t he l i near d ykes.

Whatever t he p r imary f unc t ion o f

t hese d ykes, t hey w ou ld h ave e f fec t ively c on trol led e n try a nd e x i t t o t he e nc losed a reas, a l low ing s urvei l lance o f t he g ates, a nd w ou ld h ave p roduced a c oncen tra t ion o f s hops a nd workshops a round t hese a ccess p oin ts , a s w ou ld t he p o in t o fe n try f ro m t he r iver i n t he c ase o f C olchester. Publ ic b u i ld ings a nd p resu mably a ny r oyal r esidence wou ld n o t b e e xpec ted i n t hese a reas, t hough s uf f ic ien t ly c lose t o a l low c on trol , wh i le u pper-c lass h ouses m ight b e e xpec ted o n t he f r inge o f t he c oncen trat ions ( Fig. 1 c ).

The model wh ich Iam

p u t t ing f orward h ere i s v ery d if feren t f ro m t hat p u t f orward b y t he e xcavators o f C olchester who e nv isaged t he s i te a s as eries o f c oncen tric d efences w i th h igher a nd h igher s tatus a s o ne p enetrated f ur ther i n to t he i n terior, w i th S heepen p erhaps b eing ' Cunobel ine 's own r esidence ' ( Hawkes a nd Hu l l 1 947 : 4 6 ).

Iw ou ld e nv isage S heepen r ather a s t he mercan t ile a rea.

2 34

Func t ion Th is w il l n ot b e a rgued h ere i n d eta il .

B oth f ro m t he b urial a nd t he

d ocu men tary e v idence w e c an s uggest t ha t C olchester w as a r oyal r esidence ( t hough p erhaps n ot t he o n ly o ne ), a nd s o p resu mably i th ad a n a dm in istra t ive r ole a s w el l , t hough w e d o n o t k now h ow t he s ta te o f Cunobel ine f unct ioned . Wha tever t he s oc ial o r e cono m ic f unc t ion f or wh ich t he c o inage w as p roduced , i t s c oncen trat ion i n t he o pp ida i s i nd icat ive o f t he ir s pec ial r o le , p erhaps a s market c en tres. Exot ic i mports d e monstrate C olchester 's r o le a s p ort a nd c en tre o f r ed istribu t ion .

I ndustry i s l ess e asy t o d e monstrate — most o f t he

e v idence c o mes f ro m p ost-conquest d eposi ts —bu t t he p roduc t ion o f p ottery , e spec ial ly Gal lo-Belg ic w ares a t C olchester, o f i ron a nd b ron ze w ork ing a nd o ther m inor i ndus tr ies c an b e a ssu med , a nd c erta in ly c oins w ere b eing p rod uced a t s everal o pp ida.

There i s e nough c ircu mstan t ial e v idence t hat t he

o pp ida w ere t he mercan t i le, a dm in istra t ive a nd i ndustr ial c en tres o f t he p reRo man s ta tes. H ouse t ypes The u pper c lasses w i th t heir e xtended l i neages a nd s ervan ts i n t he Ro man t own l i ved i n c ourtyard h ouses —a n or mal f eature o f t he ' preindustrial c i ty ' ( S joberg 1 965 ).

I n t he c on t inen tal o pp ida w e f ind e i ther c ourtyard h ouses o r

p al isade e nc losures.

The e qu ivalen t s tructures o f t he B ri t ish s i tes a re v ir-

t ual ly u nknown , t hough o ne p ossible p al isade e nc losure w as f ound a t C olchester ( S ite L 2, Hawkes a nd Hu l l 1 947 ). S oc iet ies where s tatus i sb ased o n c on trol o f w eal th ( rather t han f or i nstance o n p urely m il i tary c on trol ), u sual ly make g rea t d isp lay o f s ta tus s y mbols s uch a s p re ten t ious b u ild ings a nd t h is i s l ikely i n t he p re-Ro man s tates.

We c an a ssume t hat a n i nd iv idua l o f t he s tatus o f

Cunobel ine wou ld n ot h ave h ad a p alace i n ferior t o t hat o f t he b u i ld ings k nown o n t he c on t inen t a nd t he p alace may a lso h ave b een t he a dm in istra t ive a nd j ud ic ial c en tre i n ac en tral ised s tate o f t he s ort i mp l ied b y t he c o in a nd d ocumen tary e v idence.

Bu t t he o n ly p ossible s tate s tructure k nown f ro m a ny o f

t he B r i t ish s i tes i s t he V iereck schanze wh ich p receded t he Ro man t e mp le c o mp lex a t G osbeck s F ar m a t C olchester. The n or mal s hop o r w orkshop i n t he Ro man t own i s al ong n arrow b u ild ing s et e nd o n t o t he s treet ( Fig. 2 d ) , at ype w h ich was e stabl ished i n G er many b y t he T iberian p er iod , f or i nstance o n t he Auerberg ( J lbert 1 975 ) , a nd i n B r i ta in b y t he F lav ian p eriod a t S t . A lbans ( Frere 1 959 ).

The l ay-ou t i mp lies

s hop a nd w ork ing s pace , s torage f ac i l i t ies, a nd a cco mmoda t ion . The e qu iv alen t i n t he c on t inen tal o pp ida s ee ms t o tal ly d if feren t , u sual ly a sma l l s quare o r r ectangu lar b u ild ing o f t imber ( a t Manch ing ), o r s tone ( a t Mon t B euvray a nd G ergov ie ).

On t he Magdalensberg i n Austria s im ilar s tructures w ith

s hrines i n t heir c el lars w ere o ccup ied b y I t al ian t raders. The e qu ivalen t o n t he B ri t ish s i tes wou ld s ee m t o b e t he c ircular h ouses f ound b o th a t C olc hester a nd B agendon . There a re s everal p oss ible r easons f or t h is d iference , p erhaps a l l i n ter-related.

F irst ly i t may b e c hronolog ical , t he l a ter b u i ld ings merely

r ef lec t ing a g rea ter a f f luence among t h is a rt isan c lass, w i th a n i ncrease i n l i v ing a cco m moda t ion . S econd ly i tc ou ld r ef lec t ag reater s cale o f e cono m ic a c t iv i ty , w i th more g oods b eing t raded a nd s tored. Th ird ly i tc ou ld b e a c hange i nf unc t ion , w ith s torage f ac i l i t ies l ess importan t i n t he p re-Ro man 2 35

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2 37

C ) Co lchester .

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b u ild ings , a nd t h is i n t urn may r ef lec t ac hange i n t he o rgan isa t ion o f t rade. That i tm igh t b e t h is t h ird p ossibi l i ty i s s uggested b y t he c hange i n f unc t ion o f t he Magdalensberg c el lars. I n t heir o rig inal p lan , t hey a re s hr ines , b u t l a ter , p robably a f ter t he Ro man Ansch luss i n 1 4 B .C. t hey were u sed f or t he s torage o fg oods. One o ther t ype o fb u ild ing may b e a ssoc ia ted w i th t h is c hange.

A t

Manch ing t here a re s everal l ong r ec tangu l r ec tangu lar ( Fig . 3a & b ) f or wh ich t he most p lausible i n terpreta t ion i s a s w arehouses ( Schubert 1 972 ) , a nd t here s ee ms l i t t le t o c o mpare t he m w i th o n Ro man t owns.

The l arge r ec tangu lar

b u i ld ing n oted o n t he S heepen s i te a t C olchester m igh t a lso b e aw arehouse ( Fig. 3 c ) a nd s uch a p ort s i te wou ld h ave t o i nc lude s torage among i t s f ac il i t ies. The i mp l icat ions may b e t ha t t rade w as u nder more c en tral ised c on trol , a nd o n ly w i th t he d evelop men t o f t he marke t s yste m w as t he e l ite s trang lehold o n t rade b rok en , a nd l ower c lass c raf ts men c ou ld s tart e ngag ing d irect ly i n t rade t he mselves, a nd s o r equ ire t heir own s torage. T rade s yste ms Recen t s tud ies o f t rade s yste ms i n Med ieval E urope a nd i n A frica h ave s uggested a n umber o f w ays i n wh ich e x terna l t rade was o rgan ised ( e .g. Hodges e t a l . 1 978 ) , p rov id ing models f or o ur l ess w el l d ocu men ted I ron Age s oc iet ies. I n t he L a te I ron Age i n s ou thern B r ita in t here a re t wo o bv ious t rade s yste ms wh ich c an b e e asi ly i den t if ied , t hough t hese w ere c erta in ly n o t t he o n ly c ross-channel c on tacts t ha t e x isted. The e arl ier was b ased o nH eng istbury H ead. F ro m w hat w e k now f ro m b o th t he a rchaeolog ical a nd t he h istor ical s ources, t he t r ibe o f t he Durotriges d oes n o t s ee m t o h ave h ad a ny c en tral ised p ol it ical p ower , a nd i t s i s d if f icu l t t o e nv isage H eng istbury p lay ing t he p ol i t ica l r ole t ha t C olchester d id l a ter. I n a ny c ase a s ubstan t ial p roport ion o f t he i mports wh ich p enetra ted i n land s ee ms t o h ave g one t o c en tral H a mpsh ire r a ther t han t o Durotr ig ian D orset . C aesar t e l ls u s t hat t he t rade b etween B r ita in a nd B rita .nny was c on trol led b y t he V enet i. On t he o ther h and t he o bv ious p re-e m inence o f H eng istbury o n t he A t lan t ic c oast , a nd t he w eal th o f t he i mported w ine amphora f i nds f ro m H eng istbury e spec ial ly i n c o mparison w ith B ritanny s uggests t hat o n ly p art o f t he t rade w as i n Venet ic h ands, a nd Med i terranean g oods w ere c om ing b y a more d irec t r ou te. The most p lausible e xp lana t ion f or t h is a pparen t ly mu tual ly c on f l ic t ing e v idence i s t ha t H eng isbury w as a n i ndependan t p ort whose i nhab i tan ts a c ted a s m idd le men b etween i n ternal a nd e x ternal t rade n etworks.

The r esiden ts t he mselves were p robably n ot i nvolved i n t he a ctual

t ransport ing o f t he g oods, b u t r el ied o n t hose , who w ished t o t rade mak ing t heir own w ay t o t he p ort .

The c losest Med ieval p aral lel f or t h is i s t he g rea t e n tre-

p öt o f H edeby n ear S ch lesw ig , wh ich l ay o n t he i n terface b e tween t he Bal t ic a nd Rh ineland t rade s yste ms. The C olchester s yste m s ee ms t o h ave b een v ery d if feren t. F irst ly t he h istor ical s ources s uggest t ha t t he t rade was b y t reaty b etween t he Ro man Emp ire a nd t he B rit ish s tates, a nd s econd ly w e k now t hat C olches ter w as u nder a c en tral ised r oyal a u thori ty .

B oth t hese f ac ts i mp ly t hat w e , a re

d eal ing w i th a dm in istered t rade r a ther t han w i th o ne b ased o n i nd iv idua l i n it iat ive, a nd i t was most l ikely u nder s tr ic t r oyal c ont rol .

2 38

Th is c on tras ts

w ith wha t w e k now o f t he Ro man t rade s ys te m , wh ich was c o mpet it ive b etween i ndependen t e n trepreneurs w i th t he s ta te o btain ing i t s p rof i ts f ro m t o l ls a nd h arbour d ues. The c on trast b etween t he p re-Ro man a nd Ro man e x ternal t rade s ys te ms i s p aral leled b y d if ferences i n t he i n terna l s ys te ms . The c o in d istribu t ions a re s uggest ive t ha t o n ly ma jor c en tres w ere a c t ing a s markets w ith in t he Colchester s yste m , a monopol ist ic s i tua t ion f am il iar i n t he h is tor ica l a nd a n thropolog ical r ecord u nder t he t er m ' c en tral s olar s yste ms ' ( Sm ith 1 976 ), a nd t hese t oo a re t yp if ied b y a n e l i te who c on trol e x ternal t rade .

On ly i n t he

H ert fordsh ire r eg ion i s t here a h in t o f s ubsid iary c en tres a ppear ing wh ich c ou ld h ave l ead o n t o ac o ' mpet i t ive market ing s yste m .

I ti s o n ly w ith t he

Ro man p er iod t ha t af u l ly c o mpet i t ive market ing s yste m a ppears w i th r eg ional a nd l oca l markets, p roduc ing t he c lassic ' c en tral p lace s yste m ' d escribed b y Hodder a nd H assal l ( 1971). Fu ture w ork The c on f l ic t o f v iews c oncern ing t he o pp ida b e tween P reh istor ians a nd Ro man ists c an t hus i n p art b e e xp la ined i n t hat w e a re l ook ing a t d if feren t t rade a nd s et t le men t s yste ms wh ich w ere f unc t ion ing a ccord ing t o v ery d i fferen t p rinc ip les.

The Ro man Emp ire e ncouraged c o mpet it ive t rade, t he B r it ish

s tates more l ikely ma in ta ined a t rade monopoly.

Bu t o n ly p art o f t he d i-

v ergence o f v iews c an b e e x i a lained t hus , f or much o f t he r ef lect ion o f a n u rban s tatus b y t he Roman ists i sb ased o n t he e xcavated s truc tures.

Bu t h ere we

e ncoun ter t wo p roble ms : 1 .

Methods o fe xcava t ion .

The t ype o f t rench e xcavat ion wh ich h as

g eneral ly b een emp loyed i s u n l ikely t o p roduce e v idence f or s ubstan t ial t imb er b u i ld ings , e spec ial ly where t hey h ave b een e x tre me ly d isturbed o r e roded b y l a ter a c t iv i ty a s a t C o lchester , o r a re o verlain b y d eep d eposi ts o f l a ter d a te a s a t S t . A lbans.

Even s o , a s Rodwel l h as r ecen t ly p o in ted o u t , h in ts

o f s uch s truc tures h ave a ppeared ( Rodwel l 1 978 ). 2 .

S a mp l ing.

The a reas s o f ar e xcava ted o n t he o pp ida a re n o t t hose

most l ikely t o p roduce t he h ouses o f t he e l i te.

Th is i s most o bv iously t rue

o f Bagendon where e xcavat ions w ere c onf ined t o t he e n trance a rea where minor s hops a nd w orkshops c an b e e xpec ted . The s a me may b e t rue f or C olchester i f we i n terpret S heepen a s t he ma in i ndus tr ia l- mercan ti le a rea . P rae Wood a t S t . A lbans i s more p roble mat ical , b u t Wheeler 's l im ited t rench ing a nd t he l ack o fr ich b ur ials i n t he a ssoc iated c e metery ( S tead 1 969 ) b o th s uggest t h is was n ot a n a rea o fe l i te h ab i tat ion . The p re-Ro man o pp ida a re c learly o ne o f t he p r i me t argets f or f u ture r esearch , b u t t he q uest ions a nd models t o b e t ested a re n ot n ecessarily t hose r ela ted t o t he Ro man t own .

2 39

B IBL IOGRAPHY COLL IS , J . R ., 1 976 .

T own a nd Market i n I ron Age E urope .

I n B . C un lif fe

a nd T . Row ley ( eds.) Opp ida i n Barbarian Europe : 3-23. COLL IS , J . ( f orthco ming 1 ) . Opp ida :

Earl iest Towns i n Te mperate Europe.

COLL IS , J . ( f or thco ming 2 ) . Aulnat a nd u rban isat ion i n France: i n teri m r eport.

as econd

A rchaeolog ical J ournal.

CUNL IFFE , B . W ., 1 976 .The o rig ins o f u rban isat ion i n Bri tain .

I n B . Cun l if fe

a nd T . Row ley ( eds.) Opp ida i n Barbarian Europe : 1 35-162. FRERE , S . S ., 1 959 .

Excavat ions a t Verula m iu m 19 58 :

f ourth i n teri m r eport.

An t iquaries J ournal 3 9 :1-18. FRERE , S . S ., 196 7 . HA WKES , C .

B ritann ia.

F . C . a nd HULL , M . R . , 1 947 .Ca mu lodunu m.

Research Report

o f t he S oc iety o f An t iquaries o f L ondon , 1 4. HODDER , I . a nd HASSALL , M . , 1 971 . The n on-rando m s pac ing o f Ro manoBrit ish wal led t owns.

Man n ew s eries 6 :391-4 0 7,

HODGES , a , DALTON, G .. TORRENCE , R . a nd ORLAKSSON , H ., 1 978 . o f t rade i n Early Med ieval Europe. N orweg ian A rchaeolog ical Rev iew

P or ts

1 1:97-117. ROD WELL , W ., 1 978 . Bu ild ings a nd s et t le men ts i n s outh-east Bri tain i n t he L ate I ron Age.

I n B . Cun l if fe a nd T . Row ley ( eds.) L ow land I ron Age

Co m mun i t ies i n Europe:25-41. S CHUBERT , F ., 1 972 . Manch ing I V. d en J ahren 19 65 b is 19 67.

Vorber ich t

f i ber d ie Ausgrabungen i n

Ger man ia 5 0 :110-121.

S JOBERG , G ., 1 965 . The P reindustrial C i ty, Past a nd Presen t. SM ITH , C . A ., 1 976 .

Exchange s yste ms a nd t he s pat ial d istribu t ion o f e l i tes :

t he o rgan isat ion o f s trat if icat ion i n a grarian s oc ie t ies .

I n C . A . Sm ith

( ed.) Reg ional Analysis Vol . 1 :309-374. S TEAD , I . M ., 1 969 . Veru la m iu m 19 66-8.

An t iqu ity 4 3:45-51.

S TÖCKLI , W . E ., 1 974 . Be merkungen z ur r äu m l ichen u nd z ei t l ichen Grupp ierung d er Fünde im Opp idu m Manch ing. ULBERT , G ., 1 975 . D er Auerberg : 19 68-1 9 74.

Ger man ia 5 2 :3 6 8-385.

Vorber ich t u ber d ie Ausgrabungen v on

Rö m ische-Ger man isches Z en tral museu m , Mainz:

Ausgrabungen i n Deutsch land Vol. I : 40 9 ;433. WACHER , J . S ., 1 975 .

Towns o f Ro man Brita in .

WACHE R , J . S ., 1 978 . Ro man Br i ta in .

2 40

THE I MPACT OF MED ITERRANEAN URBAN IS M ON I ND IGENOUS NUCLEATED CENTRES b y M. W. C . Hassal l I n troduction There a re t hree t ypes o f e vidence t ha t a re r e levan t t o t he t op ic u nder d iscussion .

The f irst i st ha t o fc onte mporary wri ters, p ara moun t among

who m i n t h is c on tex t i s Taci tus who , i n af a mous p assage i n t he L ife o f h is f a ther i n l aw , Agrico la ( xx i ) , g ives wha t may b e ar a ther i dea lised p icture o ft he way i n which a g ood g overnor migh t e ncourage u rbaniza tion a s p ar t o f ap rogra m me o fp aci f ica tion .

The s econd i s p rovided b y i nscr ip tions.

f or tuna te ly we p ossess v ery f ew

U n-

mun icipa l i nscrip t ions ' s uch a s e xi st f or

c er ta in a reas o ft he empire , s how ing f or e xamp le t he s urviva l o f n a tive magist racies i n s o me d istricts, s ufe tes i n Nor th A frica o r v ergobre ts i n Gau l ( Hassan, 1 972 , 8 61 n .13 ) , a nd t he d e tai led work ing o f municipa l i nsti tu t ions u nder t he empire.

The t h ird t ype o fe vidence , a nd p o ten tia l ly t he most v a lu-

a b le f or R o man Bri ta in , c o mes f ro m e xcava tion .

Excava tion o n

p re-Ro man

n uclea ted c en tres ' ,( f or which , f o l low ing t he R o man a u thor S uetonius, I sha l l u se t he t er m o ppida )is p ossib le s ince t he s i tes a re of ten u nencu mbered b y modern b ui lding , t hough modern a gricu l tura l a ctivi t ies h ave i n many c ases c aused g rea t d a mage .

However t hough many o pp ida , whe ther o pen s i tes o r

h i l l f or ts h ave b een s a mp led b y e xcava tion , o n ly t o ta l e xcava tion o ft he i n terior , s uch a s h a s n ever b een u ndertaken i n t h is c oun try , w i l l b e a b le t o a nswer a l l t he q uestions we s ti l l n eed c lar i f ied —were s peci f ic a reas r eserved f or s peci f ic f unct ions:

e .g . a r t isans ' q uar ters o r marke ts o r mee t ing p laces , were t here

l arger h u ts s uggest ing s ocia l s tra ti f ica t ion , a nd was t he p resence o f r e ligious s anc tuar ies ar egu lar f ea ture? Excava t ion o n t he n ew R o man ized t owns o nthe o ther h and , i s u sua l ly h a mpered b y modern b ui lding s ince t he ma jor i ty o f s i tes were u ti l ized i nthe medieva l a nd modern p er iod , t hough t here a re e xcep tion s: Wroxe ter , S i lchester a nd Caistor-by-Norwich .

Veru la miu m ,

Bu t i n most o f t hese l i t t le i s

k nown o ft he e ar liest R o man s tructures. There a re f our a reas wh ich Iwi sh t o e xa m ine i n t his p aper : t he f i rst ( and l argest )i s b ased l arge ly o n t he d ocu men tary s ources, t he r e main ing t hree o n t he e vidence o f a rchaeo logy , a nd i ti s h ere t ha t p rogress i n t he f u ture i s most l i ke ly t o b e made . S ta tus I n af a mous p assage i n t he L i fe o f V espasian ( i v ) , S ue ton ius s ays t ha t a s c o m mander o f al egion i n Bri ta in ( i n f ac t l eg ion I Augusta ) , t he f u ture empero r d efea ted t wo p owerfu l c ivi ta tes, f ough t o ver t hir ty b a t t les, c ap tured t wen ty o pp ida , a nd t ook p ossession o f

V ect is, t he I s le o f Wigh t .

2 41

This l ast l oca tes

t he s cene o f h is c ampa ign i n S ou thern Br i ta in , a nd t he o pp ida h ave a ccord ing ly b een i den tif ied w i th t he h i l l-for ts o f t he S ou thern Cha lk , an u mber o f wh ich h ave r evea led t races o ft he Ro man a ssau lt ( Bran igan 1 973 ) .

I ts ee ms a r eas-

o nab le i nference t ha t wha tever t he i den ti ty o ft he t wo c ivi ta tes, t he t wen ty o pp ida s hou ld b e a t tr ibuted t o t he m .

The d ouble q uest ion t hen f o l lows, wha t i s mean t

b y t he t er m c ivi tas a nd wha tb y t he t er m o ppidu m? The L a t in w ord c ivi tas c an b e d ef ined a s a n a u tono mous p o li tica l u n i t which i n t he Medi terranean c on tex t u sua l ly mean t ac i ty s ta te , b u t was a lso u sed b y t he R o mans o ft he t r ibes o f Nor th West E urope .

The L a tin word o pp idu m wh ich

S ue ton ius u ses o ft he h i l l-for ts i s t he g enera l o ne f or t own , b u t o ne s hou ld r esist a ny t e mp ta tion t o t ake t he w ord l i tera l ly i n t he p resen t p assage .

J ust

a s t he word c ivi tas n or ma l ly mean t ac i ty a nd c ivis c i t izen , b u t was u sed b y t he R o mans o f t r ibes a nd t r ibes men , s o o ppidu m was p resu mab ly u sed b y S ue ton ius s i mp ly a s t he n earest L a tin e quiva len t f or t he Ce l tic word a ctua l ly i n u se b y t he p eop le who l i ved i n t he h i l l-for ts , p erhaps d unon .

C aesar ( V . v )

h ad a lso u sed t he word o pp idu m t od escr ibe a d efended Bri tish t r iba l c ap i ta l b u t was c lear ly u nhappy a bou t i t ( " the Br i tons c a l l i ta n o pp idu m .." ) , wh i le i n t he s econd c en tury P to le my wou ld emp loy t he word c i ty ( po l ls) t o d escr ibe a ny i nhabi ted p lace i n Br i ta in ( R ivet

1 977a , 4 5 ) ,

1

a l though h is r eaders w ou ld

c er ta in ly h ave o b jected t o t he u sage i ft hey c ou ld h ave s een t he s or t o f s e t t lemen ts h e was d escr ibing . I n Br i ta in a t t he t ime o ft he C laudian i nvasion , t he t r ibes, o r most o ft he m , a s we k now f ro m t he l i terary s ources, w ere r uled o ver b y k ings, e leven o f who m a re r ecorded a s h aving s ub mi t ted t o t he emperor i n t he i nscr ip tion o n t he t r iu mpha l a rch e rected t o h im i n54 A .D . ( IL S n o . 2 16) .

This w i l l p resu m-

a b ly h ave b een t rue o ft he t wo t r ibes d efea ted b y Vespasian .

The t wen ty o pp ida

i n t he t err i tory o ft hese t wo c ivi ta tes w i l l , i n s o me s ense , h ave b een s ub ject t o t he k ings, b u t t heir d efences i mp ly t ha t i ft heir i nhabi tan ts c hose t o e xercise ad egree o f l oca l a u tono my , i tw ou ld b e d if f icu lt f or t he k ing t o s top t hem w i tho u t r esor t ingto f orce .

F igh ting a nd f eud ing b etween f actions w i th in a t l east

t wo t r ibes i n Bri tain , t he Ca tuve l laun i ( Sue ton ius, Ca ius Ca ligu la x liv ) a nd t he Br igan tes ( Taci tus, H istor ies I I x lv ) , i s i n f act d irect ly a t tested a nd c an b e i nferred i n t he c ase o f o ne more , t he A treba tes ( Al len , 1 944 , 8 ) . We d o n o t k now who e xercised a u thor i ty i n t he o pp ida , p ossibly c hief ta ins o r s ubk ings. I n K en t , t he l a ter c ivi tas o ft he Can tiaci , f our i ndependen t K ings r u led i n Caesar 's d ay a nd a re n a med b y h im ( V .xxi i ) , a nd e ach may h ave c on tro l led as ing le o pp idu m . Turn ing n ow t o t he s i tua tion a f ter t he R o man c onquest o fS ou thern B ri ta in u nder C laud ius, when t he t err i tory o f h a lf a d ozen o r more t r ibes was i n f or ma m p rovinciae r edacta , t he q uestion a r ises h ow p recise ly was t h is a ch ieved a nd h ow d id t he measures t aken a f fec t t he s ta tus o f s et t le men ts i n t he n ew p rovince.

There were t wo s tages i nthe f or ma t ion o ft he n ew p rovince .

The

f i rst was a ch ieved b y f orce o f a r ms: Br i ta in was b rough t i n d icione m P opu li R o. . nan i t o q uote a ga in f ro m t he a rch o f C laud ius.

The s econd i nvo lved a l ega l

p rocess r esu lting i n t he f or ma tion o f al ex p rovinciae o ri t s e qu iva len t , p erh aps d rawn u p b y C laud ius o n t he s po t i n Bri ta in , i n c onsu l ta tion w i th a b and o f s ena tors.

2

C laudius ' s et t le men t , l ike t he l ex P o mpeia , a nd t he l ex R upi lia ,

t he l eges p rovinciae o f B i thyn ia a nd S ici ly ( Abbot t a nd J ohn son , 1 926, 4 8-9 , 7 2 ) may h ave i ncluded r egu la t ions c oncerned w i th t he i n terna l o rgani sa tion o f 2 42

t he c ivi ta tes e ven i f , i n i tia l ly , c on tro l o ft heir a f fa irs was t o r e ma in i n t he h ands o f t heir k ings o r p ossibly p raefecti c ivi ta tis, e d b y R o me ( see b e low ) .

d istr ict o f f icers ' a ppo in t-

How t he a f fa irs o f t he c ivi ta tes c ame t o b eo rdered

af ter t h is t ransi tiona l p eriod i s h in ted a t b y t wo i nscr ip tions.

The f i rst ,

f ro m t he c ivi tas o ft he S i lures o fS ou thern Wa les, p robab ly o rganised b yt he R o mans s oon a f ter t heir c onquest b yt he g overnor F ron t inus i n t he mid 7 0s, s hows t ha t t heir a f fa irs h ad b een e n trusted t o ac ounci l , o rdo ( R IB n o . 3 11 d a ted t o s hor t ly b efore A .D . 2 20 ) .

The s econd f ro m t he t erri tory o ft he Carve ti i

i n Cu mbr ia s hows t ha t ac er ta inF lavius Mar tius ( R IB n o . 9 33 ) was a s ena tor ( counci l lor ) a nd q uaestor ius, t ha t i s e x-quaestor , o ne o ft he p a ir o f f i nanc ia l o f f icers i n h is c ivi tas.

There i s n o d irect e vidence f or t he o ther magistra tes

n or ma l i n R o man mun icipa li ties, t he p a ir o fj udicia l o f f icia ls D uov ir i i uredic undo , a nd a edi les who s aw t o t he u pkeep o f p ublic b ui ld ings, b u t t hey p robably a lso e xisted . These t hree p a irs o f magistra tes w i l l h ave b een a nnua l ly e lected b y t he t ribes men ( c ives) . The o rdo , w i th who m a l l e f fect ive p ower l ay , may h ave n u mbered 1 00 . There i s g ood e vidence f or t his i n t he c ase o f t he s e t t le men ts o f R o man c i tizens ( Co lon iae) b u t t here i s v ery l i t t le d irect e vidence f or t he c ivi ta tes.

I n Gau l

t he o rdo o f t he c ivi ta s o ft he Treveri n u mbered 1 13 i n A .D . 6 9 ( Taci tus, H istories V x ix ) , a l though t his n u mber may h ave i nc luded p rae tex ta ti ( t he s ons o f me mbers o f t he c ounci l who w i l l h ave b een e nro l led b yt he s pecia l d uoviri q uinquenna les e lec ted e very f i ve y ears, whose f unction was t o r evise t he r o l l ( a lbu m ) o f c ounci l lors a nd f i l l v acancies) .

On t he o ther h and a t Ty mandus, a

v i l lage i n A sia M inor wh ich was g iven t he s ta tus o f ac ivi tas a t s o me t ime i n t he t hird c en tury A .D ., t here were , i n i tia l ly , o n ly 5 0 d ecuriones ( council lors) , a l though i t was h oped t ha t l a ter i twould b e p ossible t o i ncrease t he n u mber t o 1 00 ( ARS n o . 2 70 ) . We k nowtha t d ecuriones i n t he R o man c o lon iae were of ten r equiredto ma in ta in a h ouse i n t he c o lon ia i t se lf ( Taren tu m ARS n o . 6 3 s ect . 3 ) o r w i th in ami le o f i t ( Urso , ARS n o . 1 14 s ect . 9 1 ) , t o a ct a s s ecuri ty f or p ub lic money t ha tt hey migh t h and le o n e lection t o magistracy .

I n t he c ase o f

Taren tu m t he s ize o f t he h ouse i s s pecif ied a s 1 500 t i les ( probab ly a bou t 1 500 f t2 o r 1 40 m 2) . I f as i mi lar r egu la tion a pp lied i n Bri ta in i ts ee ms l ike ly t ha t i f ad ecur ion d id n o t p ossess a h ouse o f t he modest s ize s peci f ied a t Taren tu m i n t he c h ief t own o ft he c ivi tas, i t was e nough t ha t h e s hou ld h ave a f ar m o f c o mparab le s ize a nywhere i n i t s t erri tory .

The o rdo me t i n t he c h ief

t own o ft he c ivi tas ( t he t er m c ivi tas c ap i ta ls ' h as b een c oined f or t he m b y Wacher ) , which i n s o me c ases c er ta in ly p ossessed i t s own l oca l magistra tes i ndependen t o f t he e lected t r iba l o nes, f or e xa mp le a t Brough o n H u mber ( R IB n o . 1 07 ) .

B rough ( Pe tuar ia ) , t hough a ' c iv i tas c ap i ta l ', r anked a s av icus , a nd

t his w i l l h ave b een t he t er m f or o ther t owns i n t he t erri tory o f t he c ivi tas a lso h av ing t heir own e lected o f f icers. When d id t his 'mun icipa lisa tion ' o f t he c ivi ta tes t ake p lace?

I n t wo c ases

we k now t ha t i t was n o t i m media te a nd t ha t t he monarchy was a t f i rst r e ta ined . T he c ivi tas o ft he I cen i o f East Ang l ia h ad s ub m i t ted v o lun tari ly t oR o me a nd d esp i te a n a bor tive a n ti-Ro man r ebe l lion i n A .D . 4 7 ( Taci tus, Anna ls X I I x xxi ) , t heir monarchy was s ti l l i n

i n A .D . 6 0 when t he l ast k ing d ied a nd

t hus p recip i ta ted t he B oudiccan r evo l t ( Taci tus, Anna ls X IV . , ( xxi ) . S imi lar ly Taci tus i nfor ms u s ( Agrico la x iv) t ha t u nder t he s econd g ove r nor , O stor ius S capu la ( A. D . 4 7-51) , c er ta in c ivi ta tes were h anded o ver t o t he Bri tish k ing

2 43

Cog idubnus.

Cogidubnus r u ledthese c ivi ta tes f ro m Ch ichester , Novio magus

R egnensiu m , t he

New marke t o ft he p eop le o ft he k ingdo m ( regnu m ) ' .3 H is

p resence i nside t he t own i s a t tested b y af a mous i nscr ip tion ( R IB n o . 9 1) a nd h is p a lace j ust o u tside h as b een e xcava ted b y P rofessor Cun l if fe.

I ti s c on-

c eivab le t ha t o ther c ivi ta tes a lso c on t inued t o b e r u led a t f irst b y k ings —a c ase f or t he D obunn i h as b een a rgued b y P rofessor F rere ( 1978 , 8 5-6) .

I ft he

c ivi ta tes d id n o ta t f i rst c on t inue t o b e r u led o ver b y k ings o ne o ft wo t hings may h ave h appened : e i ther t he R o mans 'i mposed a c ounci l a nd magistra tes ' u pon t he m a s Corbulo d id t o t he d efea ted F risi i i n A .D . 4 7 ( Taci tus Anna ls X I x ix ) , o r t hey may h ave b een a dm in istered f or a t ime d irect ly b y t he Ro man s t hrough p raefecti c ivi ta tis, a n i dea f i rst p u t f orward b y Professor F rere , a nd o ne t ha t h as f ound c onsiderab le f avour .

The k ind o f men s e lected f or t he p ost

o f ' distr ict o f f icer ' were e x-so ldiers, s en ior c en turions a nd t he l i ke .

Profes-

s or F rere ( 1978 , 2 35) a rgued t ha t t he p raefec ti were w i thdrawn whenthe mi lit ary g arrisons o ft he o r ig ina l C laud ian p rovincia were r e moved i n t he 7 0s. The f or t s i tes were h anded o ver f or c ivi lian u se , a nd t he c ivi ta tes were , f or t he f i rst t ime , a l lowed t o r un t heir own a f fa irs.

This c onc lusion was s uppor ted

b y t he a pparen t ly F lavian d a te o f many o f t he a d min istra tive b ui ld ings, t he b asi licae a nd t he a t tached f ora .

N o t t oo much weigh t , h owever , s hou ld b ea t-

t ached t o t his, s ince a l though i ti s c er ta in ly t rue t ha t t he p resence o f af oru m a nd a b asi lica i mp lies t he p ossession o f s e lf-govern men t , t he o pposi te c anno t b e i nferred f ro m t heir a bsence :

a t V eru la m iu m work o n t he f oru m a nd b asi lica

was n o t c o mp le ted u n t i l 7 9a s we k now f ro m t he i nscr ibed d ed ica tion ( Wr igh t 1 956) , b u t t he t own h ad a l most c er ta in ly b een s e lf-govern ing f or a t l east 2 0 y ears ( Taci tus, Anna ls X IV x xxi i i , s ays t ha t i t was a mun icip iu m , at own whose i nhabi tan ts h ad L a tin R igh ts, a t t he t ime o f t he Boudiccan r evo l t i n A .D . 6 0/61) .

Aga in a t Wroxe ter t he f oru m a nd b asi lica were n o t b ui l t u n ti lA .D . 1 30

( R IB n o . 2 88 ) a l though t he c ivi tas o f t he C ornovi i h ad a l most c er ta in ly h ad s e lfg overn men t s ince b efore t he t urn o ft he c en tury . P hysica l Appearance a nd F unct ion The most o bvious f ea ture o ft he o pp ida , i n t he a rea c a mpa igned o ver b y Vespasian , i s t heir d efences. 4 The f act t ha t h ere a t a ny r a te t heir i nhabi tan ts s ti l l c hose t o -l i ve i n wha t must of ten h ave b een awkward a nd i nconven ien t s i tes s hou ld i mp ly t ha t t he s ecuri ty o f fered b y t he o pp idu m was v a lued . Af ter t heir i ncorpora tion w i th i n t he p rovince , t he c ivi ta tes were d eprived o f t he o ppor tun i ty t o make war o n t heir n e ighbours a nd t he n ew t r iba l c api ta ls a nd v ici d o n o t n or ma l ly h ave d efences. Winches ter a nd S i lches ter a re e xcep t ions t o t h is r u le a nd Wacher ( 1975, 2 60 )has s uggested t ha t t his may b e b ecause t hey w ere i n t err i tory a dded t o t he k ingdo m o f Cogidubnus.

When t he n ew t owns were p ro-

v ided w i th d efences i n t he s econd c en tury t hey w ere b ui lt i n t urf a nd ti mber l i ke t he Ro man f ort d efences b ui lt p ar ticu lar ly i n t he p reced ing c en tury .

U rban

d efences o ft his t ype a re e xceed ing ly u nusua l i n t he empire . I ts ee ms p ossible t ha t s o me o ft he o pp ida may h ave f unc tioned a s markets ( t his , h owever , i s s o me th ing t ha to n ly t o ta l e xcavation c ou ld p rove ) a nd t hey must c er ta in ly h ave d om ina ted t he s urround ing c oun tryside .

Bu t t o c a l l t he m

a dm in istra t ive c en tres ' wou ld , p resu mably , b e t oo f or ma l a way o f d escrib ing t heir r e la tionshipto t he t erri tory i n which t hey l ay .

The n ew ' c iv i tas

c ap i ta ls ' c er ta in ly a c ted a s b o th marke ts a nd a d minis tra t ive c entres . a nd t o 2 44

U

.

I I

I tZb .

6

1 IM M IN I

II 0

F ig . 1

5 0 M

A :

Headquar ters Bui lding , N euss.

B :

F oru m a nd Basi lica , S i lchester , L ate f irst c en tury

2 45

A .D . 7 0

e nable t he m t o d o s o , t hey were p rovided w i th a marke t p lace a nd 't own h a l l ' ( f oru m a nd b asi lica ) .

A s P rofessor Dona ld A tk inson l ong a go ( 1942 , 3 45-62 )

p oin ted o u t , t he s tandard p lan o f af oru m a nd b as i lica i n R o manBri ta in b ears a as trik ing r ese mb lance t o t he h eadquar ters b ui ld ing ( pr incip ia ) o f al egionary f or tress.

I n t he c ase o ft he c ivic c en tre a t S i lchester a ndthe l egionary h ead-

q uar ters a t N euss t he c o mpar ison c an b e made n o t o n ly b e tween t he p lans b u t i n o vera l l d i mensions a lso , e specia lly i ft he e x terna l c o lonnade o ft he f or mer i s i gnored ( Fig . 1 ) .

The Ro mano-Br i t ish f oru m/basi lica i s ad ist inct r egiona l

t ype , a nd i t s s i mi lar i ty t o i t s mi l i tary e quiva len t i s n o t s imp ly d ue t ot he d er ivat ion o ft he l a t ter f ro m c ivi lian p ro to types i n n or th I ta ly a s h as b een a rgued ( Goodchi ld 1 946) . Turn ing t o t he l i v ing a nd work ing a cco m moda t ion i n t he o pp ida , c o mpared w i th t ha t o f t he e ar liest R o mantowns, c ircu lar h u ts were t he n or m a nd i ti s p ossib le t ha ts o me o ft hese were u sed s o le ly f or work ing a nd o thers f or d o mest i c p urposes.

I n s ize t he a rea v aries f ro m u nder 3 0 t o 7 5m2 a t Danebury

( Cun li f fe 1 976, 2 02-5) , whi le a t H od H i l l h u ts a verage a bou t 4 0 m2 ( Rich mond 1 968 , 1 9-25) .

A s f ar a s t he n ew R o man t owns a re c oncerned p r ide o f p lace

must s ti l l g o t o Professor F rere ' se xcava t ions o ft he mid f i rst c en tury s hops i n i nsu la X IV a t Veru la m iu m where t he c o mparison b e tween t he n ea t r ow o f d oub le u n i ts w i th l iv ing a cco m moda t ion a t r ear a nd workshop i n f ron t s e t b eh ind av erandah , t o a mi li tary b arrack b lock i s a l mos t t oo g ood t o b e t rue ( F ig . 2 ) . F or c o mpar ison i n s ize w i th t he n a tive h u ts men tioned a bove , t he r ear r oo ms a re 2 0 m 2 ,a nd t he f ron t r oo ms 3 0 m 2 . Though t he s hops a t V eru la m iu m w i th t heir h eavy s leeper b ea ms were much more s turdi ly b ui l tt han t he I ron Age h u ts, t he b asic b ui lding t echn ique i n wa t t le a nd d aub i s t he s a me . L ike t he l eg ionary f or tresses, t he n ew

c ivi tas c api ta ls ' were p rovided

w i th b a ths a nd amphi thea tres ( rare ly t hea tres) , t hough n ei ther a re p ar ticu lar ly c lose t o t heir l egionary e quiva len ts, c o mparisons c an b e made w i th t he b a th b ui ld ings r egu lar ly b ui l t f or a ux i l iary f or ts a nd t he s i mp le amph i thea tres which a re o ccasiona l ly f ound o u tside t heir wa l ls.

I n t he c ase o ft he b a ths, R o man

t echn ique a nd e xper ti se must h avebeen d rawnupon , a s i ts urely was f or t he c onstruction o ft he g ravi ty f ed a queduc ts wh ich s upp l ied wa ter t o a l mos t a l l t he l arger t owns ( S i lchester i s ar are e xcep tion ) .

I tg oes w i thou t s ayingtha t

n o f or ma l a rch i tec tura l p rovision was made f or e i ther b a th ing o r p ublic s pect ac les i n t he o pp ida . We d on o t k now whe ther r e ligious s anctuar ies r egu lar ly e xi sted i n t he o pp ida , a l though t he n a me Ca mu lodunu m may b e t aken t o i mp ly t ha t t here was a s hrine o f Camu los a t C olchester , a nd t he h i l l-for ts o f Ma iden C as t le , S ou th C adbury a nd Danebury h ad s hr ines ( Cun l if fe 1 978 , 3 20-3) .

I ti s q ui te p ossib le t ha t

r e ligious s anc tuaries e xisted i n many o ther h i l l-for ts a nd t ha t t he ir s anc t i ty s urv ived f or s evera lc en turies s o t ha t d ur ing t he p agan r eviva l o ft he f our th c en tury A .D . ,t e mp les t o t he o ld g ods were r e-es tab l ished i n t hem .

The d es ign .

o f t hese t e mp les, a so ft he t e mp les b ui l t i n t he n ew Ro man t owns, was g enera l ly o ft he

R o mano-Ce l tic ' t ype , w i th c en tra l c e l la s urrounded b y c ircu lar

ambu la tory , which p robably g oes b ack t o ap re-Ro man a rchi tectura ltradi tion ( Lew is 1 966 , 1 -55) .

R o man r e ligion i n t he

c ivi tas c ap i ta ls ' was a cco m moda-

t ed i n t he sma l l a edes , t he c en tra l r oo m i n t he r ow o f o f f ices b u i lt a long o ne s ide o ft he b asi lica ( see F ig . 1 ) , t he e xact e quiva len t o ft he s im i lar ly p laced

2 46

0

F ig . 2

15 M .

A : S econd c en tury Barrack B lock , Caer leon B :

Mid f irst c en tury S hops, Veru la miu m

2 47

s hrine o ft he s tandards i n al egionary f or tress.

There was n or ma l ly n o

c ap i to l iu m , at e mp le o f c lassica l t ype b ui lt o n al of ty p odiu m , a s i s c o m mon i n o ther c i ties i n most o ft he western R o man p rovinces. F ina lly , u n like t he o pp ida , v ir tua l ly a l l t he 'c ivi tas c ap i ta ls ', a nd s o me o f t he v ici h ad a s tree t g rid wh ich must h ave b een l a id o u t e ar ly i n t he t own ' s e x istence a nd wh ich p robab ly i n a l l c ases p re-da tes t he b ui ld ing o f t he f oru m/ b asi lica c o mp lex , f or wh ich s pace was p resu mab ly r eserved f ro mthe s tar t . I n t he s urveying o ft he s tree t g rids o ft he n ew t owns, i n t he p lann ing o f s o me o ft heir e ar liest p r iva te b ui ldings a nd t heir p ubl ic b ui ldings, i n t he s ubsequen t c onstruction o ft heir d efences, a nd t he p rovision o f ap iped wa ter s upp ly , i ti s h ard n o t t o s ee t he i nf luence o f mi li tary p ro to types, a nd when we r e me mber t ha t t here i s g ood e vidence f or mi li tary e xper tise a nd a ssi stance b eing emp loyed i n c iv i l p ro jects f ro m t he t ime o f Marcus Aure lius ( Mac Mu l len 1 963 , 3 2f f . ) ,i ti s h ard n o t t o b elieve t oo t ha t t he s a me t h ing h ad n o t a lready b een h appen ing i n Bri ta in f ro m t he 7 0s A .D . i fn o t e ar lier . P opu la tion Our i nfor ma tion h ere i s e x tre me ly s can ty b u t B oon ( 1974 , 6 2 ) h as e st i mat ed t ha tt he p opu la t ion o f R o man S i lches ter , t he o n ly t own i n t he p rov ince t o h ave b een c o mp lete ly e xcava ted , was a mere 1 200 .

I ft here were o r igina l ly

s o me 3 00 h u ts i n p re-Ro man H od H i l l ( c f . R ich mond 1 968 , f i g . 3 ) w i th , o n a verage , f am i lies o f f i ve p er h u t , o ne wou ld a rrive a t ac o mparab le f i gure o f 1 500 .

Abou to ne i ns ix o f t he h u ts a t Hod h ave a n ' annexe ' a nd R ich mond s ug-

g ests t hese b e longed t o a n e li te c lass.

The t wen ty o pp ida t ha t were c ap tured b y Vespasian i n s ou thern B ri ta in were p resu mab ly d estroyed .

I n o ne c ase , H od H i l l , t he R o mans c anno t h ave

a l lowed t he s i te t o b e r e-occup ied s ince a R o man f ort was p lan ted u nco mpro mi s ing ly i n o ne c orner o ft he h i l l-for t .

H owever i tw ou ld p robab ly b e g oing t oo

f ar t o c la im a s R . G . C o l lingwood o nce d id ( 1937 , 1 87-8 ) t ha t t he R o mans d e l ibera te ly moved t he i nhabi tan ts d own f ro m t he h i l ltop t owns t o t he p lain i n Bri ta in —or f or t ha t ma t ter e lsewhere. To t ake t wo c lassic e xa mp les o f c ont inui ty :

a tn ei ther Nu man tia i n S pain o r A lesia i n Gau l , s cenes o f t wo b i t ter

s ieges b y t he R o mans i n t he mid s econd a nd mid f i rst c en tury r espective ly , was t here a ny s hif t i n p opu la tion , a nd a t S abora , i n S pa in , t he i nhabi tan ts a ctua l ly p e ti tioned V espasian t o b e a l lowed t o move t heir t own d own f ro m t heir awkward h i l ltop a nd r efound i to nthe p la in ( IL S n o . 6 092 ) .

Any s hif ti n p op-

u la tion i s a s l i ke ly t o h ave b een u nder taken w i l ling ly b y t he i nhabi tan ts o ft he o pp ida t he mse lves a s t o h ave b een i n i tia ted b y R o me.

Tha t t here was a c hange

i n t he s i tes o f 'n uclea ted s e t t le men ts ' a f ter t he c onquest i s c er ta in , t hough a t Ma iden Cast le a t l east i t was n o t i m media te ( Whee ler 1 943 , 2 41 ) .

5

A s Dr .

Webster ( 1966) h as s hown , a nd P rofessor R ive t h as r e minded u s ( 1977 1 3 ) , t he n ew s et t le men ts s prang u p o n t he s i tes o f a bandoned a ux i liary f or ts a nd l egiona ry f or tresses. P rofessor R ive t ( 1977 1 3 ) , e labora ting t he i dea t ha t f or t he f i rst t hir ty y ears o ft heir e xistence t he c ivi ta tes were a dmin istered b y p raefecti , h as s uggested

2 48

t ha t t he c o m manders o f a ux i liary u n i ts d oub led i n t h is r o le ;

when t he u n i ts

were p osted f ur ther t o t he West a nd Nor th i n t he F lavian p er iod , t he f or t s i tes, f ro m which t he c ivi ta tes h ad o nce b een a dm in istered , c on t inued t o b e t he s ea t o ft he t r iba l a dm in istra tion , o n ly t his was n ow i n t he h ands o f t he t r ibes men t he mse lves. Ih ave a rgued a bove t ha t t here i s n o e vidence t ha t t he c ivi ta tes r e ma ined s o l ong u nder d irect R o man s upervision , n or i st here a ny e vidence t ha t t hose p raefect i c ivi ta tis o f who m we h ave d etai ls e lsewhere , were s erving s o ld iers.

Why t hen was t here a s hi f t i n p opu la tion t o t he a bandoned f or ts i tes ?

The r eason must s ure ly b e t ha t t he f or ts a nd t heir p aid g arrisons o f men w i thou t wo men must h ave a t tracted c ivi lians w i th a n e ye t o t he ma in c hance . These s et t le men ts r e ma ined i n e xistence e ven when t he g arri son moved o n a nd e n joyed t he g rea t a dvan tage o f b e ing s i ted i n ad irect r e la tionship t ot he R o man mi l i tary r oad n etwork .

Their e cono m ic s urviva l was a ssured a s c er-

t a in ly a s t ha to f o lder o pp ida was d oo med .

There i s n o r eason t o s uppose t ha t

t he i n ia tive t o move t he s ea t o f t r iba la dm in istra tion f ro m o ne o ft he o ld o pp ida t o t he s i te o fo ne o ft he n ew t ownsh ips d id n o t c o me f ro m t he t r ibe i t se lf , a l though p er m ission , t oge ther w i th t he a l loca t ion o ft he d eser ted f or ts i te t o t he m , must h ave c o me f ro m t he g overnor a s l ega te o ft he emperor .

Where

t he t ransfer o f t he 'c ivi tas c ap i ta l ' was made t he o ppor tuni ty was t akento g ive t he who le s i te a n ew s tree t g r id .

This o n ly r are ly h appened f or l esser t owns.

O n ly i n af ew c ases d oes o ccupa tion o ft he p re-Ro man n a tive s i te c on t inue , e .g . Veru la miu m , S i lchester , a nd Co lchester ( a s aR o man c o lony n o t s tr ict ly r e lev an t h ere) —and i n t wo o ft hese , i fn o t a l l t hree , t he p resence o f an earby R o man f or t o r f ortress e nsured t ha t t he s i te e n joyed g ood c o m mun ica tions. I n c onc lusion i t may b e i nstructive t o l ook a t t he a rea b e tween Hadr ian ' s Wa l l a nd t he wa l l o f An ton inus P ius i n S co t land ( Jobey 1 976, e sp . F igs. 1 0 .1 a nd 1 0 .2 ) .

I n A .D . 1 40 t he g overnor L o l lius U rbicus o verranthe a rea b e tween

t he t wo wa l ls.

H i l ltop s et t le men ts l ike t he o ppidu m o ft he S e lgovae o n E i ldon

H i l l Nor th were t aken a nd n o t r e-occup ied a nd a n ew f or t was b ui l t o n t he a band oned Agrico lan f or t o f Newstead n earby . The c ivi tas o f Vo tad in i o n t he o ther h and may h ave s ub mi t ted v o lun tari ly , a t a l l e ven ts Traprain L aw , t he ma in c en tre o ft he t r ibe , s ee ms t o h ave c on tinued i n e xistence . A tthe n earest R o man f or t o f I nveresk , as et t le men t ( v icus) q uick ly s prang u p o u tside t he wa l ls, a s we k now f ro m r ecen te xcava tions ( Goodburn 1 978 , 4 16-8 ) .

I nveresk

may h ave h ad a n a d min istra tive r o le f or t he p resence o f a n i mperia l p rocurat or Q . L usius S abin ianus i s a t tested b y f i nds o f t wo i nscr ip tions ( R IB n o . 2 132 a nd Hassa l l a nd To m l in 1 977 , 4 33no . 3 ) .6 Then i n C . A .D . 1 50 t he f i rst An ton ine o ccupa tion o f s ou thern S co t land c a me a brup t ly t o a n e nd . Though t he R o man h o ld o n s ou thern S co t land was r e-estab lished i t was n ever s ecure a nd may h ave b eenbrief .

Bu t i f ma t ters h ad worked o u t d i f feren t ly i ts ee ms r ea son-

a b le t o wonder whether t he v icus a tV e lun ia wou ld n o t h ave r ep laced t he o ppidu m a t Trapra in L aw a st he t r iba l c en tre a nd whether t he map o f Ro man B ri tain wou ld n o t n ow h ave i nc luded a nIsca Vo tad inoru m i n t he f ar n or th — to ma tch t ha t o ther t r iba l c en tre , I sca o f t he D u mnon i i , Exe ter , i n t he s ou th west .

2 49

NOTES

1 .

The d if f icu lty i nf inding a s ui tab le word f or n a tive ' nuclea ted s et t le men ts ' was f e lt b y o ther c lassica l wr i ters c f . F in ley , 1 975 , 1 23-4 r eferr ing t o S trabo I I , i v . 1 3 .: " In f ac t e ven t hose who a sser t t ha t t here a re more t han o ne t housand c i ties i n I beria s ee m t o b e l ed t o d o s o b y c a l ling t he b ig v i l lages c i t ies ( po leis)", a nd Pausan ias, X . i v . 1 : ".. Panopus, a ci ty o f t he P hocians, i fo ne c an g ive t he n a me o f c i ty ( po lis) t o t hose who p ossess n o g overn men to f f ices, n o g y mnasiu m , n o t hea tre , n o market-p laces, n o wa ter d escsending t o af oun ta in b ut l i ve i n s he l ters j ust l i ke moun ta in c abins r igh to n ar avine ..."

2 .

Under t he R epub lic t he r esponsibi li ty o f o rgan iz ing n ew p rovinces l ay w i th t he S ena te . When n ew t erri tory was c eded t o R o me t he S ena te n or ma l ly s en to u t ac o m mission o f t en o f i t s me mbers t o d raw u p a nd i ssue as e t o f o rd inances u nder which t he n ew p rovince was t o b eg overned .

This was

k nown a s t he l ex p rovinciae a nd was, . i n R o man c onsti tu tiona l t erms, a l ex d a ta ( i .e . al aw t ha t was

g iven ' o r

i ssued ' r a ther t han

t he R o man p eop le o nthe mo tion o f a magistra te ) .

p assed ' b y

I n s o me c ases, t he l ex

p rovinciae was i ssued n o t b y ac o m mission b u t a n i ndividua l e .g . t he l ex P o mpeia i ssued b y P o mpey t o B i thyn ia b y v irtue o f h is p roconsu lar i mper iu m a nd s ti l l t echn ica l ly a l ex d a ta ( Magie 1 950 , 1 231) . may h ave a cted i n as im i a r way i n t he c ase o f Bri ta in .

C laud ius

I t i s i n teresting t o

n o te ( t hough i t may b e n o more t han c oincidence ) t ha t h ec ou ld h ave d rawn o n t he a ssistance o f n o l ess t han n ine o ther s ena tors ( Frere 1 978 , 8 3 ; e xc lud ing V espasian , h is b ro ther S abinus, H osid ius G e ta a nd Au lus P lau tius, a l l p robab ly c o m manding l egions, a nd D idius Ga l lus i n c o m mand o ft he c ava lry b u t i nclud ing J u lius P lan ta ( IL S n o . 2 06) n o t men tioned b y F rere ) . A l terna tive ly C laud ius ' s e t t le men t c ou ld h ave b een r a ti f ied o nh is r e turn t o R o me o rn o t d rawn u p u n ti l a f terwards. D io ( LX x xi i i ) s ays t ha t i n A .D . 4 4 , af ter C laud ius ' Br i tishtr iu mph , t he S ena te v o ted t ha t " a l lt he a gree men ts t ha tC laudius o r h is l i eu tenan ts s hou ld make w i th a ny p eop les s hou ld b e b inding , t he s ame a s i f made b y t he S ena te a nd P eop le" b u t t his i s more n a tura l ly t aken a s F rere t akes i t ( 1978 , 8 2 ) t o a pp ly t o t reat ies w i th i ndependen ts ta tes i ncluding t hose t r ibes i n Br i ta in t ha t h ad n o t y e t b een c onquered . 3 .

F or t he most r ecen td iscussion o f t he Ro man n a me o f C h ichester s ee R ive t 1 970 , 5 0 ;

J ackson 1 970 , 7 8-9 .

B oth r e ject t he i n terpre ta t ion

g iven h ere o ft he e p i the t a t tached t o Novio magus ( wh ich i s g iven a s R egen t iu m ' i n t he Ravenna C os mography ) , e xp lain ing i ta s t he n a me o f a Bri tish t r ibe . 4 .

I ts hou ld b e n o ted t ha t i n s o me a reas, n o tab ly s ou th-eastern Bri ta in o pp ida w i th massive c on tinuous d efences ( "hi l l-for ts") h ad n ever b een c o m mon , a nd i n o ther a reas, where t hey d id e xist , h ad c eased t o b e o ccup ied b yA .D . 4 3 .

l am g ra tefu l t o Professor Cun li f fe f or d raw ing my

a t ten tionto t h is p o in t . 5 .

The s a mian p o t tery f ro m Bagendon

( probab ly t he c h ief t r iba l c en tre o f

t he D obunni ) a ppears n o t t o s tar t u n t i l A . D . 2 0-30 a nd t hen e nd a brup t ly

2 5C

a round A .D . 4 3 ( Dannel l 1 977 ) b ut o n ly a minute p or tion o f t h is v ast s i te h as b een e xcava ted , a nd i t wou ld b e r ash t o a rgue t ha t a l l o ccupa tion must h ave c eased a t t his d a te . 6 .

The i nscrip tions d escr ibe S abin ianus a s p rocura tor Aug r a ther t han Augg which s hould mean t ha t h es erved i n Bri ta in d ur ing t he r eign o f as ing le emperor r a ther t han t he j oin t r ule o ft wo emperors, t ha t i s t o s ay , h e was n o t a tInveresk when S co t land was t e mporari ly r e-occup ied i n t he e ar ly t hird c en tury u nder S everus a nd Caraca l la .

BD3L IOGRAPHY ARS.

A . C . J ohnson , P . R . Cole man-Norton , F . C . Bourne, Anc ien t

Ro man S tatu tes ( Aust in , Texas, 1 961). ABBOTT, F . F . a nd JOHNSON , A . C ., 1 926.

Mun ic ipal Ad m in istrat ion i n

t he Ro man Emp ire, ( Princeton ). ALLE N , D ., 1 944.

' The Belg ic Dynast ies o f Britain a nd t heir Coins',

Archaeolog ia , 9 0 , n ew s eries, 4 0 , ( 1944 ). AT K INSON , D ., 1 942.

Report o n Excavat ions a t Wroxeter 19 23-1 9 27

( Ox ford ). BOON , G . C ., 1 974.

S ilchester, t he Ro man Town o f Cal leva , ( Dav id a nd

Charles ). BRAN IGAN , K ., 1 973.

' Vespasian a nd t he S outh West ', Proceed ings o f t he

Dorset N atural H istory a nd Archaeolog ical S oc iety 9 5 ( 1973). 5 0-57 . CAESAR.

C . J u l ius Caesar, The Gal l ic War, L oeb t ex t a nd t ranslat ion ,

( London a nd Ca mbridge, Mass., 19 63 ). COLL ING WOOD, R . G . a nd MYRES, J . N . L ., 19 37.

Ro man Britain a nd

t he Engl ish S et tle men ts, 2 nd e d. ( Oxford ). CUNL IFFE, B . W., 1 976.

' Danebury , Ha mpsh ire :

S econd I n teri m Report

o n t he Excavat ions, 1 971-5 ', An t iquar ies J ournal 5 6 ( 1976 ), p art I , 1 98-216. CUNL IFFE, B . W., 1 978.

I ron Age Co m mun i t ies i n Br ita in , 2 nd e d ,

( London ,Hen ley a nd Boston ). DANNE LL , G . B ., 1 977.

' The s am ian f ro m Bagendon ' i n e ds. J . Dore a nd

K . Greene, Ro man Pottery S tud ies i n Bri ta in a nd Beyond , Papers p res en ted t o J ohn G illa m , J u ly 19 77 , B . A.R. S upp le men tary S eries, 3 0 ( Ox ford ), 2 29-34. D IO.

D io Cassius, Ro man H istory , L oeb t ex t a nd t ranslat ion ( London , Ca mbridge Mass., 1 961).

F INLEY , M. I ., 1 975. FRERE, S . S ., 1 956.

The Anc ien t Econo my , ( London ). Excavat ions a t Veru la miu m , 19 55, I n teri m Report

i n An t iquaries J ournal 3 6 ( Jan/April 1 956 ), n os. 1 a nd 2 ,

2 51

1 -10 .

FRERE, S . S ., 1 972.

Veru la miu m Excava t ions I ( London ).

FRERE, S . S ., 1 978.

Br itann ia ( Rev ised e d it ion , L ondon ).

GOODBURN , R., 1 978.

' Ro man Brita in i n 1 977 , Part

Britann ia 9 ( 1978 ),

404-72. GOODCH ILD , R . G ., 1 946.

' The Orig ins o f t he Ro mano-Br i t ish Foru m ',

An t iqu i ty , 2 0 ( 1946), 7 0-7. HASSA LL , M. W. C ., 1 972.

' Ro man u rban izat ion i n western Europe i n

e ds. P . J . Ucko , R. Tringha m , a nd G . W. D i mbleby , Man , S et tle men t a nd Urban is m , ( London) 8 57-61 . HASSALL , M. W. C . a nd TO ML IN , R . S . 0 ., 1 977. 1 976', Part I : IL S.

' Ro man Britain i n

I nscrip t ions, Br itann ia 8 , ( 1977 ), 4 26-49.

H . Dessau , I nscrip t iones L at inae S electae, ( Berl in , 1 892-1916, Reprin t , 1 962 ).

J ACKSON , K ., 1 970.

' Ro mano-Bri t ish n a mes i n t he An ton ine I t inerary ' i n

R ivet 1 970 , 6 8-82. JOBEY, G ., 1 976.

1 Traprain

L aw :

A s u m mary ' i n e d. D . W. Hard ing ,

H il lforts, L ater Preh istoric Earthworks i n Bri ta in a nd I reland.

( London ,

N ew York , S an Franc isco ) 1 92-204. LE W IS, M. J . T ., 1 966. MAC MULLE N , R., 1 963.

Te mp les i n Ro man Br ita in , ( Ca mbridge ). S old ier a nd C iv il ian i n t he L ater Ro man Emp ire,

( Ca mbridge, Mass.) MAGIE, D ., 1 950. PAUSAN IAS.

Ro man Ru le i n Asia Minor ( Pr inceton ).

Pausan ias, Descrip t ion o f Greece, L oeb t ex t a nd t ranslat ion

( London , Ca mbridge, Mass., 1 935 ). R IB.

R . G . Col l ingwood a nd R . P . Wrigh t , The Ro man I nscr ip t ions o f

Britain , ( Ox ford ,

1 965 ).

R ICH MOND, I . A ., 1 968. , 1 970. R IVET, A . L . F.

Hod H il l , V ol. 2 , ( L ondon ). ' The Brit ish S ect ion o f t he An ton ine I t inerary ' ,

1970 ), 3 4-82. Britann ia 1 , ( R IVET, A . L . F• 1 977a.

' Ptole my 's G eography a nd t he F lav ian I nvasion

o f S cot land ' , i n e d. C . B . R t Iger, S tud ien z u d en Mil itlrgrenzen Ro ms Beihef te d er Bonner J ahrbucher, 3 8 ( Cologne, Bonn , 1 977 ), 4 5-64. R IVET, A . L . F ., 1 977b.

' The Orig ins o f C it ies i n Ro man Britain ', i n

e ds. P-M. Duval a nd E . Frezou ls, Col loques i n terna t ionaux d u CNRS N o. 5 42, The mes d e Recherches s ur l es V il les a n t iques d 'Occ iden t , ( Paris) , 1 61-172. STRABO , S trabo , The Geography, L oeb t ex t a nd t ranslat ion ( London , N ew York , 1 923). SUETON IUS, C . S ueton ius Tranqu ilus, L ives o f t he Caesars , L oeb t ex t a nd t ranslat ion ( London , Ca mbridge, Mass., 1 965 ). 2 52

TACITUS, ' Agrico la ' .

C . C orne lius Taci tus , D ia logus , Agr ico la , G er man ia ,

L oeb t ex t a nd t ranslat ion ( London , Ca mbridge, Mass., 1 963). TACITUS ,

' Anna ls ' .

C . C orne lius Taci tus , Anna ls , L oeb t ex t a nd t rans la t ion

( London , Ca mbr idge , Mass ., 1 962 ) . TACITUS ,

' H is tories ' ,

C . C orne lius Taci tus , H is tories , L oeb t ex t a nd

t ranslat ion ( London , Ca mbridge, Mass., 1 962). WACHER, J . S ., 1 975. WEBSTER, G ., 1 966.

The Towns o f Ro man Britain , ( London ). ' Fort a nd Town i n Early Ro man Brita in ' i n e d. J .

Wacher , The C iv itas Cap itals o f Ro man Britain , ( Leicester ), 3 1-45. W HEE LER, R . E . M., 1 943. WRIGHT, R . P ., 1 956.

Ma iden Cast le, Dorset , ( London ).

' A N ote o n t he I nscrip t ion ', i n Frere 1 956, 8 -10.

2 53

PRE—RO MAN AND RO MANO-BR ITISH URBAN IS M? PROBLE MS AND POSS IB IL ITIES

b y Barry C . B urnha m

S u m mary I n t he p ast , a nd s ti l l t o s o me e x ten t t oday , t here h as b een a n u nw i l lingness t o a pproach t he q uestion o ft he Ro man i mpact o n Bri tain w i thin t he b roader c onf ines o f b e t ter d ocu men ted h istorica l e xa mp les. There i s a n e qua l r e luctance t o a ccep t t ha t i f we a re t o c o mprehend a nd e xp lain t he i n teraction o f o ne s ocia l , e cono mic a nd p oli tical s yst em w i th t he p re-existing c ase , we must a pproach t he p roble m w i th t wo b asic p rerequi si tes i n mind .

F irst , w e must g ive e qua l weigh t

t o t he e vidence f ro m p re- a nd p ost-conquest c ircu mstances i f we a re t o e xp la in c on t inui ty o r d isp lacemen t o f s e t t le men t . S econd , we mus t a dopt mode ls c apab le o f c over ing t he r ange o f a va i lab le e v id ence whi lst a lso a na lysing i ta ccord ing t o an u mber o f c o m mon v aria b les.

Tha t t hese t wo p rerequ isi tes a re u sua l ly i gnored i s . most

c lear ly s hown i n t he c ase o f t he i mpact o ft he R o man n etwork o f d eve lop ing u rban s et t le men ts o n t he p re-exi st ing n a tive c o m muni ties a nd t heir c en tres.

The r easons f or t his c anno t b e whol ly a ssigned t o

a ny o ne s e t o f c auses, b u t t wo c on tr ibu tory f actors h ave b een t he i nadequa te n a ture o f t he e vidence f or

h i l lfor ts ' a nd ' Opp ida ', a nd

t he u nw i l l ingness amongst R o manists i n Bri ta in t o a cknow ledge t he n eed f or a ny thing b u t a Ro man a pproach t o t he q uestion o f ' wha t i s a t own?'

Tha t a ny d iscussion t ends t o b eco me p o larised i s u nfor tun-

a te a nd t his p aper w i l l e xa mine s o me o f t he r easons f or t he d i le m ma . Af ter c onsider ing o ne p ar ticular c o lonia l e xa mp le a nd a dop ting a f unctiona l-structura l a pproach f or t he a na lysis o f u rban o r n uc lea ted s e t t le men ts, a b rief s u m mary w i l l d iscuss s o me o ft he a spects o f t he R o man i mpact which r equire e xp lana tion e i ther i n t er ms o f t he p reR o man p a t tern , o r i n r e la tion t o t he r equire men ts o f t he d eve loping R o man n e twork . 1 .

A Q uestion o f A i ms ? The q uestion o f wha t p roper ly c onst i tu tes a ' t own ' h as r ecen t ly b eco me a n

i ssue o f c on troversy i n I ron Age a nd R o man B ri ta in .

A r eview o f t he l i tera-

t ure s hows t ha t t his h as n o t a lways b een t he c ase a nd r evea ls a c o m mon b elief t ha t t here were n o ' t owns ' i n t he p re-Ro man p eriod a nd t ha t t he s ubsequen t u rban p a t tern owed i t s o rigins a nd d eve lop men t s o le ly t o t he Ro mans ( Webster 1 966, F rere 1 975) .

I n g enera l d iscussions o f u rban s ta tus, t here h as b een a

t endency t o a dop t aR o man s tandpoin t , t hereby o bvia ting t he n eed t o e xa m ine e i ther t he n a ture a nd e x ten t o f e ar lier s e t t le men t p a t terns o r t he f unction o f p re-exist ing c en tres .

The q uestion o f d ef ini t ions d id n o t a rise . 2 55

There was

a t t he t ime l i t t le a bou t t he p re-Ro man s i tes which s uggested a ny f i rm b elief t ha t t hey may h ave u rban c haracteristics, whi lst t he e vidence o f Ro man ' t owns ' c onf ir med t he d ef in i tions d erived l arge ly f ro m a w ea l th o f l i terary ma teria l a nd c on tr ibu ted t o t he c oncep t t ha t ' Medi terranean U rbanis m ' h ad e asi ly r ec ogn isab le a t tr ibu tes. Most a u thors h ave t ended t o f o l low t he l ega l s tandpo in t t ha t R o man ' t owns ' were i n e ssence c en tres w i th a dm inistra tive f unctions a nd t ha t t o b e ' t owns ' t hey h ad t o p lay s o me p ar t i n t he a d min istra tive h ierarchy .

R ich mond ( 1969 ,

9 9f f .) d escr ibed a f ourfo ld c lassi f ica tion o f Ro man p rovincia l t owns c onsist ing o f c o loniae , c an tona l c api ta ls, minor c an tona l markets a nd v ici .

H assa l l

( 1972 , 8 57f f .) d ivided t he m i n to a n u mber o f c a tegor ies which h e c a l led c o lon iae , mun icip ia , p rovincia l c ap i ta ls a nd c ivi tas c ap i ta ls, t o which t he e ar lier e di tion o f R ive t ( 1974) h ad a dded v ici .

O ther c lassif ica tions h ad b een

l ess p recise i n f o l low ing t his s or t o f a dm in istra tive f ra mework : t he O rdnance S urvey ( 1956) h ad s een f i t t o d ist inguish b e tween c o lon iae , c an tona l c ap i ta ls a nd l esser wa l led t owns a nd t he ma jor a nd minor s e t t le men ts, t hereby i n trod ucing a modern-day d istinction i n to t he r ange o f s i tes.

The i mpor tan t p o in t

i s t ha t d ur ing t he f i rst a nd s econd c en turies, f ro m t he l ega l s tandpoin t a t l east , t hese c a tegories f or med a n u rban h ierarchy b ased p ure ly o n a dm inist ra tive c ri ter ia :

i n g enera l t er ms t his c an b e e xpanded i n t he f or m —co lon iae

a nd mun icip ia ( bo th s pecif ica l ly ' t owns ' w i th c har ters) , p rovincia l c ap i ta ls ( ?) , c ivi tas c ap i ta ls ( c ivi ta tes? — though f or t he v icus —civi tas a rgu men t s ee F rere 1 959 a nd 1 961 , Mann 1 960 a nd 1 966) a nd a t al ower l eve l , v ici i n t heir l ega l s ense ( Rive t 1 978 ) .

R egard less o f o ther u rban f unctions t herefore , a l l s i tes

w i th s o me f or m o f a dm in istra t ive e le men t were t echn ica l ly u rban c o m mun it i es:

a s R ive t ( 1978 ) r igh t ly p oin ts o u t , i fo ne must u se modern-day t er ms,

t he d i f ference b e tween t he ma jor c en tres ( char tered t owns a nd c ivi tas c ap i ta ls) a nd t he l ess i mpor tan t v ici i s f ar b e t ter s een a s t ha t b etween ' c i ty ' a nd ' t own ', r a ther t han ' t own ' a nd ' v i l lage ' A more e x tre me R o man s tandpo in t h as b een b ased o n t he a ncien t a t ti tude t ha t ' Medi terranean U rbanis m ' was a p heno menon w i th e asi ly r ecogn isable a t tr ibu tes t hroughou t t he R o man p rovinces.

Co l lingwood ( 1949 , 1 86f f .) was

i n n o d oub t when h e d escr ibed Med i terranean u rban is m :

embodying t he

Aristo te lian i dea t ha t man c ou ld o n ly l i ve we l l i n u rban c o m mun i ties , t he ' t own ' was n o t s i mp ly a n e cono mic t h ing , b u t was t he s y mbol o f c ivi lisa t ion a nd a way o f l i fe t o b e e xpor ted wherever R o man a r mies p ene tra ted .

S uch a

b e lief h as b een q ua li f ied b y ar eference i n S trabo ( IV 1 i ) where h e s ee ms t o d raw a d istinct ion b e tween t he f or mer ' v i l lage ' o f V ienne a nd t he n ew ly e nr iched c ivi tas c api ta l o n t he s a me s i te .

Tha t t his was a g enera l a t ti tude i n

t he c lassica l wor ld , o ne c an c o mpare t he r e marks o f Pausan ias ( X I V 1 ) o n t he ' Ci ty o f Panopus '.

F or t he s ocia l e li te who c on trol led t he a d ministra tion o f

t he s e lf-govern ing c o m muni ties f ro m ' towns ' p rovided w i th p ublic b ui ld ings a nd amen i ties, t his c oncep t o f u rbanis m may w e l l h ave b een a n i mpor tan t o ne , b u t when u sed t o a rgue a c ase f or u rban s ta tus t oday t here a re a n u mber o f weaknesses.

The most e xp lici t f or m h as b een t he d istinction b e tween t he

f i rst a nd s econd c en tury c ivi tas c ap i ta ls, t he c har tered c o loniae a nd municip ia a nd t he ' s ma l l t owns ' a nd ' v i l lages '

( a s i n R odwe l l a nd R ow ley 1 975) i n t er ms o f ' t owns '

( Wacher 1 975) .

I th as b een d eve loped more f u l ly i n Wacher

( 197 ) where , whi lst a rguing f or a f unctiona l a pproach t o u rban s e t t le men ts ,

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t he a u thor s ti l l p refers t o r ecognise a s ' t owns ' o n ly t hose s i tes p rovid ing t he r ange o f amen i ties l ike ly t o b e e xpected b y a Ro man f ro m a no ther p rovince . This c onf ines ' t owns ' t o t hose s i tes d esigna ted a s c har tered t owns a nd t he c ivi tas c api ta ls wh ich w ere p rovided w i th p ublic b u i ld ings, b a ths a nd o ther f or ms o f amen i ties.

This s trict d ef ini tion o f wha t c onsti tu tes a ' t own ' h as

s t i mu la ted a c er ta in amoun t o f c on troversy . Whi lst t his p aper i s n o t d esigna ted t o c r i ticise s uch a pproaches t o R o man p rov incia l t owns , i ts hou ld b e c lear t ha t t here a re a n u mber o f weaknesses which r ender t he m l ess t han u sefu l i n t he b roader c on tex t o f t he g enera l d ev e lop men t o f u rbanis m .

I n p ar ticular t he Medi terranean model c arries w i th

i ta l l t he a ssocia ted p roble ms o f I dea l -type c onstructs a nd r igid t ypologies a s we l l a s t he c ri ticis ms l eve l led a t a l l a pproaches which i n s o me way i nvo lve a s et o f t ra i ts o r ac heck list o f a t tr ibu tes ( f or t hese s ee e specia l ly Whea t ley 1 972 ) .

The more s trict ly l ega l a pproach c an a lso o n ly r ea l ly b e a pp lied t o

as tudy o f ' t owns ' where e i ther t he s ta tus i s c lear f ro m t he e p igraphic o r l i terary s ources, o r c an s o mehow b e r ecognised a rchaeo logica l ly .

Even

a l low ing f or t he u ncerta in s ta tus o f t he c ivi tas c ap i ta ls, i ti s c lear t ha t t he a pproach h as l imi ta tions i n R o man Bri ta in : we k now o f f our c o loniae a nd o ne municip iu m , whi le t he f i rst a nd s econd c en tury c ivi tas c api ta ls a re d erived f ro m o ther s ources .

On t he q uestion o f o ther s i tes wh ich may h ave b een

r aised i n s ta tus a nd o n t he more i mpor tan t q uestion o f v ici ( wi th t he e xcep tion o f Wa ternew ton a nd P e tuaria ) t he s ources a re l arge ly s i len t .

Whi le we c an

b e s ure t ha t many o f o ur ' s ma l l t owns ' d id i ndeed q ua li fy f or

v icus ' s ta tus,

a ny a t te mp t t o s tudy t hese s i tes b eg ins a nd e nds w i th t he a rchaeo logy .

The

d anger o f o vere mphasising t he a dm inistra tive f unction h as u sua l ly b een o verl ooked :

i ti s t rue t ha t t hi s f unction may b e t he p rime o ne o r igina ting w i th t he

s i te , b u t i ti s a lso o f c rucia l i mpor tance t ha t i ti s more f requen t ly g ran ted t o s i tes a lready o f s uf f icien t s ocia l a nd e cono mic i mpor tance t o a ct a s a n a dm ini s tra tive c en tre .

Tha t t here may h ave b een a mix ture o f b o th s i tua tions i n

R o man Bri ta in , s uggests a c onsidera tion o f o ther u rban f unctions —par ticu lar ly t he e cono m ic a nd s ocia l — may b e a ppropria te i n q uestions o f o rigins.

A more

d angerous a spect o f a Ro man emphasis i s t he mi suse o f modern-day c oncep ts, p ar ticu lar ly t hose o f ' c i ty ', ' t own ' a nd ' vi l lage ' t o c over s peci f ic c a tegories i n t he R o man u rban h ierarchy . Tha t t he Ro man t er ms t he mse lves l ead t o a rgu men t s hou ld b e warn ing e nough a ga inst c onfusing t he i ssue w i th more ambiguous modern-day s e man tics

( Rive t 1 978 ) .

A f ar b et ter a pproach t o t he

q uestion o f Ro mano-Bri tish u rban is m may l i e i n t he a ssess men t o f as et t lemen t ' su rban c haracteristics w i th r eference t o t heir f unctiona l n a ture . O ne f ur ther a spect o f Ro man t er mino logy which s hould b e c overed i s t he u se o ft he word ' oppidu m ' i n p re-Ro man c on tex ts, s ince , i n t he a bsence o f a ny e vidence o n t he e qu iva len t C e l tic t er m ino logy , t his a lone g ives u s ac ont e mporary i f Ro man c o m men t . Whi lst e vidence o n t he s ta tus a nd f unction o f h i l lfor ts ' a nd Io ppida l r ests p r i mari ly o n t he a rchaeo logica l r ecord , i n a n u mber o f s peci f ic c ases, a ncien t a u thors u se t he word 'o ppidd rn ' :p r incipa l amongst t hese i s Caesar r eferr ing t o p ar ticular l arge n uc lea tions i n Gau l a nd S ue ton ius i n r ela tion t o t he

h i l lfor ts ' a t tacked b y V espasian .

Where t he word

i s u sed o f B ibracte ( de B .G . 1 22 ) , t he n a ture o f t he s i te h as b een c onf ir med b y t he a rchaeo logica l e vidence o f i t s i mpor tance —a s et t le men t o f s o me s ize w i th a t e mp le a rea a nd workshops f or i ron , b ronze a nd e na mel .

2 57

I n Bri tain i t s

u se f or C assive l launus ' s trongho ld i s p erhaps s urprising a s i t may we l l b e l a ter i n t he S ue ton ian u sage .

The i nevi tab le p roble m i n a l l u ses i s t ha t i t

c overs s peci f ic s i tes ( par ticu lar ly i n Caesar ) , wh y e t he a u thor may we l l h ave b een t rying t o e xpress f unct i n words t ha t aR o man a ud ience wou ld u nderstand : c on fusion h as a risen b y t he e x tension o ft he word i n to a b road c lassif ica tory t er m t o c over a l s imi lar s i tes ( Co l li s 1 974 ) .

F or t he R o mans,

' opp idu m ' was t he most s u i tab le word f or ' t own 7 wh ich d id n o t c arry w i th i t t he l ega l a spects o f a d ministra tion a lready o u t l ined .

The Ic our tesy t i t le '

( Wacher 1 974 , 3 6) v ersus t he s peci f ic 'f unctiona l ' u sage ( Cun li f fe 1 976a , 1 35 ;

B r -e i i 1 976, 8 1-2 ) c an t herefore

b e o n ly a rgued o u t i n s pecif ic c on tex ts

where t he l a t ter v iew may b e more d ecisive.

( c f . R ivet 1 978 .)

u sage , h owever , t he q uestion o f whether o r n o t a ny g iven

I n g enera l

o ppidu m ' i s u rban

c anno t b e a nswered b y r eference t o t he l i terary mean ing o f t he word , b u t o n ly f ro m a n a ssess men t o f t he u rban c haracterist ics a f forded b y t he a rchaeo logica l r ecord . Amongst p rehistor ians d ea ling w i th I ron-Age B r i ta in , t here h as n a tura l ly b een a g row ing r eaction i n t he l ast f ew y ears a ga inst t he r igid Ro man v iew t ha t ' towns ' o n ly o r ig ina ted i n t he Ro man p eriod .

There h as e qua l ly b een c onsid-

e rab le d isagree men t o ver wha t c u z ,sti tu tes a ' town ' a nd p ar ticu lar ly o ver a pproaches b ased p ure ly o n al ega l s tandpo in t o r ac oncep t o f U rban is m '

Medi terranean

This c hange o f emphasis h as r esu l ted f ro m t hree f actors:

f i rst ,

a rea e xcava tion a t an u mber o f h i l lfor ts ( Danebury a nd Moel-y-Gaer ) h as s ugg ested n ew i n terpreta tions;

s econd , t here h as b een a g row ing r ea lisa tion

t ha t s ou th-east Br i ta in h ad much i n c o m mon w i th t he c on t inen ta l s i tes where u rban s et t le men t i s more w ide ly a ccep ted ;

a nd t hird , t here h as b een a ma jor

c hange i n t heore tica l t h ink ing o n t he q uestions o f u rbanis m a nd t he f unctions o f ' hi l lfor ts ' a nd

o pp ida '

( Cun lif fe 1 976b a nd 1 978 ) .

F or p reh istorians, o b-

j ective l ega l d ef in i tions o f Ro man ' towns ' a re o f l i t t le d irect v a lue , whi le t heir own more s ub jective a rchaeo logica l mode ls s trong ly i mp ly t ha t t here was a n i nd igenous f or m o f s oph istica ted n uclea ted s et t le men t i n much o f western a nd c en tra l E urope i n t he p eriod p reced ing t he c onquest .

I n a European c on-

t ex t , A lexander ( 1972 , 8 43f f .) h as a lready p o in ted o u t t ha t o n av ery g enera l d ef in i tion o fu rban is m b ased o n af unct iona l a na lysis o f p o li tica l , i ndustria l a nd c o mmercia l f actors , t here a re c lear i ndica tions t ha t s et t le men ts o f u rban f or m w i th u rban f unctions h ad b een a pparen t i n t he l andscape f or s o me t ime . I n G au l t oo , B rogan ( 1974, 2 01 ) c ri tici sed r a ther r igid d ef in i tions wh ich e xc luded t he e vidence o f s tab le i fl oose a gg lo mera tions.

A s i mi lar c ase , b ased

o n s i ze a nd f unctiona l c o mp lexi ty , h as b een a rgued f or 'o pp ida '

( Col li s 1 974 ) .

The p re-Ro man u rban s ta tus o f many s i tes i n Gau l h as b een r esta ted b y Nash ( 1976) a nd c laimed f or Bri ta in i n t he s ou th-east b y Cun li f fe ( 1974, 1 976a ) a nd Co l lis ( 1976 ) .

E ven h i l lfor ts h ave b een s een a s p ro to-urban c en tres o n a

f unct iona l b asis ( Cun li f fe 1 976b ) .

This n ewer emphasis which s tresses t he

s ocia l a nd e cono mic c hanges i n t he s ou th-east o f B r i ta in b e tween t he i nvasion o f Caesar a nd t he C laudian c onquest ( Cun li ffe 1 978 ) l ends i t se lf t o ab e lief t ha t i n much o ft he a rea a ssocia ted t rad i tiona l ly w i th t he ' Belgae , a nd t he o u tl y ing c o in-using t r ibes, t here was a g row ing p a t tern o f s ophistica ted a nd o rganised n uc lea ted s e t t le men ts a ct ing i n f unctiona l t er ms a s n odes i n t he e cono m ic , s ocia l a nd p o li tica l a r ticu la tion o f t he r egions —in s hor t a s f unctiona l c en tres a k in t o u rban s et t le men ts.

I ft his a rgu men t i s a ccep ted , o ne c anno t

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f ai l t o r ecogn ise t he i mpor tance o f e xa m in ing t he d if feren t r egiona l d eve lopmen ts w i th in t he o vera l l s et t le men t p a t terns o f p re-Ro man Bri ta in a s t he b ackclo th a ga inst which t o v iew t he R o man impact a nd s ubsequen t d evelop men t . Tha t R o man ' towns ', b esides b eing a dm in istra tive c en tres, a lso a cted a s n odes i n t he e cono mic a nd s ocia l a r ticu la tion o ft he p rovince , makes i tc lear t ha t t he i nf luence o fb o th p a t terns may we l l b e r ef lected i n t he e nd p roduct . The r ecen t j ux taposi tion b e tween t he p urely R o man a pproach a nd t he more g enera lised mode ls a pp lied t o t he p re-Ro man p eriod ( Co l li s 1 976, 3 ) empha sises n o t t ha t e i ther s ide i s r igh t o r wrong , b u t t he d i fferen t c r i teria a dop ted a nd t heir d ivergen t a i ms.

The a dded c onfusion o f modern-day s e man t ics

h as h ard ly c lari f ied t he i ssues.

I t i s n o t aq uestion o f d isen tang l ing t he ' i n-

d igenous ' f ro m t he ' impor ted Medi terranean f or ms ' o r t he ' na t ive ' f ro m t he 'imposed '

( Alexander 1 975 , 1 03f f .)

( M i l le t t 1 975, 1 38 ) s ince t hese a re t wo

e nds o f af a lse c on t inuu m : t ha t t he d istinction h as b een made h igh ligh ts r a ther t he d i f feren t c ri teria d esigna t ing t he t ypes more t han a ny th ing e lse . t he p roble m d epends o n o ur a i ms.

Much o f

I fo ur a pproach i s o ne o f s tudying ' Medi ter-

r anean U rbanis m ' o r R o man p rovincia l t owns i n Bri ta in , t hen o ur most a pp ropria te r eference p oin ts may wel l b e t he p rov inces a nd Medi terranean mode ls, t hough t his wou ld n o t n ecessari ly e xclude a more g enera lised a pproach t o f unction i n a n a rchaeo logica l c on tex t .

B u t i fo ur i n terest l i es i n t he n on-Ro man

o r t he c ross-cu l tura l o r e ven t he Ro man i n i t s w idest a spect , t hen i t wou ld s ee m t ha t ac hange o f emphasis a nd a pproach i s n eeded t o f ree u s f ro m t he d og ma tic d eba tes o f wha t c onsti tu tes a ' t own '.

Ip ropose t herefore t o e xa mine

o ne p ar ticu lar c o lonia l e xa mp le , c oncen tra ting e specia lly o n t he c hanges i n p re- a nd p ost-conquest s et t le men t p a t terns, a s ap ossible n ew a pproach which migh t p rove r e levan t .

F ur ther more i fo ur i n terest l i es i n t he b roader a spects

o fu rban d eve lop men t c . 1 00 B .C. t o A .D . 2 00 , a nd more s o i n t he t e mpora l d eve lop men t o f s i tes w i th r egard t o t he e cono mic, s ocia l a nd p o li tica l c on tinui ty o r d isp lace men t wrough t b y t he R o man o ccupa tion o f B ri tain , t hen l ega l lyb ased o r Medi terranean mode ls f or ' towns ' would s ee m t o h ave r eached t he l im i ts o ft heir u sefu lness.

This i s n o t t o d eny t heir u sefu lness i n n arrower

c on tex ts, n or t o d issuade s pecia lists f ro m f ur ther a na lysis o f t he e vidence , b u t i t wou ld s ee m much more l ogica l t o c hoose a more g enera lised a na ly tica l mode l c apab le o ft est ing t he u rban n a ture o f t he s i tes i n t he o vera l l s et t le men t p a t terns o ft he p re-Ro man a nd R o mano-Bri tish p eriods:

o ne s uch mode l

s tressing t he f or ma l s tructure a nd f unctiona l c o mp lexi ty w i l l b e s uggested . Tha t t h is means e x tend ing t he t er m ' urban s et t le men t ' t o c over a l l n ucleat ed s e t t le men ts a ssocia ted w i th a f unctiona l r o le i n t he h in ter land s ee ms a l l t oo a pparen t .

This wou ld f o l low t he more g enera l a pproaches t ypi f ied b y

Mu mford ( 1961 ) , which s ees u rban s et t le men ts a s a ny f or m o f s ophistica ted n uc lea ted c en tre a r ticula t ing t he s ocio-econo mic s yste ms i n t he s e t t le men t p a t tern . S hou ld s uch a n e x tension p rove u naccep table —and i t may b e t ha t e ven t he word ' urban ', l i ke ' t own ', i s n ow i t se lf t oo h eavi ly l oaded a nd p o ten tia l ly d angerous f or c on t inued u se —we may b e w iser t o c onsider t he d eve lop men t o f s oph istica ted f unctiona l c en tres w i thou t t he a ddi tiona l s e man tic a rgu men ts o f u rban a nd n on-urban s ta tus.

2 59

2 .

An A frican E xa mp le Iwan t t o b eg in w i th a b rief e xamp le d rawn f ro m A frica ( Mabogun je 1 968 )

w i thou t , Ih ope , d eva luing P rofessor Hodder ' sc on tr ibu tion n or c over ing t oo much o ft he s a me g round . I n g enera l , t he b asic t hesis i s t ha t t he p ree xist ing c en tres d eve lop a t s ui table l oca tions w i th in t he t o ta l s et t le men t f abr ic t o a ct a s p o in ts i nt he a r ticu la tion o ft he e cono m ic , s ocia l a nd p o li tica l s yste ms: when s uch s yste ms c hange , o r a re i n tegra ted i n to n ew p a t terns o f e cono m ic , s ocia l a nd p o li tica l a r ticu la tion , a s may h appen i n t he i m med ia tely p re-conquest a nd p ost-invasion p hases, s o me c en tres w i l l b e c onven ien t t o b o th s yste ms, whi le o thers w i l l b e moved t o more s ui table s i tes a nd y e t more w i l l b e e n tire ly d isloca ted , l eaving t he m o u tside t he n ew p a t tern o f d eve lopmen t .

Tha t s uch a s i tua t ion c an b e d e monstra ted t o h ave o ccurred i n an u mber

o f c o lonia l e xa mp les wou ld s ee m t o make i t ap lausib le t hesis f or u se i nt he c on tex t o ft he R o man i nvasion o f Br i ta in . I n N igeria i n p ar ticu lar , t he s tudy o ft he r esu l tan t s et t le men t p a t terns e specia l ly c onf ir ms t ha t t he n e twork o f u rban c en tres c an b e s een t o r ef lect t he t wo l eve ls o fu rbanisa tion— tha t o f t he t radi tiona l p re-industria l a nd t he a dvanced i ndustria l . The e xpansion o ft rade i n t he Mediaeva l p eriod h ad l ed t o e x tensive c rossS aharan a nd i n ter-regiona l t rad ing w i th t he r esu l tan t r ise o f an u mber o f d om inan t c i ties. These were l oca ted i n t wo z ones, o ne o n t he s ou thern S aharan f r inges s erving b asica l ly s i mi lar f unctions a s e n trepa t t owns, a nd t he o ther i n t he s ou thern f orest z one d eve lop ing i n c onnec tion w i th t he c o l lection a nd t rade o fg o ld , i vory a nd o ther c o m modi t ies .

These t ended t o d eve lop w i th in

t he c on tex t o f an u mber o f s uccessive emp ires. The n ine teen th c entury s aw t he p hase o f European e xp lora tion b y wh ich t ime N or thern N igeria h ad e vo lved i t s own s yste m o f c i ties b ased p ar t ly o n t he Mediaeva l f ounda tions. B e low t he p o l i t ica l c en tre were a n u mber o f me trop o l i tan c en tres, s o me a ct ing a s ma jor t rade t er m in i o r a s c raf t c en tres s erv ing i n ter-regiona l g roups , whi le o thers were e ven sma l ler t rad ing c en tres l y ing o n ma jor a nd minor r ou tes c onnected w i th t rade a nd l oca l c onsu mp tion . S uch c en tres a lso p layed a ma jor r o le i n t he a dm inistra tive a nd c u ltura l a sp ects . Whi lst n o t i mpressive t o modern e yes, t hey h ad a h igh d egree o f s ocia l c o mp lexi ty a nd p hysica l d ist inctiveness. There was a r egu lari ty o f s pacing , p ar ticu lar ly a t t he l ower l eve l where t ransport f actors b eca me i mpor tan t i n q uestions o fb asic marke t ing a ctivi ties. There was, t oo , ah ierarchy o f s et t lemen t r ef lecting t he e cono mic c ondi tions o ft he p re-European p eriod .

The

i mpor tance o f p re-co lon ia l E uropean t rade , most o f which i n t he n ine teen th c en tury c a me a cross t he d eser t , i n t he f or ma t ion o ft he more i mpor tan t t rad ing c en tres n eeds t o b e c onsidered more c lose ly . I n t he s ou thern f orest b e lt , t he o r ig ins o f Yoruba t owns a re v ery d if feren t , b eing b ased o n t he n eed f or p o li tica l c on tro l , b u t t heir d eve lopmen t s oon e xh ibi ted t heir r o le a s e cono mic o r s pecia lised c en tres. c en tury t rade w as o n t hree l eve ls: marke ts s erving r egiona l t rade ;

The n ine teen th

l oca l p eriod ic marke ts;

i n ter-k ingdo m

a nd l ong-distance t rade t er m ina ls u sua l ly

c on f ined t o t he ma in t owns. I n s uch c en tres c raf t-specia lisa tion was p ar ticul ar ly i mpor tan t i nt his p eriod b efore t he a dven t o f mass c heap g oods f ro m E urope . The o rganisa tion o ft rade r ou tes was c hannel led a long a c er ta in n u mber o f i mpor tan t r ou tes r unn ing n or th-sou th f ro m t he c oast w i th o n ly a

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f ew minor e ast-west c onnections p rimari ly s erving r egiona l a dm in istra t ive n eeds. I n t he i m media te ly p re-co lonia l d ays, E uropean t raders worked t hrough midd le men who n a tura l ly s ough t o u t t he e xist ing c en tres o f c o mmerce a nd r e in forced t he e cono m ic d eve lop men t o f c er ta in a spects o f t he e stablished s et t le men t p a t tern . The g row ing i nstabi li ty a rising f ro m i n tertr iba l warfare , h owever , l ed t o more d irect i n terven tion o n t he p ar t o f t he c o lonia l p owers a nd i n 1 900 t he B r i tish a ssu med f u l l c on tro l o ft he who le o f Nor th a nd S ou th N igeria .

The n ex t s ix ty y ears were t o s ee f ar r each ing c hanges i n g enera l

e cono m ic c ondi tions.

N ei ther t he n or thern n or t he s ou thern o rganisa tions

were d rastica l ly a l tered , b u t t he s yste m o f a dm in istra tive c en tres, d esignat ed a s ' t owns ', was d eter m ined b y o ther t han l oca l c onsidera tions:

o n ly o ne

t own , L agos, f e l l i nt he f i rst c a tegory a nd was a dm inistered t hrough a c ounci l ; i n t he s econd c lass, l ooked af ter b y g overnmen t o f f icers w i th a n a t tendan t a dvisory b oard , w ere a n u mber o f c en tres which i nt he n or th l ay o n t he r a i lway l ines a nd i n t he s ou th a long t he c oasta l r ou tes; t he t hird c lass c overed g overn men t s ta tions. I n g enera l t er ms t hese d id n o t c over t he t owns o ft radit iona l i mpor tance o r c en tres o fl arge p opu la tion e xcep t i n s o f ar a s s uch s i tes w ere s ui table f or c o lonia l n eeds — many o ft he Yoruba t owns were i ndeed l i sted s epara te ly . Na tura l ly t he l oca tion o f g overn men t ' t owns ' g uided a lso t he e ar ly d eve lopmen t o f amen i t ies a nd European f ashions, b u t g radua l ly t he ama lga mat ion o fn ew c onstruction t echniques a nd me thods w i th p re-ex ist ing s tructura l p a t terns h as l ed t o av ery w ide r ange f ro m t he t rad i tiona l t o t he modern . This s u m mary s hows t ha t t he n or thern a nd s ou thern t owns emphasised t rad ing a ctivi ties i nt he p re-co lon ia l d ays: t rade i nvo lved t he l ong-distance move men t o fg oods e xchang ing d iverse r anges o f l oca l a nd i mpor ted c o m modit i es w i th in t he l imi ts o ft he t radi t iona l means o ft ranspor t . The r esu l t was a marke t ing o rganisa t ion b ased o n ac er ta in p er iodici ty o f a ctivi ties a nd a n o rder o f i mpor tance amongst t he u rban c en tres a ccord ing t o t he n u mber o f d i f feren t t ypes o f p er iod ic markets f unction ing w i th in t he c i ty . B y 1 900 t herefore , as yste m o f c i ties h ad e vo lved s o me o rder o f i mpor tance amongst t he mse lves, b ased o n f avourable l oca tions f or i n ter-na tiona l a nd i n ter-regiona l t rade o r o n l eve ls o f p o li tica l em inence o r b o th . I n to t h is s yste m t he B ri tish i n troduced a more s ophistica ted l eve l o f t echn o logy a nd t ranspor t a s we l l a s a more s ophistica ted t rad ing o rgan isa tion : t hey c ould h ave e i ther e ncouraged t he s yste m o f i n terna l e xchange i n t he h opes o f i ncreasing r eturns a nd g rea ter t rad ing , o r c ou ld e xp loi t wha t was p rof i tab le i n t he h opes t ha t e xports wou ld p rove i nciden ta l ly b enef icia l t o i n terna l e xc hange . The f or mer b enef i ted t he N igerians b u t was n o t t he p urpose o f c o loni sa tion : t he l a t ter was l ess b enef icia l , b u t s ui ted c o lonia l n eeds s o t ha t t he Bri tish moved i ndividua ls a nd e quipmen t a s was n ecessary . Ra i lways were d esigned t o l i nk p rof i tab le a reas a nd minera l wea l th t o t he d eve lop ing c oasta l p or ts w i th a ccessibi li ty f or e xports. o f p re-exist ing c en tres.

Of ten t he n ew s i tes were i ndependen t

R iver t ranspor t was n eg l ig ible a nd r oads were n o t

f u l ly d eve loped . The B ri tish t herefore d eve loped t heir own p a t tern o f c ri tica l n odes, p rimar i ly t he p or ts a nd r ai lway c en tres w i th a n a t tendan t a dm inistrat i ve h ierarchy .

Trade was c hanne l led n o t t o i n terna l c ircu la tion , n or t o t he

s timu la t ion o ft rade amongst o ld a nd e xist ing u rban c en tres, b u t t owards

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e xpor t o rganised a t L agos a nd Por t Harcour t .

Tha t t he t wo s yste ms o f u rban

s e t t le men t h ave s urvived t oday s uggests t ha t t he i mpac t , whi lst c onsiderab le , was n o t s o d om inan t a s t o d isloca te c o mp le te ly t he p re-exist ing s et t le men t p a t terns: where i td oes make c hanges, t h is i s of ten i nfor ma tive a bou t t he n at ure o ft he e ar lier d eve lop men t .

The p re-exist ing c en tres c an o n ly b e u nder-

s tood i n t er ms o ft he s ocio-econo mic s yste m i n wh ich t hey g rew :

s hou ld t he

s yste ms c hange , t he r ela tive i mpor tance o f t hese n odes w i l l a lso c hange whi lst n ew c en tres w i l l b e e stab lished o r d eve loped a ccord ing t o n ew n eeds.

Tha t

s uch a n a pproach t o t he q uestion o f p re-Ro man a nd Ro mano-Br i tish s et t le men ts i s au sefu l o ne , n eeds l i t t le f ur ther c o m men t h ere . 3 .

F or ma l S tructure a nd F unction The q uestion o f wha t d ist inguishes a n u rban s et t le men t c anno t b e d iscussed

h ere a t a ny g rea t l eng th s ince t here i s t o d a te n o a dequa te c ross-cu l tura l d ef ini tion a greed amongst v ar ious d iscip lines. (Trigger 1 972 , 5 76 ) .

This i s

l arge ly a r esu l t o ft he f act t ha t d i f feren t d iscip lines s tudy u rban is m f ro m t heir own c oncep tua l s tandpo in ts a nd t he c oncep t o fu rban i s n ever s ta tic b ecause t he c ri teria o f d ef ini tion v ary a ccord ing t o t he h istorica l ( t e mpora l ) a nd g eog raphica l ( spa tia l ) s et t ing o f a n i ndividua l ' s work .

Bo th Tr ingha m ( 1972 , x xv )

a nd Robson ( 1975 , 3 ) n o te t ha t t his p rob le m i s e specia l ly a cu te i n t he e ar ly s tages o ft he u rban p rocess where t he c hoice o f c ri teria i s c o mp lica ted b y t he n a ture o ft he a rchaeo logica l r ecord . R eviews o f wha t i s u rban b y Whea t ley ( 1972 ) h ave s hown t ha t t here a re a v ery w ide r ange o f

c oncep ts o f u rbanis m '.

These c an b e s een t o i nc lude ;

I dea l-Type c ons tructs ( Redf ie ld 1 953 , S joberg 1 965 ) , Tra i t-Co mp lexes ( Ch i lde 1 950 , Wacher 1 975 ) , The C i ty a s a Cen tre o f Do m inance ( Christa l ler 1 966 —a v ery g eographica l a pproach ) a nd E co logica l a pproaches ( Park 1 916 a nd s uccess ors o ft he Ch icago S choo l ' ) . Whi lst t hese a re n o t mu tua lly e xc lusive , t hey r epresen t t he v ery w idespread v iewpoin ts which o pera te a ga inst t he a chievemen t o f c o m mon f ra meworks.

I ts hou ld n ever the less b e c lear t ha t u rban

s et t le men ts p ossess c haracteristics wh ich i n g enera l t er ms c an b e u sed t o t est t he a rchaeo logica l e vidence .

S ocio logists a nd a n thropo logists h ave

d e monstra ted t he c u mu la tive e f fec t o f u rban d eve lop men t i n t he s ocia l s pheres, whereby s ocia l , e cono mic a nd p o l i tica l a ctivi t ies b eco me f ar l ess i n tegra ted w i th in k insh ip mechan is ms a nd t hereby t ake o n f ar more c o mp lica ted a spects ( Frankenburg 1 969 , L i t t le 1 974 , G u tk ind 1 974 ) .

G eographers, a nd t o al esser

d egree a rchaeo logists, h ave d e monstra ted t ha t u rban g row th i s ap rocess o f p opu la tion c oncen tra tion whereby c en tres t end t o b eco me s tructura l ly more d i f feren t ia ted a nd f unctional ly more d iverse i n r e la tion t o ag row ing h in terl and ( Car ter 1 972 ) .

This l eads u s t o t he g enera l c o m men t t ha t u rbanis m may

we l l b e as ocia l p rocess w i th a t tendan t d eve lop men ts i n t he s tructura l a nd f unctiona l s pheres. I n o rder t o e xa m ine t he u rban n a ture o f as i te i n t he a rchaeo logica l r ecord , s o me s or t o f a na ly tica l mode l i s n ecessary a nd we must c o mb ine a n u mber o f c haracteristics f ro m a n u mber o f d iscip l ines. F ro m g eography we must b orrow t he f unctiona l a spect o f c en tres; o logy a nd a n thropo logy , t he c hanges i n t he s ocia l c o mp lexi ty ; g enera l s tock , t he d i f feren tia ted s tructura l e le men ts. t hese migh t b e mode l led s che ma tica l ly .

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f ro m s oci-

a nd f ro m t he

F ig . 1s uggests h ow

-Comp lex ity t oc omp l ica t ion

- L oca t ion .

( d ec l ine o f k i nsh ip a nd f am i ly t i es :d eve lopmen t

- S i ze ( r e la t ive t oo the r l o ca l s e t t lemen ts ) .

o f c omp l ica ted p e rsona l

- D ens i ty a nd r ange o f i n te rna l

a nd g r oup r e la t ions )

s t ruc tu res .

A dvanc ing d i v is ion o f

- D i ffe ren t ia ted i n terna l

l a bou r a nd c ra f t s pec ia l isa t ion .

l and-use a nd s oc ia l p a tterns .

- S oc ia l

d i f fe ren t ia t ion .

S OC IAL C OMPLEX ITY

F ORMAL S TRUCTURE

H INTERLAND

F UNCT ION Red is tr ibu t ive C en t re De fens ive Commun ica t ions

-e g .

r ou te c en t re , p o r t .

Econom ic -e g . m a rke t ing , c omme rc ia l p roduc t ion , l o ng-d is tance t r ade . Indus tr ia l -Re l ig ious -Soc ia l

men i t ies - a

-P o l i t ica l -A dm in is t ra t ive F i g .

1

Ana ly tical Mode l o f U rban Character istics

2 63

Wi th in a n a ccep tab ly b road d ef in i t ion o f a n u rban s e t t le men t wh ich s ees i t a s au n i t o f s e t t le men t ( nuc lea ted ) p erfor m ing a r ange o f s pecia lised f unctions i n r e la tion t o ab roader h in ter land — these f unc t ions b e ing wha t d if feren t ia te i t f ro m s e lf-suf f icien t a gr icu ltura l v i l lages—w i th a d if ferent ia ted c o m mun i ty s tructure o fb o th s exes a nd a l l a ges t o d if feren t ia te i tf rom a monas tery o r v i l la ( Tr igger 1 972 , 5 77 ) , t he mode l o u t lined c an b e u sed t o d is t inguish b road c a tegor ies o f s i tes s har ing c o m mon e lements i n t he s e t t le men t f abric .

We

s hould a lso b e a b le t o c o mpare c ross-cu l tura l p a t terns w i th in a c o m mon l i s t o f v ar iab les . T here a re i nev i tab ly a n umber o fl im i ta t ions : i n g enera l t er ms we c an u sua l ly s ay s o me th ing a bout t he s ize a nd , a ssuming t here h as b een a dequa te e xcava t ion , more a bou t t he i n terna l s truc tura l d ivers i ty , wh i le f unct i ona l a spec ts a re c er ta in ly r ecogn isab le t hough n o t a lways e as i ly q uan t if ied ( Co l lis 1 976 , 3 f f . ) . O n t he s ocia l a spec ts i ti s l i ke ly t ha t t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord i s s uch t ha t we c an s ay l i t t le b eyond t he v ery b roades t g enera lisa t ions ( A lexander 1 972 , 8 46 ) , b ut f or o ur p urposes i t may we l l b e q u i te a dequa te t o r ecogn ise t he p resence o f as oc ia l e l i te o r t he n a ture o ft he c raf t s pecia lis ts i n d is t inguish ing c a tegor ies o f s i tes .

T he more p ress ing p rob le ms o f s amp ling ,

r econs truc t ion , i n terpre ta t ion a nd n ega t ive e v idence a re e qua l ly r e levan t h ere , b ut may b e o verco me b y t he l eve ls o fg enera l isa t ion a t wh ich w e a re o pera t ing . O ur d e ta i led a na lyses may b e b es t c onf ined t o t he s truc tura l a nd f unc t iona l a spec ts , t hough t en ta t ive c onc lus ions o n t he s oc ia l w i l l b e o f v a lue t o a ny a rgumen t . F or d iscuss ion o f s tructura l a nd f unc t iona l a pproaches wh ich may b e r e levan t i n a rchaeo logy s ee t he f unc t iona l e lemen ts o u t l ined b y B eau jeauGarnier a nd C habo t ( 1967 , c hs . 1 0-16 ) , t he s truc tura l a na lyses s ugges ted b y T r ingham ( 1 972 , x ixf f . )a nd t he more c o mp lex g eograph ica l s e t t le ment s truct ure a na lyses i n C ar ter ( 1972 , 8 f f ., f i g . 1 .1 ) .

F or a b r ief c o m men t o n ' Phys i-

c a l Appearance a nd F unc t ion ' s ee H assa l l a bove p . 2 44 . 4 .

The R o man Impact I n t urn ing t o t he q uestion o ft he i mpact o f R oman u rban d eve lopmen t o n t he

p re-exist ing s et t le men t p a t terns a nd t heir a pparen t ly s ophistica ted n uc lea ted s e t t le men ts, we must r e me mber t ha t o ur a im i s a n e xp lana tory r a ther t han a p ure ly d escr ip tive o ne . The r esu lt c anno t b e d ef in i tive : i ti s h oped t ha t s uch a n a pproach may b e s hown t o p rove u sefu l i n a ny s tudy c onfron ted b y t wo o pp osed p a t terns where t he e vidence f or p rocess i s u sua l ly e nshr ined i n s ta tic maps. The a nswer i s n o t who lly embracing b u t a t te mp ts t o h igh l igh t wha t s hou ld b e o bv ious, t ha t t he i mpac t was n o t u ni form a nd t ha t t he d eve lopmen t i n t he R o man p eriod i s ar esu l t o f an u mber o f c o mp lex p heno mena . I ti s p oss ible t o s uggest t ha t whi le t he d eve lop men t o ft he ma jor u rban c en tres i n t he R o man f ra mework o ft he s ou th-east may owe more t o t he a dvan tages o fb e ing d esigna ted c ivi tas c api ta ls, t he g enera l p a t tern o f d eve lopmen t h ere may we l l d epend f ar more o n t he t rad i tions o f p re-Ro man n uc lea ted s e t t le men ts a nd c o m munica tions. O u tside t his a rea , t he i mpor tance o ft he R o man c on tr ibu tion i s more g lar ing ly o bvious. Any d iscussion o ft he p re-Ro man I ron A ge s et t le men t p a t terns i sb ese t b y an u mber o f d i f f icu lties, c hief amongst t hese b eing t he l im i ta tions o f t he e xc ava ted r ecord a nd t he d angers o ft ransferr ing i deas d erived f ro m o ne s i te t o c over t he who le r ange .

B road ly s peak ing , h owever , w i th in t ha t a rea r ough ly

c orrespond ing t o t he c lassic l ow land z one Cun li f fe ( 1976a a nd 1 978 ) h as o u t lined

2 64

what he terms a fully urbanised and an urbanising area equivalent to the region where Roman urban development largely flourished (1976a, 157 fig. 10). Within this region we can distinguish two broadly different settlement patterns based on Cunliffe (1978) and Bradley (1978). The first to be considered is the region of hillforts, extending originally more widely along the south coast, through Dorset into the Welsh Marches and north Wales, but contracting later away from the Sussex and east Hampshire areas and from Dobunnic territory. Recent re-thinking of this broad group of sites has greatly changed our opinions from purely defensive roles to one of localised centres each acting to articulate all the major social, economic and political activity within one defined locus (Cunliffe 1976a, 141). There has been a certain amount of discussion also on the question of proto-urban or urban status: that this may not be the best way to consider the problem has already been suggested. Suffice it to say that where evidence is forthcoming from excavated sites, the nature of the centres suggests localised redistributive settlements where the socio-economic activi­ ties rema:in largely tied up with the whole nature of the k:inship elements. That these may indeed be proto-urban in function can be argued, but their localised ter:::-itories postulated on archaeological grounds and their probable kinship­ based socio-economic aspects would suggest that they represent a discrete form of developed settlement patterns sufficient to carry out basic functional eeds. The potentia ascen ancy of Maiden Castle which might suggest an enhanced central status in the immediately pre-Roman period must be balanced by the Suetonian evidence that Vespasian in dealing with the hillforts was acting against discrete entities rather than any overall resistance. Recent excava­ tions at Danebury have shown these conclusions to be broadly true: while there is evidence for the maintenance of through routes within the interior and for long and densely occupied settleme t, t ere is insufficient structural diversity to point to the developme t of an urban n cleus. Bradley (1978) draws the important conclusion in his s mmary chapter, that this particular form of settlement pattern shows signs of a long period of development and consolida­ tion such that it was fully articulated to its localised demands. With the grow­ ing importance of external trade along the south coast, it became necessary to institutionalise trade at fixed localities known as ' ports of trade' such as Hengistbury Head. This was aimed particularly at minimising the impact of extra-territorial activity on existing socio-economic systems. No such pro­ cedures are as yet apparent amongst other hillfort areas (e.g. the Cornovii). We should not forget, however, that while hillforts may indeed have acted as functional centres of redistribution, their location still broadly confirms their defensive aspects. After the invasion, the localised settlement pattern may well have been at va iance with Roman needs and ill-suited to integration within the Roman lines of communication. Even with their defensive role diminished, however, the socio-economic articulation may well have continued to centre in pre-existing locations, though there may well have been some movement to the civitas centres. In this hillfort zone therefore, the Roman and native elements may well have long remained separate, but without further work on hillfort continuity and the nature of the smaller Roman road sites ' the generalisation remains untested. The second area of settlement patterns covers much of the rest of the low­ land zone with minor exceptions such as the Iceni in Norfolk. Whilst only 265

s trict ly p ar t o f Cun li ffe ' su rban ising r egion , t his a rea , e nco mpassing t he d efended a nd e nclosed

o pp ida ' a s we l l a s o ther minor s et t le men ts, more

t ru ly c orresponds t o a n u rban ising t rend t han t he o ne p reviously c onsidered . The p a t tern o f ma jor a nd minor c en tres h as b eco me much c learer i n t he l ast f ew y ears, a s h as t he p oss ibi li ty t ha t an u mber o f sma l ler s i tes d eve lop ing i n t he R o man p eriod may h ave b egun l i fe a s c en tres o f e xchange o n t r iba l b oundaries .

( For a most r ecen t r esta te men t , s ee Hodder 1 977 .) Those

a long t he b orders o ft he C ori tani a nd t he Ca tuve llauni ( Whi twe l l 1 970 , 1 0 ) may b e ac ase i n p o in t . A s C un li f fe ( 1978 ) h as emphasi sed , t he p a t tern o f d eve lopmen t r epresen ted s o s ta t ica l ly o n p resen t maps c ou ld n o t b e f ur ther f ro m t he t ru th : t he p eriod b e tween Caesar a nd C laud ius was o ne o f r ap id s ocio-econo mic c hange a ga inst t he p o l i tica l b ackground s uggested b y t he e vidence o f c oinage . The e xp lana tion c urren t a t p resen t s ees t he ' oppida ' a nd t he sma l ler n uc leat ed s et t le men ts a s t wo l eve ls i n as e t t le men t h ierarchy , e ach p o ten tia l ly p erf or m ing a n u mber o f f unct ions i n t he s ocia l a nd e cono mic s pheres, whi le t he l arger s i tes a cted a s p o li tica l c en tres a nd ma jor o verseas t rade f oci where s ui tab le .

Tha t t he f unc tiona l d iversi ty i s ma tched b y d eve lop ing s ocia l s tra ti-

f i ca tion w i th a s ocia l e li te a nd c raf t s pecia lists, makes i te ven more i mperat ive t ha t a ma jor r esearch c a mpa ign s hou ld s a mp le t he s tructura l a spects o f o ne o ft he Bri tish ' opp ida '. s een i n t he E ssex r eg ion .

The r esu l tan t p a t tern o fu rban g row th i s b est I n L incolnshire a lso , w i th in Cun li f fe ' su rbanising

a rea , t here i s e vidence f or t he d eve lop men t o f more s ophistica ted n uclea ted c en tres w i th in t he Cor i tan ian t r iba l a rea ( Wh i twe l l 1 970 ) . Cun l i f fe ( 1978 ) h as a lso s uggested t ha t t he u rbanised a rea may we l l a lso c orrespond t o t he r eg ion o f s ta te f or ma tion i n t he i m media te ly p re-Ro man p hase .

B rad ley ( 1978 )

d raws a n i mpor tan t d ist inction b e tween t his p at tern o f s et t le men t a nd t ha t o f t he h i l lfor t z ones: h e s uggests t ha t t he s et t le men t p at tern h ad b een f ar l ess we l l a r ticu la ted i n t he p re-con tact e ra a nd t ha t t he d eve lop men t o ft he s ocia l , e cono mic a nd p o li tica l a r ticu la tion was g radua l a nd v ery l arge ly d ependen t u pon t he n eeds f i rst o f t he l oca l e cono mic a spects a nd s econd p ri mari ly o n t he n eed t o c en tre i t se lf a t s ui table l oca tions a ccord ing t o t he c hang ing n eeds o f e x terna l c on tacts .

Tha t t he s et t le men t h ierarchy was t herefore g eared i n

p ar t t o t he n eeds o ft he R o mans i s p erhaps t o b e u nderstood a nd i fR ive t ( 1969 ) was c orrect i n b el iev ing t ha t t he s ocia l a nd e cono m ic c hanges, u sua l ly t hough t t o f o l low t he c onquest , were a lready we l l a pparen t i n c er ta in a spects o ft he i m med ia te ly p re-Ro man I ron Age , t hen t he i mpact o f R o man u rban d eve lop men t a nd t he n eeds o ft he a dm inistra tors c ou ld wel l h ave b een a bsorbed b y t he p ree xist ing f ra mework w i th o n ly s ligh t modi f ica tions.

To j udge b y t he c on t inui ty

o f l oca tion i n t he s et t le men t p a t terns o f E ssex ( Rodwe l l 1 975 ) a nd L inco lnshire ( May 1 976) a s we l l a s t o al esser e x ten t i n o ther c ivi tas c api ta ls , s uggests t ha t t his may we l l h ave b een t he c ase .

The s peed t oo w i th wh ich R o man i n-

v estmen t a nd l oca l e n thusias m d eve loped a s i te l ike Veru la m iu m ( Frere , p age 2 73 ) s trong ly p o in ts i n as i mi lar d irection . C erta in ly i n t his s ou th-eastern a rea t he p at tern o fn uclea ted s et t le men t owes f ar more i n g enera l t er ms t o t he p re-Ro man t radi t ions, t hough s e lective Ro man a ct ivi ty i s i mpor tan t f or s pecif i c d eve lop men t . O u tside b o th t hese a reas l ay t he l ess we l l-known t r iba l u n i ts o ccupy ing t he 'H igh land z one '.

The e vidence i s h ere f ar more s uggestive o f l ess c en tra lised

a uthori ty a nd much more l oosely i n tegra ted t r iba l a nd k insh ip n e tworks .

Tha t

t his a rea i s l arge ly t he s cene o f e x tensive mi li tary a ctivi ty o ver l ong p eriods 2 66

makes i th ard ly s urprising t ha t i t s s e t t le men t p a t tern i n t he p ost-conquest p eriod a r ticu la tes f or t he most p ar t a round t he r oad n etwork a nd t he f or ts. I t i s a ga inst t hese d i fferen t d eve lop men ts o f r egiona l s et t le men t p a t terns t ha t we must d iscuss t he d eve lop men t o ft he R o man s yste m o f a dm inistra tive c en tres a nd c o m mun ica tions.

The o r ig ins a nd d eve lop men t o ft he smal ler

n uclea ted s i tes — the e uphe mistica l ly n a med ' S ma l l Towns '

( Rodwe l l a nd

R ow ley , 1 975 ) —is e x treme ly d if f icu l t , i n t ha t i nsuf f icien t w ork h as b een d one a s y e t t o c lass ify d if feren t f unct iona l g roup ings .

The t radi t iona l a pproach

h as u sua l ly b een t o d escr ibe u rban d eve lop men t i n t er ms o f a mi li tary p resence: t here h as r are ly b een a r ea lisa tion t ha t t he d i f feren t s et t le men t p at terns may we l l h ave e lici ted d i f feren t s o lu tions t o t he b asic R o man n eeds.

Tha t t he

u rbanised a rea i n Cun l if fe 'broad ly c orresponds w i th t he a rea o f s ubsequen t R o man d eve lop men t , s uggests t ha t i t was s uf f icien t ly e cono mica l ly a dvanced t o s usta in i t s own c en tres e i ther i n p re-exist ing l oca tions o r a t more c onvenie n t l oca t ions p ro mp ted b y f or t s i tings i n c onnection w i th t he c o m munica tions n e twork .

N ever the less, t he A frican e xa mp le s hould warn u s a ga inst a ssu m ing

t ha t a l l t he s i tes d eve loped t o s ui t t he p re-Ro man n eeds were n ecessari ly a dvan tageous t o t he R o man h igh c o m mand . The impor tance o ft he l ayou t o f f or ts b o th t o t he s ubsequen t c hoice o f c en tres a s c ivi tas c ap i ta ls ( R ive t 1 977 ) a nd t o t he o r ig ins o f ' s ma l l t owns '

( Webster

1 966, F rere 1 975) h as l ong b een r ecognised , b u t i th as f requen t ly b een s erio usly o versta ted ( see a lso Hassa l l a bove p . 2 48 ) .

O ne p rime p rob le m h as b een

t he s e lection o f s i tes o n t he b asis o ft heir r e la tion t o t he c o m mun ica tion r ou tes a nd t heir a ppearance i n t he An ton ine I t inerary ( R ive t 1 975 ) , s o t ha t t he c orre la t ion o f f or t t o s i te h as b een o vere mphasi sed : t he i nclusion o f o ther c en tres o f s ocia l a nd e cono mic a ctivi ty , p ar ticu lar ly i n t he s tudies b y R odwe l l ( 1975) a nd May ( 1976) , h as emphasised t ha t u n ti l we k now more a bou t t he r e la tive f unctions a nd i mpor tance o ft he r espective ' s ma l l t owns ', we s hould b e wary a bou t a ccep t ing r igid d og mas.

An u mber o f a u thors h ave a lso c o m men ted

t ha t whi le t he l oca tion o f af or t may p rove a more a ccessib le s i te , t he s hor t p eriod o f mi l i tary a ctivi ty i n much o f t he s ou th-east d oes n o t p redi spose u s t o b elieve t ha t n uc lea tion would b e e i ther l arge o r l as ting u pon t he f or t 's w i thd rawa l .

I ndeed o n t he q uestion o f c on tinui ty , p ar ticu lar ly o f e cono mic f unc-

t ions o r c o m mun ica tions a spects , we must e i ther a ssu me t ha t t he l oca l r egion was a lready o r q uick ly b eca me e cono mica l ly c apab le o f s uppor t ing t he u rban l oca t ion , o r t ha t t he mi l i tary f unction o ft he s i te was r einforced b y an ew t ranspor t o r g overn men t f unct ion a s i n t he c ase o f p ost ing s ta tions .

O ther-

w ise we mus t e xp la in why a s ign if ican t n u mber o f f or ts f a i led t o s pawn l a ter s et t le men ts.

We must a lso r e me mber t ha t wh i le a s ign i f ican t p ercen tage o f

s ubsequen t s et t le men ts o n t he r oads d o i ndeed o r ig ina te i n f or ts, when w e c onsider t he d i f feren t r egiona l d eve lop men ts o u t l ined i n t he p re-Ro man s ection , i ti s c lear t ha t t he o vera l l s ign i f icance o ft he f i gures c ou ld b e d rastica lly a l tered .

V ir tua l ly a l l t he s i tes i n t he h i l lfor t z ones, p ar ticu lar ly t hose i n

Cornovian t erri tory a long Wa t l ing S tree t , a nd i n t he n or thern z ones c an b e s hown t o d eve lop f ro m f or ts o r p robable r oad s ta tions ( c f . F rere 1 975 a nd R odwe l l a nd R ow ley , 1 975 f i g . 1 ) .

On t he c on trary , i n t he s ou th-east , i n

t he a reas d escr ibed a s f u l ly u rban ised ,

a nd amongs t t he C or i tani ,

t he p ic ture

s ugges ts e xac t ly t he o ppos i te , w i th p re-Ro man c en tres s how ing c ons idera b le c on t inu i ty :

t he e xcep t ions a long t he E rmine S tree t r ou te p robab ly

2 67

r ef lect o nce more t he Ro man d eve lop men t o f an ew r ou te f ro m L ondon t o t he n or th a s f ar a s Grea t Caster ton .

Tha t t he e xp lana tion o f t h is d i f ference l i es

i n t he n a ture o f t he a r ticu la tion o f t he p re-Ro man p eriod s hould b e c lear . Where t he s i tes c oincided , t he p a t tern was c onven ien t ly u sed o r l ef t t o d eve lop : where i t was u nsui tab le o r i nsuff icien t ly a r ticula ted , t he R o mans d eve loped t heir own r ou tes a nd c en tres.

I f Hodder 's a na lysis ( 1977 , 3 39 a nd f i g . 6 6 ) o f

t he r e la tionship o f Ro mano-Ce l tic t e mp les t o p re-Ro man b oundaries s uggests t he d eve lop men t o f e cono mic n uc le i b o th i n t he p re-Ro man a nd s ubsequen t ly i n t he R o man p eriods, t hen a c learer s ta te men t o ft he f unctions o f ' s ma l l t owns ' may s how t ha t t he most i mpor tan t e cono mic c en tres, i n t he R o man p eriod b esides t he c ivi tas c en tres, a lso h ave s o me p re-Ro man t radi tions. No tw i thstand ing t hese c o m men ts , i ti s a lso t rue t ha t t he R o mans e ncouraged u rban d eve lop men t w i th t he e stab lish men t o f t he c ivi tas c api ta ls i n t he n ew ly c onquered t erri tor ies.

Here a gain t he p re-Ro man p at tern h ad a p ar t t o p lay ,

b u t l i ke t he A fr ican e xa mp le q uo ted , i ti s c lear t ha t t he a dm in istra tive c en tres r ef lect a Ro man o ver lay g eared t owards R o man n eeds.

Wherever t he t r iba l

o rganisa tion h ad r eached a s uf f icien t ly a dvanced s tage a nd c oopera tion was f or thco m ing , t he d isturbance t o t he n a tive p a t tern migh t b e min i ma l , b u t where i t was b ackward t he Ro mans were f orced t o c rea te a c en tre c apab le o f c arryi ng o u t t he n ecessary f unctions.

The f or mer s i tua t ion c an b e d e monstra ted

i n t he s ou th-east u rbanised a rea , where t he s i tes c hosen n a tura l ly r ef lected t he p re-Ro man b ackground : t he c hoice o f Ca mu lodunu m a s ac o lon ia r ef lects t he p ar ticu lar i mpor tance o f i t s p redecessor a s t he c en tre u nder C unobel inus, whi le t he e stab lish men t o f c ivi tas c api ta ls a t Can terbury , Veru la m iu m a nd S i lchester c lear ly p oin ts t o t he c on t inui ty a spect . t rue o f Winchester .

The s a me may wel l a lso b e

I n t he r e ma inder o f t he c ases, i n t he h i l lfor t z ones a nd

t he n or th , t he c rea tion o f ac en tre f o l lows a d i f feren t p a t tern .

R ivet ( 1977 )

h as d e monstra ted t ha t t he p resence o f l arge mi li tary f orces o ver c onsiderab le p eriods i s l ike ly t o h ave c en tred n o t o n ly t he o f f icia l o rgans o fg overn men t i n mi li tary h ands, b u t a lso e ncouraged a d rif t o f p opu la tion p ar ticu lar ly amongst t he p o l i tica l l eaders, s o t ha t t he t ransi tion f ro m mi li tary t o c ivi lian a u thori ty o n t he s a me s i te wou ld b e a n e asy a nd l ogica l s tep . C irencester

I n a t l east t wo c ases ,

a nd Dorchester ( Dorse t ) , t he c hange o f l oca t ion f ro m p re-Ro man

s i te t o a ccess ib le f or t r ef lects t his move men t a nd t he s or t o f d is loca tion o f s et t le men t p a t tern e xpected .

A s ap oin ter t o t he f act t ha t t he Ro man n eeds

were o verrid ing , t he d eve lop men t o f L ondon a pparen t ly t o ta l ly i ndependen t ly o ft he p re-Ro man p a t tern , emphasises t he e x ten t t o which t he d isloca tion migh t g o .

A t al ower l eve l , b elow t he c ivi tas c ap i ta ls, t he d eve lop men t o f

c o m mun ica tions a nd r oad p osts i s l ike ly t o h ave h ad a n e qua l ly i mpor tan t p ar t t o p lay i n t he c on t inui ty o r d is loca tion o ft he e xisting p at terns; e vidence i s a t p resen t a va i lab le f or d etai led d iscussion .

i nsuf f icien t

The q uestion o f

p opu lar mobi li ty i n many a reas i s o ne t ha t a lso h as c onsiderab le b ear ing o n t he d isloca tion o f p re-exist ing p a t terns. i s p erhaps p o li t ic t o g o n o f ur ther .

B eyond t hese g enera l c o m men ts, i t

Is hou ld l ike t o c onclude w i th a f ew c o m-

men ts o n a reas o f r esearch wh ich would c lari fy t he p rob le ms i n h and . 5 .

Conclud ing R e marks To t est t he a pp licabi li ty o f t he i dea t ha t t he R o man i mpact , p ar ticu lar ly o n

t he n uc lea ted s e t t le men t p at tern o f t he s ou th-east , c an b e s tud ied i n t erms o f

2 68

c on t inui ty a nd d isp lace men t o n t he l i nes o ft he A frican e xamp le , an u mber o f a spects must b e c lari f ied : a ) The b eginn ings o f s ophistica ted e cono m ic, s ocia l a nd p o li tica l c en tra lisat ion i n t he l opp ida ' h as n ow b een g enera lly o u t l ined a nd d ist inguished f ro m t he s e t t le men t p a t terns o ft he h i llfor t z one a nd t he r est o f B ri ta in .

L ikewise

t he Ro man p a t tern o f d eve lop men t i n t he c ivi lian z one i s b eco m ing t olerab ly c lear .

O ne o ft he f i rst c oncerns o f f u ture r esearch must b e ad etai led d is-

c ussion o ft he f unct iona l a nd where p ossible t he s tructura l a spects o ft he who le r ange o f p re-Ro man s i tes w i th in t he c on tex t o f t heir c hrono logica l d ev e lop men t .

We a lso n eed t o o u t line i n d e tai l t he s ocia l , e cono mic a nd p o li ti-

c a l a r ticu la tion o ft he d i f feren t a reas, b o th a t i nd ividua l s i tes a nd t he r e lat i onsh ips b e tween s i tes, f or o n ly when w e k now s uf f icien t a nswers w i l l we b e a b le t o d iscuss t he r e la tive i mpor tance o f s uch s i tes a s B raughing o r O ld S leaford i n t he R o man p eriod when c o mpared w i th t heir a pparen t p re -Ro man s igni f icance . i n q uestion .

We must e qua l ly k now more o f t he c on te mporanei ty o f t he s i tes I f we a re r igh t t o a ssu me t he i mpor tance o f s e t t le men t i n t he

p re-Ro man s ou th-east , a nswers t o a l l o f t hese q uestions w i l l t ru ly s e t t he b ackground t o t he i nvasion . b )

O n t he R o man f ron t t wo a spects a re c rucia l :

o ne i s t he c lassi f ica tion o f

t he l arge a nd sma l l ' t owns ' i n a ccordance w i th t he mode l o u t l ined .

I n t he

c ase o f t he sma l l ' t owns ' ,we n eed a c learer e sti ma te o f t heir f unctiona l r o les, p ar ticular ly which s i tes c an b e d e monstra ted t o b e ma in ly i ndustria l a nd which a cted a s c en tres i n t he c o m munica tions n e twork o r a s e cono mic c en tres t ied t o t heir l oca l h in ter land .

w ide d iversi ty .

Pre li m inary a na lysis s uggests a v ery

The s econd a spect i s a n a na lysi s o f t he d eve lop men t o f s i tes

b o th p re-Ro man a nd R o man i n t he p ost-conquest p eriod :

e ssen tia l ly w i thin

at e mpora l f ra mework o f t he p rovincia l d eve lop men t , o ne h as t o e nvisage a n a rray o f p o in ts o n a map , s o me , p ar ticular ly i n t he s ou th-east , r ef lect ing p re-Ro man c en tres o fv ary ing i mpor tance i n t he s et t le men t f abric , o thers, p ar ticu lar ly i n t he n or th a nd Wales, r ef lect ing n ew ly e stabli shed R o man f or ts o r r oad s ta tions, a l l o f which a re c apable o f d eve lop ing , d ependen t u pon t heir a dvan tages w i th in t he n eeds o ft he n ew Ro man a dm inistra tion .

Three p ar ticu-

l ar f actors may we l l l ead t o c on t inui ty o f l oca tion , a move men t t o more a dv an tageous l oca tions o r at o ta l d isp lace men t : t hese a re t he p a t tern o f e cono mic d eve lopmen t r e la ted t o t he r egiona l d eve lop men t o f e cono mic i n tegra tion , d e mand a nd t he g row th o fv i l las;

i ndustr ia l d eve lop men t r e la ted t o l arge-sca le

e x tract ion a nd p roduction d ependen t o n d e mand ;

a nd , p erhaps t he most i m-

p or tan t , t he g overn men t f unctions r e la ted t o t he i mposi tion o f o f f icia l p osts o n t he c o m munica tions n e twork a nd t he d eve lop men t o f a dm ini stra t ive f unctions. Tha t a l l o ft hese may we l l h ave c oincided t o e xpand s o me s i tes i s c lear , b u t t here i s t he f ee ling t ha t i n t he p ost-conquest p eriod t here w as a c onsiderab le s ta te o f f l ux w i th d i fferen t c o mpe ting a nd o ver lapping s yste ms a t work .

Tha t

t here may h ave b een c onsiderab le d ivergence b e tween t he s ocio-econo mic f ra mework , p erhaps b ased o n p re-Ro man t radi tions, a nd t he d eve lop men t o f g overn men t f unctions i s t o b e e xpected , a nd whi le t here may h ave b een c onv ergence i n t ime w i th t he Ro man a spect , t he e xp lana tion o f t he c on t inui ty a nd d isp lace men t wou ld s ee m t o b e a n a rea where f ur ther s tudy i s n ecessary . I ft h is p aper h as a ch ieved a ny thing , i ti s s imp ly t o p oin t o u t an ew a pproach t o o ld p roble ms. Ic an o n ly h ope t ha t t his may t o s o me e x ten t a lso c ircu mven t t he q ues t ions o f s e man t ics wh ich h ave d om ina ted much o f r ecen t d iscuss ion . 2 69

ACKNO WLEDGE MENTS Iwou ld l ike t o t hank b oth Professor Barry Cun l i f fe a nd Mr . J ohn Wacher f or r eading o ver t h is p aper i n d ra f t f or m a nd s ugges t ing many v a luable c r i t ic is ms .

Ih ave a lso b ene f i ted f ro m d iscuss ions w i th Dr . J ohn A lexander a nd

Mr . Ma lco lm T odd .

The f au l ts wh ich r e ma in a re , h owever , t he r espons ibi l i ty

o f t he a uthor ! My t hanks a re a lso d ue t o my c o-ed i tor f or t he p repara t ion o f t he manuscr ip t f or p ress .

B IBLIOGRAPHY ALEXANDER , J . A ., 1 972.

' The B eg inn ings o f Urban L i fe i n Europe ' i n

U cko e t a l . 1 972 , 8 43-8 . ALEXANDER , J . A ., 1 975 .

' The Deve lop men t o f U rban C o m mun i t ies :

The Ev idence f ro m C a mbr idge a nd G rea t C hes ter ford i , i n R odwel l a nd Rowley ( Eds . ) , 1 975 , 1 03-9 . BEAUJEU-GARN IER , J . a nd CHABOT , G ., 1 967. BRADLEY , R ., 1 978 . B I ZEI T., J ., 1 976.

U rban G eography

L ondon .

' The Preh is tor ic S et t le men t o f B r i ta in ' L ondon .

' Ear l ies t S e t t le men ts w i th U rban C haracter i n C en tra l

Europe ' i n Cun l if fe a nd R ow ley ( Eds .) , 1 976 , 8 1-94 . BROGAN , 0 ., 1 974 .

' The C o ming o f R o me a nd t he E s tabl ishmen t o f R o man

G au l ' i n P iggo tt S ., Dan iel G . a nd McBurney C . 1 974 t he R o mans CAESAR ,

France B e fore

1 92-219.

C . J u lius .

The G a ll ic War

L oeb t ex t a nd t rans la t ion .

L ondon

a nd C a mbr idge , Mass . 1 963. CARTER , H ., 1 972. CH ILDE , V . G ., 1 950 .

The S tudy o f Urban G eography

L ondon .

' The U rban R evolu tion ' T own P lann ing R ev iew 2 1 ,

3 -17. CHR ISTALLER , W., 1 966.

C en tra l P laces i n S ou thern G er many

Eng le-

wood C l i f fs N .J. COLLINGWOOD , R . G ., 1 949.

C o ll ingwood R . G . a nd Myres J . N . L .

Ro man Br i ta in a nd t he Eng lish S et t le men ts •Ox ford . COLLIS , J . R ., 1 974. Europe

Oppida :

t he b eg inn ings o f u rban isa t ion i n Te mpera te

Doctora l Thes is , Ca mbr idge.

COLLIS , J . R ., 1 976.

' Town a nd Market i n I ron Age Europe ' i n C un li f fe

a nd R ow ley ( Eds .) , 1 976, 3 -23 . CUNLIFFE , B . W., 1 976a .

' The Or ig ins o f Urban isa t ion i n Br i ta in ' i n

Cun li f fe a nd R owley ( Eds .) , 1 976 , 1 35-160 . CUNLIFFE , B . W., 1 976b.

' H i ll for ts a nd Oppida ' i n L ong-wor th I . H .,

S ievek ing G . d e G . a nd Wi lson K . E . ( Eds .) , Proble ms i n Archaeology

London , 3 41-5 .

CUNLIFFE , B . W., 1 974 a nd r ev ised e d i t ion 1 978 i n Br i ta in

S ocia l a nd E cono m ic

L ondon . 2 70

I ron Age C o m mun it ies

CUNLIFFE , B . W. a nd RO WLEY , T ., 1 976.

• Oppida i n Barbar ian Europe

B . A. R . S upp . S er ies 1 1 , Ox ford . FRANKENBURG , R ., 1 969. C oun try

C o m mun i t ies i n Br ita in .

S ocia l L i fe i n Town a nd

P elican .

FRE RE , S . S ., 1 959.

R ev iew o f R ivet A . L . F .

Town a nd C oun try i n R o man

Br i ta in i n An t iqu i ty 3 3 ( 1 959) 6 8 . FRERE , S . S ., 1 961.

' Civ i tas - a Myth?' An t iqu i ty 3 5 ( 1961) 2 9.

FRERE , S . S ., 1 975 .

' The Or ig in o f " Sma ll Towns " i n Rodwe l l a nd R owley

( Eds .) , 1 975 , 4 -7. GUTK IND , P . W. C ., 1 974 .

U rban An thropo logy

HASSALL ,

' Ro man Urban isa t ion i n Wes tern Europe ' i n

M. W. C ., 1 972.

Assen .

U cko e t a l . 1 972 , 8 57-861. HODDER , I . R ., 1 977.

' So me N ew D irections i n S pa t ia l Ana lys is ' i n C larke

D . L . ( Ed .) , 1 977, L ITTLE , K ., 1 974 .

S pa t ia l Archaeology

L ondon , 2 23-351.

U rban isa t ion a s aS ocia l Process .

MABOGUNJE , A . L ., 1 968 .

U rban isa t ion i n N iger ia

L ondon .

MANN , J ., 1 960.

' C iv i tas Ano ther Myth ' An t iqu i ty 3 4 ( 1960 ) 2 22.

MANN , J ., 1 966.

' C i ty F ounda t ions i n G au l a nd Br i ta in ' i n J arre t t M. a nd

Dobson B . ( Eds .) , MAY , J ., 1 976.

Br i ta in a nd Ro me

K enda l .

' The G rowth o f S e t t le men ts i n t he La ter I ron Age i n L incoln-

s h ire ' i n Cun li f fe a nd R ow ley ( Eds .) 1 976, 1 63-180 . MILLETT , M ., 1 975 .

' The Na t ive Towns o f R o man Br i ta in ' Curren t Arch-

a eology 5 2 , 1 34-139 , MU MFORD , L ., 1 961. a nd i ts Prospec ts NASH , D ., 1 976.

The C i ty i n H is tory :

i t s Or ig ins , Trans for ma t ions

N ew York .

' The G row th o f Urban S ocie ty i n France ' i n Cun li f fe a nd

R owley ( Eds .) , 1 976 , 9 5-133. ORDNANCE S URVEY 1 956. PARK , R . E ., 1 916.

Map o f Ro man Br i ta in ( 3rd Edn .).

' The C i ty:

s ugges t ions f or t he i nves t iga t ion o f h u man

b ehav iour i n t he u rban e nv ironmen t ' Amer ican J ourna l o f S ocio logy 2 0 , 5 77-612. PAUSAN IAS .

D escr ip t ion o f G reece

L oeb t ex t a nd t rans la t ion .

L ondon a nd

Ca mbr idge , Mass. 1 935. REDFIELD , R ., 1 953 . R ICH MOND , I . A ., 1 969 . R IVET , A . L . F ., 1 969.

The Pr im i t ive Wor ld R o man Bri ta in

C ornel l .

P el ican .

' Socia l a nd Econo m ic Aspects ' i n R ivet ( Ed .) , 1 969

The R o man V i l la i n Br i ta in , 1 73-216. R IVET , A . L . F ., 1 974 .

Town a nd C oun try i n Ro man Br i ta in

2 71

London .

R IVET , A . L . F ., 1 977.

' The Or ig ins o f C i t ies i n R o man Br i ta in ' i n Duva l

P .- M . a nd Frezou ls E . ( Eds .) , C o l loques i n terna t ionaux d u CNRS N o. 5 42 The me d e R echerches s ur l es V il les a n tiques d 'Occiden t , Par is 1 611 72. R IVET , A . L . F ., 1 978 .

R ev iew o f Wacher J .

Towns i n R o man B r i ta in

Br i tann ia 9 , 1 978 , 4 97-500. ROBSON , B . T ., 1 975.

U rban G row th :

ROD WELL , W. J ., 1 975 .

a n a pproach

L ondon .

' Tr inova tian Towns a nd t he ir S et t ing ' i n R odwe l l

a nd R ow ley ( Eds .) , 1 975 , 8 5-101. ROD WELL , W. J . a nd RO WLEY , T ., 1 975 .

Sma l l T owns o f R o man B r i ta in

B . A. R . 1 5 , Ox ford . S JOBERG , G ., 1 965 . S TRABO .

' The Pre-Indus tr ia l C i ty:

The G eography

Pas t a nd Presen t '.

L oeb t ex t a nd t rans la tion .

L ondon a nd N ew York

1 923. SUETON IUS .

C . S ueton ius Tranqu i l lus ' L ives o f t he C aesars ' L oeb t ex t a nd

t rans la t ion .

L ondon a nd C a mbr idge , Mass . 1 963 .

TR IGGER , B . G ., 1 972.

' Deter m inan ts o f Urban G row th i n P re-Indus tr ia l

C i t ies ' i n U cko e t a l . 1 972 , 5 75-599. TR INGHA M , R ., 1 972. i n U cko e t a l . 1 972

' I n troduc t ion :

S e t t le men t P a t terns a nd U rban is m '

XiX- XXViii.

UCKO , P ., TR INGHA M , R . a nd D I MBLEBY , men t a nd U rban is m

G . ( Eds .) 1 972.

WACHER , J . S ., 1 975 .

The Towns o f R o man Br i ta in

W ACHER , J . S ., 1 978.

R o man B r i ta in

WEBSTER , G ., 1 966. J . S . ( Ed .) ,

Man , S et t le-

L ondon . London .

L ondon .

' For t a nd Town i n Ear ly R o man Br i ta in ' i n Wacher

The C ivi tas Capi ta ls o f R o man Br i ta in

W HEATLEY , P ., 1 972.

The C oncep t o f U rban is m

Le ices ter 3 1-45 .

i n U cko e t a l . 1 972 ,

6 01-637. WH IT WELL , J . B ., 1 970. Vo lu me 2 .

R o man L incolnsh ire

L incoln .

2 72

H is tory o f L inco lnsh ire

VERULA M IU M :

URBAN DEVE LOP MENT AND THE LOCAL REGION b y S . S . F rere

S u mmary What l i t t le i s k nown a bou t p re-Ro man Veru la m iu m s uggests t hat i t b eca me a r oya l o pp idum o f t he C a tuvel laun i , t he mselves c o mpara t ive n ewco mers t o at h in ly p opu lated a nd wooded r eg ion , s oon a f ter 2 0 B .C. The s et t le men t s pread d own i n to t he v al ley , where s oon a f ter A . D. 4 3 a Ro man f ort was b u il t t o c on trol t he c rossing o f t wo Ro man h ighw ays a nd t o w a tch t he l ocal o pp idu m .

Abou t 5 0 t he s treet-grid a nd

d efences o f an ew c i ty w ere l a id o u t w i th of ic ial a ssistance;

i tp ro-

b ably h ad t he r ank o f ac hartered r nun ic ip iu m , a nd i t s e arl iest b u ild ings s uggest t ha t t he p opu la t ion c on ta ined i mm igran t t raders a s w el l a s al ocal c o mponen t s t il l t o s o me e x ten t emp loy ing t rad it ional t ypes o f dwel l ing.

The s urround ing r eg ion c on ta ins s o me v ery e arly v i llas

whose i ncreasing n u mber d ur ing t he f i rst c entury s hows a ccep tance o f t he n ew c iv il iza t ion b y t he l anded p roprietors who n evertheless w ere s low t o b eco me f u l ly u rban-based .

Ev idence, h owever , f or

g row ing t rade a nd i ndustry p o in ts t o w idespread p rosperi ty a nd c ont en t men t l ower d own t he s oc ial s cale wh ich i s s upported b y s uch i nd ic at ions a s t he e n large men t o f d wel l ings a nd t heir e nrich men t w ith mosa ics a nd w al l-pa in t ings d uring t he f i rst h al f o f t he s econd c en tury.

Accord ing t o P tole my 's G eography i 3 , 1 1 , V eru la miu m was a c i ty o f t he C atuvel laun i. The n a me o f t h is t r ibe, t he ir c o inage a nd t heir p ot tery c o mb ine t o s how t ha t t he C atuvel laun i w ere B elg ic .

Imake n o a pology f or c on t inu ing

t o u se t h is t er m , wh ich o f c ourse b etrays me a s b eing o ld-fash ioned e nough t o b el ieve t hat t he p urpose o f a rchaeology i s t he e luc idat ion o f h istory —or o f p reh istory , a s t he c ase may b e.

The C a tuvel laun i w ere t he mselves i nvaders,

b u t t heir o ccupa t ion o f t he Veru la m iu m r eg ion was a cco mp l ished a f ter C aesar 's c a mpa igns i n B ri ta in .

The t heory i nven ted b y Michael Avory a nd d isse m inated

b y P rofessor H ard ing ( 1974 ,224 ) ,

t hat C assivel launus was a B riton o f n at ive

p re-Belg ic s tock , i s b ased u pon t wo e rrors : t ex t a nd a n i gnorance o f i t s t ex tual h istory.

am isunderstand ing o f C aesar 's Bu t i ti s p oss ible t o b el ieve t hat

o ne o f t he e f fec ts o f t he t reaty b etween t he Trinovan tes a nd Ro me w as t o d ivert t he wh irlpool o f w arring B elg ic w ar-lords away f ro m t heir t erritory i n a n i nl and d irec t ion t o e f fec t t he s ett le men t o f t he Veru la m iu m r eg ion b y t he C a tuv el laun i.

A s s o l i t tle i s k nown o f t he p re-Belg ic I ron Age i n t h is a rea , i ti s

impossible t o d ef ine what t h is s ett le men t i nvolved i n t er ms o f c onquest o r o f i n ter m ix ing p opu lat ions;

b u t , t o j udge b y C . S aunders '

map ( Arch . J ourn .

1 28 1 971, 2 ) , al arge r eg ion r ound V eru la m iu m may h ave b een v irtual ly emp ty o f p opu lat ion b ecause o f i t s u nsu i table s o ils a nd w ooded c harac ter. 2 73

Wheeler 's i mag inat ive p ioneer ing e xp lorat ion o f Wheatha mpstead a nd o f Prae Wood d rew a t ten t ion t o t hese t wo o pp ida , b u t d id l i t t le more t han t o a ssign t he m t o at en tat ive s equence.

The s ubsequen t n eglec t t o c arry o u t f urther

work o n s uch o u tstand ing s i tes i s v ery r e markable.

A t Prae Wood , h owever ,

r ecen t f i eld-work b y Mr. J onathan Hunn h as s hown t ha t t he e arthworks a re f ar more e x tensive t han Wheeler i nd icated.

Un t il t h is w ork i s p ubl ished ,

a nd s t i l l more u n t i l l arge-sca le e xcava t ions a re u nder taken , t he t rue s ign if i cance a nd e ven t he c harac ter o f B e lg ic Verla m ion w il l c on t inue t o b e o bscure. The a ssoc iat ion o f t he min t- mark Verla m io w i th t he c o inage o f Tasc iovanus s hows t hat t he s i te was a r oyal o pp idu m f ro m c . 2 0-15 B .C., a nd w ith t h is d ate t he a rchaeolog ical f i nds a re c ons is ten t . Wha t i s k nown o f B e lg ic V er lam ion ,when mapped ( Fig. 1 ) , i l lustra tes t he d efec t ive s ta te o f o ur k now ledge.

B elow t he p lateau-si te o f P rae Wood

t here o ccur o n t he v al ley-f loor b enea th t he Ro man c i ty b o th b urials a nd d epos its o f m in t-debris;

b u t a l l t hese , where d atable, b elong t o t he p eriod o f

Cunobel in r a ther t han t hat o f Tasc iovanus , a nd s ee m t o i l lustrate a v al leyward s pread f ro m t he o rig inal n uc leus. The l argest f ea ture i s as ubrec tangu lar e nclosure o f a bou t 5a cres. Th is i s v ery i mperfec t ly k nown s ince i tl i es a t g rea t d ep th b elow t he f oru m ;

i t may b e s o me s ort o f Royal k raa l ,o r t he s i te

o f t he B elg ic min t , b u t i s p erhaps more p robably a t e mp le-enc losure l ike t he o ne a t G osbeck 's Far m. We k now l i t t le e ven n ow a bou t B elg ic h ouse-types.

Wheeler i den t if ied

n one a t P rae Wood. Beneath t he G orha mbury V il la , c lose e nough t o V eru la m iu m t o b e c oun ted p art o f t he B elg ic c o mp lex , D . N eal h as , i den t if ied t wo s uccess ive B e lg ic b u i ld ings : s ucceeded b y ( i i )

( i )

as ubrec ta .ngu lar 6 -post s truc ture o f c . 1 6 m2 i n a rea ,

ac ircu lar h u t w ith f l oor-area o f a bou t t he s a me s ize , b oth

a reas b eing c onsisten t w ith t hose o f o ther B elg ic h ouses o f t he smal ler t ype , s uch a s a t Park S treet .

A t Can terbury Ie xcavated a s unken h u t wh ich h ad

af loor-area o f C . 2 5 m2 a nd h ad b een o ccup ied w i th s uccessive f l oors f or a l ong p er iod , c . A .D . 5 -60. Th is G rubenhaus t ype w as c er tain ly o ne o f t hose u sed i n B e lg ic B r ita in a nd i tc on t inued i n to t he Ro man p eriod. h i mself men t ions wha t was e v iden t ly o ne i n I nsu la I ;

Wheeler

i t was d estroyed i n

t he Boud iccan r ebel l ion ( Wheeler a nd Wheeler 1 936 , 8 6 );

o thers h ave b een

f ound a t C a mu lodunu m ( Dunne t t 1 976, 2 4f ) a nd a t t he G orha mbury V i l la ( Neal 1 978 , 4 9 ). The c on trast b etween t hose t ypes o f h ouse a nd wha t w as t o c o me s oon a f ter t he Ro man c onquest i s p rofound .

H owever, Rodwel l ( 1978 ) h as

r ecen t ly s hown t ha t q u i te l arge r ec tangu lar b u i ld ings w ere p robably q u i te c o m mon ly t o b e f ound i n t he B e lg ic p eriod ; a t Veru la m iu m. min t-debris;

t races o f o ne o f t hese w as f ound

I t was c losely a ssoc iated w ith o ne o f t he ma in d epos its o f

b u t s ince i tu nderlay t he l a ter d efences i t c ou ld n ot b e f u l ly

e xcavated i n t he t ime a va i lable b efore i t s b ur ial b eneath a n ew b y-pass r oad. The f i rst t race o f t he i nvad ing Ro mans i s s een a t Veru la m iu m i n t he c onstruct ion o f af ort i n t he v al ley b ot to m 'a t ap o in t o f s tra teg ic i mportance where t he n ew Wa t l ing S treet c rossed t he r oad f ro m Ca mu lodunu m t o t he w est , a nd f ro m wh ich c on trol c ou ld b e e xerc ised o ver t he n a t ive o pp idu m a round i t . The s urv iv ing t races o f t he f ort a re i rregu lar i n s hape, a nd n o b u ild ings h ave b een t raced w i th in i t ;

v ery p robably what w e h ave i s merely t he a nnexe.

Bu t t he f ort , s hort-l ived t hough i t was , p roved o f l ast ing i nf luence b ecause o f i t s e f fec t u pon t he s treet-p lan o f t he ' Ro man c ity . 2 74

VERU LA M IUM

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•

o 0

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2 75 1

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r n

0 0 0

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A MI NT

DEBR IS

+ BUR I AL

• S E TTLE ME NT

S ETTLE M ENT

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4 — < I )

Q,

0 0 0 — C 0

T he c i ty i t se lf was f ounded a bou t A . D . 5 0 .

We c an r ecogn ise i n a l l t he

n ew ly-conquered p rov inces o f t he Ro man Emp ire t he e ncourage men t g iven b y t he g overn men t t o u rban d evelopmen t.

I n a reas n ear t he Med iterranean ,

u rban g row th a lready e x isted t o g rea ter o r l esser d egree , a nd t he move men t d id n ot r equ ire t o b e i n i t iated. I n ap rov ince a s r e mote a s B r ita in , a l though p reh istorians t alk g rand ly a bou t u rban iza t ion i n t he I ron A ge, t he c oun try c on ta ined n oth ing t ha t t he Ro mans wou ld h ave r ecogn ised a s ac i ty , a lthough w e c an a gree t ha t i n t he B e lg ic S ou th East t he s eeds e x isted i n a gg lo mera t ions o f p opulat ion a nd i n t he b eg inn ings o f a market e cono my. The n ecessary model was c reated b y t he e stabl ish men t o f am il i tary c olon ia a t C olchester, a nd e lsewhere a s a t L ondon o r C an terbury , w e c an r ecogn ise t he w ork o f Ro man t own-p lanners i n t he p eriod 5 0-70 . To t he g over men t , n o d oubt , a t f i rst t he e cono m ic g row th s t i mu lated b y t he n ew c i t ies w as o f s econdary i mp or tance t o t he p ol i t ical a dvan tages t hey g a ined f ro m c loser c on trol o f t he r u l ing c lasses, t he e duca t ion o f t he ir y oung i n Ro man w ays a nd l anguage, a nd i n e asier e xac t ion o f t axa t ion o nce t he p opu lace w as o rgan ised i n t he f am il iar p at tern o f c i ty s tates. f ro m e x ist ing t r ibes;

The s tates f or t he most p ar t c ou ld b e f or med

a l l t hat w as r equ ired was t o p rov ide t he c apu t .

A t Veru la m iu m a s treet-grid w as l a id o u t , a nd e ven d efences p rov ided . The e xac t d ate o f t he ' 1955 D i tch ' i s u nknown , b u t t he e v idence s uggests t he p eriod 5 0-60. The e x istence o f t h is d efensive c ircu i t r e in forces o ther p ieces o f e v idence, n one d ec is ive b y i t sel fb u t c ol lec t ively a l most c onc lusive , t hat Veru la m iu m h ad t he r ank o f aL at in mun ic ip iu m— in o ther w ords t ha t i tw as c ons idered s u f f ic ien t ly Ro man ized t o p ossess a c harter u nder wh ich t he a nnual mag istra tes w ere awarded Ro man c i t izensh ip . h istory , i s r e markable.

Th is g ran t , s o e arly i n i t s

Why w as t he c i ty t hus f avoured?

P ossibly t he

C atuvel laun i h ad smart ly c hanged s ides a t a n o pportune mo men t d uring t he i nvasion , b u t i n •any c ase t he emperor C laudius w as a man o f o r igina l p o l it i ca l i deas , b y n o means a verse f ro m r ewarding f r iend ly p rov incia ls i n ways t ha t r a ised e yebrows among t he more c onserva t ive members o f t he R oman s ena te .

U nfor tuna te ly w e k now t he n ame o f o n ly o ne R o man c i t izen a t

V eru lamiu m ,

J u l ius P r i mus , b u t w e d o n ot k now w he ther h e h ad b een a

mag istrate ( JRS 2 6 1 936, 2 67 ). A lban , i s o f i ndef in i te s tatus;

The most f a mous i nhab itan t o f Veru la m iu m, b u t a no ther w el l-known C atuvel laun ian , Reg ina ,

i s d escribed a s af reedwo man a nd s o h ad o nce b een a s lave ( RIB 1 065, p l. XV ). I ti s worth a sk ing h ow t h is C a tuvel laun ian l ady h ad c o me t o b e e nslaved . I t i s j ust p ossible t hat w e may s ee h ere t he work ings o f t he p rocess wh ich A lfdldy ( 1974, 1 31 ) r ecogn ised i n N oricu m— the w ork ings o f ap rim i t ive s yste m o f s oc ia l i nsurance u nder wh ich p aren ts s old t heir o f fspring i n to s lavery i n t he e xpec tat ion t hat i n d ue c ourse t heir masters w ou ld r estore t he ir l i berty a nd s et t he m u p a s f reed men a t al evel o f p rosperity n ot t o b e a t ta ined b y t he o rig inal p aren ts.

I fs o t he s yste m worked w el l f or Reg ina , who i n d ue c ourse

married h er master a nd a ch ieved a n o bv ious w eal th , a nd i s n ot w i thou t i n terest i n t he p resen t c on tex t. The e stabl ish men t o f t he s treet g r id a t Veru la m iu m w ou ld r equ ire t he h elp o f Ro man s urveyors, who a t t ha t e arly d a te w ere c erta in ly p rov ided b y t he l eg ions;

a nd m i l itary a ssistance i s a lso i nd icated b y t he t ype o f b u i ld ing

e xcavated i n I nsu la X IV , where n ot o n ly d oes t he s tark s i mp l ic ity o f t he p lan r ese mble a b arrack-block ( see Hassal l a bove F ig. 2 p . 2 47 ) b u t t he a c tual 2 76

a rch i tecture w i th i t s u se o f s leeper-bear s a nd .h alft . i mbered w at tle-andd aub c onstruc t ion w as n ew t o B ri ta in a l though wel l-known t o a r my e ng ineers, a s V a lkenburg s hows . 1 I ts ee ms p la in t ha t l ike C olchester, t he n ew c i ty a t Veru la m iu m w as i n tended t o p lay t he p art o f model i n t he Ro man izat ion o f t he p rov ince. The b u ild ing c on ta ins a t l east n ine d ouble c o mpartmen ts b eh ind a t imb ered p ort ico a nd , l ike i t s s uccessors , w as d evo ted t o manu fac turing t rades; b ronze-workers a re c erta in ly a t tested. The p lan i t self s hows u n i ts o f f our, b u t t he r oof ing a rrange men ts p robably g o f ur ther t o s uggest s ingle ownersh ip o f t he whole c o mp lex .

Thus w e h ave t o t h ink o f t he i nd iv idual c raf ts men a s

t enan ts o f as ing le l and lord ; a nd t h is i n t urn s uggests t he Ro man s yste m o f l i bert i s et u p i nb usiness b y t heir p a tron . A l terna t ively we c an t h ink o f a C el t ic n oble w i th h is c l ien ts —bu t , i fs o , i tw as a v ery q u ick a dap tat ion t o t he Ro man u rban s ty le. These s hops —and much e lse b esides —were t o tal ly d estroyed b y f i re t en y ears l a ter i n t he B oud iccan s ack .

A c en tury a f terwards a s econd d isastrous

f i re d estroyed t he s uccessors t o t hese b u i ld ings a nd a bou t 5 0 a cres o f t he c i ty ;

b u t t here i s ac on trast b etween t he t wo b urn t d eposits.

f i re t ook t he i nhab i tan ts b y s urprise : among t he d ebris.

I n 1 55 t he

many o b jec ts w ere l ef t t o b e f ound

Bu t i n 6 1 t hey h ad g ood w arn ing;

t he b urn t d eposi ts

y ielded v ery l i t t le l oot a nd i ts ee ms t hat t here was t ime f or e vacua t ion . Th is l eads t o ac onsidera t ion o ft he B oud iccan e p isode. L ondon , Tac i tus ( Anna les X IV , 3 3 ) t e l ls u s, was f u l l o fb usiness mer rand merchand ise —cop ia n ego t iatoru m e t c o m meatuu m n on i nsigne.

The men t ion o f n egot ia tores r e-

m inds u s o f t he r ap id i n f low i n to a n ew p rov ince o f i t a i la ' n merchants which i s w el l a t tested i n G au l , N oricu m a nd Pannon ia ; e ven i n B r ita in t he e p i-

g raph ic r ecord i l lustra tes t he i n f lux o f f reedmen a nd o thers f ro m t he c on t inen t a nd t he ir a c t iv ity i n m in ing a nd t he p ot tery i ndustr ies among o thers. And , a s w e h ave s een , t hey a re a ttested a lso b y Tac itus , who s u ms u p w i th a n e st i ma te t hat t he c asual i t ies o f t he r ebel l ion amoun ted t o 7 . 0 ,000 Ro man c i t iz ens a nd a l l ies.

We may u nderstand t he f ury w i th wh Ich B öud icca w iped o u t

L ondon . Bu t why was V eru la m iu m d estroyed? I t must e v iden tly h ave s ee med t o h er e yes a Ro man r ather t han a B r it ish p lace. Was t h is merely b ecause i th eld t he r ank o f mun ic ip iu m a nd was r egarded a s ac en tre o f t rai tor B r itons? Perhaps t h is w as o ne c onsidera t ion , b u t Ib el ieve t hat t he a rcha eolog ical t races i n I nsu la X IV a lso s uggest t he p resence o f c on t inen tal merc han ts, money-lenders a nd t heir k ind who h ad a r epu tat ion f or g r ind ing t he f aces o f t he p rov inc ials. I ft h is i s s o i tw ou ld e ip la in t he h a tred v isible i n t he B oud iccan s ack ing a nd wou ld t hrow i mportan t l i gh t o n t he t op ic u nder c ons iderat ion i n t h is v olu me. Whether o r n o t i mm igran t n egot iatores f or med a ny c ons iderable p art o f t he p opu la t ion , n atural ly l ocal C atuvel laun ians w il l h ave b een p resen t i n s o me n u mbers, g rav i tat ing f ro m P rae Wood ;

t o p rove t he ir p resence we h ave t he

G rubenhaus r ecorded b y Wheeler a nd Wheeler ( 1936 ) a nd a lso a n i n terest ing b u ild ing f ro m my own e xcavat ions o f 1 956-7 ( Fig. 2 ). The s i te o f t h is l ay j ust b eh ind t he r a mpart o f t he f ort a nd was l a ter p art ly s ealed b y t he r ampart a cco mpany ing t he c i ty w al l ;

b u t u n fortuna tely e lsewhere t he s oi l-cover h ad

b een i nsu f f ic ien t t o p reserve i t s t races f ro m d estruc t ion b y p lough ing .

2 77

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2 78

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le 20 . _ ,

b u i ld ing h ad b een b urned i nA . D. 6 1;

i ta d jo ined a g ravel led c ourtyard b u t

t he d eposits o fb urn t d aub w ere c on f ined t o t he b u i ld ing i t self .

I tc onsisted

o f ar ectangu lar h al lb u il t o f i nd iv idual p osts w i thou t s leeper-beams a nd was d iv ided d own t he m idd le. There w as o ne p ro jec t ing w ing : t he r a mpart l ay t oo c lose t o a l low a s econd .

I ti s v ery i n terest ing t o n ote t ha t i n t he F lav ian

p eriod a v ery s im i lar b u i ld ing r ep laced i t ;

o n ly b y t h is t ime t he l evels

a l lowed a w ing o ver t he r a mpartta i l , a nd i ts ee ms v ery p robable t hat a s y m metrical w ing o nce s tood a t t he o ther e nd o f t he f acade a s a l lowed b y t he s urv iv ing p ost-hole p a t tern . Recen t w ri t ings b y J . T . Sm i th ( 19 78 a a nd b ) h ave emphasised t he p ro m inence o ft he h al l a s av il latype i n Ger many a nd i n Br i ta in ; h e h as s tressed i t s s ign if icance f or s oc ia l h istory a nd s hown t hat i tb elongs t o t ha t l arge c lass o f monu men ts wh ich c an u sefu l ly b e d escribed a s Ro mano-Cel t ic — mean ing t hat t hey w ere a dap tat ions o f Ro man a rch itectural

f or ms t o p rov inc ial n eeds. With Rodwel l 's r ecen t ( 19 78 ) e xp ose o f B elg ic r ec tangu lar b u ild ings i n o ur h ands , w e c an s ee t hat i n t hese t wo V eru la m iu m

b u ild ings t he o n ly Ro man f ea tures a re t he ir s ize a nd t heir p ossession o f w ings. I ti s n oteworthy t o f i nd s uch b u i ld ings i n ac i ty ;

a nd a t s uch e arly d a tes.

The c on t inued e x istence i s s uggested o f as izeable B ri t ishtype h ousehold c en tred , i n t rad i t ional s tyle, i n ab ig c o m munal l i ving- a nd work ing-space. The p resence o f ap i le o fa t l east 1 0 , 0 00 o yster-shel ls i n t he F lav ian b u ild ing i s e v idence f or a l arge n u mber o f mou ths. What i s s urpris ing a bou t s uch s urv ivals o f n at ive a rch i tec tural t rad i t ion i s t heir r ar i ty. 2

The n or ma lb u i ld ing i n t he n ew

c i ty w as t he s tr ip-bu i ld ing

o r o ther smal l h ouses c losely a k in t o i t . O f t hese we h ave s o f ar v ery f ew p re-Flav ian p lans, b u t t hey b eco me b etter k nown i n t he p er iod 7 0-13 O . Hertfordsh ire i s a n a rea where w e h ave e v idence f or t he e arly d evelop men t o f t he v i l la ;

a t t hree s i tes n ear Veru la m iu m t he Ro man b u i ld ing i s p receded

b y B elg ic p hases, s o t hat c on t inu i ty o f e state- manage men t—and a l most c ert a in ly o f f am i ly ownersh ip—can b e d educed .

A t P ark S treet a nd L ock leys

t here was l i t t le c hange i n t he n a t ive s ty le o f h ouse u n t i l a f ter t he B oud iccan r ebe l l ion ;

b u t a t G orha mbury , l ess t han o ne m ile f ro m t he c i ty , at imber-

f ra med b u ild ing o f Ro man s ty le a lready e x isted b y t ha t d ate a nd c learly owed i t s c harac ter t o t he c lose i nvolve men t o f i t s owner w i th t he n ew Ro man ized c i ty. I n t he F lav ian p eriod t he Park S treet a nd L ock leys v i l las w ere r ebu i l t i n s tone , a nd t he Box moor v i l la w as b u i l t i n h alft i mber;

n ow , t oo , n ew v i l las

a lso a ppear a t N orthchurch a nd Gadebridge, n one o f t he m o f as ize o r l uxury wh ich w ou ld s uggest i mm igran t ownersh ip .

We may c onc lude t ha t , w i th in

t wo g enera t ion s o f t he c onquest , t he l anded p roprietors o f t he C atuvel laun i w ere s et tl ing d own t o e n joy t he f ru i ts a nd c o mforts o f t he n ew c iv il iza t ion . The f ac t t hat , a s Wal thew ( 1975, 19 5 ) h as p o in ted o u t , t hey d id s o i n t he c oun try r a ther t han o n al arge s cale i n t he c i ty , s hows t hat wh ile t he ma ter ial b enef its o f Ro manziat ion w ere w elco med a nd a dop ted , f u l l c onversion t o t he u rban-based c iv il iza t ion o f t he Ro man Emp ire was s low t o t ak e h old .

Real ly

l arge t own-houses d o n ot a ppear a t Veru la m iu m u n t il t he s econd h alf o f t he s econd c en tury. Un t il t he An ton ine f i re o f 1 55 t he b u i ld ings o f Veru la m iu m were o f modest t hough g radual ly i ncreasing s ize a nd o f h al ft i mbered c onstruct i on , a l though b y 1 40 l uxur ious f ea tures s uch a s wal l-pa in t ings a nd mosa ic , t essel la ted o r o pus s ign inu m f l oors w ere b eco m ing more p revalen t.

2 79

To s um u p , w i th in 1 0-15 y ears o f t he Ro man i nvas ion t here h ad o ccurred ar eal r evolu t ion i n manners , s ty le o f l i v ing a nd l ocal g overn men t.

The

r evolu t ion w as n o d oub t i nsp ired a nd l ed t o s o me e x ten t b y i mm igran t n ego t ia tores, b u t o ur e v idence i s t ha t i t s l essons w ere q u ick ly a bsorbed b y t he l ocal p opu lat ion .

The v ast s ales o f imported t able-wares —p la tes , c ups , m ix ing

b ow ls , v essels c on ta in ing w ine a nd o i l , a nd mortaria d e monstra te t he r evolut i on i n manners, a s d o f i rst-cen tury g raf f i t i t hat i n e duca t ion .

By t he b eg in-

n ing o f t he F lav ian p er iod a v ast p ottery i ndustry , e xpor t ing i t s p roduc ts a l l o ver Ro man Bri ta in , h ad b een d eveloped s ou th o f Veru la m iu m , r ep lac ing t he p urely l ocal p roduc t ion o f v essels i n Belg ic s ty le w ith a w ider v arie ty o f b et ter- made v essels;

a nd i n t he c i ty i t sel f w e h ave e v idence f or s uch d etai ls

a s b ronze s tatuary i n a dd i t ion t o af oru m c overing 5 a cres a nd f i rs t-cen tury t e mp les. There s ee ms n o r eason t o d oubt t ha t w i th in a g enera t ion o f t he c onquest t he i n troduc t ion o f Ro man o rgan isat ion h ad r esu l ted i n av ast i ncrease i n p rosper i ty f or a w ide s pec tru m o f t he p opu la t ion , a nd t ha t b y most p eop le t he n ew s yste m was b oth a ccep ted a nd welco med . was n ot t he work o f l ocals.

The r ebel l ion o f A .D. 6 1

NOTES 1 .

v an G IFFEN A . E . 2 9e-32e J aarverslag v an d e Vereen ig ing v oor Terpenonderzoek .

2 .

To t he G rubenhaus a nd h al l-bu ild ing a lready c i ted f ro m t he c i ty , w e may a dd a c ircu lar h u t a nd a G rubenhaus o f l a te f i rst c en tury d ate a t Gorha mbury . ( Britann ia 7 , 19 76 , 3 39f ). B IBL IOGRAPHY

ALFÖLDY , G ., 19 74.

N oricu m

DUNNETT , R ., 1 975.

The Trinovan tes

HARD ING , D . W., 1 974. NEAL , D . S ., 1 978.

L ondon . L ondon .

The I ron Age i n L ow land Br itain

L ondon .

' The g row th a nd d ec l ine o f v il las i n t he Verula m iu m

a rea ' i n TODD 1 978 , 3 3-53. ROD WE LL , W. R ., 19 78.

' Bu ild ings a nd S et t le men ts i n S ou th-East B ri ta in

i n t he L a te I ron Age ' i n CUNL IFFE B . W. a nd RO WLEY T . ( Eds.) L ow land I ron Age C o m mun i t ies i n Europe

B .A .R

S 48 Ox ford.

SMITH , J . T ., 1 978a. ' Hal ls o r Yards ? A P roble m o f V i lla I n terpretat ion ' i n Br i tann ia 9 , 19 78 , 3 51-8. SMITH , J . T ., 1 978b. 1 49 -185. TODD , M. ( Ed .), 1 978.

' V il las a s aK ey t o S oc ial S truc ture ' i n TODD 19 78

S tud ies i n t he Ro mano-Br it ish V il la

L ec iester U .P.

WA L THE W , C . V ., 1 975. ' The T own H ouse a nd V il la H ouse i n Ro man Br i ta in ' i n B r i tann ia 6 , 19 75, 18 9-2 0 5. W HEE LER, R . E . M. a nd W HEE LER, T . V ., 1 936. a nd Two Ro man C i t ies Ox ford. 2 80

Veru la m iu m , aB e lg ic

S ECT ION 6 : THE IMPACT OF AN I NVAS ION ON RURAL S ETTLE MENT

Desp i te r ecen t t rends i n a rchaeology t owards more i n tegra ted s et t le men t p at tern s tud ies a nd t he d ra ma t ic i ncrease i n o ur a wareness o f t he r ura l s e tt l e men t p a t tern f ro m a er ia l p hotography a nd f i eldwork , i tr e ma ins b road ly t rue t ha t t he s tudy o f Ro mano-Br i t ish r ura l s i tes a nd t he q ues t ion o f t he I ron Age t o Ro man c on t inuu m a re s o mewha t u nderrepresen ted i n t he l i tera ture. I ndeed , b eyond a f ew i mportan t s em ina l works i n i nd iv idua l l oca l j ourna ls , t he s tandard s ource a s men t ioned i n t he i n troduc t ion , s t il l t ends t o b e Tho mas 1 966. With t h is i n m ind , t he f i ve p apers i ncluded i n t h is f i na l s ec t ion were i n tended t o c over a spec ts o f t he r ura l s e t t le men t i n an u mber o f v ar ied r eg ions. Wh ilst r ura l s et t le men t f or ms a n ea t a nd c onven ien t ' parcel ' , t he e d itors w ou ld f eel much h app ier i ff urther work was a i med a t r eg iona l s tud ies wh ich i n tegra te b oth t he r ura l a nd t he u rban a s p art o f aw ider p rocess , a nd w ith t h is i n m ind we h ave p laced t he u rban a nd r ura l s ide b y s ide h ere. There i s s o mewha t o f ab ias t owards t he l ow land z one o f B ri ta in : o n ly t he p aper b y Hogg i s s pec if ica l ly d irec ted t owards t he u p land a rea o f Wa les , t hough Barn iJ ones' p aper e lsewhere h as s o me p ert inent r e marks t o make o n t he d if ferences b e tween t he r eg ions n or th a nd s ou th o f t he f ron t ier z one. A l l t he c on tr ibutors i n t he ir d iscuss ions w ere a sked t o c ons ider t he e x tent t o wh ich t he I ron Age t o Ro mano-Br it ish t ransi t ion was e xpressed i n t he l ands cape i n t er ms o f c on t inu ity o r c hange :

wh i lst we were i n teres ted i n t he

l andscape a s a whole , an u mber o f v ar ied emphases were u sed i n t he d if feren t s tud ies. I n s tudy ing t he We lsh mater ia l , H ogg n a tura l ly h as v ery s trong e le men ts o f c on t inu i ty : wh ilst t here s ee med t o b e s o me c hanges i n t he d es ign o f f ar ms teads , t he b road t rends o f a gr icu l tura l p ract ices a s f ar a s t hey c an b e r ec overed , s ee m t o h ave b arely a l tered . I ndeed a s t he a u thor a dm i ts , t he a r t ic le i s more a s er ies o f p roble ms a nd q uest ions t han a nswers a nd i ti s r efresh ing t o h ear a p lea f or t he c arefu l c ol lec t ion a nd a na lys is o f l oca l a nd r eg iona l p ol len s pec tra a s ap art o f s e t t le men t a na lys is.

The a rt icles b y O 'Br ien a nd

J ones a nd Mi les b oth p rov ide i n teres t ing c on trasts a nd c o mpar isons. The f or mer , e xa m in ing a n a rea o f N ot t ingha msh ire i n t he s o-ca l led l ow land/h ighl and d iv ision z one , emphas ises t he importance o f a er ia l p ho tography a nd f i eldwork a s a ma jor p ar t o f a ny r esearch c a mpa ign a nd r e inforces o ur i mp ress ion o f t he i ncreas ingly c o mp lex p a l i mpsest v isible i n t he s e t t le men t l andscape. B oth t he p apers p o in t t o t he v ery h igh d ens it ies o f s e t t le men t a nd s tress t he e le men t o f c on t inu i ty a s ak eynote. I ndeed , J ones a nd Miles s tress t he d om inance o f t he r ura l a spec t a nd t he n a t ive a s o pposed t o t he Ro man , a nd c a l l i nadverten t ly f or a much more ' preh istor ic ' a nd q uan t if ied a pproach t o t he s ub jec t :

t he p roble ms o f s a mp l ing a c o mp lex I ron A ge t o Ro mano-

Br it ish l andscape a re b r ief ly d iscussed i n r ela t ion t o t he ir c a mpa igns a t

2 83

C laydon P ike i n t he Upper Tha mes Bas in . The f ina l t wo p apers b y Rodwel l a nd Rud l ing a ga in p rov ide i n terest ing c o mpar isons , s ince b oth emphasise t he more Ro man ised e le men ts o f t he l andscape a nd t he d evelop men t o f t he v il la s yste ms i n t he E ssex a nd East S ussex r eg ions.

H ere t here wou ld s ee m

t o h ave b een more f unda men ta l c hanges , a t l eas t i n t he l and-a l lot men t , b u t i ti s ad eba teable p oin t h ow much t he a gr icu l ture c hanged :

o ne w onders h ow

g rea t ap ar t c ash-cropp ing m ight h ave p layed , p ar t icu larly i n t he e arly v il la d evelopmen t o f t he S ussex a rea . Broad ly s peak ing , t here i s ap a t tern o f c on t inu ity r a ther t han c hange , a l though w i th i n terest ing v ar ia t ions b etween d if feren t r eg ions.

Th is s hou ld

s uggest n ew l i nes o f a pproach t o t he q uest ions w ithin t he b roader s pec tru m o f t o ta l s et t le men t p a t tern s tud ies.

2 84

I NVASION AND RESPONSE:

THE PROBLE MS I N WALES

b y A . H . A . Hogg

1 .

I n troduc tory F or s evera l r eason s, t he t ransi t ion t o aRo man ised s oc ia l s yste m i n

Wa les p oses p roble ms t o wh ich a t p resen t t here i s n o c oheren t s et o f a nswers. The a im h ere i s t o f or mu la te t hose p roble ms, a nd t o s uggest p ossible s olu t ions a nd ways i n wh ich t hey m igh t b e i nvest iga ted . Af ew p o in ts n eed t o b e emphasised a t t he s tar t , t hough t hey w i l l b e d isc ussed more f u l ly l a ter. s ion o f u n ifor m i ty .

F irst , t o r efer t o "Wa les" imposes a f a lse impres-

I n t he p re-Ro man p er iod a t l east s ix d ist inc t c u l tura l

a reas, p robably more, c an b e d ist ingu ished i n t he r eg ion n ow c overed b y t ha t n a me.

Two o f t hese l i e e ast o f t he c en tra l moun ta in mass, a nd e x tend f ar

i n to England , t he Welsh p art b eing i n e ach c ase t he sma l ler p or t ion .

For t ha t

r eason t hey w i l l n o t b e c onsidered h ere , e ven t hough t h is r e jec t ion c arries w i th i ts o me o f t he most i n terest ing a nd i nstruct ive p re-Ro man s i tes, s uch a s t he Breidd in a nd D inorben . N ex t , t he c hange f ro m p re-Ro man t o f u l ly Ro man s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion t ook f ar l onger t han i n most o f t he C iv il Z one o f Ro man Br i ta in .

I ndeed , i ft he

p resence o f v il las w ere t o b e t aken a s c r iter ion , t he n or th-west c ou ld b e s a id n ever t o h ave b een Ro man ised ;

b u t f or c onven ience t he b eg inn ing o f t he s econd

c en tury w il lb e t aken a s t he l im i t f or d eta iled d iscussion , t hough s o me b rief r eference must b e made t o wha t h appened l a ter.

The i n teract ion o f Ro man

a nd n a t ive u p t o t he e nd o f t he f our th c en tury h as b een s tud ied b y J . L . Dav ies ( 1974 ). F ina l ly , o ver much o f Wa les, t he p re-Ro man i nhabi tan ts d id n o t u se p o tt ery , a nd h ad v ery f ew d urable o b jec ts o f a ny k ind e xcep t " u t il i ty s tones" , s o t he a bsence o ff i rst-cen tury ma ter ia l f ro m a s i te d oes n o t n ecessari ly imp ly t ha t i t was u noccup ied ;

t he i nhab i tan ts may merely h ave f el t n o n eed t o

c hange t heir way o f l i v ing. A va ilable s ources o f a ctua l o r p o ten t ia l i n for ma t ion f a l l u nder f i ve h eads: Ro man d ocu men tary ma ter ia l ; p re-Ro man a rt ifacts — most ly h il l-for ts; Ro man Mil i tary s i tes; 2 .

P ol len S pectra ;

a nd Ro man ised n a t ive s et t le ments.

The Docu men tary S ources These h ave b een v ery f u l ly s tud ied b y s evera l a u thors, a nd n eed o n ly b e

s u m marised h ere.

Wri t ten h istory ( y _ . Frere 1 967 , Nash- W il l ia ms 1 969 ,

Dud ley 1 974 ) d epends a l most e xc lusively o n t he L ife o f A gr icola , b y Tac i tus; ow ing t o i t s n a ture, t h is i nc ludes n o i nfor ma t ion r ela t ing t o Wa les a f ter A .D . 7 8.

I t imp l ies t ha t s hor t ly b efore t ha t d a te, a f ter t h ir ty y ears o f i ndec isive

warfare, t he c onquest o f t he r eg ion was c o mp leted , f i rst b y t he d efea t o f t he 2 85

S i lures i n t he s ou th a nd s oon a f ter b y t he d estruc t ion o f t he Ordov ices i n t he n orth-west . The o ther d ocu men t i s t he G eography o f C laud ius P tole my. F or s ou thern Brita in t he i n for ma t ion o n wh ich i ti sb ased d a tes f ro m b efore A .D. 7 0 ( Rivet 1 974 ) , t ha t i s , w el lb efore t he f ina l c onquest o f Wa les; b u t i td oes l i t t le more t han i nd ica te v ery r ough ly t he l oca t ion o f t he ma in t r ibes. The C ornov i i a nd t he D obunn i o ccup ied r espect ively t he n or thern a nd s ou thern Marches; t heir t err i tor ies a l most c er ta in ly e x tended f ar i n to wha t i s n ow Eng land , s o t hey a re n o t d iscussed f ur ther h ere. The S ilures l i ved mostly i n wha t b ecame t he h istor ic c oun t ies o fG la morgan a nd Mon mouthsh ire , w i th t he D e metae t o t he w est , i n P e mbrok esh ire a nd Car marthensh ire. n or th-west.

The Ordov ices l i ved t o t he

I ti s i mportan t t o r ea l ise t ha t P tole myts i n for ma t ion , wh ich i s

u sua l ly a l l t ha t i s a va i lable, d oes n ot p er m i t e ven a r ough d ef in i t ion o f t he a ctua l t r iba lb oundar ies.

I ndeed , t hese a re s o u ncerta in t ha t e ven t o w r ite

t heir n ames o n a map c an o f ten b e m islead ing. 3 .

The P re-Ro man Ma ter ia l

The o n ly p lent ifu l p re-Ro man a rt ifact i n Wa les i s t he h i l lfor t ; b u t n ot many h ave b een e ven p ar t ia l ly e xcava ted , a nd t heir e xac t d a t ing o f ten r e ma ins i n d oub t , f or a s n o ted e arl ier p o t tery a nd o ther r el ics a re e x tre mely s carce o ver most o f Wa les. N ever theless, i n d efau l t o f a ny more s a t isfactory e v id ence, t he a ssu mp t ion t ha t ac oncen tra t ion o f h i l l-for ts c orresponds t o ac onc en tra t ion o f p re-Ro man s et t le men t s ee ms r easonable. t i on i s c onsidered ( Fig. 1 ) , i ti s c learly n o t u n ifor m .

When t heir d istr ibu-

The ma in b lank , a s

m igh t b e e xpec ted , i s i n t he moun ta inous c oun try o f c en tra l Wa les.

To t he

e ast t here i s a n i n tense s ca t ter o ff a irly l arge f orts , e x tend ing f ar a cross t he p resen t p ol i t ica lb oundary i n to England . These, t herefore , l ike t he C ornov i i a nd t he D obunn i , w il lb e l ef t o u t o f d iscussion ; b u t t here i s n o t n ecessar ily a ny c orrela t ion b etween t he d istribu t ion o f t he f or ts a nd t he t err i tor ies o ft hose t r ibes ( on t h is B orderland s ee S tanford 1 974 ). • Further w est a t l east f our d ist inc t a reas c an b e r ecogn ised ; t he n umber c ou ld b e i ncreased ( c f . Hogg 1 972a ). D i f ferences i n t he s ize-d istr ibu t ion o f f orts ( Hogg 1 972b ) i nd icate t ha t t hese g roups h ave s o me o b ject ive r ea l i ty , e ven t hough t he b oundar ies t he mselves a re r a ther s ub jec t ive; t o emphasise t h is t hey a re s hown o n t he maps b y r u led l i nes.

A s w i l l a ppear , t he b oundar ies

d educed s o le ly f ro m t he d istribu t ion p a t tern o f t he h i l l-forts d o s ee m t o b e t o s o me e x ten t s ign if ican t i n l a ter p er iods, s o t hey a re r epea ted o n a l l maps. For c onven ience o f r eference , a nd t o a vo id imp ly ing a ny h istor ica l , a dm in ist ra t ive, o r t r iba l a ssoc ia t ions, t he t err i tor ies e nc losed w il l b e t er med t he N orth-west , West , S ou th-west , a nd S ou thern A reas. 4 .

The Ro man Forts The m i l i tary a spec ts o f t he Ro man p er iod h ave b een s tud ied i n c onsiderable

d eta il.

Wha t h appened d uring t he i n i t ia l t h ir ty y ears o f i n ter m i t ten t warfare

i s s t il l l argely u ncerta in , t hough t he i n for ma t ion a va i lable i sb eing s tead ily i ncreased .

F or t he p er iod o f c onsol ida t ion a f ter A gr icola 's s uccesses, t he

s yste m o f f or ts t hen e stabl ished h as b een a l mos t c o mp letely w orked o u t , a nd t he h istory o f many o f t he m h as b een d eter m ined b e e xcava t ion.

2 86

I n g enera l ,

S H

S MSN S R S '

S J

S O S T

T HE MA JOR G ROUPS O F H ILL -F ORTS . 1 N WESTERN WALES

2 87

t he p a t tern s ee ms t o h ave b een v ery u n i for m t hroughou t Wa les , e xcep t f or t he S ou th-western A rea .

S o f ar a s p resen t k now ledge g oes , t ha t s ee ms t o

h ave b een f ree, o r a l most f ree, o f Ro man f orts; d iscussed b elow .

t he s ign if icance o f t h is i s

I n mos t o f t he f orts t he i n i t ia l o ccupa t ion s ee ms t o h ave c on t inued f or a t l east a d ecade, i mp ly ing t ha t e ven among a reas n om ina l ly p ac if ied , o r , a s among t he Ordov ices , c leared , s o me p oten t ia l ly h ost ile n a t ives r e ma ined. The p resence o f t he f orts a lso makes i tf a irly c erta in t ha t s o me a gr icu l ture must h ave c on t inued ( Mann ing 1 975 ) , wha tever t he c ond i t ion o f t he n a t ive f ar ms. Th is w il l n eed t o b e t aken i n to a ccoun t when p ol len s pec tra b eco me a va ilable. The e stabl ish men t o f t hese f or ts i n a bou t A .D . 8 0 i s u sua l ly a ccep ted a s mark ing t he f i na l c onsol ida t ion o f Ro man c on trol ;

b u t o ne p roble m ( no t d is-

c ussed i n Nash- W il l ia ms 1 969 ) d eserves men t ion.

Reference t o t he o r ig ina l

e xcava t ion r epor ts s hows t ha t i n s evera l f orts t he i n terna l b u i ld ings b elong ing t o t h is p hase w ere d estroyed b y f i re. L lystyn ;

To men-y- Mur ;

Those n oted a re :

Brecon Gaer ;

L oughor ;

Caernarvon ;

a nd Card if f .

P en

S o me

h ave a l most c er ta in ly b een o verlooked , f or t he e v idence i s o f ten o n ly a l loca ted as ingle s en tence i n t he r eport .

C o inc identa l a cc iden ts s ee m u n l ikely , b u t

among p ossible a l terna t ives a rgu men ts c ou ld b e a dvanced f or t wo d ia metrica l ly o pposed e xp lana t ions :

aw idespread r evol t ;

e nough t o a bandon a nd d e mol ish t heir f or ts.

o r t ha t t he Ro mans f el t s ecure More i nvest iga t ion s ee ms d esir-

a ble. 5 .

P ol len S pectra

I n most a reas t hese ofer a p o ten t ia l s ource o f i nfor ma t ion r a ther t han a n a c tua l o ne. S o f ar a s Iam a ware, t he o n ly s pec tru m t ak en s pec if ica l ly t o i nvest iga te t he t ransi t ional p er iod i s t ha t f ro m Graeanog , i n t he N or th-western A rea R . Wh ite i n l i t . ). Over Wa les a s a whole s evera l c ores h ave b een e xam ined , b u t i n e ach c ase t he p r i mary o b jec t ive h as b een t o s tudy c l i ma t ic h istory o ver m il lenn ia r a ther t han d ecades;

t o c o mp la in t ha t d eta il i s l ack-

i ng f or t he f i rst c en tury A .D . w ou ld b e u nreasonable. N evertheless , o ne d iagra m o f fers a t an ta l is ing h in t o f i n for ma t ion wh ich may b e r elevan t. I tr ela tes t o ac ore t aken f ro m Tregaron Bog i n Card igansh ire ( Turner 1 965 ).

Carbon t aken a t d ep ths o f 8 1 a nd 6 3 cm g ave u ncorrected d a tes o f

4 00 b c a nd 4 80 a d , c orrespond ing t o 4 50 B . C. a nd A .D . 5 10 u sing C lark 's c orrect ion ( Clark

1 975 ).

S even s pec i mens w ere t aken b etween t hese d ep ths,

a t 2 .5 cm i n terva ls, s o t ha t i ft he t wo t er m ina l d a tes c ou ld b e a ccep ted a s v a l id , e ach i n terva l w ou ld c orrespond o n a verage t o a bou t 1 20 y ears. Un fortuna tely , a s i s w el l k nown , r ad iocarbon d a tes a re s ub jec t t o a n i nh eren t e xper i men ta l u ncerta in ty , a pproach ing a c en tury e i ther way f ro m t he c en tra l d a te;

a nd t he r ecen t s tudy o f n u merous s a mp les f ro m t he Cadbury

massacre o f a bou t A .D . 6 0 h as s hown t ha t c on te mporary s pec i mens c an y ield c en tra l d a tes wh ich may b e a s much a s t wo o r t hree c en tur ies w rong.

T o

u se l i near i n terpola t ion b etween t he t wo r ad iocarbon d a tes f ro m Tregaron i n o rder t o a ssign a d a te t o e ach s a mp le i s t herefore l og ica l ly q u i te u n just if iable, a nd m islead ing i ft aken l i tera l ly.

N ever theless i td oes p rov ide a c onven ien t

way o f s pecify ing e ach i nd iv idua l s a mp le; a nd n oth ing

more, i t s u se i s l eg i t i ma te.

2 88

s o i fi ti s a ccep ted a s d o ing t ha t Moreover , e xpressing t he r esul ts

i n t h is way d oes i nd ica te t he s ort o f i n for ma t ion wh ich m igh t b e o bta ined when t he a ccuracy o f r ad iocarbon d a t ing i s improved , i ft he d a ted s a mp les a re more c losely s paced .

The f igures wh ich f ol low a re g iven s ub jec t t o t hese

r eserva t ions. Over t he whole e ight o r n ine c en tur ies t he t ree p ol len , e xpressed a s a p ercen tage o ft o ta l p ol len , c hanged v ery l i t t le, v ary ing i rregu larly f ro m a bout 2 3% t o 1 9%.

The r a t io o f h erbs t o s hrubs, t hough , a l tered d ra st ica l ly.

I n

t he s amp le c orrespond ing t o " 43 a d" a nd i n t hose b elow i tt he r a t io was 0 .9 t o 1( 3 6% a nd 4 1% ).

I n t he n ex t h igher s amp le, c orrespond ing t o " 158 a d" ,

a nd i n t hose a bove, t he r a t io n ever d ropped b elow 3 .2 t o 1( 6 21% a nd 1 9% ). Th is imp l ies t ha t a t s o me t ime , p robably d uring t he Ro man o ccupa t ion a nd p ossibly n ear i t s b eg inn ing , t here was a f a irly s udden c hange i n c ond it ions; s o s a mp l ing d irec ted s pec if ica l ly t owards i nvest iga t ing t h is p er iod m igh t p rove v ery i n for ma t ive. 6 .

N a t ive S ites i n t he Ro man P er iod These c an b est b e c onsidered u nder t he s epara te A reas, f or t he d evelop-

men t i n e ach s ee ms t o h ave b een d if feren t ;

b u t i ti s c onven ien t t o r efer h ere

t o Dr. Grace S i mpson 's importan t g enera l d iscussion ( S i mpson 1 964 ). The h ypothesis wh ich s he w ished t o e xam ine was t ha t " the s i mu l taneous r eoccupa t ion o f h i l l-forts i n a l l p ar ts o f Wa les wou ld s uggest t here was a g enera l p urpose a t ap art icular t ime, a nd t herefore t he sma l l f inds s hou ld b e r ough ly c on te mporary i n d a te." t h is h ypothesis ;

I nb r ief , s he f ound n o e v idence t o s upport

s he a lso p oin ts o u t t ha t t he t o ta l amoun t o f e arly ma ter ia l

i s v ery sma l l , a nd w ou ld s ee m o n ly t o j ust ify t he a ssu mp t ion o f s ubstan t ia l f i rst-cen tury o ccupa t ion o nt wo s i tes.

A s w il l b e s een , s ince o ne o f t hese i s

i n t he N orth-western A rea a nd t he o ther i n t he S ou th , c ircu mstances a re u nl ikely t o h ave b een t he s ame i nb oth c ases. 7 .

The S ou thern A rea

( Fig. 2 )

Th is c orresponds r ough ly t o t he h istor ic c oun t ies o f G lamorgan a nd Monmouthsh ire , a nd e ven more r ough ly t o t he t err itory o f t he S ilures.

For G la-

morgan , most o ft he ma teria l h as b een c ol lec ted i n t he I nven tory f or t ha t c oun ty ( R ,CAM Wa les 1 . 976) , a nd i s r eferred t o b y t he Monu men t Number , i nd ica ted f or e xa mp le a s ( GL 7 58 ) , u nder wh ich e arl ier r eferences w il l b e f ound . I nt he A rea a s a whole, r elevan t i nfor ma t ion i s ( f or Wa les ) u nusua l ly p len t if u l , a nd s o me h as e ven b een o bta ined f ro m modern e xcava t ions; s urpr isingly v ar ied .

b u t i ti s

I n i t s l a ter p hases t h is a rea was a pparen tly a f a irly n or ma l s pec i men o f t he Ro man ised " low land z one" , w ith s evera l s ubstan t ia l v il las a nd n u merous m inor o nes. w en t .

The S i lures a lso h ad a t r iba l c ap i ta l , Ven ta S iluru m , a t Caer-

J ust a f ter t he o ccupa t ion w as c onsol ida ted , t hough , t he t ypes o f i nhab-

i t ed s i te w ere much l ess s oph ist ica ted . Two c aves, Minch in H ole i n Gower ( GL 1 2) a nd t he L esser Garth c ave i n t he Taf f v a l ley n orth o f Card if f ( GL 1 9 ) , w ere c erta in ly i nhabi ted d ur ing t he f i rst c en tury.

N evertheless, t hey a re n o t t o b e r egarded a s h id ing-p laces

f or r efugees, f or i n a l l , s ix c aves h ave p roduced s im ilar e v idence , s pread

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