Introduction to Live Grammar: A Grammar of English Centered on the Verb 9780793515370, 9783862883493, 9783862900725, 3862883493

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Introduction to Live Grammar: A Grammar of English Centered on the Verb

Norma Corrales-Martin

LINCOM Studies in English Linguistics

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LINCOM Studies in English Linguistics

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Introduction to Live Grammar: A Grammar of English Centered on the Verb

Norma Corrales-Martin

2012 (print) 2020 (e-book) LINCOM EUROPA

Published by LINCOM GmbH 2012 (print) 2020 (e-book) LINCOM EUROPA LINCOM GmbH Hansjakobstr. 127a D-81825 Muenchen [email protected] www.lincom.eu webshop: www.lincom-shop.eu All rights reserved, including the rights of translation into any foreign language. No part of this book may be reproduced in any way without the permission of the publisher.

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Cover illustration: Vasos Comunicantes (2011) Oil on canvas by Joseph Martin. Photo by Thomas Morton (2012).

Links to third-party websites are provided only as information and help for the reader. LINCOM disclaims any liability or responsability for the contents of links provided by the authors and editors of this volume.

To Vera, Chuck and Dave To Joseph, Emanuela, Joshua and Josiah

TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. Introduction 2. Literature review 2.1. Otto Jespersen’s Essentials of English Grammar (1933 [1960]). 2.2. Charles Fillmore’s Some Problems for Case Grammar (1971). 2.3. The FrameNet Project developed by C. Fillmore and collaborators at Berkley (Version 07, July 2001). 2.4. Noam Chomsky’s Government and Binding Theory as presented by Cheryl A. Black (1999). 2.5. R. M. W. Dixon’s A Semantic Approach to Grammar (1991 [2005]). 2.6. So, what is different about Live Grammar?

5 7 7 8

3. The corpus of this study is a book of The Beatles’ songs

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4. Methodology and Nomenclature

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5. Theoretical Framework

14

5.1.

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Concept of sentence At the pragmatic level Modality reflects the intention of the speaker. At the semantic-syntactic level Verb is the essential grammatical category. Protonouns establish case relationships with verbs. At the syntactic level Protonoun is the basic as opposed to essential (verb) grammatical category in a sentence. Protonouns are the nuclei of a constituent. Constituents are the morphosyntactic equivalent of verb cases.

9 10 11 13

The use or absence of grammatical connectors between categories in a sentence is a topic that will also be explored. 5.2. 5.2.1. 5.2.2. 5.2.3. 5.2.4. 5.2.5. 5.2.6. 5.2.7. 5.2.8. 5.2.9.

Grammatical categories Verb is a word conjugated for a person, number and tense. Verbal is a non-conjugated verbal form. Protonoun is a noun or a word that acts like it. This is an umbrella category. Noun is a primary grammatical category. It can be substantive, adjective or adverb. Articles and Demonstratives are a secondary category. Adjective is a secondary category, a word that qualifies or quantifies substantive nouns exclusively. Adverb is a secondary category when it intensifies nouns. It is a tertiary category when it intensifies adjectives and adverbs. Verb 2 is a protonoun, a primary category that can depend on a Verb 1 or a noun. Connectors or links occur at the morphological level, between

2

15 16 16 16 16 17 17 17 17

particular grammatical categories. Prepositions are links that occur to the left of a noun to introduce a verb case at the syntactic level; at the morphological level, they occur to the right to complement the meaning of a verb or a noun. 5.2.9.2. Conjunctions are links that generally connect the same grammatical category. 5.2.9.3. Relative pronouns are protonouns that reproduce a noun anaphorically, and form a case relationship with a verb 2 (v2). 5.2.9.4. Proverbs are protonouns akin to relative pronouns, but it names a link that reproduces a v2 cataphorically, while answering a question about a verb 1 (V1). 5.2.9.5. Link pronouns are protonouns that link a V1 to a v2, and establish case relationships with both verbs.

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5.3. Relationships between grammatical categories 5.3.1. Relationships between verbs and protonouns, at the syntactic level. 5.3.2. Relationships between categories, at the morphosyntactic level. 5.3.2.1. By preposition. 5.3.2.2. By conjunction. 5.3.2.3. By juxtaposition. 5.3.2.4. By apposition. 5.3.3. Relationships between categories at the semantic level. 5.3.3.1. Complementation. 5.3.3.2. Reproduction. 5.3.3.3. Subordination. Table 1 summarizes and exemplifies the functioning of these relationships in English using examples from different songs in the corpus.

18 18 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20

6. 6.1. 6.1.1. 6.1.2. 6.2. 6.2.1.

29 29 29 30 31

5.2.9.1.

6.2.2. 6.2.3. 6.3. 6.3.1. 6.3.2. 6.3.3. 6.4. 6.4.1.

Research Results Verb cases. Entities or person cases. Circumstantial cases. Noun classes and their modifiers. Substantive noun, including pronoun, infinitive and gerund, and their modifiers. Adjective noun, including past participle and its modifiers. Adverb noun and its modifiers. Semantic relationships between nouns. Complementation by preposition. Complementation by apposition. Reproduction by apposition. Mechanisms of relationship between grammatical categories. Preposition.

3

17 18 18

18 18

21

31 31 31 32 32 32 32 34 34

6.4.2. 6.4.3. 6.4.4. 6.5. 6.6. 6.7. 6.8. 7.

Conjunction. Juxtaposition. Apposition. Verbal constituents. Special constructions. Disputed constituency decisions. Passive voice. Conclusions

34 35 35 36 37 37 38 39

APPENDIX I. VERB CASE RELATIONSHIP MATRIX The fool on the hill She’s leaving home Ask me why With a little help from my friends

41 42 45 50 53

APPENDIX II. COLORS FOR THE APPOINTMENT IN SAMARRA

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APPENDIX III. GLOSSARY

58

APPENDIX IV. GUIDE OF ANALYSIS OF THE SONG

61

Bibliography

63

Special thanks to Zahir Mumin and Joshua Pongan for reading the manuscript and providing valuable insight

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--“He’s coming! He’s here now!” --“Don’t be violent, Boy,” he said without looking round. --“Sit down and get your breath, and try and remember that the noun governs the verb, and then perhaps you’ll be good enough to tell me who’s coming?” The Reluctant Dragon Kenneth Grahame, 1938

1. Introduction From Otto Jespersen to Case for Case, to Government and Binding theory, to Semantic Grammar, the traditional study of grammar and syntax echoes the Reluctant Dragon’s idea that the noun (the subject noun phrase) in a sentence governs the verb. Even though authors like C. J. Fillmore and R. M. W. Dixon assert that the verb is the central grammatical category, the traditional analysis ends up being morphological with categories such as Noun Phrase (NP), Verb Phrase (VP), and Prepositional Phrase (PP). In this volume, I present Live Grammar: A Grammar Centered on the Verb, which is known in Spanish as Gramática Viva: Una Gramática Centrada en el Verbo (2010). Gramática Viva is a graceful grammar researched in a corpus of more than 150 songs and some 350 sayings from Latin America and Spain. It fundamentally argues that the verb, not the subject, is the center of the sentence (the main linguistic entity), and as such, should be the center of the linguistic analysis. This idea is integrated in a coherent whole with ideas from traditional Spanish authors like A. de Nebrija, A. Bello and R. Cuervo, from Fillmore’s Case by Case Grammar (1968), and from Bloomfield’s (1933) and Wells’ (1958) theory of constituents. The central thesis of Gramática Viva is that the grammatical category pertains to morphology; the verb pertains to syntax; and the sentence pertains to semantics. This means that words have morphological forms and functions such as verbs, nouns, prepositions, and links in a sentence, but in the axis of the syntactic system, constituents establish semantic case relationships with verbs. It is understood that in communication, these constituents function simultaneously as spheres in an organic whole, and are separated merely for the purpose of analysis. Today, I only intend to present an introduction by applying the tenets of Gramática Viva to English for the first time. I will explain and exemplify its theoretical framework using songs from The Beatles Lyrics (1992) song book. Then I will use the first 25 songs to exemplify the notions expounded, and finally I will analyze four Beatles’ songs and a short story following this methodology. I hope to awaken my colleagues’ interest in Live Grammar not only as a different way to understand grammar, but also because this approach supports a teaching methodology that I call the Semantic Communicative Approach, or meaning by communication. A metaphor is always useful to drive a point. Considering the subject as the center of the sentence is like the geocentric idea of assuming the earth as the center of the solar system. Recognizing the verb as the center of the sentence is like understanding that the sun is the center of the solar system. The first approach will be a Ptolemaic approach to syntax; the second approach will be a Galilean one. For Live Grammar, the verb, like the sun, is the nucleus of the sentence. Constituents, like

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planets, rotate around the verb, each in a different orbit, in order to establish different verb cases. Constituents have nuclei with unique modifiers that are like satellites of planets. Gravity is represented in the attraction some words have between them which is expressed grammatically with or without link words. Live Grammar is a verbal grammar, investigated for this work on uttered language found in Beatles’ songs. How are utterances explained then? 1 In the process of human communication, there is a sociocultural context, an emitter (first person), a receptor (second person), a message -topic (third person or entity), and possibly an observer. What is uttered is called Discourse. Utterances can be separated into sentences headed by a verb. At the semantic level of discourse each action mentioned is accompanied by other words that inform the action’s who, what, to whom, how, when, where, why, what for, etc. (1)

[Last night] When

[I] who

said action

[these words] [to my girl] what to whom

At the syntactic level of discourse, each conjugated verb (v), simple, compound, periphrastic, and auxilied, is accompanied by protonouns, (a term coined by Corrales, 2001). Protonouns are nuclear nouns, and words that act like them by establishing a particular case relationship with the verb such as Agent, Patient, Manner, Time, Space, Reason, Aim, etc. (2)

[Last night] Time

[I] agent

said verb

[these words] [to my girl] patient entity patient person

Because the verb is the center of the sentence, it can stand alone: Come on. At the morphological level of discourse each verb case is a constituent of the sentence with a ‘protonominal’ nucleus accompanied or not by modifiers. (3)

[Last night] [I] said [these words] [to my girl] [adverb- noun] [pronoun] verb [demonstrative- noun] [preposition- possesive adjective- noun]

Non conjugated verbs, called verbals here (vbl), might also be accompanied by nouns in a case relationship with them, but in this instance, they are not nuclei of the sentence. They are nuclei of the constituent. Let’s see the different levels on sentence 4: (4)

[To lead [a better life]] [I] To action what who Aim of v patient of vbl agent [preposition-vbl [article-adjective-noun]] [pronoun] 1

In the examples, the verb and verbals are underlined.

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need [my love] action what v patient of v v [possessive adjective-noun]

Constituents work like units of meaning and may include from the bare nucleus, [I] want [her], to a secondary verb (v2), Remember [that I’ll always be in love with you]. In summary, Live Grammar is governed by the following postulates: The verb is the essential component and the axis of the sentence. The semantic information that the verb conveys, who, what, to whom, how, when, where, etc., constitutes verb cases communicated by morphological constituents which are sometimes highly complex. The nucleus of the constituent, a protonoun, is always a noun or a word that functions like a noun. Traditionally, a sentence is defined using the following hierarchical structure: S NP VP | ------N V NP | | -----John saw ADJ N | | his mother It can be seen that NP (subject) and VP (predicate) are at the same level, while NP in the predicate is positioned in a lower level. Live Grammar does not use the concepts of subject and predicate inherited from logic. The terms theme and rheme of the Prague school are used when analyzing the position of linguistic entities in the sentence. If the verb is considered the nucleus of the sentence, grammatically, that is, from a semantic (meaning), syntactic (verb), and morphologic (words) point of view, a sentence can be rewritten using the following formula: S Î Modality Verb [protonoun x] We will review the details of this formula in section 5, Concept of Sentence.

2. Literature review The works of Otto Jespersen, Charles J. Fillmore, Noam Chomsky, as presented by Cheryl A. Black, and R.W.M. Dixon, will be reviewed with special attention to similarities and differences between these works and Live Grammar. 2.1.

Otto Jespersen’s Essentials of English Grammar (1933 [1960]) proposed that in order to define word classes, form and function should be considered. In each particular combination of words the form belongs to one class only (substantive, adjective, verb, pronoun, numeral and particle), but different ranks can be assigned (primary, secondary, and tertiary). Habitually, a

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substantive is primary, an adjective is secondary, and an adverb is tertiary. A verb is a secondary subordinated to a substantive (subject). Jespersen defines a sentence as “a relatively complete and independent unit of communication…the completeness and independence being shown by its standing alone or its capability of standing alone, i.e. of being uttered by itself.” (106). His sentence structure is composed of subject and predicate and his word order is S(subject)-V(verb)-O(object). The notion of subject may be useful, because the subject can be active or inactive, and in English the fixed word order makes it easily recognizable. However, making the subject the center of the sentence is inaccurate. For Jespersen, the object is direct and indirect. Instrument and result are also objects, in sentences like, They threw stones or She lights a fire. The concept of case is applied morphologically to nominative and objective pronouns and common and genitive substantives. Apposition and nexus are the two ways in which a secondary (adjective) can be joined to a primary (substantive). Live Grammar assigns the label “agent of the verb” to the subject and describes the agent as entity or person. Live Grammar also assigns the label Patient of the verb to the object and describes the object as entity or person. The concept of case is applied semantically and syntactically to a nuclear word which gives information about the verb, and its modifiers. The relationship between grammatical categories is marked by the absence or presence of linking words. Essentials of Grammar (1933 [1960]) goes from the description of the structure to exemplification. The beautiful examples are taken from written works. Jespersen does not differentiate between sentences and clauses when giving the examples, since the verb is not the center of the analysis, which makes his categorization confusing.

2.2.

Charles Fillmore’s Some Problems for Case Grammar (1971) continues proposing the centrality of the verb postulated in The Case for Case (1968). He still uses the category of subject and affirms that “The propositional core of a simple sentence consists of a predicator (verb, adjective or noun) in construction with one or more entities, each of these related to the predicator in one of the semantic functions known as (deep structure) cases…The cases exist in a hierarchy, and this hierarchy serves to guide the operation of certain syntactic processes, in particular that of subject selection.” (247). Noun phrases are ascribed cases. He assumes that in a single clause at most one noun phrase is serving a given case role (248). I think that his sentence, John compelled his son to stab the usher is not a counter example of this assumption, there is a verb compelled, an Agent, John, and a Patient, his son to stab the usher, that contains a verbal, to stab, of which his son is the Agent, and the usher the Patient. In this way, the patient of the main verb includes the agent of the verbal inside the constituent. Fillmore is also perplexed by how the subject can be an Experiencer, an Instrument, Time or Location in I am warm, This jacket is warm, Summer is warm, The room is warm (249). For Live Grammar and specially with To Be, the Agent is just the case that happens to agree with the verb’s grammatical person and number, and it can be a person or an entity, a time, a place; it may be from one word to a phrase that includes a secondary verb (v2). Fillmore is not comfortable

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calling the entities Agent. In The noise frightened me (261) he calls them Instrument, but for us, Instrument answers the question with what? He then has to keep active the concept of Subject of the Sentence as an umbrella category. Regarding the experiencer, Live Grammar postulates that this is the case that marks the difference between the [me] in [John strikes me as pompous] and the [I] in [I regard John as pompous] (245). The same person in reality changes roles from experiencer to agent, depending on the verb. I think that the cases or semantic functions are indeed limited. There are only a few questions that can be asked from a verb in a sentence, who, what, to whom or what, how, when, where, why, etc. In, He went from the top of the hill to the cemetery where from the top of the hill to the cemetery is analyzed as Source- Goal (250), we see a Space case, went where, which inside the constituent presents a relationship starting point-destination between the nouns. So there seems to be confusion between verb case and noun relationships. For Fillmore cases indicate the basic semantic functions of nouns (260); he postulates that Agent, Experiencer, Instrument, Object, Source, Goal, Place and Time (251) correspond to the case hierarchy. I will use some of his labels and others to correspond to the questions asked above. I do not think that noun phrase or prepositional phrase is the only possible expression of case, and the examples throughout this work lead us to believe so. In Fillmore’s article, examples are created; surface structure is not giving its importance (preposition or not, changes the case); and there is confusion between Verb Cases and Noun relationships inside the constituent. Live Grammar studies not possibilities of utterances, but utterances.

2.3.

The FrameNet Project developed by Fillmore and collaborators at Berkley (Version 07, July 2001) shows the expansion of his early ideas into computational lexicography. Frame Semantics is a theory that “characterizes the semantic and syntactic properties of words by relating them to semantic frames. These are schematic representations of situations involving various participants, props, and other conceptual roles, each of which is a frame element”, classes of words that share semantic and syntactic properties (4). Frame elements come from frames like Causation (Cause, Affected, Effect), Communication (Communicator, Addressee, Message, Topic, Medium), Motion (Theme, Source, Path, Goal, Area), Transitive Action (Agent, Patient), etc. Different phrase types and grammatical functions are used to provide information about the frame elements. Some phrase types are, NP, VP, PP, Ssub; some grammatical functions are External Argument, Subject, Direct Object, Complement, Non-Object, and Predicate. It purports to use real sentences but these are not marked. Predicating words are typically a verb, adjective or noun. Adverb is mentioned later on. These are the target words of the annotation. To me, it is important to differentiate between the infinitive, gerund, and past participle as part of the verb (in periphrasis) or nucleus of a constituent; between a non-conjugated verb form and a secondary verb; between the modifier function of adjectives and adverbs and their noun

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functions. Lexicographically, this is an excellent project, but its uses in the classroom seem limited.

2.4.

Noam Chomsky’s Government and Binding theory as presented by Cheryl A. Black (1999) is a transformational grammar that examines movement from deep to surface structure. Lexical categories are noun, verb, adjective or preposition, and they are structural heads. Adverbs are mentioned as specifiers on page 13. Phrases are built from these categories, Noun Phrase, Verb Phrase, Adjective Phrase, and Prepositional Phrase. (3) The head is choosy about what can combine with it to form a phrase. A complement is a phrase that a lexical category takes or selects; this complement selection is called subcategorization. Specifiers precede the lexical categories and are not subcategorized for. To analyze a phrase, find the head, specifiers, complements, adjuncts and conjunctions. The musician’s interpretation of that sonata (6), a phrase with no verb, is analyzed as having 7 levels. I see only two: Interpretation is the nucleus of the constituent, modified by an article and a possessive noun, and linked to a complementary noun via preposition. For G & B, complementizers are also heads of complement clauses, which adds Complementizer Phrase (CP) to the inventory of phrases. A CP can also be a sentence. Sentence is defined as S Æ NP VP, and it is called an Inflection Phrase (IP). Then, IP Æ NP I. Inflection (I) can be [+ finite] or [-finite] (10). A sentence like Jill could have been playing the piano is analyzed as having four VPs stacked one upon the other (22). I only see a complex verb that includes an auxiliary, and a compound tense in periphrasis with a present participle. For content questions it posits a [+ wh] nominal phrase (26). Fronting, focus, negation and quantifier constructions are called semantic operations (28). Lexical entries are expanded by including semantic roles like Agent, Theme, Recipient, Goal and Locative (29). Each syntactic component (called internal argument) must be linked one-to-one with a semantic role, and one additional role may be linked to the subject (called the external argument). The internal arguments are sisters to the head (V). The Theme role is always assigned to the direct object; the Recipient role is assigned to the indirect object (30). For the subject, the possible roles are Agent, Theme, or the dummy IT, because in English main clauses have phonetically filled subjects (33). The English pronoun system, which shows overt morphological case (Nominative, Accusative and Genitive), helps to understand the positions that are assigned case, and which morphological case they receive, subject position, object position, possessor position (37). In Government, “A head (N, V, A, P, I[+ fin], C[for]), GOVERNS its NP specifier and its NP complement and the NP specifier of an IP[-fin] complement.” (38). As for Binding, it seems to refer to reflexive constructions, Equi constructions and some types of movement constructions, and coreference, locality, and same-different clause distinctions (39). “Government and Binding theory considers word order an important part of the syntax and therefore seems to account for how and why different word orders come about within a particular language”. Foregrounding and backgrounding occur in languages which allow (fairly)

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free word order (21). Live Grammar considers word order a meaningful way to understand grammatical relations, too. Government and Binding theory uses created examples. Government is thought in terms of morphological heads NP, VP, IP, and CP. Uses in the classroom are limited due to the high degree of complexity presented by the analysis.

2.5.

R. M. W. Dixon’s A Semantic Approach to Grammar (1991 [2005]) states that a verb is the center of a clause, that it may refer to some activity, and there must be a number of participants who have role in that activity (9). A verb may refer to a state, and there must be a participant to experience the state. A set of verbs is grouped together in a semantic type because they require the same set of particular roles, Donor, Gift, Recipient for Giving verbs; Perceiver and Impression for Attention verbs; Agent, Target, and Manipulated for Affect verbs, etc. The core syntactic relations are Subject, Object and Copula Complement; the peripheral relations are marked by a preposition and include Place, Time, or some Additional participant (12). “Studying syntax in close conjunction with semantics, and in an inductive manner, differs from the approach followed by many modern linguists. It is most common to begin with syntax (looking for ‘semantic interpretation’ at a late stage, if at all) and also to begin with putative generalisations, later looking to see if there might be any counter-examples to them.” (13). I agree with Dixon when he states: There is one respect in which I differ from the early practitioners of Chomsky’s ‘transformational grammar’. They might say that I believed him to be mad has a ‘deep structure’ something like [I believed [it [he is mad]]] with the third person singular (3sg) pronoun as subject of be mad, but after a ‘raising’ transformation has been applied the 3sg pronoun is now the object of believe. I suggest that the 3sg pronoun bears two simultaneous syntactic relations, as object of believe and as subject of be mad (even though it is morphologically encoded as the unmarked and object form him). (15). Like Dixon, I think this example shows that the same word can have two semantic roles, in this example, one for the verb and a different one for the verbal. It has also been shown that two words can have the same semantic role by coordination or juxtaposition, as seen in the example, She goes downstairs to the kitchen [clutching her handkerchief// Quietly turning the backdoor key// Stepping outside] she is free, where the three phrases inside brackets answer the question, how does she go, Manner case. Dixon notes, There is an important difference between my semantic roles and the ‘cases’ of Fillmore (1968) or the ‘theta-roles’ of some recent formal theories (see chapter 7 of Radford 1988 and references therein). A single set of ‘theta-roles’ or ‘cases’ is set up for a given

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language (or for all languages) to cover all semantic types within that language. In contrast, I recognise a separate set of semantic roles for each semantic type in a language; semantic roles belonging to different types are related together only through being mapped onto the same syntactic relation.” (15). This is a noteworthy undertaking. Dixon calls ‘grammatical sketch’ his classification of word classes. Some categories mentioned are pronouns, verb and verb phrase, noun phrase, and adverbial elements. But he also includes relative clauses, complement clauses, passives, reflexives, etc. There is no differentiation between morphological and syntactic functions, which also happens with other authors. Dixon uses the terms Subject and Predicate, but does not include an object NP in the VP. He asserts that each main clause has an ‘argumental governor’ (which is the predicate) and one or more ‘arguments’, which are in grammatical relationship to the governor (29). He notes the importance of Adverbs, dedicating a heading to Adverbial elements, which being of interest for Live Grammar, I will summarize. Adverbial elements can refer to (i) space; (ii) time; (iii) frequency or degree; or (iv) manner of an activity or state. They can comprise a word (e.g. there, inside; today, already; often, always; slowly, craftily), a phrase (in the garden, (during) last night, at infrequent intervals, with sincerity) or a clause (where we had built the house, before she arrived, whenever he felt like it, as his mother had always told him). Adverbial phrases are generally introduced by a preposition, although there are exceptions, e.g. last week, many times, this way. Adverbial clauses generally have the structure of a main clause with a preposed subordinator, e.g. where, after (30). For Dixon, activity or state names the verb. I call the verb, action. Dixon does not differentiate between an adverb, nucleus of a constituent, what we will call noun adverb, and adverb modifier, what we call just adverb, even though he notes the different functions. Live Grammar separates the different kind of nuclei present in the examples above as adverb noun, substantive noun, and link pronoun. He differentiates between phrase (more than one word), clause (a verb is included), and main clause. What he calls Phrase and Clause, I call Constituent; what he calls main Clause, I call Sentence. Concerning adjectives, Dixon annotates that an adjective will typically modify the meaning of a noun, and can be used either as modifier within an NP (That clever man is coming) or as copula complement (That man is clever) (86). This has been said before. Live Grammar, on the other hand, takes a step further to differentiate between adjective and noun adjective, and as said, adverb and noun adverb. The nucleus of the constituent answers a question about the verb and is called a noun substantive, adjective or adverb. Since To Be establishes case with all three kinds of nouns, it is not considered a mere copula here. Another interesting topic for Live Grammar is what Dixon calls the Complementizer ‘that’ in the structure, He announced [that Roosevelt had won another election] (41). We will call ‘that’ a ‘proverb’. For clause linking he says, “There are a number of ways of linking clauses in

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English, including (a) by coordinate linkers such as and, but, or; (b) by temporal subordinate linkers such as after, before, while, till, until; (c) by logical subordinate linkers such as since, because, if, although, even though, unless, in spite of; (d) by contrastive linkers such as however, moreover, nevertheless, therefore, accordingly, on the other hand, at all events, still; (e) by the purposive linker in order (to/that)” (39). He talks about temporal connectives such as after or while, or a logical connective such as since or if (39). Dixon’s description is accurate and exhaustive. However, using the verb as center, it will be seen that linkage is completed between grammatical categories, not between clauses.

2.6.

So, what is different about Live Grammar? The verb is the true center of the sentence. A sentence is not the same as a clause or phrase, the two of which we will call constituent. Sentences are analyzed at three levels: semantic, syntactic and morphologic. Verbs are distinguished from verbals, the non-conjugated forms of the verb. Verb 1 is distinguished from verb 2. Adjectives and adverbs are considered nouns when they are nuclei of their constituents. To be is not considered a verb apart, a mere copula, even though it is characterized by its constituents referring to the same entity or person of reality. The nucleus of a constituent is always a noun or word that acts like it, that is, a word that answers a question about the verb. Agent does not mean active or passive, it refers to the constituent with which the verb agrees in grammatical person and number. Links appear between grammatical categories. The examples used are live, not fabricated by the researcher, and the theory has been derived from them, instead of them being used just to illustrate the theory. Live Grammar studies meaning at work in communication. It is a pedagogical grammar.

3. The corpus of this study is a book of The Beatles’ songs Why songs? Why the Beatles’ songs? First, because who doesn’t like songs? Who doesn’t like and remember Beatles’ songs? Second, because it’s like carrying your corpus around, singing it, and adding an affective dimension to language research. Furthermore, in the classroom, songs are strong pedagogical tools, because they show live language, with all its nuances and liberties, and exemplify how language works to mean in communication. Ideas in songs are expressed in short sentences, a stanza, at the most. Students will remember key structures, with the help of rhyme, while rhythm contributes a kinesthetic element when songs are heard, sang, and why not, danced. Songs teach phonetics and dialectology. Songs teach culture. Songs are a wonderful pedagogical tool. I have used songs in my classes for twenty five years, and have never been disappointed. However, songs are challenging, because they are free. They don’t follow you; you have to follow them. Today’s grammatical analysis uses created examples or literary utterances to illustrate the points that are being explained. The aim of Live Grammar is to let the text teach you grammar. Below I will introduce the main postulates of Live Grammar: A Grammar Centered on the Verb applied to English for the first time.

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4. Methodology & Nomenclature Methodology: I began by reading the 193 songs in the book, The Beatles Lyrics (1992), underlining the verb in the songs. I asked questions of the verbs and continually analyzed and reanalyzed the answers at which I arrived. For each question asked, I organized in categories the different answers that could be rendered, and examined the structures used to convey each meaning. I applied and exemplified the principles of Gramatica Viva to the verb and its constituents from utterances found in different songs, paying special attention to the presence or absence of links. I attempted to exemplify all the notions in the first twenty-five songs. I analyzed four songs and a short story following this methodology, in Appendix I and II. Nomenclature: V: verb Va Vb: Two verbs at the same level (Twist and shout) v2: secondary verb vbl: verbal [ ]: verb case, constituent Protn: protonoun n: noun; subst: substantive noun; adj n: adjective noun; adv n: adverb noun adj: adjective; adv: adverb prep: preposition V prep [prep n]

v vbl [n n] // juxtaposition - - conjunction / apposition + complementation = reproduction v2 subordination ( ) elided Ø not found, absence 5. Theoretical framework In this chapter, I will explain and exemplify the working definitions used for the analysis by Live Grammar. The concept of sentence, the grammatical categories, and the relationships established in the sentence will be the main topics. 5.1.

Concept of sentence

As was illustrated in 1, grammatically, this is, from a semantic (sentence), syntactic (verb), morphologic (word) point of view, a sentence can be rewritten as:

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S Î Modality Verb [Protonoun x] Allow me to explain this concept here. At the pragmatic level Modality reflects the intention of the speaker; it is possible to declare, affirm, negate, question, doubt, exclaim, etc. Modality can be expressed by words, by intonation, by expressive phonology, and of course by gestures. At the semantic-syntactic level Verb is the essential grammatical category in a sentence and the most easily recognized. Verbs refer to actions carried out in time. Protonouns establish case relationships with them. At the syntactic level a protonoun is the basic as opposed to essential (verb) grammatical category in a sentence. Protonoun x refers to the number of nuclear words in a sentence that establish a semantic relationship with the verb. The semantic relationships are verb cases, like entity or person Agent and Patient, Manner, Time, Space, Instrument, Company, Reason, Aim, etc. of the verb. A protonoun answers a question about the verb: Who, what verbs what, to whom, how, how much, when, where, with what, with whom, why, what for. 2 This is an umbrella category. Protonouns are the nuclei of a constituent. Constituents are the morphosyntactic equivalent of verb cases. Constituents are formed by the nucleus and its unique modifiers. They are represented among [square brackets] in the analysis. The constituents, even if they include a conjugated verb, are not sentences; they are phrases or clauses (v2). The use or absence of grammatical connectors between categories in a sentence is a topic that will also be explored. Next I will present the concept of grammatical categories as established by Gramática Viva in Spanish, underlining English variations found in the corpus.

5.2.

Grammatical categories

I knew in my time one of many arts, a Grecian, a Latinist, a mathematician, a philosopher, a physician, a man master of them all, and sixty years of age, who, laying by all the rest, perplexed and tormented himself for above twenty years in the study of grammar, fully reckoning himself a prince if he might but live so long till he could certainly determine how the eight parts of speech were to be distinguished, which none of the Greeks or Latins had yet fully cleared: as if it were a matter to be decided by the sword if a man made an adverb of a conjunction. Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam. The Praise of Folly (1511). 2

I will be using the verb To Verb to facilitate the asking of questions.

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Distinguishing parts of speech has been a folly which many grammarians have committed, calling them word classes, lexical items or atomic units of syntax. I shall now attempt to define ‘grammatical categories’, by using the verb as the center of the sentence, this is, from a morphosyntactic-semantic stand. Interjection is considered a pragmatic category, part of expressive phonology, a phonological means to express modality, with words or sounds. Live Grammar defines the following grammatical categories: 5.2.1.

Verb is a word conjugated for a person, number and tense. It may be simple, Keep all my love forever; compound, You’ve been good to me, It’s happened to me; periphrastic, I always have to say love; I don’t want to sound complaining; and auxiliary- auxilied for the negative, I don’t want it, the question, Do you promise not to tell?, and some verb tenses, I’ll always be true, I might never be the lonely one. It may be a combination of these, No one will be watching us. In English it is notable how a preposition to the right may complement the meaning of the verb, If I grow up I’ll be a singer.

5.2.2. Verbal is a non-conjugated verbal form. It can be infinitive (the name of the action), gerund (the process of the action) or (past) participle (the state of the action). In periphrasis, verbals complement the meaning of the verb, [It] only goes to show that... Inside the constituent, verbals may have a double function: x

x

As a verb form, the verbal takes cases: In [Being [here] [alone you] [tonight]/ it] feels so right, the constituents [here], [alone with you] and [tonight] establish case with being. As a noun, it establishes case relationships with verbs, [Being [here] [alone you] [tonight]/ it] feels so right, being is agent entity of feels.

Verbals may just act as nouns, There’s [no time fussing and fighting, my friend]. They also have adjectival and adverbial functions, You’re not [the hurting kind]; [Satisfaction guaranteed], Soon will be the break of day [sitting here in Blue Jay Way]. 5.2.3. Protonoun is a noun or a word that acts like it, as said, a word capable of establishing a case relationship with the verb, and susceptible of being replaced by an interrogative pronoun. It can be a noun, a verb 2 (v2), a relative pronoun, a proverb (a term coined by Corrales & Bell, 2005), or a link pronoun (a term coined by Corrales, 2008). The last three also perform as links. The protonoun is the nucleus of a constituent. They are presented in 6.4, 6.8, 6.9.3, 6.9.4 and 6.9.5. 5.2.4. Noun is a primary grammatical category. It can be: x x x

A substantive noun (including pronouns), I’ll buy [you] [a diamond ring], [my friend]. An adjective noun, [I] feel [happy]. An adverb noun, [I] saw [her] [yesterday].

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Substantive nouns are the most common. I include pronouns in this category whether it is personal, demonstrative, indefinite, reflexive or interrogative. Adjective nouns and adverb nouns are separated from adjectives and adverbs according to Live Grammar, based on whether or not they are nuclei of a constituent. This key distinction made by Live Grammar, is not found elsewhere. (See 6.6. and 6.7.). In English, it is notable how a noun adverb modifies a verb to the left becoming a unit with it, Just call on me. From now on, the noun adverbs that form a unity with the verb will also be underlined. 5.2.5. Articles and Demonstratives are a secondary category; a very limited set of words placed to the left of nouns to specify them: A, an, the, this, that, these, those. They make substantive any noun after them, [The deeper] you go, [the higher] you fly. 5.2.6. Adjective is a secondary category, a word that qualifies or quantifies substantive nouns exclusively, I wanna hold [your hand], You’re [not the hurting kind], [Eight days /a week] I love [you]. Adjectives are varied, abundant and expressive. 5.2.7. Adverb is a secondary category when it intensifies: x x x

Substantive nouns, Nobody knows [just we/ two], There’s [no time], I love [only you]. (This use of adverbs is a fact that has not been made explicit). Adjective nouns, It’s [only fair]. Adverb nouns, [Before too long] I fell in love.

Adverb is a tertiary category when it intensifies: x x

Adjectives, I can’t conceive of [any more misery] Another adverb, I’ve waited [far too long].

5.2.8. Verb 2 is a protonoun, a primary category that can depend on a Verb 1 or a noun, with or without links, You know [you should be glad], I’ m [the one/ [who] won your love]. 5.2.9. Connectors or links occur at the morphological level, between particular grammatical categories. They are prepositions, conjunctions, relative pronouns, proverbs, and link pronouns. They are a limited number of words. 5.2.9.1.

Prepositions are links that occur to the left of a noun to introduce a verb case at the syntactic level, I said [these words] [to my girl]; at the morphological level, they occur to the right to complement the meaning of a verb or a noun, I always have say it, If you go carrying [pictures of Chairman Mao]… . In English, they may also be used to the right of the verb to complement its meaning, where they do not need a noun complement, I really can’t go on. Some prepositions are before, after, up, down, at, to, by, from, on, off, in, out, over, under, for, with, etc.

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5.2.9.2.

Conjunctions are words that generally connect the same grammatical category. Examples are and, or, but, then. The comparative conjunctions can link words of the same category, You would love [me -more than- her], or different categories, She’s [happy -ascan be], [A love -like- ours] could never die.

5.2.9.3.

Relative pronouns are protonouns that reproduce a noun anaphorically, and form a case relationship with a v2. Under these conditions that, who, which, when, where are relative pronouns: (He is) darning [his socks] [in the night/ [when] there’s nobody there]. They can be elided, resulting in juxtaposition [n// v2]: I will say [the only words// I know [that you’ll understand].

5.2.9.4.

Proverbs are protonouns akin to relative pronouns, but here, it names a link that reproduces a v2 cataphorically, while answering a question about a verb 1 (V1). Under these conditions that, if, how, as, because, etc. are proverbs: Don’t you know [that/ it is so], know what? That. The proverb can be elided, resulting in juxtaposition V1// v2, I’ll say // I love you.

5.2.9.5.

Link pronouns are protonouns that link a V1 to a v2, and establish case relationships with both verbs. They cannot be elided. Under these conditions what, who, when, where, how are link pronouns: [[When] the sun shines] they slip into the shade. They can be an indirect interrogative pronoun, Baby at your breast wonders [[how] you manage to feed the rest].

The list is now complete with 14 categories, five of which are protonouns, that is, words that can act as nucleus of the constituent, namely, noun, v2, relative pronoun, proverb, and link pronoun. It is well known that words move between categories, so remember to keep the verb in the center of the analysis to understand the move. In, [The way she looked] was [way beyond compare], the first way is a substantive; the second is a tertiary adverb, modifying the adverb beyond. In, It must not be [so], so is a noun adverb; in, I’m [so glad], an adverb. The relationships that grammatical categories establish within themselves and each other, the mechanisms by which these relationships are established, and the resulting semantic phenomena will be the topic of § 5.3.

5.3.

Relationships between grammatical categories

Relationships between grammatical categories are completed with or without links. Relationships are established at the syntactic, morphosyntactic and semantic levels. First, I’ll present the concepts, then, in Table 1 bellow, I will exemplify them. 5.3.1. Relationships between verbs and protonouns, at the syntactic level. A verb case is the fundamental grammatical relationship, and it takes place between verbs and protonouns. It works at the semantic and morphosyntactic levels. At the semantic level the

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relationships are called verb cases: Agent person and entity, Patient person and entity, Manner, Quantity, Time, Place, etc. At the syntactic level, verb cases are expressed as constituents. At the morphological level, each constituent has a nucleus, identified as a protonoun: a noun, a verb 2, a relative pronoun, a proverb, or a link pronoun, which relate to the verb with or without modifiers and links. Each verb case relationship occurs only once in a simple sentence, but preposition, coordination, juxtaposition and apposition, and sometimes synonymy permit complex instances of the same case. The following constituents represent the most conspicuous arrangements of case relationships in an English sentence. V [Verb case] or V [protonoun x] or V [(preposition) noun] V1 [n = [relative pronoun] v2]

V1 [n//v2]

V1 [proverb = v2]

V1//v2

V1 [n proverb = v2]

V1 [[link pronoun] v2] The equal sign (=) represents reproduction, a semantic phenomena that will be introduced in 7.3 bellow. 5.3.2. Relationships between categories, at the morphosyntactic level. We found that connections are made by the following mechanisms: 5.3.2.1.

By preposition: Occurs between verb and noun, at the case level; and between verb and verbal, and noun and noun at the morphological level. The preposition before was found to occur between secondary verbs: Love me [while you can I am a dead man]. 3

5.3.2.2.

By conjunction: Occurs between two or more words of the same category, namely verbs, nouns, and noun modifiers, using conjunctions. It is called coordination to contrast it to juxtaposition. Comparison is a form of coordination that uses special terms and can be made between different categories, namely noun and v2.

5.3.2.3.

By juxtaposition: Occurs between two verbs at the same level (Va // Vb) or different level (V1 // V2); inside the constituent, it occurs between a noun and a verb 2 [n // v2]; and between nouns [n // n] that have the same relationship with the verb. Depending on the juxtaposition a conjunction, a relative pronoun or a proverb can be supplied without changing the meaning of the utterance. It is as if juxtaposition is an elision of these links.

3

In Spanish, ‘antes de que’ is used.

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5.3.2.4.

By apposition: Occurs between two protonouns that refer to the same object, person or action of reality, placed side by side inside the constituent, with no possible link. Apposition can be complementary or reproductive. Apposition is seldom mentioned in the literature, but it was found to be frequent, and to have tremendous explanatory power.

5.3.3. Relationships between categories at the semantic level. These phenomena are found to occur: 5.3.3.1.

Complementation: The meaning of a grammatical category is complemented by a similar grammatical category. This phenomenon is the most common in communication. A verb case is a special kind of complementation, where a protonoun complements a verb. It is observed that a preposition complements a verb to the right (never in Spanish), a verbal complements a verb, a Vb complements a Va, a noun complements another noun, always to the right. Complementation can be carried out by preposition or no preposition, by conjunction, juxtaposition or apposition, that is, by all possible relationship mechanisms.

5.3.3.2.

Reproduction: Occurs between two protonouns that refer to the person of reality, placed side by side, Now they know [how many holes/it] Albert Hall. It can be carried out by juxtaposition or apposition. pronominalization is a form of reproduction, here we will deal with it pronoun is apposed.

5.3.3.3.

Subordination: Occurs when a verb 2 depends on a verb 1 or on a noun, You know that I need you, I’m filling [the cracks/ [that] ran through the door]. It can be carried out by juxtaposition or apposition.

same entity or takes to fell the Even though, only when the

Table 1 bellow summarizes and exemplifies the functioning of these relationships in English using examples from different songs in the corpus. Note the nomenclature for the various relationships. The Ø is used to mark absence. Left -Right is used for position. This table of relationships between grammatical categories is organized by levels, Morphosyntactic, Morphological and Semantic. At the Morphosyntactic level we find the relationship between categories, and the names of these relationships. At the Morphological level we find the mechanism of linkage utilized, be it preposition (or not), conjunction, juxtaposition or apposition. At the Semantic level, we find the phenomena occurring, be it complementation, reproduction or subordination. These headings are applied to the relationships of a verb, the relationships of a noun, inside a constituent, and the relationships between a Verb 1 and a verb 2, where verb 2 is a verb case.

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Verbal Periphrasis V verbal Verb and verbal share same agent. Other cases belong to verbal.

Prepositional verb V prep

Morphosyntactic level Relationships between categories

V vbl I don’t want to sound complaining V vbl I don’t want to sound complaining I’ll be coming home

Ø

Ø

Ø

Relationships of a verb Get back, Joe Pick up the bags She came in through the door V + prep Preposition complements meaning of verb. It is not a link. V + vbl Verb carries tense and person; verbal to the right means the action

Complementation +

Apposition /

Preposition or not

Juxtaposition //

Phenomenon

Type of Link

Conjunction -(Coordination)

Semantic level

Morphological level

Ø

Reproduction =

Ø

Subordination v2

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Simple Verb Case V [noun]

Verb a Verb b

V [prep n] I said [these words][to my girl] V [n] Treasure [these few words]

Ø

I am so tired (Gerund and participle in periphrasis don’t carry preposition)

Ø

Va - - Vb Just call on me -and- I’ll send it along Give -or- take a few Comparative conjunction Please me -likeI please you I’m he -as- you are he Ø

Va // Vb Let me whisper in your ear// say the words you long to hear A conjunction might be supplied without changing the meaning of the utterance

Ø

Ø

V+ [n] Noun complements meaning of verb

Va + Vb Vb to the right complements Va

Ø

Ø

Ø

Ø

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V1 [noun noun] Nouns use the four types of linkage. They complement and reproduce, but do not subordinate each other

[n n] (Possession, class, quantity, quality, identification, place, etc.) Writing [the words a sermon] She’s [the kind girl]… [Many more them] live next door We live [a life ease] He’s barking [at a portrait the Queen] Dragged [a comb my hair] Right noun complements left noun by

Relationships of a noun, inside a constituent [n // n] [n / n] [n + n] [crabalocker Nouns refer to Nouns fishwife//pornographic the same complement the object of meaning of other priestess] reality nouns by different Right noun (certainly an complements left noun linkages in all the English way to preceding by juxtaposition. There adjective) are commas in the examples graphic expression. A conjunction might be [substantive/ supplied without substantive] changing the meaning I’ll buy you [a Comparative of the utterance conjunction diamond/ [someone -likering] you] I want to be [a Feel [so paperback/ suicidal -just writer] like- Dylan’s We’re [Sgt. Mr. Jones] Pepper’s/ You would love lonely hearts/ [me -more club/ band] than- her] Left nouns are apposed to a Right noun nucleus on the complements right in order left noun by to qualify it conjunction

[n - - n] I think about you [night and- day] You had [a thing -or- two tell me] I’ve done [nothing -butcry]

[n = n] Here I separate the examples where apposition is reproduction not complementation All I gotta do is thank [you = girl] [Being [here] [alone you] [tonight] = it] feels so right. Right noun reproduces left noun by apposition

Ø

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Comparison V1 [n -as- v2]

preposition. Of seems common

[n adv -as- v2] I’ll be better [as soon -asI’m able]

[n adj -as- v2] She’s [happy -as- can be]

[substantive/ adjective noun] You make [me/blue] [somebody/ new] Adjective noun on the right is apposed to nucleus on the left in order to qualify it, a reverse of the normal order v2 is subordinated to noun

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V1 [noun = v2] Note the use of so, such and really. The = is used to distinguish it from the relative construction which uses the same linkages

Relative construction V1 [noun v2] Note that all three semantic phenomena are present.

Ø

Ø

Ø

Ø

[n adv // v2] She’s [the kind of girl//you like [so much// she makes [you/sorry]] v2 is juxtaposed to noun. That could be

[noun adj // v2] She’s [so glad//she’s telling all the world]

v2 on the right is juxtaposed to noun. That could be supplied

[noun// v2] I think of [you -andthings//you do] That’s [all//I do] She’s [the kind of girl//you like so much// she makes you/sorry]

[noun that/ v2] It’s [such a feeling that/ I can’t hide] I’m [so glad that/ she’s my little girl] Nobody was [really sure if/ he was from

Relative pronoun on the right is apposed to noun

[noun / that v2] I find [the things/[that] you do (Listen) [all the girl/[who] came to stay There’s [a place/[where] I can go

Ø

[n/that + v2] In apposition that establishes case with v2

[n + v2] In juxtaposition v2 complements noun

[n that = v2] In apposition v2 reproduces that or if

[n = v2] In juxtaposition v2 reproduces noun

[n = [that] v2] In apposition that reproduces noun

v2 is subordinated to noun

v2 is subordinated to noun

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V1 [[what] v2]

V1 [[where] v2]

Link Pronoun/ Interrogative Link Pronoun V1 [[when] v2]

V1 [v2] Note that all three semantic phenomena are present.

You made me glad [[when] I was blue] Leave me [[where] I am] You know [[what] I mean]

Ø

Ø

Ø

Ø

the House of Lords] v2 is apposed to proverb

Ø

Ø

V1 + when + v2 When establishes case with V1 and v2

Relationships V1 v2, where v2 is a verb case V1 // [v2] V1 [that/ v2] V1 + v2 You think //you’ve lost Remember In juxtaposition v2 establishes case [that/ I’ll your love with V1 You know//that can’t be always be in love with you] bad In apposition that That could be supplied. v2 is apposed establishes case to proverb with V1 I say//‘go’ No link might be supplied for quotations

supplied

Ø

V1 [that = v2] In apposition v2 reproduces that

v2 is subordinated to link pronoun

v2 is subordinated to V1

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V1 [[how] v2]

V1 [[why] v2]

V1 [[who] v2]

V1 [[till] v2]

[Right] is [only half what] is wrong (Second degree subordination) Treasure this few words [till/ we’re together] I don’t know [[who] can] I don’t know [[why] nobody told you] See [[how] they smile] You’ll never know [[how much] I love you]

The table above presents a panoramic view of the relationships between grammatical categories. It can be noted that at the morphosyntactic level, the verb establishes relationship with preposition, verbal, verb b, and to form the verb cases, with protonouns. Between verb and verbal and verb and protonoun the relationship is carried out by preposition or not. Between verb a and verb b, conjunction or juxtaposition can be used. In all verb relationships the semantic phenomenon is complementation. It can be seen that nouns use the four types of linkage to relate to other nouns. They complement and reproduce, but do not subordinate each other. A verb 2 can be subordinated to a noun through conjunction only for the purpose of comparison. The relative construction can be carried out by juxtaposition or apposition. In juxtaposition, v2 complements noun; in apposition that establishes case with v2. Also in apposition, relative pronoun reproduces noun. A relationship where noun = v2 can be carried out by juxtaposition or apposition. Here, there is not complementation only reproduction and subordination. For relationships v1 v2 where v2 is a verb case, juxtaposition or coordination can be used. All the semantic phenomena are present. For link pronouns, however, there is not reproduction only complementation and subordination. Between categories prepositions have four roles: to the right (1) complementing a verb, (2) introducing a verbal in the periphrasis, (3) complementing a noun with another noun; to the left, (4) introducing a verb case. Conjunctions are used between the same categories, except for -as-and -like- in the comparison, which may introduce a v2. Juxtaposition is very common and is used to complement, reproduce, or subordinate. Apposition is used to complement or reproduce. In reproduction, the nouns have different case relationships with the verb but refer to the same person or object of reality. The three semantic phenomena may be present in the same examples, but the mechanisms of relationship exclude each other. The concept of protonoun results particularly useful to discern words that have more than one grammatical role (category) such as link and pronoun or proverb.

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29 Treasure [these few words], keep [all my love] (22) It is [so hard] [to reason with you] (23) [To love her] is [to need her] (117)

[I] love you (21) [The man with the foolish grin] is keeping [perfectly still] (154)

[My happiness]still makes [me cry] (24) [To love her] is [to need her] (117) [Something in the way//she moves] attracts [me] [like no other lover](212)

[I] love [you] (21) …send my love [to you] (22) …just call [on me] (25) I trust [in you] (54)

[The world] is treating [me/ bad] (28) [Pride] can hurt [you/too] (32) I got something to say/ that might cause [you/pain] (48) [My happiness] still makes [me cry] (24), You’ve got [me crying] (76) (me, is Experiencer of verb and Agent of verbal, the pronoun has different roles for each)

Person Who experiences verbing?

Entity What is verbed?

Person Who verbs?

Entity What verbs?

Person (Preposition) Whom/Who is verbed?

Patient case. It is the entity or person on which the Experiencer case. In this verb case, a person action is completed. If both are present, person usually experiences what generally an entity verbs. goes before entity.

Agent case. Corresponds with the grammatical person conveyed by the verb.

Entities or person cases

Verb cases: They can be a protonoun or a clause. Substantive nouns can relate to the verb in all verb cases. Adjective nouns are for the Quantity and Manner cases. Adverb nouns are for Manner, Quantity, Time, and Space relationships. The verb ‘to verb’ is utilized to ask questions about the verb.

6.1.1.

6.1.

In Table 1, a panoramic of the main relationships between grammatical categories was given. Below, I primarily utilized the first twenty five songs of The Beatles Lyrics, pages 21- 49, to find out if the main postulates of Live Grammar were present in this smaller sample. The pages of relevant examples found outside of these 25 songs, are marked in bold. This may indicate that the structure is not very common in songs.

6. Research Results

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With adjective nouns, the adjective refers to a verb and a person at the same time I’ll always be [true] (21) Keep [you/ satisfied] (25) You’ve been [good me] (26)

Whenever you want me [at all] I’ll be here (39) I don’t care [too much money] (47) She’s not [a girl/ who misses [much]] (175) I love her [a lot] (229)

With adverb nouns, the adverb refers to a verb and a person or only to the verb I’m in love with you, and I feel [fine](64) May I inquire [discretely] when are you free? (141)

Manner case Verbs How?

Circumstantial cases

Quantity case Verbs How much/many?

6.1.2.

You won’t leave me [no more](38)

Keep all my love [forever](22) [Eternally], I’ll always be in love with you (26) (Two time cases, expressed by synonyms)

Time case Verbs When?

I’ll be coming [home] [again] [to you/ love] (22) Keep you [by my side] (25) But till she’s [here] please don’t come [near], just stay [away] (41)

Space case Verbs Where?

I’ll send [it/ along] [with love me you] (25) Call you [on the phone] (39)

Instrument case Verbs With what?

I’ll always be in love [with you] (22) I do [all the pleasing] [with you] (23) Won’t you dance [with me] (42)

Company case Verbs With whom?

For whom is it verbed? I’ am living every moment [for you] (243)

In time you’ll understand [the reason/ why] (24) I love you [cause/ you tell me things//I want to know] (24) Thank you girl [for loving me] (27) Was I to blame [for being unfair] (49) [To lead a better life] I need [my love be here] (117)

Reason/Aim case Verbs Why/ What for?

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Quality adjective [Little child] won’t you dance? (42) You’re [not the hurting kind] (32) Gerund as adj [When your prized possessions]… (121) Participle as adj

Ask [me] [why] (24) [As/ I write [this letter] // send [my love] [to you]…(22) [Only a fool] would doubt [our love] (26) [She] told [me] [what say] (32) Infinitive used as substantive I’ll send [all my loving] [to you] (40), [My crying] is through (46), I see [no use wondering [why]] (46) Gerund used as substantive [I]’ll never be [the same] (41) [Right] is [only half what] is wrong (208)

Substantive noun, including pronoun, infinitive and gerund, and their modifiers Ø, article, demonstrative, possessive adjective

6.2.1.

Secondary adverb (Adjective noun intensifier) It is [so hard] [to reason you] (23) I’ve got [everything/ [that] you want [like a heart that it’s [so true](25) It’s [only fair] (32) I’m [never blue] (34) You’re [quite content be bad] (250)

Verb Intensifiers I know // [you] never/ even try, girl (23) [My happiness]still makes [me/ cry] (24)

Keep all my love [forever] (22) …there’s [always] [rain] [in my heart] (23) [Now] you’re [mine] (24) …and I’ll send it [along] (25) Do you promise not tell]? (29) It is [so] (30) I feel happy [inside] (35) You won’t leave me [no more] (38) [My crying] is [through] (46) Whenever you want me [at all] I’ll be [here] (39) I’ve imagined this [many times/ before](34) (In complementary apposition with time substantive) I don’t care [too much money] (47) She’s not [a girl/ who misses [much]] (175)

Adverb noun and its modifiers

I’ll -always- be [true] (21) We’re [together] (22) I should -never- be [blue] (24) I’ m [sad](24) Now you’re [mine] (24) Leave [me/ alone] (41) I got lips that long to keep [you/ satisfied] (25) [Right] is [only half what] is [wrong] (208)

6.2.3.

Ø, adverb

Adjective noun including participle, and its modifiers

Ø, adverb

6.2.2.

Noun classes and their modifiers. The substantive noun has the most modifiers, including adverbs. The adverb is the only modifier to the adjective noun and the adverb noun. The adverb is the only modifier of adjectives and other adverbs. When a demonstrative, an article or a possessive adjective are positioned to the left of an adjective noun or an adverb noun, these become objectified, The more I learn, the less I know (201).

6.2.

32

Tertiary adverb (Adjective intensifier) I can’t conceive of [any more misery] (24)

Comparative adverbs introduce Manner verb case I’ve got [everything that = you want [like a heart that’s so true] (25) It’s not [like me] [to pretend] (34) I act [like a clown] (68) She looks [as an African Queen] (253) (Creole English Song)

Secondary adverb (Substantive noun intensifier) You are [the only love/ [that] I’ve ever had] (24) She was [just seventeen] (27) (It) was [way beyond compare] (27) Nobody knows [just we/ two] (29) There’s [no time], There’s [no sorrow] (30)

Quantity adjective Treasure [this few words] (22) I do [all the pleasing] [with you] (23) I can’t conceive of [any more misery] (24) I’ve imagined this [many times before](34)

Tertiary adverb (Adverb intensifier) (It) was [way beyond compare] (27) I’ve waited [far too long] (75)

Secondary adverb (Adverb noun intensifier) …it [really only] goes to show (24) [Before too long] I fell in love (27) Why would she treat us [so thoughtlessly]? (137)

…just call on me (25) May have a connective function between auxiliary and auxilied I’ll always be true (21) I’ll always be in love with you (22) [I] should never be blue (24) You are [the only love/ [that] I’ve ever had] (24) You might as well resign yourself to me (34) She’s well acquainted with the touch of the velvet hand (175)

33

[subst/ subst] is a most common form in English. I’ ll buy you [a diamond/ ring] (47) The left noun modifies the nuclear right noun

I’ll send it along [with love me you] (25) (ablative) Send [her/ back me] (28) (ablative) I could tell the world [a thing -or- two our love] (26) (theme) It’s [up you] (32) (modal) She would leave [me my own] (41) (modal) I’ve got [no time you] (41) (accusative) I see [no use wondering why I cried for you] (46) (accusative) [pronoun/ n adj] Why do you make [me/ blue] (23) You made [me/ glad] [when I was blue] (26) Leave [me/ alone] (41) That boy took [my love/ away] (36) I’ m gonna let [you/ down], Leave [you/ flat] (48) The noun adjective modifies the nuclear left noun. Note the use of make, leave, let. The agent and the patient are different persons above, a coo-related person bellow. We held [each other/ tight] (27)

[n + n] Two apposed nouns complement each other

[n n] Two nouns linked by preposition complement each other. The examples are with prepositions other than of (See Table 1). I am using the names of some Latin cases to label these noun relationships inside the constituent.

Complementation by apposition

Reproduction by apposition

[pronoun/ subst] [All/ I gotta do] is [thank you = girl] (26) You know [the reason = why] (186) [The worm = he] licks my bone (186)

[n = n] Two apposed nouns reproduce each other

6.3.3.

Complementation by preposition

6.3.1.

6.3.2.

Semantic relationships between nouns. Some preliminary results are shown. More study is needed on this topic.

6.3.

34

It’s happened [to me] (24) I’ ve known the secret [for a week or two] (29) Keep you [by my side] (25) I fell in love [with her] (27) [Without her] I will be [in misery] (28)

V+n Verb Cases

Noun relationships See 8.3.

[n + n]

[n - - n] I could tell the world [a thing -or- two our love] (26) I think about you [night -and- day] (34) I’ve done [nothing -but- cry] (38)

Conjunction. The relationship has been called coordination to oppose it to juxtaposition. The semantic relationship is complementation.

Va - - Vb …just call on me -and- I’ll send it along (25) Don’t you run -and- hide (42) You hurt me -then- you’re back again (46) Well, she was just seventeen (27); Then, I’ll say that something (35). The Va is in the preceding sentence.

6.4.2.

Come on (23) It’s you// he’s thinking of (32) Every night the tears come down [from my eyes] (38) I can’t go on (49) She looked [at me] (27) It is possible that here the preposition belongs to patient person, not to verb. He blew his mind out [in a car] (144) I don’t see the fact that verb and preposition are separated a reason enough to call out an adverb here.

V + vbl Verbal Periphrasis To seems to be a common preposition I always have to say love (23) I want to know (24) It only goes to show (24) I never used to cry (28) Say [the words // you long to hear] (28) I got [lips/[that] long to keep you satisfied] (25) Let [me go on loving you] (43)

Preposition

6.4.1.

V + preposition

Mechanisms of relationship between grammatical categories. A more detailed study of these mechanisms is presented here.

6.4.

35

[n - - n] [someone -like- you] (21) Love [you -like- no other] (44) Love was [more -than- just holding hands] (54)

[n //v2] I love you [cause/ [you] tell [me] [things // [I] want to know](24) [If/ there’s [anything// I can do] just call on me (25) [All// I gotta do] is [thank you/ girl] (26) I’ll remember [all the little things //we’ve done] (28)

[n // n] [someone to love // somebody new](21)

Reproduction of noun using a relative pronoun [n /[ that] v2]; [n/ [why] v2]; [n/ [who] v2]; [n/ [where] v2]; [n/ [which] v2] You are [the only love/ [that] I’ve ever had] (24)

[As/ I write this letter // send my love to you] remember [that / I’ll always be

Apposition. The semantic relationship in the following examples is reproduction in a v2 constituent. For apposition between nouns see 8.3.

V1//v2 You know // I love you (21) You know //there’s [always] [rain] [in my heart] (23) I can’t believe // it’s happened to me (24) I’ll say // I love you (24)

Reproduction of v2 using a proverb [as / v2]; [that / v2]; [because / v2]; [if / v2]

6.4.4.

Comparison [n - - v2] She’s [happy -as- can be] (64)

Juxtaposition. A link may be supplied between the two members. The semantic relationship is complementation except in examples like this, I’m [so glad // you came here] (208), where it is reproduction.

Va//Vb [As/ I write this letter // send my love to you] remember …(22) [If/ there’s anything/ that you want] // [if/ there’s anything// I can do] just call on me (25) Ask me why// I’ll say// I love you (24)

6.4.3.

Va - - Vb Please me -like- I please you (23) I’ll be good -like- I know// I should (38) Love you -like- no other can (44)

36 The pronoun is Patient of the verb, Agent of the verbal in all the preceding examples. [Two of us riding nowhere, spending someone’s hard-earned pay, you and me Sunday driving, not arriving on our way back home] we’ re on our way

Complement to a noun adjective or noun adverb …love/ that is [too good be true] (26) (modal)

I saw [her standing there] (27) If I catch [you talking with that boy again] I’ m gonna let [you/ down] (48) It’s [the second time // I’ve caught [you talking to him]] (48) [If they’d seen [you talking that way]] they’d laugh in my face (48)

You don’t need [me show the way] (23) Me is Patient of the verb, Agent of the verbal I want [no one talk to me] (41) No one is Patient of the verb, Agent of the verbal

Complement to a substantive (I need) [someone love] (21) (dative) She told me [what say] (32) (accusative) I see [no reason change mine] (46) (reason) You had [a thing -or- two tell me] (quantity)

Gerund Constituents

Verbal constituents.

It’s based on [a novel a man named Lear] (110)

Past Participle Constituents

…you’ll understand [the reason/[why] [if/ I cry] it’s not [because/ I’m sad](24) [If/ there’s [anything/ [that] you want]] just call on me] (25) I’ve got [everything/ [that] you want -like- [a heart/ [that] ’s so true]] (25) I got [arms/ [that] long to hold you] (25) I got [lips/ [that] long to kiss you] (25) I’m [the kind of guy/[who] never used to cry] (28) There’s [a place/ [where] I can go] (30) [Images of broken light/ [which] dance before me] they call me on (236)

Infinitive Constituents

6.5.

true] (22) (Position is really important; here as is a proverb not a conjunction) [If/ I cry]it’s not [because/ I’m sad] (24) I love you [cause/ [you] tell [me] [things//[I] want to know](24) It’s [true] [that/ it only goes to show [that/ I know [that/ I should never be blue]]] (24) A series of 3 reproductions [If/ there’s anything/ that you want // if/ there’s anything// I can do] just call on me (25)

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home(234) In this example the gerund takes cases, that is, it relates to agent, patient and place, all answering the question ‘how are we on our way home?’, manner case of the main verb.

6.7.

I saw [her standing there] (27) He’s seen [you cry] (36) I hear [it said] (98)

Others

You’ve been [good me] (26) I’ll be coming [home/ again you love] (22) There’s [always] [rain my heart] (23) It’s not [like me pretend (34) You might as well resign [yourself me] (34)

Disputed constituency decisions. It seems that with some verbs, specially the verb To be, characterized by Agent and Patient being the same person or object of reality, the preposition links, not separates, constituents.

In all the preceding examples me Person Patient of let; Agent of verbal

Let [me whisper in your ear] (29) You’ll let [me be your man] (35) You’ll let [me hold your hand] (35) Let [me go on loving you] (43) Let [me understand] (44)

[My happiness] still makes [me cry] (24) me Experiencer of makes, Agent of cry

You want [someone make [you feel so fine] (42), If it makes [you feel alright] (47) you Experiencer of make, Agent of feel

Let

Make

Special constructions. Make, let, and some perception verbs like see, hear introduce a complex Patient entity case, where there is a Patient person to the verb, which is related to a verbal in a different case, usually Agent.

6.6.

It’s not [like me pretend (34) (nominative) It’s [plain see] (41) (modal)

38

Some examples found elsewhere are: Bill and his elephants were taken by surprise (172). Here, Bill and his elephants, Agentive; by surprise, Modal. The agent of the action may be, by them, There’s [nothing you can do that can’t be done] (146). Here, [nothing you can do = [that] Agentive of can’t be done. The agent of the action may be, by you. At twelve o’clock (there was) [a meeting round the table for a séance in the dark], [with voices out of nowhere, (that were) put on specially by the children, for a lark ](195) This is the complete sentence for the example above.

Passive voice. There was not an example of passive voice in the sample of twenty five songs, which indicates passive voice does not occur frequently in songs. Live grammar explains that in the passive voice, there is a difference between the agent of the verb, called Agentive, and the agent of the action, called Agent. In, Because we know// we can’t be found (216), the second we is the Agentive of the verb; the Agent of can’t be found is not present, but may be a constituent with by, [by them], as can be seen in Voices were put on by the children (195). The Agentive can be a person, we, or an entity, voices, but the latter is most common.

6.8.

7. Conclusions Live grammar presents a revolutionary approach to the study of grammar in several ways. It expands the notion that the verb is the center of the sentence farther than any previous approach to grammar. A sentence is composed of a modality which reflects the intention of the speaker, a verb, and an x number of cases meaningfully relating to the verb. Morphosyntactically, cases are expressed as constituents, which possess a nucleus called a protonoun. Constituents relate to the verb, and verbs and protonouns connect to each other with or without links. I believe it has been demonstrated that studying the verb as the central part of a sentence, as the sun seen as the center of the solar system, allows a more accurate and complete analysis of grammatical categories and their relationships to each other at the morphosyntactic and semantic levels. Some innovations concern the introduction of Apposition as a morphological mechanism of relationship between protonouns, alongside Preposition (or not), Coordination and Juxtaposition. Live Grammar proposes three semantic phenomena occurring between categories: (1) Complementation, the basis of many relationships, (2) Reproduction, a less common if singularly important process, and (3) Subordination, a process characterized by the presence of a verb 2 in the constituent. Some newly coined terms are protonoun (a noun or a word that directly answers a question about a verb); proverb (a link that reproduces a verb cataphorically); agentive (the agent of only the verb for passive voice). The concept of link has been expanded to include these protonouns: relative pronoun, proverb and link pronoun. Several distinctions are made clear after the analysis presented, such as the difference between nouns (substantive, adjective, adverb), and adjective and adverb (modifiers of nouns); the different uses of that, (relative pronoun, proverb, determiner); the indexing of case relationships between a protonoun and a verb; and the relationships among protonouns. At the pedagogical level, Live Grammar is underpinned by an approach that considers language as an instrument for meaning at work in communication. Reflecting the description of grammar that appears in the title, this perspective recognizes the variability and creativity that define language use in natural, communicative settings. While acknowledging previously established grammatical notions, Live Grammar encourages learners to reexamine the roles and relationships between the different elements of an utterance in a way that offers a complete explanation and understanding of how language works. In the classroom this method goes from the concrete (performed language), to the abstract (understanding of how language works), to the practical (language creation). For students of English as a second language, Live Grammar is written in the target language to both convey and exemplify explanations, thereby, maximizing its effectiveness as a teaching tool. The inclusion of the songs that make up the corpus further enhances the

39

pedagogical value of this volume. As explained previously, the multifaceted nature of songs makes them an invaluable resource in second language education. Not only is linguistic input provided, but this input is complemented with further audio, visual and even kinesthetic stimulation, which all can play an essential role in the second language classroom. Furthermore, the explanations, coupled with the examples provided, offer second language learners the ability to develop a profound, explicit understanding of the sometimes complex workings of grammar that will increase the accuracy with which learners produce the second language. As a teaching tool, Live Grammar’s application is not limited to the second language classroom. Using the concepts presented here, native speakers of English will also cultivate a stronger metalinguistic awareness of their own language practices. It also provides an innovative way of teaching grammar to enhance the learning experiences and opportunities of students. The understanding of the grammar of one’s native language is far from an isolated, nonfunctional piece of knowledge. Grammar is a fascinating product of the human brain. It can be studied in relation to a variety of other disciplines including psychology, literature, anthropology and even law. By acquiring a complete understanding of grammar, students and professionals of many different fields can further their own intellectual contributions. All the examples that appear in this article are based on language performance, realia texts, found in Beatles’ songs. Utilizing this corpus, Live Grammar inductively explores how language functions to develop the rules that govern language use instead of applying previously existing models of linguistic relationships to the sample. This inductive method of elaborating a theory both serves to reinforce the validity of the claims made in this work, as well as recognizes a linguistic reality of everyday language use: variation. Although some schools of linguistics explore an idealized speaker who strictly follows prescriptive grammar rules, real world experience makes it evident that communication is much more varied than this perspective permits. The inductive technique of explaining language that is used in Live Grammar acknowledges the tremendous language variation that occurs in relation to both social and geographic factors. Through this inductive methodology, the differences that many students notice between the language of a textbook and the language of every day utterances may be bridged. As Galileo’s heliocentric hypothesis was met with tremendous opposition when first proposed, the adoption of this verb-centered approach faces the challenge of a long established perspective in which the subject is the central part of a sentence. Still, I argue that this innovative way of investigating grammar offers the most complete and comprehensible way to conceptualize the intricate workings of not only a sentence but of any text. The implementation of the ideas planted in this book will offer fruitful results in the language classroom. With time, and the expanded application of these concepts to other language samples, the validity of Live Grammar will be proven. This is but, albeit complete, an Introduction to Live Grammar. I invite my colleagues to participate in enriching the concepts presented here.

40

APPENDIX I. VERB CASE RELATIONSHIPS MATRIX This matrix is designed to contain all verb cases. However, if a verb case does not appear in a song, the column will be eliminated. Columns will also be moved when a particular song asks for it. Didactically, before class, a summary is written by the students; in class, the song is analyzed following a Guide of Analysis and structures are replicated in writing exercises. Before, putting it in the matrix, I analyze the song, underlining the verbs and deciding on the constituents, as seen in The fool on the Hill. Other songs analyzed are She’s leaving home, Ask me why, and With a little help from my friends. I also present the analysis of the short story, Death in Samarra to show the use of colors in the text.

41

42

-But- the fool on the hill, Sees the sun going down, And the eyes in his head, See the world spinning 'round.

[Well the way], [Head a cloud/, The man a thousand voices]’ talking [perfectly loud] -But- [nobody] ever hears [him, -or- the sound// [he] appears to make], -and- [he] never seems to notice,

-But- [the fool the hill], Sees [the sun going down], -And- [the eyes his head], See [the world spinning 'round].

[Day day], [Alone a hill/, The man the foolish grin] is keeping [perfectly still] -But- [nobody] wants to know [him], [They] can see [that/ [he]'s [just a fool], -And- [he] never gives [an answer],

The fool on the hill

Ooh, Round and round and round

The fool the hill] Sees the sun going down, And the eyes in his head, See the world spinning 'round.

-And- [he] never listens [to them], [He] knows [that] [they]'re [the fool] [They] don't like [him/,

Ooh, ooh, [round –and- round –and- round].

-But- the fool on the hill, Sees the sun going down, And the eyes in his head, See the world spinning 'round.

-And- [nobody] seems to like [him], [they] can tell [[what] [he] wants to do, -and- [he] never shows [his feelings],

43

4

But

And

**that And But

But

Link

Agent

Entity What

head a cloud/ the man a thousand voices’ Nobody

**the sun the eyes his head **the world

He He the fool the hill

alone a hill/ the man the foolish grin Nobody They

Person Who

** Indicates that the case will be analyzed further

Well the way(time/space)

Day day,

When

Time

ever hears

spinning 'round ‘ talking

going down See

‘s never gives Sees

wants know can see

is keeping

Verbs

Adverb noun Intensifier + Verb

Matrix for The fool on the hill

him

him

To whom DO/ IO

Patient person

-or- the sound// he appears to make**

the world spinning 'round**

That/ he's just a fool**4 just a fool an answer the sun going down**

What DO/ IO

Patient entity

perfectly loud

perfectly still

How

Manner

44

They They

**that

're don't like

wants do never shows never listens Knows

appears make never seems notice seems like can tell

him/ the fool on the hill

to them

him

that/ they're the fool** the fool

what he wants to do** (what) his feelings

(the sound)

Interesting: Alone on a hill and Head in a cloud are not manner of the verb, but of the noun, to which they seem to be apposed. The sun going down and The world spinning round are clauses made with gerund. They also show a verb with its complementary preposition. In the analysis of They can tell what he wants to do, what is repeated to show its double relationship with the two verbs. In He never listens to them, the preposition introduces the patient person case. In, they don’t like [him/the fool on the hill], the noun is apposed to the pronoun. The verbs appear, seem and want are in periphrasis using .

He He He He

**he He Nobody They

**what And And

And And

45

Father snores as his wife gets into her dressing gown Picks up the letter that's lying there Standing alone at the top of the stairs She breaks down and cries to her husband Daddy our baby's gone

She (We gave her most of our lives) Is leaving (Sacrificed most of our lives) Home (We gave her everything money could buy) She's leaving home after living alone For so many years.

Wednesday morning at five o'clock as the day begins Silently closing her bedroom door Leaving the note that she hoped would say more She goes downstairs to the kitchen clutching her handkerchief Quietly turning the backdoor key Stepping outside she is free.

She’s leaving home

She (What did we do that was wrong) is having (We didn't know it was wrong) fun (Fun is the one thing that money can't buy) Something inside that was always denied For so many years. She's leaving home. Bye, bye

Friday morning at nine o'clock she is far away Waiting to keep the appointment she made Meeting a man from the motor trade.

She (We never thought of ourselves) is leaving (Never a thought for ourselves) home (We struggled hard all our lives to get by) She's leaving home after living alone For so many years.

Why would she treat us so thoughtlessly How could she do this to me.

46

Quietly turning the

Wednesday morning five o'clock -as- the day begins

When

Time

Link/ Wh Word + aux

she

**she

She

Person Who

Entity What

**note/ that

Agent

Is

Hoped

would say

**Leaving

Goes

Verbs

Adverb noun intensifier + Verb

To whom DO/ IO

Patient person

(it) would say more

[the note/ that] she hoped// would say more**

What DO/ IO

Patient entity

Matrix for She’s leaving home Place

free

more

How/ Where How much Silently closing downstairs the her bedroom kitchen door// Leaving the note/ that she hoped would say more** Clutching her handkerchief//

Manner/ Quantity

Why/ What for

Reason/ Aim

47

after living alone For so many years. As/ his wife gets into her dressing gown**

backdoor key Stepping outside

**as

is lying

picks up

(his wife)

**the letter/that

Gets

snores

his wife

Father

could buy 's leaving

gave

We

** money

Sacrificed

(we)

She

is leaving gave

She We

Her

Her

the letter that’s lying there**

most of our lives most of our lives everything = money could buy**

there

into her dressing gown

home

home

48

Never a thought for ourselves Friday morning nine o'clock

Why would How could never thought of is Waiting to keep

made

is having

She

**she

She

Do

She

We

Treat

breaks down and- cries

She

She

Ourselves

to me

Us

to her husband

the appointment// she made Meeting a man from the motor trade**. the appointment/ Meeting a man from the motor trade fun/ something inside that was always denied for so

this

“Daddy, our baby's gone”

(how)

so thoughtlessly

far away

Standing alone the top the stairs (why)

49

What did

She

We

we

**money

**it Fun

Was

**(what) that

can’t buy 's leaving

Was Is

didn’t know

Was always denied Do

Something inside/that

The one thing/ that money can’t buy** that (fun) home. Bye, bye

It was wrong**

that was wrong**

many years**

wrong

wrong

This is a complex song with many grammatical nuances. In the verses, Leaving the note that she hoped would say more/ She goes downstairs to the kitchen, the constituent Leaving the note that she hoped would say more presents a relative construction, the note/ that v2; and a case juxtaposition, she hoped (that) would say more, that is two subordinations together. This song stacks constituents for Manner case, Silently closing her bedroom door/Leaving the note that she hoped would say more/ clutching her handkerchief/ Quietly turning the backdoor key/Stepping outside she is free. In the sentence, [We] gave [her] [everything money could buy], the constituent [everything money could buy], exemplifies reproduction of a noun by a verb 2 by juxtaposition [everything (that) = money could buy].

For so many years

50

I can't believe it's happened to me. I can't conceive of any more misery.

Ask me why, I'll say I love you, And I'm always thinking of you.

I love you, 'cause you tell me things I want to know. And it's true that it really only goes to show, That I know, That I, I, I, I should never, never, never be blue.

Ask me why, I'll say I love you, And I'm always thinking of you.

I can't believe it's happened to me I can't conceive of any more misery.

Now you're mine, my happiness still makes me cry. And in time, you'll understand the reason why, If I cry, It's not because I'm sad, but you're the only love that I've ever had.

I love you, 'cause you tell me things I want to know. And it's true that it really only goes to show, That I know, That I, I, I, I should never, never, never be blue.

Ask me why

Ask me why, I'll say I love you, And I'm always thinking of you.

51

Now

When

Time

I I you my happiness

it

**(true that/) **(that) **(that)

Entity What

it

**I

you

I

Person Who

Agent

And

**'cause

Link/ Wh word

really only goes to show know should never be 're still makes

want to know 's

Tell

Love

Verbs

Adverb noun intensifier + Verb

Me

Who experiences

Experiencer

me

To whom DO/ IO you

Patient person

cry

that**

that**

things// I want to know** (things)

What DO/ IO

Patient entity

blue mine

true that = it really only goes to show**, That I know, That I should never, never, never be blue.**

How/ How much

Manner/ quantity

Why/ What for 'cause you tell me things I want to know** (‘cause)

Reason/ end

52

And in time

and

**I you

but

I I I

I

**I I

I

If

you

**it

It

‘s happened can't conceive of Ask 'll say Love 'm always thinking of

‘ve ever had can't believe

‘m ‘re

Cry 's

'll understand

to me

you you

me I love you**

any more misery

the only love/ that I've ever had** (That) it's happened to me**

the reason/ why if I cry it’s not because I’m sad

sad

why

not because I'm sad**, but you're the only love that I've ever had. (because)

53

What do I do when my love is away? (Does it worry you to be alone?) How do I feel by the end of the day? (Are you sad because you're on your own?) No, I get by with a little help from my friends, Mmm, get high with a little help from my friends, Mmm, gonna to try with a little help from my friends

Do you need anybody? I need somebody to love. Could it be anybody? I want somebody to love.

What would you think if I sang out of tune, Would you stand up and walk out on me. Lend me your ears and I'll sing you a song, And I'll try not to sing out of key. Oh I get by with a little help from my friends, Mmm,I get high with a little help from my friends, Mmm, I'm gonna try with a little help from my friends.

With a little help from my friends

Oh, I get by with a little help from my friends, Mmm, gonna try with a little help from my friends Ooh, I get high with a little help from my friends Yes I get by with a little help from my friends, with a little help from my friends

Do you need anybody? I just need someone to love. Could it be anybody? I want somebody to love

Would you believe in a love at first sight? Yes I'm certain that it happens all the time. What do you see when you turn out the light? I can't tell you, but I know it's mine. Oh, I get by with a little help from my friends, Mmm I get high with a little help from my friends, Oh, I'm gonna try with a little help from my friends

Do you need anybody? I need somebody to love. Could it be anybody? I want somebody to love.

54

Oh Mmm

get

I

I

'll sing 'll try not to sing get by

I I

stand up walk out Lend

sang

think

Verbs

and And

Entity What

Intensifier Verb

you

I

you

Person Who

Agent

Would and

What would **if

Expressive Link/ phonology Wh + aux

You

on me Me

To whom DO/ IO

Patient person

your ears a song

What DO/ IO

Patient entity

high

out of key

out of tune

How/ How much

Manner/ Quantity

When

Time

Matrix for With a little help from my friends

Where

Place

Why/ What for

Reason/ Aim

with a little help my friends, with a little help my friends

With what/ with whom

Instrument/ company

if I sang out of tune**

IF Syntactic case/ condition

55

No

Mmm

I

on your own

you get by

‘re

sad

You

somebody to love

you

feel

worry

is

do

want

be

anybody? somebody to love anybody?

Are

it /to be alone?

it

need need

I

**my love

I

I

you I

‘m gonna try

How do

Does

What do

Could

Do

I

by the end of the day?

when my love is away?** (when) away

because you're on your own?**

with a little

(because)

with a little help from my friends

56

Yes

can't tell know

I I

but

**it

turn out

you

‘s

see

**When

happens

you

it

‘m

(am) gonna to try believe

get

**(certain that/) What do

I

you

(I)

Mmm,

Would

(I)

Mmm

You it's mine**

the light?

in a love at first sight?

mine

certain that/ it happens all the time**.

high

all the time when you turn out the light?** (when)

help from my friends with a little help from my friends with a little help from my friends

APPENDIX II. COLORS FOR THE APPOINTMENT IN SAMARRA

The Appointment in Samarra, as retold by W. Somerset Maugham The speaker is Death

There was a merchant in Bagdad who sent his servant to market to buy provisions and in a little while the servant came back, white and trembling, and said, Master, just now when I was in the marketplace I was jostled by a woman in the crowd and when I turned I saw it was Death that jostled me. She looked at me and made a threatening gesture, now, lend me your horse, and I will ride away from this city and avoid my fate. I will go to Samarra and there Death will not find me.

Comment [NCM1]: Relative pronoun, agent of verb 2 Comment [NCM2]: Vocative case, a case that calls/names the addressee Comment [NCM3]: Link pronoun to verb 2, time case Comment [NCM4]: Agentive Case, the agent of the action, not the agent of the verb. Passive voice

The merchant lent him his horse, and the servant mounted it, and he dug his spurs in its flanks and as fast as the horse could gallop he went. Then the merchant went down to the marketplace and he saw me standing in the crowd and he came to me and said, Why did you make a threating gesture to my servant when you saw him this morning? That was not a threatening gesture, I said, it was only a start of surprise. I was astonished to see him in Bagdad, for I had an appointment with him tonight in Samarra. Verbs and verbals x Agent of the verb (person or entity) x Patient of the verb (person or entity) x Manner of the verb The two examples here are noun adjective (refers to the verb and to the noun agent at the same time) white and trembling, and a noun adverb expression, as fast as x Time of the verb x Place of the verb x Verb 2 link x Conjunction What can we learn from using the colors?

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Comment [NCM5]: Interrogative pronoun, Reason case of the verb

Comment [NCM6]: Reason case headed by the preposition for introducing verb 2 (never in Spanish) Comment [NCM7]: Case company

APPENDIX III. GLOSSARY

Reality: Objective reality, as we apprehend and name it through language in function, is constituted by actions, objects, quality and quantity of actions and objects, and the diverse relationships among them. Psychological reality is an individual extension of the objective reality. Fantasy is an imaginary extension of the objective reality. Grammatical Categories: Syntactic function of words which depend on whether or not they relate to the verb. The verb is the essential category; the protonoun is the primary category; the modifiers of the protonouns are a secondary category; the adverb is the only tertiary category; when it is a modifier of modifiers. Links join or separate the different categories. Verb: Any word that indicates an action occurring, that is, any word conjugated for a person or thing, in a mode and verbal tense. It can be simple, compound or periphrastic, and auxiliary/auxilied for negation and question. Verbal: The non- conjugated form of the verb, infinitive (the name of the verb), gerund (the action of the verb) or participle (the state of the verb). It has a double function as both noun and verb. Verbal Periphrasis: A verb and a verbal join to mention the simultaneity of two or more actions. The agent of the periphrasis is the selfsame. Protonoun: It is a primary category. It is any word nucleus of a constituent in a relationship with a verb or verbal. It is an umbrella category that includes: Noun: Any nuclear word that represents an object of reality or fantasy susceptible of being replaced by an interrogative pronoun, that is, a word that answers a question about the verb. Substantive Noun: It can answer all the questions about the verb. It is the most common of nouns and the one with the most modifiers. It refers to concrete or abstract objects of reality or fantasy. Adjective noun: It answers questions such as how, who and what. When it answers the question how it refers to the verb and to a substantive noun at the same time, and it does not carry any modifiers but the adverb, You’re quite content to be bad. When it answers the questions who and what it is an adjective-substantive noun and carries the modifiers of the substantive noun, The fool on the hill sees the sun going down, it’s the same. Adverb Noun: It answers the questions how, how much, when and where, and hence it is classified as manner, quantity, time and place, It is so, She’s not a girl who misses much, Now you’re mine, I feel happy inside.

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Pronoun: It is a short noun with a reproductive function of an object or person. Pronouns can be personal, demonstrative, indefinite, reflexive or interrogative, I write this letter, I saw her, The world is treating me bad, That’s all I gotta do, I need somebody, You might resign yourself to me, Ask me why, What do I do when my love is away? Relative Pronoun: It is a protonoun characterized by reproducing a noun anaphorically (referring back) and establishing a relationship with a verb 2. The relative pronouns are that, who, whose, when where and which, when functioning under the conditions noted above, There’s a place where I can go. Proverb: It is a protonoun characterized by reproducing a verb 2 cataphorically (referring forward) and establishing a relationship with a verb 1. The proverbs are that, as, because, if when functioning under the conditions noted above, Remember that I’ll always be true. Link Pronoun: It is a protonoun characterized by relating to a verb 1 and a verb 2 at the same time. The link pronouns are how, when and where, You made me glad when I was blue, Leave me where I am, You know what I mean. The indirect interrogative pronouns also belong in this category, I don’t know who can, I don’t know why nobody told you, See how they smile. It would seem that since, until and while also belong to this category. Determiner: Determiners are a secondary category. They can be articles (the, a); demonstratives (this, that, these, those); and possessive adjectives (my, your, his, her, our, their). Adjective: It is a secondary category. It does not answer a question about the verb. It modifies a noun exclusively, qualitatively or quantitatively, [Little child] won’t you dance?, Treasure [this few words], I do [all the pleasing] [with you]. The verbals gerund and participle act as adjectives, You’re [not the hurting kind], [When your prized possessions]… Adverb: It does not answer a question about the verb. It is a secondary category when it modifies a noun substantive, You are [the only love/ [that] I’ve ever had], a noun adjective, It is [so hard] [to reason you], or a noun adverb, [Before too long] I fell in love. It is a tertiary category when it modifies an adjective or an adverb, I can’t conceive of [any more misery]. Comparative adverbs introduce Manner verb case, I’ve got [everything that you want [like a heart that’s so true]]. Links: They are words that connect different grammatical categories. Conjunctions like and, or, but, either, neither, then; and prepositions like at, in, on, before, after, from, to, behind, by, for, etc. are links. The relative pronoun, the proverb and the link pronoun carry out the functions of protonoun and link at the same time. Sentence: A sentence is a group of words with complete meaning in which a conjugated verb enunciated or subjacent is essential, and which express an expressive intention or modality. It is

59

recognized graphically because it goes from Upper case to period. Besides the pragmatic level or enunciation level, three levels exist in the sentence: (1) The Semantic level corresponds to the verb case relationships; (2) the syntactic level corresponds to the constituents; and (3) the morphological level corresponds to the protonouns. Modality: The modality of a sentence reflects the intention of the speaker; it is possible to declare, affirm, negate, question, doubt, exclaim, etc. Modality can be expressed by words, by intonation, by expressive phonology, and, of course, by gestures. Active Voice: The agent of the verb is the agent of the action, I spend my days in conversation. Passive Voice: The agent of the verb or agentive is not the agent of the action. It is constructed with to be, which carries the tense and person, and with the past participle of the verb, which carries the content of the action, We know we can’t be found (by somebody). Verb Case: It belongs to the semantic level of the sentence. It refers to the logical relationships that words contract with the verb. Each verb case relationship occurs only once in a simple sentence, but preposition, coordination, juxtaposition and apposition permit complex instances of the same case, I’d like to be under the sea an octopus’s garden the shade, Trying to get to Holland or France, Cream tangerine// a ginger slim// a coffee dessert/ it’s good news, You can get married in Gibraltar/ near Spain. The verb case can be a word, a series of words or a clause that includes a verb 2. Agent: Answers the question who/what verbs? The agent can be a person, a personification or a thing (animals, entities, ideas, and actions). It is always present, even when it is elided, (I’ ve) Been away so long, or unnecessary, like in the commands, Take me to your daddy’s farm. Agentive: Answers the question what/who is verbed? In, There’s nothing you can do that can’t be done, that is the agentive of can’t be done. Patient: Answers the question who verbs what/ to whom? It can be a thing (without a preposition) or a person (with or without preposition), You say yes, I read the news, I suddenly see you, Listen to me. Experiencer: Answers the question, to whom does it happen? It is usually a person, while the agent is usually an entity, The world is treating me/ bad. Constituent: It belongs to the syntactic level of the sentence. It is characterized by possessing a nuclear protonoun. It answers a question about the verb. It is written between brackets [ ]. Noun Relationships: The noun relates to its modifiers directly, Saving up your money [for a rainy day]; by apposition, I’ll buy you [a diamond/ ring]; through prepositions that complement its meaning, You became [a legend of the silver screen]; and through relative pronouns that give it an attribute, [Deep in the jungle where the mighty tiger lies], they were taken by surprise.

60

APPENDIX IV. GUIDE OF ANALYSIS OF THE SONG Frame the song inside the time it was written, research the composer, singer or band and study the following aspects: Personal Analysis 1. What do you like about this song? 2. What would you criticize about the song?

Analysis of the Form 3. Identify the structure of the rhyme in the song. Rhyme happens when the words at the end of two verses have the same sounds. It is counted from the last stressed vowel, I want to know/ it only goes to show; isn’t known/ isn’t shown. Analysis of the Content 4. What is the topic/theme of the song? 5. If there is a story, how is it divided into an Introduction, Development, Conclusion? What other stories are suggested in the song? 6. Who and how are the main characters? Are there Referential Characters? Describe physical and moral characteristics. 7. In which place does the song develop? Which places are mentioned in the song? 8. In which tense (present, past, future) does the song develop? Are specific times such as day, year, morning, afternoon, mentioned in the song? Is the weather mentioned in the song? Summarize the content of the song in your own words. Linguistic Analysis 9. Are there descriptions? Examples. To describe is to paint with words. Many descriptions are made using adjectives (little child, the good things), apposed nouns (diamond ring, kaleidoscope eyes) or a combination of the two (wearing her high-heel shoes). Descriptions can appeal to different senses, seeing (Scarlet were the clothes she wore), hearing (Your lips are moving/ I cannot hear), smelling (The doctor came in, stinking of gin), flavor (What is sweet now, turns so sour), or kinesthetic (Come and keep your comrade warm). 10. Is there narration of actions? Examples. To narrate is to relate a succession of actions in time. 11. Underline the verbs in the song. What tenses and grammatical persons are present? 12. Is figurative language present in the song? Examples. Figurative language uses words with a meaning different than the literal meaning, (They’re going to crucify me).

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13. Analyze interesting linguistic occurrences such as metaphors (Julia, Julia, morning moon), comparisons (My tears are falling like rain from the sky), sayings (Right is only half of what’s wrong), word play (grinning a grin), use of foreign words (Sont des mots qui vont très bien ensemble), expressive phonology (mm, oh, hela, heba, helloa), hyperbaton, or unusual order of words (Dark is the sky), etc. Communicative Analysis 14. Who is talking to whom in the song? Identify the emitter and the receiver. 15. How are pronouns used? 16. What is the intention of the singer when singing this song? 17. Is there dialogue? Monologue? 18. Study particularities of the singer’s dialect and relate it to geographical origen. Cultural Analysis 19. In which social context does the song develop: geographical region, social class, rural or urban context, jobs and trades, age, gender? Is there mention of social customs, foods, celebrations, folklore elements, etc.? 20. In which familiar context does the song develop? Are there intimate places, family relationships or family rites mentioned? 21. Which race, class, gender stereotypes are present or broken? Stereotypes are generalized judgments, usually negative, about a particular social group.

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Bibliography Alarcos Llorac, E. 1973. Estudios de Gramática Funcional del Español. Madrid: Gredos. Bello, A. y R.J. Cuervo. 1964. Gramática de la Lengua Castellana. 7ma ed. Buenos Aires: Sopena. Black, Cheryl A. 1999. A step-by-step introduction to the Government and Binding theory of syntax. Summer Institute of Linguistics. http://www.sil.org/americas/mexico/ling/E002-IntroGB.pdf Bloomfield, L. 1933. Language. New York: H. Holt & Co. Brown, K. and J. Miller. 1991. Syntax: A linguistic Introduction to Sentence Structure.2nd ed. London: Harper Collins Academic. Chierchia, G. and S. McConnell-Ginet. 1990. Meaning and Grammar. Cambridge, MA: MIT P. Contreras, H. 1976. A theory of Word Order with Special Reference to Spanish. Amsterdam: North Holland. Corrales-Martin, N. 20010. Esbozo de una Gramática Viva. Una Gramática Centrada en el Verbo. (2010). Lincom Studies in Romance Linguistics, 66, Munich, 120 pp. ISBN 9783862901869. http://linguistlist.org/pubs/books/get-book.cfm?BookID=49413 _______________. 2008. “Categorización de los enlaces españoles a través de la gramática verbal, una gramática centrada en el verbo”. Cauce, Revista de Filología y su Didáctica. Universidad de Sevilla. Nº 31. _______________. 2007. Lingüística Viva. Ann Arbor: Proquest. _______________. 2001. Enseñanza de la gramática y la cultura hispánicas a través de música Caribeña”. Cauce, Revista de Filología y su Didáctica. Universidad de Sevilla. ISSN 02120410, Nº 24, p. 405-416. Corrales-Martin, N., Bell-Corrales, M. 2010."Definiendo el concepto de nombre de la gramática centrada en el verbo o Gramática Viva". Revista de Filología y Lingüística, Universidad de Costa Rica, V. XXXVI, número1. _______________. 2006. “Estudio de la palabra que en canciones hispanas”. Revista de Filología y Lingüística de la Universidad de Costa Rica. V. XXXII, número 1. Cuadrado, Luis A. 1999. Caracterización del adjetivo en la GRAE, el Esbozo y la Gramática de E. Alarcos Llorach. Boletín de la RAE, 79. 407-423. Cuervo, R.J. 1955. Apuntaciones Críticas sobre el Lenguaje Bogotano. 9na ed. Bogotá: Instituto Caro y Cuervo.

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_______________. 1981. Notas a la Gramática de la Lengua Castellana de Don Andrés Bello. Bogotá: Instituto Caro y Cuervo. Dixon, R.M.W. 1991 [2005]. A Semantic Approach to Grammar. 2nd edition. Oxford University Press. DRAE: Real Academia Española: Diccionario de la lengua Española. Versión Web. Fillmore, C. 1968. “The case for case”. Universals in Linguistic Theory. Ed. E.Bach and R. Harms. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. 1-90. _______________. 1971. “Some Problems for Case Grammar”, en: Working Papers in Linguistics. 10: 245-265. _______________. 2001. The FrameNet Project . Berkley (Web Version 07, July 2001). Garcés, Ma. P. 2001. Caracterización de los adjetivos en función adverbial en español. Lengua española y estructuras gramaticales. 141-153. Gili y Gaya, Samuel. (9a Ed.). 1980. Curso Superior de Sintaxis Española. Habana, Pueblo y Educación. Haegeman, L. 1994. Introduction to government and Binding Theory. 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell. Hockett, C. 1971. Curso de Lingüística Moderna. Buenos Aires: Editorial Universitaria. Hjelmslev, L. 1976. Principios de Gramática General. Madrid: Gredos. Jespersen, Otto. 1933 [1960]. Essentials of English Grammar. Los Fundamentos de la Gramática Transformacional. 1974. Ed. H. Contreras. 3a ed. México, D. F.: Siglo Veintiuno. Martínez, Ma. Á. 1986. Sustantivo, adjetivo y adverbio: Caracterización funcional. Verba, 13. 143161. Nebrija, A. Gramatica de la lengua castellana. Versión WEB http://www.antoniodenebrija.org/index.html Palmer, R.F. 1994. Grammatical Roles and relations. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. Real Academia Española. 1973. Esbozo de una Nueva Gramática de la Lengua Española. Madrid: Espasa-Calpe. The Beatles Lyrics. 1992. Milwaukee, Hal- Leonard. ISBN 978 0 7935 1537 0. Wells, R. 1958. “Immediate Constituents”, en: Readings in Linguistics. Ed. Martin Joos. New York: American Council of Learned Societies, 186-207.

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LINCOM Studies in English Linguistics In this series:

01 Zeki Hamawand

Atemporal complement clauses in English: A Cognitive Grammar Analysis

02 Teresa Moralejo Gárate

Composite Predicates in Middle English

04 Andrew G. Rollings

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05 Luis Iglesias Rábade

Handbook of Middle English Grammar and Texts

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The Progressive in the History of English

07 Ana E. Martínez Insua

Existential There-Constructions in Contemporary British English

08 Juan F. Elices Agudo

Historical and Theoretical Approaches to English Satire

09 Antonio Álvarez Rodríguez COLOCACIONES EN LENGUAJE PERIODÍSTICO LA PREDICACIÓN COMPLEJA EN INGLÉS MODERNO

10 Jean-Paul Kouega

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11 Bettina Kraft Cross-Cultural Pragmatics and & Ronald Geluykens (eds.) Interlanguage English 12 Gabriele Stein

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13 Maria Jose Esteve Ramos

English Medical Vocabulary in Ophthalmology: a Historical Review

14 Inés Lareo Martín

Estudio de las estructuras verbonombre en un corpus de textos literarios. Las colocaciones en Inglés Moderno Tardío.

15 Paul N. Mbangwana & Bonaventure M. Sala

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16 Luciano Canepari

The Pronunciation of English around the World Geo-social Applications of the Natural Phonetics & Tonetics Method

17 Casilda García de la Maza

Gradient acceptability at the grammar-pragmatics interface: a study of the constraints on middle formation in English

18 Norma Corrales-Martin

Introduction to Live Grammar: A Grammar of English Centered on the Verb

19 Jieun Kiaer

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20 Younes Zhiri

The Tense-Aspect System of English: A Comprehensive Analysis for Language Learners

Live Grammar

From Otto Jespersen to Case for Case, to Government and Binding Theory, to Semantic Grammar, the traditional study of grammar and syntax echoes the idea that the noun (the subject noun phrase) in a sentence governs the verb. Even though authors like C. Fillmore and R. Dixon assert that the verb is the central grammatical category, the analysis ends up being morphological with categories such as Noun Phrase, Verb Phrase, and Prepositional Phrase. Live Grammar fundamentally argues that the verb, not the subject, is the center of the sentence (the main linguistic entity), and as such, should be the center of the linguistic analysis. The central thesis is that the grammatical category pertains to morphology; the verb pertains to syntax; and the sentence pertains to semantics. A theoretical framework is explained and exemplified using songs from The Beatles Lyrics (1992), then the first 25 songs are used to illustrate the notions expounded, and finally four Beatles' songs and a short story are analyzed to show Live Grammar in action.

LE

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