Introduction to geography [13 ed.] 9780071221917, 0071221913, 9780073522876, 0073522872

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Thirteenth edition

INTRODUCTION TO

GEOGRAPHY Arthur Getis San Diego State University

Judith Getis Mar

. Bjelland

Gustavus Adolphus College

Jerome D. Fellmann University of Illinois, Urbana–Champaign

VictoriaL . Getis OhioS tateU niversity

TM

TM

INTRODUCTION TOG w-Hill, a b 10020. Copyright © 2011 by

,

TEENTHE DITION The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY w-Hill Companies, Inc. ed. Pre uted in an val The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., including, b ork

vailable to customers outside the United States.

.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 WDQ/WDQ 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 ISBN978 –0 –352287–6 MHID0 –07–352287–2 ViceP resident,E ditor-in-Chief: Lange ViceP resident,E DP: Kimberly Meriwether David SeniorD irectorof D evelopment: Kristine Tibbetts ExecutiveE ditor: Margaret J. Kemp ExecutiveM arketingM Lisa Nic SeniorP rojectM anager: Sandy Wille BuyerI I: Kane rojectM anager: Stacy A. Vath Manager,C reativeS Mic Cover/InteriorD esigner: Elise Lansdon CoverI mage: r SeniorP hotoR esearchC oordinator: Lori Hancock PhotoR esearch: LouAnn K. Compositor: ds Private Limited T ace: 10.5/12 Adobe Caslon Regular Worldcolor Geography & Public Policy box: Map background: © Nova Dev Space Flight Center Women: © GOODSHOO Cro Vision

ed.;

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Includesi ndex. y : alk. paper) 1. Geography. , 1934G128.G495 2011 2010013747

www.mhhe.com

Brief Contents Preface x CHAP TER ONE

Introduction 1 CHAP TER T WO

Maps 20

PART T

PART

1

3

The Location Tradition 311

Tradition 49 CHAP TER THREE

CHAP TER TEN

Physical Geography: Landforms 50

Economic Geography 312

CHAP TER FOUR

CHAP TER ELEVEN

Physic

An Urban World 357

y: Weather and Climate 80

C H A P T E R T W E LV E

CHAP TER FIVE

The Geography of N

PART The

Human Impact on the Environment 392

ces 118

PART

2

onment Tradition 159

T

4

ysis Tradition 433

CHAP TER SIX

CHAP TER THIRTEEN

Population Geography 160

The Regional Concept 434

CHAP TER SEVEN

y 195 CHAP TER EIGHT

Spatial Interaction 243

Appendices A-1 Glossary G-1 Index I-1

CHAP TER NINE

Politic

y 273

iii

Contents Preface x CHAPTER ONE

Introduction 1 WhatI sGeo graphy? 2 Evolution of the Discipline 3 Subfieldso fGeo graphy 5 WhyGe ographyM 5

Some Core Geographic Concepts 5 Location, Direction, and Distance 6 Location 7 Direction 8 Distance 8 Sizea nd Sc 9 Physicala ndC tributes 10 ibutes of Place Are Always Changing 10 Interrelationsbet weenP laces 11 Place Similar 13 SpatialDi stributions 13 Typeso egions 13

PointSym bols 33 AreaSym bols 34 LineSym bols 34 MapM isuse 35

Geographic Information Technologies 38 RemoteS ensing 38 ositioning System 40 Virtual and Interactive Maps 43

Integrating Technology: Geographic Information Systems 43 TheGeo graphicD atabase 45 Applications of GIS 45 Summaryo eyC oncepts 47 Key Words 47 ThinkingG eographically 47

Geography’s Themes and Standards 15 Organization of This Book 17 Key Wor 19 ThinkingG eographically 19

The Earth Science Tradition 49 CHAP TER TWO

Maps 20 Maps as the Tools of Geography 21 Locating Points on a Sphere 22 TheGeo graphicGr id 22 Land Survey Systems 24

Map Projections 25 Area 25 Shape 25 Distance 25 Direction 28

Scale 28 Typeso

aps 29

TopographicM apsa nd TerrainR epresentation 29 Thematic Maps and Data Representation 32 iv

CHAPTER THREE

Physical

y: Landforms 50

EarthM aterials 51 IgneousR ocks 51 SedimentaryR ocks 51 Metamorphic Rocks 52

Geologic Time 53 Movements of the Continents 53 Tectonic Forces 57 Diastrophism 57 Broad Warping 57 Folding 57 Faulting 58

v

CONTENTS

Volcanism 60

rocesses 61 Weathering 62 Mechanical Weathering 63 Chemical Weathering 63 Mass Movement 64 Erosional Agents and Deposition 67 Running Water 67 StreamLa ndscapes 68 Groundwater 70 Glaciers 70 Waves,C urrents,a ndC oastalL andforms 74 Wind 75

LandformR egions 76 Summaryo eyC oncepts 78 Key Words 78 ThinkingG eographically 79 CHAPTER FOUR

Physic C Air T

y: Weather and 80

e 82

Earth Inc 82 Reflection and Reradiation 84 LapseR ate 85

AirP ressurea nd Winds 85 Pressure Gradient Force 87 The Convection System 87 Land and Sea Breezes 88 Mount n and Va ey Breezes 88 The Coriolis Effect 89 The Fr ffect 90 The -CirculationP attern 90

Ocean Currents 91 Moisture in the Atmosphere 92 T recipitation 95 Storms 97

Climate Regions 99 TropicalC limates( A) 101 TropicalR ainF orest( Af ) 101 Savanna( Aw) 101 Monsoon(A m) 101 D landC limates( B) 106 HotD eserts( BWh) 106 MidlatitudeD esertsa ndS emideserts( BWk, BS) 106 Humid Mid 108 MediterraneanC limate( Cs) 108 HumidS ubtropicalC limate( Cfa) 108 Marine WestC oastC limate(C 108

Humid Continental Climates (D) 110 Subarctic Climates (Dfc, Dfd, Dwb) 110 Arctic Climates (E) 111 HighlandC limates( H) 111

ClimaticC hange 112 Long-Term Climatic Change 112 Short-Term Climatic Change 113 The Gr Warming 113 Summaryo ey Concepts 116 Key Words 116 ThinkingG eographically 117

CHAPTER FIVE

The Geography of N

ces 118

Resource Terminology 119 RenewableR esources 120 NonrenewableR esources 120 Resour 121

Energy Resources and Industr ation 121 NonrenewableE esources 122 CrudeOil 122 Coal 124 N 128 OilS nd TarS ands 129 NuclearE 131 NuclearF ission 131 NuclearF usion 132

RenewableE nergyR esources 132 Biomass Fuels 133 Wood 133 Waste 133 Hydropower 134 SolarE nergy 135 Other Renewable Energy Resources 137 GeothermalE nergy 137 WindP ower 138

Nonfuel Mineral Resources 138 The Distribution of No Copper:AC aseS tudy 142

141

LandR esources 144 Soils 144 Wetlands 147 ForestR esources 149 U.S.N ationalF orests 151 TropicalR ainF orests 153

ResourceM anagement 154 Summaryo ey Concepts 156 Key Words 157 ThinkingG eographically 157

vi

CONTENTS

Subsystemso fC

e 199

The Technologic Subsystem 199 TheS ociologic ubsystem 204 TheI deologicalS ubsystem 205

eC hange 206 Innovation 207 Dif sion 208 A 210

The Culture-Environment Tradition 159 CHAPTER SIX

Cul ral Diversi L 213

LanguageS preada ndC hange 215 Standard and Variant Languages 216 Languagea ndC ulture 219

Religion 222 Classification and Distribution of Religions 223 The Principal Religions 226 Judaism 226 Christianity 227 Islam 229 Hinduism 231 Buddhism 233 EastA sianE thnic Religions 235

Population Geography 160 Population Growth 161 Some Population Definitions 162 BirthR ates 163 FertilityR ates 164 DeathR ates 167 PopulationP yramids 171 N ease and Doubling Times 172

The Demographic Transition 176 The Western Experience 176 World Converging 178

212

235 Gendera ndC ulture 237 O

240

Summaryo eyC oncepts 241 Key Words 242 ThinkingG aphically 242

The Demographic Equation 180 Pop ation Relocation 180 ImmigrationI mpacts 181

World Population Distribution 182 Population Density 185

CHAPTER EIGHT

Overpopulation 185 Urbanization 187

Spatial Interaction 243

Population Data and Projections 188

TheD efinition of Spatial Interaction 244 Distancea ndS patialI nteraction 244 Barrierst oI nteraction 246 S vation 247 pace 247

Population Data 188 Pop ation Projections 189

Population Controls 190 Population Prospects 191 Momen m 192 Aging 192 Summaryo eyC oncepts 193 Key Wor 194 ThinkingG eographically 194

CHAP TER SEVEN

y 195 e 196 Interaction of P Environments as Controls 199 HumanI mpacts 199

onment 198

Stage in Life 250 250 Opportunities 251

Diffusion and Innovation 251 Contagious Dif sion 252 chic 253

S

Technology 253 Automobiles 254 Telecommunications 254

Migration 256 Typeso igration 257 Incentives to Migrate 259 Barrierst oM igration 266 Patterns of Migration 266

CONTENTS

Globalization 268 Economic Integration 268 InternationalB anking 269 TransnationalC orporations 269 GlobalM arketing 269 PoliticalI ntegration 271 271 Summaryo eyC oncepts 272 Key Words 272 ThinkingG eographically 272

The Location Tradition 311 CHAPTER TEN

CHAPTER NINE

P

y 273

National Political Systems 275 States, Nations, and Nation-States 275 Evolution of the Modern State 276 Challenges to the State 277 Geographic Characteristics of States 279 Size 279 Shape 279 Location 281 Coresa ndC apitals 282 Boundaries: The Limits of the State 284 Naturala rtificialB oundaries 284 BoundariesC lassifiedbySettlem ent 285 Boundaries as Sources of Conflict 286 Centr orces: Promoting State Cohesion 290 Nationalism 290 UnifyingI nstitutions 291 Organizationa dministration 291 Transportation and Communication 291 Centr orces: Challenges to State Author 291

Cooperation among States 297 Supranationalism 297 The United Nations and Its Agencies 298 MaritimeB oundaries 298 AnI nternationalL awo ft heS ea 299 liates 300 nces 300 lliances 300 Militarya ndP lliances 302

Loc

olitical Organization 303

The Geography of Representation: The Districting Problem 304 The Fragmentation of Politic ower 305 Summaryo eyC oncepts 308 Key Words 309 ThinkingG eographically 309

Economic Geography 312 The Classification of Economic A

and Economies 314

Categories of A 314 Types of Economic Systems 315 Stageso evelopment 316

Primary Activities: Agr

e 317

SubsistenceAg riculture 320 ExtensiveSubs istence Agriculture 320 IntensiveSubs ist griculture 322 Expanding Crop Production 324 Intensificationa ndt he Green Revolution 324 Commer e 326 Production Controls 327 AM odelo fA griculturalL ocation 327 IntensiveC griculture 328 ExtensiveC griculture 329 SpecialC rops 331 Agriculturei nP lannedE conomies 332

OtherP rimary Activities 332 Fishing 333 Forestry 334 Mininga ndQ uarr

Tradein P r Secondary A

334

roducts 337 ing 338

Industr ocational Models 339 Other Loc 340 TransportC haracteristics 341 AgglomerationE conomies 341 Just-in-Timea ndF lexible Production 342 Comparativ dvantage, Outsourcing, and O shoring 343 ImposedC onsiderations 344 Tr porations (TNCs) 346 Wor ing Patterns and Trends 347 High-Tech Patterns 348

Tertiary and Beyond 350 TertiaryS 351 Beyond Tertiary 352

Services in World Trade 353

CONTENTS Summaryo eyC oncepts 355 Key Wor 356 ThinkingG eographically 356

CHAP TER ELEVEN

An Urban World 357 An Urbanizing World 359 Origins and Evolution of Cities 361 Defi Today 362 The Location of Urban Settlements 362 The Economic Base 364

Functions of Cities 365 kets 365 Cities as Centers of Production andS ervices 367 Cities as Centers of Administration 367

Systemso fC ities 368 The Urban Hierarchy 368 Rank-Size Relationships 369 WorldC ities 369

Insidet heC

370

Patterns of Land Use 370 TheC entralB usinessDi strict 370 OutsidetheC entralB usinessDi strict 371 Modelso rbanF orm 371 Changes in Urban Form 374 Suburbanization 374 Declineo ftheC entralC ity 375 Downtown Renewal and Gentrification 377 Social Areas of Cities 380 FamilyS tatus 380 SocialS tatus 381 Ethnicity 382 Institutional Controls 382

Global Ur

383

Western European Cities 384 Eastern European Cities 384 Rapidly Gro veloping World 386 Coloniala ndN ntecedents 387 UrbanP rimacya ndR apidG rowth 388 SquatterS ettlements 389 PlannedC ities 390 Summaryo eyC oncepts 390 Key Wor 391 ThinkingG eographically 391

C H A P T E R T W E LV E

392 Ecosystems 393 Impact on Water 394 A f Water 395 Modification of Streams 397 WaterQ uality 398 Agr ources of Water Pollution 399 Fertilizers 399 Biocides 400 Animal Wastes 400 Other Sources of Water Pollution 401 Industry 402 Mining 402 Municipalitiesa ndR esidences 403 Controlling Water Pollution 403

Impact on Air and Climate 404 404 Factors Affecting Air Pollution 405 AcidR ain 406 Photochemic mog 407 Depletion of the Ozone Layer 408 ControllingAir P 411

Impacto nL andforms 411 Landforms Produced by Excavation 411 Landforms Produced by Dumping 412 Formation of Surface Depressions 413

Impact on Plants and Animals 414 HabitatL osso eration 416 Hunting and Commercial Exploitation 417 Introduction of Exotic Species 418 Poisoning and Contamination 420 Pr 421 LegalP rotection 421 NongovernmentalO rganizations (NGOs) 422

Solid-Waste Disposal 422 Municipal Waste 422 Landfills 423 Incineration 425 SourceR eduction and Recycling 425 Hazardous and Radioactive Wastes 426 Hazardous Waste 426 Radioactive Waste 427 Summaryo eyC oncepts 430 Key Wor 430 ThinkingG aphically 431

CONTENTS

Part II: Regions in the Culture-Environment Tradition 442 Population as Regional Focus 442 L 443 444 Political Regions 445

Part III: Regions in the Location Tradition 447 Economic Regions 447 Urban Regions 448 Ecosystems as Regions 450 Summaryo ey Concepts 453 Key Words 453 ThinkingG eographically 453

The Area Analysis Tradition 433 CHAPTER THIRTEEN

The

Concept 434

The Nature of Regions 435 TheS tructureo f ThisC hapter 437 Part I: Regions in the Earth Science Tradition 437 Landformsa sR egions 437 Dynamic Regions in Weather and Climate 438 N esourceR egions 439

Appendices A-1 Glossary G-1 Index I-1

Preface “If you build it, ” was the message that inspired the character played by Kevin Costner in the mo Field of Dreams to create a field in his Iowa cornfield. A similar hope encouraged us when we first began to think about writing Introduction to Geography in 1975. At that time, very few departments of geography in the United States and Canada offer oductory course for students—that is, eadth of the entire field. Instead, most departments offered separate courses in physic y. Recognizing that most students will have only a single college course and textbook in geography, we wanted to develop a book that co stematic topics that geographers study. Our hope, of course, was that the book would so persuasivel uctional need that more departments would begin to offer a general introductory course to the discipline, a dream that has been r ed.

APPROACH Our purpose is to convey concisely and clearl e of the field of geography, and the logic connections of its parts. Even ther work in geography, we are satisfied that they have come into contact with the richness and breadth of our discipline and have at their command new insights and understandings for their pr e roles as informed adults. Other may have the oppor and interest to pursue further work in geography. For them, we believe, this text will make apparent the content and scope of the subfields of geography, emphasiz ing themes, and provide the foundation for further work in their areas of interest. ch tradiChapter 1 intr ough the long hisearth science, eonment, loc ysis. Each of the four parts of this book centers on one of these geographic perspectives. W rst thr ts are chapters devoted to the subfields of y, each placed the to which we think it belongs. Thus, y is considered y is inc ational perspective. The tradition of area ysis—of r y—is presented in a single fi chapter, which draws on the pr oss-references. s organiz ed in Chapter 1, pp. 17 to 18. x

Of course, our assignment of a topic may not seem appropr since each tradition contains many emphases and themes. Some subfields could logic y be attached to more than one of the recognized traditions. our clustering of chapters is given in the brief introduction to each part of the text. A textbook must be flexible enough in its organization to permit an instructor to adapt it to the time and subject matter constraints of a particular course. Although designed with a one-quarter or one-semester course in mind, this text oduction to geography when employed as a point of departure for topics and amplifications introduced by the instructor or when supplemented eadings and class projects. Moreover, the chapters are reasonably self-contained and need not be assigned in the sequence presented here. The “traditions” structure may be dropped and the chapters rearranged to suit the emphases and sequences preferred by the instructor or found to be of greatest inter The format of the course should properly reflect the joint contribution of instructor and book, rather than be dictated by the book alone.

NEW TO THIS EDITION etained the framework of presentation introduced in the previous edition of this book, we have revised, added, and deleted material for a variety of reasons. •

•

Current events always mandate an updating of facts and analyses and may suggest discussion of topics hitherto slighted. Such things as the 2010 earthquake in Haiti, changes in the production and consumption of natural resources, changes in spatially variable patterns of population growth and decline, and changes in the populations of major urban areas require updating in each new edition of our textbook. Every table and figure in the book has been reviewed for accuracy and currency and has been replaced, updated, or otherwise revised where necessary. Continuing changes in technology and in social, economic, political, and environmental str es and relationships also require revision of pre y published material. Among the topics that merited new or revised treatment in this thirteenth edition are the covert use of GPS technology to track cr economy standards (Chapter 5), oss the U.S./Mexico border (Chapter 8), and technological innovation (Chapter 10).

PREFACE

•

As always, we rely on re wers of the pre to offer suggestions and to call our attention to new emphases or research findings in the different topic areas of geography. Our effort to incorporate their ideas is reflected not only in the brief text modifications or additions that occur in nearly ever more significant alterations.

New Fi

• • • • • • •

graphs, charts, and tables r resource use that required updating (Chapter 5) New map of the U.S. regions that use the terms pop, soda, or coke for a soft drink (Chapter 7) Updated map of the world’s pr eligions (Chapter 7) New map of Darfur (Chapter 9) Updated map of legislative women (Chapter 9) New map of centers of technological innovation (Chapter10) New map of the Great Pacific Garbage Patch (Chapter 12) Ne ld population data

New/Re

Boxes

The boxed elements in the book have been updated if necessary or replaced with new discussion texts. •

•

• • • •

res

To reflect the most recent data, many fi es have been revised or newly drawn for the thirteenth edition of Introduction to Geography. They include: •

•

Updated box “Red States, Blue States,” w cartograms showing the results of the U.S. pr election of 2008 (Chapter 2) New Geography & Public Policy box, “An Invasion of Privacy,” discussing the legal and ethical questions of privacy rights and public safety raised by the covert use of GPS technology to track criminal suspects (Chapter 2)

Revised Geography & Public Policy box, “Fuel Economy and CAFE Standards” (Chapter 5) Completely revised “The Matter of Race” box to reflect recent scholarships (Chapter 7) Expanded “Terrorism & Political Geography” box, with a new case study of Dar Updated and re “Legislative Women” box (Chapter 9) New Geography & Public Policy box, “Mountaintop Removal: Good or Bad?” (Chapter 12)

New/Re • • • •

• • • • •

Topic

Discussions

New opening vignette about the January 2010 earthquake in Haiti “Climate Regions” section completely re esource-use data updated to reflect the most recent production, consumption, and reserve figures Population data and projections updated to reflect the latest available world, regional, and country information from UN population agencies, the Population Reference Bureau, and the U.S. Census Bureau New table of the world’s 10 most populous countries in 2009 with projections for 2050 New discussion and photographs of ar les Terrorism and political geography New about the Great Pacific Garbage Patch Substantial revision of the case study of the Everglades ecosystem region

To respond to suggestions from reviewers and/or to make room for new material, some discussions and figures have been deleted from the previous edition. They include: • • • • •

The Geologic Timescale (Chapter 3) Box on permafrost (Chapter 3) Mater Shortening of the “El Niño” box (Chapter 4) “Sports and N box (Chapter 9)

PREFACE

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS A number of reviewers have greatly improved the content of this and earlier editions of Introduction to Geography by their critic ever or adopt ever vation, were car y considered. In addition to those ac wledgments of assistance detailed in pre editions, we o Anthony Amato, Southwest Minnesota State University BruceB oland, Fairmont State Jeff Bradley, Northwest Missouri State University Adrienne Domas, Michigan State University LindaF air, Binghamton University ChadGa rick, Jones County Junior College MarkG unn, Meridian Community College Molly McGraw, Southeastern Louisiana University JeanP arker, Boise State University

Wi iam Porter, Elizabeth City State University Christa Smith, Clemson University W y express appreciation to these and unnamed others for their help and contributions and specifically absolve them of r t and for any errors of fact or interpretation that users may detect. Finally, we note with deep appreciation and admiration the efforts of the publisher’s “book team,” separately named on the copyright page, who collectively shepherded this revision to completion. We are grateful for their highly professional interest, guidance, and support. Arthur Get Judith Getis Mark Bjelland Jerome D. Fellmann

PREFACE

FEATURES Every e t has been made to gain and retain student attention, the essential first step in the learning process. 196

PART TWO

T

, ’s son ’s son is

, fer

as are topography, c

, and

e

c

CHAPTER

SEVEN

e C ture-En ronment Tradition

he Gauda’s1 son is 18 months old. a boy employed by the Gauda c thr .

eet,

Cultural Geography

.

ound. If e that the

y, S everyo

fer “

” of ur

pr

, and New imbabwe

ica’

y

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Yor

y the Gauda’s son. ’ ,

“wh

iorit

CHAPTER OUTLINE

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and “ho

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the other chil W

gious leader], c out complicated

h

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of

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, the Gauda’ memor holy books long poems in to perform the r

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What wer w, om whate v pr

Wh oups persist even in

ably ”

“

tates

om S He learn He

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e. The gods in ev day,

his house e major deities who must be eat c 2

COMPONENTS OF CULTURE It is learned, not biological, oup,

ans, r

,

efer

tions,

kno

ectly,

of

technologies. Of , we e born and r . , status, and

c

ead mor The c

e, the religion, the

inated.

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the food,

k of r oups.

of

y,

v , “

y

” , and

y,

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ent r

e , music,

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198

PART TWO

e C ture-En ronment Tradition

e

ences, varied food preferences, e enough joint charentities to y, ens of “ ” ves as Am ld scene. and sy e plotted on maps, of a e is revealed. are

to be r

C clar ation of the chapters. C c interest in preparation for the subject matter to follow.

United S W

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y

a por on

ho

om homogeniz ces of r , . One of the many possible human into is ed in F 7.3. r regions, complexes, y.

of e

chapter.

’ and form of economy, . F

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INTERACTION OF PEOPLE AND ENVIRONMENT e de

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and photographs, nations, serve as an extension of the text, not just identification or documentation of the figure. World maps have been put on the Robinson projection, and colors have been chosen to accommodate most color-blind readers. The foldout world maps at the back of the text can be easily referenced from any chapter in the text.

,

some

their pr esumably,

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FIGURE 7.3 Cultur

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PREFACE

Boxed inserts (three to five per chapter) are written to further develop ideas and enhance student interest in the mater Most chapters include a box on gender-related issues, including Chapter S Millions of Women Ar and Chapter Nine: Leg ive Women. olic bo tant or controversial issue, the relevance of geography to real-world concerns. Critic x prompt students to reflect upon and form an opinion about the issue and can serve as catalysts for class discussion.

Physic

uch

supersaturated

93

CHAPTER FOUR

y: W

Low,

clouds

a

more

of les, c y dust,

e present. nearl

Mountaintop Removal: Good or Bad?

ely

cirrus smoke,

way

Cumulus c clouds. hu

e of the mois-

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, W

eezing

um that c ent , the amount of water vapor it

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are supported by

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If the r .

movements of y uncomfor

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vement.

, how-

ever,

essur

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Whenever warm, ises, loud formation is probably the .

pic-

much less .

that r

ed in F

272

PART TWO

The C

-En

onment Tradition

Summary of Key Concepts • The term people, goods, .

IMPACT ON PLANTS AND ANIMALS P

in such lo

vement of

er

onment. O

auses of endangerment

cies c fossil r

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ar ’

space

Chapter S ies of Key Concepts bring together and reinforce the major ideas of the chapter. A Key Words list with page references makes it easy for students to ver tant terms in the chapter. T raphic y check their grasp of chapter mater Map Pr includes a discussion of methods of projection, globe properties and map distortion, and classes of projections. Climate, Soils, and V supplements Chapter 4 by providing information about soil formation, soil profiles and horizons, soil onomy, regions.

When ces motivate a

ong enough, , permanent move.

, and the

present

414

ion.

•

e . Endang ed

but ate what oppor

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, W

• Ho

w

e

and

Key Words space 247 261

267

cr

al distance 244 ay chic

251

map 248 267 252 push r

253

250 261

266 y 261 259 259

poration (TNC) 269 267

Thinking Geographically 1.

6. Br archical di

2. wor dec

Why? , United S ever possible;

you, y. lusions c

. What ou reach?

4.

8. W people migrate within their o ation annelized

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y do most

9. W

is y

So S vement of eat or

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5.

P

In y movements,

w developed.

itic W

c

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Chapter 7? 7. W What is place y and how does its perception induce or

y.

3.

ion.

’s cr

10.

le and our ur

ea.

PREFACE

2009 World Population Data S P (a modified version) includes basic demographic data and projections for countries, regions, and continents,

statistics helpful in national and regional comparisons. The student projects, r world patterns.

al analyses, and study of

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PREFACE

L

Introductionto G eography website at htt .mhhe.com/getis13e The website for Introduction to Geography is a great place to review chapter mater outine. Visit • • • • •

T

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Chapter quizzing Critic Interactive maps Web links to chapter related material Selected references

Teaching/L

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McGraw-Hill offers a m of reference mater pro y-related materials at a discounted price when packaged with your text. Students of geography and other disciplines, eader, nd these unique mater ent world countries and events. Ask y epresentative about the follo .

The series is designed to pro with convenient, inexpensive access to current, car y selected articles from the public press. They are updated on a regular basis through a continuous monitoring of over 300 periodic Each volume preticles written for a general audience by experts and authorities in their fields. Organizational es include an annotated listing of selected World Wide Web sites; an annotated table of contents; a genoduction; brief overviews for each section; and an online Instructor’s Resource Guide with testing materials. Using Annual Editions in the Classroom is offered as a practic (ISBN 978–0–07–805072–5; MHID 0–07–805072–3) Annual Editions: Developing World 11/12 by Griffiths (ISBN 978–0–07–351551–9;M HID 0–07–351551–5) Annual Editions: Geography,23/ e by Pitzl (ISBN 978–0–07–805084–8;M HID 0–07–805084–7) Annual Editions: Global Issues 11/12 by Jackson (ISBN 978–0–07–805093–0;M HID 0–07–805093–6) Annual Editions: World Politics11/ 12 by Pur

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PREFACE

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Student Atlas The S

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to intr geography and other ar , such as world politics, onand economic development. e of the r industr demographic, onmental, economic, and politic in ev ld r Each S is supported by an online Instructor’s Resource Guide with testing materials.

(ISBN 978–0–07–352760–4; MHID 0–07–52760–2) Student Atlas of World Geography, (ISBN 978–0–07–340148–5; MHID 0–07–340148–X) Student Atlas of World Politics, utton

Related Titles of Interest McGraw-Hill offers many different related titles of interest that provide students with valuable geography-related information. Contact y epresentative for wing products. Cartography: Thematic Map Design, S Torguson/Hodler. .mhhe.com/dent6e ISBN 978–0–07–294382–5; MHID 0–07–294382–3 Contemporary W aphy, Third Edition by Bradhite/D ko. ISBN 978–0–07–305150–5; MHID 0–07–305150–0 Essentials of World Regional Geography, Second Edition by hite/Dy ko. ISBN 978–0–07–336933–4; MHID 0–07–336933–0 Physical Geography Laboratory Manual, First Edition by L .mhhe.com/lemke1e ISBN 978–0–07–727603–4; MHID 0–07–727603–5 Human Geography: Landscapes of Human Activities, Eleventh Edition by Fellmann/Bjelland/Getis/Getis. .mhhe.com/fellmann11e ISBN 978–0–07–352285–2; MHID 0–07–352285–6

Meet the Authors received his B.S. and M.S. degrees from Pennsylvania State and his Ph.D. from the of Washington. He is the co-author of se y textbooks as well as se ysis. He has published widely in the areas of infectious diseases, spatial analysis, and geographic information systems. He is honorary editor of The Journal of Geographical Systems and serves on the editorial boards of Geographical Analysis and Annals of Regional Science. He has held administrative appointments at Rutgers , and San Diego State Uniwhere he held the Birch Chair of Geographical Studies. In 2002 he received the Association of American Pr is a member of many professional organizations and has served as an officer in, among others, the Western Regional Science tium for Geographic Information Science. Currently he is Distinguished Professor Emeritus at SDSU.

earned his B.S. degree fr Minnesota and an M.S. from the University of Washington. He wor onmental consultant on pr onmental justice, pollution cleanup, urban redevelopment, and water supply planning. He then earned a Ph.D. in geography from the University of Minnesota, writing his dissertation on abandoned, contaminated industrial lands in U.S. and Canadian cities. He is associate professor and chair of geography at G dolphus College. S ban geography course use geographic information systems to do research for comm organizations. He has led geography field courses around the Midwest and to the Pacific Northwest and Great Britain. He has been granted ulbright awards to study urban environmental planning in Europe. His research has been published in the Research Journal of the Water Pollution Control Federation, the Journal of Environmental Engineering, The Professional Geographer, Urban Geography, and a number of book chapters.

earned her B.A. and a teaching cr om from Michigan State . She has co-authored se geography textbooks and wrote the environment handbook You Can Make ence. In addition to numerous articles in the fields of urban geography and geography education, she has written technical reports on topics such as solar power and coal gasification. She and her husband, Arthur Getis, were among the original unit authors of the High School Geography Project, sponsored by the National Science Foundation and the Association of American Geographers. In addition, Mrs. Getis was employed by the Urban Studies Center at Rutgers University; taught at Rutgers; was a social science examiner at Educational Testing Service, Princeton, New Jersey; developed educational materials for Edcom Systems, Princeton, New Jersey; and was a professional associate in the Office of Energy Research, Unillinois.

Jerome D. F fr at Wa

received his B.S., M.S., and Ph.D. degrees ago. ofessorships , or idge, his pr c rbanaHis teaching and r ch interests have been concentrated in the areas of human geography in and urban , y, y of Russia and the CIS, ation. ied interests have been refl les published in the Annals of the Association of American Geographers, Professional apher, Journal of aphy, the Geographical Review, and elsewhere. ’s Human Geography: Human Activity. research, he has held appointments at the Univerto private corporacomm velopment.

In Memory of

JUDITH M. GETIS

JEROME D. FELLMANN

Both of whom passed away during eparation of this book.

CHAPTER

ONE

CHAPTERO UTLINE

Introduction

2

CHAPTER ONE

O

2010,

Introduction

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e 1.1). The

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ican plate. W rince and rela, ’ eas. By over , ’ ienced power In the c , de was . As bodies were from , ver 250,000, , inadequate ies, br ven higher. es were destroy y damaged, including the pr , bly building, , United N ol tower, port doc and schools. The .N center in the of L , ly ev was destroyed. Lo ld’ ved on, kr y to r ’s government schools, ches, businesses, homes, roads, and economy.

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th sy events. N

developed countries. po quences wer oblems encounter wor ow

y, by sheds disasters, such as hurri, develop-

FIGURE1.1 A str January 12, 2010, earthquake, showing the destruction and displacement of people. © Damon W ork Times/Redux.

Par y to blame for the many deaths were the lac ’ thquake hazards and poor conforces of ear or no government inspection and the temptation for builders ete and reduce or leave out the expensive reinfor e necessary to enable masonry (brick or concrete block) and concrete buildings to resist the sideways forces of earthquakes. Ironic y, the a wood frame and tin r y safer than newer concrete or masonry buildings. eco ts were complicated by poor infrastr e systems, k of bac e systems, k of emergenc oads, inadequate water systems, and a lack of r ed reco ts. Extreme pover e was no insurance c jobs, y members. The onment.

ea, po ’ escue, r W

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WHAT IS GEOGRAPHY? Many people associate the word geography simpl wing where e: whether they be countries, such as Myanmar and Uruguay; cities, such as T ; or esources, such as petroleum or iron ore. Some people pride themselves on which rivers are the longest, which mountains are the tallest, and which deser e the largest. S wledge about the world has value, permitting us to place current events in their proper

Introduction CHAPTER ONE

. When we hear of an earthquake in Turkey or an assault in Chechnya, we at least can visualize where they occurred. Kno why they occurred in those places, however, is considerably more important. Geography is much more than place names and locations. iation, of how and why things differ from place to place on the surface of the earth. It is, ther, w observable spatial patterns evolved through time. ations of organs in the human body does not equip one to perform open-heart surgery, wing where things are located is onl toward understanding why things are where they are, and what events and processes determine or change their distribution. Why are earthquakes common in Turkey but not in Russia, and why is Chechnya but not Tasmania wracked by insurgency? Why are the mountains in the eastern United States r e rugged? Why do y rench speakers in Quebec but not in other parts of Canada? In answer , oups with their onment—planet Ear ; understand how and why physic evolved through time and continue to change. Because geogysic onment and human use onment, e sensitive to the var ces T wh ant portion of the tropic est each year, for example, wledge of the climate and soils of the Amazon Basin; essures, landlessness, and the need for more agr Brazil; ’s for mid kets for lumber, beef, and soy beans; and Brazil’s economic development objectives. the burning requir wledge of, among other things, the o gen and car es eenhouse effect, acid rain, and depletion of the ozone layer; and the relationships among defor soil erosion, Geography, therefore, is about earth space and the content of that space. We think of and respond to places from the standpoint of not only where they are but, what is more important, what they contain or what we think they contain. Reference to a place or an area usually c physic e or what people do there, and this often suggests to us, without our consciousl how those physic e related. “Bangladesh,” “farming,” and “ ” or “Colorado,” “mountains,” and “ ” are examples. The content of an area, that is, has both physic and geography is alway understanding both (Figure 1.2).

EVOLUTION OF THE DISCIPLINE Geography’s combination of interests was apparent even in the work of the early Gr e to the discipline. Geography’s name was reputedly coined by

3

FIGURE 1.2 Aspen, Colorado, demonstrates changing interactions between physical environment and human activity. Mineral resour ent specialized human uses attractive and possible. The brick buildings in the foreground are the legacy of its original settlement as a silver mining town, peaking with over 5000 residents in 1890 but declining to about 700 by 1930. The groomed ski slopes in the background represent the town’s current identity as a premier ski r -round tourist destination, and home to celebrities. © Punchstock RF.

the Greek scientist Eratosthenes over 2200 years ago from the words geo, “the earth,” and graphein, “to write.” From the beginning, that writing focused both on the physical str e th and on the natur inhabited the various lands of the known world. To Strabo (c. 64 B.C.–A.D. 20), the task of geography was to “describe the several parts of the inhabited world, . . . to write the assessment of the countries of the world [and] to treat the differences ies.” Even earlier, Herodotus (c. 484–425 B.C.) had found it necessary to devote much of his iting to the lands, peoples, economies, and customs of the various parts of the Persian Empire as necessary background to an understanding of the causes and course of the Persian wars.

4

CHAPTER ONE

Introduction

FIGURE1.3 W

A.D. Greco-Egyptian geographer-astronomer Ptolemy. Ptolemy (Claudius Ptolemaeus) adopted a previously developed map grid of latitude and longitude based on the division of the circle into 360°, permitting a precise ecor , errors of assumption and measurement rendered both the map and s map, accepted in Europe as authoritative for nearly 1500 years, was published in many variants in the 15th and 16th centuries. The version shown here summarizes the extent and content of the original. Its under s size convinced Columbus a short westward voyage would carry him to Asia.

Greek (and, later, Roman) geographers measured the earth, idians (mar see p. 22), and drew upon that grid surprisingly sophistic wn world (F e 1.3). They explored the appar iations in climate and described in numerous wor and the more remote, y rumored lands of northern Europe, Asia, and equator ica. Employ ly modern concepts, they described river systems, ed cycles of erosion and patterns of deposition, cited the dangers of deforestation, described var ape, and noted the consequences onmental abuse. Against that physic kdrop, they focused their on what humans did in home and diseas—ho ities and differences wer , religion, and custom; and how they used, ed, and perhaps destroyed the lands they inhabited. Strabo, indeed, cautioned the assumption that the e and actions of humans were determined by the physic environment they inhabited. He observed that humans were the active elements in a human-envir tnership. The inter ly Gr phers were and are endur The ancient Chinese, for example, were as invol e westerners, though there was no exchange Further, as Chr ope entered its Middle de

A.D. wledge of Greek and Roman geographic wor r took to descr e ld in its physic and r iation. ies, European voyages of exploefront of the scie Modern geography had its or ly inquir , gave rise to w today. In its European r y from the outset was recogniz ways had been—as a broadl .P and pr ysic ape wer ly interests, as was ’ om place to place. The rapid de , , zoology, c , and y egional and increased scholarl icate interconnec,

th had made assignment of place information more reliable and comprehensive. e during this period of geoHumboldt, for whom Humboldt in Berlin, Germany, is named, led ed r

Introduction CHAPTER ONE

Subfields of Geography During the 19th century,

trade statistics, and

graphic investigation. , geography had become a distinctive and respected discipline in universities throughout Europe and in other regions of the world where European academic examples wer wed. The proliferation of pr y programs resulted in the development of a whole series of increasingl ed many repr ters of this book. P al geography, urban geography, and economic geography are examples of some of these subdivisions. y’ om one another; rather, they are closely interrelated. Geograph ized by three dominating interests. The iation of physic and human phenomena on the sur th; geography examines relationonments . The second is a focus on the systems that ysic enomena and h es in one ea of the ear eas. Together, these interests lead to a third enduring theme, that of r ysis: y “ecologic ”) relationships and This ar ientation pursued by some geographers is c regional geography. O ticular classes of things, rather than segments of the earth’s surface, for specialized study. These systematic geographers may focus their attention on one or a few related aspects of the physic ronment or of human populations and societies. In each case, elationships with other spatial systems and ar Physical geography dir human-environmental structure. Its concerns ar forms and their distribution, ic conditions and climatic patterns, with soils or vegetation associations, and the like. The other systematic branch of geography is human geography. Its emphasis is on people: where they are, what they are like, how they interact over space, apes of human use they er apes they occupy.

Why Geography Matters There are three good r y. First, it is the only discipline concerned with understanding why and how both physic om place to place on the surface of the earth. Each chapter in this book is designed to give you a basic knowledge of the many processes that shape our world. Chapter 3, for example, introduces you to the tectonic forces that warp, fold, and fault landforms; create volcanoes; and cause thquakes and tsunami. The ou a framework for understanding the technological, sociologic and ideologic e and an awareness of the forces that br e over time.

5

Second, a grasp of the broad concerns and topics ph problems that dominate daily news r limate change, inadequate food supply and population gro in developing countries, ica and the Middle and To be y ehend loc world pr ibute meaningy to the de F y, because geography is such a br , a gr Geographic training opens the way to careers in a wide of (see “Careers in Geography”). Geographic techniques of analysis are used for interpreting remotely sensed images, determining the optimum location for new businesses, monitoring the spread of infectious diseases, delineating voting districts, and a host of other tasks.

SOME CORE GEOGRAPHIC CONCEPTS The topics inc diverse. That ver

y are , however, emphasizes the r ver their par al or r ests—are united by the similar questions they ask and the common set of basic concepts they employ to consider their answers. Of either a physic they will inquire: What is it? Where is it? How did it come to be what and where it is? Where is it in relation to other physic e affected by it? How is it part of a functioning whole? How does its location affect people’s lives and the content of the area in which it is found? e rooted in geography’s th space and are derived from enduring centhemes in geography. In answering them, geographers draw upon a common store of concepts, terms, and methods of study that together form the basic structure and vocabulary of geography. Geographers believe that recognizing is the starting point for understanding how people live on and shape the earth’s surface. Geographers use the word spatial in framing their questions and forming their concepts. phy, they say, is a spatial science. spatial distribution of phenomena, spatial extent of regions, the spatial behavior of people, the spatial relationships on the earth’ face, and the spatial processes that under elationships. Geographers use spatial data to spatial patt yze spatial systems, spatial int action, and spatial variation from place to place. The word spatial comes, of course, from space, and to geograways carries the idea of the way things are distributed, the way movements occur, and the way processes operate over t of the surface of the earth. The geographer’s

6

CHAPTER ONE

Introduction

space, then, is earth space, the surface area occupied or available to be occupied by humans. S ations on that surface, things, th ar The need to understand those relationships, interactions, and processes helps frame the questions that geographers ask. Those questions have their starting point in basic observations about the loc e of places and about how places are similar to or different from one another. Such observations, though simply stated, are profoundly important to our comprehension of the world we occupy. • • • •

Places have location, direction, espect to other places. A place has size; it is large, medium, Sc important. A place has both physic ucture and cultural content. The attributes, or characteristics, of places develop and change over time.

• • •

The content of places is structured and explainable. The elements of places interrelate with other places. P ed into regions of similarities and differences.

These basic notions are the means by which geographers expr vations about the earth spaces they examine and put those observations into a common framework of reference. Each of the concepts is worth further discussion, for they are not quite as simple as they seem.

Location, Direction, and Distance Location, direction, and distance are ev day ways of assessing the space ar ing our position in relation to other things and places of interest. They ar in understanding the processes of spatial interaction that ure so importantly in the study of both physical and human geography.

Introduction CHAPTER ONE

Location The location of places and things is the star geographic study, vements and veryday life. We think of and refer to locaent senses, absolute and relative. Absolute loc ecise and accepted system of coordinates; therefore, sometimes it is c mathematical location. We have se such accepted systems of pinpointing positions. One of them is the grid cussed in Chapter 2, pages 22–24). W the absolute location of any point on the earth can be accurately described by reference ees, minutes, and seconds of latitude and longitude. Other coordinate systems ar Survey systems such as the township, range, and section description of property in much of the United States give mathematical locations on a r vel, and street address precisel a building according to the reference system of an individual town. Absolute location is unique to each described place, is

7

independent of any other characteristic or observation about that place, iption of places, in measuring the distance separating places, or in ing dir n the earth’s surface. W k that “loc however, efer y not to absolute but to rela ve loc on r F e 1.4). Relative loc and may c ant land) implic vel, eet address or room number but where it is r lassrooms, afeteria, or another reference point. On the larger scene, r , things, and places exist not in a vacuum but in a world of physic om place to place. New Yor , for example, may in absolute terms be °43′N (read described as located at (approximatel

8

CHAPTER ONE

Introduction

30 15 5

Pacific Ocean

25

Atlantic Ocean

30

805

8

20 ua

to r

15

Eq

Pacific Ocean

10

FIGURE1.4 The reality of relative location on the globe

land use,

, and population patterns of New Yor . w of these different way ation, site and the situation of a place. Site, an absolute location concept, refers to the physic ibutes of the place itself. It is more than mathematical location, for it tells us es of that place. Si a on, on the other hand, refers to the external relations of the place. It is an expression of relative loc ticular reference ance to the place in question. Site and situther examined in Chapter 11.

Direction Direction is the second universal spatial concept. Like location, it has more than one meaning and can be expressed in absolute or relative terms. Absolute is based on the c points of north, south, east, and west. es, derived fr “givens” e: the rising ation of the noontime sun and of cer th and south.

5 10 15

ent from the impressions we form from flat maps. The position of Russia with r om a polar perspective emphasizes that relative location pr relationships and interactions between the two world areas.

°58′W. We as 40 degrees, 43 minutes nor have a better understanding of the meaning of its location, however, when refer elationships: to the continental interior through the Hudson-Mohawk lowland corridor or to its position on the eastern seaboard of the United States. Within the , we gain understanding of the loc ark or the Lower East Side not solely by reference to the street addr ks they occupy

15 10

15 20

25

FIGURE 1.5 Travel times from downtown San Diego, 2002, in minutes. Lines of equal travel time (isochrones: from Greek isos, equal, and chronos, ent linear distances accessible within given spans of time fr fingerlike outlines of isochrone boundaries reflect variations in road eeways on travel time.

We also commonly use relative, or relational, In the United States, we go “out West,” “back East,” or “down South”; “Near East” or economic competition from the “Far Eastern countries.” Despite their reference to c these dir references ar y based and loc y variable. The Near East and the Far East locate parts of Asia from the European perspective; they are r icas by custom and usage, even though one would nor y across the P for example, to reach the “Far East” from California, British Columbia, or Chile. For many Americans, “back East” and “out West” are r paths of earlier generations for whom home was in the eastern part of the country, to which they might look back. “Up North” and “down South” r th at the top and south at the bottom of our maps.

Distance Distance joins location and direction as a commonly understood term that has dual meanings for geographers. Like its companion spatial concepts, distance may be viewed in both an absolute and a relative sense.

Introduction CHAPTER ONE

9

POPULATION DENSITIES Midwestern States

Illinois Counties Kilometer

Mile 1280 or more 640–1279 320–639 160–319 80–159

19 or less

494 or more 247–493 124–246 62–123 31–61 8–15 7 or less

(a)

FIGURE1.6

“Truth” . Map (a) reveals that the n states was no more than 123 people per square kilometer (319 per sq mi). From map (b), however, we see that population densities in three Illinois counties exceeded 494 people per square kilometer (1280 per sq mi) in 2000. If we were to r further, examining individual city blocks in Chicago, we would find densities reaching 2500 or more people per square kilometer (10,000 per sq mi). Scale matters! depends on one’

Absolute

r th’s surface measured by an accepted y separated locales, feet or meters for more closely spaced points. Rela ve distance transforms those linear measurements into other units more meaning to human experience or decision . T e about equidistant in miles from your residence is perhaps less important in planning your shopping tr because of street one is 5 minutes and the other 15 minutes away (F e 1.5). Most people, in fact, think of time distance rather than linear distance in their dail ties; downtown is 20 minutes by bus, the library is a 5-minute In some instances, money rather than time is the distance transformation. An urban destination might be estimated to be a $10 cab ride away, information that may affect either the decision to make the tr mode to get there. y eady know that r tments are less expensive at a greater distance from campus. A psychological transformation of linear distance is also frequent. A solitar k to the car through an unfamiliar or dangerous neighborhood seems far longer ough familiar and friendly territory. ip to a new destination frequently seems much longer than the return trip over the same path. No ther considered in Chapter 8.

(b)

Size and Scale W

, middle size,

we

izations that can be made about it. e concerned sc , though we may use that term in different ways. We can, for example, forms at the loc Here, the reference is purely to the siz More technic y, sc us the r e of an area on a map and the e of the mapped area on the surface of the earth. In this sense, as Chapter 2 makes clear, sc e of ev and is essential to recognizing what is sho . scale ee of genepresented (F e 1.6). br ow; ent size-sc , but r ation focused on c of microc of a . A eness of sc is concepts, r able at another. For example, the study of world agr r limate patterns, al food preferences, levels of economic development, and patterns of world trade. These large-scale relationships ar cr tates, where topography, soil and drainage conditions, farm size, ownership, and c ation, or ev preferences, may be of greater explanator ance.

10

CHAPTER ONE

Introduction

FIGURE1.7 This Landsat satellite image reveals contrasting cultural landscapes along the Mexico-California border. Move your eyes from the Salton Sea (the dark patch at the top of the image) southwar picture. Notice how the regularity of the fields and the bright colors (representing growing vegetation) give way to a marked break, where irregularly shaped fields and less prosperous agriculture are evident. Above the break is the Imperial Valley of California; below the border is Mexico. © NASA.

Physical and Cultural Attributes ysic ibutes distinguishing them fr ter, potential, and meaning. Geographers ar yzing the details of those attributes and, particularly, with recognizing the interr the physic ea: the humanface. The physical characteristics of a place ar aspects as its climate, soil, water supplies, mineral resources, terrain features, and the like. These na al landscape ibutes pro occurs. They help shape—but do not dictate—how people live. The resource base, for example, is physic y determined, though how resources are perceived and utiliz y conditioned. Environmental circumstances directl potential and r ; indirectly, they may affect such matters as employ ws, population distributions, and so on. The physical environment sim y pr which humans must deal. Thus, most places offer trade-offs in terms of c , ards, farming and

, esources, y. For example, a scenic volcano may someday erupt, or a mild, icanes and so forth. Physical envir e explored in Chapters 3 and 4 of this book. At the same time, by occupying a given place, its physic ibutes. The visible impr is c ape. It, too, ent sc ent le . Contrasts in agr e e F e 1.7, whereas the signs, str es, and people of Los Angeles’s Chinato , mor int opolitan area itself. The physical and human characteristics of places are the keys to understanding both the simple and the complex interactions and inter onments they occupy and . Those interconnections and ations are not static or permanent but are subject to continual change. The existence of the United States Environmental Protection Agency (and its counterparts elsewhere) is a reminder that humans are the active and frequentl the continuing inter ysical worlds (F e 1.8). Virtually ever imprint on the earth’s soil, water, vegetation, , and other resources, as well as on the atmosphere common to earth space, as Chapter 12 makes clear.

Attributes of Place Are Always Changing The physic onment surr unchanging but, of course, it is not. In the framework of geologic time, change is both continuous and pronounced. Islands form and disappear; mountains rise and are worn low to swampy plains; move, and melt away, and sea le ise in response. Geologic time is long, but the forces that give shape to the land are timeless and relentless. t period of time since the most recent retreat of continental glaciers—12,000 or 13,000 years onments occupied by humans have been subject to change. Glacial retreat itself marked a period of cliextending the area habitable by humans to include vast reaches of northern Eurasia and North America formerly covered by thousands of feet of ice. With moderating climatic conditions came changes in vegetation and fauna. On the global scale, these wer onmental changes; humans were as yet too few in number and too limited in technology to alter mater y the course of physic vents. On the r ale, however, even early human societies exerted an impact on the environments they occupied. Fire was used to clear forest undergro ive them in the hunt, and later to clear openings for rudimentary agr e. With the dawn of civilizations and the invention and spread of agr humans accelerated their management and alteration of the now no longer “ ”

Introduction CHAPTER ONE

11

FIGURE1.8 Washington, oil r e major emitters of potentially toxic chemicals to the atmosphere, land, and water. Pollution control technologies have significantly reduced, but not eliminated, their negative impacts on the environment. However unsightly or smelly they may be, oil refineries provide the gasoline, diesel, heating oil, jet fuel, and asphalt products that ar countries.© Walter Siegmund.

environment. Even the classical Greeks noted how the landscape they occupied differed—for the worse—from its former condition. With growing numbers of people, and particularly with industr ation and the spread of European exploitative technologies throughout the world, the pace of change in the content of area accelerated. The built landscape—the product of human effort—increasingly r ape. Each ne ; each agr ests; and each new mine, dam, or factory changed the content of r ed the temporaril onment. Characteristics of places today are the r y changing past conditions. They ar erunners of differing uck. Geographers e concerned with places at given moments of time. But to e and development of places, to appreance of their relative locations, and to understand the their physic and istics, geographers m w places as the present result of past operation of distinctive physic ocesses (F e 1.9). Y ec about a place or thing is “How did it come to be what and where it is?” This is an inquiry about process and about becoming. The forces and events shaping the physical and explainonment of places today are an important focus of geography and are the topics of most of the chapters of this book. To understand them is to appreciate the changing natur der of our contemporary world.

Interrelations between Places The concepts of relative location and distance that were introduced earlier lead directl spatial r : places are interrelated with other places in structured and

comprehensible ways. In describing the pr of that geographers add accessibility and connectivity to the ideas of location and distance. Tobler’s F , elated to ev on. Our observation, therefore, y fr as them increases—a statement “distance decay,” e in Chapter 8. Are you mor ly identic estaurant across town? O sometimes is unpredictable, but in this case you c obably more of er place. Consideration of distance implies assessment of accessi. Ho vercome the “friction of distance”? That is, how easy is it to overcome the barrier of the time and space separation of places? Distance isolated North America from Eur velopment of ships (and air t) that reduced the effective the continents. ts of ancient and medie e they were “pedestrian cities,” as cities expanded in area and population with industrialization. A y by the development of public transit sy travel increased ease of movement connected points and r eas not on the transit lines themselves. A , therefore, suggests the idea of , a broader concept imply s in which places are connected: by physical telephone lines, street and road systems, and pipelines and sewers; by unr oss open countryside; by radio and TV broadcasts; vice areas; and in nature even by movements of wind systems and ocean currents. Where r e w is channelized, networ outes

12

CHAPTER ONE

Introduction

(a)

FIGURE 1.10 An indication of one form of spatial interaction and

(b)

FIGURE1.9 The process of change in a cultural landscape. (a) Miami, Florida, in 1913 was just a small settlement on the banks of the Miami River amid woodlands and wetlands. (b) By the end , it had grown from a few thousand inhabitants to some 350,000, with buildings, streets, and highways completely transforming its natural landscape. Sources: (a) © Historical Museum of Southern Florida; (b) © South Florida Water Management District.

connecting sets of places—determine the ment and the connectedness of points.

y of move-

today’s advanced societies. Technologies and de ve it proliferate, as our o les show. broadband wireless Internet, instant messaging, and more have erased time and distance barriers formerly separating and isooups and have reduced our dependence on physic ape. There is, inevitably, inter places. S is the process of dispersion of an idea or a thing (a new consumer product or a new song, for example) from a center of origin to more distant points. The

connectivity is suggested by this “desire line” map recording the volume of daily work trips within the San Francisco Bay area to the Silicon Valley employment node. The ends of the desire lines define the outer reaches of a physical interaction region defined by the network of connecting roads and routes. The region changed in size and shape over time as the network was enlarged and improved, the Valley employment base expanded, and the commuting range of workers increased. The map, of course, gives no indication of the global reach of the Valley’s accessibility and interaction through other means of communication and interchange. Redrawn with permission fr o, Suburban Gridlock. © 1986 Center for Urban Policy Research, Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey.

e affected, again, by the distance separating the origin of the new idea or technology and other places where it is ev y adopted. rates are also affected by such factors as population densities, means of communication, advantages of the innovation, and importance or prestige of the originating node. Further discussion of spaelationships. Movement, connection, and interaction ar and economic processes that give character to places and regions (F e 1.10). The increasingl interactions is expressed in the term globalization. aimplies the increasing interconnection of more and more economic, and envir ocesses becomes international in sc Promoted by continuing advances in

Introduction CHAPTER ONE

wor , ation encompasses other core geographic concepts of spatial interaction, , , More detailed implica-

Place Similarity and Regions The distinctive characteristics of places—physic loc y important ideas. The is that no places on the surface of the earth can be exactly the same. Not only do they have different absolute locations, but—as in the features of the human face—the pr ysic istics of place is never exactly duplicated. The inevitable uniqueness of place would seem to impose impossible problems of generalThat this is not the case results from the second important idea, istics of places show patterns of similar eas. For example, a geogk in Fr that one area use a similar, ed technique to build fences ar Often, such similarities are str for us to conclude that spatial regularities exist. They permit us to recogniz earth areas that display ences from surrounding territories. Places are, therefore, both unlike and like other places, creating patterns of areal differences and coher ity. The problems of the historian and the geographer are similar. Each m e about items of study that are y unique. The historian creates arbitrary but meaningful and useful historic iods for reference and study. The “Roaring Twenties” and the “Victorian Era” e shorty quite complex and var antly distinct from what went before or followed after. The region is the geographer’s equivof the historian’s era: a de to c the complex r th’s surface into manageable pieces. Just as historians focus on key events to characterize certain historic periods, larities to determine the boundaries of regions. ing and naming regions, a complex set of interrelated environmenibutes can easily be conveyed through a simpler construct.

Spatial Distributions e not “given” e any more than “eras” e given in the course of human events. e devised; ies designed to br ’s surface. At their root, e based on the r and mapping of spatial distr human, or organiz es selected . For example, the location of Welsh speakers in Great Br As e imaginable physic

13

ea to examine. Those that , however, are those that contribute to the oblem. Let us assume that we e interested in ing burglary rates in the United States. We see from F e 1.11 that some y higher rates than others. A resident of Arizona is roughly three times as likely to be a victim of a burglary as a resident of North Dakota. Does the distribution of rates appear random, or do the states with the highest rates appear to be cluster West now we must try to explain it. In the case of burglaries, we would ask what factors account for the observed pattern. Is the pattern similar to that for other of crimes, such as murder y rural states have lower burglary rates? It is commonly assumed that big cities and pover are associated with crime, and that young people commit more crimes than older people. We would want to ascertain whether any of those distributions are corr y rates.

T

of Regions

Regions may be functional, or perceptual. A for (or m) ing a single physic of physic es. Your home state is a precisely bounded r which of law and administration is found; the name Corn Belt suggests a region based on farm economy and crop characteristics. Later in this egions ed character ,r ethnic, or economy. F e 1.12 and the front-paper foldout maps of egions and country units sho , of c y der Whate the egion is a siz ea ov ation ibute or ibutes—that is, er A (or ) region, in contrast, may be ed as a spatial system. Its parts are interdependent, and thr egion operates as a dynamic, organizational unit. egion, a funcregion is objectively but a region has , not in the sense of static content. The istics of interaction and connection of a function region are most clearly recognized at its node or core and lessen in dominance toward its margins. As the degree and extent of control and interaction in an area change, the boundar egion change in response; that is, a nodal region’ ies remain constant only as long as the interchanges that establish it r tered. Examples are the trade areas of to the circulation area of a newspaper, the area that receives a tele ’s and the territor administrative, are, r and service functions of r apsuch as Chicago, F e 1.13).

14

CHAPTER ONE

Introduction

Low

High

FIGURE1.11

As this simplified example suggests, all spatial data can be mapped, revealing regional patterns that invite analysis. Here, the higher incidence of burglaries in southern and western states is clearly equire gathering data not at the state level but for smaller spatial units, such as counties or census tracts. One would also consider many possible relationships between crime rates Source:

FIGURE1.12 Thisgen eralized land use map of Australia is composed of formal regions whose internal economic characteristics show essential om adjacent territories of ent condition or use.

Crime and Justice Atlas 2000, p. 55.

Introduction CHAPTER ONE

15

FIGURE1.13 The functionalr egions shown on this map were based on linkages between large banks of major central cities and the “corr

educed their role, the regions connectivity between principal cities and locales beyond their own immediate metropolitan area. Redrawn

by permission from Annals of the Association of American Geographers,

P (or vernacular or popular) are less rigorously structur egions geographers devise. They are regions that exist and have r in the per . y folk, they r feelings and images rather than objective data. Because of that, per egions may be more meaning daily lives than the more objective regions of geographers. Ordinary people have a c iation and employ the r itorial entities. P y and collectively agree on where they live. The vernacular regions they recognize have realer egionally based names employed in businesses, by sports teams, or in advertising slogans. The frequency of references to “ ” in the southeastern United States repr and awareness, as does “Midwest” in popular understanding and literary reference (F e 1.14). The boundaries of vernacular regions, of course, on the maps of different gr ecognized area, but the regions themselves r w space, assign their loyalties, and interpret their world. At a different sc , such urban ethnic enclaves as “ y” and “Chinatown”

have comparable r itants. Less clearly per their inhabitants are the “turfs” of urban clubs or gangs. Their boundaries are sharp, and the per them are paramount in the daily lives and activities of their occupants. As you read the chapters of this book, notice how many examples of regions and regionalism are presented in map form and discussed in the text. Note, too, how those depictions and discussions var ee different r as the subjects and purposes of the examples change. Chapegional studies, primarily of egions, are the subjects of Chapters 3 to 12.

GEOGRAPHY’S THEMES AND STANDARDS The core geographic concepts discussed so far in this chapter r “ y” and the “N y Standards.” Together, the “themes” and “standards” have helped organize and str e the study

16

CHAPTER ONE

Introduction

(a)

Core of American Midwest Peripheral Midwest Communities claiming to lie in the Midwest Communities claiming to lie outside the Midwest (b)

FIGURE 1.14 The vernacular Midwest.

nacular regions can be as varied as the unique mental maps of or om the collective judgments of sampled groups. (a) e revealed an author’s consensus core Midwest r e based on questionnaire responses (b) from postmasters in 536 communities who were asked whether, in their opinion, their village was in the Midwest. See also Figure 13.1. Sources: (a) From James

The Middle West: Its Meaning in American Culture. Joseph W. Brownell, “The Cultural Midwest” in Journal of Geography. Vol. 59, Figure l, p. 82. Redrawn with permission.

of geography over the past seve at all grade and college levels. Both focus on the development of geographic literacy. The former represent an instructional approach keyed wledge, and om a str ed program in geographic education. The latter—“ , and perspectives of geography ated adults. The e fundamental themes, as summarized by a joint ation

and the Association of American Geographers, are those basic concepts and topics that r y and at vels of instruction: • • •

location: the meaning of relative and absolute position on the earth’s surface; place: the distinctive and distinguishing physical and human characteristics of loc ; relationships within places: the development and ;

Introduction CHAPTER ONE

• •

movement: interaction on the earth; regions: how they form and change.

The N y Standards were established as par y adopted Goals 2000: Educate America Act (see “The National Standards”). y as y to be acquired by students who have gone through the U.S. public school system, the standards addr lying this edition of Introduction to Geogra geography is a necessary part of the mental framework of all informed persons.

ORGANIZATION OF THIS BOOK The breadth of geographic interest and subject matter, the variety of questions that focus geographic inquiry, and the diversity of concepts and terms geographers employ require a simple, logical organization of topics for presentation to students ne of complex diversity, geography should be seen to have a

17

broad consistency of purpose achieved through the recognition of a limited number of distinct but closely related “traditions.” William D. Pattison, who suggested this uniing viewpoint, and J. Lewis Robinson (among others), who accepted and expanded Pattison’s reasoning, found that four traditions are logical and inclusive ways of clustering geographic inquiry. Although not all geographic wor one or more of them are implicit in most geographic studies. ing categories—the four traditions within which geographers work—are 1. the earth science tradition; 2. onment tradition; 3. the loc 4. the area analysis (or r The m gested by F e 1.15, as ar lective ties to the range of research and techniques that geographers employ: maps, of course, emote sensing, statistical tools, geographic information systems, and other spatial analysis techniques.

18

CHAPTER ONE

Introduction

FIGURE1.15 The four traditions of geography do not stand alone. Rather, each is interconnected with the others esearch skills and tools. As the diagram indicates, the chapters of this text are grouped by reference to the “traditions” to help you recognize the broad divisions of geography as well as its e. To avoid diagram clutter, drawn but should be understood.

We have used the four traditions as the device for clustering the chapters of this book (from Chapter 3 onward), hoping ou recognize the unitar e of geography while appr phers. They are, in a sense, introduced by Chapter 2, which ws maps (and r distinctive, ing tools of geographers. The science is the branch of the discipline that addresses itself to the earth as the habitat of humans. It is the tradition that in ancient Greece represented the roots of geography, the description of the physical str e of the earth, ocesses that give it detailed form. In modern terms, of human-environmental systems, which together constitute geography’s subject matter. The earth science tradition prepares the physical geographer to understand the earth and its resources as the common her solutions to the increasingly complex web of pressures placed on the earth by its expanding, demanding human occupants. Consideration of the elements of the earth science tradition constitutes Part One (Chapters 3 to 5) of this text. P T onment Within this theme of geography, consideration of the earth as a purely physic gives way to a primary interest in how people perceive the environments they occupy. e. The landscapes that are explor e those that ar igin and expression. People in their numbers, distributions, and diversity; in their patterns of social and political organization; cepe the orienting concepts of the cultureonment tradition. The theme is distinctive in its thrust

but tied to the earth science tradition, because populations exist, es emerge, and behaviors occur within the context of the physic ealities and patternings of the earth’s surface. The loc —or, as it is sometimes c the spatial tradition—is the subject of the chapters of Part Three (Chapters 10 to 12). It is a tradition that under graphic inquiry. As Robinson suggested, if we can agree that geology is rocks, that history is time, and that sociology is people, then we can assert that geography is earth space. The locational tradition is primaril ibuysic ance to human occupance of the earth. It explor patterns of interaction humans and the ecosystems that sustain them. Part, of the locational tradition is concerned with distributional patterns. More central are sc , movement, and areal relationships. Map, statistical, geometric, and systems analysis research are among the techniques employed by geographers wor tion. Irrespective, however, ytic tools used or the sets stems, or ysical landscape— the underl ational tradition is the distribution of the phenomenon discuss ws and interconnections that unite it to related physic occurrences. The ysis is considered in Chapter 13, which makes up Part Four of Introduction to Geography. Again, the r . Strabo’s Geography was addressed to the leaders of Augustan Rome as a summar

Introduction CHAPTER ONE

an empire. Imperial concerns may long since have vanished, but the study of regions and the recognition of their spatial uniformities and differences remain. Such uniformities and differences, of course, grow out of the structure of human– environmental systems and interrelations that are the study of geography. To illustrate the r egional studies in geography, much of Chapter 13 consists of special r that are the themes of topical Chapters 3 to 12 of this book.

19

ation of the four traditions of geography is not only an organiz recognition that, y, est is ever-preserved. The traditions, though recognizably distinctive, are inter and overlapping. We hope their use as organizing themes—and their further idenation in short introductions to the separate sections of this ou grasp the unit essence of geographic study.

Key Words absolute direction 8 absolute distance 9 absolute location 7 areaa

ysist radition 18

cultural landscape 10 culture-environment tradition 18 earths ciencet radition 18

formal (uniform) region 13 egion 13 globalization 12 locational tradition 18 ape 10 per , popular) region 15 region 13 relative direction 8

relative distance 9 relative location 7 sc site 8 situation 8 12 spatial interaction 11

Thinking Geographically 1.

ent purposes do geographers refer to location? When geographers say “location matters,” what aspect of location commands their interest? 2. What does the term cultural landscape imply? Is the natur ape dictated by the physical onment? 3. What of distance transformations are suggested by the term relative distance? How is the concept of psychological distance related to relative distance?

4. How are the ideas of distance, accessibility, and connectivity related to processes of spatial interaction? 5. Why do geographers concern themsel regions? How are formal and functional regions different in concept 6. What are the four traditions of geography? Do they repr ing or dividing approaches to geographic understanding?

CHAPTER

TWO

CHAPTERO UTLINE

Maps

Maps CHAPTER TWO

O

21

n January 8, 2005, the nuclear attack submarine San Francisco (500 ft) beneath the surface of the South P its way from Guam to Brisbane, A Many of the 136 crew members were eating lunch when they heard a horrible screeching followed by a thunderous blast. Within seconds, sailors were tossed about like mannequins. The San Francisco had crashed head-on into an undersea mountain that is part of a range of undersea volcanoes and reefs. One crewman was e injured, many of them severely. Although the mountain rises to within 30 meters (100 ft) of the ocean surface, it was not on the submarine’ ts, which did not show any potential obstac ters (3 mi) of the crash. Three years earlier, Americans had been riveted by the plight of nine coal miners trapped 73 meters (240 ft) below gr uecreek Mine in southwestern Pennsylvania. On July 24, 2002, a machine operator in the mine broke through to an adjacent, abandoned 38 years earlier. As millions of gallons of water rushed in, the nine men looked frantic y for a way out, the exits were in areas alr . According to the report issued by investigators from the tment of Labor, at one point the miners

help them predict where those crimes are likely to occur in the e. cannot be overstated.

estimated they had about an hour left based on the rate the water was rising. The miners took some time to r their and pr ed for the worst. Some of the miners tied themselves together so they could be found together in the event they were drowned. They wrote notes to their families and placed them in a plastic bucket. The bucket was c ic ed near the roof bolting machine to prevent it fr .

est could be seen and measured thr n, of tangible and intangible content of an ar nearly impossible to isolate for study and interpretation the fe Therefore, tive tool of geographers. Only through the map can distributions and interactions of whatever nature be reduced to an observable scale, , and combined or recombined to re elationships not dir y measurable in the landscape itself. t, science, ec c . , y ibutions. They recognized the spheric form of the ear veloped map pr id system. y, much of the car eece was lost to Europe during the Middle Ages y had to be rediscovered. Se velopments during the Renaissance ar y. e the development of printing, the redisco the work of Ptolemy eat voyages of disco . In addition, the rise of nationalism in many European countries made it imperative to determine and accurately portray boundar landforms contained within the borders of a country. During the 17th century, important national surveys were undertaken in France and England. Many conventions in the way data are presented on maps had their origin in these surveys. Knowledge of the way information is recorded on maps enables us to read and interpr ectly. T

Above ground, rescuers drilled holes to pump out the water t 0.8 meter (30 in.) in diameter to reach the miners. After 78 hours underground, e lifted to safety. This was an accident that should not have happened. The 1957 map the mining companies were using showed the old mine as 138 meters (150 yds) away from Quecreek. But another 421,000 tons of coal had been removed before the mine was closed in 1964, and that additional mining had put one shaft immediately adjacent to Quecreek.

As these examples indicate, accurate maps c y mean the difference life and death. Go agencies rel one areas, of volcanic eruptions, of earthquake hazard zones, and of areas subject to landslides to develop their long-range plans. Epidemiologists map the occurrence of a disease over time and space, helping them the source of the outbreak and create a plan to the spread of the disease. Law enforcement agencies increasingly ime and to

MAPS AS THE TOOLS OF GEOGRAPHY ance for geographers. They are geographers’ primar ysis. For a var of reasons, the spatial distributions, patterns, and relations of inter y cannot easily be observed or interpreted in the landscape itself. •

•

•

Many phenomena, such as landform or agr regions or major cities, ar y that they c om one or a few vantage points. Many distributions, such as those of language usage or religious belief, ar e not tangible or visible. Many interactions, ws, and exchanges imparting the dy ectly obser

22

CHAPTER TWO

Maps

lusions or to avoid being swayed by distorted or biased presentations, we must be able to understand and assess the ways in which facts are represented. Of course, e necessar y distorted bec face, epresent objects, e, and to r es at a different siz e. This distor bec ause its effective communication depends upon selective emphasis of y a portion of r . As long as map r tions of the commonl r e distorted, they can interpret maps correctly.

LOCATING POINTS ON A SPHERE As we noted in Chapter 1, the star is the location of places and things, and absolute location ation of place by a precise and accepted system of coordinates.

The Geographic Grid In order to visualize the basic system for locating points on the earth, think of the world as a sphere with no mar whatsoever on it. There would, of course, be no way of describing the exact location of a particular point on the sphere without establishing a system of reference. We use the geographic grid, a set of imaginary lines that intersect at right angles to form a system of reference for locating points on the surface of the earth. The key reference points in that system are the North and South Poles and the equator, which are given in e, and the prime meridian. The North and South Poles ar about which the earth spins. The line that encircles the globe per is the equator. We can describe the location of a point in terms of its distance north or south of the equator, measured as an angle at the earth’s center. Because a circle contains 360 degrees, the poles is 180 degr the equator and each pole, 90 degrees.

60°N

rotation 40°N

North Pole at 90°N latitude 20°N

Parallels of latitude

Equator

20°S

40°S (a)

150°W

180°

150°E

120°W

120°E Meridians of longitude

90°W

90°E (c)

60°W Greenwich Prime Meridian (b)

60°E 30°W

0°

30°E

FIGURE 2.1 (a) The grid system: parallels of latitude. Note that the parallels become incr the globe, the 60th parallel is only half as long as the equator. (b) The grid system: meridians of longitude. East-west measurements range from 0° to 180°—that is, from the prime meridian to the 180th meridian in each direction. Because the meridians converge at the poles, the distance between degr one moves away from the equator. consisting of parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude.

Maps CHAPTER TWO

distance north or south of the equator, measured in degrees ranging from 0° (the equator) to 90° (the North and South Poles). As is evident in F e 2.1a, are to each other and to the equator and run east-west. The polar circumference of the earth is 24,899 miles; thus, the distance degrees of latitude equals 24,899 ÷ 360, or about 111 (69 mi). If the earth were a perfect sphere, y long. Due to the th in polar regions, however, degrees e slightly longer 69.41 mi) than near the equator (110.56 km; 68.70 mi). To record the latitude of a place in a more precise way, degrees are divided into 60 minutes (′), and each minute into 60 seconds (″), exactly like an hour of time. One minute of and one second of latitude is about 31 meters (101 ft). of Chic itten 41°52′50″N. Bec th or south of the equator is not by itself enough to locate a point in space, om an agreed-upon refer As a starting point for east-west measurement, c tographers in most countries use as the an imaginar ough the Ro tory at Gr England. This prime meridian was selected as the zero-degr conference in

23

1884. meridians, it is a true nor the poles of the earth (F e 2.1b). (“True” north and south vary from magnetic north and south, the direction of the earth’s magnetic poles, to which a compass needle points.) Meridians ar t at the equator, come closer and closer together eases, and converge at the North and South Poles. parallels , Lon de is the angular distance east or west of the prime (zero) meridian measured in degrees ranging from 0° to 180°. Directly opposite the prime meridian is the 180th meridian, located in the P , degrees an be subdivided into minutes and seconds. However, eases away from the equator because the meridians converge at the poles. With the exception of a few islands, places in North and South America are in the ar with the exception of a portion of the Chukchi Peninsula of Siberia, Time zo e related. The earth, which makes a complete 360-degree rotation once every 24 hours, is ones roughly centered on meridians at 15-degree intervals. Greenwich mean time (GMT) is the time at the prime meridian. The Inter Date Line, where each new day begins, y follows the 180th meridian. As F e 2.2 indicates, however, the date line deviates from the

Monday Sunday

–3h 30m

New York

–3h 45m –3h 30m

Date Line

International

Equator

FIGURE 2.2 World time zones. Each time zone is about 15°

–0h 44m

Prime Meridian

+

es at the bottom of the map repr ence in hours when it is 12 noon in the time zone centered on Greenwich, England. New York is in column –5, so the time there is 7 A.M. when it is noon at Gr e numer on the same time as Britain, although it is a time zone away. Spain, entirely within the boundaries of the GMT zone, sets its clocks at +1 hour, whereas +8 hours). In South America, Chile (in the –5 hour zone) uses the –4 hour designation, wher –3 hour zone instead of the –

24

CHAPTER TWO

Maps

25°

20°N

South China Sea

105°E

110°

115°

FIGURE 2.3 The latitude and longitude of Hong Kong are 22°17′N, 114°10′E. What are the coordinates of Hanoi?

mer ent dates within a country or an island group. Thus, the International Date Line zigzags so that Siberia has the same date as the rest of Russia and the Aleutian Island and Fiji Island groups are not split. New days begin at the date line and proways 1 day later than east of the line. By citing the degrees, minutes, and, if necessary, seconds , we can describe the location of any th’s surface. To conclude our earlier example, the center of Chicago is located at 41°52′50″ N, 87°38′28″ W. Hong Kong is at 22°17′40″N, 114°10′26″E (Figure 2.3).

FIGURE 2.4 A portion of the Vincennes, Indiana–Illinois, topographic quadrangle showing evidence of original French abash River in both long-lot and Vincennes street-system orientations. This 1944 U.S. scale of 1:62,500.

.

Land Survey Systems The geographic gr idians is one way to describe location. In North America, thr ation systems have been employed, and each has left its mark on the landscape. Early Fr long-lot system for claimorth America. The system was introduced into the St. Lawrence V wed French settlers wherever they established colonies: Quebec, the Mississippi Valley, Louisiana, and elsewhere. The long lot was a sur pic y about 10 times longer than wide, stretching far back from a narrow river frontage. The back of the lot was indicated by a roadway roughly parallel to the line of the river, mar the front of a second and perhaps a third series of long lots. The system pro with lo iver terrace land and remote poorerback ar ving as woodlots. D were built at the front of the holding, where access was easy

and the neighbors were close. By 1760, long lots extended for mor es of the St. Lawrence River, and areas settled by the French retain the imprint of these early land concessions (Figure 2.4). English settlers in the colonies br system of proper wn as metes and bounds. The system utilized physic es of the loc y, along with directions and distances, ibe in sequence the boundaries of a parcel of land. pical description might read, “From the point at the junction of S Indian Fork Creeks, south for 100 yards, then southeast to the large boulder, northeast to the old oak tree, north toward S Creek, then do eek to the starting point.” Based in part on such temporary landscape elements as prominent trees, unusual rocks, streams that might dry up or change course, and human-made features such as roads and fences, the metes and bounds system led to boundary uncertainty and dispute. It also resulted in road patterns, such as those found in

Maps CHAPTER TWO

Pennsylvania and other eastern states, where routes are often contr ic survey. When independence from Great Britain was achieved, the vernment decided that the public domain should be surveyed and subdivided before being opened for settlement. The Land Ordinance of 1785 established a systematic survey own as the township and range system. It was based on survey lines oriented in the cardinal directions: base lines that run east-west and meridians that run north-south (Figure 2.5). A grid of lines spaced at 6-mile (9.7-km) inter the land into a series of squares. A township consisted of a squar this was further divided into 36 sections Every section of 640 acres (259 hectares) was subdivided into quarter-sections of 160 acres (64.8 hectares), and these quarter-sections—considered the standard size for a farm—were or y designated the minimum ar chased for settlement. That minimum was later reduced to 80 acres (32.4 hectares) and then to 40 acres (16.2 hectares). Each parcel of land had a ation. The township and range rectangular survey system was oss most of the United States, as far west as the P nor The Canada Land Survey System is similar to that developed in the United States, employing base lines and meridians and dividing land into townships, ranges, sections, The r vey system antly affected the landscape of the central and western United States and Canada, creating the basic checkerboard the regular pattern of sectionline and quarter-line country roads, the bloc and farms, and the gridiron street systems of towns and cities.

MAP PROJECTIONS The earth can be represented reasonable accuracy only on a globe, but globes are not as convenient as maps to store or use, and they cannot depict much detail. For example, if we had a large globe with a diameter of 1 meter, we would have to ver 100,000 squar th surface in an area a few centimeters on a side. Obviously, a globe of reasonable size cannot show the transportation system of a ation of ver In transforming a globe into a map, we c curved sur operties of the original. Globe properties are as follows: 1.

idians ar length of the equator. 2. idians meet at the North and South Poles and are true north-south lines. 3. l para els of latitude each other. 4. P om the equator.

5. Mer ight angles. 6. The scale on the surface of the globe is ev same in directions.

25

e the

Only the globe grid itself r istics. To project it onto a surface that c t some operties and consequently to distort the r the map attempts to portray. The term map pr face of the globe is repr . t, ent way ees, face relationships: area, shape, distance, F e 2.6 shows ho

Area Some projections, such as the Mollweide and cylindrical ea projection (F e 2.6a, b), enable the cartographer to represent the areas of regions in correct or constant proportion to earth r . That means that any square inch on the map represents an identical number of square miles (or of e else on the map. As a result, the shape of the portrayed area is ine y distorted. A square on the earth, for example, may become a rectangle on the map, but that rectangle has the correct area. Such projections are called or pr A map that shows correct areal relationships always distorts the shapes of regions. ea projections are used when a map is intended to show the actual ar th’s surface. If we wished to compare the amount of land in agrits of the world, for example, y misleading to use a map that represented the same amount of surface ar ent sc

Shape ojection can pro ect shapes for large eas, some accurately por eas by preect elationships (F e 2.6c). These trueshape projections are c confor pr and the importance of conformality is that r es “look right” and have the correct directional relationships. They achieve these proper eas by assur lels of latitude and mer oss each other at right angles and that the sc ections at any given location. an be retained for only relativel eas on maps. Because that is so, the shapes of large regions—continents, for example—are always different from their true earth shapes, even on conformal maps. A map cannot be both equivalent and conformal.

Distance Distance relationships are nearl ways distorted on a map, but some projections true distances in one direction or certain selected lines. Others, c equidistant pr

26

Maps

Humbolt Mer.

CHAPTER TWO

s line 1785

1881 Base line

(a)

Meridian

6 mi

West 5

Base 4

3

2

3

6 mi

2 1 Line

1

1

East 2

3

4

5

Principal

1 2

Initial point

3

South

Section 14 = 1 sq mi = 640 acres

(b)

FIGURE 2.5 (a) Principal base lines and meridians gover

ownship, section, and cel of land a unique identification. Townships are numbered by rows (called tiers) and columns (called ranges). In the example shown here, the township in the second tier south of the base line and in the third range west of the principal meridian is labeled T.2S, R.3W side and numbered fr ner of the township. Sections can be divided into quarters, eighths (“halfea in the lower right diagram would be SW 1/4 of the SE 1/4 of Sec. 14, T.2S, R.3W. , Bureau of Land Management, Washington, D.C.: U.S.

Maps CHAPTER TWO

(a) Mollweide projection

(b) A cylindrical equal-area projection with standard parallels at 30°N and S

(c) Mercator projection

FIGURE 2.6 This figur

ent in thr ent map projections. A head drawn on one projection (Mollweide) has been transferred to two other projections, keeping the latitude and longitude the same as they are found on the first. This does not mean the first projection is the best of the three. The head could have been drawn on any one of them and then plotted on the others. Elements of Cartography, 5th ed., Fig. 5.6, p. 85. New York, Wiley, © 1984.

27

28

CHAPTER TWO

Maps

sho ections, but only fr central points (F e 2.7a). ations are incorrect and, quite likely, gr y distorted. A planar equidistant map centered on Detroit, for example, shows the corr oit and the cities of Boston, Los Angeles, and any other point on the map. But it does not show the corr os Angeles and Boston. A map cannot be both equidistant and equal-area.

(a) Azimuthal equidistant projection, polar case

Direction As is true of distances, dir annot be shown without distortion. On azim projections, however, true directions are sho other points. (An azimuth is the angle formed at the beginning point of a straight line, in relation to a meridian.) Directions or azimuths from points other than the central point to other points are not accurate. The azim oper ojection is not exclusive—that is, an azimuthal pr conformal, or equidistant. The equidistant map shown in Figure 2.7a is, as well, a true-direction map from the same North Pole origin. N ea, conformal, or equidistant; most are compromises. One example of such a compromise is the Robinson projection, which was designed to show the whole wor y satisfactory manner and which is used for most of the world maps in this textbook (F e 2.7b). It does not show true distances or directions and is neither equal-area Instead, it permits some exaggeration of size in the high latitudes in order to improve the shapes of landmasses. Siz e most accurate in the temperate and tropical zones, where most people live. Mapmakers must be conscious of the properties of the projections they use, selecting the one that best suits their purposes. If a map shows onl ea, the choice of a projection is not critic y any can be used. The choice is more imporea to be sho ver a considerable lonthen the selection of a projection depends on the purpose of the map. Some projections ar gation. If numeric e being mapped, the relative sizes of the areas involved should be correct, so that one of the many equal-area projections is likely to be used. y emplo ojections. Most atlases indicate which projection has been used for each map, thus informing the map reader of the properties of the maps and their distortions. More information about map projections can Selection of the map grid, determined by the projection, .A second decision involves the sc map is to be drawn.

SCALE

(b) Robinson projection

FIGURE 2.7 (a) On this equidistant projection, distances and directions to all places are true only fr equidistant and equal-area. (b) The Robinson projection, a compromise between an equal-area and a conformal projection, gives a fairly realistic view of the world. The most pr e in the less-populated areas of the higher latitudes, such as northern Canada, Greenland, and Russia. On the map, Canada is 21% larger than in reality, while the 48 contiguous states of the United States are 3% smaller than they really are.

The sc surement of something on the map and the corresponding measurement on the earth. Sc pically represented in one of three ways: ver y, graphic y, or numerically as a representative fraction (F e 2.8). As the name implies, a verbal scale is given in words, such as “1 inch to 1 mile” or .” A graphic scale, sometimes c bar sc , on the map that has been subdivided to show the map lengths of units of earth distance.

Maps CHAPTER TWO

“1 inch to 1 mile” “1 centimeter to 5 kilometers” (a) Verbal scale

20 10 0 10 5 0

0

20 10

50

Kilometers 40 60 20 30 Miles 100

80

40

150

100

50

200

Miles (b) Graphic scale 1 62,500

1:62,500

(c) Representative fraction scale

FIGURE 2.8 Map scales relate a map distance to a distance on the earth’ (a) A verbal scale is given in words. (b) A graphic scale divides a line into units, each unit representing the distance between two points on the earth’ graphic scale is the only kind of scale to remain correct if the map is repr ent size, provided that the scale is enlarged or reduced by the same percentage. (c) A representative fraction is a simple fraction or ratio. The units of distance on both sides of the scale must be the same; they need not be stated.

A representativ sc the epresenting the map distance and the second indicating the ground distance. The fraction may be written in a number of ways. There are 5280 feet in 1 mile and 12 inches in 1 foot; the number of inches in 1 mile. The fractional scale of a map at 1 inch to 1 mile can be written as 1:63,360 or 1/63,360. On the simpler metric sc , The units used in each par ale are the same; thus, 1:63,360 epresents 63,360 feet on the ground, or 12 miles—which is, of course, the same as 1 inch represents 1 mile. Numeric ales are the most accurate ale statements and can be understood in an The map scale, and those of reality, can range from very large to very small. A large-scale map, , sho ea in considerable detail. That is, the ratio of map to ground distance is relatively large—for example, 1:600 (1 inch on the map represents 600 inches, or 50 feet, on the ground) or 1:24,000. At this scale, es such as buildings and highways can be drawn to scale. Figure 2.10 on page 31 is an example of a large-sc map. Small-scale maps, such as those of countries or continents, have am . Buildings, roads, es cannot be drawn to sc epresented by symbols to be seen. F es 2.2 and 2.3 are sm scale maps. igid numeric entiate large-sc ale maps, most car consider maps to have a ratio of 1:50,000 or less, and maps with ratios of 1:500,000 or mor ale.

29

Each of the four maps in F e 2.9 is drawn at a different scale. Although each is centered on Boston, notice how sc affects both the area that can be shown in a square that is 2 inches on a side and the amount of detail that can be depicted. On map (a), at a scale of 1:25,000, about 2.6 inches represent 1 mile, so that the 2-inch square shows less than 1 square mile. At this scale, one c highways, rivers, and other landsc es. Map (d), ale of 1 to 1 million (1:1,000,000, or 1 inch represents 16 miles), shows an ar e miles. In this map, only es, such as main highways and the location of cities, can be shown, and even the symbols used for that purpose ar ed and occupy more space on the map than would the features depicted if they were drawn true to scale. S Figure 2.9 e said to be very generalized. They give a gener idea of the relative loc es but do not permit accurate measurement. They sho antly less detail than do largesc pic y smooth out such features as coastlines, rivers, and highways.

TYPES OF MAPS O es that can be shown on a map, geographers m e relevant to the problem at hand and then decide how to display them in order to communicate their message. In that effort, they can choose from among different types of maps. General-purpose, reference, or location maps make up one major class of maps familiar to everyone. Their purpose is simply to display one or mor es of an area or of the world as a whole. Common examples of the es shown on maps ar es (coastlines, rivers, lakes, and so on) and the shape and elevation of terrain. es include transportation routes, populated eas, proper wnership lines, political boundaries, and names. thematic, or special-purpose, map, one that sho ibution or catego of data. Again, the phenomena being mapped may be physical (climate, vegetation, soils, ., the distribution of population, religions, diseases, or crime). Unlike reference maps, the features on thematic maps are limited to just those that communic spatial distribution.

Topographic Maps and Terrain Representation As we noted, pose maps depict the shape and elevation of the terrain. These are c topographic maps. They usua y portray the sur es of relatively eas, often with great accuracy (F e 2.10). They not only show landforms, streams, es but

30

CHAPTER TWO

Maps

landscape. These include transportation routes, buildings, and such land uses as orchards, vineyards, and cemeteries. Many of boundaries, from state borders to or airport limits, are also depicted on topographic maps. The U.S. Geologic Survey (USGS), the chief federal agency for topographic mapping in this country, produces several topographic map series, each on a standard scale. Complete topographic coverage of the United States is available at sc of 1:250,000 and 1:100,000. Maps are available at various other scales. Scales used for state maps depend on the size of the state and range from 1:125,000 (Connecticut) to A single map in one of these series is c quadrangle. Topographic quadrangles at the scale of 1:24,000 exist for the entire ar Hawaii, and territories, a feat that requires about 57,000 maps. Each map covers a r ea that is 7.5 minutes of latitude by 7.5 minutes As is e om F e 2.10, these 7.5-minute

quadrangle maps pro es of an area. Because of Alaska’s large size and sparse population, the primary scale for mapping that state is 1:63,360 (1 inch represents 1 mile). The quadrangle series consists of more than 2900 maps. In Canada, the responsibility for national mapping lies with Survey and Mapping and Remote Sensing, Natural Resources (NRCAN). Maps at a sc able for the entire ; the more heavily southern t of Canada is covered by 1:50,000-sc Pro mapping agencies produce detailed maps at even larger scales. The USGS pr F e 2.11), o everse side. S roads s. There e for more wher to locate ev y, ea is denoted by and only streets and public buildings are shown.

Old Ironsides

Old North Church

State Service Center

Logan International Airport

Library

Map B

Federal Building

City Hall

(a)

.2

0 miles

1:25,000

0 km

.2

.4

(c)

0 miles

1:250,000

.4

0 km

2 2

4 4

Map A

Map C City Hall

Logan International Airport

Boston Common

(b)

1:100,000

0 miles 0 km

FIGURE 2.9

1 1

2 2

(d)

1:1,000,000

0 miles 0 km

10 10

20 20

ea and detail. ent scales. The larger the scale, the greater the number and kinds of features that can be included. Among other things, at a scale of 1:25,000, map (a) shows streets, street names, and some buildings. Map (d), at the smallest scale, shows only major cities, highways, and water bodies. The area shown in map (a) is indicated by the pink square on map (b), the area covered in (b) by the pink square on map (c), and the area of map (c) by the square on map (d).

Maps CHAPTER TWO

FIGURE 2.10 A portion of the La Jolla, California, 7.5-minute series of U.S. Geological Survey topographic maps. The fractional scale is 1:24,000 (1 inch equals about one-third of a mile), allowing considerable detail to be shown. The pink tint denotes built-up areas, in which only schools, churches, cemeteries, parks, and other public facilities are shown. Source: U.S. Geological Survey.

31

32

CHAPTER TWO

Maps

FIGURE 2.12

The intersection of the landform by a plane held parallel to sea level is a contour representing the height of the plane above sea level.

The contour inter

FIGURE 2.11 Some of the standard symbols used on . Source: U.S. Geological Survey.

As noted earlier, topographic maps depict the surface of the earth. Cartographers use a var epresent the thr face of the ear dimensional map. The easiest way to show relief, or variation in elevation, is to use numbers c spot heights to indicate the elevation of selected points. A bench mark is a par spot height that is used as a reference in c vations of nearby locations (see “Geodetic Control Data”). The pr w ele maps, however, , e of , y mean sea level. Cone. F relationship of contour lines to ele

y spaced horiz e 2.12 sho

is the vertic y stated on the map. The more irregular the surface, y, the greater is the number of contour lines that will need to be drawn; the steeper the slope, the closer are the contour lines rendering that slope. Contour inter 10 and 20 feet are often used, though in relativel eas the y 5 feet. eas, the spacing eater: 40 feet, 100 feet, or more. Although contour lines represent terrain, he map reader information about the elevation of any place on e, shape, es, most map r e the landscape from contour lines. To heighten the graphic effect of a topographic map, contours are sometimes supplemented by the use of shaded relief. ce, y in the northwest, can ea, sim the appearance of sunlight and shadows and creating the sion of thr topography. A y, bands of color for elevation ranges can be used to “color ” the ec vation, or hypsometric, tints. The tremendous amount of information on topographic maps makes them useful to engineers, regional planners, land ysts, and developers, as well as to hikers and casual users. the experienced map reader can make deductions about both the physical character of the ar

Thematic Maps and Data Representation elationships of things, whether people, crops, ws, is the essence of geography. Various of symbols are used to record

Maps CHAPTER TWO

the location or numbers of these phenomena on thematic maps. The symbols and maps may be either qualitative or quantitative. The principal purpose of the qualitative map is to show the distribution of a particular class of information. The world location of pr the distribution of national parks, and the pattern of areas of agr cialization within a country are examples. The interest is in where these things are, without reporting about, for example, barrels of oil extracted, number of park visitors, or value of crops produced. In contrast, quantitative thematic maps show the spatial characteristics of numerical data. U y, iable, such as population, income, or land value, is chosen, and the map displays the var e from place to place. Multivariate maps sho e variables at once.

Point Symbols Features that occur at a particular point in space are represented on maps by point symbols. Thousands of types of such features exist on the earth: churches, schools, cemeteries, and historical sites, to name a few. Symbols used to represent them include dots, crosses, triangles, and other shapes. On a qualitative thematic map, each such symbol records merely the location of that feature at a particular point on Earth.

33

Sometimes, however, our interest is in showing the variation in the number of things that exist at several points—for example, the tonnage handled at certain terminals, or the number of passengers at given airports. ibutions, as F es 2.13 and 2.14 ate. One is to choose a y a dot, to repr item (such as 50 people) and to repeat that symbol as many times .S y understood bec ession of the So pictor , els—are used instead, to mimic the phenomenon being mapped. If the range of the data is great, it inconvenient to use a repeated symbol. For example, if one countr , or one port handles 50 or 100 times as much tonnage as another, that many more dots would have to be placed on the map and begin to coalesce. To circumvent this problem, the cartographer can choose a second method and use graduated symbols. The size of the symbol is varied according to the quantities represented. Thus, if squares or circ e used, the area of the symbol ordinarily is propor wn (Figure 2.14). There are occasions, however, when the range of the data is so great that even circles or squares would take up too much room on the map. In such cases, symbols such as spheres or cubes are used, and their volume is proportional to the data.

34

CHAPTER TWO

Maps

Population by county 10,000,000

One dot equals 10,000 people

FIGURE 2.13 Dot map of the distribution of the population

FIGURE 2.14 Graduated-circle map of the distribution of

in Califor . In a dot-distribution map, all of the dots have the same value, which is stated in the map legend. The placement of dots on this map does not indicate precise locations of people within the county but simply their total number. Dot maps can provide a good visual impression of the distribution and relative density of a phenomenon—in this case, how the number of people varies from county to county.

population in California, by county. On this map, the area of a circle is pr . The scale at the top of the map helps the reader interpret the map.

Unfortunately, many map readers fail to perceive the added dimension implicit in volume, and most cartographers do not recommend the use of such symbols.

Symbols F eas of the earth’s surface are represented on maps by area symbols. As with point symbols, ategories: those sho fer wing differ . , such as patterns of religions, politic vegetation, or types of rock. N y, different colors or patterns are used for different areas, as shown in Figure 2.15. One way to show how the amount of a phenomenon varies from area to area is by using choropleth maps. The term is derived from the Greek words choros (“place”) and pleth (“mag” or “value”). The quantities sho may be absolute numbers (e.g., the of counties) or derived values, such as percentages, ratios, rates, and densities (e.g., The data are grouped into a limited number of classes, each represented by a distinctive color, shade, or pattern. F e 2.16 is an example of a choropleth map. In this case, e states. Other commonly used sions are counties, to cities, and census divisions.

As F es 2.15 and 2.16 reveal, three main problems characterize maps (whether qualitative or quantitative) that show the distribution of a phenomenon in an area: 1. They give the impr

eas that may ant variations. 2. Boundaries attain unrealistic pr ance, impl eas, when, in r , the changes may be gradual. 3. Unless colors are y, some areas may look more important than others. A special t ea map is the cartogram, or map, in which the areas of units are drawn propor to the data they represent (Figure 2.17). Population, income, cost, or another variable becomes the standard of measurement. Depending on the idea that the mapmaker wishes to convey, the sizes and shapes of areas may be altered, distances and directions may be distorted, and contiguity may or may not be preserved (see “Red States, Blue States, p. 37”).

Line Symbols As the term suggests, line symbols represent features that have ant width. Some lines on maps do not have numeric ance. The lines representing rivers, politic ies, roads, and railroads, for example, are

35

Maps CHAPTER TWO

not quantitative. They are indicated on maps by such standardized symbols as those that follow and those shown in Figure 2.11.

}

Political boundaries Dakar

Railroads Roads Equator

Rivers

Often, however,

ic vation above

, e isohyets isotherms e), and isobars ic pressure). Flow-line maps are used to portray linear movement Examples of qualitative e those sho outes. y have owheads to denote dir vement. On q ntitative w maps, e sc e propor epresent. ws ar y por . The loc vement, wc The amount sho , e. In F e 2.18, w opor United States. e 5.7. mean sea level ar O

Hamitic Sudanese Bantu Khoisan Semitic Malayo Polynesian Germanic Romance Madagascar Cape Town

FIGURE 2.15 Language regions of Africa. Maps such as this one may give the false impression of uniformity within a given area—for example, that only Bantu is spoken over much of southern Africa. Such maps are intended to represent only the predominant language in an area.

Map Misuse e par sc

ve what they see in print. ly persuasive bec ecision symbol placement, and information content.

bl . unication, the message conveyed by a map r perhaps, the biases of its author. Maps can subtl they impar Sometimes the cause of cartographic distortion has been ignorance, as when the cartographers of the Midd al beasts. Other times the motivation for distortion has been to promote a cause or to thwart foreign militar tions. Cartographers use var •

Lack of a sc some ar

a sc

• make the map more accurate.

es of e enlarged. es that would

Motor Vehicle 100,000 Population 700–899 500–699 300–499 100–299

FIGURE 2.16 Choropleth map showing variation in motor vehicle theft rates by state, 1998. Quantitative variation by area is more easily visualized in map than in tabular form. Source: Redrawn from Crime and Justice Atlas 2000,

36

CHAPTER TWO

Maps

VT Change 1990 to 2000 Increase More than 30% 20%–30% 10%–20% 0%–10% Decrease

Nevada grew the most: 66.3%

DE Washington, D.C., lost residents, shrinking 5.7%

FIGURE 2.17 state is sized according to its number of residents in the year 2000 as counted by the U.S. Census Bur the percent change in population between 1990 and 2000. Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census.

HAWAII

2000 Pop. 281,421,906

New England

Migrants (in Thousands) 1–100

FIGURE 2.18 A quantitative flow-line map of migration patterns in the United States in the 1950s.

• • • •

100–200 200–300 300+

Colors that have a strong psychologic Bold, oversized, mbols. Action symbols, such as arrows to indic invasions or repulsions and pincers to show areas threatened by encirclement (Figure 2.19). Selective omission of data: many governments, , do not indicate the loc their maps; y sho om the hub to the cities the airline e nonstop.

•

Inaccuracies or “disinformation” for military opponents. The chief c tographer of the USSR acknowledged in 1988 that for 50 years the policy of the So had been to deliberatel ly available maps of the country. pes of cartographic distortions on So luded the displacement es and the use of incorrect grid coordinates. The routes of highways, rivers, oads wer ed by as m (6 mi).

Maps CHAPTER TWO

FIGURE 2.19

37

om 1933 to 1945, used maps as tools of propaganda. The maps shown here were designed to increase sympathy for Germany by showing it threatened by encirclement. (a) Arrows represent pressure on Germany from all sides. (b) essure against Germany from France and Poland. Source: Karl Springenschmid, Die Staaten als Lebewesen: Geopolitisches (Leipzig: Verlag Emst Wunderlich, 1934).

38

•

CHAPTER TWO

Maps

of a river, when, in fact, it was on the west bank. Even when features were shown correctly, id might be misplaced. An inappropriate projection. For more than a decade, the John Birch S oups concerned about the “Red Menace” used the Mercator projection, which grossly exaggerates the sizes of areas in the higher latitudes, mmunist threat, and China and Russia were colored red. The Peters projection was developed to promote social justice (see “The Peters Projection”).

In summary, maps can distort and lie as readily as they can convey ver the r y valid analyses. The more that map users are aware of those possibilities and the more understanding they possess of map projections, symbolization, and common forms of thematic and reference mapping standards, the more likely they are to reasonably question and clearly understand the messages maps communicate.

GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES y saw a revolution in the ways geographic data are collected, stored, yzed; in the ways maps are produced; an be made; and in the applications to which maps are now put. Two of the important new technologies involve remote sens-

Remote Sensing When topographic maps wer veloped, it was necessary to obtain the data for them thr k, a slow and tedious process that involved relating a given point on the earth’s surface to other points by measuring its distance, direction, and Much k has now been replaced by remote sensing, detecting the nature of an object and the content of an area without dir ound. In the earl y, craft provided a platform for

Maps CHAPTER TWO

39

the recording of vegetation and hydrographic features. Color-infrared photography yields what are c false-color imag ” bec not produce an image that appears natural (F e 2.20b). For example, leaves of healthy vegetation have a high infrared r e recorded as red on color-infrar while unhealthy or dormant vegetation appears as blue, green, or gray. Clear water appears as black, but sedimentladen water may appear light blue. For wavelengths longer than 1.2 micrometers (a micrometer is 1 one-mi ionth of a meter) on the electromagnetic spectrum, sensing de ust be used. Nonphotographic imaging sensors include thermal scanners, radar, and lidar.

(a)

•

r water bodies, clouds, and vegetation, es and are used to produce images of F e 2.21). Unlike convention photography, an be employed dur , y applications. It is widel ing various aspects of water resources, such as ocean currents, sur and irr .

• FIGURE 2.20 (a) W spectrum in micrometers. One micrometer equals 1 one-millionth of a meter ent wavelengths. The human eye is sensitive to only some of these wavelengths, the ones we see in the colors of the rainbow. Although invisible, near infrared wavelengths can be recorded on special sensitized film and by scanners on satellites. The scanners measure reflected light in both the visible and near infrared portions of the spectrum. Wavelengths longer than 4.0 micrometers characterize terrestrial radiation. (b) A color-infrared aerial photograph of Washington, D.C. .

the camera and the photographer, and by the 1930s aer tographs from planned positions and routes permitted reliable data gathering for mapping purposes. e no y emplo y used remote-sensing technique. Mapping from has cer over om ground, ’ obtains. Using stereoscopic de an deterers, ts, c

y fr

, such as .F

more, S within the visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum (F e 2.20a). It can be supplemented by special sensitized infrar oved particularly useful for

) an it is planes, ts of the world e per y hazy or cloud-covered (F e 2.22). Lidar (short for li[ght] d[et ) is a relatively new r es an airborne laser to transmit light out to an object. Some of the light is r k to the instrument, where it is analyzed to yield information about the target. Lidar equires a precise depiction of the ground surface (see Figure 2.26). radar sy penetrate c l

(b)

•

ra[dio] d[et

Bec

Since the 1970s, both manned and unmanned t have supplemented the airplane as the vehicle for imaging ear es. Many images are now taken either from continuously or om manned spacecraf such as those of the Apollo and Gemini missions. Among the e the speed of coverage and the fact that views of large regions can be obtained. e equipped to record and report back ed information from m ts of the electr e outside the range of human eyesight. S , including atmospher o e and for , ation and monitoring of a var henomena, inc

40

CHAPTER TWO

Maps

FIGURE 2.22 nia. Sidelooking airbor microwave energy to the gr eturns to the sensor is recorded as digital values that can be represented on oduces shadows of

(a)

om many radar image strips.

.

research and in current-condition mapping programs. Landsat images have a variety of research applications, including the follo

(b)

FIGURE 2.21 Thermal radiation images of the World Trade Center site in New Y , 2001. Following the collapse of the twin towers on September 11, 2001, fire-fighting and rescue teams relied on daily thermal images of the site to detect fire patterns in the rubble and underground. Based on the patterns revealed, the teams decided where to work that day. (a) attack, a nearly constant field of heat (shown in red) covered most of the 16-acre site. (b) A month later, the underground blaze was confined largely to where the two towers once stood. New York State

• • • • • • • •

Some Landsat data ar r ear

sensed images inc ons , and planning,

ations of remotely t navigation, improved weapmanagement and tactic

py S ). P wn remote-sensing spacecraft are the Landsat The different sensors of the Landsat satellites are capable of resol objects 15 and 60 meters (50 and 200 ft) in size. Even sharper images are yielded by the French SPOT satellite; its sensors can show objects that are larger than 10 meters (33 ft). S imagery is relayed by electronic sigwhere computers convert the signals

tracing ocean currents assessing water quality in lakes mapping snow cover, glaciers, and polar ice sheets analyzing soil and vegetation conditions monitor estation monitoring strip-mining reclamation ing geologic str es and associated mineral deposits mapping population changes in metropolitan areas

volcanoes,

y monitoring, mapping, and respondsuch as storms, es, F e 2.23).

The Global Positioning System In recent years, the Positioning System (GPS) has made the determination of loc antly easier than it used to be. stem was conceived in the 1970s and is maintained by the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD). The technolog k of DoD satellites that or ve the earth, passing over the same spot every 24 hours. As they orbit, y transmit their positions, time signals, and other data. A GPS receiver records the positions of a number of the satellites simultaneously, then determines , , and altitude and the time (Figure 2.24).

Civilian Spy Satellites

42

CHAPTER TWO

Maps

FIGURE 2.24 This handheld GPS receiver shows latitude,

FIGURE 2.23 Three major clusters of fires are evident in this satellite image of southern California taken on October 22, 2007: near Los Angeles, in the San Bernardino Mountains, and in San Diego. Data from remotely sensed images can be used to keep es and to update maps of active fires several times a day. They assist fire managers on the ground in determining where best to position firefighters to contain a blaze, to e is contained, and to plan r

GPS technology was or y designed for military applications, particularly naval and aer The techvelopment of precision-guided weapons, the so-c t bombs that home in on a target. Other government applications include the use of GPS receivers for monitoring geologic fault lines and ocean currents, the e, , and mapping disaster scenes. S lues as to wh Columbia broke apart upon its reentry into the atmosphere on February 1, 2003, for example, vernment investigators used GPS which covered portions of Texas, Louisiana, and se As hundreds of volunteers and law enfor thousands of pieces of debris, their precise locations were fed e. Just a few days after the tragedy, the Federal Emergency Management Agency’s Disaster F Texas,

een. Sales of stand-alone GPS devices such as this one have fallen recently as s iPhone) have added GPS to their other features.

was printing more than 1000 maps a day. The maps helped emergency workers focus on the areas they needed to search in order to retrieve more of the shuttle debris. As GPS r , , and less expensive, ations have multiplied (see “Geocaching). Se ers make in-c tion systems an option in their new cars, and some r ar agencies pro les. The systems tap GPS ar’s exact location, compar computerized atlas stored on a compact disc. The car’s location, y updated, appears on a computer screen mounted on the dashboard. stems enable motorists to e and how to reach their destination. For example, the driver can give a street address or the name of a mo , or another building and the system displays it on the screen, indicates how away it is, and tells how long it should take to drive there. The system also ections on the screen map or directions “spoken” by an electronic voice. stems are particularl epresentatives, r and repair people, who frequently drive to unfamiliar places. systems have been developed ized GPS r such as watches, bracelets, and ev in order to ascertain their locations.

43

Maps CHAPTER TWO

de k the movements of people on parole and probation. The law enforcement use of GPS tech“An Invasion of Pr

).

Virtual and Interactive Maps S

the World Wide Web has been

in fostering the integration of geospatial data. Maps e easily, freely, and widely available on the Internet, ping systems enable users to vie ly any place on Earth. produce maps on the Web; e Microsoft and Yahoo. Google Earth (earth.google.com) combines aerial photographs, and maps with street, terrain, and other data. (Google th is free; professionals can purchase more sophisticated versions of the sof e, such as Plus and Pro, from the company.) The program gives the user an aer w of a place. This can be accessed by entering the name of y by scr across the tual globe and zooming in on a location. The accuracy and sharpness of the images vary. Most of the aer within the last 3 years, and Google periodic y updates them. For some major cities, the resolution is high enough to pro c color of cars on the street. Special features enable the user to zoom in and out of an image as well as to tilt or rotate it.

oduced by Google, Microsoft, and some other Internet companies can be merged with data from other sources to create what are c mashups, Web applications that combine data from more than one source into an integrated experience—an example of interactive mapping. Now anybody with modest pr not just proartographers, can make maps, and people have created of them. Mashups can be simple or complex. Some people simply overlay the locations of things—crime statistics, for example—onto an online street map of their ea. The user can search for cr , location, or the date they were committed. Other types of information that have been combined with maps are bicycle trails, gas stations with low prices, the list is vir y endless. Some people have annotated digital maps photo images with text (e.g., recent news events, re ws), photographs, sound, and even videos. You can see samples of mashups by entering “mashups” into your search engine. To get an idea of the number, and var search for “interactive maps” on the Web.

INTEGRATING TECHNOLOGY: GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS The technologies just descr out computers. every stage of the cartographic process, fr

t of almost

An Invasion of Privacy?

and recording of data to the production and revision of maps. the investment is repaid in the mor e accurate production and revision of maps. Computers are at the heart of what is known as a geographic information system (GIS), a computer-based set of procedures for assembling, storing, manipulating, analyzing, and displaying geographically referenced information. Any data that can be located spatially can be entered 44

into a GIS. following:

e the

1. a data input component that converts maps and other data fr eadable form 2. a data management component used to stor ieve data 3. w data from disparate sources to be used simultaneously

Maps CHAPTER TWO

4. analy om the data 5. a data output component that makes it possible e maps and tables on the computer monitor or as hard copy (such as paper) W

inters in map proeases in the speed, , and ocess,

accurac use in no way r emplo commu cation of its content.

The Geographic Database

45

Terrain Models

Network • Street center lines • Drainage network

Utilities • Water lines • Telephone • Gas/electric

veloping a GIS is to create a geogr database, ecord of geographic information from such sources as maps, veys, aerial and satellite imagery. As long as every Lots/Ownership item in the database is tied to a precise geographic • Lot lines location, a GIS can use information from many differ• Property lines ent sources and in many different forms. The purpose ed into the database. For a physic ing the Zones/Districts ea, the source data might inc • Comprehensive plan • Municipal zoning at different points, soil vegetative cover, origi• Voting precincts nating points of water pollution, contours, and direc• School districts tion of str w. An urban geographer or r • Census tracts/blocks planner, on the other hand, might use a GIS data set Base Mapping that contains the gr • Road pavement .S. Census • Buildings/structures Bureau, including politic ies, census tracts, • Fences/parking lots population distribution, a building inventory, race, eth• Drainage • Wooded areas , income, housing, employment, and so on. • Spot elevation Once geographic information is in the computer • Contour lines in digital form, the data can be manipulated, ana• Recreational facilities lyzed, and displayed with a speed and precision not other Because computers can process FIGURE 2.25 A model of a geographic information system. Information millions of facts in seconds, they are particularly use- digital data is stor ent data “layers.” A GIS enables esearchers who need to analyze many vari- the user to combine just the layers that are desired to produce a composite ables simultaneously. The development of geographic map and to analyze how those variables relate to each other. In this example, information systems has deemphasized the use of ent layers of information ar ent combinations for maps to store information and has enabled researche asked ers to concentrate on using maps for analyzing and to locate a new Starbucks in an urban area? Reprinted by permission of Shaoli Huang. communicating spatial information. With the appropriate sof e, a computer operator can display any combinadata—for example, es—c tion of data, showing the relationships among variables almost replaced easily. Additionally, a GIS facilitates exploratory analinstantly (F e 2.25). In this sense, a GIS allows an operator ysis by enabling an operator to quic y change variables and/or to generate maps or perform spatial analyses that were virtumodel parameters and to use multiple spatial scales. y impossible to create or perform only a few decades ago. GIS operations can produce se disApplications of GIS plays on a computer monitor, listings of data, or hard copy. When a map is to be produced, the can quic y c Who uses geographic information systems? Tens of thousands up the desired data. Geographic information systems are parof people in a var ly useful for revising existing maps because outdated poses. Every issue of ArcNews, a monthly publication of the

46

CHAPTER TWO

Maps

Envir ystems Resear , Inc., describes numerous examples of “GIS in Action” fr In human geography, the vast and growing array of spatial data has encouraged the use of GIS to explore models of r economic and social str e, to examine transportation systems and urban gro behavior, and so on. For physic and modeling c understanding of processes and interrelations in the onment. In addition to geographers, r from archaeology to z stems, as a few examples indicate.

Many companies in the private sector also use computerized systems. others, and gas companies, restaurant chains, soft-drink bottlers, and car rental companies rely on GIS systems to per ing dr pic ations for new franchises, analyzing itories, and c outes. Many bureaus and agencies at the local, regional, state, and national levels of government employ geographic information systems. These include such departments as highway ol, public utilities, and planning. Law enforcey based sof e pac yze patterns of crime, “hot spots” of cr , and redeploy police resources accordingly. Go • ous gency r such environmental problems, including air and water as tornadoes, hurricanes, earthquakes, es. pollution, landscape conservation, wildlife management, Bec y occur suddenly, threatening people and the protection of endangered species. and str es, they create chaos and panic. Increasingly, GIS • technology is being used to help communities prepare for ia, , disasters and create response plans. By merging information , ver, isk factors. on the types of roads, the loc e stations, the antici• GIS sof e has made it possible for political scientists pated r e and rescue squads, and other data, to e icts using criteria such for example, planners can produce maps depicting evacuation as compactness and co ys the zones, evacuation routes, and shelter locations. When disasboundaries of the districts might be redrawn. ter strikes, izona or a tornado in • S lusters of O maps produced using GIS have prov segregation and to examine the changing structures of in tasks such as locating houses, ing proper segregation over time. ship, helping responders decide wher ews or rescue workers, and paramedic bases. In the wake of a disaster, maps have been used to locate damaged structures, assess proper damage, and prepare for debris remo One of the most dramatic examples of GIS applications occurred in the days immediatel wing the attacks on the World Trade Center on September 11, 2001. Response and reco w such things as the staubble and the remaining buildings, which subway lines were damaged, where watermains were located, and where there were outages. W es still burning at the site of the attack, and the mayor’s planning oyed, GIS experts immediFIGURE 2.26 A three-dimensional lidar image of the site of the World Trade Center. ately began gathering the data needed to Accurately mapping the wreckage of the World Trade Center using a combination of remote provide highly accurate maps of the site. sensing, GPS, and GIS was invaluable in r The maps, y updated, helped 9/11. The GPS system was used to position both ground and airborne mapping sensors. emergency managers track the expanAir ee kinds of sensors collected high-resolution aerial photography, sion or abatement of the underground , and lidar (light detection and ranging) data. W e es and enabled them to determine collected, GIS professionals from gover , and academia merged the digital data how rescue equipment could gain access to produce large, high-resolution images of the building structures and the surrounding area. to the site, where to safely position large The three-dimensional models created by the lidar system enabled engineers to calculate recovery equipment, and by what route the volume of the rubble piles, track their movement and change, and determine the reach needed by cranes to remove it. debris could be removed (Figure 2.26).

Maps CHAPTER TWO

The career oppor niques e A var of private industries, including insurance, marketing, real estate, epidemiology, c e, esource management, transportation, homeland secur , disaster preparedness and response, use

47

GIS professionals are y emplo state, and loc vernment departments that deal with regional and comm and such services as water, police, e, sewer, transportation, education, and welfare.

Summary of Key Concepts • Maps are as indispensable to the geographer as are words, photographs, and quantitative techniques of analysis. Also rely e people involved in the analysis and solution of many of the critic , such as climate change, national secur , and public health—all issues that c epresentation of elements on the earth’s surface. • The geographic gr locate points on the earth’s surface. Latitude is the measure of distance north and south of the equator, ime meridian. • systems of representing the curved earth on a map distort one or more earth features. Any given projection will distort area, shape, distance, ection. • maps are the topographic quadrangles produced by a

country’s chief mapping agency. They contain a wealth of information about both the physic scape and are used for a var poses. • Remote sensing from aircraft and satellites employing a var tant source of spatial data. The need to store, process, and retrieve the vast amounts of data generated by remote sensing has spurred the development of geographic information systems, which provide a way to search for spatial patterns and processes. As you read the remainder of this book, note the many different uses of maps. For example, notice in Chapter 3 how important maps are to your understanding of the theor drift; in Chapter 7, ho egions; and in Chapter 8, ho use maps to record people’s perceptions of space.

Key Words area car ea map) 34 azim ojection 28 cartography 21 choropleth map 34 conformal projection 25 contour interval 32 contour line 32 ea (equivalent) projection 25 equidistant projection 25

w-line map 35 geographic database 45 geographic grid 22 geographic information system (GIS) 44 Global Positioning System (GPS) 40 globe properties 25 International Date Line 23 isoline 35

Landsat satellite latitude 22

40

map projection 25 prime meridian 23 remote sensing 38 scale 28 topographic map 29

Thinking Geographically 1. What important map and globe reference purpose does the prime meridian ime, or any other, mer e or devised by humans? How is the prime meridian designated or recognized? 2. What happens to the length of a degr one nears the North and South Poles? What happens to a degr 3. From a world atlas, determine, in degrees and minutes, the locations of New Yor ; Moscow, Russia; Sydney, Australia; and your hometown. 4.

operties.

5. Br y make clear the differences in properties and purposes of conformal, equivalent, and equidistant projections.

6. 7.

8.

9. 10.

that would best be presented on each type of projection. w maps can be misused. In what different ways can map scale be presented? Conver ales into their verbal equivalents. 1:1,000,000 1:63,360 1:12,000 What is the purpose of a contour line? What is a contour interval? What landsc e is implied by closely spaced contours? W remote sensing? T e remotely sensed images put? What are the basic components of a geographic information system? What are some of the applications of GIS?

PART ONE

The Earth Science Tradition For nearly a month the mountain had rumbled, emitting puffs of steam and flashes of fire. Within the past week, on its slopes and near its base, deaths had been recorded from floods, mud slides, and falling rock. A little after 8:00 on the morning of May 8, 1902, the climax came for volcanic Mount Pelée and the thriving port of Saint Pierre on the island of Martinique. To the roar of one of the biggest explosions the world has ever known and to the clanging of church bells aroused in swaying steeples, a fireball of gargantuan size burst forth from the upper slope of the volcano. Lava, ash, steam, and superheated air engulfed the town, and 29,933 people met their death. More selective, but for those victimized just as deadly, was the sudden “change in weather” that struck central Illinois on December 20, 1836. Within an hour, preceded by winds gusting to 70 miles per hour, the temperature plunged from 40°F to −30°F. On a walk to the post office through slushy snow, Mr. Lathrop of Jacksonville, Illinois, found, just as he passed the Female Academy, that “the cold wave struck me, and as I drew my feet up the ice would form on my boots until I made a track . . . more like that of [an elephant] than a No. 7 boot.” Two young salesmen were found frozen to death along with their horses; one “was partly in a kneeling position, with a tinderbox in one hand, a flint in the other, with both eyes open as though attempting to light the tinder in the box.” Others died, too—inside of horses that had been disemboweled and used as makeshift shelters, in fields, woods, and on roads both a short distance and an eternity from the travelers’ destinations.

F

CHAPTER

THREE

CHAPTER OUTLINE

Physical Geography: Landforms

Physic

A

lthough too early for sunbathers and snorkelers, the Hawaiian Islands will have a new island to add to which contains such scenic beauties as Oahu, Maui, and Kauai. It is Loihi, below sea level, om the big island of Hawaii. Because the speed of its ascent must be measured in geologic time, it probabl ve the water surface for another million or so years. It is a good example, however, of the ceaseless changes that take place on the earth’s surface. As the westernmost of the islands erode and sink below sea level, new islands arise at the eastern end. In Loihi’s most recent explosion in 1996, scientists feared that a giant wave would be set off at the surface that could devastate the islands, inc W Beach. Fortunately, this was not the case. Humans on their trip through life continuously are in touch with the ever-changing, active, mo ysic ronment. Most of the time, we are able to live comfortably with the changes, but when a freeway is torn apart by an earthquake, ce us to abandon our homes, we suddenly realize that we spend a good portion of our lives trying ysic onment has for us. For the geographer, only little things, such as icebergs or new islands rising out of the sea, or big ones, such as exploding volcanoes changing their shape and form, but also monstrous things, such as continents that wander about like nomads and ocean basins that expand, contract, and split in the middle like worn-out coats. Geologic time is long, but the forces that give shape to the land are timeless and constant. Processes of creation and destruction ar y at work to fashion the seemingly eternal structure upon which humans live and work. T pes of forces interact to produce those local variations in the surface of the earth c landforms: (1) forces that push, move, and raise the earth’s surface and (2) forces that scour, wash, wn the surface. Mountains rise and are then worn away. The eroded mater sand, pebbles, rocks— are transported to new locations and help create new landforms. How long these processes have worked, how they work, and their effects are the subject of this chapter. Much of the research needed to create the story of landforms r om the work of geomorphologists. A branch ysic y, geomorpholigin, characteristics, and development of landforms. It emphasiz ious processes that create landscapes. Geomorphologists examine the erosion, transportation, and deposition of materials and the interrelationships among climate, soils, plant and animal life, and landforms. In a single chapter, we can only begin to explore the many and varied contributions of geomorphologists. After discussing the contexts within which landform change takes place, we consider the forces that are building up the earth’s surface and then re w the forces wearing it down.

y: Landforms

CHAPTER THREE

51

EARTH MATERIALS The rocks of the earth’s crust vary according to mineral composition. Rocks are composed of particles that contain various combinations of such common elements as oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron, and calcium, together with less abundant elements. A particular chemical combination that has a hardness, density, ystal structure of its own is called a mineral. Some well-known minerals are quartz, feldspar, and micas. Depending on the nature of the minerals that form them, rocks are hard or soft, more or less dense, one color or another, or chemically stable or not. While some rocks resist decomposition, others are very easily broken down. Among the more common varieties of rock are granites, basalts, limestones, sandstones, and slates. an c oc ysic properties, the more common approach is to c them by the way they formed. The three main groups of rock are igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.

Igneous Rocks Igneous roc are formed by the cooling and ation of molten rock. Openings in the crust give molten rock an oppor ust. When the molten rock cools, ock. The name for underground molten rock is magma; above ground, it is lava. Intrusive igneous rocks are formed below ground le ation of magma, whereas extrusive igneous rocks are created above ground le ation of lava (Figure 3.1). The composition of magma and lava and, to a limited extent, the rate of cooling determine the minerals that form. The rate of cooling is mainly responsible for the size of the crystals. Large crystals of quartz—a hard mineral—form slowly beneath the surface of the earth. When combined with other minerals, quartz forms the intrusive igneous rock called granite. The lava that oozes out onto the earth’s surface and makes up a large part of the ocean basins becomes the extrusive igneous rock called basalt, the most common rock on the earth’s surface. If, instead of oozing, the lava erupts from a volcano crater, it may cool very rapidly. Some of the igneous rocks formed in this manner contain cavities and are light, such as pumice. Some may be glassy, as is obsidian. The glassiness occurs when lava meets standing water and cools suddenly.

Sedimentary Rocks Some sedimentary rocks are composed of particles of gravel, sand, silt, and clay that were eroded from already existing rocks. Surface waters carry the sediment to oceans, marshes, lakes, or tidal basins. Compression of these

materials by the weight of additional deposits on top of them and a cementing process brought on by the chemical action of water and certain minerals cause sedimentary rock to form. Sedimentary rocks evolve under water in horizontal beds called strata (Figure 3.2). Usually one type of sediment collects in a given area. If the particles are large and rounded—for instance, the size and shape of gravel—a gravelly rock called conglomerate forms. Sand particles are the ingredient for sandstone, whereas silt and clay form shale or siltstone. Sedimentary rocks also derive from organic material, such as coral, shells, and marine skeletons. These materiw seas, forming limestone. If the organic material forms mainly from decomposing vegetation, it can develop into a sedimentary rock called bituminous coal. Petroleum is a biological product, formed during the millions of years of bur eactions that transform some of the organic material into liquid and gaseous compounds. The oil and gas are light; therefore, they rise through the pores of the surrounding rock to places where lowocks such as shale block their upward movement. Sedimentary rocks vary considerably in color (from coal black to chalk white), hardness, density, and resistance to chemic Large parts of the continents contain sedimentary rocks. For example, nearly the entire eastern half of the United States is overlain with these rocks. Such formations indicate that, in the geologic past, seas covered even larger proportions of the earth than they do today.

(a) Basalt (igneous)

Metamorphic Rocks

FIGURE 3.1 Various rock

(d) Gneiss (metamorphic)

52

(a) © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Photo by Bob Coyle; (b) Photo by I. J. Witkind, USGS Photo Library; (c) The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Photo by Bob Coyle; (d) The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Photo by Jacques Cornell.

Metamorphic rocks are formed from igneous and sedimentary rocks by earth forces that generate heat, pressure, or chemical reaction. The word metamorphic means “changed shape.” The internal earth forces may be so great that heat and pressure change the mineral structure of a rock, forming new rocks. For example, under great pressure, shale, a sedimentary rock, becomes slate, a rock with different properties. Limestone, under certain conditions, may become marble, and granite may become gneiss (pronounced nice). Materials metamorphosed at great depths and exposed only after overlying surfaces have been slowly eroded away are among the oldest rocks known on Earth. Like igneous and sedimentary rocks, however, their formation is a continuing process. Rocks are the constituent ingredients of most landforms. The strength or weakness, permeability, and mineral content control the way rocks respond to the forces that shape and reshape them. Two principal processes alter rocks: (1) the forces that tend to build landforms up and (2) the gradational processes that wear landforms down. All rocks are part of the rock cycle through which old rocks are continually transformed into new ones by these processes. No

Physical Geography: Landforms

53

CHAPTER THREE

a) Cementation and compaction (lithification) b) Heat and pressure c) W

FIGURE 3.2

ocks of the Grand Canyon in Arizona are evident in this photograph. © Digital Vision RF.

FIGURE 3.3 The rock cycle. Source: Adapted from McConnell et al.,

rocks have been preserved unaltered throughout the earth’s history. Figure 3.3 shows the rock cycle and the processes that shaped it.

p. 209, Checkpoint 7.22, © McGraw-Hill, 2008.

Continental crust

GEOLOGIC TIME The ear

. When we

a long life, it becomes clear that the earth is incredibly old indeed. Bec fed when we speak of of years, it is useful to e the age of the earth with something more familiar. Imagine that the height of the Sears Tower in Chicago represents the age of the earth. The tower is 110 stories, or 412 meters (1447 ft), In relative terms, even the thickness of a piece of paper laid on the rooftop would be too great to represent an average person’s lifetime. height, only 4.8 stories repr have elapsed since the pr At this moment, the landforms on which we live are ever so slightly being created and destroyed. The processes involved have been in operation for so long that any given location most likely was the site of ocean and land at a number of different times in its past. Many of the landscape features on Earth today can be traced back millions of years. The processes responsible for building up and tearing down those features are occurring simultaneously, but usually at different rates. Since the 1960s, scientists have developed a useful framework within which one c y changing physical environment. Their work is based on the e ly 20th-centur ed Wegener, who proposed the theory of dr He belie landmasses were once united in one supercontinent, which Wegener named Pangaea (“all Earth”), and that over many

FIGURE 3.4 The outer zones of the earth (not to scale). The lithosphere includes the crust. The asthenosphere lies below the lithosphere.

oke away from each other, slowly drifting to their current positions. Although Wegener’s theor y rejected outright, new evidence and new ways of r tance in recent years by earth scientists of the idea of moving continents. Wegener’s ideas were a forerunner of the broader plate tectonics theory, which is explained in the next section, “Movements of the Continents.”

MOVEMENTS OF THE CONTINENTS The landforms mapped by c tographers are only the surface es of a thin cover of rock, the earth’s crust (Figure 3.4). Above the earth’s interior is a par y molten layer c

54

PART ONE

The Earth Science Tradition

asthenosphere. It supports a thin but strong solid shell of rocks ca ed the lithosphere, of which the outer, lighter portion is th’ The crust consists of one set of rocks found below the oceans and another set that makes up the continents. The lithosphere is broken into about 12 large and many rigid plates, each of which, according to the theory of plate tectonics, slides or drif wly ov , semimolten asthenosphere. A single plate of ust. F e 3.6a shows that the North American plate, for example, most, of North America. The peninsula of Mexico e on the P Scientists are not certain why lithospheric plates move. One reasonable theory suggests that heat and heated mater om the earth’s interior rise by convection into particular

crustal zones of weakness. These zones are sources for the divergence of the plates. The cooled materials then sink downward in subduction zones. In this way, the plates are thought to be set in motion. Strong e ates that, about 225 million years ago, the entir ust was connected in one supercontinent, which was broken into plates as the seaead. The divergence came fr ing of what is now the Atlantic Ocean. F e 3.5 shows four stages of the drifting of the continents. Materials from the asthenosphere have been rising along the mid-Atlantic Ocean fracture and, as a result, the seaead. The Atlantic Ocean is now 6920 mi) at equator. If it diverges by a bit less than 2.5 centimeters (1 in.) per year, as scientists have estimated, c

225 million years ago

135 million years ago

65 million years ago

Today

FIGURE 3.5 Reconstruction of plate movements during the past 225 million years.

n and souther are called Laurasia and Gondwana, respectively. Some 225 million years ago, the continents were connected as one large landmass esent positions. Notice how India broke away from Antarctica and collided with the Eurasian landmass. The Himalayas were formed at the zone of contact. Source: American Petroleum Institute.

Physic

continents did, in fact, begin about 225 million years ago. Notice on Figures 3.6a and 3.7 how the ridge line that makes up the of the ocean runs to the eastern coast of North and South America and the western coast of Europe ica. Boundaries where plates move away from each other are ca ed divergent plate boundaries. Transform boundaries occur where one plate slides horiz y past another plate, whereas at convergent boundaries ve toward each other (F e 3.6b). spheric plates move. The pressure exerted at the intersections of plates can cause earthquakes, which over periods of many es of landforms. F e 3.8 shows the location of near-sur thquakes for a recent time period. Comparison with Figure 3.6a i ustrates that the

45°

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90°

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y: Landforms

55

CHAPTER THREE

eas of gr thquake activity ar ies. An example of this is the Haitian earthquake of January 12, 2010, (see p. 2 in Chapter 1). The c Port-au-Prince, lies close to the boundar ibbean and North American plates. The famous San Andreas fault in California is part of a long fractur ic plates, the North American and the P Earthquakes occur along faults (fractures in rock along which there has been movement) when the tension or compression at the junction becomes so great that only an earth movement can release the pressure. Despite the of knowledge about earthquake zones, egard for this danger is

180°

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90°

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Transform fault

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1

(a)

(b)

FIGURE 3.6 (a) Principal lithospheric plates of the world. Arrows indicate the direction of plate motion. (b) Plate motion away fr

.

2

56

PART ONE

The Earth Science Tradition

FIGURE 3.7

eated by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric The configuration of the seafloor is evidence of the dynamic processes shaping continents and ocean basins. Darker ocean colors indicate greater depth. © David T

FIGURE 3.8

Notice that they are concentrated at the margins of the lithospheric plates, as comparison with Figure 3.5 r rcum-Pacific belt, which encircles the rim of the Pacific Ocean and is popularly known as the “ring of fire.” Volcanoes can also grow in the middle of a plate. The volcanoes of Hawaii, for example, are located in the middle of the Pacific plate. Map plotted by the Environmental Data and Information

Ser

vey.

.

Physic

section on diastrophism). Every year there are hundreds and sometimes thousands of c esulting from inadequate preparation for earthquakes. In some highly populated areas, the chances that damaging ear e very great. The distribution of earthquakes shown in F e 3.8 reveals the dangers to densely settled areas of Japan, the Philippines, parts of Southeast Asia, and the western rim of the Americas. Convergent movement of the lithospheric plates results in the formation of deep-sea trenches and continental-sc mountain ranges, as well as in the occurrence of earthquakes. The continental crust is made up of lighter rocks than is the oceanic crust. Where plates with different of crust at their edges converge, there is a tendency for the denser but thinner ced down into the asthenosphere. Deep trenches form below the ocean at these convergent boundaries. (F e 3.9). The subduction zones of the world are shown in F e 3.6a. like y pushing and being pushed. The conticed to r e, ano zone of the P im (some“r e”). rocked Mount St. Helens in the state of W im. an Andreas fault in r Their epicenter (the point on the ear ’s sur y abo The most r , in December 2003, aso Robles, Plate intersections are not the only locations susceptible to readjustments in the lithosphere. As lithospheric plates have moved, the earth’s crust has been cracked or broken in vir y thousands of places. Some breaks are weakened to the point that they become hot spots, areas of volcanic eruption due to a rising plume of molten material. The molten mater explode out of a volcano or ooze out of cracks. Later in this chapter, when we discuss the earth-building forces, r .

y: Landforms

CHAPTER THREE

TECTONIC FORCES The earth’s crust is altered by the constant forces resulting from plate movement. Tectonic (generated from within the earth) forces shaping and reshaping the earth’s crust ar either diastrophic or volcanic. ophism is the great pressure acting on the plates that deforms them by folding, , warping, br , or compressing rock. Volc is the force that transports heated material to or toward the surface of the earth. When particular places on the continents are subject to diastrophism or volcanism, the changes that take place can be as simple as the bending and crac ock or as dramatic as lava exploding from the crater and sides of Mount St. Helens.

Diastrophism In the process of plate tectonics, pressures build in various parts of the earth’s crust, and slowly, y over thousands of years, “Mount Everest: The Jewel in the Crown,” p. 58). ing rock formations, e able to trace the history of the development of a region. Over geologic time, eas have been subjected to both ing down. y have a complex history of broad warping, folding, , and le . So velopment in the past.

Broad Warping Great tectonic forces r om the movement of continents may bow an entire continent. , the changing weight of a large region may r in the of the surface. For example, the down-warping of the eastern United States is evident in the many irregularly shaped stream estuaries. As the coastal area warped downward, the sea advanced, forming estuaries and underwater canyons.

Folding When the compr essure caused by plate movements is great, layers of rock are forced to buc The result may be a warping or bending effect, and a ridge or ser folds may develop. Figure 3.10 shows a var uctures

FIGURE 3.9 The process of subduction. When lithospheric plates collide, the denser oceanic crust is usually forced beneath the lighter continental material. See Figure 3.6a for the subduction zones of the world.

57

FIGURE 3.10

Degrees of folding vary from slight undulations of strata with little departure from the horizontal to highly compr ned beds.

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resulting from folding. The folds can be thrust upward many y for many miles. and V egion of the eastern United States is, at present, lo t) above sea level—but the rock evidence suggests that the tops of the present mountains wer 9100-meter (30,000-ft) crests (Figure 3.11).

F

ng

A fault is a br e in rock along which movement has taken place. The stress causing a fault results in

displacement of the earth’s crust along the fracture zone. Figure 3.12 diagramatically shows examples of fault types. There may be uplift on one side of the fault or downthrust on the other. In some cases, a steep slope known as a fault escarpment, which may be several hundred feet high and several hundred miles long, is formed. The stress can push one side up and over the other side, or a separation away from the fault may c creating a rift valley (Figure 3.13). Many fractures are merely cracks (c joints noticeable movement along them. In other cases, however, mountains such as the Sierra Nevadas of California have risen

Physic

Ridge and Valley area 30,000 ft

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59

50 km

Present ground level 2000 feet

(b)

(a)

FIGURE 3.11 (a) The Ridge and Valley region of Pennsylvania, now eroded to hill lands, is the r folds that were reduced to form synclinal (downarched) hills and anticlinal (uparched) valleys. The rock in the original troughs, having been compressed, was less susceptible to erosion. (b) der of Pennsylvania, exposed by a road cut.

Fault-block mountain

Transform fault

Normal fault

Fault steps

FIGURE 3.12 Faults, in their great variation, are common features of mountain belts where deformation is gr

ent forms of faulting are categorized by the direction of movement along the plane of fracture. The features shown here would not occur in a single setting.

as the result of faulting. Sometimes, the movement has been horiz face rather than upward or downward. The San Andreas transform fault, shown in F es 3.14 and 3.15, is such a case. Whenever movement occurs along a fault, or at another an earthquake results. The greater the movement, the gr thquake (see “Scaling Earthquakes,” p. 63). Stress builds in rock as tectonic

forces are applied and, when a critic y reached, an earthquake occurs and tension is reduced. The earthquake that occurr riday in 1964 was one of the strongest measured, of 9.2 on the scale. Although the stress point of that earthquake was below gr from Anchorage, c seismic waves caused earth movement in the weak clay . Sections

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Mediterranean Sea Persian Gulf

Gulf of Aqaba Gulf of Suez

d

Re

River

a

Se

Nile

f lf o

Gu

Lake Albert

Zai re

n

Ade

Lake Turhana Lake Victoria

Lake Tanganyika

INDIAN OCEAN

Lake Nyasa

Ear y in hundreds of places throughout the world. Most are slight and only noticeable on seismographs, instruments that record seismic waves. But from time to time, large-scale earthquakes occur, such as those in Iran in 2003 (35,000 deaths) and China in 1976 (242,000 deaths). Most earthquakes take place on the P im (see F e 3.8), where stress from the converging lithospheric plates is greatest. The Aleutian Islands of Alaska, Japan, Central America, and Indonesia experience a number of moderately severe earthquakes each year. The Haitian earthquake did massive amounts of damage (F e 3.16; . 2 in Chapter 1). In recent years, major earthquakes and volcanic y have also occurred in non-P eas, such as Turkey, Iran, ia. The huge earthquake that struck Kashmir on October 8, 2005, was a reminder that the Himalayas are along the boundary of three tectonic plates, ies all the way from Afghanistan and P subject to quakes. For further information on earthquakes and other earth processes go to usgs.gov.

Volcanism

r

b Za m

ez

Rive

tide—the reason they often are mistakenly referred to as waves” in spite of the fact that they are unrelated to tides. As the waves near shor wer water, however, fr auses the waves to slow do producing a buildup of water that can reach 15 meters (50 ft) or more above sea level. The water sweeps inland with massive force once it hits the shore, particularly when the narrowed topography of harbors and inlets focuses the waves into

i

Kariba Lake

FIGURE 3.13

Great fractures s crust resulted in the creation, through subsidence, of e 3.12) in East Africa. The parallel faults, some reaching mor sea level, are bordered by steep walls of the adjacent plateau, om which the structure dropped.

of Anchorage slid do and part of the business district dropped 3 meters (10 ft). thquake, a volc or an underwater landslide occurs below an ocean, jolting the waters above, the movement can generate sea waves c led tsunami (from the Japanese tsu, for “harbor,” and nami, for “wave,”) (see “Tsunami,” p. 65). Traveling at great speed in the open ocean, the waves may be hardly noticeable, resembling a fast-mo

The second tectonic force is volcanism. The most likely places through which molten mater an move toward the surface are at or near the intersections of plates. However, other zones, such as hot spots, are also subject to volc (F e 3.17). The volcanoes of Hawaii, for example, formed above a relatively stationary hot spot in the earth’s interior. essure forces the magma up ust, or faults, enable molten materials to reach the surface. The material ejected onto the earth’s surface may arrive as a series of explosions, forming a steep-sided and cinders, termed a strato or composite volcano (F e 3.18a). The er forming a gently sloping shield volcano (Figure 3.18b). The major volcanic belt of the wor ones. This belt occurs at the convergence of plates. A second zone of volcanic is at plate boundaries, Molten mater w smoothly out of a crater or be shot into the air with explosive force. Some relatively quiet volcanoes have long, gentle slopes indicative of smooth w, whereas explosive volcanoes have steep sides. Steam and gases ar y escaping from the nearly 300 active volcanoes in the world today.

Physical Geography: Landforms

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61

Magnitude 7.0 or greater Magnitude 6.0 to 6.9 R

Mend oc

no

n Sa

50

100

150

200 miles

50 100 150 200 km

d An

as re San Francisco

Monterey n Sa

go re G – rio

H gri os

Santa Barbara

FIGURE 3.14

Los Angeles

system in California, with the epicenters of magnitude 6.0 and gr . Source: Map updated from “The San allace,

n

nyo

Ca

Andreas Fault System, California,”

San Diego

When pressure builds, a crater can become a boiling c dron with steam, gas, lava, wing out (Figure 3.19). In the case of Mount St. Helens in 1980, formed on the north slope of the mountain. An earthquake occurred and an explosion wed, shooting debris into the air, completely devastating an area of about 400 squar meters (150 sq mi), causing about 1 centimeter (0.4 in.) of ash to rain down on eastern W ts of Idaho and Montana and reducing the elevation of the mountain by more than 300 meters (1000 ft). In many cases, the pressure beneath the crust is not intense enough to allow magma to reach the surface. In these instances, ground formations of igneous rock that on occasion affect surface landform features. However, gradational forces may erode overlying rock, so that igneous rock, which is usually hard and resists erosion, becomes a surface feature. The Palisades, a rocky ridge facing New York City from the west, and Stone Mountain, near Atlanta, Georgia, are this type of landform. On other occasions, a rock formation below the earth’s sur w the growth of a mass of magma but denies

exit to the surface because of dense overlying rock. Through the pressure it exerts, however, the magmatic intrusion may , bubble, or break the surface rocks. In addition, domes of considerable size may develop, such as the Black outh Dakota. A by-product of volcanic eruptions is the large amount of ash that spews into the atmosphere, sometimes affecting weather and climate patterns thousands of miles away. Evidence from the past shows that lava has sometimes wed thr es or fractures without forming volcanoes. ws have cover On continents, the Deccan Plateau of India and the Columbia Plateau of the P orthwest in the United S e pe of process (F e 3.20).

GRADATIONAL PROCESSES processes are responsible for the reduction of land surface. If a land surface where a mountain once stood is now a low, gradational processes have been at work. The worn, scraped, or blo ial is deposited in new

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FIGURE 3.15

Here, lakes occupy the fault zone.

map shows the relative southwar

.

places and, as a result, new landforms are created. In terms of geologic time, the Rocky Mountains are a recent phenomenon; ocesses are active there, surfaces, but they have not yet had time to reduce these huge mountains. Thr ocesses occur: weathering, mass movement, and erosion. Both mechanical and chemical weathering processes play a role in preparing bits of rock for the creation of soils and for movement to new sites by means of gravity or erosion. Mass movement transfers downslope by gravity any loosened, higher-lying material, including rock debris and soil, and the agents of running water, moving ice, wind, waves, and currents erode and carry these loose materials to other areas, where landforms are created or changed. FIGURE 3.16 7.0 on the Richter scale struck the southwest corner of the island of Hispaniola in the Caribbean Sea ar the wester was devastated, buildings were reduced to rubble, and more than 200,000 residents lost their lives. The photo shows people picking through the remains of their homes. © Joe Raedle/Getty.

Weathering The breakdown and decomposition of roc or near the earth’s surface in response to atmospheric factors (water, air, e) is called weathering. It occurs as ar al processes.

Physic

Mechanic Weathering Mechanical weathering is the physical disintegration of earth materials at or near the surface; that is, larger rocks are broken into smaller pieces. A number of processes cause mechanical weathering. The three most important are frost action, the development of salt crystals, and root action. If water that soaks into a roc ticles or along joints) freezes, ice crystals grow and exert pressure on the rock. When the process is repeated—freezing, thawing, freezing, thawing, and so on—the rock begins to disintegrate. Salt crystals act similarly in dry climates, where groundwater is drawn to the surface by capillary action (water rising because of surface tension). This action is similar to the process in plants whereby liquid plant nutrients move upward through the stem and leaf system. Evaporation leaves behind salt crystals that form, expand, and disintegrate rocks. Roots of trees and other plants ock joints; as they grow, they

y: Landforms

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break and disintegrate the rock. These are all mechanical processes because they are physical in nature and do not alter the chemical composition of the material upon which they act.

Chemic Weathering A number of chemic weathering processes cause rock to decompose rather than disintegrate. In other words, the minerals composing rocks separate into component parts by chemical reaction rather than fragmentation. The three most important processes are oxidation, hydrolysis, and carbonation. Because each of these depends on the availability of water, less chemical weathering occurs in dry and cold areas than in moist and warm ones. Oxidation occurs when o components, such as iron, to form oxides. As a result, some rock eas in contact with o Decomposiesults when water comes into contact with certain roc such as aluminosilicates. The chemic

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Progressively older

Ocean

(a) 160°

158°

156°

22°

154° N lat. 22°

New lava

20°

W long. 160°

20°

158°

156°

154°

(b)

FIGURE 3.17 (a) Plumes, narrow columns of hot mantle rock, can form “hot spots” of volcanism on the earth’s surface. Some plumes rise beneath the centers of oceanic plates rather than at their intersections. A plume under Hawaii rises in the middle of the Pacific plate. As the plate moved over the plume, a chain of volcanoes formed. Each was carried away from the hot spot as the Pacific plate moved northwestward. (b) Ages of volcanic rock in the Hawaiian islands. Note that the volcanoes become progressively older to the northwest. M.Y. means million years. The island of Hawaii contains two active volcanoes, shown by red dots.

that occurs is c hydrolysis. When carbon dioxide gas from the atmosphere dissolves in water, a weak carbonic acid forms. The action of the acid, c carbonation, is particularly evident on limestone because the c bicarbonate salt created in the process readily dissolves and is removed by groundwater and surface water. Weathering, either mechanical or chemical, does not itself create distinctive landforms. Nevertheless, it prepares rock particles for erosion and for the creation of soil. After the weathering process decomposes rock, the force of gravity and the erosional agents of running water, wind, and moving ice are able to carry the weathered material to new locations. Mechanical and chemical weathering create soil, the ial containing organic matter, air, water, and weathered rock materials that rests on the solid rock below it. The type of soil formed is a function of the

Feeders Layers of basalt (b)

FIGURE 3.18 (a) Sudden decompression of gases contained within lavas results in explosions of rock material to form ashes and cinders. Composite volcanoes, such as the one diagrammed, are composed of alternate layers of solidified lava and of ash and cinders. (b) Cutaway view of a shield volcano. Composed of solidified lava flows, shield volcanoes are broad and gently sloping.

climate of the r bedrock below it. Temperature and rainfall act on minerals, in conjunction with the decaying of overriding vegetation, to form soils. The topic of soils is discussed in more detail in Chapter 4.

Mass Movement The for th for bodies at or near its surface—is constantl rials. The downslope movement of mater c mass wasting or mass movement. Because it is more descriptive, this book uses the latter term. S ticles or huge boulders, if not held back by solid rock or other stable mater wn slopes. Spectacular acts of mass movement include avalanches and landslides. More widespread, but less noticeable, are mass movements such as soil-creep and the

Physic

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(a)

(b)

(c)

FIGURE 3.19 (a) Mount St. Helens, Washington, before it erupted on May 18, 1980. (b) The eruption sent a cloud of steam and hot ash out of the cone 15 kilometers (9 mi) into the atmosphere, and a landslide carried ash and coarser debris down the slopes of the mountain. (c)

Riv e

r

.

ke

bia

Colum

De sch utes R.

R.

Willamette

Paci

R.

fic O cean

Sna

John Da yR

Salmon R.

. Sn

ak e

River

FIGURE 3.20 Fluid lavas created the Columbia Plateau, covering an ar e mor

Some individual ead up to 60 kilometers (40 mi) from their original fissures. © McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Physical Geography: Landforms

w of mud down hillsides (Figure 3.21). In general, rigid formations, such as water, ice, and wind, move downslope . eas, form created by the accumulation of rock particles at the base talus, ed in Figure 3.21a. As pebbles, particles of rock, or even larger stones break away from exposed bedrock on a mountainside because of weathering, ulate, producing large, conelike landforms. The larger rocks travel far sand particles, which remain near the top of the slope.

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Running Water

Er agents, such as wind, water, and glaciers, carve eady existing landforms into new shapes. Fast-moving agents carry debris, and slow-mo op it. The mater scraped, or blo ited in new places, and new landforms are created. Each erosional agent is associated with a distinctive set of landforms.

Running water is a power osional agent. Water, whether wing across land surfaces or in stream channels, plays an enormous role in wearing down and building up landforms. Running water’s ability to erode depends upon several factors: (1) the amount of precipitation; ness of the slope; ock and vegetative cover. S wing water results, of course, in more rapid erosion. Vegetative cover sometimes slo w of water. When this vegetation is reduced, perhaps because of farming or livestock grazing, erosion can be severe, as shown in F e 3.22. Even the impact of pr can cause erosion. After hard rain dislodges soil, the force of the rain causes the surface to become more compact; therefore, ther precipitation fails to penetrate the soil. The result is that more water, prevented from seeping into the ground, becomes available for surface erosion. Soil and rock particles in the water are carried to streams, eam channels.

(a)

(b)

Erosional Agents and Deposition

FIGURE 3.21 (a) Rockfall from this butte has created talus, an accumulation of broken r caused trees to tilt.

(b) Creeping soil has

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FIGURE 3.22 Gullying can result from heavy rain and poor

FIGURE 3.23 The delta of the Ganges River. Notice the

farming techniques, including overgrazing by livestock or many years of continuous row cr emoves topsoil easily when vegetation is too thin to protect it. USDA-Natural

ongoing deposition of silt. © Getty RF.

Resources Conser

Both the force of water and the particles contained in the stream are agents of erosion. Abrasion, or wearing away, takes ticles strike against str eambed. Because of the force of the current, large particles, such as gravel, eambed, grinding rock on the way. Floods and rapidly mo e responsible for dramatic changes in channel siz sometimes forming new channels. In cities where paved surfaces cover soil bed or held water, runoff is accentuated so that nearby rivers and streams rapidly increase in siz Oftentimes, and severe erosion result. S particles, such as clay and silt, are suspended in water and constitute—together with material dissolved in the load of a stream. Rapidly mo As high water or ecedes, and stream velocity decreases, sediment contained within the stream no longer remains suspended, and partic , coarse materials drop the quickest; ticles are carried longer and transported farther. The dec esulting deposition are espey pronounced and abrupt when streams meet slowly moving water in bays, oceans, and lakes. Silt and sand accumulate at the intersections, creating deltas, ed in Figure 3.23. A great river, such as the Chang Jiang (Yangtze) in China, has a large, growing delta, but less prominent deltas exist at the mouths of many streams. Until the recent completion of the Aswan Dam, the huge delta of the Nile had been growing. Now much of the silt is being dropped in Lake Nasser behind the dam. In plains adjacent to streams, land is sometimes built up by the deposition of stream load. If the deposited material is rich, y par ties, such as that historic wn in Eg ile.

Should the deposition be composed of sterile sands and boulders, however, formerly fertile bottomland may be destroyed. By dro ops or inundating inhabited areas, themselves, of course, may cause gr loss. More than 900,000 lives wer Huang He (Yellow River) of China in 1887.

Stream Landscapes A landsc uplift of land and its erosion. Rapid uplif wed by nicely ordered stages of erosion. Rec t and erosion take place simultaneously. At a given location, one force may be greater than the other at a given time, but as yet there is no way to predict accurately the “next” stage of landscape evolution. Perhaps the most important factor differentiating the effect of streams on landforms is whether the recent climate (for example, the past several million years) has tended to be humid or arid.

Stream L umid Ar Perhaps weak surface mater ession in roc ws the development of a stream channel. In its downhill r egions, a str w over precipices, forming falls in the process. The steep do ws str w rapidly, cutting narrow, V-shaped channels in the rock (F e 3.24a). Under these conditions, the er ocess is greatly accelerated. Over time, the str roc and the stream channel becomes incised below the height of the surrounding landforms. This is e eaches of the Delaware, Connecticut, and Tennessee rivers. In humid areas, the effect of stream erosion is to round landforms. Str wing do carv s that are wider than those in mountainous areas. Surr ounded, s ev y become as they br Streams work Their courses meander, constantly

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FIGURE 3.25 Aerial view of damage caused by Hurricane Katrina FEMA—Federal Emergency Management Agency.

carving out new river channels. The channels left behind as new ones are cut become oxbow lakes, hundreds of which e An oxbow lake is crescent-shaped and occupies the abandoned channel of a stream meander (F e 3.24b). In nearl the highest elevations may be the banks of rivers, where natural levees are formed by the deposition of silt at river edges dur Floods that breach levees are par ly disastrous because the e its elevation with that of the swollen river. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers has augmented vees in particularly susceptible areas, such as the banks of the lower Mississippi , but some of these barriers during Hurricane Katrina in A 2005 (F e 3.25).

(a)

rid Areas A distinction must be eam erosion in humid regions and those in arid areas. The lack of vegetation in arid regions greatly increases the er ce of running water. Water originating in mountainous areas sometimes never reaches the ough a desert. In fact, stream chaning rainy periods, when water rushes do y lakes ca playas. In the process, lu um (sand and mud) builds up in the lakes and at lower elevations, and alluvial fans are Figure 3.26). The fan is produced by the deposition of silt, sand, eam reaches lowlands at the base of the slope it traverses. If the process has been par ly long-standing, may bury the eroded mountain masses. In desert regions in Nevada, Arizona, and California, it is not unusual to observe par y bur ough eroded material. Because streams in arid areas have onl tence, their er wer is less consistent than that of the freel wing str eas. In some instances, they barely mark the landscape; in other cases, swif y mo may carve deep, straight-sided arroyos. Water may rush onto an

Stream L

(b)

FIGURE 3.24 (a) V-shaped valley of a rapidly downcutting stream, the Yellowstone River in Wyoming. (b) An oxbow-shaped lake adjoining a meandering stream in Wyoming. W

.

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Narrow mountain canyon

Unsaturated

FIGURE 3.28 The groundwater table contours but in subdued fashion. Water flows slowly through the saturated r essions that are lower than the level of the water table. During a drought, the table is lowered and the str .

FIGURE 3.26 Alluvial fans are built where the velocity of streams is reduced as they flow out upon the more level land at the base of the mountain slope. The abrupt change in slope and velocity greatly reduces the stream’ coarse material. Deposition occurs, choking the stream channel . With the canyon mouth fixing the head of the alluvial fan, the str and extending a broad area of deposition. Redrawn from Charles C. Plummer and David McGeary, Physical Geology, 8th ed.

FIGURE 3.27

The resistant caprock of the mesa pr , underlying strata from downward erosion. Where the caprock is removed, lateral er pronounced relic of the former higher-lying landscape. © Corbis RF.

ated pattern resembling a multistrand braid, The channels r from this rush of water are c washes. The er power of unrestricted running water in arid regions is dramatic y buttes and mesas (large buttes), such as those in Utah shown in Figure 3.27.

Groundwater So into pores and cracks in roc underground pond or lake but simpl

w sinks underground not in the form of an ial.

W ound water accumulates, a zo c aquifer forms, through which water can move readily. As indicated in F e 3.28, the upper level of this zone is the water table; below it, the soils and roc water. ust be dr e a supply of water. Groundwater moves constantl wl y only centimeters a day). Most remains underground, lowest level. When the surface of the land dips below the water table, however, ponds, and marshes form. Some water face by c ound or in vegetation. W ound surface extends below the level of the water table, e to develop is a stream. Groundwater, particularly when combined with carbon dioxide, dissolves soluble materials by a chemical process ca solution. oundwater tends to decompose ocks, . Many of the great caves of the world have been created by the underground movement of water through limestone regions. W ough the overlying rock leaves carbonate deposits as it dr The deposits hang from cave roofs (stalactites) and build upward from c stalagmites). In some areas, the uneven effect of groundwater erosion on limestone leaves a landscape poc ked by a series of sinkholes, surface depressions in an area of collapsing caverns. K topography refers to a large limestone region mar caverns, and underground streams, as sho Figure 3.29. lorida, a karst area, has suffered considerable damage from the cr This type of topography gets its name from a region on the Adriatic S y-Slovenia border. The Mammoth Cave region of Kentucky, another karst area, has connected limestone caves.

Glaciers Another agent causing erosion and deposition to occur is glaciers. e much less extensive today, glaciers covered a large part of the earth’s land area as recently as 10,000 to 15,000 years ago. Many landforms were created by the erosional or depositio

Physic

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FIGURE 3.29 Limestone erodes easily in the presence of water. (a) , such as that shown here, occurs in humid areas wher (b) This satellite photo of east central Florida shows the many round lakes formed in the sinkholes of a karst landscape. (b) NASA.

(a)

(b)

Glaciers form only in very cold places with shor tent summers, wher wmelt and evaporation. The weight of the snow causes it to compact at the base and form ice. When the sno eaches a thic of about 100 meters (328 ft), thick toothpaste and begins to move slowly. A glacier, then, is a large body of ice moving slowly down a slope or spreading face (F e 3.30). Some glaciers appear y because the melting and evaporation at the glacier’ Glaciers can, however, move as much as a meter per day. Most theories of glacial formation concern earth climatic cooling. Perhaps a combination of the following theories explains the evolution of glaciers. y attributes cooling to periods when there may have been excessive amounts of volcanic dust in the atmosphere. The argument is that the dust, by reducing the amount energy reaching the earth, effectively lowered temperatures at the surface. A second theory attr wn changes in the shape, tilt, th’s orbit around the sun over the last half-million years. Such changes alter the

amount of solar radiation received by the earth and its distribution over the earth. A recent theory suggests that, when ift over polar regions, temperatures on Earth become more extreme and, as a result, induce the development of glaciers. This theory, of course, cannot explain the most recent ice ages. Today, continental-size glaciers exist on Antarctica, Greenland, but mountain glaciers are found in many parts of the world. About 10% of the earth’s land area is under ice. During the most recent advance of ice, eenland was part of an enormous glacier that covered nearl Figure 3.31) and the northernmost portions of the United States and Eurasia. The giant glacier reached thic t) (the depth in Greenland today), enveloping entire mountain systems. e of the last ice age was the development of per ost, a permanently frozen layer of ground that can be as much as 1500 meters (4900 ft) deep. Because the permafrost layer prevents the downward percolation of moise, the surface soil may become saturated with water during the brief summer season, when only a thin surface thaws.

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Horn Col Cirque

Stream deposits that will form a kame as glacier melts Arête Lateral moraine and lateral kame terrace

Kames Medial moraine Lateral moraine

Recessional moraine Terminal moraine Outwash plain

FIGURE 3.30 Alpine glacial landforms. Fr

cirques, the irregular bottoms of which may contain lakes (tarns e cirque walls adjoin from opposite sides, knifelike ridges called arêtes are formed, interrupted by overeroded passes, or cols. The intersection of three or more creates a pointed peak, or horn. Rock debris falling from cirque walls is carried along by the moving ice. Lateral moraines form between the ice and the valley walls; medial moraines mark the union of such debris where two valley glaciers join. Recessional moraines form where the end of the ice r sediment to form, while a terminal moraine marks the glacier’s farthest advance. Small, conical hills of sediment are called kames.

Glaciated Not glaciated

FIGURE 3.31

n Hemisphere (about 15,000 years ago). Because sea level was lower than at present, due to the large volume of moisture trapped as ice on the land, glaciation extended beyond present continental shorelines. Separate centers of snow accumulation and ice formation developed. Large lakes were created between the wester ont. To the south, huge rivers carried away glacial meltwaters.

Physic

The weight of glaciers breaks up underl ock and prepares it for transportation by the moving mass of ice. Consequently, glaciers change landforms by erosion. Glaciers scour the land as they move, leaving surface scratches, or striations, on rocks that remain. Much of eastern Canada has been scoured by glaciers that left little soil but many ice-gouged lakes and streams. The erosional forms created by glacial scourings have iety of names. A glacial trough is a deep, y after the glacier has receded. w sea level today, as in Norway or British Columbia, ds, or arms of the sea, are formed. Some of the landforms created by scouring are shown in F e 3.30. F e 3.32 shows horns, cirques, and arêtes, sharp r y carv s. Cirques are formed by ice erosion at the head of a glacial va ey. Glaciers create landforms when they deposit the debris they have transported. These deposits, c till, consist of rocks, pebbles, and silt. As the gr ve forward, debris accumulates in parts of the glacier. The ice that tongue are particularl is. As a glacier melts, it leaves behind hills of till of different sizes and shapes, such as moraines, eskers, and drumlins (Figure 3.33). Many other landforms have been formed by glaciers. The most important is the outwash plain, a gently sloping area in front of a melting glacier. The melting along a broad front sends thousands of small streams running out from the glacier in braided fashion, streams that deposit neatly

FIGURE 3.33 Depositional features formed by ice sheets.

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ift made up of sand and gravel. O which are essentially great alluvial fans, cover a wide area and provide new parent-material for soil formation. Most of the midwestern part of the United States owes some of its soil fertility to the effects of wind on glacial deposition (see Figure 3.38). Before the end of the most recent ice age, at least three previous major advances occurred during the 1.5 million years of the Pleistocene period. Firm evidence is not available on whether we have emerged from the cycle of ice advance

FIGURE 3.32 Horns, cirques, and arêtes created by glaciation, San Juan Mountains, Colorado. © McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

etreat creates various landforms. Moraines of till, etreating edge. Str Kames are small, conical hills formed of outwash deposits; drumlins are elongated hills made of till and oriented in the direction of ice movement; and eskers are long ridges of sediment deposited by glacial meltwater. Enclosed depressions caused by the melting of a stagnant block of ice that was surrounded and buried by sediment are called kettles.

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FIGURE 3.34 Formation of waves and breakers. (a) As e swell approaches the gently sloping beach bottom, sharp-crested waves form, build up to a steep wall of water, and br (b) Evenly spaced breakers form as successive waves touch bottom along a regularly sloping shore. (b) © Punchstock RF.

(b)

FIGURE 3.35

e are eroded by waves during storms and high water. Sediment fr the beach deposit; the longshore current moves some sediment downcurrent to form a are created from material removed from the beach and deposited by retreating waves. Generally, not all the features shown here would occur in a single setting.

and retreat. Factors concerning the earth’s changing temperature, which are discussed in Chapter 4, must be considered before assessing the likelihood of a new ice advance. For the y, the world’s glaciers were melting faster than they were building up. Current trends are not clear, although there is fear that the greenhouse effect (discussed in Chapter 4) is warming the earth and will cause the seas to rise.

Waves, Currents, Whereas glacial action is intermittent in earth history, the br unceasing and causes considerable change in coastal landforms. As waves r w water close to shore, they are forced by fr eaker is formed, as sho F e 3.34. only carries sand for deposition but also erodes the landforms at the coast, while the bac arries the eroded material away. This pe of action r in different of landforms, depending on conditions.

If land at the coast is well above sea level, the wave action causes cliffs to form. Cliffs then erode at a rate dependent on the rock’s r . During storms, a great deal of power is released by the forward thrust of waves, and much erosion takes place. Landslides are a hazard dur and they occur particularly in areas where weak sedimentary rock or till exists. Beaches are formed by the deposition of sand grains contained in the water. The sand originates from the vast amount of erosion and streams (F e 3.35). Longshore currents, which move roughl e, transport the sand, forming beaches and spits. A more sheltered area increases the chances of a beach being built. The bac however, om beaches if no longshore curr As a result, sandbars can develop a shor om the shoreline. , they can ev e, creating a ne loses lagoons or inlets. Salt marshes ten develop in and ar eas. F , the O composed of long ribbons of ing as a r

Physic

Coral reefs, made not from sand but from coral organisms gro w tropic , are formed by the secretion of c arbonate in the presence of warm water and sunlight. Reefs, consisting of millions of color develop short distances offshore. Off the coast of northeastern Australia lies the most famous coral reef, the Great Barrier Reef. Atolls, found in the South P are reefs formed in w water around a volcano that has since been covered or nearly covered by water (F e3.36 ).

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are much less common than gravelly deserts, also called desert pavement, their characteristic landforms are better known. Most of the Sahara, the Gobi, and the western U.S. deserts are covered with rocks, pebbles, and gravel, not sand. Each also

Wind In humid areas, vegetation co mainly to sandy beach areas, but in dry climates, wind is a power osion and deposition. Limited vegetation in dry areas leaves exposed particles of sand, clay, and silt subject to movement by wind. Thus, many of the sculptured features found in dry areas result from mechanical weathering, that is, from the abrasive action of sand and dust particles as they are blown against rock surfaces. Sand and dust storms occurring in a drought-stricken farm area may make it unusable for agriculture. Inhabitants of O Texas, and Colorado suffered gr y in the 1930s when their farmlands became the “Dust Bowl” of the United States. Se e produced by wind-driven sand. Figure 3.37 depicts one of these. ts

FIGURE 3.37 The prevailing wind fr irregular leeward slope.

FIGURE 3.36 Aerial view of coral reefs in the Fiji Islands. Photo by Diane R. Nelson.

d slope and a steep, .

Beaches on the Brink

has a small portion (and the Saudi Arabian Desert has a large area) covered with sand blown by wind into a series of waves, or dunes. Unless vegetation stabilizes them, the dunes move as sand is blown from their windward faces onto and over their crests. One of the most distinctive sand desert dunes is the crescent-shaped barchan. Along seacoasts and inland lakeshores, in both wet and dry climates, wind can create sand ridges that reach a height of 90 meters (300 ft). Sometimes, coastal communities and farmlands are threatened or destroyed by moving sand (see “Beaches on the Brink”).

covers hundreds of thousands of square miles, often to depths of more than 30 meters (100 ft). The windborne origin of loess pic ence do om extensive desert areas, though major deposits are assumed to have resulted from wind erosion of nonvegetated sediment deposom retreating glaciers. Because rich soils usually form from loess deposits, if climatic circumstances are appropriate, these areas are among the most productive agricultural lands in the world.

ture, is c loess. Encounter y in mid erl it covers extensive areas in the United States (F e 3.38), ope, It has its greatest development in northern China, where loess

Every piece of land not covered by buildings and other structures contains clues as to how it has changed over time. Geomorphologists interpret these clues, studying such things as earth materials and soils, the availability of water,

76

LANDFORM REGIONS

drainage patterns, evidences of erosion, and glacial history. The scale of analysis may be as small as a stream or as large as a landform region, a large section of the earth’s surface where a gr pes of landforms that characterize it. A description of one landform region appears in “Landforms as Regions” in Chapter 13, pp. 437–438. A foldout map inside the back cover of this book shows, in a general way, egions found in different parts of the world. Note how the mountain belts geny coincide with convergent plate boundaries not found beneath the sea (see F e 3.6) and with the earthquakeprone areas (see Figure 3.8). Vast plains exist in North and South America, Europe, Asia, and Australia. Many of these

regions were created under former seas and appeared as land when seas contracted. These, and the smaller plains areas, are the drainage basins for some of the great rivers of the world, such as the Mississippi-Missouri, Amazon, Volga, Nile, Ganges, and Tigris-Euphrates. The valleys carved by these rivers and the silt deposited by them are among the most agriculturally productive areas in the world. The plateau regions are many and varied. The African plateau region is the largest. Much of the African landscape is characterized by low mountains and hills whose base is about 700 meters (2300 ft) above sea level. Generally quiet from the standpoint of tectonic activity, Africa is largely made up of geologic y ancient continental blocks that have been in an advanced stage of erosion for millions of years. 77

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FIGURE 3.38 Location of windblown silt deposits, including loess, in the United States. The thicker layers, found in the upper Mississippi Valley area, are associated with the wind movement of eat Plains, wind-deposited materials are sandy in texture, not loessial. Adapted from Geology of Soils by Charles B. Hunt, copyright 1972 W. H. Freeman and Company. Reprinted by permission of the author.

Humans affect and are affected by the landscape, land-forms, moving continents, and earthquakes; however, except at times , these elements of the physical world are, for most of us, quiet, accepted bac ound. More immediate in affecting our lives and fortunes are the great patterns of climate. y possible with present levels of technology, the daily changes of weather that affect the success of picnics and crop yield alike, and the patterns of vegetation and soils. We turn our attention onment in Chapter 4.

Summary of Key Concepts • Rocks, the mater th’s surface, are c sedimentary, and metamorphic. • In the most recent 200 million of the earth’ years, ifted on the asthenosphere to their present positions. • At or near plate intersections, ly in e Diastrophism, , r thquakes and, on occasion, tsunami. Volcanism moves molten mater th’s surface. • The building up of the earth’s surface is balanced by three gradational processes—weathering, mass movement, and

erosion. Weathering, both mechanic prepares materials for transport by disintegrating roc instrumental in the development of soils. T soil-creep are examples of the effect of mass movement. The er unning water, groundwater, glaciers, waves and currents, and wind move materials to new locations. • Examples of landforms created by the collection of eroded materials ar deltas, vees, moraines, and sand dunes.

Key Words asthenosphere 54 chemical weathering 63 continental drift 53 diastrophism 57 erosional agents 67 faults 55 fold 57 glacier 71

processes 61 igneous rock 51 karst topography 70 lithosphere 54 loess 76 mass movement 64 mechanical weathering 63 metamorphic rock 52 mineral 51 permafrost 71

plate tectonics 53 rock 51 subduction 57 tsunami 60 volcanism 57 ping 57 water table 70 weathering 62

Physic

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Thinking Geographically 1. How can rocks be c ee classes of rocks according to their origin. In what ways can they be distinom one another? 2. What evidence makes the theory of plausible? 3. What is subduction? What are its effects? 4. Explain what is meant by gradation and volcanism. 5. What is meant by folding, joint, and faulting? 6. Draw a diagram indicating the varieties of ways faults occur. 7. With what earth movements are earthquakes associated? What are tsunami and how do they develop? 8. W mechanical and chemical weathering? Is weathering responsible for landform creation? In what ways do glaciers engage in mechanical weathering?

9. Explain the origin of the var y t environments. 10. How do glaciers form? What landscape characteristics are associated with glacial erosion? With glacial deposition? 11. How are alluvial fans, deltas, natural levees, and moraines formed? 12. How is groundwater erosion differentiated from surface water erosion? 13. How are the processes that bring about change due to waves and currents related to the processes that bring about change by the force of wind? 14. What processes account for the landform features of the area in which you live?

CHAPTER

FOUR

CHAPTER OUTLINE

Physical Geography: Weather and Climate

CHAPTER FOUR

Physical Geography: W

O

nA

2005, the “Big Easy,” New Orleans, a y at and below sea le of the Mississippi River, lay in the path of Hurricane Katrina. Because most residents had obeyed prehurricane evacuation orders, y deserted. It was mostly the poor and immobile who were left behind as the storm hit. W , downing trees and power lines, iven high water poured ashore. ew Orleans had escaped with no more damage than might have been expected, but the worst was yet to come. In se vees that held back the Mississippi River and Lake Pontchartrain collapsed. The breaches proved catastrophic; for 2 days after the storm had passed, waters continued to rise and pour into the . About 80% of New Or e from 1 to 3 meters (3 to 10 ft) of water (Figure 4.1). Appro mately 1700 people are believed to have died in New Orleans and in other towns of Louisiana, Mississippi, before the storm’s fury dissipated over Tennessee. When it was over, New Orleans was devastated. Katrina had prov of the United States. including the water and sewer systems, the electric grid, the transpor k, and the telephone system. To add insult to injury, 3 weeks later Hurric ked the G k farther to the west, New Orleans suffered from rene . More than a month af icanes, most residents had not yet been

wed to r

81

because po

estored. It would take billions of dollars to rebuild New Orleans. There were many tasks that had to be done before rebuilding could even begin: removal of debris, , repair of le cleanup of toxic mater and restoration of electr wage system.

W America,

icane K eat damage, v one Tropic pe of weather phenomenon. Most people are “weather watchers”—they watch tele ec eat interest and plan their lives around weather events. In this chapter, we re ysic limate. eme weather events as Hurricane Katrina occ y emerge. A weather forecaster describes current conditions for a limited region, such as a metr ea, and pr e weather conditions. If the elements that make up the , e, and precipitation, are recorded at , such as every hour, an inventory of weather conditions can be developed. ends in data that have been gathered over an extended period of time, we c al conditions. These characteristic circumstances describe the c of a region. Weather is a moment’s view of the lower atmosphere, whereas climate is a descr al weather conditions in an area or at a place over a period of time. Geographers analyze the differences in weather and climate from place to place in order to understand how climatic elements affect human occupance of the earth. In geography, we are particularly interested in the physical environment that surrounds us. That is why the troposphere, the lowest layer of the earth’s atmosphere, attracts our attention. This layer, ve the ground, contains vir , clouds, and precipitation of the earth (F e 4.2).

Hurricane Katrina

Kilometers above Sea Level

50

40

30

20

10

Hurricane force winds greater than 74 mph Tropical storm force winds of 50–74 mph

0

FIGURE4.2 V FIGURE4.1 Path of Hurricane Katrina in August 2005.

, clouds, and precipitation of the earth are contained in the troposphere.

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In this chapter, we tr y raised regarding characteristics of the lower atmosphere. By discussing these answers from the vie average variations, we attempt to give a view of the earth’s climatic differences, a view held to be very important for understanding the way people use the land. Climate is a key to understanding, in a broad way, the distribution of world population. People have great in areas that are, on average, very cold, very hot, dry, or very wet. They are also negativel . In this chapter, conditions and then descr ious climates of the earth.

AIR TEMPERATURE Perhaps

question about weather is “Why om place to place?” The answer to this question requires the discussion of a number of concepts to help focus on the way heat accumulates on the earth’s surface. Energy from the sun, c solar energy, is transformed into heat, primarily at the earth’s surface and secondarily in the atmosphere. Not every part of the earth or its overl atmosphere receives the same amount of solar energy. At any given place, the amount of incoming solar radiation, or insolaavailable depends on the and duration of radiation from the sun. These are determined by both the angle at which the sun’s rays strike the earth and the number of daylight hours. plus the followiables, e at any given location: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

most

the amount of water vapor in the air the degree of cloud cover (or cover in general) the nature of the surface of the earth (land or water) the elevation above sea level the degree and direction of air movement

Let us look at these factors br

y.

Earth Inclination th—that is, ing the North Pole to the South Pole—always remains in the same position. It is tilted about 23.5° away from the perpendicular (Figure 4.3). Every 24 hours, the earth rotates once on as shown in F e 4.4. While rotating, the earth is slowly revol ound the sun in a nearly circular annual orbit (Figure 4.5). If the earth were not tilted from the perpendicular, the solar energy received at a given latitude would not vary during the course of the year. The rays of the sun would directly strike the equator, and as distance away from the equator became greater, rays would strike the earth at ever-decreasing angles, therefor ation (F es 4.6 and 4.7).

FIGURE4.3

s position relative to the sun. n Hemisphere (winter in the Southern Hemisphere).

FIGURE4.4 The process of the 24-hour rotation of the earth on its axis.

Physic

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FIGURE4.5 The process of the yearly revolution of the earth around the sun. The sun, which is about 93 million miles fr is not drawn to scale; it is much larger r

Hemispher e. About December 21, when the ° (Tropic of Capricorn), mer in the S e. Dur, relative to the sun r in direct rays On from about 23.5°N to 23.5°S and bac September 21 (the spring equinoxes), s of the sun strike the equator. of day

FIGURE4.6

evolves, the ea in June is bathed in sunshine for 24 hours, while the south polar area is dark. The most intense of the sun’s rays ar and south of the equator in December. None of this is true in the untilted examples shown on the upper two diagrams.

Bec

however, the location of highing the course of the year. When the Northern Hemisphere is tilted directly to the vertic e felt as far nor Tropic of Cancer). as 23.5° the summer solstice orthern

ies during the year. Oneway

. As distance away fr becomes greater, light or dar increase, depending on whether the direct rays of . summer, day um of 24 hours om the Circle (66.5°N) to the N ole, and dur iod, nightyr Antar cle (66.5°S) to the South Pole. Because of the 24-hour daylight,

egion. o however, ead over face. By contrast, elatively long days and sun angles close to 90° makes an enormous amount of eas in the neighborhood of 15° to 30° north and south latitude during each hemisphere’s summer. sun is lo

84

23½°N

PART ONE

0° September 21 Equinox

23½°S

The Earth Science Tradition

23½°N

0° December 21 Solstice

23½°S

23½°N

0° March 21 Equinox

23½°S

23½°N

0° June 21 Solstice

23½°S

(a)

FIGURE 4.7 (a) om the sun at spring and autumn equinoxes and summer and winter solstices. (b) Thr om the sun are shown striking the ent latitudes at the time of the equinox. As distance away from the equator increases, the rays become mor showing how the sun’s intensity is diluted in the high latitudes.

Reflection and Reradiation y receivable solar radiation is, in fact, sent back to outer space or in the troposphere in a pr wn as Clouds, which are dense concentrations of suspended, tiny water or ice particles, r eat of energy. Light-colored surfaces, y snow cover, also r y.

Energy is lost through reradiation as well as r In the reradiation process, the earth’s surface acts as a communicator of energy. As indicated in Figure 4.8, the energy that is absorbed into the land and water is returned to the atmosphere in the form of terrestr On a clear night, when no clouds can block or diffuse movement, temperatures continually decrease, as the earth reradiates as heat the energy it has received and stored during the course of the day. So th surface mater y water, store solar energy more effectively than others. Because water is transparent, solar rays can penetrate a great distance below its surface. If water currents are present, heat is distributed even more effectively. On the other hand, land sur e opaque, y received from the sun is concentrated at the surface. Land, having more heat available at the surface, reradiates its energy faster than water. Air is heated by the process of reradiation from the earth and not directly by energy from the sun passing through it. Thus, because land heats and cools more rapidly than water, e extremes recorded on Earth occur on land and not the sea. T es are moderated by the presence of large bodies of water near land areas. Note in F e 4.9 that coastal areas have lower summer temperatures and higher winter es than those places at the same distance from the equator, excluding seacoasts. Land areas affected by the e considered marine onments; those areas not affected by nearby water are continental environments. T es vary in a cyclical way each day. In the course of a day, as incoming solar energ through r eradiation, es begin to rise. The ground stores some heat, es continue to rise until the angle of the sun becomes so narro received no longer exceeds that lost by the r eradiation processes. Not of the heat loss occurs during the night, but long nights appreciably deplete stor .

Physical Geography: W

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85

emissions or smoke, a serious smog condition may develop (see “The Donora Tragedy”). Bec nearby mountains, Los Angeles often experiences temperature inversions, causing sunlight to be r e (F e 4.12). The effect of air mo e is made clear wing section, “Air Pressure and Winds.”

AIR PRESSURE AND WINDS

FIGURE4.8 Consider the incoming solar radiation as 100%. The eleased to the atmosphere and then reradiated into space.

Lapse Rate We may think that, as we move vertic y away from the earth toward the sun, temperatures increase. However, this is not true within the troposphere. The earth absorbs and reradiates heat; therefore, temperatures are usually warmest at the earth’s surface and lower as elevation increases. Note on Figure 4.10 that this temperature lapse rate (the rate of temperature change with in the troposphere) averages about 6.4°C per 1000 meters (3.5°F per 1000 ft). For example, the difference in ele Pikes Peak is about 2700 meters (9000 ft), which normally results in a 17°C (32°F) difference in temperature. Jet planes ying at an altitude of 9100 meters (30,000 ft) are moving through air that is about 56°C (100°F) colder than ground temperatures. ways hold, however. Rapid reradiation sometimes c es to be higher above the earth’s surface than at the surface itself. This parin which air at lower altitudes is cooler than air aloft, is called a inversion. An inversion is important because of its effect on air movement. Warm air at the surface, which normally rises, may be blocked by the even warmer air of a temperature inversion (F e 4.11). Thus, surface air is trapped;

The second question about weather and climate concerns How do differences in air pressure from place to place affect weather conditions? The answer to this equires that we explain why differences in air pressure occur. Air is a gaseous substance whose weight affects air pressure. If it were possible to carve out 16.39 cubic centimeters (1 cu in.) of air at the earth’s surface and weigh it, ve it, under noroximately ed at sea level. A y, this is not ver ou consider the dimensions of the column of air: 2.54 centimeters by 2.54 centimeters (1 in. by or about 6.2 cubic meters (220 cu ft). ve the earth’s surface, however, is considerabl grams (14.7 lbs) because there is correspondingly less air above it. Thus, it is clear that air is heavier and air pressure is higher closer to the earth’s surface. It is a physic hot air, the cold air is denser. y hot-air , can rise into the atmosphere. A cold morning is characterized by relativel , but as af es rise, air becomes lighter. Barometers of var e used to record changes in air pressure. Barometric readings in inches of mercury or millibars ar t, along with recorded temperatures, of every weather report. Air pressure at a given location changes as surfaces heat or cool. Barometers record a drop in atmospheric pressure when air heats and a rise in pressure when air cools. e the effect of air movements on weather, different densities (representing light air and air)—for example, water and gasoline. e put into a tank at the same time, the lighter liquid will move to ve to the bottom, representing the vertical motion of air. The heavier liquid spreads out horiz becoming the same thic ever e. This w represents the horizontal movement of the air or wind on the th’s surface. Air ve an equilibrium by evening out pressure imbalances that r om the heating and cooling processes. Air races fr ations to light (warm) air locations. Thus, the greater the differences in air pressure the gr

86

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The Earth Science Tradition

80°

–40°

–58°

86°

July

86° 86°

86°

FIGURE4.9 At a given latitude, water areas are warmer than land areas in winter and cooler in summer. Isotherms are lines of equal temperature.

–80

0

40

80

12 mi 11

1312

16

10

1148

9

Tropopause

8

12 Altitude

Altitude (m)

°F

20 km 18

14

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CHAPTER FOUR

Physical Geography: Weather and Climate

7

10

6

8

5

984 820 656 492

4

6

3 4

2

2

1

0

0 –60

–20 Temperature

0

20

328 164 0

°C

FIGURE 4.10 The temperatur conditions. The tropopause is a transition zone between the troposphere and the stratosphere. It marks the level at which temperature ceases to fall with altitude.

(a) Altitude (ft)

Altitude (m)

4000

1312

3500

1148

3000

984 820

2500 Inversion layer

2000

Temperature increase with altitude

656

Pressure Gradient Force

1500

492

Because of differences in the nature of the earth’s surface— water, snow cover, dark green forests, cities, and so on—and the other factors that affect energy receipt and retention, zones of high and low air pressure develop. Sometimes, these high- and low-pressure zones cover entire continents, but usually they are considerably smaller—several hundred miles wide—and within these regions, small differences are noted over short distances. When pressure differences exist between areas, a pressure gradient force causes air to blow from an area of high pressure toward an area of low pressure. essure differences that have developed, air from the heavier high-pressure zones ws to lowpressure zones. air stays close to the earth’s surface as it moves, producing winds, and forces the upward movement of warm air. The velocity, or speed, of the wind is in direct proportion to pressure differences. Winds are caused by pressure differences that induce air w from zones of high pressure to zones of low pressure. wpressure zones are short, pressure gradients are steep and wind velocities are great. More gentle air movements occur when zones of different pressure e far apart and the degree of difference is not great.

1000

328

500

164

0

10°F

30°F

–12

–1

50°F Temperature °C

10

0 70°F 21

(b)

FIGURE4.11 Temperature inversion. (a) A layer of warm, subsiding air acts as a cap, temporarily trapping cooler air close to the ground. (b) Note that air temperature decreases with distance from the ground until the warm inversion layer is reached, at which point the temperature increases.

The Convection System A room’s temperature is lo because warm air rises and cool air descends. The cir tory motion of descending cool air and ascending warm air is (F e 4.13). stem r face-heated warm air rises and is replaced by cool air from above.

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FIGURE4.12 Smog in the Los Angeles area. Below the inversion layer, stagnant air holds increasing amounts of pollutants, caused mainly by automobile exhausts. See also Figure 12.14.

Land and Sea Breezes

COOL

WARM

FIGURE 4.13 A convection system. Descending cool air flows toward low pressure. Pr essure zones. As warm air rises, it cools and can become supersaturated, resulting in precipitation.

A good example of a convectional system is land and sea breezes (Figure 4.14a, b). Close to a large body of water, the differential dayeat. As a result, warmer air over the land rises vertic y, only to be replaced by cooler air from over the sea. At night, just the opposite occurs; the water is than the land, which has reradiated much of its heat, and the result is a land breeze toward the sea. seashore locations in warm climates particularly comfortable.

Mountain and Valley Breezes ce c accumulates over snow in mountainous areas to descend into lo ations, as suggested

Physical Geography: Weather and Climate

in F e 4.14c. y, valleys can become much colder than the slopes, and a temperature inversion occurs. Slopes are the preferred sites for agr e in mountainous regions because cold air from breezes can cause freezing conditions in the s. In densely settled narrow s where industry is concentrated, air pollution can become particularly dangerous. Moutain breez y occur during the night; ey breezes—caused by warm air moving up slopes in mountainous regions—ar ya phenomenon (F e 4.14d). The canyons of southern California are the scenes of strong mountain eezes. In addition, during the dry season, they become dangerous areas for the spread es.

The Coriolis Effect In the process of mo from high to low pressure, wind veers toward the right of the direction of travel in the Northern Hemisphere and to t in the Southern Hemisphere. alled the Coriolis Were it not for this effect, winds would move in exactly the dir by the pressure gradient.

CHAPTER FOUR

T Imagine a line of ice skaters cle, est the center of the circle. wly, while the outermost skater m y rapidly in order to keep the line straight. In a similar way, because the earth rotates on its the equator egions are rotating at a much faster rate than the areas around the poles. Next, suppose that the skater at the center thre directly to By the time the ball arrived, it would pass behind the outside skater. If the skaters are going in a counterclockwise direction—as the earth appears to be mo wed from the position of the North P orth Pole to pass to the right of the outside skater. If the are going in a cloc th appears to be moving viewed from the South P t. Because th, it, too, The air maintains its direction of movement, but the earth’s surface moves out from under it. Since the position of the air is measured relative to the earth’s surface, the air appears to have diverged from its straight path.

Night Higher pressure

Lower pressure

Sea

(a)

(b)

Night

(c)

FIGURE4.14 breeze. (d) Valley breeze.

89

(d)

ential heating and cooling. (a) Land breeze. (b) Sea breeze. (c) Mountain

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PART ONE

The Earth Science Tradition

The Coriolis effect and the pressure gradient force produce spirals rather than simple, as indicated in F e 4.15. The spiral of wind is the basic form of the many storms that are so important to the earth’s air-circulation system. These storm patterns are discussed later in this chapter.

The Frictional Effect Wind movement is slowed by the fr th’s surface. The effect is strongest at the surface and declines until it becomes ineffective at about 1500 meters (about 1 mi) above the surface. Not only is wind speed decreased, but wind direcInstead of follo y dictated by the pressure gradient force or by the Coriolis effect, the iction e ect causes wind to follow an intermediate path.

The Global Air-Circulation Pattern Equatorial areas of the earth are zones of low pressure. Intense solar heating in these areas is responsible for a convectional effect. Note in Figure 4.16 how the warm air rises and tends to move away from the equatorial low pressure in both northerly and southerly directions. As equatorial air rises, it cools and ev y becomes dense. The lighter air near the surface cannot support the cool, . forming surface zones of high pressure. These areas of subtropical high pressure are located at about 30°N and 30°S of the equator. When this cooled air reaches the earth’s surface, it, too, moves in both northerly and southerly directions. The Coriolis effect, however, wind direction and creates, in the Northern Hemisphere, northeast

H

L

FIGURE4.15 n Hemisphere. The straight arrows indicate the paths that winds would follow flowing out of an area of high (H) pressure or into one of low (L) pressure, were they to follow the paths dictated by pressur entials. The curved arrows represent the appar ind dir ows—is always given by the direction from which the wind is coming.

trades in the tropics and the westerlies (r y the southwesterlies) in the mid The names refer to the direction from which the winds come. Most of the United S the belt of westerlies; that is, the air usually moves across the country from southwest to northeast. A series of ascending air ver the oceans to the north of the westerlies, c led the subpolar low. eas tend to be cool and rainy. The polar easterlies connect the subpolar lo eas to the polar high. The general global air-cir loc wind conditions. ve in unison as the vertical rays of the sun change position. For example, equatorial low conditions are e ea just north of the equator during the Northern Hemisphere summer and just south of the equator during the Southern Hemisphere summer. Air circulation will be discussed in more detail in the section “Types of Precipitation.” The strongest ws of upper air winds, 9 to 12 kilometers (30,000 to 40,000 ft), are the jet streams. These air streams, mo 200 mph), from west to east in both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, circle the earth in an undulating pattern, north then south as they move There are thr orthern Hemisphere, but the waves are not always continuous. These undulations, or waves, contr w of air masses on the earth’s surface. More stable undulations are likely to create similar day-to-day weather conditions. These waves tend to separate cold polar air from warm tropical air. When a wave dips far to the south in the Northern Hemisphere, cold air is taken equatorward and warm air moves poleward, bringing severe weather changes to the midlatitudes. The jet stream is more pronounced in the winter than in the summer. Nowher t takes place have such a pr densely populated areas of southern and eastern Asia. The wind, which comes from the southwest during summer in India, reaches the landmass after pic e over the warm Indian Ocean. As it crosses the coast the monsoon rains begin. A monsoon wind is one that changes direction seasony. The summer monsoon wind br wers over most of South Asia. In the southern eastern parts of Asia, the farm economy, ly the r op, y dependent on summer monsoon r nwater. If, for any of se easons, the wind shif antly more or less than optimum, crop failure may r The undue prolongation of the summer monsoon rains in 1978 c , crop e, and the loss of lives in eastern India and Southeast Asia. The transition to dry northerl occurs gradually across the region, becoming noticeable in the north in September. By January, most of the subcontinent is dry. Then, beginning in March in southern areas, ly cycle repeats itself.

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essur The high- and low-pressure belts repr essure conditions; the wind belts are pr esponding to pressur n Hemisphere, cr n. (b) The general pattern of winds at increasing altitudes When air descends, high pressure results; when air ascends, as at the equator, low pressure results.

OCEAN CURRENTS Surface ocean currents correspond roughly to global wind direction patterns because the winds of the world set ocean currents in motion. In addition, just as differences in air pressure cause wind movements, so do differ of water cause water movement. When water evaporates, resivaporate are left behind, . areas of high pressure, where descending dry air readily picks e. eas of low pressure, wher ful, ocean water is low in . Wind direction (including the Coriolis effect) and the differences in density cause water to move in wide paths from one part of the ocean to another (Figure4.17 ).

There is an important differ face air movements and surface water movements. L riers to water movement, ents and sometimes for ent. , on the other hand, moves freely over both land and water. tant effect on ocean current patterns. For example, the north P rent, which moves from west to east, strikes the western coast of Canada and the United States. The current is then forced to move both north and south, although the major movement is the cold ocean current that mo fornia coast. however, as F e 4.17 indicates, the curr theasterly direction by the shape of the coast (Nova Scotia and Newfoundland jut far into the Atlantic). It then moves freely across the ocean,

PART ONE

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West Greenland current

FIGURE4.17 and the tr

Warm Winter warm Cold

East Greenland current

ents of the world. Notice how the warm waters of the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean, n Europe.

past the British Isles and Norway, y reaching the extreme northwest coast of Russia. This massive movement of warm water to northerly lands, c N has ance to inhabitants of those areas. Without it, northern Europe would be much colder. Ocean currents affect not onl precipitation on land areas adjacent to the ocean. A cold ocean current land causes the air just above the water to be cold while the above is warm. There is oppor for convection, e to nearby land. erts of the wor y border cold ocean currents. On the other hand, warm ocean currents—such as those off the coast of India—take moisture to the adjacent land area, y when prevailing winds ar “El Niño,” p. 93). The earlier question about ways in which differences in air pressure affect weather conditions is now answered, in terms of warm and cool air movement over various surfaces at different times of the year and different times of the day. A more complete answer regarding the causes of different pes of weather conditions, however, requires an explanation eceive precipitation, because e highly related.

MOISTURE IN THE ATMOSPHERE which is the sour ecipitation. Pr is any form of water particles—rain, sleet, snow, or hail—that falls from the atmosphere and reaches the earth’s surface. Ascending air can

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expand easily because less pressure is on it. When heat from the lower air spreads through a larger volume in the troposphere, the mass of air becomes cooler. Cool air is less able to hold water vapor than warm air (F e 4.18).

Physical Geography: Weather and Climate

Air is said to be supersaturated when it contains so much water vapor that the vapor condenses (changes from a gas to a liquid) and forms dr ticles, c condensation nuclei, are present. These particles, mostly dust, smoke, and salt cry nearly always exist. the tiny water droplets ar y too light to fall. As many dr into larger drops, emain suspended in air, rain. When temperatures below the freezing point cause water vapor to form ice cry droplets, snow is created (F e 4.19). Large numbers of rain droplets or ice cry clouds, which are supported by slight upward movements of air. The form and altitude of clouds depend on the amount of water vapor in the air, e, and wind movement. Descending air in high-pressure zo loudless Whenever warm, moist air rises, clouds form. The most dramatic cloud formation is probably the cumulonimbus, pictured in Figure 4.20. This is the anvil-head cloud that often

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Low, gray stratus c e often in cooler seasons than in warmer months. The very high, wispy cirrus c e made entirely of ice crystals. Cumulus clouds are often c clouds. Rela ve humidi is a percentage measure of the moisture content of the air, expressed as the amount of water vapor present r um that can exist at the current temperature. As air gets warmer, the amount of water vapor it can contain increases. If the r the air is completel . A relative humidity value of 60% on a hot day means the air is extremely humid table. A 60% reading on a cold day, however, indicates that, although the air contains relatively amounts of water vapor, it holds, in absolute terms, much less vapor than on a hot, muggy day. This example demonstrates that r y if we keep air temperature in mind.

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FIGURE4.19 precipitation occurs.

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FIGURE4.20 National Weather Ser

-weather cumulus.

. Lee,

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FIGURE4.22 Orographic precipitation. raised to higher elevations by hills or mountains lying in their paths. If such or ecipitation occurs. Descending air on the leeward side of the upland barrier becomes warmer, its capacity to retain moisture is increased, and water absorption rather than release takes place.

FIGURE4.21 Convectional precipitation. When warm air laden with moisture rises, a cumulonimbus cloud may develop and convectional precipitation may occur. The falling particles within the system cr -altitude air.

Dew on the ground in the morning means that nighttime es dropped to the level at which condensation took place (see Figure 4.18). The critic temperature for condensation is c dew point. Foggy or cloudy conditions on the earth’s surface imply that the dew point has been reached and that relative humidity is valued at 100%.

Types of Precipitation When large masses of air rise, precipitation may take place in one of three types: (1) convectional, (2) orographic, or (3) cyclonic, or front . pe, r om rising, heated, e-laden air. As air rises, it cools. When its dew point is reached, condensation and pr , as F e 4.21 shows. This pr showers in tropic U y, the ground is heated during the morning and earl W accum ise, cum louds. F y, , thunder, , which may affect eac y a brief period when the storm is mo . It is common for these ly evening. If quic y rising air currents rapidly circulate air within a cloud, stals may form near the top of the cloud. When these ice crystals ar a ne t containing water can force them back up, enlarging the pieces of ice. This process may occur repeatedly until the updrafts can ound in the form of hail.

Orographic precipitation, pe and depicted in F e 4.22, occurs as warm air is forced to rise because k moisture-laden winds. pe of pr pical in areas where mountains and hills are do om oceans or large lakes. Saturated air from over the water blows onshore, rising as the land rises. Again, the processes of cooling, condensation, and precipitation take place. The windward side—the side exposed to the prevailing wind—of the hills and mountains receives a great deal of precipitation. The opposite side, c leeward side or rain shadow, and the adjoining regions downwind are very often dry. The air that passes over the mountains or hills descends and warms. As we have seen, descending air does not produce precipitation, and warming air absor e from surfaces it passes over. A graphic depiction of the great differences in over very short distances is shown on the map of the state of W F e 4.23. Cyclonic, or precipitation, the third type, is common to the midlatitudes, where cool and warm air masses meet. equent there, ecipitation also occurs in the tropics as the originator of hurricanes and typhoons. In order to understand cyclonic, or frontal, precipitation, e of air masses and the way cyclones develop. masses are large bodies of air with similar temperatur istics throughout; they form over a region. Source regions include large areas of uniform surface and relatively consistent temperatures, such as the cold land eas of northern Canada, the north central part of Russia, and the warm tropic eas in oceans close to the equator. Source regions for North Americ e shown in Figure 4.24. During a period of a few days or a week, mass may form in a source region. For example, northern Canada, when sno eady covered the vast subarctic landscape, cold, dense, velops over the frozen land surface.

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it descends into the Puget Sound lowlands; then it goes up over the 2700- to 4300-meters (9000- to 14,000-ft) Cascade Mountains and finally down into the Columbia Plateau of eastern Washington. allen, Introduction to Physical Geography. Copyright © 1993. McGraw-Hill Company, Inc., Dubuque, Iowa. All Rights

ve toward the lighter, warmer air to the south. The leading edge of a tongue of air is c ont. The front, in this case, separates the cold, dry air from whate If a warm, moist air mass is in front of a polar air mass, denser, cold air hugs the ground and for ve it upward. The rising moist air condenses, and frontal precipitation occurs. On the other hand, the movement of r ver cold air pushes the cold air back, again causing precipitation. ase, when cold air moves to , cumulonimbus clouds form and precipitation is brief and . As the front passes, temperatur op appreciably, lears, ably drier. In the second case, ves over cold air, nimbo means “rain”) clouds form and precipitation is steady and long-lasting. As the front passes, muggy air becomes characteristic of the area. F e 4.25 izes the movement of fronts. Further discussion of air masses as r an be found in Chapter 13.

FIGURE4.24 Source regions for air masses in North America. The United States and Canada, lying between major contrasting air-mass source regions, are subject to numerous storms and changes in weather. See also Figure 13.6. From T. McKnight, Physical Geography: A Landscape Appreciation, 4th ed. Copyright .

Physical Geography: Weather and Climate

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(a)

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Warm front Cold front

FIGURE4.25

In this diagram, a cold fr n Hemisphere has recently passed over city A and is heading in the direction of B. The meeting lines of unlike air masses are called fronts. The warm front is moving away from B and toward city C. The wind direction is shown by arrows and the air pressure by isobars, lines of equal atmospheric pressure. The isobars indicate that the lowest pressure is found at the intersection of the warm and cold fronts.

Storms Two air masses coming into contact (a front) creates the possibility of storms developing. If the contrasts in temperature y great, or if wind directions of e opposite, a wave might develop in the front, as shown in Figure 4.26. Once established, the waves may enlarge. On one side of the front, cooler air moves along the surface, while on the other side, warm air moves up and over the cold air. The rising warm air creates a low-pressure center. Considerable precipitation is accompanied, in the Northern Hemisphere, by counterclockwise winds around the low-pressure area. A large system of air circulation centered on a region of low atmospheric pressure is called a midlatitude cyclone, which can develop into a storm. An intense tropical cyclone, or ane, begins in a low-pressure zone over warm waters, y in the Northern Hemisphere. In the developing hurricane, the warm, moist

FIGURE 4.26 When warm and cold air come into contact along a low-pressure trough in the Northern Hemisphere midlatitudes, the possibility of cyclonic storm formation occurs. (a) A wave begins to form along the polar front. (b) Cold air begins to turn in a southerly direction, while warm air moves (c) Cold air, generally moving faster than warm air, begins to overtake the warm air, forcing it to rise and, in the process, the storm deepens. (d) Eventually, two sections of cold air join. The cyclonic storm dissipates as the cold front is reestablished.

air at the surface rises, which helps suck up air from the surface. As a r ulonimbus clouds form. released by these towering cloud formations warms the center of the gro e of a hurricane is the calm, clear central core, c eye (F e 4.27a). The name given a hurricane in the western P F shows the usual paths of hurricanes in the world. The winds of these storms move in a counterclockwise direction, converging near the center and rising in several concentric belts. Great damage is caused by the high winds (gr wlands. At the hurricane’s center, the eye, air descends and results in gentle breezes and relatively c Over land, these storms lose their warm-water ce and subside quic y. If they mo ther into colder northern waters, they are pushed or blocked by other air masses and lose their energy source and abate. Table 4.1 describes increasingly devastating hurricanes.

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(a) Arctic Ocean

Atlantic Ocean

Pacific Ocean

Pacific Ocean

Atlantic Ocean

Indian Ocean

(b)

FIGURE4.27 (a) Characteristics of a mature hurricane. the clouds near the center of the storm. The descending, warming air at the center creates an eye, a small ar Intense convectional circulation creates strong winds away from the eye. (b) General hurricane paths. (a) and (b) From Michael Bradshaw and Ruth Weaver, Physical Geography: An Intr

onment, pp. 177, 179. Reprinted by permission of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

The New York Times reported on February 26, 2010, that “a dangerous winter storm . . . ortheast overnight, esiwer.” The storm was one of several blizzards that attacked the East Coast in February 2010. A is the occurr Each of the February blizzards was created when a clash of air masses in the Rocky Mountains caused the jet stream to veer northeast along the East Coast. At the same time, a large low-pressure system along the Gulf of Mexico moved north, drawing an

additional stream of moist air from the Atlantic Ocean. In the meantime, a high-pressure system moved south with arctic air from Canada. These movements converged on the northeast United States. The results were strong winds and nearly a meter (3.3 ft) of crippling snow that brought cities such as W D.C.; Baltimore; Philadelphia; New York; and Boston to a standstill (F e 4.28a). . smallest storm (Figure 4.28b), y measuring less than .T huge

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TA B L E 4 . 1

cumulonimbus c fr

During the spr

when adjacent tates is prone to louds. an r meters per hour (about 300 mph), these storms ar ly travel on the gr , so onl eas ar though they may be devastated (F e 4.28c). A tornado over water is c waterspout. The Enhanced Fujita (EF) scale of tornado intensity links reported damage to wind speed. It ranges from EF0, a “weak” hour (85 mph), to EF5, a “violent” one, with winds as great as Most (74%) tornadoes are either EF0 or EF1, whereas 25% are c as EF2 or EF3, “strong” tornadoes capable of causing major str Only 1% ar F4 and EF5) categories.

CLIMATE REGIONS We have traced some of the causes of weather changes that occur as air from high-pressure zo ws toward low-pressure areas, fronts pass and waves develop, de e reached, and sea breezes arise. Some parts of the world experience these changes more rapidly and more often than do other parts. Day-to-day weather conditions can be explained by the principles explained in this chapter. However, the effect of weather elements—temperature, precipitation, and air pressur annot be understood unless a person is conscious of the earth’s sur es. Weather forecasters in each location on Earth m context of their local physical and built environments. y weather conditions may be summarized by statements about climate. The climate of an ar ation based on dail

conditions. Are summers warm, w y? Ar y from the southeast? Are c y weather conditions, or are the day-to-day or week-to-week variations so great that one should speak of average variations rather than just averages? These are the questions we must ask in order to form an intelligent description of the differences in conditions from place to place. tant elements that differentiate weather conditions are temperature and precipitation. Although air pressur tant weather element, differences in air pressure are hardly noticeable without the use of a barometer. Thus, we may regard warm, moderate, cold, or ver es as characteristic of a place or region. In addition, high, moderate, and low precipitation are good indicators of the degr egion. F e 4.30 (see pp. 102–103) depicts the various climates of the wor esented in Figure 4.31. stem, it is the best known of a number of similar climate c ation schemes. Developed in 1918, temperature and precipitation criteria. Table 4.2 on page 104 shows the multilevel system developed by Köppen. There ar oad categories, designated as A, B, C, D, E, and H. The A climates are tropic B are dry, C are mild climates in the mid D climates of the mid verely cold winters, E are polar, and H are highland climates. The column on the right in Table 4.2 lists the of al of different climates. S var e le ibution of precipitation. For a discussion of the relationship of climate to soils and vegetation,

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(b)

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FIGURE4.28 Storms. (a) fr one.

(b) In the United States, tornadoes occur most exas Panhandle), where cold polar . (c) The Oklahoma City tornado of May 3, 1999, was an EF5; it leveled neighborhoods such as this

Physical Geography: Weather and Climate

The letters of the Köppen system in the section headings that follow refer to those in F e 4.30 and Table 4.2.

Tropical Climates (A) Tropical climates ar y associated with earth areas lying thernmost and southernmost lines of the sun’s vertical rays—the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. The location of tropical climates is shown in Figure 4.29.

Tropical Rain Forest (Af ) eas that straddle the equator ar y located within the equator w-pressure zone. These regions are c opic forest. They are warm, wet climates in both the winter and summer (Figure 4.31a, b). R y comes from dail and although most days are sunny and hot, by afternoon, cumulonimbus clouds The caption for Figure 4.31a explains how to interpret a climagraph. Tropic y getation, esent but declining rapidly because of inteneas of the Amazon Basin of South America and the Zair ica. T dense forests of broadleaf tr edominate. eds of species of trees found in tropic ests, k woods and woods, , F e 4.31b). R for e pre y a constant sour uplands. In addition, the or o pr velop in these forests.

FIGURE4.29 The location of tropical climates.

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Savanna (Aw) As the sun’s vertical rays extend farther from the equator in the summer, the equator w-pressure zone follows the sun’s path. Thus, areas to the north and south of the rain forest are wet in the summer months, but are dry the remainder of the year because the moist equatorial low has been replaced by the dry air of subtropic These areas e known as savanna lands bec vegetation that grows here. esembles a form of est; however, these areas are now recognized as a y dispersed trees. y toward a more forested cover has been reduced by the periodic clearing by burning that loc iculturalists and hunters engage in. Savannas sometimes seem to have been purposely designed because of their par , as indicated in Figure 4.32. The East African region of Kenya and Tanzania wn grasslands—Serengeti N ark, for e-resisting species of trees, where large anisuch as giraffes, lions, and elephants, roam. The campos and llanos of South America are other huge savanna areas.

Monsoon (Am) in N

ase in Asia needs mentioning. When summer monsoon ant increase on adjacent plains. F e 4.33. As a r veg, ev . o Much of this vegetahowever, ause people have been using y for rice and tea pr

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ET Dfc

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FIGURE4.30 Climates of the world.

Physical Geography: Weather and Climate

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TA B L E 4 . 2

Physic

City: Singapore Latitude: 1°20′N Altitude: 11 meters (33 ft) Yearly precipitation: 256 centimeters (100.7 in.)

Climate designation: Af Climate name: Tropical rain forest Other cities with similar climates: Colombo, Panama City, Jakarta, Lagos

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FIGURE4.31 (a) (climagraphs) show average daily high and low temperatures for each month, the average precipitation for each month, and the probability of precipitation on any particular day in a designated month. For Singapore, the average daily high temperature in August is 30.5°C (87° °C (75° month, on average, is 21 centimeters (8.4 in.), and on a given day in August, there is a 42% chance of rainfall. (b) Tropical rain forest. The vegetation is characterized by tall, broadleaf, hardwood trees and vines. .

FIGURE4.32 The parklike landscape of grasses characteristic of the drier savanna. © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Photo by Jill Wilson.

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Dryland Climates (B) The location of these climates is shown in F e 4.34. In the interior of continents where mountains block west winds, or in lands far from the reaches of moist tropic , extensive regions of desert and semidesert conditions appear.

Hot Deserts (BWh) On the poleward side of the savannas, grasses begin to shorten, and desert shrubs become evident. This is where we approach the belt of subtropical high pressure that brings considerable sunshine, hot summer weather, and very little precipitation. Note the minute amount of shown in F e 4.35a. The pr As conditions become drier, fewer and fewer drought-resistant shrubs appear and, eas, onl y and sandy deserts exist, as suggested in F e 4.35b. The great, hot deserts of the world, such as the S the Arabian, the Australian, and the K i, e all the products of high-pressure zones. Often, the driest parts of these deserts are along the western coasts, where cold ocean currents are found. Earlier, mention was made of the r cold ocean currents and deserts.

Midlatitude Deserts and Semideser

BS)

pical e and precipitation latitude drylands. Occ y, a summer ontal system with some moisture occurs. The extreme dry areas are known as cold deserts. The moderatel ec steppes. The na ral vegetation is grass, although desert shrubs, pictured in Figure 4.36b, are found in drier portions of the steppes. Rain is not

City: Yangôn, Myanmar Latitude: 16°46′N Altitude: 5.5 meters (18 ft) Yearly precipitation: 252 centimeters (99.2 in.) Temperature °C °F J F 38 100

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City: Cairo, Egypt Climate designation: BWh Latitude: 29°52′N Climate name: Altitude: 116 meters (381 ft) Other cities with similar climates: Yearly precipitation: 2 centimeters Mecca, Karachi (0.7 in.) Temperature °C °F J F 38 100

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City: Tehran, Iran Latitude: 35°41′N Altitude: Yearly precipitation: 26 centimeters (10.1 in.) Temperature °C °F J F M A M 38 100

Climate designation: BS Climate name: Midlatitude dryland Other cities with similar climates: Salt Lake City, Ankara

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FIGURE4.35 (a) Climagraph for Cairo, Egypt. (b) Mohave nia. sands are constantly rearranged in complex dune formations.

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(b) © Dr

FIGURE4.36 (a) Climagraph for Tehran, Iran. (b) n Mexico. (b) © Steven P. Lynch.

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but soils are rich because the grasses r ients to the soil. The soils are dark brown to black and are among the most y fertile soils in the world. The steppes are also known for their hot, dry summers and biting winter winds, which sometimes bring blizzards.

(Figure 4.38a). Winters are not cold. The Mediterranean climate, is generally found on the western coasts of continents in the midd S the Mediterranean ea itself, western A the tip of South Africa, and central Chile in South America are characteriz climate. In these areas, ees, such as the scrub oak, grow (Figure 4.38b).

Humid Midlatitude Climates (C) Figure 4.37 shows the location of several c pes that are t conditions in the winter, summer, or both. In addition, es well below those of the tropical climates ar istic of the humid mid These c , were it not for mountain ranges, warm or cold ocean currents, and, par ly, landThese factors cause the greatest variations in the middle latitudes.

Climate (Cs) Mid winds y blow from the west in both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, ant amount of the precipitation is produced from fr stems. Thus, it is impor w if the water is cold or warm near land areas. Several climatic zones are noticeable in the middle ked by warm summer temperatures except those in areas cooled by westerly winds from the ocean. To the poleward side of the hot deserts, a transition zone occurs the subtropical high and the moist westerlies zones. Here, cyclonic storms br y in the winter, when the westerlies shift toward the equator. S e dry and hot as the subtropic highs shift slightly poleward

Humid Subtropic

limate (Cfa)

On the eastern coasts of continents, the transition is from the equatorial climate to the humid subtropic limate. Convecsummer showers and winter cyclonic storms are the sources of precipitation. Figure 4.39, this climate is characterized by hot, moist summers and moderate, moist winters. on occasion, hurricanes that develop in tropic eas. y even distribution of rainfall allows for the presence of deciduous forests containing hardwood trees, such as oak and maple, ed before In addition, deciduous trees as a second-gro forest. Southern Brazil, the southeastern United States, humid subtropical climate.

Marine West Coast C Closer to the poles, but still within the westerly wind belt, are eas of west coast climate. Here, cyclonic storms and orographic precipitation play a relatively large role. In the winter, mor es prevail than in the Mediterranean zones. Compare the patterns in Figures 4.38 and 4.40. In the transitional zone just poleward of the

FIGURE4.37 The location of humid midlatitude and continental climates.

Physic

City: Rome, Italy Latitude: 41°48′N Altitude: 115 meters (377 ft) Yearly precipitation: 85 centimeters (33.3 in.)

Climate designation: Cs Climate name: Mediterranean Other cities with similar climates: Athens, Los Angeles, Valparaiso

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City: Sydney, Australia Latitude: 33°58′S Altitude: 9 meters (29 ft) Yearly precipitation: 116 centimeters (46.5 in.)

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FIGURE4.39 Climagraph for Sydney, Australia. Because Sydney is in the Southern Hemisphere, the warmest days are in e in July.

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FIGURE4.38 (a) Climagraph for Rome, Italy. (b) Vegetation ea with a Mediterranean climate (coastal California). Trees and brush ar ed. (b) © Digitalvision RF.

Mediterranean climate, ing the summer. Closer to the poles, however, rainfall increases appreciably in the summer and even more so in the winter. Marine winds from the west moderate both summer and winter temperatures. Thus, summers are pleasantly cool, though cold, y produce fr es. This climate affects relativel one region. Because northern Europe contains no great mountain belt to thwar w of moist air, the marine west coast climate str oss the continent to Poland. In Poland, cyclonic storms originating in the Arctic regions are noticeable. Northern Europe’s moderate cliwes its existence to a relatively warm ocean current l from Ir ope. The orographic effect from mountains in areas such as the northwestern United States, western Canada, and southern Chile produces enormous amounts of precipitation, often in the form of snow on the windward side (see F e 4.23). Vast coniferous forests—needle-leaf trees, such as pines, spruces,

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City: Vancouver, Canada Latitude: 49°17′N Altitude: Yearly precipitation: 105 centimeters (41.3 in.) Temperature °C °F J F M A M 38 100

The Earth Science Tradition

Climate designation: Cfb Climate name: Marine west coast Other cities with similar climates: Seattle, London, Paris Precipitation J J A S O N D in. cm 26 66

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FIGURE4.40 Climagraph for Vancouver, Canada.

ver the mountains’ lower elevations. Because the mountains prevent moist air from continuing to the leeward side, mid deserts are found to the east of these marine west coast areas.

Humid Continental Climates (D) The poleward transition to the climates is accompanied by increasingly colder winters and shorter summers. In this dir cyclonic storms become more responwers. The region can ized as humid subtropical; rather, it is described as humid (Dfa, Air masses that originate close to the poles and drift toward the equator and other air masses that drift toward the poles from the tropics produce frontal precipitation. Whenever warmer air or marine air bloc or vice versa, fr velop. F e 4.41 shows the es within this c

City: Chicago, Illinois Latitude: 41°52′N Altitude: Yearly precipitation: 85 centimeters (33.3 in.) Temperature °C °F J F 38 100

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FIGURE4.41 Climagraph for Chicago, Illinois.

The continental climate may be contrasted to marine west coast climates in that the former has prevailing winds from the land, the latter from the sea. Coniferous forests become mor ection of the poles, until temperatures become so low that trees are denied an adequate growing season (Figure 4.42). Three huge areas of the world are characterized by a limate: (1) the nor United States and southern Canada, (2) most of the European portion of Russia, and (3) northern China. Because there are no land areas at a comparable latitude in the Southern Hemisphere, this climate is not represented there. In fact, the only nonmountain cold climate in the Southern Hemisphere is the polar climate of Antarctica.

Subarctic Climates (Dfc, Dfd, Dwb) Toward northern areas and into the interior parts of the North American and Eurasian landmasses, increasingly colder temperatures prevail (Figures 4.43 and 4.44a). Trees become

Physical Geography: Weather and Climate

stunted, and ev y only mosses and other cool-weather plants of the type shown in F e 4.44b will grow.

Arctic Climates (E) The word (ET) is often used to describe the northern boundary zone beyond these tr ctic regions. Because long, cold winters predominate, the ground is frozen most of the year. A few cool summer months, with an abundant suppl break up the monotony of extreme

FIGURE4.42 In the extensive region of east central Canada and the area around Moscow, Russia, the summers are long and warm enough to support a dense coniferous for gr © RF.

Fairbanks Yellowknife

FIGURE4.43 The location of subarctic and Arctic climates.

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cold. ize the tundra, sno y abundant. Strong easterl w snow, which, contr limate. Alaska, northern Canada, and northern Russia are covered either trees of the subarctic climate or the bleak, tr ctica and Greenland, however, are icy deserts (EF).

Highland Climates (H) We mentioned earlier (p. 85) that, under the normal lapse rate, temperatures decr eases. As a result, highlands have lower temperatures than do lowlands at the same latitude. Highland climates are complex, however, because elevation and latitude are onl mine their nature and the plant and animal life they can support. Some mountain slopes face the prevailing wind, while others are lee slopes. Some face the sun; others are shadowed and cool. Some are sunlit in the cool of the morning; others receive the hot afternoon sun. Mountain va eys have a different climate than do rugged peaks. Every mountain range, then, limates far too detailed to show on a map such as Figure 4.29. These thumbnail sketches of climatic conditions throughout the wor egions. On any given day, conditions may be quite different from those discussed or mapped in this chapter. However, the physical climatologic ocesses, in general, are what concern us. We can deepen our understanding of climates by applying our knowledge of the elements of weather.

Yakutsk

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City: Fairbanks, Alaska Latitude: 64°51′N Altitude: 134 meters (440 ft) Yearly precipitation: 31 centimeters (12.4 in.) Temperature °C °F J F 38 100

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The Earth Science Tradition

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FIGURE4.44 (a) Climagraph for Fairbanks, Alaska. (b) Tundra vegetation in Canada.

CLIMATIC CHANGE We have stressed that climates are only averages of, perhaps, greatly var ng day-to-day conditions. F e 4.45 the global variation in yearly precipitation. T es are less changeable than pr but they, too, vary. How can we account for these variations? Scientists in research stations around the world are investigating this question. The data they use range from daily teme and precipitation records to c concerning the position of the earth in relation to the sun. Because day-today records for most places date back only 50 to 100 years, scilimates in rock formations, the chemic composition of earth materials, ice cores, tree rings, and other sources.

Long-Term Climatic Change S ant variations in climate have occurred over geologic time. For example, approximately 65 million years ago, there was a sudden cooling of the earth’s climate. This cooldo

.

is thought to have c existing plant and animal species, including most dinosaurs. To take another example, cycles of ice sheet formation and breakup occurr ing the last ice age, which lasted 100,000 years and ended only 11,000 years ago. limatic periods just in the past 1000 years: a medie iod and a “little A.D. 800 and 1200, during the mediice age.” e iod, temperatures wer than they are now. S ththe V ed Iceland and Greenland, ished in Britain. During the little ice age, which lasted from about A.D. 1300 to 1850, Arctic ice expanded, glaciers advanced, drier areas of the earth were desiccated, and crop failures and starvation were common. Scientists have suggested se explanations for such long-term periodic changes in climate. Some of the climatic variations are thought to be due to three aspects of the earth’s motion, reaching the planetary surface. F th’s orbit around the sun, which varies from nearly circular to more

Physic

FIGURE4.45

n of pr drier the climate, the greater is the probability that ther

y: Weather and Climate

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. Regions of low total precipitation tend to have high variability. In general, the om

elliptic ver a period of about 100,000 years. When the orbit is nearly cir , the earth experiences relatively cold temperatures. When it is elliptical, as it is now, th is closer to the sun for several months, is exposed to more total solar radiation, and thus it has higher temperatures. Another cycle corresponds to the tilt of the earth’ relative to the orbital plane. The tilt ies from 21.5° to 24.5° every 41,000 years. The amount of solar radiation str polar regions changes as the angle of tilt changes. A low tilt position—that is, a more per th— is accompanied by periods of colder climate. Cooler climates are thought to be critical in the formation of ice sheets. F y, like an unbalanced spinning top, the earth wobbles slightly as it rotates, changing the earth’s orientation to the sun. ration of the r epeats every 23,000 years. W eatest, the polar regions receive less solar radiation than they do at other times and become colder.

Short-Term Climatic Change Climate can change more quic y and irr ly than the earth’s cycles suggest. Great volcanic eruptions can alter climates for several years. They spew enormous amounts of ash, water vapor, sulfur dioxide, and other gases into the upper atmosphere. As these solid and liquid particles spread over much of the planet, they block some of the incoming each the earth’s surface, producing a cooling effect. The famous summer”—1816—in New England, when snow fell in June and frost came in July, probably was c year earlier of the Indonesian volcano Tambora. The explosion

osols and sphere. The r A similar decline in es occurred after the 1883 volcanic er A less extreme drop in temperatures in the earl ibuted to the July 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines, which lower es by about 0.5°C (about 1°F). Two other factors responsible for short-term c culation and . As described on page 93, for example, during an El Niño event, face waters from the western P Ocean mo changing the c coasts of South and Nor ica. Sunspots, relatively cool regions on the surface of the sun, over per and the concentrations of oz th’s upper atmosphere.

The Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming ycles and factors we have discussed ar processes. In contrast, one of the most important questions has been whether human beings are contributing to climatic change through what is popularly termed the greenhouse Put simply, the theory is that certain gases concentrate in the atmosphere, where they function as an insulating barrier, trapping infrar be radiated back into the upper atmosphere and reradiating it earthward. In other words, like glass in a greenhouse, the gases admit incoming solar radiation but retard its reradiation back

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into space. You have experienced such a greenhouse effect if you have gotten into a car that has been in the sun; the car’s interior is warmer than the outside air. The earth has a natural greenhouse effect, provided mainly by water vapor that has evaporated from the ocean or evapotranspired from land. The water vapor remains a constant, but during the past 150 years or so, human activities have increased the amount of other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, augmenting its heat-trapping ability. Most scientists fear that an enhanced greenhouse effect is responsible for a gradual increase in the earth’s average surface temperature, ant impacts on the earth’s ecosystems, a process ca ed ming. That greenhouse effect is far less benign and nur ing than the name implies. The Intergov anel on Climate Change (IPCC), made up of thousands of scientists from about 120 countries, reported in May 2007 that Global atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO2), methane, and nitrous oxide have increased markedly as a result of human activities since 1750 and now far exceed pre-industrial values det om ice cores spanning many thousands of years. The global increases in CO2 concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land use change, while those of methane and nitrous oxide are primarily due to agriculture. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the primary greenhouse gas whose amount has been incr y, excessive quantities of it are released by burning fossil fuels. Beginning with the Industrial Revolution in the mid-1700s, petroleum, wer industry, to heat and cool cities, and to drive vehicles. Their combustion arbon dioxide and water vapor. At the same time, much of the world’s forests have been destroyed by logging and to clear land for agr e. Deforestation adds to the gr s: it means there are fewer trees to capture carbon dioxide and produce o and burning the wood sends CO2 back into the atmosphere at an accelerated rate. The relative contribution of carbon dioxide to the potential for global warming is about 55%. Other important greenhouse gases by human e 1. methane, fr gas and coal mining, agr e and livestock, swamps, 2. nitrous oxides, from motor vehicles, , and nitrogen-containing fertilizers 3. chlor ocarbons, hydr ocarbons, and per ocarbons, widely used industrial chemic Although these gases may be pr some of them trap heat much more effectively than does CO2. Nitrous oxide, for example, has 360 times the c O2 to trap heat, and even methane is 24 times more potent than CO2 in absorbing heat close to the earth.

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Source:

As the Industrial Revolution gained momentum in Europe and North America dur y, the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere rose from its preindustrial level of about 274 par in 1958; it rose since then to 379 ppm in 2005. The methane concentration in the lower atmosphere has already more than doubled from its preindustr vel and is currently increasing by just over 1% per year. Scientists fear that the accelerated warming trend of the limate shifts and cite e wing: •

y was the warmest century of the past 600 years, and most of its warmest years were concentrated near its end. The world’s average surface e rose about 0.6°C (a bit over 1°F) in the 20th century, and the 1990s wer ade y (Figure 4.46). • Winter temperatures in the Arctic have risen about 4°C (7°F) since the 1950s. The Arctic as a whole is losing its ice cap. the coverage of Ar eased by 6%, and the average thic ctic ice declined by 42%, from 3.1 meters to 1.8 meters (10.2 to 5.9 ft). Similarly, the sea ice west of the Antarctic Peninsula has diminished more than 20% since 1970. • On every continent, glaciers are thinning and retreating. For example, glaciers atop Mount Kilimanjaro and Mount Kenya in Africa shrank by 70% or more during the 20th century, and glaciers in the S are estimated to These patterns of glacial thinning and retreat are r Peru, Russia, India, China, Irian Jaya, New Zealand, and elsewhere. In some places (e.g., portions of Montana’s Glacier N ark and the eastern

Physical Geography: Weather and Climate

Expanding oceans Melting glaciers Changes in precipitation patterns

CHAPTER FOUR

Rise in sea level

Coastal erosion and flooding

Increase in extreme weather events

pollution, spread of disease

115

Increase in weather-related deaths Changes in soils and vegetation

growing season, crop yields Ecosystem change, possible loss of biodiversity

FIGURE4.47

Global warming is projected to cause an increase in the frequency and severity ought, and wildfires. ease in water pollution; and the spread of infectious diseases as warmer, wetter weather conditions widen the range of disease-carrying insects. of extreme weather events and weather-r

glaciers melted and disappeared altogether in the 20th century. own and retreated for thousands of years, the rate of melt has accelerated in the past few decades and no ecent centuries. Whatever the attributable causes of global warming, most climatologists agree on certain of its general consequences, should it continue (F e 4.47). Increases in sea temperatures would cause ocean waters to expand slightly (thermal expansion) and the polar ice caps to melt at least a bit. More serious consequences would result from the melting of the Greenland ice sheet and the rapid retreat or total melting of glaciers throughout the world. Although melting sea ice has no effect on sea levels, water melted from continental sources adds to ocean volumes. Inevitably, sea levels would rise, perhaps 1 meter (3.3 ft) in a hundred years, with devastating impacts, especially in the tropics and warm temperate regions, where many coastlines are heavily settled. As Figure 4.48 shows, eas ar north and west coasts of Africa, South and Southeast Asia, and low-ly In addition, higher temperatures bring on more extreme heat events, causing increased deaths among the elderly, infants, Other problems result from changes in precipitation patterns. evaporation, causing more active convection currents in the atmosphere. It is important to note that changes in precipitation would be regional, eas r e and others less precipitation than they do now. Polar and equatorial r whereas the continental interiors of the midlatitudes could become drier and suffer at least periodic drought. More northerly agr egions, such as parts of Canada, Sc and Russia, might bene rises; the longer gro would make them more productive. Changes in temperature and precipitation would affect soils and vegetation. The

composition of forests would change, as some areas would become less favorable for certain species of plants but more hospitable to others. Many climatologists point out that climate prediction is not an exact science. T e differences are the engine dr the cir of winds and ocean currents and help create conditions inducing or inhibiting winter and summer precipitation and daily weather conditions. y how limate details would express themselves loc y and r y is not well understood. Critics of the IPCC report claim that climate models don’t adequately account for c peratures might stabilize or even decrease as the concentration of greenhouse gases increases. A hotter atmosphere, they say, would increase evaporation, sending up more water vapor, louds. The increased cloud cover might r uch sunlight that it would slow the rate at th would be heated. Others contend that the increased evaporation would produce mor the rain would cool the land and subsequently cool the air over the land. Some scientists have gone so far as to suggest that global warming could, paradoxic y, bring about the onset of another ice age. They reason that greenhouse-related temperature incr y to peregions—such as northern Greenland—where snow now rarel An increase in ecipitation would y fresh water and ice subject to melting in polar oceans. That major ocean currents, such as the Gulf Stream (which pro thern Europe with a relatively warm climate), would slow and so would their warming effect on northern regions. dr es can br ant changes in world climatic patterns. Recent e , it is claimed, indicates that polar regions did, in fact, gro y warmer before the onset of the pre iod, just as they are warming now.

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75°

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FIGURE4.48 Coastal ar

The acceleration of global warming could produce significant changes in sea level and patterns of precipitation. Appr s people live at or just a few meters above sea level, and hundreds of millions live in cities downstream from mountains where accelerated melting of glaciers or snow could contribute to severe flooding, especially if the river basins have been heavily defor be enough to cover the Maldives and other low-lying island countries. The homes of between 50 and 100 million people would be inundated, a fifth of Egypt’s arable land in the Nile delta would be flooded, and the impact on the people of Bangladesh who live on thousands of alluvial islands known as “chars” would be catastrophic.

Summary of Key Concepts •

•

S

eat generator of the main weather e, e, and atmospheric pressure. S iation in these elements is caused by the earth’s broad physical characteristics, such as greater solar radiation at the equator than at the poles, and loc ysic istics, such as the effect of water bodies or mountains on local weather conditions. Climate r ise fr cold ocean currents off the western coast of South America.

• • •

Knowledge of climate tells us about the conditions within which one carries out life’s daily tasks. Climate change r om both long-term and shortocesses. Human use of the earth affects the climate.

wing chapters focus mainly on the character apes, one should keep in mind that the physic antly affects human .

Key Words airma ss 95 ressure 85 blizzard 98 climate 81 convection 87 convection precipitation 95 Coriolis effect 89 cyclone 97

cyclonic (front ) precipitation 95 dew point 95 El Niño 93 frictional effect 90 front 96 114 greenhouse effect 113 limate 110

hurricane 97 insolation 82 jet stream 90 land breeze 88 lapse rate 85 marine west coast climate 108 monsoon 90 mountain breeze 89

Physical Geography: Weather and Climate

North Atlantic drift 92 orographic precipitation 95 precipitation 92 pressure gradient force 87 r relative humidity 93 reradiation 84

savanna 101 sea breeze 88 source region 95 steppe 106 temperature inversion 85 tornado 98 tropical rain forest 101

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troposphere 81 phoon 97 valley breeze 89 weather 81

Thinking Geographically 1. What is the differ weather and climate? 2. What determines the amount of insolation received at a y receivable solar energy y reach the earth? If not, why? 3. How is the atmosphere heated? What is the lapse rate and what does it indicate about the atmospheric heat source? Describe a temperature inversion. 4. What is the r ic pressure and sur e? What is a pressure gradient and of what concern is it in weather forecasting? 5. In what ways do land and water areas respond differently to equal insolation? How are these responses related to atmospheric temperatures and pressures? 6. Draw and label a diagram of the planetary wind and pressure system. Account for the occurrence and character of each wind and pressure belt. Why ar y ordered?

7. What is relative humidity? How is it affected by changes in air temperatures? What is the dew point? 8. What are the thr pes of large-scale precipitation? How does each occur? 9. What are air masses? What is a front? Describe the development of a cyclonic storm, showing how it relates to air masses and fronts. 10. What factors wer y responsible for today’s weather? 11. Summariz e, e, vegetation, and soil character limate. 12. What is the climate at Tokyo, London, São Paulo, and Bangkok? 13. What causes the greenhouse effect? What impact might it have on the environment?

CHAPTER

FIVE

CHAPTERO UTLINE

The Geography of Natural Resources

The Geography of N

“T

he world’s richest nation” in terms of income per person was how an article in National Geoaphic described Nauru in 1976. A single-island country in the South P and A Nauru today is a wasteland whose barren and inhospitable landscape suggests a creation of What happened 1976 and now is that Nauru was y str esource that gave ock for fertilizer—and most of the island is no longer inhabitable. Laid down over millions of years, the phosphates were the pr oppings Located just south of the equator, Nauru is tiny, with an area of just 21 squar A narrow coastal belt surrounds a central plateau that rises to 65 meters (213 ft) above sea level, covers 80% of the land area, able deposits of phosphate. There is just one paved road, a loop that circles the island. For several thousand years, Nauruans lived the island’s limits despite frequent droughts. A population of about 1000 depended on food fr om the tropic The plunder of the island began after Nauru became a colony of Germany in 1888. At the end of World War I, the L ations gave Great Britain, A and New Z ight to administer the island and set up the British Phosphate Commission to run the phosphate industry. Most of the phosphate was shipped to Australia for fertilizer. When Nauru received independence in 1968, the people chose to continue the extraction, which brought in tens y and gave the country one of the highest per capita incomes in the world. Now, however, most of the phosphate has been mined. e expected to be exhausted in just a few years. t

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from some tropic no other resources exist; y ev ust be imported for the 13,500 inhabitants: foods, ed goods, , building and construction materials, and ev P trust have plunged the country into debt. The onmenom strip mining has been severe. The lush tropical forests were remo . For thousands of years, they had pro The plateau is now a dry, fossilized pinnacles, r after the phosphate that lies emoved (F e 5.1). A rise in sea level due Chapter 4) would further impact Nauru, resulting in a major displacement of people from the coast to higher elevations.

N and one that squanders resources that have accum ver Population numbers and economic developdepletion of the treasures of the earth. Resources of land, of ores, and of most forms of energy ar , but the resource demands of an expanding, economic y advancing population appear to be limitless. esource availy, at win, but it wasn’t until the 1970s that the rate of resour onmental degradation associated with it became a major and controv Resources are unevenly distr amount, and and do not match uneven distributions of population and demand. In this chapter, we sur resources on which societies depend, of production and consumption, and the problem of managing those resources in light of growing demands and shr eserves. W monly used terms.

RESOURCE TERMINOLOGY

FIGURE 5.1 Environmental devastation. Intensive phosphate mining has left most of Nauru a wasteland. These tall coral spires stand in stark contrast to the tropical forests that once grew above them. © Don Brice Photography.

A resource y occurring, exploitable mater ceives to be useful to its economic and material well-being. Willing, y, esource, but without access to mater tile soil or petroleum, human resources are limited in their effectiveness. In this chapter, we devote our attention to physic y occurring resources, or, as they are more commonly c natural resources. The availability of natural resources is a functhe physical characteristics of the resources themselves and human economic and

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technological conditions. The physical processes that govern the formation, distribution, and occurrence of natural resources are determined by physical laws over which people have no direct control. We take what nature gives us. To be considered a resource, however, a given substance must be understood to be a resource. This is a cultural, not purely a physical, circumstance. Native Americans may have viewed the resource base of Pennsylvania as composed of forests for shelter and fuel, as well as the habitat of the game animals (another resource) on which they depended for food. European settlers viewed the forests as the unwanted covering of the resource that they perceived to be of value: soil for agriculture. Still later, industrialists appraised the underlying coal deposits, ignored or unrecognized as a resource by earlier occupants, as the item of value for exploitation (Figure 5.2).

N

esources ar y recognized as falling into oad classes: renewable and nonrenewable.

Renewable Resources Renewable reso ces are materials that are replaced or r ocesses. They can be used over and over again; the supplies are not depleted. A distinction can be made, however, e per that are renewable only if carefully managed (F e 5.3). P resources come from sources that are virtually inexhaustible, such as the sun, the wind, waves, tides, and geoy. Potentially renewable resources are renewable if left to nature but can be destroyed if people use them carelessly. These include groundwater, soil, plants, and animals. If the rate of exploitation exceeds that of regeneration, these renewable resources can be depleted. Groundwater extracted beyond the replacement rate in arid areas may be as permanently dissipated as if it were a nonrenewable ore. Soils can be totally eroded, and an animal species may be completely eliminated. Forests are a renewable resource only if people are planting at least as many trees as are being cut.

Nonrenewable Resources

FIGURE 5.2 The original hardwood forest covering these Virginia hills was removed by settlers who saw greater resource value in the underlying soils. The soils, in turn, were stripped away for access to the still more valuable coal deposits below. Resources are as a culture perceives them, though exploitation may consume them and destroy the potential of an area for alternate uses.

Nonrenewable resources e generated in nature so slowly that for al purposes the suppl They include the fossil fuels (coal, crude oil, oil shales, and tar sands), the nuclear fuels (uranium and thorium), and a var both Although the elements of which these resources are composed cannot be destroyed, they can be alter and they are subject to depletion. The energy stored in a unit volume of the fossil fuels may have taken eons to concentrate in usable form; it can be converted to heat in an instant and be effectively lost forever.

© Corbis RF.

FIGURE 5.3 A classification of natural resources. Renewable resources can be depleted if the rate of use exceeds that of regeneration.

For y, many minerals can be reused even though they cannot be replaced. If they are not chemic y destroyed—that is, if they retain their original chemic e y reusable. Aluminum, lead, zinc, and other metallic resources, such as diamonds and petroleum by-products, can be used time and time again. However, many of these materials ar in any given object, so that recouping them is economic y unfeasible. In addition, many materials are now being used in ed products, so that they are unavailable for recycling unless the product is destroyed. Consequently, the term reusable resource must be used car y. At present, resources are being mined much faster than they are being recycled.

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Increasing economic feasibility

y of N

Increasing geologic assurance

FIGURE 5.4 The variable definition of

Resource Reserves Some regions contain many resources, others relatively few. No industrialized country, however, esources it needs to sustain itself. The United States has abundant deposits of many minerals, but it depends on other countries for such items as tin and manganese. The or potential scar of key nonrenewable resources makes it desirable to predict their in the e. We want to know, for example, how much petroleum remains in the earth and ho able to continue using it. y an estimate, and for a variety of reasons such estimates ar Exploration has revealed the existence of certain deposits, but we have no sure way of wing how many remain undiscovered. Further, our of what constitutes a usable resource depends on current economic and technological conditions. If they change— if, for example, it becomes possible to extract and process ores mor y—our estimate of reser F y, the answer depends in part on the rate at which the resource is being used, but it is impossible to pr e rates of use with any certainty. The curr op if a for the resource in question were discovered, or it ease if population growth or industr ation placed greater demands on it. A useful way of viewing reserves is illustrated by Figure 5.4. Assume that the large rectangle includes the total stock of a particular resource, th. Some deposits of that resource have been discovered; they are shown in the left-hand column as “ ” amounts. Deposits that have not been located are c “undiscovered” amounts. Deposits that are economically recoverable with current technology are at the top of the diagram, whereas those labeled “subeconomic” ar of reasons (the concentration is not rich enough, it would require expensive treatment after mining, it is not accessible, and so on). We can properly term proved, or usable, reserves— quantities of a resource that can be extracted pr y from wn deposits—only the portion of the rectangle indicated by the pink tint. These ar

. Proved, or usable, reserves consist of amounts that have been identified and can be recovered at current prices and with current technology. X denotes amounts that would be attractive economically but have not yet been discovered. Identified but not economically attractive amounts are labeled Y, and Z represents undiscovered amounts that would not be attractive now even if they were discovered. .

and that can be recovered under existing economic and operating conditions. If new deposits of the resource are discovered, the reserve category will shift to the right; improved technology or increased prices for the product can shift the reserve boundary downward. An ore that was not considered a reserve in 1950, for example, may become a reserve in 2015 if ways are found to extract it economic y.

ENERGY RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIALIZATION Although people depend on a wide range of resources contained in the biosphere, energy resources are the “master” natural resources. We use energy to make all other resources available (see “What Is Energy?”). Without the energy resources, esources would remain in place, unable to be mined, processed, and distributed. When water becomes scarce, we use energy to pump groundwater from greater depths or to divert rivers and build aqueducts. Likewise, we increase crop yields in the face of poor soil mantilizers, herbicides, farm implements, and so on. By the application of energy, the conversion of materials into commodities and the performance of services far beyond the capabilities of any single indiare made possible. Further, the application of energy can over ld that humans exploit. High-quality iron ore may be depleted, but by massive applications of energy, the iron contained in rocks of very low iron content can be extracted and concentrated for industrial use. Energy can be extracted in a number of ways. Humans themselves are energy converters, acquiring their fuel from the energy contained in food. Our food is derived from the

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solar energy stored in plants via photosynthesis. In fact, nearly all energy sources are really storehouses for energy originally derived from the sun. Among them are wood, water, the wind, and the fossil fuels. People have harnessed each of these energy sources, to a greater or lesser degree. Preagr y on the energy stored in wild plants and animals for food, although people developed certain tools (such as spears) and customs to exploit the energy base. For example, they added to their own energy resour e for heating, , and clearing forest land. Sedentary agr veloped the technology to harness increasing amounts of energy. The domestication of plants and animals, mills, and the use of water to turn water For most of human history, wood was the predominant source of fuel, and even today at least half the world’s people depend largely on fuel heating. However, it was the shift from renewable resources to those derived from nonrenewable minerals, that sparked the Industr volution, made possible the population increases discussed in Chapter 6, and gave populationsupporting c eas far in excess of what would be ces. The enormous incr ed countries has been built in large measure on an economic base of coal, oil, They are used to provide heat, to generate electr , and to run engines. Energ production and increases in per capita income. the greater the le consumption, the higher the gross national income per capita. As people grow richer, they want better homes, more cars, acterize developed countries—which means a large increase in the global demand for energy and industrial raw mater Two of the questions now being asked are whether the world has enough resources to meet the rising demand in the developing countr supplies and prices of resources.

NONRENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES Crude oil, natural gas, industrialization. F e 5.5 shows past energy consumption tates. Burning wood supplied most energy needs until about 1885, isen to prominence. The proportion of energ burning coal peaked about 1910; from then on, gas were increasingl The graph shows the absolute dominance of the fossil fuels as energy sources during the last 100 years. In 2008, they accounted for about 90% of nation ener consumption.

Crude Oil Today, crude oil and its by-pr of the commer ld. Some world r . F e 5.6 sho producers and consumers of cr oleum).

Percentage 100

Hydro

Nuclear

90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

1860

1880

1900

1920

1940

1960

1980

2008

FIGURE 5.5 Sour The fossil fuels provided almost 90% of the energy supply in 2008.

The Geography of N

ter it is extracted from the ground, crude oil must be The hydrocarbon compounds are separated and disicants, asphalt, and many other products) and var Petroleum rose to importance because of its combustion character ce for powering moving vehicles. A barrel (42 U.S. ude oil produces about 20 gallons of gasoline, 10 gallons of diesel fuel and home heating oil r

Percent of total world production 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

*Saudi Arabia

Russian United Feder- States ation

*Iran

China

Mexico Canada

(a) Percent of total world consumption 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

United States

China

Japan

India

Russian Germany Federation

(b)

FIGURE 5.6 (a) Leading producers of oil. These seven countries produced 51% of the world’s oil in 2008. Members of OPEC are marked with an asterisk. All told, OPEC countries accounted for 45% of oil production in 2008. (b) Leading consumers of oil. Only the six countries shown here each consumed 3% or more of the world’s oil in 2008. Source: Data from The BP Statistical Review of World Energy, June 2009.

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(combined), and other products. In the United States, transpor consumption. As Figure 5.7 shows, oil from a var oduction ws, primarily by water, to the industr y advanced countries. Note that the United States imports oil from a number of regions. The other major importers, Western Europe and Japan, impor y Middle Eastern oil. y of pipelines, supertankers, and other modes of transport and the low cost of oil helped create a world dependence on that fuel, ev generally and cheaply available. The pattern is aptly illustrated by American reliance on foreign oil. For many years, U.S. oil production had remained at about the same level, 8 to 9 million barrels per day. 1970 and 1977, however, as domestic supplies became much more expensive to extract, consumption of oil from foreign sources increased dramatically, y was imported. The dependence of the United States and other advanced industrial economies on imported oil gave the oilexporting countries tremendous power, r ing price of oil in the 1970s. During that decade, oil prices rose dramatically, largely as a result of the strong market position of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). Among the side effects of the oil “shocks” of 1973–1974 and 1979–1980 were worldwide recessions, large net trade ters, a reorientation of world c ws, and a depreciation of the U.S. rencies. On the positive side, the soaring oil prices of the 1970s triggered oil exploration in non-OPEC countries, improvements in oil-dr , and a sear energy sources. Perhaps most important, for a number of years, y demand, partly because of the recession and partly because the high prices fostered conservation. Industr uch less oil for each unit of output. In general, cars, planes, and other machines are more energ e in the 1970s, as are industries and buildings constructed in recent years. Since 1985, however, both global production and consumption of oil have increased steadily. And the United States, pr has since then relied increasingly on imports. By 2007, the United States depended on foreign sources for 66% of the oil it consumed annually (see “Fuel Economy and CAFE Standards,” pp. 126–127). ticularl e of oil reserves. Not only are estimates y revised as oil is and new r e located, but many governments tend to mainecy about the sizes of reserves, Nonetheless, it is c resource and that oil reserves are very unevenly distributed among the world’s countries (Figure 5.8). Slightly more than els are c oved r and another e thought to exist in undiscovered r

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FIGURE 5.7 International crude oil flow by sea, 2008. arrows indicate origin and destination, not specific routes. The line widths are proportional to the volume of movement. In 2008, the United Source: Data from The BP Statistical Review of World Energy, June 2009.

the oil could be extracted fr eserves, and if the current rate of production holds, the proved reserves would last only about 40 years. The ratio of production to reserves, however, gives some Middle Eastern countries mor y of pumping at current rates befor y. For more than 40 years, there have been predictions that the world would soon run out of oil. P ve that global oil production could peak by 2015, whereas optimists think we will rel y. al advances in exploration and production, such as deep-water dr ecovery, antly increase the amount of oil that can be recovered from beneath the ground that we needn’t worry about gas pumps running dry. Whereas it was once thought that offshore oil existed only w waters, curr of oil lie thousands of feet below sea level off the Gulf of Mexico, Brazil, and West Africa. For se w, a number of oil companies have pumped oil from the Gulf of Mexico at depths exceeding 1000 meters (3280 ft). Even more pr ecovering more oil from existing reservoirs. Curr y, on average, only 30% to 35% of the oil in a reservoir is brought to the surface; most of the oil remains unrecovered. Oil industry optimists believe that enhanced recovery techniques (injecting water, gases, or chemic ce out more oil) will make 60% to 70% of the oil in a reservoir recoverable. F y, although most geologists agree that there are few t to be discovered, some of these have yet to be tapped in a major way. Industr y ant

increases in production are likely to come from Russia and a number of the countries of the former So az stan, T Tur Kyrgyzstan, and Azerbaijan). Kaz for example, is developing large new ucting new pipelines out of the Caspian basin, and R velop huge offshore in its far east, ea of O

Coal Coal was the fuel basis of the Industrial Revolution. From 1850 to 1910, the proportion of U.S. rose from 10% to almost 80%. Although the consumption of lined as the use of petroleum expanded, emained the single most important domestic energy source until 1950 (see Figure 5.5, p. 122). enewable resource, world supplies are so great that its resource life expectancy may be measured ies, not in the much shorter spans usually cited for The United States alone possesses nearly 240 billion tons of coal consider y mineable on an economic basis with existing technology. At current production levels, these demonstrated reser ies. Wor , the middle latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere, as shown in F e 5.9. Two countries, China and the United States, have dominated world coal production in recent years, accounting for mor oduced in the world. Since 1990, the ldwide has remained fairly steady, but distinct

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42 3%

126 10%

123 10%

FIGURE 5.8 Regional shares of proved oil reserves, in billions of barr

Oil supplies are finite, and some countries may deplete their r eseeable futur s oil supply but possesses only 2.4% of the world’s r n countries contain about thr oved r alone has 21% of the world’s oil r s proved oil r e estimated to be 1258 billion barrels, a figure that tends to rise over time with new methods of locating and extracting oil deposits and changes in price. In 2008, global consumption of oil was about 31 billion barrels per year. Source: Data from The BP Statistical Review of World Energy, June 2009.

FIGURE 5.9 Regional shares of proved coal r Just five countries contain thr s coal r producer and consumer, followed by the United States.

Major coal basins ar

n Hemisphere. China (14%), e world’s largest coal

The BP Statistical Review of World Energy, June 2009.

Fuel Economy and CAFE Standards

r ee Coal production has risen slightly in the United S Western Europe and the countries of the former Soviet Union, as governments have discontinued subsidies to the industry. The use ow in many Asian countries (India, Indonesia, South Korea, Vietnam, and Japan). China has doubled both its production and its consumption of since 2000, a result of its rapid economic growth. In the United States and other industr ed countries, y for electric power generation and to make coke for steel production. In less-developed countries, y used for home heating , ies. Coal is not a resour . It ranges from lignite (barely compacted from the or ough bitueach rank 126

r ee to which organic mater formed. arbon content of about 90% and contains ver e. Conversely, has the highest e content and the lowest amount of elemental carbon, and thus the lo reserve base in the United States concentrated primaril . Besides rank, the grade of a coal, which is determined by its content of waste materials (particularly ash and sulfur), helps to determine its quality. aloric content and the physic operties suitable for producing coke for the steel industry are decreasingly available readily and are increasing in cost. Anthracite, formerly a dominant fuel for home heating, is now much more expensive eady industrial market. The Schuy

anthracite deposits of eastern Pennsylvania are discussed as a esource region in Chapter 13. The value of a coal deposit is determined not only by its , which depends on the thickness, depth, inclination to the surface. are surface mining and underground mining. In surface mining strip mining), huge machines strip off the soil and rock above the vein of coal—the overburden—to get at the coal beneath. surface mining is used if the overburden is less than 100 meters (328 ft) thick. If the overburden is thicker, coal is extracted using underground mining (also called shaft mining) where operators sink or more shafts down to Underground mining is not only expensive but is among the most hazardous occupations in the world.

In spite of their y lower heating , western U.S. coals are now attractive because of their lo tent. They do, however, require expensive transportation to kets or high-cost transmission lines if they are used to generate electr Figure 5.10). The ecologic health, oblems associated with the mining and combustion of coal must be ured into its cost. The mutilation of the or face and the acid contamination of lakes and str the str e par y contr otection laws, but these measures add to the costs. Eastern U.S. elatively high sulfur content, and costly techniques for the removal of sulfur and other wastes from stack gases are now required by most industrial countries, including the United States. 127

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FIGURE 5.10 Long-distance transportation adds significantly to the cost of low-sulfur western U.S. coals because they are remote from eastern U.S. markets. To minimize these costs, unit between western strip mines and eastern utility companies. © Craig Nelson/Index Stock Imager

.

The cost of mo duction and consumption. transported as nonsolid fuels.

oy , y conIndeed, the high cost of transporting induced the development of major ial centers directl , Pittsburgh, the Ruhr, the English Midlands, and the Donets district of U

Natural Gas c ly perfect energy source. It is a highl versatile fuel that requires little processing and is environmeny benign. Of the fossil fuels, y onment. It burns cleanly. The chemic oducts of burned methane are carbon dioxide and water vapor, which are not pollutants, they are greenhouse gases. As F e 5.5 indicates, y saw an appreciable gro oportion of U.S. In 1900, ply. By 1980, e had risen to 30%, but then it declined to 25% by 2009. The trend in the rest of the world has been in the opposite direction. oduction and consumption incr antly after the oil shock of 1973–1974 and by 2007 had nearly doubled, accounting for almost 25% of global energy consumption. Most gas is used directly for industrial and residential heating. In fact, gas has overtaken both coal and oil as a house-heating fuel, and more than half of the homes in the United States are now heated by gas. A por

in electr and some is chemic y processed into products as diverse as motor fuels, plastics, synand insecticides. Ver e discovered in Texas and Louisiana as early as 1916. Later, were found in the Kansas–O ew Mexico region. At that time, tates was too sparsely settled to make use of the gas, and in any case, it was oil, not gas, that was being sought. Many wells that produced only gas were capped. Gas found in conjunction with oil was vented or burned at the wellhead as an unwanted by-product of the oil . y in the 1930s, when pipelines were built to link the southern gas wells with customers in Chicago, Minneapolis, and other northern cities. Like oil, ws easily and cheaply by pipeline. In the United States, the pipeline system is mor (1 million mi) long. Unlike oil, however, gas does not move as freely in interF e 5.11). Transoceanic shipment involves costl ing the gas by cooling it to an contain −126°C (−260°F), the liquid under appropriate temperature conditions, and for reheating facilities at the destination port, where it is injected into the local pipeline system. gas (LNG) is extremely hazardous bec e of methane and air is explosive. The United States imports some LNG, y from Trinidad and Tobago. By 2009, eight terminals for receiving LNG were open in the United States, and 40 more had been proposed. Because an accident or a terrorist strike on an LNG tanker carry onshore facilities are r . Offshore facilities, from which the gas is piped underwater to the port, are less hazardous but pose environmental dangers to marine ecosystems. Like other fossil fuels, enewable; its suppl Estimates of reserves ar because they depend on what customers ar for the fuel, and estimates have risen as the price of gas has increased. Further complicating the estimate of supplies is uncer esour geologic formations. These include tight sandstone formations, deep (below 6000 meters, or 20,000 ft) geologic basins, Wor , proved gas reserves: Russia (23%) and the Middle East (41%) (Figure 5.12). The r oughl y among North America, Western Europe, Africa, Asia, and Latin America, each of which has fr The gas in the proved reserves would last about 65 more years at current production rates, but developing countries, particularly in South and Southeast Asia, may have undiscovered deposits that could add antly to the life expectancy of world reserves if they were developed. In the United States, the Texas-Louisiana and Kansas– O ew Mexico regions account for about 90% of the but there are thought to be gas

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FIGURE 5.11 Major worldwide trade flows of natural gas, 2008. Russia exported gas to more than 20 other European countries, accounting for nearly 30% of the worldwide trade flows. The Netherlands and Norway accounted for another 25%. Most natural gas flows by pipeline, but diminishing supplies of natural gas in many developed countries, the discovery of large r gas in remote regions, and a reduction in the costs associated with trade in liquefied natural gas (LNG) are combining to make LNG more attractive. In 2008, only five countries—Japan, South Korea, France, Spain, and Taiwan—imported significant amounts of LNG, accounting for 80% of the world trade in the fuel, but that patter Source: Data from The BP Statistical Review of World Energy, June 2009.

areas ar

wn to contain gas. P

In addition, many offshore eserves are ’s proved reserves

in the rest of the country, ade. If the technology necessary to produce gas from unconventional sources is developed, gas reser y. Of course, e costly to develop, and hence more expensive.

Oil Shale and Tar Sands ospects of the extraction of oil fr oil shale and tar sands. Both are stor within rock and sand. N oil tary rock rich in organic mater kerogen. A tremendous potential r ydrocar , the rocks are c arbonates mor than to shale, and the hydrocarbon, kerogen, is not oil but a , tar-like substance that adheres to the grains of carbonate material. The crushed roc e high enough (more than 480°C, or 900°F) to decompose the kerogen, releasing a liquid oil product, shale oil. World reserves of oil shale are enormous. Known deposits estimated to contain at least 800 billion barrels of recoverable e found in the United States, Brazil, Russia, China,

and Australia (F e 5.13). The richest deposits in the United States are in the Gr which lies beneath Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming. They contain enough oil to supply the needs of the United States for another century, and in the 1970s were thought to be the answer to national energ y. Se e invested in oil r ch and development operations in the Piceance Basin near Grand Junction, Colorado, but as oil prices in the 1980s, interest in the projects waned. The last plant, that at Parachute Creek, Colorado, was abandoned in 1992. Another source of petroleum liquids is oil sands, tar sands ar e of sand, clay, and silt (85%), water (5%), and bitumen (10%), k, , highc bon petroleum. The cr w out of the rock, ust be mined, and heated to extract the petroleum. Global tar-sand resources are thought esources, containing more than 2 tr els of oil, much of it in the province of ta, Canada (Figure 5.14). Four major deposits ta are estimated to contain as much as 1 tr els The largest deposit, the Athabasca, supplies about 10% of Canada’s oil demand. Tar-sand deposits ar found in Venezuela, Trinidad, Russia, and Utah. Producing oil from either oil shale or tar sands requires high c s and carr onmental costs. It requires a great deal of energy and fresh water, disturbs large areas of land, and produces enormous amounts of

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14.7 8%

15.4 8%

7.3 4%

FIGURE 5.12 Proved natural gas r

Russia contains the largest natural gas r about 23% of the world total (more than 6 times the size of U.S. reserves). Major r . Source: Data from The BP Statistical Review of World Energy, June 2009.

, iddle East,

FIGURE 5.13 Oil shale deposits. The United States contains about two-thirds of the world’s known supply of oil shale, with the richest deposits located in the Green River formation. Oil shale is unlikely to become an important resource until ways are found to process it economically and to solve the waste-disposal and land-reclamation problems its mining poses.

waste. The pr eates greenhouse gases and pollutes air, water, and surrounding soil. Nevertheless, because they exist in vast amounts, ces of gaseous and liquid y or most renewable energy sources ydroelectric power), they could pro

gasoline, jet, ed societies depend. The lower ices in the 1980s and a decline in government support put a temporary halt to efforts y competitive with oil. As reser however, at some point their prices are bound to rise. When that occurs, countries

The Geography of N

BRITISH COLUMBIA

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TCHEWAN

Cold Lake

Tar-Sand Deposits 0 miles 0 km

(b)

200 200

FIGURE 5.14 (a) Tar MONTANA IDAHO

(a)

are likel In the meantime, technologies employing nuclear energy as a sour wer ar eady developed.

Nuclear Energy Proponents consider nuclear power a major long-term solution to energy shortages. Assuming that the technical problems can be solved, they contend that nuc ovide a vir y inexhaustible source of energy. Other commentators, pointing to the dangers inherent in any system dependent on the use of radioactive fuels, argue that nuclear power poses technologic politic social, and environmental problems for which society has no solutions. Basic y, energy can be created fr s: nuc lear fusion.

Nuc

Fission

The conventional form of nuc for power production involves the contr “splitting” of an atomic nucleus of uranium-235, the onl y occurr When U-235 atoms are split, about one-thousandth of the original mass is converted to heat. The released heat is transferred through a heat exchanger to create steam, which drives turbines to generate electr . y equivalent of nearly 5500 barrels of oil. More than 440 commercial nuclear reactors around the world tap that energy, generating about 16% of the world’s electricity (Figure 5.15). About onefourth of those plants are in the United States.

(b) Production of synthetic oil from the tar sands involves four steps: (1) the removal of overbur to extraction units; (3) the addition of steam and hot water to separate the bitumen from the tailings residue; and (4) the refinement of the bitumen into coke and distillates. It takes about 2 tons of sand to yield a single barrel of oil. (b) © W .

Some countries are much more dependent than others on nuclear power. Nuclear power pro e than 75% of the electr rance and Lithuania, and about 50% in Belgium and Sweden, but it accounts for only 20% or less of the electric power generated in both the United States and Canada. Several countries have rejected the nuclear option altogether. Denmark, Italy, Greece, Australia, and New Z e among the countries that decided to remain “nuclear-free” and never built nuc wer plants. A few countries, including Germany, Sweden, and the Philippines, plan to phase out and dismantle their reactors. Many countries, however, have seen a recent re interest in nuc power, stemming in part from the belief that nuc educe carbon emissions and slow the rate of climate change. Worldwide, 27 reactors are under construction in 13 countries, with another hundred or so planned or proposed. With the world’s third-largest nuc power industry (after the United States and France), Japan relies on its 55 nuclear power plants to generate almost onethird of its electr , and government plans c 11 new plants. In China, a soaring demand for electr a desire to reduce reliance on impor heavil ed power plants have prompted the government to continue building new reactors. Other countries building new c e Finland, India, South Korea, Taiwan, and Russia. Expansion of the nuclear power industry in the United States is less certain. For a var easons, no new plants have been ordered since 1979 (F e 5.16). The high costs of constructing, licensing, and operating the plants made nuclear

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Million tons of oil equivalent 200 190 180 170 160 150 140 130 120 110 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 United France Japan States

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Operating reactors

FIGURE 5.16 Operating nuclear power plants in the United Russia South Germany Canada Ukraine Korea

Percent of world total

States, 2009. The 104 plants pr s electricity. In the next few years, a number of power companies are expected to file applications for new nuclear reactors at 19 power plants ar . Source: Data from U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission.

FIGURE 5.15 Leading producers and consumers of nuclear energy, 2008. These eight countries produce and use about four s nuclear energy. The percent of world total . Few nuclear power plants exist in developing countries. Source: Data from The BP Statistical Review of World Energy, June 2009.

power more expensive than energy derived from other sources. tial reactor meltdown in Three Mile Island, Pennsylvania, in 1979 and the catastrophe at the Chernobyl plant in U y. The lack of safe storage sites for radioactive reactor waste has also eroded public support for nuc y. F y, particularly after September 11, 2001, many view nuclear plants as tempting targets for terrorist attacks. Despite these concerns, nuclear power may be on the verge of a comeback in the United States. Many of the older reactors will be closed in the coming years as their steam generators corrode and steel pressure vessels become too brittle to operate safely. Several companies either have applied to the Nuc oval to replace their reactors or have indicated their intent to do so. The energ approved by Congress in 2005 inc incentives—including credits, subsidies, loan guarantees, and federal insurance—to encourage production of nuclear .

Nuc

Fusion

Unlike a reaction, which splits an atom, a nuc reaction forces forms of hydr wn as deuterium and tritium to combine to form helium, releasing tremendous amounts of . Fusion is the process that makes the sun and other stars burn; it is also the basis of the hydrogen bomb, which uses a brief, uncontrolled thermonuc eaction. Mor nuc requires heating the atoms to extremely high temperatures, until their nuclei collide and fuse. One of the technologic

problems facing fusion r ial for the containment vessel that is resistant to radiation and temperatures 100 million°C or higher. A seven-member consortium of the United States, European Union, India, Russia, China, South Korea, and Japan is collaborating on construction of the world’ ale nuclear fusion reactor in France. The Thermonuclear Exper TER) is intended to be a demonstration plant to prove that fusion can be harnessed as an economic ce of energy. take at least a decade to build the plant. If the developmental pr lear e solved, Earth’s electricity requirements would presumabl ter of ocean water, the source of deuterium atoms, contains as much potential energy as the world’s entire known oil reserves. Advocates of fusion cite other advantages. The radioactive processes are short-lived, and the waste products are benign. eactors, fusion reactors do not use uranium-235, a raw material that is in short supply; and unlike wer plants, they would not emit the pollutants carbon dioxide, xide, and nitric oxide. Skeptics point out that, despite 50 years of research, scientists have not solved the problem of contr its released energy can be used. They argue that the costs of a an be supplied more cheapl F y, they say, y could be accompanied onmental problems we have not conceived of yet.

RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES The problems posed by the use of nuclear energy, the threatand the desire to be less dependent on foreign sources of energy have increased

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interest in industr ed countries in the renewable resources. One of the advantages of such resour . Most places on Earth have an abundance of sunlight, rich plant gro strong wind, Another advantage is ease of use. It doesn’t take advanced technology to utilize many of the renewable resources, one reason for their ead use in developing countries. The most common renewable source of energy is plant matter.

attracted by the low price of alcohol and the fact that vir y y’s service stations sell the fuel. By 2010, 90% of the new c Ethanol curr y accounts for only 3% of America’s gasoline use, but the desire to reduce dependence on imported oil has sparked interest in doubling ethanol production by 2012 and tripling it by 2017. In the United States, nol is derived from corn, ant disadvantages when compared with sugarcane.

Biomass Fuels

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Mor ld depend on wood and other forms of biomass for daily r ements. Biomass is any organic material produced by plants, anior microorganisms that can be burned directly as a heat source or converted into a liquid or gas. In addition to wood, biomass fuels include leaves, crop residues, peat, manure, and In Ethiopia and Bangladesh, biomass supplies 90% or mor y consumed; in India and P e is about 40%. In contrast, energy from the conversion of wood, grasses, and other organic matant in the developed world. There ar ces of biomass: (1) trees, grain and sugar crops, and oil-bear wers, and (2) wastes, including crop residues, garbage, and human sewage. Biomass can be transformed into in many ways, including direct combustion, gasi cation, and anaerobic digestion. Further, conversion processes can be designed to produce, in addition to electr , solid (wood and charcoal), liquid (oils and alcohols), and gaseous (methane and hydrogen) fuels that can be easily stored and transported.

Wood The great major oduced from biomass comes from wood. In 1850, the United States obtained about 90% of its energy needs from wood. now contributes only 3% to the energ y as a whole, the percentage varies by region, with wood fuel proy used in Maine and Vermont. In developing countries, wood is a key sour , used for space heating, , water heating, and lighting. This dependence on wood is leading in places to severe depletion of forests, a subject discussed later in this chapter (see “Forest Resources,” pp. 149–154). A second biomass contribution to systems is alcohol, which can be produced from a var After the oil shortages of the 1970s, Brazil, which is poorly endowed with embarked on an effort to develop its indigenous educe the country’s dependence on imported oil. cohol ( om sugarcane, e on which an r ations. In 2003, “ ”c The ars are designed to run on pure gasoline, . Buyers are

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Sugarcane can be grown on marginal soils in a tropical climate. As grown in the United States, corn requires ations of nitrogen fertilizer, herbicides, and pesticides, Corn takes a lot of land to grow. To replace an additional 5% of U.S. gasoline consumption, roughl acres (the size of Wisconsin and Nebraska combined) would have to be planted in corn. Because sugarcane is more energ Brazil pr e ethanol per hectare than the United S The energ , y used to make mpar (output), tilts heavily in favor of sugarcane. Cane yields 8 units of ethanol for ev for corn, very unit Cane is cheaper to process because it’s already sugar and doesn’t need converting before distillation. Corn, however, is ground up and combined with water and enzymes that convert the starch into sugars, ing fermentation. om the water.

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millions of acres of farmland now set aside for soil and wildlife conservation. Ethanol distilleries currentl th of the U.S. corn crop. Converting more corn to fuel will drive up the prices of livestock feed, meat, cer and other goods. ops is by using waste.

Waste Waste, including crop residues and animal and human refuse, represents the second broad category of organic fuels. Particularly in r eas, energy can be obtained by fermenting such wastes to produce methane gas (also called biogas) in a process known as anaerobic digestion (F e 5.17). A number of countries, including India, South Korea, and Thailand, have national biogas programs, but the largest effort to generate substantial quantities of methane gas for rural households has been undertaken in China. There, backyard fermentation tanks (biodigesters) supply as many as 35 million people with , lighting, and heating. The technology has been kept intentionally simple. A stone fermentation tank

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FIGURE 5.17 A biogas generator in Nepal. Animal and vegetable wastes are significant sources of fuel in countries such as Nepal, Pakistan, India, and China. Wastes eground are mixed with water and decaying organic material. As the wastes decompose, gases are emitted. The unit in the background is the gas-collection chamber. Tubes lead from it to family kitchens. © Sean Sprague/Panos Pictures.

is fed with wastes, which can include straw and other crop residues in addition to manure. These are left to ferment under pressure, producing methane gas that is later drawn thr After the gas is spent, the remaining waste is pumped out and used in the for fertilizer.

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Hydropower Biomass, particularly wood, is the most commonly used source of renewable energy. The second most common is hydropower, which exploits the energy present in falling or wing water. Hydropower is generated when water falls or ws from one level to another, y or over a dam. The falling water can then be used to turn waterwheels, as it was in ancient Egypt, or modern turbine blades, powering a generator to produce electricity. Hydropower is a clean source of energy. The water is neither polluted nor consumed during power generation, although in arid areas some water in the reservoir may be lost to evaporation. Generally speaking, as long as a str w, hydropower is renewable. Tied as it is to a source of water, hydroelectric power production is loc egard to generation. ies generate some hydropower, countries account for mor ld hydroelectric production: Canada, the United States, Brazil, China, and Russia. In the United States, hydropower is generated at more than 1900 sites in 47 states. S just 6 states generate y’s hydropower (F e 5.18), and more than 75% of the country’s developed c concentrated in just three areas: the northwest (Washington,

FIGURE 5.18 Leading hydropower-producing states, 2007. W s largest hydroelectric facility—the Grand Coulee Dam—generates 32% of the total U.S. hydropower. The United States has developed about half of its hydroelectric capacity. Source of data: Energy Information Administration, Renewable Energy Trends in Consumption and Electricity, April 2009.

Oregon, Idaho, and California), the multistate Tennessee ea of the southeast, and the northeast. That pattern is a result of both the location of the resource base and the role that agencies such as the Tennessee V Author (TVA) have played in hydropower development. Tr ydroelectr v y, y consumed in the region where it is produced. This fact helps account for variations in the pattern of conegions. Thus, y opower provides the United S about 7% of its electr , ’s needs and about 90% of the electr egon and Washington.

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Consumption patterns around the world are shown in F e 5.19. Hydropower’s contribution to a country’s energy supplies varies greatly. Several countries—New Zealand, Switzerland, and Brazil—obtain more than three-quarters of their electricity from hydropower. Hydroelectric power plants provide virtually all of the electricity in Paraguay and Norway. It is estimated that people use only 10% of the world’s potential hydropower supply. Water resources that haven’t yet been exploited for hydropower are still abundant in Central and South America, Africa, India, and China. In addition to supplying electrical power, dams provide otection and irrigation water. Despite these and other advantages, the exploitation of hydropo cant environmental and social costs (see “Dammed Trouble,” pp. 136–137). F s for water storage submerges forests, farmlands, and villages, sometimes resulting in the displacement of tens of thousands or ev The reser iver habitats, alter str w patterns, and trap silt that other w downstream to be deposited on agr leading to long-term declines in soil fer . The disruption of downstream ecosystems that evolved to take advantage of a river’s y reduces the diversity of aquatic species.

Solar Energy Each , the earth intercepts solar that is to many thousands of times the energy people currently use. , solar energy is the ultimate

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origin of most forms of utilized energy: life, waterpower and wind power. It is, however, the direct captur as the best hope ing a propor e energ envir um conservation of earth resources. The chief drawback to solar power is its and e. , it m ver a large area to make it practical to use, and because it is intermittent, it requires some means of storage. The technology for using solar energy for domestic uses such as hot-water heating and space heating is well wn. In the United States, both passive and active solar-heating technologies have secured a permanent foothold in the marketplace. Mor for water and space heating. Japan is reported to have some stems, and in China and Israel, mor . The use of solar panels for individual homes is best in climates that are warm and sunny, uch cloud cover and not too many hours of dar in winter, when the demand for energy is at its highest. ves converting concentrated solar energy into thermal energy to generate electric. Research efforts are focusing on a var ic systems, including power towers, oughs, ponds. Most involve the concentration of the sun’s rays onto a stem. In a parabolic trough system, long troughs w the sun, focusing solar energ nthetic oil (F e 5.20). Heated to 390°C (735°F), the oil in turn heats water to produce steam to power generators. Se e operating in the Mojave Desert, producing enough electr esidential needs of 270,000 people.

FIGURE 5.19 Consumption of hydropower by region, 2008. The percent of world hydropower consumption is indicated for each region. Hydropower’s contribution to the electricity supply is not limited to industrialized countries. In South America, for example, hydropower provides about 70% of the electricity; the figure for the developing world as a whole is 44%. Source: Data from

FIGURE 5.20 Parabolic trough reflectors at a solar thermal

The BP Statistical Review of World Energy, June 2009.

© The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Photo by Dong Sherman.

nia. The facility uses sunlight to produce steam to generate electricity. Guided by computers, the parabolic reflectors follow the sun, focusing solar energy onto a steel tube filled with heat transfer fluid.

Dammed Trouble

The plants just described generate electr ectly by ting light to heat, but electr an also be generated directly from solar rays by photovoltaic (PV) cells (also called solar cells), semiconductor devices made of silicon. In North America, such solar-electric cells wer var ed purposes where cost is not a constraint, such as powering spacecraft, mountaintop communications relay stations, buoys, and foghorns. As the price of the PV cells has declined, y has increased, they have found a market in powering highway signs, cellphone towers, and small appliances such as calculators and radios. In developing countries, they power irrigation pumps, 136

run refrigerators for remote health clinics, and charge batteries. The latest advance in solar technology is a photovoltaic r mater that is integrated with solar cells, in effect oof the power plant for the building. In Japan, Germany, and France, PV roof systems ar many new houses. Several states and cities in the United States offer rebates, subsidies, or other incentives to homeowners and businesses (e.g., factories, warehouses, install solar panels on their roofs. By 2007, Japan had the greatest installed solar power c , followed by Germany and the United States. Although improv

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ant drop in the cost of PV solar power systems, considerable research and development will be necessary befor ant contribution to a country’s supply of electr .

Other Renewable Energy Resources In addition to biomass, hydropower, and solar power, a number of other renewable sour an be exploited. Two of these ar y and the wind. ther appears able to make a major contribution to the world’s energy needs, each has limited, often loc ed, potential.

People have always been fascinated by volcanoes, geysers, and hot springs, all of which are manifestations of (liter ly, “earth-heat”) energy. There are several methods of deriving energy from the earth’s heat as it is c ed in hot water and steam trapped a mile or more beneath the earth’s surface. Conventional methods of y depend on the for availability of hot-water reservoirs beneath the earth’s surface. eservoirs use the heat energy either for generation of electr or for direct heat applications, such as heating houses or drying crops. 137

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e usually associated with areas where magmas are relatively near the earth’s surface—that is, eas of recent volc ve the subduction zones. Thus, Iceland, Mexico, the United States, the Philippines, Japan, and New Z e among the 21 countries that produce Figure 5.21). In Iceland, half of the geooduce electricity; half is used for heating. Almost the houses and commercial buildings in the c are heated by geothermal steam. Although relatively few places have geothermal steam that can be exploited to generate electr , an also be used directly for heating and cooling. Geothermal heat pumps wn as ground-source heat pumps) take advane found in soil below the frost line to heat or cool air pumped through a building. Loops of e buried in the ground; an electric compressor circulates refrigerant through them and then cools or heats the air, which is distributed throughout a building. Energ and envir y clean, geothermal heating systems have grown in popular tates in recent years, particularly for new construction.

per capita output of wind energy in the world. With the exception of India, Asian countries have been somewhat slower to but sizeable projects are under construction in China and Japan. Offshor e expected to play a growing role in the coming years, par ly in northern Europe. The world’s biggest offshore park is at the entrance to Copenhagen’ bor. pro y’s electr . The Netherlands and Sweden also have offshor ks, and planned or under e parks off the coasts of Britain, Ireland, Belgium, Germany, and Spain. The chief disadvantage of wind power is that it is unreliable because its energy cannot be easily stored, it requires a backup system. A y, in some countr po emote areas, far from the existing power grid, and costly ne ing it to consumers. Detractors point out that it bines to produce the same amount of electr lear power plant. Envir concerns inc e very visible, often covering entir landscape) and the haz

Wind Power wer was used for centuries to pump water, grind grain, and dr , its contr supply in the United States vir y disappeared more than a y ago, when windmills were r later by the fossil fuels. Windmills offer many advantages as sources of electric wer. They c bines directly, do not use any fuel, and can be built and erected rather quic y. They need only strong, steady winds to operate, and these exist at many sites. Furthermore, bine generators do not pollute the air or water and do not deplete scar resources. Technological advances in design have lowered the bines to generate electr , so they are becoming increasingl wer plants. Wind power now costs fr watthour, about the same as po ed by fossil fuels. In the 1980s, dominated the worldwide development of wind energy, spurred by the gasoline shortages of previous years, feder and favorable long-term utility contracts. By 1987, bines ee parts of the state, representing 90% of the world’ F e 5.22). That percentage declined steadily during the 1990s as other states and a number of European countries began to invest in wind ms, clusters of wind-powered turbines producing commer . In the 1990s, a commitment to reducing dependence on fossil fuels and developing renewable resources stimulated the growth of wind-po opean countries, particularly Germany, Spain, and Denmark. In terms , Germany and the United States are the world’s leading producers of wind-powered energy, followed by Spain. Denmark, however, has the highest

NONFUEL MINERAL RESOURCES esources already discussed provide the energy that enables people to do their work. y important to e the nonfuel minerals, for they can be processed into steel, and other metals and into glass, cement, and other products. Our buildings, tools, and weapons ar y mineral in origin. Vir esour including rocks, and the fuels, are contained in the earth’s crust, just 8 account for more than 98% of the mass of the earth’s crust (F e 5.23). They can be thought of as geologic y abundant, and all others as geologic y sc ce. In most places, minerals exist in concentrations too low to make their exploitation pr If the concentration is high enough to make mining feasible, the mineral deposit is c ore. Thus what is or is not an ore depends on demand, price, and technology and changes over time. Exploitation of a mineral resour pic y involves six steps: 1. 2. 3. 4.

exploration ial) extraction (removing it from the earth) concentration (separating the desired material from the ore) smelting and/or re (br desired pure material) 5. transporting it to wher 6. manufacturing the or oduct

Each step requires inputs of energy and mater

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FIGURE 5.21 (a) Geothermal power plants worldwide. Most areas where geothermal energy is tapped are along or near plate boundaries. Because the number of sites suitable for geothermal power generation is limited, and most are far from large cities where the demand for power is great, geothermal power is likely to remain a minor contributor to world energy production. (b) One of the 21 geothermal power plants at The Geysers, an area of about 78 square kilometers (30 sq mi) in n California. Magma radiates heat through the rock above it, heating water in underground r

(b)

where it is piped to the power plant. As the photograph suggests, one drawback of geothermal plants is that they release gases into the atmosphere, although scrubbers like those used on coal stacks can reduce gaseous emissions to an acceptable level. , Environmental Geology, 6/e, Figure 14.22, p. 353. McGraw-Hill: Boston, 2003; (b) Photo by M. Smith/USGS.

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FIGURE 5.22 (a) A wind farm in the San Gorgonio Pass, near Palm Springs, California. The wind turbine generators harness wind power to produce electricity. s wind potential has been tapped, new wind-power projects ar ind turbine technology advanced dramatically during the 1990s; modern turbines are significantly mor eliable than earlier ones. In recent years, wind energy has been the fastest-growing source of electrical generation in both the United States and the world as a whole. (a) © Roger Scott; (b) Source of data: American Wind Energy Association.

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FIGURE 5.23 The relative abundance, by weight, of s crust. Only four of the economically e geologically abundant, accounting for more than 1% of the total weight of the , these and other commercially valuable minerals have been concentrated in specific areas within the crust. Were they uniformly disseminated throughout the crust, their exploitation would not be feasible.

Five factors help determine the practic its value, , the richness of the ore in a particular deposit, the distance to market, and land-acquisition and roycosts. Even if these conditions are favorable, mines may not be developed or even remain operating if supplies from competing sources are available more cheaply. In the 1980s, more than 25 million tons of iron ore-producing c y shut down in the United States and Canada. Similar declines occurred in North American copper, nickel, zinc, lead, and molybdenum mining as market prices fell below domestic production costs. Beginning in the early 1990s, as ar esource depletion and low-cost imports, the United States became a net impor eases in mineral prices may lead to the opening or reopening of mines that have been deemed unpr , the developed industrial countries with marves at a competitive disadvantage against developing country producers with lower-cost labor and state-o eserves. N ocesses produce minerals so slowl into the c enewable resources, deposits. The supplies of some, however, are so abundant that a ready suppl e. These inc sand and gravel, and potash. The supply of others, such as tin and mercury, is small and getting smaller as industrial societies place ever-greater demands on them. Table 5.1 gives one estimate of “years remaining” for some important metals. It , because eserves ar As we noted in the case of fossil fuels, such estimates are based on economic and technological conditions, and we cannot predict either future

pr ov . The depletion of the currentl usable reserves of a valuable ive up the price of the miner , which wi make it pr e now c nomic deposits (see F e 5.4). Those deposits would then be rec oved reserves. The discovery of new deposits ovements in mineral-processing technology would also increase the r e and thus its projected lifetime. Although human societies began to use as early as until the Industrial 3500 B.C., world demand remained Revolution. It was not until after World War II that increasing shortages and rising prices (and in the United States, increasing dependence on foreign sources) began to impress themsel Worldwide technological development has established ways of life in which minerals are the essential constituent. That industrialization has proceeded so rapidly and so cheaply is the direct result of the earlier ready ich and accessible deposits of the requisite materials. Economies gre eam. The question, yet unanswered, is whether the remaining supplies of scar ed and developing economies or whether, and how, way to cope with shortages.

The Distribution of Nonfuel Minerals Because the distribution of mineral resources is the result of long-term geologic processes that concentrated certain elements into commercially exploitable deposits, it follows

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FIGURE 5.24 Leading producers of selected minerals. The countries shown are not necessarily those with the largest deposits. India, for example, contains r those materials. Data from World Resources Institute.

that, the larger the country, the more likely it is to contain such deposits. And in fact, Russia, China, Canada, the United States, Brazil, and Australia possess abundant and diverse mineral resources. As Figure 5.24 indicates, these are the leading mining countries. They contain roughly half of the esources and pr (e.g., iron, manganese, and nic ., potash number of countries, and some scarce elements occur in just a few regions of the world. Thus, extensive deposits of cobalt and diamonds are largel ussia and centralsouthern Africa. South Africa has nearl ld’s gold ore and more than three-quarters of the chromium and platinum-gr Some countries contain only one occo has phosphates, for example, and Ne nickel. Several countries with large populations ar espect to mineral reserves. They include industrialized countries such as France and Japan, which are able to import the resources, as well as developing countries such as Nigeria and Bangladesh, which are less able to afford imports. It is important to note that no countr the economically important mineral resources. Some, such as the United States, which wer y supplied by e, have spent much of their assets and now depend on foreign sources. y selfit is not today. Because of its history of use of domestic r y expanding economy, the United States now

oducer of

depends on other countries for more than 50% of its supply some of which are sho in Table 5.2. The increasing costs and dec encourage the sear The fact that industr so successful in the search for new mater esources of possible resource depletion. But it must be understood that no adequate replacements have been omium. Many often employing increasingly scarce and costly hydroc bons in their production. Many, in their use or disposal, constitute envir have their own high and increasing price tags.

Copper: A Case Study Table 5.1 indicates that the world reser only another generation or so, based on current rates of production and consumption and assuming that no new extractable reserves appear. Copper is a relatively scar and its importance to industrialized societies is e fact that more copper is mined y than any other nonferrous metal except aluminum. Three properties make copper desirable: it conducts both heat and electr emely well, can be hammer es, and it resists corrosion. Copper is a major industrial metal with many applications. industrial and farm machinery, power transmission and generation,

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telecommunications, electrical wire and equipment, electronic products, transportation, coinage, oducts (e.g., e, musical instruments, ant proportion of copper is ys in bronze, brass, Like most minerals, copper is unevenly distributed in the earth’s crust. The largest copper deposits are found at convergent tectonic margins in western North America, western South America, and Australia. Copper deposits in sedimentary basins include those extending across northern Europe, from England to Poland, and the copper-belt of central Africa (Zambia and Democratic Republic of Congo). Chile leads the world in copper production (about 36% of the total), followed by the United States, Indonesia, and Peru. Because the United States consumes more copper than it produces, it impor ant amounts to meet its demand for the metal. y, the production of copper increased fairly steadily from 9.5 million metric tons in 1984 to a over 17 in 2007. Nevertheless, ips the supply, due both to its increased use in motors and electronic equipment and to rising consumption of the metal in Russia, India, and China. The quintupling of the price of copper from $0.60 per pound in 1999 to $3.30/lb in 2010 r The scarcity of copper supplies has had several effects that suggest how societies will cope with shortages of other raw materials. First, in the United States, the grade of mined ores has decreased steadily. Those with the highest percentage of copper (2% and above) were mined early (Figure 5.25).

FIGURE 5.25 Concentration of copper needed in order to be mined economically. In 1880, 3% copper ore rock was , but today, rock with 0.4% or less copper is mined. As the supply of a metal decreases and its price increases, the concentration needed for economic r .

Now, ore of 0.4% grade is the average. Thus, 1000 tons of rock must be mined and processed to yield 4 tons of copper— or, in more practical terms, 3 tons of rock are necessary to equip one automobile with the copper used in its radiator and its various electrical components. The remaining 2.985 tons is waste, generated at the mine, the concentrator, and the smelter. Second, the recovery of copper by recycling has increased. Vir oducts made from copper can be recycled. Unlike some minerals, copper lends itself to recycling because much of it is used in pure form in sizeable pieces. It is less

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expensive to r e recycled, or “secondary,” copper into new products than to produce it by mining and r new ore. Recycling contr antly to the copper supply in the United States. Increasing demand for copper has led to the search for Two companies are actively exploring the feasibility of extracting copper, gold, silver, from underneath the South P where the minere concentrated in mounds at midoceanic ridges and the crests of undersea volcanoes. Nearl below sea level, e thought to contain 12% copper. Cr y destructive, adverse effects on marine life, while its advocates contend that it is less disruptive than land-based mining. F y, price rises have spurred the search for substitutes. In many of its applications, copper is being replaced by other, less expensive materials. Aluminum is replacing copper in some electrical applications and in heat exchangers. Plastics are supplanting copper in plumbing pipes and building materials. Glass are employed in many telephone transmission lines, and steel can be used in shell casings and coinage.

LAND RESOURCES esour e nonrenewable. We turn our attention now to land resources that are y renewable, examining the distr of three of those resources: soils, wetlands, and forests. Because they support or are living things, they are sometimes c biological resources.

Soils By design or by accident, people have brought about many changes in the physical, chemical, and biochemical nature of the soil and altered its structure, fertility, and drainage characteristics. The exact nature of the changes in any area depends on past practices as well as on the or e of the land. Over much of the earth’s surface, the thin layer of topsoil upon which life depends is only a few inches deep, y less than 30 centimeters (1 ft). Below it, the lithosphere is a e of rock particles, , organic mater living organisms, air, and water. Under natural conditions, soil is constantly being formed by the physical and chemical decomposition of rock material and by the decay of organic matter. It is sim y being eroded, for erosion—the remo ticles, y by wind or runocess as soil formation, and it occurs ev y covered by forests or grass. however, the rate of soil forosion, so that soil depth and fer ease with time.

FIGURE 5.26 The tropical rain forest was cleared on this tract oom for a tin-mining operation. e easily eroded. © Getty RF.

When land is cleared and planted to crops, or when the vegetative cover is broken by overgrazing or other disturbances, the process of erosion accelerates. When its rate exceeds that of soil formation, the topsoil becomes thinner and ev y disappears, y sterile subsoil or barren rock. At that point, the renewable soil resource has been converted through human impact into a nonrenewable and dissipated asset. Carried to the extreme of bare rock hillsides or winddenuded plains, er of the land. Such massive destruction of the soil resource could endanger the sur ation it has supported. For the most part, however, farmers devise ingenious ways to preserve and even improve the soil resource upon which their lives and livelihoods depend. Farming have not declined in recent years, but pressures upon farmlands have increased with population growth. Farming has been forced higher up onto steeper slopes, more forest land has been converted to cultivation, grazing and crops have been pushed farther and more intensively into semiar eas, worked more intensively and less car y. Many traditional agr stems and areas that were ecologic y stable and secure as recently as 1950, when world population stood at 2.5 billion people, are disintegrating under the pressures of mor The pressure of growing population numbers is having an especially destructive effect on tropical rain forests. Expanded demand for fuel and commercial wood and a midlatitude market for beef that c ably by replacing tropic est with cleared grazing land are responsible for some of the loss, but the major cause of deforestation is clearing the land for crops. Extending across parts of Asia, Africa, and Latin America, the tropical rain forests are the most biologically diverse places on Earth, but vast expanses are being destroyed every year. About 45% of their original expanse has already been cleared or degraded.

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Deforestation is discussed in more detail on pages 149–154, but it is important to note here that accelerated soil erosion quic y removes tropical forest soils from deforested areas. Lands cleared for agriculture almost immediately become unsuitable for that use, partially because of soil loss (Figure 5.26). The tropical rain forests can succumb to deliberate, massive human assaults and be irretrievably lost. With much less effort, oy or alter the environment, humans are similarly affecting the arid and semiarid regions of the world. The process is c deser the expansion or ation of areas of degraded or destroyed soil and vegetation cover; it usually occurs in arid and semiarid environments. Climatic change—unpredictable cycles of and drought—is often a contributing cause, but deser ation accelerates bec , mainly overgrazing, deforestation for fuelwood, clearing of original vegetation for cultivation, and burning. Deser ation implies a continuum of ecologic om slight to extreme (F e 5.27). Whatever its degree of development, when the process results from human rather than climatic change, it begins in the same fashion: the disruption or remo cover of grasses and shrubs through farming or overgrazing (F e 5.28). If the disruption is severe enough, the original vegetation cannot reestablish itself, and the exposed soil is made susceptible to erosion during the brief,

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that dominate pr id regions. W face instead of seeping in, carrying soil partic When the water is lost through surface w rather than seepage downward, the water table is lowered. Eventually, even deep-rooted bushes are unable to reach groundwater, The process is k the earth down with their hooves, bloc the passage of air and water through the soil. When both plant cover and soil moisture are lost, deser ation has occurred. It happens with increasing frequency in many areas of the earth as pressures upon the land continue. Africa is most at risk; the United Nations has estimated that 40% of that continent’s nondesert land is in danger of human-induced deser ation. But nearl th of Latin America’s land are similarly endangered. In countries where deser ation is particularly extensive and severe (Algeria, Ethiopia, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Mali, and Niger), per capita food production dec early 2000s. The resulting threat of starvation spurs populations of the affected areas to increase their farming and livestock pressures on the denuded land, further contributing to their deser ation. Deser ation is but one expression of land deterioration leading to accelerated soil erosion. The evidence of that deter ts of the world. In G for example, some 40% of the productive c

e than 100 countries. According to the United Nations, one-third

of the world’ owth, overexploitation of water supplies, diversion of rivers for irrigation, destructive farming practices that expose topsoil to wind and water erosion, overgrazing of grasslands by livestock, and cutting of trees and shrubs for firewood. Source: John Allen, Student Atlas of World Geography, 5/e, Map 81, p. 97.

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FIGURE 5.28 Windblown dust is engulfing the scrub forest in this drought-stricken area of Mali, near T Sahel region of Africa, wher essures on the land. The cultivation of marginal land, overgrazing by livestock, and recurring droughts have led to the destruction of native vegetation, erosion, and land degradation. © Wolfgang Kaehler.

has been lost through erosion, and several areas of the country have been abandoned because agr e has become economic y impracticable. The e is 50% in El S vador, and In Turkey, about half of the land is severely or very severely eroded. A one-quarter of India’ y eroded. In recent years, soil erosion in the United States has F e 5.29) (see “Maintaining Soil Pr . 148”). Wind and water are blowing and washing oplands in Io i, elands in the Great Plains, and ranches in Texas. America’s croplands lose almost osion, an average annual loss of more than 4 tons per acre. In some areas, the average is 15 to 20 tons per acre. Of the roughly 167 million hectares es) of land that are intensively cropped in the United States, more than one-third are losing topsoil faster than it can be r y (it c replace an inch of topsoil). In parts of Iowa and Illinois where the topsoil was once a foot deep, emains. Like most processes, soil er y effects. As line, croplands become less productive and yields drop. Streams and reservoirs experience accelerated siltation. In countries wher y laden

with agr supplies.

chemic

erosion-borne silt

water

ow. Accelerated erosion is a pr y cause of agricultural soil deterioration, but in arid and semiarid areas, salt accumulation can be a contributing factor. ation is the concentration esult of the evaporation of surface water. It occurs in poorly drained soils in dry climates, where evaporation exceeds precipitation. As water evaporates, some e left behind to form a white crust on the surface of the soil (F e 5.30). Like erosion, saliniz ocess that has been accelerated by human activities. Poorly drained irrigation systems are the primary culprit, because irrigation water tends to move slowly and thus to evaporate rapidly. All irrigation water contains dissol which are left behind on the surface when water evaporates. Mild or moderate salinity makes soil less productive and lowers crop yields; extreme salinity ultimately can render the land unsuitable for agr e. Thousands of once fertile acres have been abandoned in Iran and Iraq; over 25% of the irrigated areas of India, P Syria, e affected by salinization. Approximately

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FIGURE 5.29 Excessive erosion on cropland. This dot-density map shows areas where excessive erosion from wind and water is occurring on cr osion is defined as erosion greater than the rate that will permit crop productivity to be sustained economically and indefinitely. Data were not collected on federal land, areas shaded gray in the map.

basin and in the Central V Ironic y, the irrigation water that transformed that arid, y’s most productive farming regions now threatens to make portions of it worthless again.

Wetlands

FIGURE 5.30 Salinization has left a white crust of salt on the oblem is most severe in eas where irrigation is practiced. USDA Natural Resources Conser

im McCabe.

es (4 million acres) of cultivated soils in the Canadian provinces of Saskatchewan and Alberta are c as overl Areas of serious salinization also appear in the U.S. Southwest, particularl

Vegetated land surfaces that are periodic y or permanently cover ec Transitional zo , var of forms, including grassy marshes, wooded swamps, and estuaries, and ar Some are permanently wet; others have standing water for only part of the year. In North America, wetlands range in size from the ie potholes of the Midwest and Alberta, Canada, to areas as large as Florida’s Everglades. Among the best known wetlands of the United States are the Okefenokee Swamp in Georgia and the bayous of Louisiana and Mississippi. has large expanses of wetlands, mostly peatlands. ategories e inland and coastal. In the United States, most wetlands are freshwater inland wetlands. They include bogs, marshes, swamps,

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adjacent to rivers. Either fresh or salt water covers coastal wetlands, which are cr to marine ecosystems. The part of the sea lying abo oductive supporting the major commercial marine ies. Because it is not very deep, this neritic zone is penetrated and warmed by sunlight. eceives the nutrients wing into oceans from streams and rivers, so that vegetation and a great of aquatic life can ish. However, the neritic zone depends to a considerable extent on the continued zone, the relatively narrow area of

fresh water meet Figure 5.31). Extremel

stems, wetlands perform a Tr ing the silt, pollutants, and nutrients that rivers bring downstream, wetlands improv ound aquifers. Among the most diverse and pr stems, o Indeed, wetlands ar

y of N

Upland streams

Swamp grass

Tidal creek

FIGURE 5.31 The estuarine zone. The outflow of fresh water from streams and the action of tides and wind mix deep ocean biological productivity. The saline content of estuaries is lower than that of the open sea. Many fish and shellfish require water of low salinity at some point in their life cycles.

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sediment and water. uction inevitably disrupts the intricate ecosystems of the wetlands. Growing awareness of the importance of wetlands and of how much wetland acreage has been damaged or destroyed has led in the United States and elsewhere to efforts to preserve and protect them. In the United States, the Clean Water Act of 1972 and subsequent amendments gave wetlands a measure of federal protection. The act pr without a permit issued by the USCOE, a provision critics have likened to putting a fox in charge of the hen house, because the corps has long emphasized dredging, stream straightening, and dike building. y, the government since 1989 has had a “no net loss” policy. If a development project destroys wetlands, that loss must be offset by restoring or creating a where. Federal protection does not mean a wetland cannot be developed, however, and the USCOE has issued thousands of permits letting homeowners and de eds of thousands of acres of wetlands. Prosecutions for degrading or for failing to offset their loss, have been extremely rare. As a result, although the rate of wetland loss has slowed in recent years, many of the wetlands that remain are in danger of degradation or loss.

grounds. Wetlands are major breeding, feeding, nesting, and wintering gr pes of birds (F e 5.32). Not only are these areas extraordinarily productive themselves, ibute to the pr itic zone, wher ws from wetlands into the sea. Importantly, wetlands absor bilize shorelines by pro barriers to erosion. Forest Resources One reason Hurricane Katrina did so much damage to New Orleans was that much of the wetlands that used to buffer the Wetlands are only one of the renewable resources in danger from storms were gone—due to the draining of swamps of irreparable damage by human action. In many parts of the and marshes to create new land for houses and businesses and world, forests are similarly endangered. to U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USCOE) projects that After the retreat of continental glaciers some 12,000 years reshaped the Mississippi and built canals and locks to ago, and before the rise of agriculture, the world’s forests and make shipping easier. woodlands probably covered some 45% of the earth’s land area People have not always recognized or apprecitending to view them as swampy, y areas that provide breeding grounds for mosquitoes and impeded settlement— wastelands that should be reclaimed for productive uses such as agr e and commer velopment. Indeed, in the United States, Congress in the mid-1800s passed the Swamp Land Acts, which made it national polic lands. the world have been destroyed. Australia and New Z e thought to have lost abut 90% of their original wetlands, and Europe at least 60%. Since the 1780s, the contiguous United States has lost more than half of its wetlands, going from some 87 million hectares (215 million acres) to 42 million hectares (105 million acres). Wetlands have been drained, dredged, and built upon, converted to cropland, and used as garbage dumps. They are polluted by chemicals, FIGURE 5.32 A salt marsh in Louisiana. Tidal marshlands have been excess nutrients, and other waterborne wastes. Nat- subjected to dredging and filling for residential and industrial development. The ural shorelines have been bulldozed, and arti loss of such areas r levees and breakwaters interfere with the eed and feed in coastal marshes and use them for rest during long migrations. © Franke Keating/Photo Researchers. ing that nurtures wetlands with fr

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FIGURE 5.33 Major commercial forest regions. Much of the original for Many treed landscapes that remain do not contain commer and at current prices cannot be considered commercial.

exclusive of Antarctica. They were a sheltered and productive onment for earlier societies that subsisted on gathered fruits, nuts, berries, leaves, roots, om trees and woody plants. Fe es remain, though the gathering of forest products is still an important supplemental y, particularly among subsistence agr Even ter of land clearance for agr e and, more r y, commer ing, c , wood gathering, for ver about one-third of the world’s ea. As an industr ce, however, forests are more restr ea. pe reach discontinuousl om the equator northward to beyond the Arctic Circ tinents, commercial forests e r belts (F e 5.33). One, nearly continuous, midd orthern Hemisphere. dles the equator zones of South and America, Africa, and Southeast Asia. These for of tr ket or use they serve. The northern coniferous, or sof forest is the largest and most continuous stand, circling the globe below the polar regions. Its pine, spruce, , e used for construction lumber and to pr , rayon, oducts. To its south are the temperate hardwood forests, containing deciduous species such as oak, hickory, maple, and birch. These and the trees of the forest ly been greatly reduced in areal extent by centuries of agr and urban settlement and development, e commer y important for hardwood applications: e, veneers, railroad ties, and so on.

egions, has been cut over. n forests are not readily accessible

FIGURE 5.34 Logging trucks in Indonesia. © Corbis RF.

The tropical lowland hardwood forests are exploited priily for fuelwood and char on which the populations of developing countries ar y dependent. About 90% of world fuelwood production comes from the forests of Africa, Asia, Oceania, and Latin America. An incr om the tropical forests is cut for export as lumber, however. Southeast Asian countries such as Myanw account for much of the world’s hardwood log exports (F e 5.34). The adage about not being able to see the forest for the trees is applicable to those who view forests only for the commer ees they contain. Forests are more than trees, and timbering is only one purpose that forests

The Geography of N

(b)

est, in the Cascade Mountain Range of wester ee, regardless of species or size, drives out wildlife, damages watersheds, disrupts natural regeneration, and removes protective ground cover, exposing slopes to erosion. (b) Selective n Canada. Older, mature specimens are r Younger trees ar alan Photos.

Chief among the other purposes are soil and watershed conservation, the provision of a habitat for wildlife, and recreation. Forests also play a vital r ecycling of water, carbon, and o Because forests serve a variety of purposes, the kind of management techniques employed in any one area depend on the particular use(s) to be emphasized. Thus, if the goal is to maintain a diversity of native plant species in order to pro um number of ecological niches for wildlife,

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the forest will be managed differently than if it is designed for public recreation or the protection of watersheds. Even if the use to be emphasized is timber production, different management approaches may be taken. Logging techniques for the production of pl or wood chips, for example, differ from those used for the production of high-quality lumber. Commer ests can be considered a renewable resource only if sustained-yield techniques are practiced—that is, if harvesting is balanced by new gro maximum sustainable yield in Chapter 10). Timber companies employ a number of methods of tree harvesting and regeneration. Two quite different practices, clear cutting and selective cutting, illustrate the diversi of such approaches (Figure 5.35). Clear cutting is one of the most controversial logging practices. As the name implies, the tr e removed from a given area at one time. The site is then left to r y or is replanted, often with fast-growing seedlings of a single species. Excessive c , ticularly on steep slopes, destroy life habitats, accelerates soil erosion and water pollution, r est with a wood plantation of no gr , and reduces or destroys the recr ea. Selective cutting est stands containing tr ying ages, sizes, and species. Medium and large trees are cut either singl oups, encouraging the gro of younger tr vested later. Over time, the for egenerate itself. From the point of view of the harvester, selective lear cutting. Moreover, the practice is often followed very loosely, and the construction of logging roads can ause extensive damage to the forest.

(a)

FIGURE 5.35

ces

U.S. National Forests

tates is forested, the same proportion for the world as a whole. Only some 40% of those forests provide the harvest of commer . The remaining forests are fragmented holdings; e inaccessible; or are in proeas. Of that 40% of commer est land, is in 155 national forests o the U.S. Forest Service (F e 5.36). Logging by private comtimber companies pay for the right to cut designated amounts of timber. y, the Forest Service is at the center of debates over how the forests should be managed. Among the issues ar , the cutting of very old tree stands, road building, and rates of reforestation.

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Alaska

FIGURE 5.36 National forests of the United States.

, more than 180,000 hectares (450,000 acres) of trees are cut down within these forests—about 4 square kilometers (2 sq mi) of defor . To accommodate the cutting, 547,000 kilometers (340,000 mi) of logging roads (10 times the length of the U.S. interstate highway system) had been built by 2001 in formerly pristine areas.

By law—the 1960 Multiple Use Sustained Yield Act—the national forests are to be managed for four purposes: recreation, timber production, watershed protection, and wildlife habitat preservation. Although no use is to be particularly favored over others, conservationists charge that the Forest Ser easingly supports commer forests are being cut at an unprecedented rate. In recent years, billions of board feet of timber have been taken from the national forests. Environmentalists are espey concerned that nearly half of this has come fr forests in Oregon and Washington, most of it irreplaceable “old gro These virgin forests contain trees that are among the tallest and oldest in the world, indeed that were alive when Pilgrims set foot on Plymouth Rock. Old-growth forests include trees of every age and size, both living and dead. Some ancient trees are immense, capable of growing 90 meters (300 ft) high, and they may live for more than 1000 years. They inc , Western red cedar, sequoia, and redwood. Tons of dead and decaying logs carpet the for , where, sodden with moisture, they help control erosion and protect the forest fr e. As they decay, the logs release nutrients back into the soil. Such forests provide a habitat for hundreds of types of insects and animals, some of them threatened or endangered species.

The only large expanses of old-gro est r the United States are in the P orthwest, most of them owned by the federal government. These ancient forests once covered about 60% of the forested ar ade Mountains and the P str (2000 mi) fr Today, only 10% of the old-growth forests remain, and they are being logged at the rate es (60,000 acres) per year. If logging continues at the present rate, they wi be gone in about 20 years, ceasing e today. Although companies plant new seedlings to replace those they cut, timber is being har as fast as new trees can replace it. Further, traditional management practices, including clear cutting, road building, and harvesting after decades, ies, of regeneration prevent the development of a true old-gro est ecosystem. It is ironic that many Americans condemn the burning of the tropical rain forests while the U.S. government not only permits the destruction of forests just as ecologic y precious but, in fact, subsidizes that destruction. The governy loses mor because building and maintaining the logging roads costs far more than the timber companies pay for the wood. P Tongass N Forest, N a’ est, ’

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e endanger itats.

153

eds

meters (4600 mi) of access roads and to promote commer ing and has r in r F ees 3 meters (10 f ound verseas and converted into products such as rayo

Tropic

ain Forests

It is not y in the United States that government economic policies accelerate the rate of forest destruction. Much of the deforestation occurring in tropic sanction. Indonesia, and the Philippines are among the countries where governments subsidize projects aimed at converting forests to other uses, such as farming, ca e ranching, and mining. e driven by the pressure of gro the need for more agr expanded an overseas market for beef that c ofitably by replacing tropic est with cleared grazing land, and an increasing demand in China for soybeans, soy oil, and soy meal by-products. The tropical forests extend across parts of Asia, Africa, and Latin America (F e 5.38). Millions of acres are being completely cleared every year, eady been either cleared or degraded. In Central America and the Caribbean, 70% of the rain forests have disappeared. The Amazon a vast region of more than 4 million Gulf of Alaska squar across part of Brazil and adjacent parts of eight other countries, is thought to contain about half of the world’s remaining tropical rain forests. Most of the rain for ica, which account for ar now exist FIGURE 5.37 The Tongass National Forest, the largest national for mainl ica because those of west America, covers approximately 7 million hectares (17 million acres). The innumerable Africa, from Sierra L islands, inlets, and fiords of the Tongass are set against a backdrop of coastal oon, have been largely destroyed. The remainmountains. Since the late 1950s, the federal government has subsidized the timber ing 20% of tropical rain forests are found in the omising companies a long-term supply of cheap wood from the Tongass. egion. Here again, the picture is ees are not needed for forest products and that the Tongass should be managed for wildlife, fishing, and tourism, as well as logging. bleak. India, Malaysia, and the Philippines have . already lost much of their forests, and rates of deforestation recently have risen sharply in Myanmar, KampuF e 5.37). of the last r chea (Cambodia), Vietnam, and Indonesia. Ov places in the United S v it is estimated that nearl ’ est is gone. opean colonization. A storehouse Although no one doubts that the tropical rain forests are , the To eatened species being cleared, there is considerable uncer the rate izzl , at which that is happening. The United Nations estimates that fr , however, on average about 40,000 squar

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FIGURE 5.38 Tropical rain forests exist in tropical latitude regions with high temperatures and high levels of humidity year-round. The Amazon River Basin has the world’s largest continuous area of rain forests. Three countries contain more than half of the tropical rain forests: Brazil, the Democratic Republic of Congo, and Indonesia. Large tracts are being cleared to make way for farming, cattle ranching, commercial logging, and development projects.

been clear y in recent years, y less than 1% per year of the remaining forests. S y of the Brazilian forests in the Amazon y e. In Brazil, this means that, on average, an area roughly the size of Connecticut is deforested each year. Defor because it has the area of opic rain forests and one of the highest rates of c ing. N estation is a complic vernments of de industr ies, ations oups, and m ates of human rights. To cr erately de on Basin, espond that because it relieves high population densities in its crow r

ces; and helps Brazil repay its huge foreign debt. Pointing ests in W States were c ed dec ies ago, and that subsequent resour osper , ians ask why they shouldn’ esources in what they deem to be their o est. e e good reasons, however, N Americans should care what happens to the tropic ests. Their ee pr and a host of loc ones. First, forests play a major role in the o th. P ies consume o bon from atmospheric c eleases o atmosphere. Indeed, the for on have been c “lungs of the world” br W opic est is c ed, its r bon “sink” and as an o eplenisher is lost. ibution of forest clearing to air pollution and climate change. Deforestation by burning releases vast quantities of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Brazilian scientists estimate that the thousands of es that are set to c on forest account for oneoduction of carbon dioxide, contributing to the warming of the atmosphere (F e 5.39). In addition,

es generate gases (nitrogen oxides and methane) that create acid rain and contribute to the depletion of the ozone layer, topics discussed in Chapter 12. F y, the eradication of tropic eady leadt of the biologic planet. The forests are one component in an intricate ecosystem that has developed over millions of years. The trees, wering plants, and insects depend on one another for survival. The destruction of the habitat by clearance annuy c species that exist nowhere else. opical rain forests now occupy less than 10% of the earth’s land surface, they ar e from 50% to 70% of all the species of plants, animals, and microorganisms in the world. Many of the plants have become important world staple food crops, among them rice, corn, cassava, squash, banana, pineapple, and sugarcane. Unkno remain as yet unexploited. In addition, the tropic ests yield an abundance of industrial products (oils, gums, latexes, and pentines) and are the world’s main stor plants (see “Tropic orests and Medical Resources”). Defor onmental, economic, e loc ests anchor topsoil and absor e. In a vicious cycle, forest clearance accelerates soil erosion and siltation of streams and irrigation channels, ought, leading in turn to e shortages of food and wood. Within a matter of years, land that has been cleared for agriculture can become unsuitable for that use. In the Himalayan watershed, in the Ethiopian highlands, and in numerous other places, deforestation, erosion, unoff have aggravated that have tens of thousands of people and lef meless.

RESOURCE MANAGEMENT ests is a tragedy that yields no The world is approaching the end of a period in which resources were cheap, readily available, and lavishly used. Over the centuries, the earth has been viewed as an almost inexhaustible storehouse of resources for humans to

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1989

1975

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2001

FIGURE 5.39 Deforestation in the Amazon Basin between 1975 and 2001. These satellite images of a portion of the state of opical rain forests. In 1975, the area ypically, clearing of the forest vegetation began along roads and then fanned out to create the “fishbone” pattern evident in the 1989 image. By 2001, the extent of deforestation had more than doubled. The fastest and cheapest way to clear areas for farms and ranches is to burn them. About the size of Or centage of its forest cover destroyed by fire, although the states of Mato Grosso and Pará also show significant deforestation. Likened by some to an environmental holocaust, the fires generate hundr h’s protective ozone layer.

exploit and, simultaneously, as a vast repository for the waste pr . Now there is a growing realization that resources can be depleted, even renewable ones, such as forests; that many have life spans measured only in decades; and esources—cannot absorb massive amounts of pollutants yet retain their life-supporting abilities. That r ation was r th S o, when the world’s governments agreed to form the UN Commission on S velopment. Since that time, more than 70 countries, including the United States, susdevelopment, which is gener ly de ned as developwn needs. The principles of enewable resour for regeneration. Over the long term, • • • • •

soil erosion cannot exceed soil formation forest destruction cannot exceed forest regeneration species extinction cannot exceed species evolution atches cannot exceed the regenerative c ies annot exceed the c stem to absorbt hem

an violate the principles of sustainability in the short run but not in the long r e. ainable development is easy, but achie velopment equire, among other things, educ

about the need for such policies; y vernment leaders, , pro esource velopment; and ensuring consistency in go eements. Develdevelopment, bec

y enough to invest in the . At the same time, have to r ies (1) see the consump(some would say overco of mater r ces by de ies as in large measure responsible for the dwind esources, and (2) do not want to be told they c w the path to velopment and prosper Mo ward the wise management of resources is not impossible, however. It entails three strategies: conservation, reuse, By we mean the car use of resour e generations can obtain as many om them as we now enjoy. It includes decreasing our consumption of resources, avoiding their wasteful use, and preser . Thus, soils can be conserved and their fertility maintained by contour plo , crop rotation, and a variety of other practices. Properly managed, forests can be preserved even as their resources are tapped. Oppor educe the consumption of energy resources are many and varied. Nearly everything can be made mor Motor vehic ant portion of the world’s oil output. y by reducing vehicle weight and using mor engines and tires would save at least 20% of the world’ oil output. Industries have an enormous potential for saving

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equipment and processes. The Japanese steel industry, for example, to produce a ton of steel than does that industry in most other countries. Energy used for heating, cooling, and lighting educed by half if they were properly constructed and furnished. escent lightbulbs, for example, use only 20% of the energy of incandescent bulbs and last eight times longer. The reuse of materials also reduces the consumption of resources. Instead of being bur waste can be burned or decomposed and fermented to pro . Recycling of steel, aluminum, copper, glass, and other materican be greatly increased, not only to recover the materives but also to recoup the energy invested in their production (F e 5.40). It takes only 5% as much electricity to make aluminum from scrap as from raw materials. In other words, ers can make 20 cans out of recycled mater an out of new material. See “Source Reduction and Recycling” in Chapter 12 (pp. 425–426) for a further discussion of this topic. The substitution of other energy sources for gas and oil can be more actively pursued. economic y can be developed, pl e. In addition, the renewable esources, such as biomass, solar, wer, ar . Although no single renewable source is likely to be as important as oil or

FIGURE 5.40 Compresed cans ready for recycling. Americans buy about 100 billion aluminum cans a year, only 40% to 45% of which are recycled. The rest end up in landfills and will still be ther om now. Recycling reduces the amount of land that must be strip-mined for bauxite to produce aluminum, the air pollution from refineries, and water pollution from waste piles. © Punchstock RF.

gas, collectivel

ant contribution to F y, the substitution of other mater nonfuel minerals in short supply can extend the lifetimes of their reserves. Non-metals such as ceramics or products can substitute for metals in some applications.

Summary of Key Concepts • N esources can be c enewable, those that can be r e as fast as or faster than societies them, and nonrenewable, those that are generated so slowl The proved r e the amounts that have an be extracted pr y.

• Industr y advanced countries depend heavily on resources derived from nonrene oil, gas, of which e une y distributed. Some countries receive more than of their electr om nuc wer plants, while others have none.

The Geography of N

• Rene esources are mor y and evenly distributed than the nonrenewable ones. Wood and other e the primary source of energy for more ld’s people, and hydropower is a major source of electr ies. Other renewable resources, including solar power, geothermal energy, and wind power, make a more localized and limited contribution to energy needs. • esources from which people fashglass, stone, and other products are nonrenewable. Some exist in vast amounts, others in relativel

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quantities; some ar y distributed, others concentrated in just a few locations. • Human activities have had and continue to have a severe impact on wetlands and forests, ecologic roles. • The growing demand for resources, induced by population increases and economic development, strains the earth’s supply of raw materials. The wise and c eful management of natural resour ves conservation, reuse, and substitution.

Key Words 133 conservation 155 deser ation 145 energy 122 inez one 148 y 137 hydropower 134 128 nonrenewable resources 120

nuc 131 nuc 132 oil 129 ore 138 per resource 120 photovoltaic (PV) 136 y renewable resource 120 proved (usable) reserves 121 renewable resource 120

resource 119 salinization 146 soil erosion 144 solar 135 sustainable development 155 tar sand 129 138

Thinking Geographically 1. W renewable and a nonrenewable resource? Why do estimates of proved reserves vary over time? 2. Why are energy resources c “master” resources? What is the r y consumption and industr oduction? Br y describe historic y consumption patterns in the United States. 3. Why has oil become the dominant form of commer Which countr oducers of crude oil? Wh edict how long proved reserves of oil are likely to last? 4. In 1974, when the United States imported 35% of the oil it consumed, Pr N on in his State of the Union Address said, “L ... The United S country for the we need to provide our jobs, to heat our homes, and to keep our transportation moving.” The aim of his Project Independence was to be independent of foreign sources by 1980. How do you account for the fact that, more than 35 years later, the United States imports more than 60% of the oil it consumes? 5. Why has the proportion of U.S. increased since 1961? What ecological and social problems ar

6. What are the different methods of generating nuclear energy? Why is there public opposition to nuclear power? 7. Which are the most widely used ways of using renewable resources to generate energy? What are the advantages of using such resources? The disadvantages? 8. What, in general, are the leading mining countries? What role do developing countries play in the production of critic ials? How have producing countries reacted to the threatened scar 9. Since soil er ocess, why is it of concern? What are some commonly used methods of reducing eroeas do deser ation occur? 10. What ar pes of wetlands? Why are they important, and why have so many disappeared? 11. What ecological functions do forests perform? Where are the tropic rain forests located, and what concerns are raised by their destruction? 12. Discuss three ways of reducing demands on resources.

PART TWO

The Culture-Environment Tradition The Crow country. The Great Spirit put it exactly in the right place; while you are in it, you fare well; whenever you get out of it, whichever way you travel, you fare worse. . . . The Crow country is in exactly the right place. It has snowy mountains and sunny plains; all kinds of climates and good things for every season. When the summer heats scorch the prairies, you can draw up under the mountains, where the air is sweet and cool. . . . In the autumn when your horses are fat and strong from the mountain pastures, you can go down on the plains and hunt the buffalo or trap beaver on the streams. And when winter comes on, you can take shelter in the woody bottoms along the rivers. The Crow country is exactly in the right place. Everything good is found there. There is no country like the Crow country.

S

CHAPTER

Population Geography

SIX

CHAPTERO UTLINE

 

Population Geography CHAPTER SIX

“Z

ero, possibly even negative [population] growth” was the 1972 slogan proposed by the prime minister of Singapore, an island country in Southeast Asia. His nation’s population, end of World War II (1945), had doubled by the mid-1960s. To avoid the overpopulation he foresaw, the government decreed, “Boy or girl, and refused maternity births. Abortion and sterilization were legalized, and children born fourth or later in a family were to be discriminated against in school admissions policy. In response, by the mid-1980s, birth rates had fallen below the level necessary to replace the population, and abortions were terminating more than onethird of all pregnancies. “A . Better three. Four if you can afford it” was oposed by the same prime minister in 1986, r ingencies of the earlier campaign had gone too far. From concern that overpopulation would doom the country to per Third World pover , Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew was moved to worry that population limitation would deprive it of the growth potential and national strength implicit in a youthful, educated wor ce adequate to replace and support the present aging population. ovided for sizeable, rebates for second children born to mothers under 28. Not cerease the population, the Singapore government y renewed its offer to take 100,000 Hong Kong Chinese who might choose to leave when China took over that territory in 1997. The policy reversal in Singapore r tion r : the str e of the present controls the content e. The size, characteristics, gro ends, and migrations of today’ peoples yet unborn but whose numbers and distributions are now being determined. The numbers, age, and sex distribution of people; the patterns and trends in their fer mortality; owth affect and are affected by the social, political, and economic organiz . Through population data we begin to understand how the people in a given area live, how they may interact with one another, how they use the land, what pressure on resources exists, e may bring. Population geography provides the background tools and understandings of those interests. It focuses on the number, composition, and distribution of human beings in relation to variations in the conditions of earth space. It differs from demography, the statistic in its concern with spatial analysis—the relationship of numbers to area. circumstances of resource base, economic development, standard of living, food supply, and e basic to geography’s population concerns. They are, as well, essions of the human-environment relationships that are the substance of all human geographic inquiry.

161

POPULATION GROWTH Sometime in 2011, a human bir th’s population to 7 billion people. In 1999, the count was 6 billion. As of mid-2010, the world population was growing by an average y, or some 202,000 per day. While the increases ar they have been declining over the During the early 1990s, the U.S. Census Bureau and the United Nations Population Division r ly reported yearly growth at 85 to 90 million. Even with the slower pace of recorded increase, in 2006 the United Nations projected that the world would likely contain about 9.2 billion inhabitants in 2050. Even then, it would continue to add a few million annuy and gro Impressed by dramatic birth rate reductions reported by 2007 for many developing and populous countries—India, importantly—many demographers lowered their estimates to pr y wor followed by numerical decline, slow increase. ee, however, e growth will occur in countries now considered “developing” (Figure 6.1), y rapid gro developed states. The major ld’s most populous countries are developing countries, and that tr become more pronounced by 2050 (Table 6.1). We eturn to these pr and disagreements inher lions? With what can we compare the 2010 population of Estonia in Eur ale and meaning, our understanding of the data and data manipulations of the population geographer can at best be super cult to appreciate a number as vast as 1 million or 1 billion and the great distinction them. Two examples offered by the Population Reference Bur ations: • A 2.5-centimeter (1-in.) stack of U.S. paper currency contains 233 bills. If you had a million the stack would be 11 centimeters (4.3 in.) high. If you had a billion your pile of money would reach 109 meters (358 f • You had lived a million seconds when you were 11.6 days old. You won’t be a billion seconds old until you are 31.7 years of age. The implications of the present numbers and the potential increases in population ar ent social, political, and ecologic Population numbers were much smaller some 12,000 years ago, when continental glaciers began their retreat, people spread to formerly unoccupied portions of the globe, and human exper ces initiated the Agricultural Revolution. The 5 or 10 million people y had considerable potential to expand their numbers. In retrospect, we see

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Billions 12

Share of world population, 2000 Total = 6.1 billion

11 Sub-Saharan Africa 11%

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 6%

3 2 1 0 1750

1800

1850

1900

1950

2000

2050

2100

(a) Estimated share of world population, 2050 Total = 9.2 billion (Values do not add up to 100% due to rounding)

FIGURE 6.1 World population numbers and projections. owth, world population began orld War II (1939–1945). United Nations demographers project a global population of 9.2 billion in 2050. Declining growth rates in much of the developing world have lowered earlier year 2100 estimates of global population from 10 billion to no more than 9.4 to 9.5 billion; some demographers argue educing it to between 8 and 9 billion. Numbers in moredeveloped r (a)

early 2000 levels in 51 countries and areas. However rates and immigration are projected to increase the U.S. population by more than 50% between 2000 and 2050, and large-volume immigration into Europe could alter its population decline projections. In contrast, the populations of the less-developed regions may increase by more than 60% between 2000 and 2050. (b) Although e than 80% of world population was found in regions considered “less-developed” in 2000, more than 9 out of 10 of a larger total will be located there in 2050. Sources: (a) Estimates from Population Reference Bureau and United Nations Population Fund; (b) Based on United Nations and U.S. Bureau of the Census data and projections.

esour th had a populationsupporting c essures exerted on it by early hunting and gathering groups. Some observers maintain that, despite present numbers or even those we can reasonably anticipate for the future, the Others, however, frightened by the resource demands of a growing world population that had already expanded four-fold—from 1.6 billion to 6.1 om 1900 to 2000, compare Earth to a self-contained spaceship and declar vessel cannot bear an ever-increasing number of passengers. They point to recurring pr ition and starvation (though these are realistic y more a matter of failures of distr oduce enough foodstuffs worldwide). They cite dangerous conditions of air and water the loss of forest and farmland, the appar ing exhaustio and other

North Africa 8%

(b)

evidences of strains on world resources as foretelling the discernible outer limits of population gro On a worldwide basis, populations grow only one way: the number of births in a given period exceeds the number of deaths. Current estimates of slowing world population growth and eventual or decline clearly indicate that humans, may effectively limit gro The implications of these become clearer after we ld population and explor ance.

SOME POPULATION DEFINITIONS es of population composition and trends, start with a count of events: of individuals in the population, births, deaths, marriages, and so on. To those basic counts,

Population Geography CHAPTER SIX

163

TA B L E 6 . 1

demographers add r es more meaning and useful in population analysis. Among them are rates and cohor easures. Rates simply record the frequency of the occurrence of an ev for example, the iage rate as the number of iages performed per 1000 population in the United States last year. Cohort measures refer data to a population gr perhaps, or the college class of 2012 (F e 6.2). Basic numbers ysis of wor tion trends have been reprinted in this book with the permission of the P Examinaws.

world’s people (down fr ies with rates that high or higher (F e 6.3). ies— ica, western and southern Asia, and L ica—the is pr y and r and a high propor oung. In many of them, bir antl r ate. Available data suggest that, ev , about 50 ths go unregistered and therefore uncounted. Birth rates of less than 18 per 1000 are reckoned low and are characteristic of industrialized, urbanized countries. All European countries, including Russia, Anglo America, Japan, Australia, and New Zealand, have low rates, as do an increasing number of developing states. Some of these, such as China, have adopted effective family planning programs (see “China’s Way—and Others,” page 165). In others,

Birth Rates The birth rate (CBR), often referred to simply as the birth rate, is the annual number of live births per 1000 population. It is “crude” because it relates births to total population without regard to the age or sex composition of that population. A countr births a year has a crude birth rate of 20 per 1000. 40,000 = 20 per 1000 2,000,000 The birth rate of a countr ongl and sex e of its by the customs and y size expectations of its inhabitants, and by its adopted population policies. Because these conditions vary widely, recorded l y, from a high of 50 or more in some W ican states to lows of 9 or 10 per 1000 in 20 or more European countries. Although birth rates of 30 or abo e considered high, almost th of the

FIGURE 6.2

ences may be by race, sex, or ethnicity, these children ar ever be clustered demographically into a single .

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FIGURE 6.3

The map suggests a degree of precision that is misleading in the absence of reliable, universal r eproduction patterns if class divisions are not taken too literally , so this and other population maps may not agree in all details with the figures recorded in Appendix 3. Source: Data from Population Reference Bureau.

changed cultural norms have reduced desired family size. Transitional birth rates 18 and 30 per 1000) characterize some, mainl developing and newly industrializing countries, although giant India entered that group in 1994. As the recent population histories of Singapore and China indicate, birth rates are subject to change. The decline to current low birth rates of European countries and of some of the areas that they coloniz y ascribed to industr ation, urbanization, and in recent years maturing populations. While restrictive family planning policies in China rapidly reduced the birth rate from over 33 per 1000 in 1970 to 18 per 1000 in 1986, industrializing Japan experienced a comparable 15-point decline in the decade 1948–1958 little governvention. Indeed, the stage of economic development appears closely r iations in birth rates among countries, although rigorous testing of this relationship proves it to be imperfect (Figure 6.3). As a group, the more-developed states of the world showed a crude birth rate of 12 per 1000 in 2009; less-developed countries (excluding China) registered 26 per 1000 (down from 35 in 1990). Religious and politic s can also affect birth rates. their religion forbids the use of ar th control techniques often lead to high birth rates among believers. However, pr y Catholic Italy has one of the world’s lowest birth rates. Islam itself does not prohibit contraception. Similarly, some European governments—concerned about birth rates too low to sustain present population levels—subsidize births in an attempt to raise those rates. Regional variations

in projected percentage contributions to world population gro e summarized in F e 6.4.

Fertility Rates Crude birth rates may display such regional var because of differences in age and sex composition or disparities in births among the reproductive-age, rather than total, population. The rate is “crude” because its denominator contains persons who have no chance at all of giving birth— males, young girls, and elderly women. The fert rate (TFR), which is the average number of children a woman will have over the course of her childbearing years, is a morer e satisfactory statement than the crude birth rate. The TFR (F e 6.5) is c over her childbearing years, a woman bore children at the current year’s rate for women that age. Thus, a TFR of 3 means that the average woman in a population would be expected to have three offspring in her lifetime. The fer es n in the population str e and summarizes the demonstrated and expected reproductive behavior of women. Thus, for regional comparative and predictive purposes, it is a more useful and more r e than the crude birth rate. e is replacement level fertilit vel of fer oduces exactly enough children to ensure that the same number of women survive in that generation to have offspring themselves. y to

Population Geography CHAPTER SIX

replace present population (one baby to replace each parent), in r , replacement fer vels must be slightly higher to compensate for the higher percentage of boys that are born and for mor e they complete their childbearing years. In developed countries, replacement levels of

165

fer e assumed to be 2.1. However, the higher the level of mor the higher the replacement level of fer For Mozambique earl y, for example, the replacement level fer en per woman.

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Latin America 10.0% China 4.9%

The Cul re-En ronment Tradition

Anglo America 4.0%

Oceania 0.5%

FIGURE 6.4 Projected percentage contributions to world population gr recor ently sized r structures are altering the world pattern of population increase. Africa, containing 13% of world population in 2000, will probably account for more than one-third of total world increase between 2000 and 2050. Between 1965 and 1975, China’s contribution to world growth was 2.5 times that of Africa; between 2000 and 2050, Africa’s numerical growth will be more than 8 times that of China. India, which reached the 1 billion level in 2000, is projected to grow by mor and have by far the world’s largest population. In contrast to the gr egions shown, Europe’s population is expected to decr period, according to the UN 2002 projections. Source: Projections based on World Bank and United Nations figures.

FIGURE 6.5 T

On a worldwide basis, the TFR in 2009 was 2.6; 20 years earlier, it was 3.6. The more-developed countries recorded a 1.7 TFR in 2009, down from a near-replacement 2.0 in 1987. That decrease has been dwar ance by the rapid changes in repr uch of the developing world. Since 1960, the average TFR in the lessdeveloped world fell by half from the traditional 6 or more to 2.7 in 2009. That dramatic decline r and men in developing countries are marrying later and having fewer children, following the pattern set earlier in the developed world. There has been, as a great increase in family planning and contraceptive use. In 2001, according to a UN world fer eport, vernments supported family planning and distributed contraceptives, either directly or indirectly. The recent fertility declines in developing states have been mor ead than anyone expected. The TFRs for so many of them have dropped so dramatic y since the early 1960s (F e 6.6) that earlier, widely believed world population projections anticipating 10.5 billion or more at the end of this century are now generally discounted and rejected. Indeed, worldwide in 2009, 81 countries and territories containing nearly 50% of global population had fertilwith more poised to join their ranks. China’s decrease from a TFR of 5.9 births per woman in the per y) about 1.8 in 2000 (an estimated 1.6 in 2009) and comparable drops in TFRs of Bangladesh, Brazil, Mozambique, and other states demonstrate that

indicates the average number of children that would be born to each woman if, during her childbearing years, she bore children at the same rate as women of those ages actually did in a given year. Because the TFR is efor ent prospects for gr Depending on mortality conditions, a TFR of 2.1 to 2.5 children per woman is considered the “replacement level,” at which a population will eventually stop growing. Source: 2009 data from Population Reference Bureau.

Population Geography CHAPTER SIX

Early 1960s

Developed countries

2009

Developing countries (excl. China) Sub-Saharan Africa

region, for example, sho 2009, but the TFRs of individual states ranged from a low of 16 in Cuba to a high of 4.0 in Haiti. The United States e the TFR for Hispanics was about 2.8, about 2.1 for African Americans, and only 1.8 for non-Hispanic whites.

Death Rates

South Asia Latin America East Asia 1

2

3 T

4

5

6

7

8

FIGURE 6.6 2009. and much more slowly in sub-Saharan Africa. Europe is far below replacement, with a 2007 TFR of 1.5; the United States, however, with a TFR of 2.1, is just at the replacement point. Sources: Population Reference Bureau, 2009 and United Nations Population Fund.

fertility r

167

not biological imperatives. If w favor fewer children than formerly, population projections based on earlier, higher TFR rates must be adjusted. In fact, demographers have long assumed that recently observed developing country—and therefor tility rate declines to the replacement level would continue and, in the long run, lead to stable population numbers. However, nothing in logic or history requir level. Rather than assume, as in the past, a fer line to a constant continuing rate of 2.1, the 2008 United Nations world population projection predicts a long-term (2050) fertilbelow the replacement level. Should the UN’s new assessment of fer ove correct, world population will not just stop growing, as its past projections envisioned; inevitably decline (see “A Population Implosion?”). Of course, change to again favor children, gro would resume. Different TFR estimates impl population projections and vastly different regional and world population concerns. y projections based on current fer rates may be inaccurate due to migration. population movements are occurring in response to politic ticularly, to differ ceived economic opportunities. For example, the European Union in recent years has had a negative rate of natural increase, yet since 2000 it has experienced y a constant population solely bec om Eastern Europe, Asia, ica. World r eported in ces are summaries that conceal sigant var oups. The Caribbean

The crude death rate (CDR), rate, is c ude birth rate: the vents per 1000 population. In the past, a ation was that the death rate, like the birth rate, varied with levels of development. Characteristic y, the highest rates (over 20 per 1000) were found in the lessdeveloped countries of Africa, Asia, and Latin America; the lowest rates (less than 10) were associated with the developed states of Europe and Anglo America. That correlation became decreasingly valid as dramatic reductions in death rates occurred in developing countr wing World War II. Infant mor oved as antibiotics, vaccinations, and pesticides to treat diseases and control disease carriers wer ts of the world and as increased attention was paid to funding improvements in urban and rural sanitary facilities and safe water supplies. e-developed and less-developed countries in mor y (Figure 6.7) have been so reduced that, by 1994, death rates for less-developed countries as a group y dropped below those for more-developed states and have remained lower since. Notably, that reduction did not extend to infant or maternal mor “The Risks of Motherhood”). Like crude birth rates, death rates are meaning poses only when we study identic y structur Countr oportion of elderly people, such as Denmark and Sweden, proportion of young people, such as Iceland, assuming equal. The pronounced y of in developing countries, as much as improv conditions, is an important factor in the recently reduced moreas. To overcome that lac , death rates can be c oups. The infant mortality rate, for example, is the ratio of deaths of infants age 1 year or under per 1000 live births: deaths age 1 year of less 1000 live births Infant mor ant because it is at these ages that the greatest declines in mor ed, largely as ar The drop in infant mor accounts for a large part of the dec in the last few decades, because mortality dur y greater than in any other year.

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FIGURE 6.7 Crude death rates

e 6.3. The widespread availability of at least minimal health protection measures and a generally youthful population in the developing countries yield death rates frequently lower than those recorded in “old age” Europe. Source: 2009 data from Population Reference Bureau.

240

200

1932 2009 160

120

80

40

0

Chile

Egypt

India

Japan

Italy

Nicaragua France

United States

FIGURE 6.8 Dramatic declines in the rate have occurred in all countries, a result of international programs of health car and children in developing states. Nevertheless, the decreases have been pr eatest in the urbanized, industrialized countries, where sanitation, safe water, and quality health care are widely available. Source: Data from U.S. Bureau of the Census and Population Reference Bureau.

Two centuries ago, it was not uncommon for 200 to 300 . Even today, despite ant declines in those rates ov countries (Figure 6.8), str ld regional and national variations remain. F ica, infant mor e

about 75 per 1000, and individual African states (for example, Angola, Liberia, Niger, and Sierra Leone) showed rates above 150 early in this y. Nor are rates uniform single countries. The former Soviet Union reported a national infant mor but it registered above 110 in parts of its Central Asian region. In contrast, infant mor in Anglo America and western and northern Europe are more uniformly in the 2 to 7 range. Modern medicine and sanitation have increased life expectanc ed age-old r th and death rates. In the early 1950s, only 5 countries, all in northern Europe, had life expectancies at birth of more than 70 years. By 2009, some 80 countries outside Europe and North America—although none in sub-Saharan Africa— were on that list. The availability and employment of modern n have varied r y, and the least-developed countries have least from them. In such underdeveloped and impoverished areas as much of sub-Saharan Africa, the chief causes of death other than HIV/ AIDS are those no longer of immediate concern in moredeveloped lands: diseases such as malaria; intestinal infections; cholera; and, especially among infants and children, malnutrition and dehydration from diarrhea. HIV/AIDS is the tragic and, among developing regions par ly, ead exception to obser ovements in life expectancies and reductions in adult death rates and infant and childhood mor AIDS has become the fourth most common cause of death worldwide and is forecast to surpass the Black Death of the 14th century—which caused an estimated 25 million deaths in Europe and 13 million in China—as history’s worst-ever epidemic. According to

Population Geography CHAPTER SIX

a report by UNAIDS,

peoies; aharan Africa. The United Nations estimated approximately 30 to 36 million people were HIV positive in 2007. Some 90% of

169

those infected lived in developing countries and 65% in subSaharan Africa, where women account for 60% of all cases. In that hardest-hit region, as much as one-fourth of the adult n in some countries is HIV positive, and average life expectancy has been cut drastically. In South Africa, the life

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expectancy of a baby born in the earl y should have been 66 years; AIDS cut that do In Botswana, it is 34 years instead of 70; in Zimbabwe, the decline has been from 69 years to 37. Ov AIDS has some 17 million Africans since the 1950s, when HIV (or y a disease of monkeys) appears to have established itself in Africa as a virulent human epidemic strain. sub-Saharan life expectancies, w pr absence of the disease. Economic y, AIDS cut an estimated 12% off national incomes in sub-Saharan countries, as of 2008. Southern Africa’s economies are based on farming, and women do much of un households. Bec more women than men, sub-Saharan food insecur ising

and food shortages result because many young adults are too feeble to farm. Thus, ition, starvation, and susceptibility to other diseases ar me reductions. Nonetheless, because of their high fertility rates, populations in all sub-Saharan countries except South Africa are still expected to gro antl adding nearly 1 billion to the continent’s total. Indeed, despite high mortality rates due to HIV/AIDS, according to UN projections the population of the world’s 50 leastdeveloped countries as a group will almost tr 2000 and 2050, the consequence of their high fer vels. However, warnings of the rapid spread of the AIDS epidemic in Russia, U , and South and East Asia—particularly China and India—raise new global demographic concerns

171

Population Geography CHAPTER SIX

even as more hopeful reports of declining infection and morican and Southeast Asian countries are appearing.

cohorts, as Austria shows, ther men and women because of the greater life expectancy of the latter. The impacts of war, as Russia’s 1992 py idly demonstrated, were evident in that country’s depleted age cohorts and male-female disparities. The sharp contrasts the composite pyramids of sub-Saharan Africa and Western Europe summarize the differ concerns of the developing and developed regions of the world; the projection for Botswana suggests the degree to which accepted pyramid shapes can quic y change (Figure 6.10). The population pr ovides a quic ed e of immediate practical and predictive For example, the percentage of a country’s population in each age group strongl vices within that national economy. A country with a high proportion of young has a high demand for educ certain of health delivery In addition, of course, a large portion of the population is too young to be employed (F es 6.10 and 6.11). On the other hand, a population with a high percentage of elderly people also requires medical goods and ser oup, and these people must be suppor oportion of workers. As the pr of a national population changes, differing demands are placed on a country’s social and economic systems (Figure 6.12). A dependency ratio is a simple measure of the number of economic dependents, old or young, that each 100 people in the pr y, ages 15–64) must support. Population pyramids give quic . e problems resulting from present n policies or practices. The strict family-size rules and widespread preferences for sons in China, for example, skews the pyramid in favor of males. On current evidence,

Population Pyramids Another means of comparing populations is through a population a graphic device that represents a population’s age and sex composition. The term pyramid describes the diagram’s shape for many countries in the 1800s, when the display was created: a broad base of younger age groups and a progressive narro ward the apex as older populations were thinned by death. Now, many different shapes are formed, each r ent population history (Figure 6.9), and “population pr ” may be a more appropriate label. By grouping se , the pyramids, or pr highlight the impact of “baby booms,” population-reducing wars, birth rate reductions, migrations. A rapidly gro y, such as Uganda, has most people in the lowest age cohorts; the percentage in older age groups declines successively, yielding a pyramid with markedly sloping sides. Typic y, y is reduced in older cohorts of less-developed countries, so that for Uganda the propor oups is lower than in, for example, Sweden. F y and mortalde auses (see “Millions of Women Are Missing”). In Sweden, y country with a very slow rate of growth, the population is nearl y divided among the age groups, “pyramid” tical sides. Among older

Decline Years of age 75+ 70–74

Old Dependents

Male

Male

Labor Force

Male

Female Male

50–54

Female

Disrupted

Female

Female

35–39 30–34 25–29

Young Dependents 12

5–9 10

8

6

4 2 0 2 4 Percent of population Uganda, 2004

6

8

10

12

4 2 0 2 4 Percent of population Sweden, 2004

4 2 0 2 4 Percent of population Austria, 2004

6

4 2 0 2 4 6 Percent of population Russia, 1992

FIGURE 6.9

ns of population structure. These diagrams show that population “pyramids” assume many shapes. The age distribution of national populations reflects the past, records the present, and foretells the future. In countries such as Uganda, social costs related to the young ar ovide employment for new entrants into the labor force. Their 2004 pyramids suggest Sweden will slowly grow only by 6% between 2025 and 2050 and Austria will decline by 2.5% over the same period. For comparison, in 2004 the United States was projected to incr . Austria’s negative gr a futur . The 1992 pyramid for Russia r ed the orld W ge 65 the orld Wars and late-Soviet period sharp reductions in Russian male longevity. Sources: U.S. Bureau of the Census,

International Data Base; and for Russia: Carl Haub, “Population Change in the Former Soviet Republics,” Population Bulletin 49, no. 4 (1994).

PART TWO

Years of age 75+ 70–74 65 or over Female 65–69 60–64 55–59 50–54

Male

4

0 2 2 Percent of population

4

(a) Western Europe, 2004

6

Male

Female

15–64

35–39 30–34 25–29 20–24 15–19 10–14 5–9

Under 15 6

The Culture-Environment Tradition

Age in years

172

10

8

6

4

2 0 2 Percent of population

4

6

8

10

80 75 70 65 60 55 Male 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 140 120 100 80

With AIDS Without AIDS

Female

60

40 20 0 20 40 60 Population (thousands)

80 100 120 140

(c) Botswana in 2020

(b) Sub-Saharan Africa, 2004

FIGURE 6.10

The 2004 pyramids for (a) Western Europe and (b) sub-Saharan Africa show the sharp contrasts in the age structure of older developed regions with their characteristic lower es and that of the much more-youthful developing sub-Saharan states. Even in 2004, about 44% of the sub-Saharan population was below age 15. That percentage, however, was smaller than it had been just 5 years earlier and hinted at mor of the projected decline will come as a result of economic development and changing family size decisions, but (c) for some countries, and perhaps for the region as a whole, tr esult from the demographic impact of AIDS. By 2020, the ,” in which there are mor Sources: (a) and (b) U.S. Bureau of the Census, International Data Base; (c) U.S. Bureau of the Census,

World Population Profile: 2000.

FIGURE 6.11 Percentage of population under 15 years of age. A high pr dependency ratio of that state and promises future population gr

s population under 15 increases the Source: 2009 data from

Population Reference Bureau.

marriage market in China. Even now, the Chinese population pyramid shows that never-married men ages 20–44 outnumber their female counterparts by nearly 2 to 1. The 40 million bachelors China is likely to have in 2020, unconnected to socien, may pose threats to social order and, perhaps, eseen or planned when family control programs were put in place but clearly suggested when made e n pyramid distortions.

Natural Increase and Doubling Times Kno ’s sex and age distributions also enables demographers to forec e population levels, though the r ojections decr easing length of forecast (Figure 6.13). Thus, a country with a high proportion of young people will experience a high rate of increase unless there is a very high mor and juveniles or fer th rates change mater y.

1970

Age 85+

Male

2000

Female

173

y CHAPTER SIX

P

Age

2030

85+ 80–84 70–74

Male

Female

Male

Female

Male

Female

60–64 50–54

30–34 20–24 10–14

12 10

8

6

4

2

0

2

4

6

8

10 12

12 10

Percent of population

FIGURE 6.12 The progression of the “boomers”

8

6

4

2

0

2

4

6

Percent of population

8

10 12

12 10

8

6

4

2

0

2

4

6

8

10 12

Percent of population

n between 1946 and 1964—through the U.S. population pyramid has been associated with changing American lifestyles and expenditure patterns. In 1970, national priorities focused on childhood and young adult interests and the needs, education, and support of younger age gr , boomers formed the largest share of the working-age adult population and their wants and spending patterns shaped the national culture and economy. By 2030, the pyramid foretells, their desir etirement facilities and old-age care—will again be central concerns. Source: Redrawn from Christine L. Himes, “Elderly Americans.” Population Bulletin 56, no. 4 (Dec. 2001), Fig. 1.

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re-Environment Tradition

550

TA B L E 6 . 2

Population in millions

500 450 400 350 300 250 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045 2050 Year

FIGURE 6.13 Possible population futures for the United States. As these population projections to 2050 illustrate, expected futur rate, and immigration flow assumptions they are based on are ent. Depending on those assumptions, 2000 Census Bureau projections of U.S. population in 2050 ranged from 313.5 million (low series) to 552.7 million (high series). The middle series estimate

TA B L E 6 . 3

ojections is made clear by the Bureau’s extension of its tr . By 2100, it calculated, U.S. population could range from a low series 282.7 million to a high series 1.18 billion. Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census.

The rate of increase of a population is derived by subtracting the crude death rate from the crude birth rate. Natural means that increases or decreases due to migration are not included. If a country had a birth rate of 22 per 1000 and a death rate of 12 per 1000 for a given year, the rate of na ral increase would be 10 per 1000. y expressed as a percentage—that is, as a rate per 100 rather than per 1000. In the example given, the annual increase would be 1%. The rate of natural increase can be related to the time it takes for a population to double if the current growth rate remains constant—that is, the doubling time. Table 6.2 shows that it would take 70 years for a population with a rate of increase of 1% (approximately the rate of natural growth of Thailand or Argentina at the start of the 21st century) to double. A 2% rate of increase—recorded in 2009 by Libya, Sierra Leone, and Venezuela—means that the population would double in only 35 years. (Population doubling time can be roughly determined by applying the Rule of 72, which simply involves dividing 72 by the gro w could adding only 20 people per 1000 cause a population to grow so quic y? The principle is the same as that used to compound interest in a bank. Until recently, for the world as a whole, the rates of increase have risen over the span of human history. Therefore, the doubling time has steadily decreased (Table 6.3). Growth rates vary regionally, and in countries with high rates of increase (Figure 6.14), the doubling time is less than the 60 years projected for the world as a whole at 2009 growth rates. Should world fertility rates

decline (as they have in recent years), theoretical population doubling time would correspondingly increase, as it has since 1990. Here, then, lies the answer to the question posed earlier. ements because we ar ic, (1, 2, 4, 8), rather than arithmetic (1, 2, 3, 4), growth. The ever-increasing wor eached such a size that each additional doubling would, y achieved, r in an astronomical increase in the A simple mencise suggests the inevitable consequences of such doubling, or , gro T thinnest paper you c . Fold it in half again. After 7 or 8 folds, thick as a book—too thick for further folding by hand. If you could make 20 folds, the stack would be nearly as high as a foot . From then on, the r ther

175

Population Geography CHAPTER SIX

FIGURE 6.14 Annual rates of natural increase. The world’s 2009 rate of natural increase (1.2%) would mean a doubling of population in 60 years. Because demographers now anticipate world population—above 6.8 billion in 2009—will stabilize at around 9.5 billion (in about A.D. 2100) and perhaps actually decline after that, the “doubling” implication and time frame of current rates of natural increase reflect mathematical, not realistic, projections. Many individual continents and countries, of course, deviate widely from the global average rate of gr ent potential doubling times. Africa as a whole has the highest rates of increase, followed by Central America and western Asia. Europe as a whole (including Russia) had negative gr , with some individual countries showing increases so small that their doubling times would be measured in millennia. Source: 2009 data from Population Reference Bureau.

doubling would be astounding. At 40 folds, the stack would be well on the way to the moon, far as the distance to the nearest star. After 1950, rounding the bend on the J-curve, which Figure 6.15 suggests world population did around 1900, fostered dire predictions of ine , unsupportable pressures on the planet’s population support capabilities. Today, it is apparent that few developed countries, particularly in Europe, were likely in the foreseeable future or ever to n size if their growth were projected— as is usually done—solely on curr ease. y gro immigration and emigration and of changes in life expectancy. That is, a country’s “ ” o y on bir antly lower population projections and longer doubling times than does the same country’s “o ” gro The contrast may be str . The United States in 2009 had a however, with migration, it had an overall gro with a doubling time of 80 years. W y absent, dec most of the developing wor S ica and parts of populous Asia cast doubt on the utilojections, even for present high gro countries. the United N veloped

7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 500 8000

7000

6000

5000

4000

3000 2000 Years

1000

B.C. A.D. 1000

0 2000

FIGURE 6.15 World population growth, 8000 B.C. to A.D. 2000. ovide new means to support the population growth made possible by r changes in agriculture and food supply. Improvements in medical science, sanitation, and nutrition reduced death rates near the

countr e inherently miseases are limited.

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THE DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION The theoretic cannot be realized. So operate to contr y unr

o

ust owth. If taken, involuntary controls of an unpleasant nature may be set in motion. One attempt to summarize a historic y observed voluntary limitation of population growth—and relating that control to economic development—is the demographic model. It traces the changing levels of human fertility and mor esumably associated with industrialization and urbanization. Over time, the model assumes, high bir ly be replaced by low rates (Figure 6.16). The age of that replacement process—and of the demographic transition model—is characterized by high bir As long as births only slightly exceed deaths, even when the rates of both are high, ow only slowly. This was the c about A.D. 1750. Demographers think that it took from approximately A.D. 1 to A.D. 1650 for the population to increase fr a doubling time of mor . Growth was not steady, of course. There were periods of regional expansion, which wer y offset by sometimes catastrophic decline. Wars, famine, and other disasters For example, k Death), which swept across Eur y, is estipopulation of that continent, and epidemic diseases Europeans Rate per 1000 40

30 Birth rate 20 Decline

Death rate 10

0

Stage 1

Stage 2

Stage 3

Stage 4 Stage 5

Years

FIGURE 6.16 Stages in the demographic transition. During e both high, and population grows slowly. When the death rate dr emains high, there is a rapid increase in numbers. During the third stage, , by a low rate of natural increase or even by decrease if death rates opean egions suggest that a egionally—and ultimately

brought to the Western Hemisphere are believed to have reduced New World native by 95% within a centransition model is no longer found in any country. At the end of the 20th y, few countries—even in poorer regions of sub-Saharan Africa—had death rates as high as 20 per 1000. However, in several African states, birth rates approached or were above 50 per 1000.

The Western Experience The demographic transition model was developed to explain y of Western Europe, parts of which began to experience declining death rates through the conversion of epidemic diseases to endemic forms even before the Industr volution, which began about 1750. The second stage of the transition model, however, modernizing consequences of the industrialization of Europe. Its effects—dec high birth rates—wer y dispersed wor , even ial economy. Rapidly r ing the second demographic stage results from dramatic increases in life expectancy. That, r al and sanitation practices, improv tribution, a rising per capita income, and the urbanization that provides the environment in which sanitary, medical, and food distributional improvements are concentrated (F e 6.17). Bir e slowly than technologies. In many agrarian societies, large families are considered advantageous. Children contribute to the family by starting to work at an early age and by supporting their parents in old age. Many countries in southern Asia and Latin America istics of the second stage in the population model. Yemen, th rate of 38 and a death rate of 8, and Guatemala, with respective rates of 34 and 6 (2009 estimates), are typic The annual rates of increase of Yemen, for example, is 30 per 1000, or 3%, giving it a doubling time Such rates, of course, do not mean that the ial Revolution has been worldwide; they do mean that the underdeveloped societies have been benies of the life preservation techniques associated with it. The third stage follows when birth rates decline as people begin to control family size. The advantages of having many children in an agrar are not as e banized, industrializ es. In fact, es may view children as economic liabilities rather than assets. When the birth rate emains low, the population size begins to level off. Many countries are now registering the low death rates and transitional birth rates of the third stage. The c fourth stage, characterized by very low birth and death rates. This stage yields at best only very slight percentage increases n, and doubling times stretch to a thousand years

Population Geography CHAPTER SIX

177

FIGURE 6.17

. A modernizing Europe experienced improved living conditions and declining death rates during that century of progress. © Topham/Image Works.

or more. ant and irreversible aging of the world’s population is a direct and profound consequence of the worldwide transition from high to low levels of fer ity associated with the fourth stage of the model (see p. 192). In a few countries, death rates have begun to equal or exceed bir ns are actually declining. So far, this extension of the fourth stage into a of population decrease has been largel ich, industrialized world—notably, Europe and Japan—but increasingly promises to affect much of the rest of the world as well. The dramatic decline in fer recorded in countries since the 1980s means that, by 2010, a major world’s population resided in areas where the onl ant population grow esult from demographic momentum (see p. 192), not from second-stage expansion. The original transition model was de describe the experience of northwest European countries as they went from r ian societies to urban-industrial ones. It may not yr ospects of contemporary developing countries. In Europe, church and municipal records, some dating fr , sho or not In England before the Industr Revolution, as t were unmarried. Infant mor life expectancy was low. With the coming of industrialization in the 18th and 19th centuries, immediate wages instead of long apprenticeship pr lier marriage and more children. Since improvements in sanitation and health came only slowly, death rates remained high. Around 1800, 25% of Swedish infants died befor thday. P owth rates remained below 1% per year in France thr y.

Beginning about 1860, th ant, though gradual decline. This “mor evolution” c as an epidemiologic transition echoed the demographic transition with which it is associated. Many formerl eady loc y in dec y earlier—became endemic—that is, essenshowed a shift from communicable to noncommunicable diseases. As people developed par unities, mortalities associated with them declined. Improvements in husbandry, crop rotation and other agricultural practices, and new foodstuffs (the potato was an early example) from overseas colonies raised the le opean population in general. At the same time, sewage sy supplies became common in larger cities, and general levels of hygiene improved ever e (Figure 6.18). Deaths due to infectious, parasitic, and respiratory diseases and to nutrition declined, while those related to chro ing and aging population increased. Western Europe passed fr “Age of Pestilence and Famine” to a presumed ultimate “Age of Degenerative and Human-Origin Diseases.” However, recent increases in antibiotic-resistant diseases, the pesticide resistance of diseasecarrying insects, and such new scourges of both the lessdeveloped and the more-developed countr ast “ultimate” stage (see “Our Delicate S ”). Nevertheless, even the resurgence of old scourges and the emergence of new ones, such as malaria, tuberculosis, and AIDS, are unlikely to have decisive demographic consequences on the global sc

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FIGURE 6.18 Pure piped water replacing individual or neighborhood wells, and sewers and waste treatment plants instead of privies, became increasingly common in urban Eur . Their modern successors, such as the Las Vegas, Nevada, treatment plant shown here, helped complete the epidemiologic transition in developed countries. © USDA, Natural Resources vice.

A Divided World Converging

to r e the economic gains and social changes necessary to progr th rates. The introduction of Western technologies of medicine and public health, including antibiotics, insecticides, sanitation, immunization, infant and child health care, and the eradic x, quic y and dramatically lowered the death rates in developing countries. Such imported technologies and treatments accomplished in a few years what it took Europe 50 or 100 years to experience. Sri Lanka, for example, sprayed extensivel ia; life expectancy jumped from 44 years in 1946 to 60 only 8 years later. With similar public health programs, ienced a steady reduction in its death rate after 1947. Sim y, with sponsorship, food aid cut the death toll of developing states during drought and other disasters. The dramatic decline in mor y throughout the European world occurred with startling speed in developing countries after 1950. Corresponding reductions in birth rates did not immediatel w, and world population totals soared: from

The demographic transition model described the presumed inevitable course of n events from the high birth and death rates of premodern (underdeveloped) societies to the low and stable rates of advanced (developed) countries. The model failed to anticipate, however, that the population history of Europe was apparently not relevant to the developing countries of the middle and late 20th century. Many developing societies remained in the second stage of the model, unable

middle 1980s. Alarms about the “ ” and its predicted de resources were frequent and strident. In demographic terms, many viewed the world as permanentl developed regions that had made the demographic transition to stable population numbers and the underdeveloped, endlessly expanding ones that had not.

In Europe, the str eduction in death rates was echoed by similar declines in birth rates as societies began to y size. In cities, child labor laws and mandatory schooling meant that children no longer were important contributors to family economies. As “poor-relief ” legislation and other forms of public welfare y support structures, of children declined. Famil ed as the Industrial Revolution made mor y available goods that served consumption desires, not just basic living needs. Children hindered rather than aided the achievement of the age’s promise of social and le improvement. Perhaps most important, and by some measures preceding and independent of the implications of the Industr volution, were changes in the status of women and in their spreading conviction that control over childbearing was within their po

Population Geography CHAPTER SIX

Birth rate levels, unlike life expectancy improvements, depend less on supplied technology and assistance than they do wer childr families (F e 6.19). That acceptance began to grow broadly but unevenly worldwide even as r ld population growth seemed uncontrollable. In 1984, only 18% of world population lived in countries with fer w replacement levels (that is, countries that had achieved the demographic transition). By 2000, however, 44% lived in such countries, and earl y it is increasingl veloped and developing societies on the basis of their fertility rates. Those rates in many separate Indian states (Kerala and Tamil Nadu, for example) and in such countries as Sri Lanka, Thailand, South Korea, and China are below those of the United States and some European countries. S ant decreases to near the replacement le ed in the space of a single generation in many other Asian and Latin American states with recent high rates of economic growth. Increasingly, it appears, low fertility

179

is becoming a feature of both rich and poor, developed and developing states. Despite this substantial merging of fertility rates, many observers point not to a convergence of world demographic trends but to a continuing and growing demographic divide. On one side of the divide, they remind us, are high-growth countries that accounted for just 8% of world population in 2005 but were then projected to triple in size and increase e to 20% by 2050. On the other side of the divide are the mainly wealthy states whose low bir e population decline and rapid aging. Nearl owth countries are included on the United Nations’ list of least-developed countries. Most of them are in sub-Saharan Afric om low per capita income, illiteracy, lo vels, and inadequate are. The of both high- and lo r einforcing. Low gro apital

The Cairo Plan

In contrast, in high birth rate regions, population gro omote economic Incr v eater demands on limited soil, forest, water, grassland, and cropland resources. As iorates, pr population-supporting capacities are so diminished as to make ogress on which the demo“The Cairo Plan”). The vastly e pr osper o ies and the rest of the world, it is claimed, of continuing concern to the entire world comm ender the pr ld largel y.

THE DEMOGRAPHIC EQUATION Births and deaths within a region’s population—natural increases or decreases—tell only part of the story of population change. Migration involves the long-distance movement 180

of people from one residential location to another. When that relocation occurs across political boundaries, it affects the population structure of both the origin and destination jurisdictions. The summarizes the contribution made to regional population change over time by the combination of natural change (differ ths and deaths) and net migration (differ and out-migration).1 On a global scale, of course, all population change is accounted for by natural change. The impact of migration on the demographic equation increases as the population size of the ar eases.

Population Relocation In the past, emigration proved an important device for relieving the pressures of rapid population gro European countries (F e 6.20). For example, in one 90-year span, ease in the population of the British Isles emigrated, some 1

S

alculation of the equation.

t that continent. Despite recent massive mo r across Asian, African, and Latin American ies, o ve for developing countries. Total population numbers are too great to be affected much by migrations of even of people. In only a few countr Cuba, El S vador, and Haiti, in recent decades. A mor

eatment of the processes

expr

esented in Chapter 8.

Immigration Impacts Where cross-border movements are massive enough, migration may have a pronounced impact on the demographic equation and r ant changes in the population str es of both the origin and destination regions. Past European and ican migrations, for example, not only altered but substantially created the population structures of new, sparsely inhabited lands of colonization in the Western Hemisphere and

Australasia. In some decades of the late 18th and early 19th centuries, 30% to more than 40% of the population increase in the United States was accounted for by immigration. Similarly, lavs colonized underpopulated Siberia and overwhelmed native peoples. Migrants are rarely a representative cross section of the population group they leave, and they add an age and sex component to the group they join. A recurrent research observation is that emigrant groups ar y skewed in favor of young singles. W w varies with circumstances. y w, in recent years border migrants. At the least, then, the receiving countr ulation structure altered by an outside increase in its younger age and, probably, unmarried cohorts. The results are both ramid and potential e impact on reproduction rates and excess of births over deaths. The origin area will have lost a portion of its young, ing years. Perhaps will 181

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Rate per 1000 50

Rate per 1000 50

Developing countries

Developed countries Birth rate

40

40 Birth rate

30

30

Death rate 20

20

10

10

0 1790

1825

1875 1900 1925 Years

1955

1985 2005

0 1790

1825

1875 1900 1925 Years

1955

1985 2005

FIGURE 6.19 World birth and death rates.

orld War II (1939–1945) r reduced death rates in developing countries without simultaneous and compensating r , however, three interrelated trends had appear opped further and faster than had been predicted 25 years earlier, (2) contraceptive acceptance and use had increased markedly, and (3) age at marriage was rising. In consequence, the demographic transition had been compressed fr eflect the average number of children—four or more—still desired in many societies. Source: Revised and redrawn from Elaine M. Murphy, World Population: Towar , ashington, D.C.: Population Reference Bureau, 1989).

have suffered distortion in its young adult sex ratios, and it certainly will have recorded a statistical aging of its population. The destination societ y experience increases in births associated with the y wcomers and, have its average age reduced.

WORLD POPULATION DISTRIBUTION The billions of people of our discussion are not uniformly distributed over the earth. The most str e of the world population distribution map (Figure 6.21) is the very unevenness of the pattern. Some land areas are nearly uninhabited, others are sparsel dense agglomerations of people. Until recently, rural people— unevenly concentrated—always outnumbered urban people. After 2008, however, urbanites will remain more numerous, y gro oportion of them residing in very large cities of 1 million or more. Earth regions of appar y very similar physic show quite different population numbers and densities, perhaps the r ently timed settlement or of settlement

by different groups. Northern and Western Europe, for example, inhabited thousands of years before North America, contain as many people as the United States on 70% less land; the present heterogeneous population of the Western Hemisphere is vastly more dense ov lier Native Americans. We can draw cer ations from the uneven but far from irrational distribution of population shown in Figure 6.21. First, almost 90% of all people live north of the equator, ° and 60° North (F e 6.22). Second, a large major ld’s inhabitants occupy only a small part of its land surface. More than half the people live on about 5% of the land, and almost nine-tenths on less than 20%. Third, people congregate in lowland areas; their numbers decrease sharply with increases in elevation. Temperature, length of growing season, slope and erosion problems, even o eductions at very high y of higher elevations. people live below 200 meters (650 ft), a zone containing less than 30% of the total land area. Nearly 80% reside below 500 meters (1650 ft).

Population Geography CHAPTER SIX

183

FIGURE 6.20 Principal migrations of recent centuries. The arrows suggest the major free and forced international population movements since about 1700. The shaded areas on the map are regions whose present population is more than 50% descended from the immigrants of recent centuries. Géographie de la Population (Paris: Masson, 1979), p. 85.

FIGURE 6.21 W

.

Fourth, although low-lying areas are preferred settlement y favored. By United Nations estimates, some 3 billion people—nearly 50% of the world’s loc

line, 2025,

wlands and r e is likely to have doubled. On average,

s. By

eas is about 80 persons per squar ver 200 per square mile), ld’s average population . L , ar , and elevation, however, limit the attractiveness of many seafront locations. The low temperaes and infertile soils of the extensive Arctic coastal lowlands of the Northern Hemisphere have restr there. Mountainous or desert coasts are sparsely occupied at

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FIGURE 6.22

n Hemisphere is strikingly evident fr people lives south of the Equator—not because the Southern Hemisphere is underpopulated but because it is mainly water.

any latitude, and some tropic wlands and r are marshy, forested, and disease-infested ar

s that venly

Within the sections of the wor y conducive to four ar eat clusters of population: East Asia, South Asia, Europe, and northeastern United States/southeastern Canada. The East Asia zone, which includes Japan, China, Taiwan, and South Korea, is the largest cluster in both area and numbers. The four countries forming it contain nearly 25% of people on Earth; ld’s inhabitants. The South Asia cluster is composed primarily of countries associated with the Indian subcontinent—Bangladesh, India, P and the island state of Sri Lanka—although some might add to it the Southeast Asian countries of Cambodia, Myanmar, and Thailand. The four core countries contain another 22% of the world’s inhabitants. Thus, the South and the East Asian concentrations are home to nearl ld’s people. Eur western, and eastern through U and much of European Russia—is the third extensive population concentration, with another 12% of the world’s inhabitants. luster in northeastern United States/southeastern Canada. O but pronounced concentrations are found around the globe: on the island of Java in Indonesia, along the N and in discontinuous poc ica and Latin America. The ecumene compr y inhabited areas of the earth’s surface. The ancient Greeks used the word, derived from their verb for “to inhabit,” to describe their known wor ved to be the unpopulated, searing southern equator y

frozen northern polar r th. Clearly, conditions are less restrictive than Greek geographers believed. Both ancient and modern technologies have rendered habitbidding. Irrigation, terracing, , and draining are among the methods de y (F e 6.23). At the world scale, the ancient obser appears remarkably astute. The earth’s nonecumene, or anecumene, the uninhabited or very sparsely occupied zone, does include the permanent ice caps of the Far North and Antarctica and large segments of the tundra and coniferous forest of northern Asia and North America. But the nonecumene is

FIGURE 6.23 Terracing of hillsides is one device to extend a naturally limited productive ar on the island of Bali, Indonesia. © Getty RF.

Population Geography CHAPTER SIX

not continuous, as the ancients supposed. It is discontinuously encounter tions of the globe and includes parts of the tropical rain forests of equatorial zones, midlatitude deserts of both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, and high mountain areas. Even parts of these unoccupied or sparsely occupied districts have loc ed, dense settlement nodes, or zones, based on irrigation agriculture, mining and industrial activities, and the like. Perhaps the most str ase of settlement in an onment elsewhere considered part of the nonecumene world is that of the dense population in the Andes Mountains of South America and the plateau of Mexico. There, Native Americans found temperate conditions away from the dry coastal regions and the hot, wet Amazon Basin. The fertile e than a thousand years. Even with these loc y important exceptions, the nonecumene portion of the earth is extensive; 35% to 40% of the world’s land sur cant settlement. Admittedly, oportion of the ear times or even dur . Since the end of the Ice Age some 12,000 years ago, humans have steadily expanded their ar

POPULATION DENSITY The margins of habitation could only be extended as humans learned to support themselves from the resources of new settlement areas. The numbers that could be sustained in old or new habitation zones were and are related to the resource potential of those ar vels and technolons. A is the r and the area they occupy. es ar if sometimes misleading, representations of r iations of human distribution. The crude , or , of population is the ession of that variation. It is the calculation of the number of people per unit area of land, y within the boundaries of a politic . It is an easily rec e; equired is information on ea, both commonly available e can, however, be misleading and may obscure more of reality than it re The c y’s largely undevelopable or sparsely populated regions, intensivel veloped districts. A national average e reveals nothing about either class of territory. In the larger the political unit for which crude density is c e. Var ations may be made to r a meaning ibution. Its descriptive precision is improv ea in question can be subdivided into comparable regions or units. Thus, it is more re w

185

that, in 2005, New Jersey had a density of 454 and Wyoming of land ar w onl e for the conterminous United States (48 states) was 38.5 per squar ter (99.6 per sq mi). If Hawaii and large, sparsely populated Alaska are added, the U.S. e drops to 32.4 per squar The c to pro lasses of population—rural versus urban, for example. Rural densities in the United States rarely exceed 115 per squar (300 per sq mi), while portions of major cities can have many Another revealing r of crude relates population not simply to total national terr ea of a countr to arable land. W ea , the r e is the physiologic , which is, in a sense, an expression of population pressure exerted on agr Countries differ in physiologic ude and physiologic sities of countr essures that are not re ude densities alone. The c physiologic y, however, depends on uncer tions of arable and cultivated land, y productive and comparably used, and includes only one part of a country’s resource base. Agric tur densi is another useful variant. It simply exc om the physiologic aleports the number of rural residents per unit of agr y productive land. It is, therefore, an estimate of the pressure of people on the r eas of a country. See Table 6.4.

Overpopulation It is an easy and common step from concepts of population verpopulation or overcrowding. It is wise to remember that is a value judgment re ecting an obse ation or a conviction that an en ronment or a territory is unable to support its present population. (The related but opposite concept of underpopulation is the circumstance of too fe y develop the resources of a country or region to improve the le of its inhabitants.) Over vitable conTiny Monaco, a prine of New York’s ark, has a cr e Mongolia, a sizeable China and Siberian Russia, has 1.6 persons per squar ter (4.1 per sq mi); Iran, only slightly larger, has 42 per square Macao, a former island possession of Por has some 24,000 persons per squar the F

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TA B L E 6 . 4

off the Atlantic coast of Argentina count at most 1 person for every 5 squar itory. No conclusions about conditions of life, levels of income, the adequacy of food, or the prospects for prosper om these densi comparisons. Overcrowding is a r ea but of the c r c of land—the number of people an area can support on a sustained basis, given the prevailing technology. A region devoted to energy-intensive commericultur igation, fertilizers, and biocides can support more people at a higher level of living than one engaged in the shifting cultivation agriculture described in Chapter 10. An industr that takes advantage of resources such as coal and iron ore and has access to imported food will not feel population pressure at the levels as a country with rudimentary technology. Since carrying c elated to the level of economic development, maps such as Figure 6.21, displaying present patterns of population distribution and , do not suggest a correlation with conditions of life. Many industr ed, urbanized countries have lower densities and higher levels of veloped ones. Densities in the United States, where there is a gr land, are considerably lower than those in Bangladesh—where 1035 people per squar is the most densely populated nonisland state in the world. At the same time, many African countries have low population densities

and low levels of living, whereas Japan combines both high densities and wealth. Over vels of living or conditions of life that r numbers of people and carrying c One measur daily energy requir nutritional needs. Unfor y, dietar long-term adverse implications for life expectancy, physical vigor, velopment—are most likely to be encountered in the developing countries, where much of the population is in the younger age cohorts (see F e 6.11). If those developing countries simultaneously have rapidly increasing population numbers dependent on domestic y produced foodstuffs, the prospects must be for continuing undernourishment and overpopulation. Much of subSaharan Afric cumstance. Its per capita food production decreased during the 1990s, with continuing decline predicted over the following quarter-century as the population-food gap widens (Figure 6.24). The countries of North Africa are similarly strained. Eg eady must import well over half the food it consumes. Africa is not alone. The international Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates that, early in the 21st century, at least 65 countries with over 30% of the population of the developing world are unable to feed their inhabitants adequately from their own national territories at the low level of agricultural technology and inputs employed. Even rapidly industrializing

187

Population Geography CHAPTER SIX

Was exceeded by 1985 Probably exceeded between 1985 and 2000 Likely to be exceeded between 2000 and 2025 Likely to be exceeded between 2025 and 2050 Unlikely to be exceeded until after 2050 Not analyzed 0 miles 0 km

1500 1500

FIGURE 6.24 Saharan Africa. The map assumes that (1) all cultivated land is used for gr e insignificant; and (3) agriculture is conducted by low-technology methods. Source: World Bank; United Nations Development Programme; Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO); and Bread for the World Institute.

China, an exporter of grain until 1994, in most years now is a net grain importer. In the contemporary world, y of domestic agr ic requirements cannot be considered a measure of overcrowding or pover . Only a few countries are agr Japan, a leader among the advanced states, is the world’s biggest food importer and, from its own production, supplies only 40% of the c Its physiological denas Table 6.4 indicated, but it obviously does not rely on an arable land resource for its present development. Largely lac icultural or industrial resources, being and prosperity. For countries such as Japan, South Korea, sia, and T y import more than 70% of the grain they consume—a sudden cessaindustrial products for imported food and raw materials would be disastrous. Domestic food production could not maintain the dietary levels now enjoyed by their populations and they, more star y than many underdeveloped countries, would be “overpopulated.”

Urbanization Pressures on the land resource of countries are increased not just by their growing populations but also by the reduction of arable land caused by such growth. More and more

10

8 Population in billions

Equator

of the world population increase must be accommodated not in rural areas but in cities that hold the promise of jobs and access to health, welfare, and other public services. As a result, the urbanization (transformation from rural to urban status according to individual countries’ tion of urban) of population in developing states is increasing dramatically. Since the 1950s, cities have grown faster than rural areas in nearly all developing countries. Indeed, because of the no w of migrants from countrysides to cities, population growth in the rural areas of the developing world has essentially stopped. Although Latin America, for example, has experienced substantial overall population increase, the size of its rural population is actually declining, urban applied in most of its countries. ojections, incr ban areas and almost entirely within the developing regions and countries, continuing a pattern established by 1950 (Figure 6.25). In those areas collectively, cities are gro ver 3% a year, and the poorest r e experiencing the fastest growth. By 2020, the UN anticipates, a major developed countr ban areas. In East, West, and ica, for example, cities are expanding by 5% a year, a pace that can double their population every 14 years. urban population, grew to more than ojected to r 2050. The uneven results of past urbaniz ized in Figure 6.26.

Urban, less-developed countries Urban, developed countries Rural

6

4

2

0 1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

2000

2010

2020

2030

FIGURE 6.25 Past and projected urban and rural population gr According to UN projections, some 65% of the world’s total population may be urbanized by 2030. No universal definition of urban exists; the Population Reference Bureau, however, notes that, “typically, the population living in towns of 2000 or more . . . is classified as ‘urban.’” Redrawn from Population Bulletin vol. 53, no. 1, Figure 3, page 12 (Population Reference Bureau, 1998).

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FIGURE 6.26 Percentage of national population that is classified as urban, 2009. developing continents. In 1950, only 17% of Asians and 15% of Africans were urban; by 2009, nearly 40% of Africans and more than 40% of Asians were city dwellers. Source: Data from Population Reference Bureau.

The sheer growth of cities in people and territory has increased pressures on arable land and adjusted upward both crude and physiological densities. Urbanization consumes of hectares of cropland each year. In Egypt, for example, urban expansion and new de 1985 took out of production as much fertile soil as the massive Aswan Dam on the N wly available through irrigation with the water it impounded. During much of the 1990s, China lost close to 1 million hectares (2.5 million acres) of farmland each year to urbanization, road construction, and industrialization. The pace of such loss continued into this y, for the rural-to-urban population shift in China now is the largest mass migration in world history. By themselves, some of the developing world cities, many of them surrounded by concentrations of people living in uncontr slums, wns (F e 6.27), are among the most densely populated areas in the world. They face massive problems in trying to pro , jobs, education, and adequate health and social services for their residents. These and other matters of urban geography are the topics of Chapter 11.

POPULATION DATA AND PROJECTIONS Population geographers, demographers, planners, governmenand a host of others rely on detailed population data to make their assessments of pr ld e conditions. Birth rates and death rates, rates of fer and of increase, age and sex composition of the population, and other items are y ingredients for their work.

Population Data The data that students of population use come primarily from the United Nations Statistic , the World Bank, the Population Reference Bureau, and ultimately national censuses and sample surveys. Unfortunately, the data as reported may be more misleading than informative. For much of the developing world, . Isolation and poor transportation, y of funds and trained census personnel, y limiting the an be asked, and populations suspicious of government data collectors restrict the frequency, coverage, and accuracy of population reports. However derived, detailed data are published by the major repor even ures are poorly based on fact or are essentiall For example, for years, data on the total population, birth and death rates, o e regularly repor y revised. The fact was, however, that Somalia had never had a census and had no system for recording births. Seemingly precise data were r ly reported as When that countr ver census in 1985, at least one data source had to drop its estimate of the country’s birth rate by 15% and incr e for Ethiopia’ e than 20%. And a disputed 1991 census of Niger y reported a population of 88.5 million, far belo y accepted and widely cited igerians. The 2006 census in Nigeria was surrounded by protests, boycotts, and fraud charges, despite a lack of questions about religious , which are controv y with over 250 ethnic groups and a population nearly evenly divided

P

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Population Projections For all their inadequacies and imprecisions, current data reported for country units form the basis of population pr estimates of future population size, age, and sex composition. Projections are not forecasts, and demographers ar ologists. Weather forecasters work with a myriad of accurate observations applied against a known, tested model of the atmosphere. Demographers, in contrast, work with sparse, imprecise, out-of-date, and missing data applied to human actions that will be unpredictably responsive to stimuli not yet evident. Population projections, therefore, are based on assumptions for the future applied to current data, which themselves are frequently suspect. Since projections are not predictions, they can never be wrong. They are simply the inevitable result of calculations about fer , mor , and migration rates applied to each age cohort of a population now living, as well as the making of birth rate, sur and migration assumptions about cohorts yet unborn. Of course, the perfectly valid projections of future population size and structure resulting from those calculations may be dead wrong as predictions. Because those projections are invariably treated as scins by a public that ignores their underlying ing assumptions, agencies (such as the UN) that esti, Africa in the year 2025—do so by not one but three or more projections: high, medium, and low, for example. For ar ica, a medium projection is assumed to from compensating errors and

FIGURE 6.27 Millions of people of the developing world live in water, electricity reports that up to 40% of all urban dwellers worldwide live in such squatter settlements and slums. The hillside slum pictured here is one of the many favelas that are home for up to one-third of greater Rio de Janeiro’s 11 million residents. © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Barry Barker, photographer.

istians. For y, census coverage on a world basis is impro . very country has now had at least one census of its population and most have been subjected to periodic sample surveys (F e 6.28). However, only about 10% of the developing world’s population live in countries with anything approaching complete systems for registering births and deaths. Estimates are that 40% or less of live births in Indonesia, P India, and the Philippines ar y recorded; sub-S ica has the highest percentage of unregistered births (71%), according to UNICEF. Throughout Asia, apparently deaths are even less completely reported than birth. And whate states, ican statistics ar eliable. It is on just these basic birth and death data that projections about population growth and composition are founded.

FIGURE 6.28 Nearly all countries in the world conduct regular censuses, although some are of doubtful completeness or accuracy. This photo shows Indian census-takers collecting data in a rural community. To count the world’s second largest population for photographed and fingerprinted. Like many countries, the Indian census collects additional data beyond population counts such as economic activity, literacy, education levels, housing conditions, and the availability of drinking water and electricity. © AFP/Getty.

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statistic y predictable behaviors of very large populations. F ican countr the medium projection may be m ing. The usual tendency in projections is to assume that something like current conditions be applicable in the e. Ob y, the mor e, the less likely is that assumption to r The resulting obser the fuructur eas is projected, the greater is the implicit and ine or (see F e6.13 ).

POPULATION CONTROLS ojections include an assumption that at some point in time population gro replacement level. Without that assumption, future numbers become unthinkably large. For the world at unchecked present gro there would be 1 trillion people thr ies from now, 4 tr four centuries in the future, and so on. Although there is reasonable debate about whether the world is now overpopulated and about what either its optimum or um sustainable population should be, illions are beyond any reasonable expectation. Population pressures do not come from the amount of space humans occupy. It has been calculated, for example, that the entire human race could easily be accommodated within ies of the state of Delaware. The problems stem from the food, energy, and other resour port the population and from the impact on the onment of the increasing demands and the technologies required to meet them. Rates of growth currently prevailing in many countries make it nearly impossible for them to achieve the nomic development they would like. ly, at some point, easing as fast as it has been. That is, either the self-induced limitabe adopted or an equilibrium population and resources e dramatic fashion. Recognition of this ev is not new. “Pestilence, and famine, and wars, and ear have to be regarded as a remedy for nations, as iance of the human race” was the opinion of the theologian Ter ing the 2d century A.D. Thomas Robert Malthus (1766–1834), an English economist and demographer, put the problem succinctly in a treatise published in 1798: all biologic for increase that exceeds ease, and the resources for the support of increase are limited. In later publications, wing: 1. P vitably limited by the means of subsistence. 2. Populations invariably increase with increase in the means of subsistence unless prevented by powerful checks. 3. The chec eproductive c are either “private” restraint, celibacy, and or “destructive” (war, pover , pestilence, and famine).

The deadl unchec n increases geometric y, while food production can increase only arithmetic y,2 have been reported throughout human history, as they are today. Starvation, the ultimate expression of resource depletion, is no stranger to the past or present. By conservative estimate, during the 2 minutes it takes you to read this page, more than 40 people worldauses r ition half will be children under 5. They , of course, be more than replaced numeric y by new births during the same 2 minutes. Losses are nearly always recouped. perhaps 70 million, ’s wars ov replacement period at pr ease. However, inevitabl wing the logic of Malthus, the apparent e of , and observations of animal populations—equilibrium must be achie and support resources. When overpopulation of any species occurs, k is ine The madly ascending leg of the J-curve is bent to the horiz and the J-curve is converted to an It has happened before in human history, as F e 6.29 summarizes. The top of the S-curve repr table by the exploitable resource base. W equivalent to the carr ea, it is said to have reached a plateau. overcrowding and envir ess apparently release an automatic physiologic essant of fer . Although famine and chronic malnutrition may reduce fertily must be either forced or self-imposed. The demographic transition to low birth rates matching reduced death rates is cited as evidence rong: human populations do not inevitably grow geometric y. Fer , it was observed, is conditioned by social determinants, not solely by biological or resource imperatives. s ideas had been disc y in light of the European population experience, the concerns he expressed were revived during the 1950s. Observations of population growth in underdeveloped countries and the strain that growth placed on their resources inspir ovements in ved only by raising investment per worker. Rapid population growth was seen as a serious diversion of scarce resources away from capital investment and e programs. In order to lift living standards, the existing national efforts to lower mor had to be by governmental programs to reduce birth rates. N as this viewpoint bec wn, has been the under oimarily through birth control and family planning (F e 6.30). 2

“Within a hundr , an increase fr while the means of subsistence . . . can increase only from thr times” was the observation of Hung Liangchi of China, y distant early 19th-century contemporar

Population Geography CHAPTER SIX

191

FIGURE 6.29 The steadily higher homeostatic plateaus (states of equilibrium) achieved by humans are evidence of their ability to incr ough technological advance. Each new plateau represents the conversion of the of moder preventative and curative advances that materially reduced

FIGURE 6.30 A Mumbai, India, sign promoting the

N has had a reception. In general, Asian countries, led by China and India, have—though with differing successes—adopted family planning programs and policies. In some instances, success has been declared complete. Singapore established its Population and Family Planning Board in 1965, when its fer births per woman. By 1986, that rate had declined to 1.7, below the 2.1 replacement level for developed countries, and the board was abolished as no longer necessary. Caribbean and South American countries, even the poorest and most agrarian, ienced declining fer though often these reductions have been achieved despite pronatalist views of go ch. Africa and the Midd y been less responsive to the neo-Malthusian arguments bec , circles, ven children—are desirable. line in most subS ican states, they still remain above replacement levly ever e. th restr ear East and North Africa. However, the Muslim theocracy of Iran has endorsed a range of contraceptive procedures and developed one of the world’s more aggressive family planning programs. Other barriers to fer ol exist. W oposed by Western states, famil y for development were rejected by many less-developed countries. and Marxist concepts, era social, economic, and class str es rather than population increase hinder development. Some governmental leaders think there is a corr e and power and pursue pr as did Mao’s China during the 1950s and early 1960s. And beginning in the 1980s, a number of American economists c cornucopians expressed the view that population growth is a stimulus, not a deterrent, to de e the

government’s continuing pr s high Female sterilization is the world’s most popular form of d or more of all married women have been sterilized. The comparable worldwide married male sterilization rate, in contrast, is 4%.

world’

esource base. S they , world population has grown from 900 million to over edicted dire consequences— proof that Malthus failed to recognize the importance of technology in raising the carr c of the earth. Still higher population numbers, they suggest, ar , perhaps ev ov w, ing cornucopian optimism, admits that pr , such as the Green Revolution (see pages 324–326), have made possible increases in food production that have managed to keep pace with rapid population growth since 1970. But its advoc oduction does not automatic y appear; both complacency and inadequate research support have hindered continuing progress in recent years. And even if further e made, they observe, ies or regions have the social and politic c Those that do not, thirdview advocates warn, will fail to keep pace with the needs of ying degrees of poverty and environmental decay, creating national and r though not necessarily global—crises.

POPULATION PROSPECTS Regardless of population philosophies, theories, or norms, the fact remains that many or most developing countries are sho antly declining population growth rates. an extent not anticipated by pessimistic Malthusians and at ld population numbers e y projected (see

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“A Population Implosion?” p. 169). ld regions, steady and continuous fer lines have been recorded over the past years, reducing fer om global levels of 5 children per woman in the early 1950s to 2.7 per woman in 2007.

Momentum Reducing fer vels even to the replacement level of about 2.1 births per woman does not mean an immediate end to population gro Because of the age composition of many societies, numbers of births continue to grow even as fertility rates per woman decline. The reason is to be found in (demographic) momen m, and the key to that is the age str ’s population. When a high proportion of the population is young, the product of past high fer larger and larger numbers enter the childbearing age each year; that is the case for major parts of the world early in the 21st century. The populations of developing countries are far younger than those of the established industr y developed regions (see F e 6.11), 30% (in Asia and Latin America) to over 40% (in Africa) below the age of 15. The consequences of the fer these young people are yet to be r ed. greater number of young people tends to grow rapidly, regardless of the level of childbearing. The r felt until the now youthful gr e and work their way through the populatio

Ine y, while this is happening, even the most stringent national policies limiting gro annot stop it entirely. A countr esent population base will experience large numeric eases despite declining birth rates. Indeed, the higher fer per its drop to low levels, the greater will be the r ven after rates drop below replacement. A simple comparison of South Kor In 2002, ies had the same level of fer , with women averaging about 1.6 children each. Be een that year and 2025, the larger population of the UK (without considering immigration or the births associated with newcomers) was projected to decline by 2 million persons, wher , more y South Korea was expected to continue growing, Increasingly, population momentum will be responsible for nearl ld’s population gro (F e 6.31).

Aging y, of course, young populations grow older, and even the youthful developing countries are beginning to face the consequences of that r . The problems of a rapidly aging population that eady confront the industr ed economies are now being realized in the developing wor Before 2000, y ways outnumbered the elderly; with the star y, old people outnumber the young. y,

1.4

Annual average percent growth— total and contribution of components

1.2

1.19 1.06

1.0

0.88 0.8

0.69 0.6

0.55 0.42 0.4

0.2

FIGURE 6.32 These senior residents of a Moroccan nursing

0

2002

2010

2020

2030

2040

2050

FIGURE 6.31 Worldwide declines in total fertility rates will not soon be reflected by equivalent declines in the growth of population. Because of past e increasing both absolutely and relative to the rest of the population. As a r s contribution to global growth will steadily decline and population momentum will account for a growing share of projected world population increase. Source: U. S. Bureau of the Census, 2004.

home are part of the rapidly aging population of many developing countries. Worldwide, the over-60 cohort will number some 22% of total population by 2050 and be larger than the number of children less than 15 years of age. But by 2020, a third of Singapore citizens will be 55 or older and China will have as large a share of its population over 60—about one in four—as will Europe. Already the numbers of old people in the world’s poorer countries ar , there were nearly twice as many persons over 60 in developing countries as in the advanced ones, but most are without the old-age assistance and welfare programs the developed countries have put in place. © Nathan Benn/Corbis Images.

Population Geography CHAPTER SIX

ther e than 1 billion persons 60 years of age or older by 2025 and nearly 1.9 billion by 2050, when the world e people age 60 or above than children under the age of 15. That momentous re elative proportions of young and old already occurred in 1998 in the moredeveloped regions. The progression toward older populations is considered irreversible, the result of the now global demographic transition from high to low levels of fer tality. The y ities of the past are unlikely to occur again, for y the population of older persons earl y is growing by 2% per year—much faster than the population as a the 60+ gro reach 2.8% per year. By 2050, the UN projects, one out of persons wor . About y elderl the less-developed world, for the gro ple is three times as high in developing countries as in the developed ones. In the developing world, older persons are projected to make up 20% of the population by 2050, in contrast to the 8% over age 60 there in 2000. Because the pace of aging is much faster in the developing countries, they will have less time than the developed world did to adjust to the

193

consequences of that aging. And those consequences will be experienced at lower levels of personal and national income and economic strength. In both rich and poor countries, the working-age populations will face increasing burdens and obligations. The potential support ratio (PSR), the number of persons ages 15 to 64 years per one citizen age 65 or older, has steadily fallen. it dropped from 12 to 9 workers for each older person; by mid-century, the PSR is projected to drop to 4. The implications for Social Secur and social support obligations are obvious and are made more serious because the older population itself is aging. By the middle of the century, th of older persons will be 80 years old or older and, on average, will require more suppor es for health and long-term care than do younger seniors. The consequences of population aging appear most intractable for the world’s poorest developing states that generally lack health, income, housing, and social ser t systems adequate for the needs of their older citizens. Therefore, ations of their present population momentum, developing countries must add the aging consequences of past patterns and rates of growth (F e 6.32).

Summary of Key Concepts • Birth, death, fer , migration, and gro e basic for understanding the numbers, composition, distribution, and spatial trends of population. • Predictions of ever-increasing population numbers now . Birth rates, eady below replacement levels in most developed countries, are dr less-developed regions. Even so, e numerical increases will occur in areas currently considered underdeveloped where total fer rates still remain antly above the replacement level. • Death rates ever e have declined steeply as the ev are has spread to all parts of the world. Reductions in birth and death rates result in a demographic transition from high to low levels of both and a corresponding stabilization or reduction in numbers r y and globally. Areal numbers ar demographic equation, which includes the effects of population relocations and migrations. • People are unevenly distr y, latitudinally, and ar y. The Northern Hemisphere, lowlands, and coastal loc world’s people on less than 10% of its land. East Asia, South Asia, Europe, and eastern North America together Urban areas ever e are growing and now hold mor ld population.

• Various measur vised, but differences in population numbers and densities have no necessary correlation with observations about over- or underpopulation; these are concepts relative to means of support, not to absolute numbers. • Population projections are based on assumptions about future conditions, which may not be realized. The larger the area and the more distant the future for which projections are made, the less accurate are they likely to be. • ojections m ols of population numbers, such as the carrying c onment and individual and group reproduction decisions. F e population le y affected by the current age and sex structure summarized by a region’s population pyramid. That strucowth through the population momentum implicit in a y numeric line suggested by r of populations. Human populations cannot be understood solely through statistic ysis. Societies ar abstract data of their numbers, rates, and trends but also by the experiences, beliefs, understandings, and aspirations that collectivel iable c culture. n.

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Key Words agr y 185 carryingc 186 cohort 163 crude birth rate (CBR) 163 crude death rate (CDR) (mor 167 crudeden (arithmetic demographic equation 180 demographic transition 176 demography 161 dependency ratio 171

185

doubling time 174 ecumene 184 homeostatic plateau 190 J-curve 174 Malthus 190 neo-Malthusianism 190 nonecumene 184 overpopulation 185 physiologic 185 185 population geography 161

population (demographic) momentum 192 population projection 189 population pyramid 171 rate 163 ease 174 replacement level 169 S-curve 190 total fer TFR) 164 zero population growth (ZPG) 169

Thinking Geographically 1. How do the crude birth rate and the fertility rate differ? Which measure is the more accurate statement of the amount of reproduction occurring in a population? 2. How is the crude death rate calculated? What factors account for the worldwide decline in death rates since 1945? 3. How is a population pyramid constructed? What shape of “pyramid” r e of a rapidly growing country? Of a population with a slow rate of growth? What can we tell about future population numbers from those shapes? 4. What variations do we discern in the spatial pattern of the rate of natural increase and, consequently, of population growth? W ease would double population in 35 years? 5. How are population numbers projected from present conditions? Are projections the same as predictions? If not, in what ways do they differ?

6. Describe the stages in the demographic transition. Where has the stage of the transition been achieved? What appears to be the applic tion to other parts of the world? 7. Contrast crude population density, physiological density, and agricultural density. For what different purposes might each be useful? How is carrying capacity related to the con8. What was Malthus’s underlying assumption concerning the r owth and food supply? In what ways do the arguments of neo-Malthusians differ from the original doctrine? What governmental policies are implicit in neo-Malthusianism? 9. Why is population momentum a matter of interest in population projections? In which world areas are the implications of demographic momentum most serious in calculating population growth, stability, or decline?

CHAPTER

SEVEN

CHAPTER OUTLINE

Cultural Geography

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he Gauda’s1 son is 18 months old. Every morning, a boy employed by the Gauda carries the Gauda’s son through the streets of Gopalpur. The Gauda’s son is clean; his clothing is elegant. When he is carried along the street, the old women stop their ceaseless grinding and pounding of grain and gather around. If the child wants something he is given it. If he cries, there is consternation. If he plays with another boy, e that the other boy does nothing to annoy the Gauda’s son. Shielded by servants, protected and comforted by y everyone in the village, the Gauda’ At the same time, he begins to learn that the same superior license to direct others and to demand their services places him in a state of danger. The gr the other children in the vi age will give him a fever; coarse and che e likely to give him a stomachache. While other children clothe themselves in mud and dirt, he y being washed. As a Brahmin [a religious leader], carry out complicated daily rituals of bathing, eating, sleeping, ocesses of life. In time, the Gauda’ He will sit motionless for hours, memorizing long passages from S it holy books and long poems in English and Urdu. learn to perform the rituals that ar v He will bathe daily in the cold water of the private family well, reciting prayers and follo ict procedure. The gods in his house e major deities who must be worshipped every day, at length and with great care.2

T

The Gauda and his family are not Americans, as references and The careful reader would infer, corr y, that they are Indians—and if one were to read more of the book from which this excerpt is taken, it would become e southern India. The class structure, the religion, the language, the food, and other strands of the fabric of life mentioned in the passage place the Gauda, his family, time and place. They bind the people of the region together as sharers of a common culture and set them off from those of other areas with differ itages. The approximately 7 billion people who were the subject of Chapter 6 are of a single human family, but it is a family differentiated into many branches, each characterized by a distinctive culture. To some writers and commentators, culture means the arts (literature, painting, music, etc.). To a social scientist, is understandings, and adaptations that summarize the way of life of a group of people. In 1

Gauda = Excerpt from Gopalpur: A South Indian Village, by Alan R. Beals, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., and rene . by permission of the publisher. 2

ight © by reprinted

this broader sense, e is as much a part of the r differentiation of the earth as are topography, climate, and other aspects of the physic onment. e e—buildings and farming patterns, language and politic ation—ar that invites and is subject to geographic inquiry. ferences in area result in human landsc iations as subtle as the differing “feel” of urban Paris, Moscow, and New Yor p contrasts of r imbabwe and a cash grain farm in America’s Midwest (F e 7.1). Because such differences geography hy addresses a whole range of “why?” and “what?” and “how?” questions. Why, since humanar es so varied? What are the most pronounced way e regions are distinguished? What were the or e regions we now observe? How, from whate eas in which single cultur veloped, were they ver a wider portion of the globe? Wh trasts recognizably distinct groups persist even in such presumed “melting pot” societies as that of the United States ly homogeneous, long-established countries of Europe? Ho ences important to us today? These and similar questions are the concerns of the present chapter and, t, of Chapters 8 and 9.

COMPONENTS OF CULTURE tions by imitation, instruction, and example. It is learned, not biologic and has nothing to do with instinct or with genes. As members of a social group, e integrated envir ceptions, and knowledge of existing technologies. , we e in which we are born and reared. But we need not—indeed, c . Age, sex, status, and occupatio y indoctrinated. work of roles oups. Despite over gener d and istics and ev , e is not homogeneous. The “ ican” e, , able complex, composite, and of oups: teenagers retirees; o yees; members of different religious, and e to the oups to which he or she belongs. And those oups may have their own recogniz es. Culture is a complexly interlocked web of behaviors and y, its and diverse content cannot be appreciated, and in fact may be y misunderstood, if y on limited, obvious traits.

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197

(a)

FIGURE 7.1 Cultural and economic contrasts are clearly evident between (a) a subsistence maize plot in Zimbabwe and (b) the extensive fields and mechanized farming of the U.S. Midwest. im McCabe, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture

(b)

Out of the richness and intricacy of human life we seek variables that give str e traits, e. ar

FIGURE 7.2

n Africa are equently owners of fenced farms. Cattle formed the traditional basis of Masai culture and were the evidence of wealth and social status. They provided as © The McGraw-Hill , photographer.

Distinctive eating utensils, the use of gestures, or the r religious ceremony may summarize and characteriz e for the casual observer. These are, however, y insigant parts of a much more complex str e that can be appreciated only when the whole is experienced.

We om tools used or to the games played. for example), a technique a belief (in the spirits

resident in water bodies), is super Of course, the same trait— the Christian religion, perhaps, or the Spanish be part of more than one culture. Traits are the most elementary expr e, the building blocks of the complex oups of peoples. e traits that ar y interrelated constitute a The existence of such complexes is universal. At one time, keeping cattle was a culture trait of the Masai of Kenya and Tanzania. Related traits included the measur owned; a diet containing the milk and blood of c and disdain for labor unrelated to herding. The assemblage of these and other related traits yielded a culture complex descriptive of e 7.2). In exactly the same way, religious complexes, business behavior complexes, sports complexes, and others can easily be recognized in American or . A stem is a br ation and refers to a collection of interacting cultur e complexes that are shared by a group within a particular territory. Multiethnic societies,

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differences, varied food preferences, and a host of other interentiations, may nonetheless share enough joint characteristics to be recognizably distinctive entities to themselves and others. Certainly, citizens of “melting pot” United S ves as Americans, together e system on the world scene. e traits, complexes, and systems have spatial extent. When they are plotted on maps, the regional character of the e is re Geographers are interibution of these individual elements, ion, a portion of the earth’s surface occupied by people sharing recognizable istics. Examples include the political organizations societies devise, their religions, their form of economy, and even their clothing, eating utensils, and housing. There are as many such culture regions as there are e traits and complexes of population groups. F y, e regions showing r e complexes and landscapes may be grouped to form a cul re realm. The term recognizes a large segment of the earth’s suristics and sho ant difference in them from adjacent realms. Culture r e, in a sense, culture regions at the broadest scale of generalization. In fact, the scale is so broad ecognized realms so great that the very concept of realm may mislead more than it informs. Indeed, the current of distinctive er such as those suggested in Figure 7.3 has been questioned in light of an assumed globalization of all aspects of human . The result of that globalization, some observers maintain, is a homogeniz es as

economies are integrated and uniform consumer demands are ed commodities produced by international corporations. Others insist, however, that the world is far from homogenized and obser ation continues to be countered by powerful forces of r place , . One of the many possible divisions of human cultures into realms is offered in Figure 7.3. e realms, regions, systems, complexes, and traits ar ch y. Direct and indirect refer ed throughout this chapter.

INTERACTION OF PEOPLE AND ENVIRONMENT e develops in a physic ronment that, in its way, contributes to differences among people. In premodern subsistence societies, the acquisition of food, shelter, and c ts of culture—depends on the utiliz esources at hand. The interrelations of people the onment of a given area, their perceptions and use of it, and their impact on it ar ven themes of geography. They ar concerns of those geographers and anthropologists exploring , e gr onment it occupies. vidence that subsistence pastoralists, hunter-gatherers, and gardeners adapted their productive activities—and, by extension, their social organizations and r ysic ferent local habitats. Presumably, onmenvelopment of similar adaptive

°

FIGURE 7.3 Culture realms of the modern world. Culture realms, regions, systems, complexes, and traits are all elements in the spatial hierarchy of cultural geography. This map proposes just one of many possible subdivisions of the world into multifactor culture regions.

y

r , unconnected locales. , of course, does not predetermine the details of the subsequent culture.

Environments as Controls y limiting the ideas of minism. Enviro which peaked in popular late 19th and early 20th centuries, taught that the physical environment—in particular, the climate—determined which es would become the most advanced and economic y developed. However, iations that occur around the world ar ’s physical surroundings. Le , sy ation, and ideas about what is true and right have no obvious relationship cumstances. The environment does place certain limitations on the human use of territory. However, such limitations must be seen not as absolute, enduring restrictions but as relative to technologies, cost considerations, national aspirations, and ld. Human choices in the use of landscapes are affected by group per These are not circumstances inherent in the land. P , onments, are the dynamic for velopment. The needs, traditions, and technologic e affect ho e both assesses the possibilities of an area and shapes the choices that it makes regarding them. Each society uses resources in accordance with its e. Changes in a group’s technical abilities or objectives bring about changes in its per Of course, there are some envir ea. For example, if resources for feeding, clothing, or housing oursel an area are lac , or if we do not recognize them there, there is no inducement for people to occupy that territory. Environments that do contain such recognized resources provide the framewor e operates.

Human Impacts People ar

onment, elationship of geoy, inc y, examines both the reactions of people to the physic onment and their impact on that environment. By using it, onment—in t ough the mater objects we place on the landscape: farms, roads, and so on (F e 7.4). The form these take is the pr e group in which we ve. The l dscape, ’ face as , physic ecord of a e. par cemeteries, and the size and ibution of are among

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As a r , the more technologic y advanced and complex e, the greater its impact on the environment, pr pressures on the lands they occupy (see “Chaco Canyon Desolap. 201). ban industr landsc ysic onment in its impact on people’s y It “ e” dr enc an go thr contact or concern about the physic en ronment.

SUBSYSTEMS OF CULTURE y is, perhaps, impossible for ytic purposes, however, e—its building blocks and expressions—can be grouped and examined as subsets of the whole. The anthropologist Leslie White suggested that a ec wed as a three-par e composed of subsystems that he termed technological, sociological, and ideological. ation, three interrelated artifacts, sociofacts, and mentifacts. Together, according to these interpretations, the subsystems—recogniz e as a whole. But they are integrated; each r The technologic stem is composed of the material objects and the techniques of their use by means of which people are able to live. Such objects are the tools and other instruments that enable us to feed, clothe, house, defend, transport, and amuse ourselves. The sociologic stem e is the sum of those expected and accepted patterns of interpolitical, military, religious, , and other associations. The ideologic stem consists of the ideas, beliefs, wledge e and of the ways in which they are expressed in speech or other forms of communication. one who is not part of it. F

The Technological Subsystem Examination of var e and in the manner of human existence from place to place centers on a series of commonplace questions: How do the people in an area make a living? What resources and what tools—what artifacts—do they use to feed, clothe, and house themselves? Is a larger percentage of the population engaged in agriculture than in maning? Do people travel to work in cars, on bicycles, or on foot? Do they shop for food or grow their own? es in “

.” In a broad sense, they y

cyc

F

, ing,

y

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FIGURE 7.4 The physical and cultural landscapes in juxtaposition. Advanced societies are capable of so altering the circumstances of nature that the cultural landscapes become controlling environments. The city of Los Angeles, California, is a built environment constructed oundings. Consider how much this landscape has changed with human settlement. © Getty RF.

y, implements, eat, but their technologic ed tools, ya ces, ol of ces of e . onment “c w ev e, oups. The retreat of the last glaciers about 12,000 to 13,000 years ago marked the start of a period of unprecedented culvelopment. It led from primitive hunting and gathering economies at the outset through the evolution of agr e and animal husbandry to, ultimately, urbanization, industrialization, and the intric e. level was low. They had fe

technological subsystem. S

es passed through , or ev cultural divergence oups became e among ancient societies r the pr wed a more assured food supply and made possible a more intensive and extensive utilization of resources. Different groups in separate environmental circumstances developed specialized tools and behaviors to exploit resources they recognized. Beginning with the Industrial Revolution of the 18th century, however, a reverse trend—to Today, advanced societies are nearly indistinguishable in the tools and techniques at their command. They have experienced cultural convergenc ing of technologies,

y

organiz structures, and even e traits and artifacts that is so evident among widely separated societies in a modern world united by instantaneous communic transportation. Those differences in technological traditions veloped and underdeveloped societies r in part, stage of , and, importantly, the le e 7.5). In technologically advanced countries, many people are employed in manufacturing or allied service trades. Per capita incomes tend to be high, as do levels of education

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and nutrition, life expectancies, and medical services. These countries wield great economic and political power. In contrast, technologic y less-advanced countries have a high percentage of people engaged in farming, with much of the agriculture at a subsistence level (F e 7.6). The gross or GNI (which measur tic and foreign value added of goods and services claimed by residents of a country during a year) of these countries are much lower than those of industrialized states. Per capita incomes (F e 7.7), life expectancies, and literacy rates also tend to be low.

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(a)

(b)

FIGURE 7.5 (a) This Rajasthan, India, farmer working with draft animals employs tools typical of the low technological levels of subsistence economies. (b) Cultures with advanced technological subsystems use complex machinery to harness inanimate energy for productive use.

FIGURE 7.6 Percentage of labor force engaged in agriculture, 2004. For the world as a whole, agricultural workers make up less than half of the total labor for ces in the agricultural sector, but the contrast between advanced and underdeveloped countries in the agricultural labor force measure is diminishing. Rapid population gr esulted in incr , from which escape is sought by migration to cities. The resulting reduction in the agricultural labor force percentage is an expression of r unemployment, not of economic advancement. Sources: FAO 2006 and CIA World Fact Book 2007.

Labels such as advanced–less-advanced, developedunderdeveloped, and industrial-nonindustrial can be misinterpreted to mean “superior-inferior.” y improper because the terms relate solely to economic and technological circumstances and elationship to

e as music, art, religion, relationships. Properly understood, however, terms and measures of economic development can re tant national and world regional contrasts in the technological subsystems of different

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(a)

(b)

FIGURE 7.7 Two contrasting views of income. Both assume that total national income is evenly divided among all citizens, but each ent view of the meaning of the per capita income that division implies. (a) Gross national income per capita, 2007. GNI per capita expresses the individual’s pr eat contrasts between more- and less-advanced economies, it is a fr ee of technological development, though high incomes in sparsely populated, oil-rich countries may not have the same meaning in subsystem terms as do comparable per capita values in industrially advanced states. The map implies an unrealistic pr eliable population totals, the resulting GNI per capita is at best a rough approximation. A comparison of this map with Figure 7.6 presents an interesting study in regional contrasts. (b) Pur takes account of variations in price levels to measure the relative size of economies. It is based on the idea that identical baskets of traded goods should cost the same in all countries and thus attempts to measure the relative domestic purchasing power of local currencies. By this more realistic measure, the abject poverty suggested by per capita GNI is seen to be much reduced in many developing countries. Source: Data from the World Bank, 2008.

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FIGURE 7.8 Comparative development levels.

suggested a simplified world contrast of development and underdevelopment based largely on degree of industrialization and per capita wealth recorded then. In 2004, the United Nations Economic and Social Council and the UN Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) recognized 50 “leastdeveloped countries.” That recognition now reflects low ratings in three criteria: gross domestic income per capita, human resources as measur ing countries” ignores recent significant economic and social gains in several Asian and Latin American states, raising them now to “industrialized/ developed” status. Some “least-developed” states are small island countries not shown at this map scale. Sources: UNCTAD and United Nations

Development Programme.

es and societies. F e 7.8 suggests that technological status is relativel l opean countries and Japan, the United States, and Canada—the “North.” Most of the less-developed countries are in Latin America, Africa, and southern Asia—the “Global South.”3 It is important, however, to recognize that these implied ies include areas that are at different levels of development. We m emember that technologic velopment is a concept. It is most useful and accurate to think of the countries of the wor ver-changing continuum of technologic vels and subsystems.

The Sociological Subsystem ize the religious, politic formal and informal educ that constitute the sociological subsy e. Together, these sociofacts ations of a culture. They r w the individual functions relative to the group, whether it be family, church, or state. 3

The use of the terms North and South to describe r vels was oduced in North–South: A Programme for Survival c the Brandt Report), Development Issues. o the North; since its br Georgia, and other former So r veloped by the United N

There are no “givens” as far as patterns of interaction in any of these associations are concerned, except that most cultures possess a var s of str . The impor ing behavior sets varies among, ences es. Differing patterns of behavior are learned expr e and ar om one generation to the next by formal or by example and expectation (Figure 7.9). The story of the Gauda’s son that opened this chapter illustrates the point. S e closely related to the technological sy e group. Thus, hunter-gatherers have one set of institutions; industrial societies have quite different ones. Preagr entiation or specialization of function in the band; the San (Bushmen) of arid southern Africa and isolated rain forest groups in Amazonia igure 7.10). The revolution in food production occasioned by plant and animal domestication beginning around 10,000 years ago touched off a social transformation that included increases in population, urbanization, wor ation, and strucsociety. Politic y, the rules and institutions by which people were governed changed , agr Loyalty was transferred fr oup to the state; resources

y

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

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FIGURE 7.9 All societies prepare their children for membership in the culture gr skills, and proper ways of acting are being transmitted to young people. (a) © Cary W W

became possessions rather than the common propert y far-reaching changes occurr ter the 18th-century Industr volution, leading to the complex of human social organizations that we experience and are contr by today in “developed” states and that increasingl es ever e. Cultur y inter Each organiz and is affected by, related culture traits and complexes in intricate and variable ways. Systems of land and proper ol, for example, ar essions of the sociologic stem. They are simultaneously explicitl ation of economies and to the understanding of spatial and strucvelopment, examine. Again, for each country the adopted system of laws

subsy nomic and social organization, including the politic graphic systems discussed in Chapter 9.

The Ideological Subsystem The third c ing a cule is the ideologic subsystem. This subsystem consists of ideas, beliefs, and knowledge, as well as the ways we express these things in our speech and other forms of communication. Mythologies, theologies, legend, literature, philosophy, folk wledge make up this category. Passed on from generation to generation, these abstract belief systems, or mentifacts, ve, what we should value, and how we ought to act. Beliefs form the basis of the socialization process.

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FIGURE 7.10 Hunter-gatherers practiced the most enduring lifestyle in human history, trading it for the more arduous life of farmers under the necessity to pr and successors, among hunter-gather interpersonal relations and the division of labor

owing population. Unlike their settled farmer rivals ences, not caste or economic status, were and ar oups in Africa alan Photos.

Often, we kno w—what the beliefs of a group are from written sources. Sometimes, however, we must depend on the actions or objectives of a gr its tr e. “Actions speak louder than words” and “Do as I say, not as I do” are commonplace recognitions of the fact that actions and words do not always coincide. The values of a group cannot be deduced from the written record Nothing in a cultur Changes in the ideas that a society holds may affect the sociological and technological systems, just as, for example, changes in technology force changes in the social system. The abrupt ter World War I (1914–1918) of the ideological structure of Russia from a monarchical, agrarian, capitalist system to an industrialized, communist society involved sudden alteration in all facets of that country’s culture system. The equally abrupt disintegration of Russian communism in the early 1990s was similarly disr lished economic, social, and administrative organizations. The interloc e of all aspects of a culture is termed ration. The recognition of three distinctive subsystems of culture, although helping us appreciate its structure and com, can at the same time obscure the many-sided nature of individual elements of culture. Cultural integration means act may have a number of meanings. Clothing, for example, serves as an artifact of bodily protection appropriate to climatic conditions, available mater er is engaged. But garments also may be sociofacts, ing an

individual’s role in the social structure of the comm e, and mentifacts, e tems (Figure 7.11).

s-

CULTURE CHANGE The recurring theme of geography is change. N e is, or has been, characterized by a permanentl mater systems of organization, or even ideologies, ing within a stable, .S ways been rare. On the whole, es ar y conservative, they are alway Many changes, of course, e so y ar y they may sube. Think of ho e of the United S om what it was in 1940—not perhaps, ic, eleconic, oduced ecreational, and technologic changes have ought. Among latter have been shifts in employ eater ce and associated large. Such cum e not independent; e clustered in a coherent Change on a sm sc e have de reper adopted adjustment. Change, both major and minor, es is induced by innovation, and acculturation.

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(a)

(c)

FIGURE 7.11 (a) Houses ar

providing shelter for their occupants. These traditional houses on Nias Island o the west coast of Sumatra, Indonesia, reflect an ingenious cultural adaptation to a hot, humid tropical climate. The elevated culate. The steep r om the tr are also sociofacts, family, kinship, and communal ideals of a culture. This landscape of detached, single-family houses and d swimming pools in egas, Nevada, reflects social relations in the United States, with an emphasis on individualism, privacy, and the nuclear family. (c) Houses are also r group’s ideas about appropriate design, orientation, and building ashington, D.C., r cultural ideals om classical Greek architecture and

(b)

Innovation e that result from ideas created within the social group itself and adopted by the culture. The novelty may be an invented improvement in material technology, such as the bow and arrow or the jet engine. It may involve the development of nonmater ucture and interaction: , for example. Premodern and traditional societies characteristic ly are slower to innovate or accept change. In societies at equilibrium with their environment and with no unmet needs, change eason to occur. Indeed, all societies have an innate resistance to change, since innovation inevitably cr wr established socioeconomic conditions. Those tensions can be resolved only by adaptive changes elsewhere in the total system. The gap that may de for example, a newly adopted technology and other, slower-paced social traits has been c led cultural lag. Complaints about youthful fads and the glor ation of times past are familiar examples of reluctance to accept or adjust to change. Innovation (invention), frequently under stress, has mar An expanded food base accompanied the pressures of gro populations at the end of the Ice Age. Domestic

(a) W vice; (c) © Getty RF.

to have occurr y in several recognizable areas of “invention” of agr e, shown in F e 7.12. From them, presumably, c production techniques, and ne ation as the major om huntinggathering to sedentary farming at least 2000 years ago. inno e; the more basic the innovation, the more pervasive its consequences. Few inno e basic than the Agr volution. It affected every aspect of eated irr ers and sedentar es. Where oups came into contact, and hunter-gatherers the losers in competition for territorial control. The contest continued into modern times. During the past 500 years, Eur y dominated the hunting and gather es it encountered in large parts of the world, such as North America and Australia (see “Is Geography Destiny?”). With agr , ed at an accelerating pace, ame ts of spinning and weav’s wheel, e clay, They developed the techniques of brick , mortaring, and building construction. They discover , smelting, and casting

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S loc advantages in resources or products promoted the development of long-distance trading connections. On the foundation of such technic e complex, e appeared, inc eplace the r ing economies. The source r al revolutions wer The term is used to describe those restricted areas of innovation from which key culture elements diffused to exert an on surrounding regions. The hear wed as the “cradle” of any culture group whose developed systems of livelihood and life cr ape. Most of the thousands of hearths that evolved across the world in all r emained at low levels of social and technical development. Only a few produced the trappings of civilization, which ar y assumed to include writing (or other forms of record keeping), , long-distance trade connections, astronomy and mathematics, ation and labor specialization, formalized go stems, and a str ed ur . Se e hearths emerged, some as early as 7000 to 8000 years ago, wing evolution in food production. Prominent centers of early creativity were located in Mesopotamia, the Indus

V northern China, southeastern Asia, and several locations in Africa, the Americas, and elsewhere (F e 7.13). In most modern societies, innovative change has become common, expected, and ine , though it may be rejected e groups. The rate of invention, at least as measured by the number of patents granted, has steadily increased, and the per and pr easing. is that, the more ideas available and the more minds able to exploit and combine them, the greater the rate of innovation. ation is that larger urban centers of advanced economies tend to be centers of innovation, not just because of their siz ause of the number of ideas interchanged. Indeed, ideas not only stim new ideas but also create circumstances in which new solutions must be developed to maintain the for igure 7.14).

Diffusion S is the process by which a concept, a practice, an innovation, or a substance spreads from its point of origin to new territories. but basicall ocesses are involved. Either people move to a

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FIGURE 7.12

n and southeastern Asia center was characterized by the domestication of plants, such as taro, that are propagated by the division and replanting of existing plants (vegetative reproduction). Reproduction by the planting of seeds (e.g., maize and wheat) was more characteristic of Meso-America and Southwest Asia. The African and Andean areas developed crops repr ops and livestock associated with the separate origin areas are sele

FIGURE 7.13 Early cultur

orld and the Americas. The B.C.E. (Before the Common Era) dates approximate .

new ar to the American colonies did) or information about an innovation (such as barbed wire or hybrid corn) can spread throughout a culture. In either case, new ideas are transferred from their source region to new areas and to differ e groups. S e detail in Chapter 8.

way or of independent (or par ties do not necessar y prov wer

ent areas is the r vation.

y conceived and are not e

ied. ica most likely , as some have

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Rate of innovation

proposed, of pre-Columbian voyages from the Mediterranean to the Americas. A S e, ter y a limited number of shapes from which to choose. Historic parallel invention are numerous: logarithms by Napier (1614) and Burgi (1620), calculus by Ne Leibnitz (1675), and the telephone by Elisha Gray and Graham Bell (1876) are commonly cited examples. It appears beyond doubt that agriculture was independently invented not only both in the New

Paleolithic

Time

Present

FIGURE 7.14 The trend of innovation through human . Hunter-gatherers, dwelling in close relationship with their environment and their resource base, had little need for innovation and no necessity for cultural change. The Agricultural of domestication, urbanization, and trade. With the Industrial Revolution, dramatic increases in all aspects of socioeconomic innovation began to alter cultures throughout the world.

World and in the Old but also in more than one culture hearth in each of the hemispheres. es are amalgams of innumerable innovations spr y from their points of origin and integrated into the structure of the r It has been estimated that no mor are traceable to innovations created by its members and that ough diffusion (see “ e,” p. 212). Barr , y, the closer and the mor eas are to one another, eater is vation, bec sion is a selective process. , e may selectively adopt some goods or ideas fr reject others. The decision to adopt is governed by the receiving group’s o e. P al restrictions, religious taboos, The French Canadians, y close to many censuch as Toronto, New York, and Boston, e onl their e complex govern French selective accepTr oups, perhaps conwish comm ew Yor yr e live (see “Folk and P e,” p. 219, and F e 7.15). A y accept intact items originating from the outside. tifacts commonl them acceptable to a borrowing group. The process of the fusion of the old and new, c syncretism, is a major featur It can be seen in alterations to religious ritual and dogma made by conver acceptable conformity old and new beliefs. For example, slaves brought voodoo from West Africa to the Americas, where it thrived in Haiti and Louisiana. Over the years it absor om French and Spanish Catholicism, American Indian spir practices, and even Masonic tradition. Despite many believers consider themselves to be Catholics and see no contradicotective spirits and other tenets of voodoo. On a more familiar level, syncretism is r ted cuisines to make them conform to the demands of America’s fast-food franchises.

FIGURE 7.15 Motivated by religious conviction that the “good life” must be reduced to its simplest forms, the Amish community of east central Illinois shuns all modern luxuries of the majority, secular society around them. Children use horse and buggy, not school bus or automobile, on the daily trip to their rural school.

Acculturation is the pr e gr ation by adopting many of the characteristics of another,

y

e group. In practice, acculturation may involve changes in the or oups involved in pr S a conquered or colonized region. V ten, the subordinate or subject population is forced to acculturate or does so voluntarily, ov ior nical level of the conqueror. The tribal Europeans in areas of Roman conquest, native populations in the wake of Slavic occupation of Siberia, and Native Americans follo orth America exper In a different fashion, it is evident in the changes in Japanese politic nization and philosophy imposed by occupying Americans after World War II or in the Japanese adoption of some more recr ican life (Figure 7.16). In turn, American life was enriched by awareness of Japanese food, architecture, philosophy, e, demonstrating On occasion, the invading group is assimilated into the conquered society, as the older, richer Chinese culture prevailed over that of the conquering tribes of invading Mongols during the 13th and 14th centuries. The relationship of a mother country to its colony may also result in permanent e of the colonizer, even though little direct

FIGURE 7.16 Baseball, an import fr

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population contact is involved. The European spread of tobacco addiction (see “Documenting Diffusion,” in Chapter 8), potatoes, maize, and turkeys r Americas. In Great Britain, dr y are but both are imports, r nial experience in India. In the modern period, the population relocations and immigration impacts discussed in Chapter 6 (pp. 180–182) have resulted in unprecedented cultural mixings throughout the world. The traditional “melting pot” view—more formally, amalgamation theory—of immigrant integration into, for example, U.S. society suggests that the receiving society and the varied arriving newcomer groups eventually merge into a composite mainstream culture, incorporating the many traits of its collective components. More realistically, in order to be accepted, newcomer groups must learn the accustomed patterns of behavior and response and the dominating language of the workplace and government of the culture they have entered. Acculturation for them involves the adoption of the values, attitudes, ways of behavior, and speech of the receiving society, which itself undergoes change from absorption of the arriving group. In that process, the immigrant group loses much of its separate cultural identity to the extent that it accepts over time the culture of the larger host community.

. Similarly, a generation ago most Americans considered soccer a foreign and exotic game of little or no interest. Today, soccer is one of the most popular youth sports in the United States.

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y involves a minor oup adopting the patterns of the dominant population, the process can be reciprocal. That is, the dominant group may also w minority groups as a broader, more diverse composite culture is created. Instead of the presumed ideal of the “melting pot,” a “salad bowl” or “lumpy stew” e results. W ocess is completed, ed. But assimilation does not necessarily mean that consciousness of or educed or lost. Competition theory, in fact, suggests that, ities begin to achieve success and enter into mainstr economic life, ences may be heightened, transforming the strengthening immigrant group into a tive minor , ests that defend and pr . Carried to extremes, militant minor esult in the loss process seeks to assure—a circumstance of increasing concern in Western European and Anglo American destination countries.

CULTURAL DIVERSITY We began our discussion of culture with its subsystems of technologic sociologic and ideological content. We have learned that the distinctive makeup of those subsystems—the

combinations and interactions of traits and complexes characteristic of particular cultures—is subjected to, and is the product of, change through innovation, adoption, Those pr velopment and alteration have not, however, led to a homogenized world e, even af exchange since the origins of agriculture. As we earlier observed, it is true that, in an increasingly integrated world, access to the material trappings and technologies of modern life and economy is widely available to most peoples and societies. As a result, important comveloped. Nevertheless, ience and observation indicate a world still divided, e. O e ession and to indicate how that cultur antly different fr e complexes. We may reject as super ations derived from trivialities: the foods people eat for breakfast, for example, This rejection is a r the level of generalization we seek. There is no single most appropriate way to designate or recogniz e or to e region. As geographers concerned with world systems, we are inter e that vary over extensive regions of the world and differentiate societies in a broad, summary fashion.

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possibilities of area, and it assures that var

ance.

LANGUAGE Forever changing and evolving, lanitten form makes possible the cooperative efforts, the group understandings, and the shared patterns that cule groups. Language, y as an organized system of speech by which people communic with m comprehension, is the most impor e is transmitted. Language enables parents to teach their children what the world they live in is like and what they must . So

FIGURE 7.17

elsh (Cymraeg), a Celtic language, within Great Britain demonstrates the importance of language to cultural identity. After mor decline as English came to dominate education and public life, laws passed in the 1990s gave Welsh equal status with English in Wales. Instruction in W to age 16 and most government publications and road signs in Wales are bilingual. The British gover ales, devolving power to the Wales Assembly Government. © Mark Bjelland.

L , religion, ethnicity, and gender meet our criteria and are among the most prominent of the differentiating cultur regions. L eligion are e, we are as individuals and clearl munities of persons with similar characteristics. In our earlier terminology, they are mentifacts, components of the ideologic e that help shape the belief system of a

e, inc

s, ,r

It is group that they ent from others who do not unique customs, or

Like them, too, it may serve as an element of Language, religion, and ethnicity treat all members y. However, among the most prominent strands in the fabric of culture are the social structures (sociofacts) and relationships that establish and the rewards afforded to each. Gender is the reference term r y created distinctions. It conditions the way people use space and assess economic and cultural

es the perceptions of its speakers. By the words it contains and the concepts it can formulate, lan-

the understandings, and the responses .L , therefore, can be both a cause and a sy differentiation (F e 7.17). If that conclusion is true, one y understood. The approximatel th speak nearly 7000 different languages. Kno ica as a whole contains nearly one-third of all icans speak one or more variants of 15 core languages) gives us a c er appreciation of the political and division in that continent. Europe alone has some 230 languages and dialects (F e 7.18). L , and the present world distribution of major languages (Figure 7.19) records not only the migrations and conquests of our linguistic ancestors but the continuing dynamic pattern of human movements, settlements, and colonizations of more recent centuries. L eatly in their relative importance, if importance can be taken to mean the number of people using them. Mor ld’s inhabitants are native and at least ly use or have competence in just four of them. Table 7.1, p. 214, lists those spoken by more than , ludes nearly 90% of the world’s population. At the other end of the sc e a number of rapidly declining languages whose speakers number in the hundreds or, at most, the few thousands. Indeed, the world today has far less ic y, ough the spread of English and the other “big” Scholars estimate that

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TA B L E 7 . 1

entl meaning that childr speakers are now midd y.

e endangered— oungest

among them r A is a gr single, The Indo-Eur among the most prominent of such (F ar

(or

ecognize ) y

oupings, embracing most icas opean family

e 7.19). ld’s peoples.

By recognizing similar words in most Indo-European lanived from a common anc proto-Indo-European, which was where in Eastern Europe about Turkey was the more likely site of origin). By at least 2500 B.C., had appar y fragmented; the homeland was left and segments of the parent e migrated in different directions. Wherever this r kable people settled, they appear to have dominated loc W y, we c subfamilies. The (including French, Spanish, and offsprings of Latin—and the Germanic (such as

y

Europe 230 (3%)

FIGURE 7.18 W Of the perhaps 6900 languages still spoken today, one-third are found in Asia. Linguists’ estimates of the number of languages ever om 31,000 to as many as 300,000 or more. Assuming the lower estimate or even one considerably smaller, dead most spoken in the forests of Papua New Guinea or in Indonesia, are lost each week. In contrast, as a result of the vast mixing of peoples and cultures, more than 100 new languages have been created over the past four centuries. Source: Estimates based on Lewis, M. Paul (ed.), 2009. ex.: SIL International.

and D Indo-European. ities in sounds, grammatic though they are m man Tochter, and Swedish dotter ar

or branches, of y often show simie, and voc , even English daughter, Ger-

Language Spread and Change L spread as a geographic event represents the increase or relocation through time in the area over which a is spoken. The mor of the “Bantu line” in sub-Saharan Africa, for example, are variants of a pr ied by an expanding, y advanced people who displaced linguistic y different preexisting populations (F e 7.20, p. 218). More recently, opean colonists similarly replaced native tongues in their areas of settlement in North and South America, A and Siberia. That is, languages may spread because their speakers occupy new territory. Latin, however, replaced earlier Celtic languages in Western Europe not by force of numbers—Roman legionnaires, administrators, and settlers never represented a major populatio tongues by native populations br control of the Roman Empire. Adoption rather than eviction wed in the majority of historical and contemporar ead. That is, y spread because they acquire new speakers.

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Either form of language spread—the dispersion of speakers or the acquisition of speakers—may, through segregation and isolation, give rise to separate, mutually incomprehensible ent protolanguage no longer remains unitary. Comparable changes occur nor, pronunciation, vocabulary, and syntax (the way words are put together in phrases and sentences). Because they are gradual, such changes tend to go unremarked, yet cumulatively they can r eat that, in the course of centuries, y ne eated. The y Shakespearean writings or the King James Bible (1611) sounds stilted to our ears, y Beowulf is practic ly unintelligible. Language evolution may be gradual and cumulative, with each generation de ee from the speech patterns and voc ents, or it may be massive and migrations, new trade contacts, and other disr English owes its form to the Celts, the or itish Isles, and to successive waves of invaders, including the L Romans and the Germanic Angles, S ons, and Danes. The Fr orman conquer y added about 10,000 new words to the evolving English Discovery and colonization of new lands and continents in the 16th and 17th centuries greatly and necessarily expanded English as new foods, vegetation, and artifacts were encountered and adopted along with their existing aboriginal American, A Indian, or African names. The Indian ic ought more than 200 relatively common daily words to English, 80 or more from the North Americ est fr ibbean, and South American More than 2000 mor ed or loc ed words were also added. Moose, raccoon, skunk, maize, squash, succotash, igloo, toboggan, hurricane, blizzard, hickory, pecan, and a host of other names were taken directly into English; others were adopted secondhand from Spanish variants of South American native words: cigar, potato, chocolate, tomato, tobacco, hammock. A wor colonists c Western Hemispher , conquest, ica and Asia. ead, iched by its conof commerce and science, it in to the common voc Within some 400 years, English has de om a loc coast to a y some second, (F e 7.21), or S

y

, and ole French (32),

ies (25), eased

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FIGURE 7.19 World language families. Language families are groups of individual tongues that have a common but remote ancestor. By suggesting that the area assigned to a language or language family uses that language exclusively, the map patter Many countries and regions have local languages spoken in territories too small to be recorded at this scale. The map also fails to r regions is fluent in more than one language, ce, education, or gover given about the number of speakers of ent languages; the fact that there are more speakers of English in India or Africa than in Australia is not even hinted at by a map at this scale.

conferences, 1990s, dominance is dec

ol,

. ound.

Standard and Variant Languages P , such as English, e members of a speech community, but membership does not necessarily imply linguistic uniformity. A speech comm y possesses both a comprising the accepted comm vocabulary, and pronunciation and a number of more or less distinctive the eal, professional, or other subdivi-

An or language is the form caring go educational, or societal sanction. In Arab countries, for example, classic mosque, of education, and of the newspapers and is standardized throughout the world. is used at home, in the street, and at the market—and in its r iants, it may be as widely different as are, for example, Por On the other hand, the United States, A and the United Kingdom y different forms of standard English. y the same, losel unities display recognizable speech variants called dialects. Vocabulary, pronunciation, rh

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12 8

is spoken may clearly set groups of speakers apart from one another. lear spatial patterns. Speech is a geographic variable. Each locale is likely to have its own, ences from neighboring places. Such differences in pronunciation, vocabulary, word meanings, and other istics help the linguistic geogra geographic, or regional, dialects—of a generalized speech community. F e 7.22 records the variation in usage associated In the United States, Southern English and New England speech are among the r are most easily recognized by their distinctive accents. In some instances, there is so m iation among geographic dialects that some are almost foreign tongues to other speakers

Effort is required for Americans to understand A pool, England, or in Glasgow, Scotland (see “World Englishes,” p. 222). An interesting United States example is discussed in the r “G ,” in Chapter 13. Local dialects and accents do not display predictable patterns of consistency or change. In the ethnic y and r y complex United States, for example, lusions concerning local speech patterns have been drawn by researchers examining the results of an increasingly transient population, immigration from other countries and cultures, and the pervasive and presumed leveling effects of the mass media. The distinct evidence of increasing contrasts among the speech patterns and accents of Chicago, New York,

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FIGURE 7.20 Bantu advance, Khoisan retreat in Africa. Linguistic evidence suggests that proto-Bantu speakers originated in the region of the Cameroon-Nigeria border, spread eastward across the southern Sudan, then turned southward to Central Africa. From there they dispersed slowly eastward, westward, and, against slight resistance, southward. The earlier Khoisan-speaking occupants of subSaharan Africa were no match against the advancing metal-using Bantu agriculturalists. Pygmies, adopting a Bantu tongue, retreated deep into the forests. Bushmen and Hottentots retained their distinctive Khoisan “click” language but were forced out of forest and grasslands

Birmingham, St. Louis, and other cities is countered by reports of decreasing local dialect pronunciations in such centers as which have exper northerners. L is rarely a barrier to communication unicate in a jointly understood third language, tions may require the creation of a ne learned by both parties. A pidgin is an amalgam of languages, such as English or French, owings from another, perhaps non-European loc In its or a pidgin is not the mother veryone who uses it, one y restricted to such functions as commerce, administration, and work supervision. Pidgins are characterized by a highl matical str e and a sharply reduced vocabulary adequate

to express basic ideas but not complex concepts. If a pidgin oup of speakers—who may have lost their former native tongue through disuse—a creole has evolved. Creoles invariably acquire a more complex grammatic e and enhanced voc . Cr ov tools in linguistically diverse areas; several have become symbols of nationhood. Swahili, a pidgin formed from a number of Bantu dialects with major vocabulary additions from Arabic, originated in the coastal areas of East Africa and spread inland Arab ivory and slave caravans and later by trade during the period of English and German colonial rules. When Kenya and Tanzania gained independence, they made S and education. Other examples of creolization are Afrikaans (a pidginized form of 17th-century Dutch used in the Republic of South Africa); Haitian Creole (the language of Haiti, derived from the pidginized French used in the slave

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trade); and Bazaar Malay (a pidginized form of the Malay language, of Indonesia). A a is an established language used habituy for communication by people whose native tongues are m y incomprehensible. For them, it is a second language, one learned in addition to the native tongue. Lingua franca y, “F ”) was named from the French diausaders at war in the Holy Land. Later, Latin bec a of the Mediterranean world until, y, it was displaced by vernacular European tongues. wed Muslim coning language of that international religion

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after the 7th century. Mandarin Chinese and Hindi in India have traditionall a role in their linguistic y diverse countries. Africa has made r as there necessary and inevitable—S ica, for example, and Hausa in parts of W ica.

Language and Culture L e complex of a people, r both environment and technology. elated to camels, e relied for food, t, and labor, and Japanese contains more than 20 words

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Christmas I. Cocos (Keeling) Is. Gibraltar Malta Montserrat Niue

Norfolk I. Trust Terr. of the Pacific Is. Pitcairn I. St. Helena & Ascension Is. Tokelau

FIGURE 7.21 International English.

esent rivals. Along with French, it opean Union institutions; some two-thirds of all scientific papers are published in it, making it the first language of scientific discourse. In addition to being the accepted language of inter e nations and territories, some too small to be shown her -universal ental Europe, where mor opean Union states) study it as a second language and more than one-third of European Union residents can easily converse in it.

ice. Russian is rich in terms for ice and snow, ative of the pre le; and the 15,000 tr ibutaries of the Amaz ich P go beyond river. e paraná (a stream that leaves and reenters the same river), igarapé (an offshoot that r it dries up), and o ivers). onounced ences in way Most have to do with voc to individual es. For example, among the ibs of the Caribbean, the Zulu of Africa, and elsewhere, men have words that women through custom or taboo are not permitted to use, and the women have words and phrases that the men never use “or they would be laughed to scorn,” an informant reports. dence fr cates that, , ed to be “ ” or “more correct” lass. The greater and mor ence in the social roles of men and women in a particular e, the greater and more rigid are the obser It proegion; if it is spoken throughout a country, For this reason,

politic is perceived as foreign domination. l Wales speak English, many also want to preserve Welsh because they consider it an important aspect of their e. They think that, if the is their entire e may be threatened. French Canadians received government recognition Quebec Pro ous r

In India, seried by people expressing opposition to the

Bilingualism or multilingualism complicates national linucture. Areas are consider e than ant proportion of the population. In some countries—Belgium and Switzerland, for example—there is mor In many others, such as the United States, only one language may have vernmental sanction, although several others are spoken (see “A L pp. 224– 225). Speakers of one of these may be concentrated in restricted areas (e.g., most speakers of French in Canada live in Quebec Province). Less often, they are distributed fairly evenly throughout the country. In some countries, the language in which instruction, commercial transactions, and government

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Soda Pop Coke

FIGURE 7.22 Dialect boundaries. Descriptive terms for ences. The generic term egionally across the United States, from soda to pop to coke. Despite the influence of national mass media in promoting a “standard” American word usage and pronunciation, regional variations persist.

FIGURE 7.23 Europe in Africa thr

In linguistic y complex sub-Saharan Africa, nearl ies have selected a Eur y that of their former colonial go e 7.23). T the record of past and pr es whose namings endure as reminders of their passing and their existence. Toponymy, the therefore, is a re ic geography, because place-names become a part of the ape that remains long after the name givers have passed from the scene. In England, for example, place-names ending in chester (as in Winchester and Manchester) evolved from the Latin castra, meaning “camp.” Common Anglo-S on suf s for tribal and family settlements were ing (people or family) and ham (hamlet or, perhaps, meadow), as in Birmingham and N ibuted placenames ending in thwaite (meadow) and others denoting such landscape features as fell beck (a sm l brook). The Arabs, sweeping out from Arabia across North Africa and into Iberia, left their imprint in place-names to mark their conquest and control. Cairo means “victorious,” Sudan is “the land of the blacks,” and Sahara is “wasteland” or “wilderness.” In Spain, a version of the Arabic wadi, “watercourse,” is found in Guadalajara and Guadalquivir. In the New World, not one people but many placed names on landsc es and new settlements. In doing so, they remembered their homes and homelands, honored their

monarchs and heroes, borrowed and mispronounced from rivals, adopted and distorted Amerindian names, followed fads, and rec the Bible. Homelands were honored in New England, New France, and Ne hometown memories brought Boston, New Bern, and New Rochelle from England, Switzerland, and France. Monarchs were remembered in Virginia for the Virgin Queen Elizabeth, Carolina for one English , Georgia for another, and Louisiana for rance. Washington, D.C.; Jackson, Mississippi and Michigan; Austin, Texas; and Lincoln, Illinois, memor ed heroes and leaders. Names given by the Dutch in New York were often distorted by the English; Breukelyn, Vlissingen, and Haarlem became Br yn, Flushing, and Harlem. French names under and Spanish names were adopted, altered, or later put into such combinations as Hermosa Beach. Amerindian tribal names— the Yenrish, Maha, Kansa—wer rench and later by English speakers, to Erie, Omaha, and Kansas. A faddish classical re ter the American Revolution gave us Troy, Athens, Rome, Sparta, and other ancient town names and later spread them across the country. Bethlehem, Ephrata, Nazareth, and Salem came from the Bible. Of course, European colonists and their descendants gave place-names to a physic ape already adequately named by indigenous peoples. Those names were sometimes adopted but often shortened, ed, or—certainly— mispronounced. The vast territory that local Amerindians c “Mesconsing,”

Both the linguistic complexity of sub-Saharan Africa and the colonial histories of its present political units are implicit in the designation of a Eur ent countries.

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meaning “the long river,” was recorded by Le k as “Quisconsing,” later to be further distorted into “Wisconsin.” Milwaukee, Winnipeg, Potomac, Niagara, Adirondack, Chesapeake, Shenandoah, and Yukon; the names of 28 of the 50 United States; and the pr orth American places and features, had their origin in Native American languages.

RELIGION Enduring place-names are one measure of the importance of wer ing thr e complex of people. ole. In some ways, it yields to r ying point. French Catholics slaughtered French (Protestants) in the name of r y. English Roman Catholics were hounded from the country after the establishment of the Anglican church. Hindus forced the partition of the Indian subcontinent after the departure of the British in 1947. And recent years have witnessed continuing religious confr for example, Catholic and Protestant Christian groups in Northern Ireland; Muslim sects in Lebanon, Iran, and Iraq; Muslims and Jews in Palestine; Chr the Philippines, Nigeria, and Lebanon; and Buddhists and Hindus in Sri Lanka.

However, unlike , which is an attribute of people, religion var ole—dominating in some societies, unimportant, rejected, or even repressed in others. stems—common beliefs, understandings, expectations, and controls—that unite their members and set them off from other, different culture groups. Such a value system is termed a religion when it involves sysed and divine. In a more inclusive sense, religion may be viewed as a system of beliefs and practices that join all those who adhere to them into a single moral comm . Religion may intimatel e. Religious belief is, an element of the ideological subsystem; formalized and organized r expression of the sociological subsystem. And religious beliefs strongly attitudes toward the tools and rewards of the technological subsystem. Nonr stems—humanism or Marxism, for example—can be just as binding on the societies that espouse them as are more religious beliefs. Even societies that largely reject religion, however, e strongl edecessor religions—in days of work and rest or in legal principles, for example. Because religions are formalized views on questions of ance, each carries a distinct conception of the meaning and value of this life, and most contain strictures

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FIGURE 7.24 Worshipers gathered during hajj, the pilgrimage to Mecca. The black structure is the Ka’ba, the symbol of Allah’s (God’s) oneness and of the unity of God and humans. Many rules concerning daily life are given in the Koran, the holy book of the Muslims. All Muslims are expected to observe the five pillars of the faith: (1) repeated saying of the basic creed; (2) prayers five times daily ©T /Image Works.

about what must be done to achieve salvation (Figure 7.24). These beliefs become interwoven with the traditions of a culture. One cannot understand India without a knowledge of Hinduism, or Israel without an appreciation of Judaism. Economic patterns may be inter esent religious beliefs. Tr estrictions on food and drink e raised or avoided, the crops that are grown, and the importance of those crops in the daily diet. Occupational assignment in the Hindu caste system is, in part, religiously supported. In many countries, there is a state religion; that is, religious and political str es are interBuddhism, for example, has been the state religion in Myanmar, Laos, and Thailand. the Islamic Republic of P and the Islamic Republic of Iran proc ch and government. Despite the country’s overwhelming Muslim major , Indonesia sought and formerly found domestic harmony by r eligions and a state ideology—pancasila tenet is belief in one god.

Classification and Distribution of Religions Religions ar vations. They may be unique to a single culture group, closely related to the faiths professed in eas, or derived from or identic stems spay far removed. connections and derivations among religions can frequently be discerned—as Christianity and Islam can trace descent from Judaism—family groupings are not as useful in c eligions as they are in studying languages. monotheism, belief in a single , and polytheism, belief in many gods, is frequent but not par l y relevant. It is more useful for the spatial interests of geographers to categorize religions as universalizing, ethnic, or tribal (traditional). Chr , Islam, and Buddhism are the major world ions, faiths that claim applic through missionary work and conversion. Membership in

An Official U.S. Language?

universalizing religions is open to anyone who chooses to make a symbolic commitment, such as baptism in Chr . No one is excluded bec , , or pre ous religious belief. ions have strong territor oup ation. y becomes a member of an ethnic r , not by a simple dec These religions do y prosel e (attempt to convert nonbelievers), and their members form distinctive closed comm with a particular ethnic group, region, or politic An ethnic r , Judaism, Indian Hinduism, or Japanese S e. T the r e. Tr (or traditiona religions are special forms of ethnic r e, their unique idened culture groups not yet fully absorbed into , and their close ties to nature. Animism is the 224

name given to their belief that life exists in all objects, from rocks and trees to lakes and mountains, or that such objects are the abode of the dead, of spirits, and of gods. Shamanism is a form of tribal religion that involves comm a shaman who, thr wers, can intercede with and interpret the spirit world. The nature of the different classes of religions is r in their distributions over the world (Figure 7.25) and in their number of adherents. Universalizing religions tend to be expansionary, carrying their message to new peoples and areas. Ethnic religions, unless their adherents are dispersed, tend to be regionall y slowly and over long periods. Tr religions tend to contract y as their adherents are incorporated increasingly into modern and converted by prosel As we expect in cultural geography, the map records only the latest stage of a constantly changing reality. While established religious institutions tend to be conservative and

resistant to change, religion as a culture trait is dynamic. Personal and collective belief esponse to developing and needs and challenges. Religions may be imposed by conquest, adopted by conversion, or defended and preserved in the face of surrounding hostility or indifference. Nor does the map pr e even of current religious regionaliz Few societies are homogeneous, and most modern ones contain a var , at least, variants of the dominant professed religion. Some of those variants in many religions are intolerant or antagonistic toward other faiths or toward the sects and members of their own faith deemed y or orthodox (see “Militant F p. 229). Frequently, members of a particular religion show areal concentration within a country. Thus, in urban Northern Ireland, Protestants and Catholics reside in separate areas whose boundaries are clearly understood and respected. The

“Green Line” in Beirut, Lebanon, marked a guarded boristian east and the Muslim west sides of the city, whereas, within the country as a whole, regional concentrations of adherents of different faiths and sects are clearly recognized (Figure 7.26). Religious diversity within countries may r ee of toleration a major ture affords minority religions. In dominantly (55% to 88%, Christian Bataks, Hindu Balinese, and Muslim Javanese lived in peaceful coexistence for many years. By contrast, the fundamentalist Islamic regime in Iran has persecuted and executed those of the Baha’i faith. One cannot assume that all people within a mapped religious region are adherents of the designated faith, nor can it be assumed that membership in a religious community means active participation in its belief system. Secularism, an indifference to or rejection of religion and religious belief, is an increasing part of many modern societies, particularly of the 225

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re-En ronment Tradition

FIGURE 7.25 Principal world religions. The assignment of individual countries to a single r

owing intermixture of faiths in countries that have experienced major immigration flows or religious change. In some instances, those influxes are eligious balance. In nominally Christian, Catholic France, for example, low church-going rates suggest that now more Muslims than practicing Catholics reside ther entials, that someday Islam may s predominant religion as measured by the number of practicing adherents. Secularism—rejection of religious belief—is common in many countries but is not locationally indicated on this map. Areas of sub-Saharan Africa labeled Christian are intermixed with tribal religions they have displaced.

industrialized countries and those now or recently under communist regimes. In England, for example, the state Church of England claims 20% of the British as communicants, but only 2% of the population attends its Sunday services. Even in devoutly Roman Catholic South American states, low church attendance attests to the rise of at least informal secularism. In Colombia, only 18% of the people attend Sunday services; in Chile, the e is 12%; in Mexico, 11%; and in 5%.

The Principal Religions Each of the major religions has its own unique of culessions, each has had its own pattern of innovation and spatial diffusion (Figure 7.27), and each has had its own impact on the cultural landscape. Together, they contribute importantly to the worldwide pattern of human diversi .

Judaism We can begin our re w of world faiths with Judaism, whose belief in a single God laid the foundation for both Christispring, Judaism is closely with a single ethnic group and with

a complex and restrictive set of beliefs and laws. It emerged ear East, one of the e hearth regions (see Figure 7.13). Judaism is a distinctively ethnic religion, the determining factors of which are descent from Israel (the patriarch Jacob), the Torah (law and scr e), and the traditions of the culture and the faith. Early military success gave the Jews a sense of territorial and politic eligious self-awareness. Later conquests by nonbelievers led to their dispersion (diaspora) to much of the Mediterranean world and farther east into Asia by A.D. 500 (Figure 7.28). Dur ies, many Jews sought refuge in Poland and Russia from persecution in western and central Europe; during the later 19th and earl ies, Jews were important elements of the European immigrant stream to the Western Hemisphere. The mass destruction of Jews in Europe before and during World War II—the Holocaust— drastic y reduced their presence on that continent. The establishment of the state of Israel in 1948 was a of the goal of Zionism, the belief in the need to create an autonomous Jewish state in P It demonstrated a determination that Je ption into alien cultures and societies. It also spatiall lier, separated Jewish communities: the Sephardim, who were expelled from Iberia in the late 15th century, y to North

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Africa and the Near East, and the Ashkenazim, who, the 13th and ies, sought refuge in Eastern Europe from persecutions in Western and Central Europe. Judaism’s impr ape has been subtle and unobtrusive. The Jewish comm eserves space for the practice of communal burial; the spread of the cultivated citron in the Mediterranean area during Roman times has been traced to Jewish r and the religious use of grape wine assured the cultivation of the vine in their areas of settlement. The synagogue as place of worship has tended to be less elaborate or architec rally distinctive than those of other major world religions. Sy e an ark (cabinet) containing the Torah scrolls and generally face Jerusalem. However, what is essential for a religious service is merely the presence of at least 10 adults, structure.

Mediterranean Sea

Chr Christianity had its origin in the life and teachings of Jesus, a Jewish pr whom his followers believed was the messiah promised by God. The new covenant he preached was not a rejection of traditional Judaism but a pr rather than to just a chosen people. Chr ’s mission was conversion, and missionary work was critic As a universal religion of salvation and hope, it spread quic y among the underclasses of both the eastern and western parts of the Roman Empire,

FIGURE 7.26 Religious regions of Lebanon. Long-standing religious territoriality and rivalry led, in the 1960s and 1970s, to open conflict between Muslims and Christians and among various branches of each major faith in this eastern Mediterranean . 80

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FIGURE 7.27 Innovation ar

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outes of major world religions. The monotheistic (single deity) faiths of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam arose in southwestern Asia, the first two in Palestine in the eastern Mediterranean region, and the latter in western Their rates, extent, and directions of spread are suggested here and detailed on later maps.

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North Sea

Baltic Sea

Atlantic Ocean Caspian Sea

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Red Sea

FIGURE 7.28 Jewish dispersions, A.D A revolt against Roman rule in A.D. 66 was followed by the destruction of the Jewish T ead fr egion, carried by its adherents dispersing from their homeland to Europe, Africa, and eventually in great numbers to the Western Hemisphere. Although Jews established themselves and their r

carried to major cities and ports along the excellent system of Roman roads and sea lanes (F e 7.29). In A.D. 313, Emperor Constantine proclaimed Christianity the state religion. Much later, of course, the faith was brought to the New World with Eur e 7.27). The dissolution of the Roman Empire into a western and eastern half af . The Western Church, based in Rome, was one of the very few stabilizing and civilizing forces uniting Western Europe during the Dark Ages. Its bishops became the civil as well as ecclesiastical authorities over vast areas devoid of other effective government. Parish churches were the focus of rural and urban life, and the cathedrals replaced Roman monuments and temples as the sy der.

Secular imper control endured in the Eastern Empire, whose c wn as Istanbul). Thriving under its protection, the Eastern Church expanded into the Balkans, Eastern Europe, Russia, and the Near East. e to the Turks in the 15th cenope temporarily to Islam, though the Eastern Orthodox Church (the direct descendant of the state church of the Eastern Roman Empire) remains, in its various ethnic branches, a major component of Christianity. The Protestant Reformation of the 15th and 16th centuries split the church in the west, leaving Roman Catholicism supreme in Southern Europe but a var of Protestant denominations and national churches in Western and Northern Europe. The split was r

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worldwide dispersion of Chr . Catholic Spain and Portugal colonized Latin America, and the Roman Church to that area (see Figure 7.27), as they did to colonial outposts in the Philippines, India, and Africa. Catholic France colonized Quebec in North America. Protestants, epressive Protestant state churches, were pr y early settlers of Anglo America, Australia, New Z Oceania, and South Africa. eligious intermingling rather than rigid territor istic of the contemporary American scene (F e 7.30), the beliefs and practices of various immigrant groups and the innovations of domestic congregations have created a particularl “religious regions” in the United States (Figure 7.31). k of Chr ape has been ing. In pre-Reformation Catholic Europe, ish chur hoods of every to ch was the centerpiece of

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ev

, ultaneously as a glor , and the focus of r e 7.32a). Protestantism placed less importance on the church as a monument and symbol, although in many communities— colonial New England, for example—the churches of the prine at the village center (F e 7.32b). Many were adjoined by a cemetery, because Christians—in common Muslims and Jews—practice bur in areas reserved for the dead. In Christian countries, particularly, the cemetery—whether connected to the church, separate from it, or unr y ant land use within urban areas.

Islam Islam springs from the same Judaic roots as Chr embodies many of the same beliefs: there is only one God, who can be revealed to humans through prophets; Adam

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Abraham was one of his descendants. Mohammed is revered as the prophet of Allah (God), succeeding and completing the work of earlier prophets of Judaism and Chr , including Moses, David, and Jesus. The Koran, the word of evealed to Mohammed, contains not only rules of worship and details of doctrine but also instructions on the conduct of human affairs. F it thus

Baltic Sea

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both religious and secular. Observance of the “ (see F e 7.24) and surrender a comm that has no concern with race, color, or caste. It was that law of comm an Arab world sorely divided by tribes, social ranks, and multiple local deities. Mohammed A.D. 622 was a resident of Mecc to Medina, where the Prophet proclaimed a

Mediterranean Sea

. Hegir

Red Sea

FIGURE 7.29

, A.D. 100–1500. Routes and dates are for Christianity as a composite faith. No distinction is made between the Western Church and the various subdivisions of the Easter

Hemisphere.

. ’s death in A.H. 11 (A Hegira, or A.D. 632), all of Arabia had joined l y oss N m e 7.33). Later, ica, Western ead and numeric o

o eements ov

FIGURE 7.30 in the United States. The sign details only a few Christian congregations. In reality, the United States has become the most religiously diverse country in the world with essentially all of the world’s faiths represented within its borders. Welcoming signs for other , towns might also announce Muslim, Hindu, Buddhist, and many other congregations in their varied religious mix. .

Pr imary groups, Sunnis and Shi’ites. Sunnis, the major ecognize caliphs (or y, “successor” the r ’s r The Shi’ites r thr the Prophet’s son-in-law, and his descendants. Today, S ies except Iran, Iraq, Bahrain, and perhaps Yemen. The mosque—place of worship, comm lubhouse, and school—is the foc uint of the r landscape. Its pr pose is to accommodate the Friday comm , mandator It is the egation rather than the str e that is important; or poor communities ar e, whitewashed room as ar y splendid mosques. With its per y proportioned, frequently gilded or tiled domes; ing to ets (from which the

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FIGURE 7.31 conceal the reality of immense diversity of chur had a higher percentage r “no r

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The greatly generalized areas of religious dominance shown oughout the United States. “Major” simply means that the ind ominent in the western states, in the industrial Midwest, and in the

ork; religious denomination maps prepared by Ingolf Vogeler of the University of Wisconsin, Eau-Claire, based on data compiled by the Roper Center for Public Research; and Churches and Church Membership in the United States (Atlanta, Georgia: Glenmary Research Center, 1992).

ec and cupolas, the c

and its delicately wrought parapets y tended mosque is fr y the most e of the to e 7.34).

Hinduism Hinduism is the world’s oldest major r Though it has no datable founding ev ophet, some e origin back 4000 or more years. Hinduism is an ethnic religion, an intricate web of r economic, and ation. ents are pr ily Asian and largely where it c From its cradle area in the valley of the Indus River, Hinduism spr ward throughout the subcontinent and adjacent regions by amalgamating, absorbing, and eventually supplanting earlier native religions and customs. Its practice ev y spread

throughout Southeast Asia and into Indonesia, Malaysia, Cambodia, Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam, neighboring Myanmar and Sri Lanka. The largest Hindu temple complex is in Cambodia, not India, and Bali remains a Hindu poc y Islamic Indonesia. There is no common creed, single doctrine, or central ecclesiastic A Hindu is one born into a caste, a member of a complex social and economic—as well as religious—community. Hinduism accepts and incor adherents may believe in one god or many or none. The caste (meaning “birth”) str For Hindus, the primary aim of this life is to conform to prescr itual duties and to the rules of conduct for the assigned caste and profession. Those requirements constitute that individual’s and duties. Tr y, each craft or profession is the proper aste.

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(a)

(b)

FIGURE 7.32 In Christian societies, the church assumes a prominent central position in the cultural landscape. (a) The building of Nôtre Dame Cathedral of Paris, France, begun in 1163, took more than 100 years to complete. Between 1170 and 1270, some 80 cathedrals were constructed in France alone. The cathedrals in all of Catholic Europe were located in the center of major cities. Their plazas were the sites of markets, public meetings, and religious ceremonies. (b) Individually less imposing than the central cathedral of Catholic areas, the several Protestant chur equently sited in the center of the community. The church shown here is in Wentworth Village, New Hampshire. (a) Corbis RF; (b) © Punchstock RF.

Caspian Sea

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Black Sea Mediterranean Sea

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ea

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FIGURE 7.33 Spread and extent of Islam. Islam predominates in over 35 countries along a band across northern Africa to central greatest development is in Asia, where it is second only to Hinduism, and in Africa, wher faith. Curr n Hemisphere.

The practice of Hinduism is rich rites and ceremonies, pilgrimages to holy rivers and sacred places, processions, and ritual gather It involves car vance of food and marriage rules and the

. Islam’s leading

per work of the caste system. Worship in the temples or shrines (F e 7.35) and the leaving of offerings to secure merit fr e required. The temples, shrines, daily r , numerous

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FIGURE 7.34 The Blue Mosque in Istanbul, Turkey. The common architectural features of the mosque make it an unmistakable landscape evidence of the presence of Islam in any local culture. © Getty RF.

FIGURE 7.35 The Chennakeshava Hindu temple complex at Belur, Karnataka, in southern India. The creation of temples and e than 3000 years. At the village level, the structure may be simple, containing only the windowless central cell housing the divine image, a surmounting spire, and the temple porch or stoop to protect eat temples, of immense size, are ornate extensions of the same basic design. © Allison Bohn.

y garbed or marked holy men and ascetics, and everpresent sacred animals mar ape of Hindu societies, a landsc eligious symbols and sights that are par ience.

Buddhism Numerous reform movements have derived from Hinduism over the centuries, some of which have endured to the present day as major religions on a regional or world

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scale. For example, Sikhism developed in the Punjab area of northwestern India in the late 15th century A.D., combining elements of both Hinduism and Islam and generally understood to be a syncretism of them. S ejects the formalism of both and proclaims a gospel of universal tolerance. The great majority of some 20 million Sikhs still live in India, mostly in the Punjab, though others have settled in Malaysia, Singapore, East Africa, the United Kingdom, and North America. vements is Buddhism, tha Gautama, the y B.C. in northern India by S Buddha (“Enlightened One”). The Buddha’s teachings were mor y that offered an explanation for evil and human suffering than a formal religion. wed the r vation to lie in understanding the “four noble truths”: existence involves suffering; suffering is the result of desire; pain ceases when desire is destroyed; the destruction of desire comes thr wledge of correct behavior and correct thoughts. The Buddha instructed his followers to carry his message as missionaries of a doctrine open astes, for no distinction among people was recognized. In that message, all could aspire to ultimate enlightenment,

Bay of Bengal

a promise of salvation that raised the Buddha in popular imagination from teacher to inspiration and Buddhism from philosoph eligion. The belief system spread oughout where it was made state r in the 3d y B.C. It was c ied elsewhere into Asia by missionaries, and merchants. W oad, Buddhism began to dec ly A.D., slowly but irreversibly reabsorbed into a re , its dominance in northern India had been br and by , ed fr subcontinent. Pr ence r the schools of thought, or vehicles, that were dominant during different periods of dispersion of the basic belief system (F e 7.36). In iants, pr l ape. A.D. and e thr world. ead are the thr ings and monuments: the (F e 7.37), shrine; the temple or pagoda enshrining an image or a r Buddha; ,

South China Sea

FIGURE 7.36

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FIGURE 7.38 Torii gate at Meiji Shrine in T © Getty RF.

FIGURE 7.37 The gold-embellished stupa at the Swedagon pagoda in Yangon, Myanmar (Rangoon, Burma) is 98 meters (322 feet) tall. .

East Asian Ethnic Religions When Buddhism reached China from the south some 1500 to 2000 years ago and was carried to Japan from Korea in the 6th century, it encounter eady well-established ethic stems. The F nic religions are syncretisms. In China, the union was with Confucianism and Taoism, themselves becoming intermingled by the time of Buddhism’s arrival, and in Japan, it was with Shinto, a pol Chinese belief systems address not so much the hereafter as the achievement of the best possible way of life in the present existence. They are more ethical or philosophical than religious in the pure sense. Confucius (K’ung Fu-tzu), a compiler of traditional wisdom who lived about the same time as Gautama Buddha, emphasized the importance of proper conduct y members. The famil leus of the state, was the lof tues. There are no churches or c Confucianism, though its founder believed in a heaven seen in and the Chinese custom of ancestor worship as a mar espect was encouraged. , Taoism, according to legend, was taught by Lao Tsu in B.C. Tao Way), a philosophy happiness lies in y e deploring passion, wledge, and go uch ld nirvana achievable in this , was y accepted as a to Chinese systems. and Taoism, ed ee T average person ther ,T ine,

hinto, the eligion of Japan, which developed out of nature and ancestor worship. Way of the Gods—is basic y a structure of customs and r stem. It observes a complex set of deities, including ors, family spirits, and the divinities residing in rivers, trees, certain mountains, and particularly the sun and moon. At resisted, Buddhism was later amalgamated with traditional Shinto. Buddhist deities were seen as Japanese gods in a different form, and Buddhist priests formerly but no longer assumed control of most of the numerous Shinto shrines in which the gods are belie which are approached through ceremonial torii, or gateway arches (Figure 7.38).

ETHNICITY out the mention of . Based on the root word ethnos, meaning “people” or “nation,” the term is usually used to refer to the ancestr ticular people who have in common distinguishing character itage. No . Recognition of ethnic communi, religion, national origin, unique customs, or, improperly, “race” (see “ ace”). Whate ing thread, ethnic groups may strive to preserve their special shared ancestry and heritage through the retention of language, religion, cuisines, traditions, and in-group work relationships, friendships, and marriages. Those pr ciations are fostered by and support ethnocentrism, the feeling that one’s o oup is superior. N y, reference to ethnic communities is recognition of their minor egion dominated by a different, majorit e group. W Koreans living in Korea as an ethnic group because theirs e in their own land. Kor

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Japan, however, constitute a discerned and segregated group in that foreign country. , therefore, is an e areal and a reminder that e regions are rarely homogeneous in the character their occupants. Territorial segregation is a strong and sustaining trait of , one that helps groups retain their distinction. On the world scene, indigenous ethnic groups have developed ov ations and have established themselves in their own and others’ eyes as distinctive peoples with eas. ies of most countries of the wor ities

(Figure 7.39). Their demands for territor recognition have sometimes increased advances in economic development and self-awareness, as Chapter 9 points out. Where clear territor are distinct and animosities bitter, gle political units can erupt. Recent histories of deadly warfar T or Serb and Croat in Bosnia, ten continuing r discord and separatism. Increasingly in a world of movement, ethnicity is less a of indigenous populations and more one of outsiders e. Immigrants, and r

y

A

dr

ia t

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ic

Se a

(a)

(b)

FIGURE 7.39

ugoslavia. Y orld War I (1914–1918) from a patchwork of Balkan states and territories, including the former kingdoms of Serbia and Montenegro, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatia-Slavonia, and Dalmatia. The authoritarian central government created in 1945 began to disintegrate in 1991 as non-Serb minorities voted for regional independence ences between Easter ents compounded resulting conflicts rooted in nationality and rival claims to ethnic homelands. (b) Afghanistan houses Pathan, Tajik, Uzbek, and Hazara ethnic groups (among others) speaking Pashto, Dari Persian, Uzbek, and several minor languages and split between majority Sunni and minority Shia Muslim believers.

case, they usuall y in an area where other members of their ethnic group live, as a place of r ing (F e 7.40). With the passage of time, they may leave their protected comm ve out among the general population. The Chinatowns, Little Havanas, ys of Anglo American cities have pro t systems essential to new immigrants in an alien culture region. Japanese, Italians, Germans, and other ethnics have formed agriuch the same spirit. Such ethnic enclaves may provide an entry station, allowing both individuals and the groups to which they belong to undergo

FIGURE 7.40

ea of San Francisco proclaim unmistakably the existence of a distinctive, wellestablished Chinese and Vietnamese community. Chinatowns, Little oughout the United States and Western Europe provide both the spatial r culture realm.

from war, famine, or persecution are a growing presence in countries throughout the world. Immigrants to a country y choices. They may hope for assimilation by e traits, losing their distinguishing characteristics and merging into the mainstream of e, as re wed earlier on page 212. Or they may try to retain their distinctive heritage. In either

operate effectively in the new, major . Sometimes, of course, settlers have no desire to assimilate or are not allowed to assimilate, so that they and their descendants form a more or less permanent subculture in the larger society. The Chinese in Malaysia belong to this category. Ethnicity in the context of nationality is discussed more fully in Chapter 9.

GENDER AND CULTURE Gender refers to distinctio der relationships and r

y created—not biologic y based— . Because gen-

iable and becomes, therefore, a topic of geographic interest and inquiry. Gender distinctions are complex, and the role and reward assignments of males and females differ from societ . In many

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s, those assignments are conditioned by arey different levels of economic development. Therefore, we might well assume a close similar roles and pr ent cultures that are at the same level of technological advancement. Indeed, it has been observed that modern African or Asian subsistence agriculoups and those of 18th-century frontier American farm families show similarities in gender roles. It may further be logic ve that advancement in the technologic ment of the status and rewards of both men and women in veloping societies. y observe is not quite that simple or straightforward, however. In addition to a cul re’s economic stage, religion and custom play their important roles in determining gender relationships and female prestige. Further, it appears that, at least in the earlier phases of technological change and development, women y lose rather than gain in standing and rewards. Only recently and only in the most-developed countries have gender contrasts been r Hunting and gathering cultures observed a general egalitarianism; each sex had a respected, productive, oup (see Figure 7.10). Gender is more involved and changeable in agr ies (see “Women and the Green Revolution,” Chapter 10). The Agricultural Revolution—a major change in the technological subsystem—altered the earlier structure of genderrelated responsibilities. In the hoe agriculture that was the ver hunting and gathering and is today found in much of sub-Saharan Africa and in South and Southeast Asia, women became r work, while retaining their traditional duties in child rearing, food preparation, and the like; their economic role and status remained equivalent to males. Plow agriculture, on the other hand, tended to subordinate the role of women and diminish their level of . Women might have hoed, but men plowed, ticipation in farmwork was drastic y reduced. This is the case today in Latin America and, increasingly, in sub-Saharan Africa, where women are often mor y productive in the mar (Figure 7.41). As women’s agricultural productive role declined, they were afforded less domestic authority, less control over their own lives, and few, if any, proper ights y members. At the same time, consider labor, women spend more hours per day wor In developing countries, the UN estimates, when unpaid agrik and housework are consider labor, women’s work hours exceed men’s by 30% and may invol e arduous—physical labor. The UN’s Food and Agr e Organization reports that “rural women in the developing world carry 80 tons or more of water, and farm pr ing the course of a year. Men c uch less. . . .” Ever e, women are paid less than men for comparable employment.

Western industrial—“developed”—society emerged directly from the agricultural tradition of the subordinate female who was not considered an important element in the economic y active population, no matter how arduous or essential the domestic tasks assigned. With the gro and industr y America, for example, as women began to enter the wor ce in increasing numbers, a “cult of true womanhood” developed as a reaction to the competitive pressur ketplace and factor . It held that women wer y superior to men; their role was private, not public. A woman’s job was to r en, attend church, and abo , tuous, ed home, a place

FIGURE 7.41 Women dominate the once-a-week periodic markets in nearly all developing countries. Here they sell produce from their gardens or the family farm and frequently ocessed goods to which their labor has added value. The market shown here is in Ecuador. More than half the economically active women in the developing world are self-employed, working primarily in the informal sector. In the developed world, only about 14% of active women are selfemployed. © Getty RF.

y

that offer eadwinner refuge, secur , and privacy. This Victor ed, in America and much of Western Europe, imination against wor Onl y, and then only in the more-developed countries, did that subordinate role pattern change. Women became increasingly economic y active and placed themselves as never before in direct competition with men for similar occupations and wages. The feminist movement in modern industrialized societies was the direct response to the barriers that formerly restricted favored economic and legal positions to men. Even though women constituted 47% of the employed labor force in the United States in 2008, their representation in higher-paying, moreprestigious positions was lower, despite increasing acceptance k. The elimination of the r social, and economic discriminations has been a primary objective of the North American “feminist revolution.” Such a revolution is much less likely or possible in strongly conservative and traditional economies and societies (see “Leveling the Field”). The present world pattern of gender-r ole assignments is y by a country’s level of economic development but also by the persistence of religious and customary

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restr e of its ly, agr The control is r veloped and developing world; the second and third are evidenced in variations within the developing world itself. In any case, economic ization has had a impact on female participation in the paid labor force and on gender economic differentiation. On a worldwide basis, ation’s greater trade openness has increased women’s share of paid employment, and in developing countries, e producing for export employ more female workers, of But growing labor force participation has not necessarily reduced gender discrimination. In developing countries, women also make up the largest e of workers in expanding sub-contracting and sweatshop piecework—often in the shifting and uncertain garment and shoe industries—with low pay and poor wor conditions. egionalization has emerged. eas of western Asia and North Africa, the propor population that is economic y active is low; religious tradition restricts women’s acceptance in economic activities outside the home. The same cultural limitations do not apply under the different r

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southern and southeastern Asia, where labor force participation by women in Indonesia and Bangladesh, for example, is much higher than it is among the western Muslims. In Latin America, for a patriarchal social str e, women have been overcoming cultural restrictions on their gro employment outside the home. Sub-Saharan Africa, highly diverse culturally and economically, in general is highly dependent on female farm labor and market income. ole of strongly independent, proper wning women formerly encountered under traditional agr stems, however, has increasingly been replaced by the subordination of women with modernization of agricultural techniques and introduction of formal, agricultural institutions. For countr data are available, a set of indicators has been created to establish a “gender-related development index” (F e 7.42); it clearly displays r entials in the position of women in differ es and world areas. elationships are also encountered in the advanced economies and the industrial components of developing countries. In modernizing eastern Asian states, for example, women have yet to achieve the status they enjoy in most Western economies. In China, although it ranks in the second quartile in the GDI (see Figure 7.42), women are y not effectively come largely absent from the highest

managerial and administrative levels; in Japan, males nearly exclusively run the huge industr the country. In contrast, more advanced in the Sc ies than perhaps in any other portion of the industr ed world.

OTHER ASPECTS OF DIVERSITY . It is misleading to isolate, as we have done in this chapter, only a few elements of the technological, sociologic and ideologic subsystems and imply by that isolation that they are identiing characteristics differ e groups. Economic de levels, language, religion, , and gender e impor but they tell only a par y. Other suggestive, though perhaps less pervasive, basic elements exist. Ar les in public and private buildings are evocative of region of origin, even when they are indiscriminatel ican cities. The Gothic and New England churches, the neoclassic and the skyscraper also the y and r y variant design solutions that gave them form. The Spanish, Tudor, French pro or le residence may not reveal the ethnic background of its American occupant, e statement of the area and the society fr

FIGURE 7.42 The gender-related development index (GDI) is a composite index that attempts to measure inequalities of achievement between men and women thr and earned income shares. The gr s GDI. In many higher-ranked countries, female life expectancy, literacy rates, and educational attainment equal or exceed those of males, while their incomes still lag significantly. The gender-related development index rankings suggest that gender equality does not necessarily depend on the overall income level of a . Source: 2007 rankings from United Nations Development Programme, Rankings are adjusted for each annual edition.

y

Music, food, games, and other e ys of life, too, ar ators associated with particular world or eas. Music is an emotional form of communication but, y patterned, it varies among them. Instruments, sc and types of composition are technical forms of variants; the emotions aroused and the responses evoked to musical cues are learned behaviors among peoples. The Christian hymn means nothing emoy to a pagan New Guinea clan. The music of a Chinese opera may be simply noise to the European ear. Where there is usic les and instrumentation, blending (syncretism) and transferral may occur. American jazz represents a blend; caly usic have

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been transferred to the Anglo American scene. Foods identie regions have similarly been transferred onment of the American “melting pot.” These are but a few additional minor statements of the var icate interrelationships of that human mosaic ca ed culture. Indi du y and collectively, however, in their ar essions and variations they are only part of the subject . Patterns and controls of spa, cal str es, ientations, and levels baniz e—ar wing chapters.

Summary of Key Concepts • Culture is the learned behaviors and beliefs of distinctive groups of people. e traits combine to shape integrated culture complexes. Together, traits and complexes eate human—“ ”— landscapes, e regions, and distinguish culture groups. Those landscapes, regions, and group characteristics change through time as human societies interact with onment, develop new solutions to collective needs, or ar ed through innovations adopted from outside the group. • e is aided by recognition of its component subsystems. The technological subsystem is composed of the mater tifacts) and techniques of livelihood. The sociological subsystem comprises the ol the social organization of a culture group. The ideological subsystem consists of the ideas and beliefs (mentifacts) a e expresses in speech and through belief systems. • Domestication of plants and animals led to the emergence of culture hearths of developmental innovation different groups. Modern-day cultural convergence is lessened by the many distinctive elements that r separate social groups. Among the most prominent of the differentiating culture traits are language, religion, ethnicity, and gender. • L eligion ar e and e groups. Both have distinctive spatial patterns, r esent processes of interaction and change. • L an be grouped by origins and historical development, but their world distributions depend as much on the movements of peoples and histories of conquest and coloniz volution. Toponymy, helps document that history of movement. Linguistic geograph iavariations that may be minimized by

vercome by pidgins, creoles, as. • S eligion are distinct and reveal histories of migration, conquest, and diffusion. Those patterns are impor landscapes created in response to various religious belief systems. Even in secular societies, r economic activities, systems, holiday observances, and the like. • , e traits, is fostered by territor or isolation and is preserved in ethnic y complex societies by a feeling that one’s own ethnic group is superior to others. Ethnic diveries of the world and is increasing in many of them. Many ethnic minor oups seek absorption into their surrounding major e through but other groups choose to preser ing distinctions thr ration or overt rejection of the major e traits. • Gender, men and women, r eligion, custom, and, importantly, the stage of economic de and the productive role assigned to women within that economy. Gender roles change as the economic str e changes, ation is often resisted by ces within a culture. • e realms are ever-changing r of the migrations of ethnic and groups, the or adoption of languages and religions, the spread and acceptance of new technologies, and the alteration of gender relationships as economies moderniz respond. Such movements, adoptions, and responses are themselves expressions of broader concepts and patterns of the geograph , an essential component of the cultur attention.

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Key Words amalgamation theory 211 assimilation 212 creole 218 y 198 206 ape 199 e 196 e complex 197 e hearth 208 er 198 e region 198 e system 197 e trait 197

envir

199

ethnic religion 224 e 219 gender 237 w 236 genetic drift 236 ideological subsystem 199 innovation 207 y 214 lingua franca 219 material culture 219

nonmaterial culture 219 pidgin 218 popular culture 219 possibilism 199 race 236 sociological subsystem 199 n 208 standard language 216 syncretism 210 technological subsystem 199 toponymy 221 tribal religion 224 universalizing religion 223

n) 236

Thinking Geographically 1. What is included in the concept of culture? How is cule transmitted? What personal characteristics affect the aspects of culture that any individual acquir y masters? 2. What is a culture hearth? What new traits of culture characterized the early hear sense, what is meant by innovation? 3. Differentiate culture traits and culture complexes environmental determinism and possibilism. 4. What are the components or subsystems of the threepart system of culture? What characteristics—aspects of culture—are included in each of the subsystems?

5. Wh entiating element of culture separating societies? 6. In what way may religion affect other culture traits of a 7. How does the c ation of religions as universalizing, ethnic, or tribal help us understand their patterns of distribution and spread? 8. How does acculturation occur? Is ethnocentrism likely to be an obstacle in the acculturation process? How do acculassimilation differ? 9. How are the concepts of ethnicity, race, and culture related?

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Spatial Interaction

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“F

or a brief 18-month per il 1860 and October 1861, an undying blend of courage and endurance was created by the Pony Express riders. Racing through Nebraska, Wyoming, Utah, and Nevada, these horsemen c ied letters written age ranged from $2 to $10 an ounce) from one relay station to another. They covered the 1,966 miles from St. Joseph, Missouri, to Sacramento, in 11 days. The nature of the work is implied in the newspaper advertisements seeking riders who weighed less than 135 pounds, did not drink or carouse, and were ‘daring young men—preferably orphans.’ ”1 The y trip took longer if riders had to avoid Indians or a her Figure 8.1). The $10 charge for an ounce of mail in 1860 is equivalent to $220 in today’s money. Only such things as diamonds are as expensive to ship today. It is interesting to note that there ar St. Louis every day for San Francisco (cities near St. Joseph

and Sacramento, respectively), and an average one-way fare is about $150 per person (the average weight of a person with baggage is about 180 pounds). It takes approximately 4 hours for a plane to make the trip. The cost for an ounce is 5 cents by plane versus $220 by Pony Express. This comparison shows unmistakably that the interaction t of the United States and the West has gro y over the past 144 years. The level of interaction is a function of the demand for travel, its speed, and its cost. e conditioned by technology. In this case, the technology changed from fresh horses spaced ony Express days to jet planes. Today, with populations in each area w, it is no wonder that y fr .

THE DEFINITION OF SPATIAL INTERACTION S

is the term geographers use to represent eas. Spatial interaction can be the mo w of goods from one region to another, the sion of ideas from a wledge to other areas, or the spread of a communicable disease from a gr ea to those ea. W mon is that there is some sor w ov ing people. Spatial interaction is the geographic counterpart of human interaction. The difference is that the location of those involved in the interaction can be clearly represented on maps. If there is no one at a site (for example, on an iceberg), there can be no interaction the site and any other site. On the other hand, if there are a great number of people at one site—for example, Chicago—and a great number of people at another site—say, New York—there will be a great But if the second site Tokyo is from Chicago, ther fe ago and Toky Chicago and New York. eas is . Thus, action is a function of the size of the interdependent popula-

DISTANCE AND SPATIAL INTERACTION

FIGURE 8.1 Express, whose riders sped across the W run fast. In operation fr ess was rendered obsolete by railroads and the telegraph. In 1861, a telegraph wire strung from New Y educed the time for communication between the coasts from days to seconds.

1

The Story of America, The Reader’s Digest Association, P 1975, p. 199.

, New Yor

Because people make many more short-distance trips than long ones, there is greater human interaction over short distances than long distances. This is the principle of distance decay, the dec , or an amount of interaction with increasing distance from the point of origin. The tendency is for the frequency of trips to decrease very rapidly beyond an individual’s critic distance, the distance beyond which cost, effort, means, and perception play an

S

FIGURE 8.2 This general diagram indicates how most people , there is a distance beyond which the intensity of contact declines. This is called the critical distance. The distance up to the critical distance is a frictionless

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overriding r Figure 8.2 trates this pr egard to journeys from a homesite. The critical distance is different for each person. The variables of a person’s age, , and oppor y, together with an individual’s interests and demands, w much and ho For example, ampus y to do photocopying but off-campus students might wait for a convenient time to do the photocopying, The campus library may be beyond the off-c critical distance. Because distance retards spatial interaction, we can say there is a iction of distance

Number of former New Orleans households divided by population of destination metropolitan area

function of the distance separating the places and the populations of the places. F e 8.3 shows the migration from figure into the trip decision. New Orleans just after Hurricane Katrina in 2005. Because they are nearby, ts of New Orleans and in the state of Louisiana received most of the migrants, but many journeyed to the metropolitan areas of Houston, Chicago, and New York. 100 ips up and do the block, ental admonitions from crossing the street. Different but 50 y effective constraints control adult behavior. 40 Daily or y shopping may be within the criti30 c be given to the cost or effort involved. Shopping for 20 special goods, however, is relegated to infrequent trips, and cost and effort are considered. The major t distance within our 10 own neighborhoods or with friends who live relatively close at hand; longer social trips to visit relatives are less frequent. ips, however, the distance 5 dec learly at work. Effort may be measured in terms of time-dist 3 that is, the time required to complete the trip. For the 2 journey to work, time rather than cost often plays the major role in determining the critic When ant differences our cognition of dis1 tance and real distance are e we use the term psychological distance to describe our perception of distance. A number of studies show that people tend to psycho0.5 logic er than they r y ar wn places as farther than true distance. 0.3 A humorous example of this is seen in Figure 8.4, a more serious one in F e 8.5. Also, see “Mental 0.2 Maps,” pp. 248–249. We gain information about the world from many sources. Although information obtained from radio, 0.1 tele the Internet, and newspapers is important 200 300 500 1000 2000 3000 to us, face-to-face contact is assumed to be the most Miles from New Orleans effective means of communication. The distance decay FIGURE 8.3 Migration of the victims of Hurricane Katrina. This spatial principle implies that, as the distance away from the interaction diagram uses a log-log scale so that distances from New Orleans home or workplace increases, the number of possible can be shown with the number of migrants divided by the populations of y decreases. We expect metropolitan areas. Source: Data from FEMA, U.S. Census Bureau and Queens College more spatial interaction at short distances than at

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FIGURE 8.4

The Culture-Environment Tradition

s conception of a New Yorker’s view of the United States.

Milwaukee, Wisconsin.

long distances. Where population densities are high, such as in cities (particularly central business districts during business hours), an be at a very high level, which is one reason these centers of commerce are often also centers for the development of new ideas.

BARRIERS TO INTERACTION Recent changes in technology permit us to travel farther than ever before, with gr and to communicate without physic e easily and completely than pre y possible. ation of contact has resulted in an acceleration of innovation and in the rapid spread of goods and ideas. Se , innovations such as the smelting of metals took hundreds of years to spread. Today, wor The fact that the possible number of interactions is high, however, does not necessarily mean that the effective occurrence of interactions is high. That is, iers to interaction exist. Such barriers are any conditions that hinder either the w of information or the movement of people and thus r or prevent the acceptance of an innovation. Distance itself is a barrier to interaction. y, the ther areas e from each other, the less likely is interaction. The concept of distance decay says that, the amount of interaction decr eas increases.

Cost is another barrier to interaction. Relatives, friends, . The frequenc ated to telephone and e-mail communication, relatively inexpensive forms of interaction, are very much a function of the location of friends and relatives—which, of course, favors shortdistance interaction. Interr dered by the physic environment and by the barriers of differing religions, ideologies, genders, stems. and deserts, oceans and rivers can, and have, acted as physic barriers slowing or impeding interaction. iers may y impenetrable. by who practice religions differ their neighbors. Governments (such as that of North Korea) that interfere with radio reception, contr w of foreign e, and discourage contact their citizens and for ver y impede cultural contact. In crowded areas, people commonly set psychological iers around themselves, so that only a limited number of interactions take place. The barriers are raised in defense against information overload and for psychologic . We must have a sense of privac tion that does not directly concern us. As a result, we tend to reduce our interests to a narro ves in crowded situations, ests to be satismmunications media.

S

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still appears that the metropolitan centers of the world attract those who are young and ambitious and that face-to-face or word-ofmouth contact is important in the creation of new ideas and products. The relatively recent revolution in communications, which allows for inexpensive interaction through a var phone and Internet services, has suggested to some that the traditional importance of cities as collectors of creative talent may decline in the future.

INDIVIDUAL ACTIVITY SPACE We will see in Chapter 9 that groups and countries draw boundaries around themselves to divide space into territories that are defended if necessary. The concept of FIGURE 8.5 A mental map of the world. This map was drawn by a Palestinian territor , high school student from Gaza. The map r and the defense of, home ground—has been the author is receiving, which conforms to the Egyptian national school curriculum seen by some as a root explanation of many is the old, but still used, name for the area including Syria, Lebanon, and Palestine. human actions and responses. It is true that ent if the Gaza school curriculum were designed by y appears to be governed Palestinians or if an Israeli drew it. by territorial defense responses: eet groups in claiming and protecting their “turf ” ing beyond it) and the sometimes violent rejection by ethnic urban neighborhoods SPATIAL INTERACTION of any different encroaching population group it considers AND INNOVATION threatening. The pr But for most of us, our personal sense of territor ideas is a function of the number of available old ideas in contempered one. We regard our homes and proper tact with one another. People who specialize in a particular ble pr wn est seek out others with whom they wish to interor unknown, or to those on pr Nor do act. Crow ar istic y composed lusively within controlled home y narro est. Consequently, territories as str Rather, we under short-distance, circumstances, the old have a more or less extended home range, an space ideas are given a hearing and new ideas are generated by the ve freely on our rounds of r interaction. New inventions and new social movements usually activity, sharing that space with others who are also about their arise in circumstances of high spatial interaction. An excepdail tion, of course, is the case of intensely traditional societies— F e 8.6 suggests pr y of ies, for example—where the .N e rejects innovation and c y to customary for 1 day is rather limited, ev ideas and methods. family use automobiles. If 1 week’ e shown, more The culture hearths of an earlier day (see Chapter 7) paths would have to be added to the map, and in a year’s time, were the most densely settled, high-interaction centers of several long trips would probably have to be noted. Long trips the world. At present, the great national and regional capital ar y taken irr ly. cities attract people who want or need to interact with othThe kind of activities individuals engage in can be clasers in special-inter The association of population ype of trip: journeys to work, school, concentrations and the expression of human ingenuity have shopping center, recreational area, and so on. People in long been noted. The home addresses recorded for patent nearly all parts of the world make the same types of jourapplicants by the U.S. P v y neys, though the spatially variable requirements of culture, indicate that inventors were typically residents of major economy, and personal circumstances dictate their freurban centers, presumably people in close contact and able quency, duration, ance in the time budget of an to exchange ideas with those in shar est. It individual.

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Spatial Interaction CHAPTER EIGHT

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To recreational activity

Shopping center school Middle school Friend

YMCA Home Husband Wife Oldest child Middle child Youngest child

Car Bicycle Walk

To work

1/2 mile 1/2 km

Park

FIGURE 8.6

. One parent commutes to work, while the

other parent works at home. Routes of regular movement and areas recurr one’s perceptions of space.

Figure 8.7 suggests the importance of the journey to work in an urban population. The journey to work plays a decisive r Formerly restr outes and schedules of mass transit systems, the critical distances of work trips have steadily increased in European and Anglo American cities as the pr ed more importantly in the movement of workers (F e 8.8). In more recent years, however, it has become evident that, for many, the journey to work is r y a multipurpose trip, which may include side trips to day-care centers, cleaners, schools, and shops of varipes of tr

, and thus the extent , are partly determined by three variables: people’s stage in life (age); mand; and the opportunities implicit in their daily activities.

Stage in Life pes of trips individu, stage in life, r groups. Stages include preschool-age, school-age, young adult, and elderly. Preschoolers stay close to home unless they accompany their parents or caregivers. School-age children usually travel short distances to lower-level schools and longer distances to upper-level schools. Af , bicycle, or automobile trips provided by parents to nearby locations. High school students and other

young adults ar y mor t in more activities than do younger children. They engage in more spatial interaction. Adults responsible for household duties make shopping trips and trips related to child c e, neys away from home for social, and recr purposes. W y travel farther from home than other family members. Elderly people may, thr ests,

Mobility The second var mobility, the cost and effort required to overcome the friction of distance is implicit. Where incomes are high, automobiles are available, and the cost of fuel is a minor item in the family budget, mobility may be great and individual action space can be large. In societies where cars are not a standard means of , the dail the shorter range afforded by bicyc . Obviously, pose and the condition of the roadway affect the execution of movement decisions. The mobility of individuals in countries or in sections of countries with high incomes is relatively great; people’s activity space horizons are broad. These horizons, however, are not limitless. There is a , most of them consumed in performing work, preparing and eating food, and sleeping. In addition, ther oad,

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251

such as preparing meals and caring for children, with their workforce activities. In this case, women’s mobility is restricted; as a result, their occupational opportunities are limited.

Opportunities

Percent of all trips

of possible activities or opportunities. In the teeming cities of Asia, for example, the very y needs nearby; the s away from the residence FIGURE 8.7 opolitan Area travel patterns. The numbers are the percentages of all urban trips taken on a typical weekday. is minimal. In impoverished countries and Source: Data from Metropolitan Council: The 2000 T . neighborhoods, low incomes limit the inducements, opportunities, destinations, Similarly, if one lives in a remote, sparsel area, with few or no roads, schools, factories, or stores, one’s expectations and oppor e limited, efore 25 reduced. Oppor 20

individuals engage.

15

DIFFUSION AND INNOVATION

10

5

0

0

10

20

30

40 50 60 70 Trip length in minutes

80

90

100

FIGURE 8.8 The frequency distribution of work and nonwork trip lengths in minutes in the seven-county Minneapolis Metropolitan Area. Studies in various metropolitan areas support the conclusions documented by this graph: work trips are usually longer than other recurring journeys. In the United States in the early 1990s, the average work trip covered 17.1 kilometers (10.6 mi), and half of all trips to work took under 22 minutes; for suburbanites commuting to the central business district, the journey to work involved between 30 and 45 minutes. By 2000, increasing sprawl had lengthened average commuting distances and, because of gr increased the average work trip commuting time to 25 minutes; many workers had commutes of more than 45 minutes. Source: Metropolitan Council: The 2000 Travel Behavior Inventory.

rail, and air routes, so even the most mobile individuals are constrained in the amount of activity space they can use. No one can easily claim the wor An example of this limitation is that of women living in suburban communities who must balance family obligations,

As we noted in Chapter 7, is the process by which a concept, practice, or substance spreads from its point of origin to new territories. A concept is an idea or invention, such as a new way of example, deciding that shopping on the Internet is worth doing. A practice process of shopping on the Internet. A substance is a tangible thing, such as the goods bought by means of the Internet. Diffusion is at the heart of the geography of spatial interaction. Ideas generated in a center of remain there unless some process is available for their spread. Innovations, the changes to a culture that r om the adoption of new ideas, spr ious ways. Some new inventions ar y e put to use quic y by those who can afford and pr om them. A new development in petroleum extraction may promise such material reward as to lead to its quic oleum companies, irrespective of their distance from the point of introduction. The new strains of wheat and r antly incr ields in much of the world and that wer t of the Green Revolution (discussed in Chapter 10) were quic wn to agr oducing countries. However, they were more slowly taken up in poor countries, which could benom them, par y because Many innovations are of little consequence by themselves, but sometimes the widespread adoption of seemingly inconsevations brings about large changes when wed over a period of time. A new music , “adopted” by a few people, y that tune plus

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Atlantic Ocean

FIGURE 8.9 A phenomenon spreads from one place to neighboring locations, but in the process it remains and Source: College Geography, Spatial

Med i

by

t er ran ean Sea

FIGURE 8.11 The pr European influenza pandemic of 1781. The flu began in Russia and moved westward, covering Europe in about 8 months. Source: Based on Gerald F. Pyle and K. David Patterson, Ecology of Disease 2, no. 3 (1984): 179.

FIGURE 8.10

The number of adopters of an innovation rises at an increasing rate until the point at which about one-half the total who ultimately decide to adopt the innovation have made the decision. At this point, the number of adopters increases at a decreasing rate.

others of a similar sound. This, in turn, may have a bearing on dance routines, which may then bear on clothing selection, etailers’ advertising campaigns and consumers’ es. y, a ne tant impact on the ocesses of the adopters and on those who come into contact with the adopters. Notice that a br of innovation is used, tant is whether or not innovations are adopted. we c ocesses for the diffusion of innovations. Each is based on the way innovations spread from person to person and, therefore, from place to place. These processes are discussed in the wing sections, ” and “Hierarchic

Contagious Diffusion Let us suppose that a scientist develops a gasoline additive that noticeably improves the performance of his or her car. Assume ther that the person shows friends and associates the invention and that they, in turn, tell others. This process is similar

to the spread of a contagious disease. The innovation will continue to diffuse until barriers (that is, people not interested in adopting the new idea) are met or until the ar (that is, vation). This contagious process follo decay spatial interaction at each step. Short-distance contacts e more likely than long-distance contacts, but over time the idea may have spread far from the or F e 8.9 etical contagious diffusion process. noting. If an idea has mer ead slowl is represented by ea in those

and y, the innovation e and more rapidly, ier is reached. The incidence of adopS-shaped curve in F e 8.10. The are located be at The spreading eas people decrease.

process slow as F e 8.11 sho If an inventor’s idea into the hands of a commer distributor, ocess may follow a somewhat different course than that just discussed. The distributor might “force” mass media. If the media were local in impact, such as newspapers, just described (Figure 8.12). If, however, newspaper, or magazine advertising campaign were undertaken, the innovation would become wn in numbers roughly corr . Where more people live, there would, of course, be more potential adopters.

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253

FIGURE 8.13 A four-level communication hierarchy.

FIGURE 8.12 A str

. In modern society, advertising is a potent for over radio and television, in newspapers and magazines, on the Internet, and on billboards and signs communicate information ent products and innovations. © Laurence Fordyce; Eye Ubiquitous/Corbis Images.

Economic or other barr One immediately sees, however, why large tele kets are so valuable and why national advertising is so expensive. ay process. inno so that a loc v ter the or wn le Advertisers have found they must repeat messages time and again before they ar information. This fact says something about the effectiveness of , say, face-to-face contact.

Hierarchical Diffusion A second way innovations are spread combines some aspects of contagious diffusion with the inclusion of a new element: a hierarchy. A hierarchy is a c ation of objects into categories, so that categories are increasingly complex or have increasingl Hierarchies are found in many systems of organization, such as go zation chart), universities (instructors, professors, deans, and the president), to regional centers, and metropolises). is the spread of innovation up or down a hierarchy of places. As an example, let us suppose that a new way of automo. Information on the innovation is spread, but onl y sized cities ar It may be that that larger cities are mor y able to adopt the idea Eventually, the innovation is adopted in

and so on down the hierarchy, as it becomes better wn or more y feasible. A h al scheme showing how a four-le chy may be connected in the w of information is presented in Figure 8.13. Note that the lowest-level centers are connected to higher-level centers but not to each other. Observe, too, that connections may bypass intermediate levels and link onl vel center. Many times, hierarchic ultaneousl iations vel centers is great and when dise short. A quic to spread an idea is to communicate information about it at high-order hierarchical levels. Then the three of diffusion processes can be used most effectively; even while an idea is diffusing through a high le chy, it is also spreadom high-level centers. y, low-level centers that are a short distance from high-level centers may be apprised of the innovation before more distant medium-level centers. People living in subur wns near a large e pr uch that is ne , as are indi. Figures 8.14 and 8.15 show these patterns for a c om Japan. These spr e. The consequences e and inno eady discussed (see p. 247). , rec om Chapter 7 that migrainvasions, These broader movements epresent interactions of people beyo “ p. 255).

SPATIAL INTERACTION AND TECHNOLOGY When opportunities for spatial interaction abound, interaction becomes a major part of people’s lives. Opportunities to interact are based not only on the monetar engage in spatial interaction but also on the means of interaction. In the 20th century, ers in the industrialized countries to own automobiles greatly increased the degree of spatial interaction. At the end of the y and into the 21st century, we have witnessed how low-cost telephone communication, and the Internet have appreciably increased interaction.

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FIGURE 8.14

FIGURE 8.15 This diagram shows the hierar

association, were established in the large cities of Japan during the 1920s. New clubs were established under the sponsorship of the original clubs. This map shows both a hierarchical and a contagious patter Redrawn with permission from Y

component of the spr wer , followed by cities at lower and lower levels of urban population and city function. Redrawn

Economic Geography, Vol. 62, no. 2, p. 128. Copyright © 1986 Clark University, Worcester, MA.

Automobiles The automobile pro transportation on a daily basis. It has incr overcome spatial separation and has had a profound effect on the location of jobs and ser Much employment has ed to suburban locations, creating sprawling cities. Unfor y, ation have been a decrease in oppor biles, those who must depend on public transportation. Societies have accommodated automobiles by building highways and freeways, ther developing public transportation systems. Those with automobiles are able to commute, shop, see friends and family, and engage in group activities nience. As automobiles become more comfortable and high technology oriented, they ther encourage people to seek more opportunities for interaction. Unless local governments control urban gro velopment, the result is a sprawling urban environment where people appear to be

with permission from Y

y Clubs in Japan, 1920– Economic Geography, Vol. 62, no. 2, p. 128. , Worcester, MA.

constantly on the move from one place to another. This process that incr automobile became affordable to large numbers of people.

Telecommunications F ws, space has a different meaning than it does for the movement of people or commodities. Communication, for example, does not necessarily imply the timeconsuming physical relocation of things (though in the case of letters and print media, it usually does). Indeed, in modern telecommunications, the pr w can be instantaneous regardless of distance. The result is spacetime convergence to the point of the obliteration of space. A Bell System report tells us that, in 1920, putting through a transcontinental telephone call took 14 minutes and eight operators and cost more than $15.00 for a 3-minute call. By 1940, the call completion time had been reduced to less than 1½ In the 1960s,

Spatial Interaction CHAPTER EIGHT

direct distance dialing allowed a transcontinental connection in less than 30 seconds, and electronic switching has now reduced the completion time to that involved in dialing a number and answering a phone. The price of long-distance conversation essentially disappeared with the advent of voice communication over the Internet in the late 1990s. The Internet and communication have made worldwide personal and mass communication immediate and data transfers instantaneous. The same technologies that have led to communication space-time convergence have tended toward a space-cost convergence. Domestic mail, which once charged a distance-based postage, is now carr across to ice. It is conceivable that the current revolution in telecommunic e profound effect on people’s lives, e, than the automobile. For those with telecommunications capabil, the le eased appreciably (F e 8.16). Cellular phones, e-mail, communication on the Internet, and low-cost phone services have created lifestyles in which some people spend the better part of their days communic Because businesses have taken advantage

255

of the technology by offering goods and services online, the number of shopping tr ts has declined. In addition, a number of individuals make a living in a telecommuting onment. That is, they conduct business on the Internet and therefore do not take part in the morning and evening journey to and from work. The implication is that many people owded urban environment, so that sprawl is likely to increase at an accelerated pace. that is, they won’ y to other industries or an urban environment. Most likely, it will be low-cost wage locaosper. This is due to the fact that, if industrialists and ser o ation, they will seek one where wages are low, e high, and amenities, such as the existence of a warm tropic onment, are plentiful. While automobiles foster long-distance commuting to work, telecommuting reduces the need to comm Both, however, encourage urban sprawl. Because the telecommunications revolution began in the mid-1990s and is still in its infancy, e just beginning to recognize ho les.

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Zandvoort Amsterdam

UNITED KINGDOM

Hamburg

Utrecht

The Hague Hanover

Leiston THE

Essen

Berlin

Cambridge Bruges Antwerp

Cologne London

Dresden

GERMANY Leipzig

Calais Lille

Brussels Bonn

Interconnector Tr

Frankfurt

Regenerator

Nuremburg

Paris Str

Amplifier

Munich urg

International boundary Diagram illustrates i-21 Phase 1. ork routes subject to change.

Poitiers FRANCE

Nancy

Stuttgart

Dijon

Zurich

Bilbao

Basle Bordeaux

Vienna

SWITZERLAND AUSTRIA

Graz

va Lausanne

Lyon

Berne

Toulouse Turin

Milan

Venice

Madrid Narbonne

Marseille Nice

Genoa

SPAIN

Valencia

ITALY

Barcelona

FIGURE 8.16 A map of the Inter

Florence

Rome

ope, a fiber optic network that connects 61 cities in 16 countries. It has the An Atlas of .cybergeography.org/atlas/interoute_large.gif.

Cyberspaces,

MIGRATION An important aspect of human history has been the of peoples—that is, the permanent relocation of both place of r It has contributed to the evolues, to the relocation diffusion of those

es,

es found ts of the world. or ica, Australia, and New Z involved great long-distance movements of peoples. efugees from past and r ws in Israel, the current migration of workers to the United States fr

Spatial Interaction CHAPTER EIGHT

America, and innumerable other examples of mass movement come quic y to mind. ases, societies transplanted their es to the new areas, es therefore diffused and and history was altered. Massive movements of people within countries, across national borders, a pressing concern of recent decades. They affect national economic structures; determine population density and distribution patterns; alter traditional ethnic, linguistic, and r es; national tensions. many aspects of social and economic relations and have become an important part of current geographic realities. In this chapter, our interest is in migration as an unmistakable, recurring, and near-universal expression of human spatial behavior.

Types of Migration ws can be discussed at different scales, from massive intercontinental torr move to a new house or apar opolitan area. At each level, although the underlying controls on spatial behavior remain constant, the immediate motivate different, with differing impacts on population patterns and cultural landscapes. N y, ve and its degree of disruption of people’s lives raise distinctions impor of migration. A change of residence fr the suburbs certainl dren and of adults in many of their nonwor but the wor the same place of employment ther On the other hand, migration from Europe to the United States and the massive vements of r icans late in the 19th and early 20th centur behavior patterns. At the broadest scale, intercontinental movements range from the earliest peopling of the habitable world to the most r ican refugees to countries of Europe and the Western Hemisphere. The population structure of the United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand, Argentina, Brazil, and other South American countries is a r and result of massive inter ws of immigrants that began as a tric ing the 16th and 17th centuries and reached a ing the 19th and early 20th centuries. Later in the 20th century, World War II (1939–1945) and its immediate aftermath involved more than 25 million permanent population relocations, all of them international but not all intercontinental. Intracontinental and interregional migrations involve mo ies and within countries, most commonly in response to individual and group assessments

257

of improved economic prospects, but often r from or dangerous en onme military, economic, or political conditions. The millions of r homelands following the dissolution of Eastern European communist states, including the former USSR and Y Europe received some 20 million newcomers, often refugees, who guest workers”) already in Western European countries by the early 1990s. The European Union makes it possible for labor to move easily among its many member countries (F e 8.17). About 175 million people—3% of the world population—live in a other than the country of their birth in the early 2000s, and migration has become a world social, economic, and political issue ior . Migrations may be forced or voluntary, or, in many instances, reluctant relocations imposed on the migrants by circumstances. In forced, or involuntary, migrations, the relocation decision is made solely by people other than the migrants themselves (Figure 8.18). Africans were forcibly transferred as slaves to the Western Hemisphere from the late 16th to the early 19th centuries. Half or more were destined for the Caribbean and most of the r outh America, though nearly ived in the United States. Australia owed its earliest European to convicts transported after the 1780s to the Br ern Australia (New South Wales). More recent involuntary migrants inc oviet citizens forcibly relocated from countryside to cities and from the western areas to labor camps in Siberia and the Russian Far East beginning in the late 1920s. L elocation—reluctant migration— of some 8 million Indonesians has taken place under an aggressive go ampaign begun in 1969 to move people from densely settled Java to other islands and territories of the country in what has been c “biggest colonization program in history.” International r om war and politic or repression numbered some 15 million in 2003, according to the World Refugee Survey—1 out of every 415 people on the planet. In the past, refugees sought asylum mainly in Europe and other developed areas. More recently, imarily from developing countries to other developing regions, and many countr refugee populations are among the world’s poorest. 2003 and 2007, Iran, Syria, and Jordan became host to millions of Ir persecution, terrorism, and war. SubSaharan Afric e than 3 million r (Figure 8.19). Wor , an additional 22 million people were “internally displaced,” effectively internal refugees within their own countries. In a search for secur , they have left their home areas but not cr boundary. The great major y movements, however, are voluntary, representing individual r encing spatial interaction decisions. At root, migrations

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Number of Migrants

FIGURE 8.17 Immigration to four European countries—Britain, Ireland, Germany, and Spain—from other European countries, Source: Data from Eurostat.

FIGURE 8.18 Forced migrations: the Five Civilized Tribes. Between 1825 and 1840, some 100,000 southeastern Amerindians were removed from their homelands and transferred by the army across the Mississippi River to “Indian T esent-day Oklahoma. By far, the largest number were members of the Five Civilized Tribes of the South: Cherokees, Choctaws, Chickasaws, Creeks, and Seminoles. Settled, Christianized, literate small farmers, their forced eviction and arduous journey—particularly along what the Cherokees named their “Trail of Tears” in the harsh winter of 1837–1838—r

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259

FIGURE 8.19 Major flows of refugees. The map shows the origin and destination countries of the 10 largest refugee populations ecent years, political upheavals have forced the migration of millions of people from their homes and across international borders. Source: Data from United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees.

take place because the migrants believe that their opportunie at their present location.

Incentives to Migrate The decision to mo iable. No eading deserts in the Sahel of Africa obviously are motivated by considerations different from those of an executive r a job transfer to Chicago, ar yment in the , or a retired couple searching for sun and sand. In general, people who voluntarily decide to migrate ar economic, political, tain amenities. For many, the reasons for migration are fr y a combination of several of these categories. Negative home conditions that impel the decision to migrate are ca push factors. They include loss of job, lack of professional oppor , overcrowding, and a var including pover , war, and famine. The presumed wn

as factors. They inc ibutes perceived to exist at the new loc perhaps, or job oppor better climate, lo more room, and so forth. Very often, migration is a r ceived Figure 8.20). It is the perception of the opportunities and want satisfaction that is important, whether or not the perception is supported by objective r . Economic considerations have impelled more migrations than any other single incentive. If migrants face unsatisfactory conditions at home (e.g., unemployment or famine) and ve that the economic oppor e better elsewhere, ving. Pover eat motivator. Some 30% of the world’s population—nearly 2 billion people—have less than $1.00 per day income. Many y ar ought, catastrophes, or of wars and terrorism. Pover veloping countries is gr side; r eas are home to around 750 million of the world’s poorest people. Of these, 20 to 30 million move each year to towns and cities—many as “ onmental r abandoning land so eroded or exhausted it can no longer support them. In the cities, they join

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State population gro

Pop. change % 2000–2006 (Based on Estimates)

Percent Change 15% or more 10%–14.9% 5%–9.9% 0%–4.9% 0% or less

0

100

200

300

400

miles

FIGURE 8.20 Migration in the United States. Although birth and death rates have a strong bearing on population growth, the gr n in the United States from 2000 to 2006 was largely a result of net migration to the West, Southwest, and Southeast. The pull factors push factors Source: Population Division, U.S. Census Bureau.

Er ie

Canal

the 40% or more of the labor force that is unemployed or underemployed in their home countr into the more promising economies of the developed world. rural or urban, respond to the same basic forces: the push of pover ceived or hoped-for oppor . The desire to escape war and persecution at home and to pursue the promise of freedom in a new location is a political incentive for migration. Americans are familiar with the history of who migrated to North America religious and political freedom (Figure 8.21). In more recent times, the United States has received hundreds of thousands of r om countries such as Hungary, following the uprising of 1956; Cuba, after its takeover by Fidel Castro; and Vietnam, af outh Vietnam. The massive movements of Hindus and Muslims across the Indian subcontinent in 1947, when P e established as governing entities, and the exodus of Jews persecution in Nazi Germany in the 1930s are other examples of politic y inspired moves. More recently, neighbor ican countries after ethnic Tutsis took over Rwanda’s government; e erbs; and many Haitians, under severe economic privation during a political crisis, have left for the United States. y but not always involves a hierarchy of decisions. Once people have decided to move and have selected a general destination (e.g., America or the Sunbelt), they m At this sc , cultural variables can be important pull factors. Migrants tend to be attracted to areas where the language, religion, kground of the inhabitants are similar to their own. This similar an help migrants feel at home when they arrive at their destination, and

r Rive

Missi s

sip pi Ri ve r

o Ohi

FIGURE 8.21 The major paths of the early migration of Germans to America. Most emigrants left Germany because of religious and political persecution. They chose the United States not only because immigrants were made welcome but also because labor was in demand and farmland was available. The first immigrants landed, and many settled, in Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Charleston, and New Orleans. The migrants carried with them such aspects of their culture as religion, language, and food preferences.

to become assimilated into the ne e. The Chinatowns and Little Italys of large cities attest to the drawing po as discussed in Chapter 7. Another set of inducements is grouped under the heading amenities, the particularly attractive or agreeable features that are characteristic of a place. Amenities may be (mountains, oceans, climate, (e.g., the arts and music oppor in large cities). They are particularly important to relativel “the good life.” Amenities help to account for the attractiveness of the so-c unbelt states in the United States for retirees; a similar movement to the southern coast has also been observed in countr rance. ance of the various incentives varies according to the age, sex, education, and “Gender

and Migration”). For the modern American, reasons to migrate have been summarized into a limited number of categories that are not m y exclusive:

20

15 Percent

10

5

5. changes of r (chronicmo

y

Some people simply tend to move often for no easil cernible reasons, whereas others, stayers, into a comm y. Of course, for a country such as China, er y differ esent. By emigration we mean leaving one’s country or region to settle elsewhere. The factors that contr over time. However, in most societies, one group has always been the most mobile: young adults (Figure 8.22). They are the members of who are launching careers and makation. They have the fewest r thus, they are not as strongly tied to famil e. primarily of young people who suffered from a lack of opporea and who were easily able to take advantage of oppor where. The concept of place helps us understand the ocess that potential voluntary migrants undergo. P given residential site. The decision to migrate is a r ception—by the prospective migrant of the current homesite as opposed to other sites of which somewn or hoped for. The individual may adjust to conditions at the homesite and decide not to migrate. In e comparative place utility, the decision maker considers not only the perceived value of the present location tion. The e are matched the ’s aspiration level—that is, the level of accomplishment or ambition . Aspirations tend to be adjusted to what an considers If esent circumstances, then he or she does not initiate search behavior. If, on the other hand, the ation, he or she assigns w site.

+ 75

4 –6 60

4 50

–5

4 –3 30

–1

9

0 15

1. changes in life course, ied, having children, getting a divorce, or needing less dwelling space when the children leave home 2. changes in career cycle, such as leaving college, getting a job or a promotion, r a career transfer, or retiring 3. forced or reluctant migrations associated with urban development, construction projects, and the like 4. neighborhood changes from which ther perhaps pressures from new and unwelcome ethnic groups, building deterioration, street gangs, or similar rejected

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S

Age cohort

FIGURE 8.22 Percentage of 2000 population over 5 years ent residence than in 1999. Young adults figure most pr in the United States, an age-related pattern of mobility that has remained constant over time. For the sample year shown, 33% of people in their twenties moved, whereas fewer than 5% of those edominated; 56% of the 43 million U.S. movers between March 1999 and March 2000 relocated within the same county, and another 20% moved to another county in the same state. Some two-thirds of intracounty (mobility) moves were made for housing-related reasons; longdistance moves (migration) are likely to be made for work-related reasons. Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census.

e rewards at the various sites. Because the new places are unfamiliar to the individual, the information received about them acts as a substitute for the personal experience of the homesite. The decision maker can do no more than sample information about the new sites, and, of course, there may be errors in both information and interpretation. One goal of the potential migrant is to minimize uncertainty. Most decision makers either elect not to migrate or postpone the decision unless uncer an be lowered sufy. That objective may be achieved either by going through a ser elocation stages or by follo wn predecessors. Step involves the place transition from, for example, rural to central city residence through a series of less-extreme loc changes—fr wn to suburb and, y, to . The term indicates that the mover is par w from a common origin to a prepared destination. An advance group of migrants, having established itself in a new home area, is followed by second and subsequent migrations originating in the same home district and frequently united by iendship. Public and private ser ks for undocumented ibute to the

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w. Ethnic and foreign-born enclaves in major cities and r eas in a number of countries are the immediate result. So oups. For example, nearl wspaper vendors in New Delhi, in the north of India, are reported to come from one district in Tamil Nadu, in the south of India. Most construction workers in New Delhi come either from Orissa, in the east of India, or Rajasthan, in the northwest, ab drivers originate in the Punjab area. k of about 250 related families who come fr wn se hundred miles to the north dominates the diamond trade of Mumbai (Bombay), India. group occurs in the United States. Familiar examples of these ethnic niche businesses include fruit stores o eans and diners owned by Greeks, but there are many others. F immigrants from Vietnam dominate the manicure trade, accounting for more than the women in that profession. A large proportion of female immigrants from the Philippines yment as nurses, ly in New Yor the West Coast. About 30% of the Filipinos in New Yor

and its suburbs wor the result of their aggressive recruitment by Americ the fact that U.S. ities have made it easy for nurses to obtain work and green cards them permanent r Immigrants from India, y from the state of Gujarat, now own more than one-third of the hotels in the United States, most of them budget and midpriced franchises such as Holiday Inns, Days Inns, and Ramadas. Another goal of the potential migrant is to avoid physic y dangerous or economic y unpr migration decision. P valuation, therefore, requires assessments not only of per w sites but y negative economic and eception the migrant might experience at those sites. An example of an be seen in the case of the large numbers of young people from the Caribbean, Mexico, and Central America who have migrated both y and y to the United States over the past 30 years (Figure 8.23). F ver , these young adults regard wn country as minimal. Their spacesear however, by both the lack of money and the lack of alternatives in the land of their birth. With a

Spatial Interaction CHAPTER EIGHT

263

(a)

FIGURE 8.23 (a) Illegal Mexican

Sonora Chihuahua

1–1.99 0–0.49

Si a

lo

na

Durango

immigrants running from the Border Patrol. (b) Undocumented migration rate to Arizona. The Arizona region and nearby Mexican states have historical ties that go back to the early 1800s. In many respects, the international border cuts through a culture region. Note that distance plays a large role in the decision to migrate to the United States, with over half the migrants coming from four nearby Mexican states: Sonora, Sinaloa, Durango, and Chihuahua. (a) © AP Images/ Denis Poroy; (b) Redrawn from John P. Harner, “Continuity Amidst Change,” The Professional Geographer, 47, no. 4, Fig. 2, p. 403. Copyright © Association of American Publishers.

Colima 0 miles 0 km 200

200

400

400

(b)

k and with aspirations for success—perhaps wealth—in the United States, they learn from friends and relatives of job oppor north of the border, low-paying though they may be. Hundreds of thousands quic y place y relocation (maybe 5 or 10 years) to the United States. Many know that dangerous risks are involved if they attempt to enter the countr y, but ev estrictions designed to reduce

the pull attractions of the United States (see “Broken Borders,” pp. The arrival of those who consider the rewards worth the risk indic new site than to the old one. , nearl eat movement of people fr eas to the cities, continurural-to-urban migration ominent y Industrial Revolution

Broken Borders

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in advanced economies. The migration presumabl the number of perceived oppor cities and convicicts. Perceptions, of course, il . Rapid increases in impoverished r veloping countries put incr essures on land, and water in the countryside. Landlessness and hunger, o declining resources induces, help for As a result, while the rate of urban gro easing in the moredeveloped countries, urbanization in the developing world continues apace, y in Chapter 11.

Barriers to Migration P or barriers, to migration. They help account for the fact that many people do not choose to move even when conditions are bad at home and ar wn to be better elsewhere. Migrawledge of the opportunities in other areas. People with a limited knowledge of the opportunities elsewhere are less likely to migrate than are those who are better informed. Other barriers include physic es, the costs of mo , iginal , and governmental r Physical barriers to travel include seas, swamps, deserts, es. In prehistoric times, physic barr ant role in limiting movement. Thus, the spread of the ice sheets across most of Europe in Pleistocene times was a barr habitation. Physic iers to movement have probably assumed less importance onl The developments that made possible the great age of exploration, A.D. 1500, and the technological developments ation have enabled people to conquer space mor y. With industr ation came improved forms of transportation, which made travel faster, easier, and cheaper. Even then, as the conditions the P ess riders experienced onl w, travel could be ts of the world, it remains so today. iers esidence elsewhere. Fr y, .N

y, e a mor ich. United States were ied men who came ed enough money,

ease ier to when they had

tates and among Tur slavs, and W Eur ment, spend on mo

ies. The cost factor

om YugoWestern ve-

esent cir the mor . For many, y older people, enily high for movement to take place.

Cultural factors ibute to decisions not to migrate. Family, religious, ethnic, and comm principle of differ opportunities. Many people not migrate under any but the most pressing of circumstances. The fear of change and human inertia—the fact that it is easier not to move than to do so great that people consider, but reject, a move. Ties to one’s o , e group, neighborhood, y may be so strong as to compensate for the disadvantages of the home location. convince potential leavers that the oppor e not, in fact, where—or that, ev , e not worth enter e or sacr y. Restrictions on immigration and emigration constipolitical barriers to migration. Many governments fro on movements into or outside their own borders and restrict out-migration. These restrictions may make it impossible for , and they certainly limit the number who can do so. On the other hand, countries suffering from an excess of workers often encourage emigration. The huge migration of people to the Americas in the late 19th and early 20th centuries is a good example of perceived oppor eater than in the home country. Many European countries were overpopulated, and their political and economic systems sti economic oppor a time when people were needed by American entrepreneurs hoping to incr resource-rich areas. The most-developed countries where per capita incomes are high, or perceived as high, ar y the most desired international destinations. In order to protect themselves against overwhelming migration streams, such countries as the United States, Australia, France, and Germany have restrictive policies on immigration. In addition to absolute quotas on the number of yc by of origin), a equirements, such as the possession of a labor permit or sponsorship by a recognized association.

Patterns of Migration Se ea or areas that dominate a locale’s in- and out-migration patterns. For any single place, the origin of its in-migrants and the destination of its l y over time. As would be expected, areas near the point of origin make up the largest F e 8.24). However, places far away, ominent. These character e functions of the hierarchic movement to larger places and the fact that so many people live opolitan areas that one may expect some migration into and out of them from most ar y. y to the diffusion concepts mentioned earlier in the section “Diffusion and Innovation.” As Figure 8.25 shows, e distinctly channelized w. The channels link areas that are y and economic y tied to one another by past migration patterns, economic trade considerations, or some

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(a)

(b)

100,000 or more out-migrants 50,000 to 100,000 out-migrants

100,000 or more in-migrants 50,000 to 100,000 in-migrants

FIGURE 8.24 The migration fields of Florida and California in 1995–2000. (a) For Florida, nearby Georgia receives most outmigrants, but in-migrants originate in large numbers fr n United States. (b) For California, the nearby western states receive large numbers of out-migrants, and there are fewer in-migrants from those states. Source: United States Census Bureau.

. As a result, nels are greater than would be the case. The former movements of blacks from the southern United States to the North; of Sc Wisconsin; of Mexicans to such border states as California, Texas, and New Mexico; and of retirees to Florida and Arizona are all examples of ed mig ows. Of , not stay y at their o w United S . v y leave, wcomers to A y. A cor ws is, therefore, n or the r F e 8.26). W tates, r back to one’ ves. however. Mor ecent in-migrants to West V for example, were r as were over 25% of those mo ennsylvania, Iowa, and a few other states. S ent states as Ne e, land, Florida, Wyoming,

e among those that found r new

in

per

e fe whereas those e not esidents.

If freedom of movement is not restricted, origin. Unsuccessful migration is sometimes due to an inability to adjust to the new environment. More often, it is the result ns based on distor destination at the time of the move. Myths, secondhand and and people’s own exaggerations contribute ve. return migration often represents the adjustment onment, it does not necessarily mean that negative information about a place returns with the migrant. y means a reinforcement of the channel, as communic would-be migrants take on added meaning and understanding. ation, c om the distance-decay pattern. The concept of assists in underEarlier we noted that

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Proportion intending to return

.9

.8

.7

.6

.5

.4 .3

0

5

10 15 Length of stay abroad (years)

20

FIGURE 8.26 Migrants originally from the former Yugoslavia intending to return home from Germany. As the length of stay in Germany increases, the pr return decr oad, more than half intend to return. Redrawn from B. W Return Migration Intentions,” The Professional Geographer, 47, no. 2, Fig. 2, p. 132. Association of American Geographers, 1995.

FIGURE 8.25 to midwestern cities of medium size. Distance is not necessarily the main determinant of flow direction. Perhaps through family and n areas ar n destinations. Redrawn by permission from Proceedings of the Association of ol. 3, p. 142. Copyright © Association of

chic r fr vel in the hierarchy and then to lower levels. Hierarchic in a sense, is a r w. The tendenc in domestic relocations to move up the level in the hierarchy, fr Very often, le on the way up; only in periods of general economic decline is there considerable movement down the hierarchy. The suburbs e considered part of the metr ea, so the movement from a town to a suburb is considered a move up the hierarchy. From this chic we can inforwing do om cities and metr eas, om r ban r

GLOBALIZATION We have seen how the cost of communication affects the degree In the past 20 years, we velopment of the Internet and have from relatively low transportation costs. Increased

computerization of transactions has made it easy to buy goods from abroad and to travel abroad. During this period, there also has been a strong movement throughout the world to reduce the barriers to trade and foreign investment and ownership. The European Union is a good case in point. Its currency, the euro, no single currency, much as is the case in the United States. Computer technology enables investors to buy stock on foreign stock exchanges or to buy m epr ld. The new technologies have helped br ld where people are more interdependent than ever before. —the increasing inter ld—affects economic, politic ocesses.

Economic Integration One might view the world of the 1950s through the 1980s as a period of division, when there was a wide br the peoples of the Western world and those of the communist world. Each side had opposing views about how economic and political systems should be organized. It was a world of division, not integration. Integration and interdependence characterize globalization. The fact that Eastern and Western Europe are coming together as a single economic entity, and that the East and South Asian countries’ economies are being integrated into those of Europe and North America, is as much a function of the revolution in communication and computer technologies ld’s politic Low-cost, high-speed computers; communic

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trading throughout the world. The balances companies are monitored closely by brokers and traders around the world. As a result, kets are possible. Within minutes of the 9/11/01 attacks on the World Trade Center and Pentagon, stock markets everywhere went down as investors sensed that the international marketplace was in jeopar . The internationaliz the immense amount of money in foreign investments. Many Americans, for example, own foreign stocks and bonds, either dir y or through mutual funds and pension plans. S ly, people outside the United S ant holdings in U.S. companies and in U.S. treasury bonds.

Tr

FIGURE 8.27 The old and the new: a gondolier in Venice, Italy, conducting business on a cellular phone.

ks; and the Internet are the main technologies of the revolution, but other technologies, such as robotics, microelectronics, electronic mail, and cellular tant role (F e 8.27). The fact that a consumer in Athens, Greece, can order a book from Amazon.com or clothes from Lands’ End, obtain news from CNN, ondon Stock Exchange Tokyo is revolutionary. The forces at work on Americans, the Japanese, and the British have the same effect on Greek consumers as they go about y Thus, ation brings about gr e spatial interaction.

stem of intekets. It is no wonder that the various stock exchanges of the world tend to rise . There are exceptions, of course, but when a pharmaceutic er buys WarnerLambert Pharmaceuticals, it affects pharmaceutical stock

Corporations

The past 20 years have seen a tremendous increase in the number of TNCs), companies that have headquar y companies, factories, and other facilities (laboratories, ehouses, and so on) in several countries. As many as 65,000 TNCs— with se ldwide—engage in economic activities that ar F e 8.28). They account for tr by some estimates, control about one-third of the world’s productive assets “T porations” in Chapter 10). The way that TNCs produce and pro vices is also a par ation process. By exploiting the large differ ound the world, they keep their production costs down, which has led to the decentralization of manufacturing. More and more, American, Japanese, and Western European companies produce their manufactured goods in lower labor cost countries, such as China, Thailand, and Mexico, integrating these developing countries into nomy. In the United States, yment has risen dramatic y as the manufacturing sector has declined. Instead of pr ed goods, the U.S. economy has moved toward the production of high-technology goods and services. The ser eased. With the incr esulting from the effects of new technologies on production processes, Americans are able to travel more and to stay at hotels and eat out more often. This has a great bearnot only in the United States but throughout the business and tourist world. These de e discussed in more detail in Chapter 10.

Marketing The gr ization has created a huge new market for goods and services. TNCs market their products around the world, whether they be goods such as Swiss watches, Italian shoes, or Coca-Cola or the services provided by, for example, worldwide hotel chains Japanese c ts of the world, just as are fast-food chains. So ations of this are discussed in the section

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(a) Nokia —Finland (Pakistan)

(b) KitKat— U.K. (Bhutan)

(d) Ford—United States (China)

(c) Sony —Japan (China)

FIGURE 8.28 The number of the world’s transnational corporations increased in number from about 7000 in 1970 to over 77,000 in 2005. Ninety of the top 100 TNCs are headquartered in the European Union, the United States, and Japan. Their impact, however, is global, as suggested by these billboar just a sample of leading TNCs in distant settings. Corporate names and headquarters countries are followed by billboard locations in parentheses. im Graham/Getty; y Iverson/Time Life Pictures/Getty.

(e) IBM—United States (Sudan)

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It is important to remember, however, that globalization is a fairly recent development, and at pr ue to a minor ld’s 6 billion people. Only one-tenth of those people, about 600 million, ar comfortably and to purchase the goods and ser earlier. According to the United Nations Development Fund, one-quarter of lives on less than $1 per day. An illiterate farmer in a r Tibet more than likely lacks access to a telephone, much less the new technologies of the revolution in communications.

Political Integration The w of money (capital), goods, ideas, and information around the globe links people in way boundaries. One effect has been to stimulate the formation of new, estr ing of older ones. To enhance commerce, countries are signing free-trade agreements and joining economic organizations such as the North American Free-Trade Agreement (1994) and the World Trade Organization (1995). many y, politic have been created since 1980, and some that are older, such as NATO, ar . Another effect of globalization has been the enormous increase in the number of international nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). Their number more than quadrupled during the 1990s, from about 6000 to more than 26,000. As the wn organiz and Greenpeace indicate, the concerns of international NGOs range widely, from human rights and acid rain to famine relief and resource depletion. What they have in common is that they bring together people ts of the world in pursuit of m The transmission of news has never been wider or faster. Time Magazine can be bought as easily in New Delhi, India, as in New Yor , and CNN broadcasts around the world, informing people about current events and, sometimes, helping bring about government intervention in places where it might not have occurred. Coverage of the wars in Bosnia and Kosovo, for example, stimulated the United Nations and NATO to send in peacekeeping troops to stop the carnage. More r y, in 2002, satellite tele ’s graphic imagery of the havoc wrought by Palestinian suicide bombers and Israeli r support for the P ause throughout the Arab world. F y, the Internet has given people a power To give just a fe in 1989, pro-democrac , China, used the Internet to publiciz y support for their cause. The woman who won the Nobel Peace Prize in ampaign to ban landmines, Jody W used e-mail to organize 1000 human rights and arms control gr S ly, NGOs use the Internet to coordinate massive pr meetings of the World Trade Organization (F e 8.29).

FIGURE 8.29 Some of the thousands of people who demonstrated in Geneva, Switzerland, in 2009 against the World T Among the protesters were those representing hundreds of NGOs. © Fabrice

Cultural Integration Imagine this scene: wearing a Y ap, a GAP shirt, Le and Reebok shoes, a teenager in Lima, P goes iends to see the latest thr . After the mo , they plan to eat at a by ’s. Meanwhile, her brother sits at home, listening to his iPod while playing a video game. Both childr ee e, particularl e. e is Western in or y American. U.S. mo television shows, sof e, music, food, and fashion are marketed worldwide. s, tastes, and aspirations of people in y every country, their effect is most pronounced on young people. They, rather than their elders, e the ones who want to emulate the stars they see in mo and on YouTube and to adopt what they think are W les, manners, and modes of dress. Another indic ldwide spread of the English language. It has become the medium of communication in economics, , and science. ation of pope resented by many people and rejected by some. Iran, Singapore, estrict the pr eaches their people, ens’ e not succeeding in stopping the spread of W e. French ministers r e, unadulterated by O e, W ent. Whether or not mo music, unic y r W e, cr inno , , , ws appear omote the new ov old, e over work, v

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Summary of Key Concepts • The term spatial interaction refers to the movement of people, goods, information, and another. w and use space. The concepts of spatial perception and spatial cognition ar ing how individuals view their environment. Other important variables are the nature of the information available, people’s age, their past experiences, • The concept of activity space helps us understand differences in the extent of space people use. The age of an indihis or her degr , of oppor • Distance decay refers to the decline of interaction with incr The concept of critic ond which the decrease in familiarit ant. Unfamiliar ’ ws, and travel patterns.

• How space is used is a function of all of these factors, but cer vations indicate what oppor living in various places. Contagious and hierarchic change will take. Effort and cost are among the barriers to diffusion. • When strong enough, various push and pull forces motivate a long-distance, permanent move. Migration fosters the spread of culture by means of a relocation diffusion process. easoned, meaning places and the opportunities at those places. • Economic, politic and and processes are becoming more integrated and people more interdependent as a result of globalization, the increasing interts of the world.

Key Words pace 247 chain migration 261 channelized migration 267 252 critic tance 244 distance decay 244 ation 268 hierarchic 253

hierarchical migration 267 mental map 248 migration 256 migration 266 place 261 259 push factor 259 r

spatial diffusion 251 spatial interaction 244 stage in life 250 step migration 261 territor transnational corporation (TNC) 269 267

Thinking Geographically 1. What is the role of distance in helping us understand spatialint eraction? 2. Think of the var wor . Does the concept of distance decay bear on the location of adversaries? Why? 3. On a blank piece of paper, you, draw a map of the United States, putting in state boundaries wherever possible; this is your map of . Compare it with a standard atlas map. What conclusions can you reach? 4. What is meant by activity space? What factors affect the What is y 5. Recall the places y In your movements, were the distance-decay and critic rules operative? What var ’s critic tance?

6. Br cont and hierarchical di usion. In what ways, if any, were these forms of diffusion in operation in the culture hearths discussed in Chapter 7? 7. What considerations affect a decision to migrate? What is place utility and how does its perception induce or inhibit migration? 8. What common barriers to Why do most people migrate within their o y? 9. migration . So show a channelized w of people. S ticular channeliz w (such as the movement of Sc to the United States, people from the Great Plains to California, or southern blacks to the North) and explain why a channeliz w developed. 10. ation on y le and the patterns of trade in your urban area.

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Political Geography

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War had been raging for 4 years, and Germany and its the O Empire and Austr , were suffering huge losses. In the Middle East, the British and their Arab allies had pinned down and defeated the O Turks. T. E. Lawrence, a British , hurried straight fr the British War Cabinet meeting in London, intent on arguing the cause of Arab sover . The Middle East, Lawr w, had been under the domination of the Ottoman Empire for centuries. He felt, however, ies the time had come to rewrite the map of the Middle East. Accordingly, L ence presented his map, in which he proposed new ies for the Middle East (F e 9.1). Lawr state and that the people of what are now S ia, Jordan, and Saudi Arabia belonged together in one country. He felt that Sunnis and Shi’ites should not be separated in the area that is now Iraq, which is one of the issues that divides the region

(a)

today. He also placed “P ,” or a Je on the map. His reasoning fell on deaf ears. The great powers represented during the peace process carved the region up to reward war allies with resource-rich areas. The peace treaties divided the region into Greek, British, French, and Italian areas of and occupation. Only the areas south of what is now Iraq and Jordan were demarcated as independent Arab states. Would Lawrence’s map have changed history? There is no way to know for certain, of course, but some scholars concede that Lawrence’s division of the area might have provided a more stable Middle East than the one based on the extent of opean powers. the current day, wars, revolutions, edrawn the borders in the area many times. The region is home to different ethnic groups, religions, and political systems and has been a part of a continuing process of the political organization of space.

(b)

FIGURE 9.1 (a) T. E. Lawrence’s Peace Map and (b) a current map of the Middle East. T. E. Lawrence’s map of the Middle East was misfiled in the British national archives for decades and only recently rediscovered. Compare it to a current map of the region. Of note: • Lawr s had died in the Holocaust. • Lawr Russians. Now, that ar urkey. • Lawrence included an area of French administration along the Mediterranean Sea; the British and French agreed during World War I that the French would control the area that is now made up of Lebanon and Syria. Lebanon gained independance in 1943, Syria in 1944, while France was occupied by Nazi Germany. • Lawrence envisioned at least three Arab states under British influence; settlements at the end of World War I gave Britain a mandate over what is now Iraq, Jordan, Israel, the West Bank, and the Gaza Strip. British companies had freedom to explore and develop Iraqi oil fields.

Politic

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In this chapter, we discuss some of the characteristics of politic examine the problems invol isdictions, seek the elements that lend cohesion to a political , explore the implications of par ender of sovereignty, ance of the fragmentation of politic wer. W c stems. The emphasis in this chapter on political entities should not make us lose sight of the r e rooted in epresent, that ant as border confrontations, and that in some regards transnational corporations and other nongovernmental agencies may exert more in which they are housed or operate. Some of those expanded politic w; e developed mor y in Chapter 10.

NATIONAL POLITICAL SYSTEMS FIGURE 9.2 These flags, symbols of separate member states, grace the front of the United Nations building in New York City. Although central to political geographic interest, states are only one level of the political organization of space. © Corbis RF.

The process of the political organization of space is as old as human history. From c human groups have laid claim to territory and have organized themselves and administer Indeed, the politic niz expression of e and differences as are forms of economy or religious beliefs. Geographers are interested in that structuring because it is an expression of the human organization of space and is closely related to other spatial e e, such as religion, language, . Politic raphy is the study of the organization and spatial distribution of political phenomena. N y iation among people, and political geography traditionally has had a primary interest in country units, or states (Figure 9.2). Of central concern have been spatial patterns that r cise of central governmental control, such as questions of boundary delimitation and effect. Increasingly, however, attention has shifted both upward and downward on the political scale. On the world scene, international alliances, regional compacts, and producer cartels have increased in prominence since 1945, representing new forms of spatial interaction. At the local level, voting patterns, constituency boundaries and districting rules, and political fragmentation have directed public ance of area in the domestic political process.

One of the most the nearl

ant elements in

geography is th’s land surface into as shown on the Countries of the World map fold out at the end of the book. Even Antarctica is subject to the rival territorial claims of seven countries, although these claims have not been pressed because of the Antarctic Tr e 9.3). Another element is that this division into country units is relatively recent. Although countries and empires have existed since the days of ancient pt and Mesopotamia, onl y has the world been almost completely divided into independent governing entities. Now, people ever e accept the idea of the state, and its claim to sover as normal.

States, Nations, and Nation-States Before we begin our consideration of politic stems, we need to clar y. Geographers use the words state and nation somewhat differently than the way they are used in everyday speech; ises because each word has more than one meaning. A state c (1) any of the politic vernment (e.g., one of the United States) or (2) an independent politic ver ver a territory (e.g., the United States). In the latter sense, state is synony country or nation. That is, a nation c pendent political unit holding sovereignty over a territory (e.g., a member of the United Nations). But it c to describe (2) a communit e and territory (e.g., the Kurdish nation). The se nition is not synonymous with state or country. To avoid confusion, state on the intervel as an independent political unit occupying a permanently populated territor vereign control over its internal and foreign affairs. W

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distinct nation or people or, at least, whose population shares ence to a set of common values (Figure 9.4a). That is, a nation-state is an entity whose

Pacific Ocean

Atlantic Ocean

Indian Ocean

FIGURE 9.3 Territorial claims in Antarctica. Seven countries claim sover ctica, and those of Argentina, Chile, and the United Kingdom overlap. The Antarctic Tr resear ctica is neither a sovereign state—it has no permanent inhabitants or local gover

country as a synonym for the territorial and politic concept of “state.” N ecognized territor e states. Antarctica, for example, has neither an established government nor a permanent population; it is, therefore, not a state. Nor are colonies or protectorates recognized as states. Although they permanent inhabitants, and some degree of separate go e, they lac ol over We use nation in its second sense, as a reference to people, not to political structure. A is a group of people with a common culture occupying a par , bound together by a str ising from shared beliefs and customs. L ments, but even more important are an emotional conviction ism. For example, the Cree nation exists bec ness, tue of territorial sover . The composite term properly refers to a state whose territorial extent coincides with that occupied by a

shar , religion, istic strong enough both to bind them together and to give them a sense of distinction fr . In r y, very few countries can claim to be true nation-states, since few are or have ever been wholly uniform ethnica y or y. Iceland, Slovenia, Poland, eas are often cited as acceptable examples. A binational or multinational state is one that contains more than one nation (F e 9.4b). Often, no single ethnic gr ucture of the So e 1988, islative branch of the government was termed the Soviet of Nationalities. It was composed of representatives from civil divisions of the Soviet Union populated by gr y recognized “nations”: U Kaz Estonians, and others. In this instance, itor y less than the extent of the state. y, a single nation may be dispersed across and be pr e states. This is the case with a part-nation state (F e 9.4c). Here, a people’s sense of nationAn example is the Arab nation, which dominates 17 states. Finally, there is the special case of the stateless nation, a people without a state. The Kurds, for example, are a nation of approximatel and dominant in none (F e 9.4d). Kurdish nationalism has survived over the centuries, and many Kurds nur e a vision of an independent Kurdistan. Other stateless nations are the Basques, and Palestinians.

Evolution of the Modern State The concept and practice of the political organization of space and people arose independently in many parts of the world. Our Western orientations and biases may incline us to trace ideas of spatial political organization through their Near Eastern, Mediterranean, and Western European expressions. Mesopotamian and classic the Roman Empire, and European colonizing and warring principalities were, however, not unique. Southern, southeastern, and eastern Asia had their counterparts, as did sub-S ica and the Western Hemisphere. Western European models and colonization strongl uctures of modern states around the world, the cultural roots of statehood run deeper and reach further back in many parts of the world than the Eur ne suggests. The no veloped by European politic . ws advanced the concept that people o to a state and the people it represents, rather than to its leader, lord. The new concept coincided in

Politic

France with the French Revolution and spread over Western Europe, to England, Spain, and Germany. Many states are the result of European expansion during the 17th, 18th, ies, when much of Africa, Asia, and the Americas was divided into colonies. U y laims wer ibed boundaries where none had earlier been y Of course, pr elativel eas of control within which there was recognized dominance and border defense and from which there were, perhaps, raids of plunder or conquest of neighboring “foreign” territories. Beyond understood tribal territories, great empires arose, again with recogniz ol: and Chinese; Benin and Zulu; Incan and Aztec. Upon them wher and upon the less formally organized ol, European colonizers imposed their arbitrary new administrative divisions of the land. In fact, groups that had little in common were often joined in the same colony (F e 9.5). The ne therefore, wer y based on meaning ysic Instead, the boundaries simply represented the limits of the colonizing empire’s power. As these former colonies have gained politic , they have retained the idea of the state. They have generally accepted—in the case of Africa, by a conscious decision to avoid pr itor nic claims that could lead to war—the borders established by their former European rulers. The problem that many of the new countries (a) face is “nation-building”—developing feelings of loyalty to the state among their arbitrarily associated citizens. Julius Nyerere, president of Tanzania, noted in 1971, “These new countries are ar geographic essions carved on the map by European imperialists. These are the units we have tried to turn into nations.” The idea of separate statehood grew slowly e recently has accelerated rapidly. At the time of the Declaration of Independence of the United States in 1776, there were (c) only about 35 empires, and countries in the entire world. By the beginning of World

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War II in 1939, their number had only doubled to about 70. F wing that war, ought a rapid increase in the number of sovereign states. With the disintegration of the USSR, Czechoslo and Y more than 20 countries were created (Figure 9.6). In 2009, there were nearly 200 independent states, and scholars predict that itories achieve independence, large states break up, and suppressed peoples c .

Challenges to the State The state and nation-state have long been the focus of political geography, uch of the following discussion. W ealize, however, that the

(b)

Me dite rran ea

n Sea

FIGURE 9.4 Types of relationships between states and nations. (a) Nationstates. Poland and Slovenia are examples of states occupied by a distinct nation, or people. (b) A multinational state. Switzerland shows that a common ethnicity, language, or r ong sense of nationalism. oss and dominates many n Africa and the Middle East. (d) A stateless nation. An ancient group with a distinctive language, Kurds are concentrated in Turkey, Iran, and Iraq. (d)

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Tunisia

Eritrea Gambia

Djibouti

GuineaBissau Sierra Leon Liberia

Togo Benin

Equator

Cabinda

0 miles 0 km

500 500

1000

1000

Swaziland Lesotho

FIGURE 9.5 The discrepancies between ethnic groups and national boundaries in Africa. Cultural boundaries were ignored by European colonial powers. The result was significant ethnic diversity in nearly all African countries and conflicts between countries over borders. Modified from World Regional Geography: A Question of Place by Paul Ward English, with James Andrew Miller.

w of the world is increasingly under assault from multiple ne power. These agents inc wing: • ation of economies and the emergence of transnational corporations whose economic and pr e unrelated to the interests of any single state, inc Those decisions—outsourcing of production and ser for example—may be detrimental to the employment str e, , and national secur state and limit the applic nal economic planning and control. • The proliferation of international and supranational epresenting the voluntary surrender of some traditional state autonomy. The World Trade

Organization, the European Union, and regional trade blocs such as the North American Free-Trade eements members and thus diminish absolute state primacy in •

•

The emergence and multiplication of nongov organiz ests and oss national boundaries and unite people sharing common concerns about issues such as globalization, AIDS efforts, injustice. The well-publicized protests and pressures exer essur limit governmental actions. ws that tend unity with

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One might assume that, the a state’s area, the greater is the chance that it esources, such as fertile soil and minerals. In general, that assumption is valid, but much depends upon accidents of location. Mineral resources are unevenly distributed, and siz their presence within a state. Australia, Canada, and Russia, though large, have relatively eas capable of supporting productive agr e. Great size, in fact, may be a disadvantage. A very large country may have vast areas that are inaccessible, sparsely populated, and hard to integrate into the mainstream of .S e more y homoFIGURE 9.6 By mid-1992, 15 newly independent countries had taken the place of n. the former USSR. develop transportation and communication systems to link the sections of the country, and, of course, they have shorter boundaries to defend against invasion. Size alone, assured and expected co yalties. The then, is not critic ’ Internet, inexpensive communication methods, and strength, but it is a contributing factor. easy international travel permit immigrant retention of primary ties with their ho e and state, discouraging their full assimilation into their ne Shape environment or the transfer of their lo Like size, a country’s shape c adopted country. ing or hindering effective organization. Assuming no major • The increase in nationalist and separatist movements in topographical barriers, y composite states, weakening through demands cle, with the c ated in the center. In such a country, for independence or r places could be reached from the center in a minimal amount unquestioned primacy of the established state. e for roads, railway lines, and so on. It would also have the shortest possible borders to Some of these agents and developments have been touched on defend. Zimbabwe, Ur , and Poland have roughly circular in earlier chapters; others will be reviewed in this chapter (see shapes, forming a compact state (F e 9.7). y “Centr orces,” p. 291). epresent recent Prorupt states are nearly compact but possess one or and strengthening forces that, in some assessments, weaken ow extensions of terr . Proruption may ldvie vernments and simply r ea, as in the case ed politics ar werful. of Myanmar and Thailand. In other cases, the extensions have ance, having been designed to secure state access to resources or to establish a buffer zone Geographic Characteristics of States wise adjoin. Whatever their Every state has certain geographic characteristics by which origin, proruptions tend to isolate a portion of a state. it can be described and that set it apart fr y is represented A look at the world political map inside the cover of this book by countries such as Norway and Chile, which are long and v The size, shape, and locanarrow. In such elongated states, tion of any one state combine to it from othfrom the capital are likely to be isolated because great expendiers. These characteristics also affect the po es are required to link them to the core. These countries are states. also likely to encompass mor limate, resources, and peoples than compact states, perhaps to the detriment of Size cohesion or, perhaps, to the promotion of economic strength. The area that a state occupies may be large, as is true of China, The fourth class of shapes, that of mented states, as is Liechtenstein. The world’ y, Russia, includes countries composed entirely of islands (e.g., the occupies mor Philippines and Indonesia), countries that are partly on islands sq mi), or some 11% of the land surface of the world. It is more and partly on the mainland (Ital sia), and those that one of the ministates ar y on the mainland but whose terr ts of the world (see “The Ministates,” p. 280). Arctic Ocean

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North Pacific Ocean

South Pacific Ocean

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PRORUPT

ELONGATED COMPACT

Zimbabwe

Thailand

Philippines South Africa

FIGURE 9.7 Shapes of states. The sizes of the countries should not be compar

by another state (the United States). Fragmentation makes it harder for the state to impose centralized control over its territory, particularly when the parts of the state are far from one another. This is a problem in Indonesia, which is made up of more than 13,000 islands, stretched out along a c. Fragmentation helped lead to the disintegration of P It was created in 1947 as a fragmented state, but East and West P ters (1000 mi) from one another. That distance exacerbated economic and differences the , and when the eastern part of the country seceded in 1971 and declared itself the independent state of Bangladesh, West P unable to impose its control. A special case of fragmentation occurs when a territorial outlier of one state, an exclave, is located within another state. Before German ation, West Berlin was an outlier of West Germany within East Germany (the German Democratic Republic). Europe has many such outlying bits of one country inside another. Kleinwalser for example, is a piece of Austria accessible only from Germany. Baarle-Hertog is a Llivia is a Spanish town just inside France. Exclaves are not limited to Europe: ican examples include Cabinda, an exclave of Angola, and Melilla and Ceuta, panish exclaves in Morocco (F e 9.8).

ent scale.

The counterpart of an exclave, an enclave, helps to th class of shapes, the A perforated state completely surrounds a territor , as the Republic of South Africa surrounds Lesotho. The enclave, the surrounded territory, may be independent or may be part of another state. Two of Europe’ S ino and Vatic , are enclaves that per y. As an exclave of West Germany, West Berlin perforated the itory of former East Germany and was an enclave in it. forated state can be weakened if the enclave is occupied by people whose value systems differ from those of the surrounding country.

Location ance of size and shape as factors in national wellbeing c ’s location, both absolute and relative. ussia are extremely large, their absolute location in the upper-midd educes their size advantages when agr ed. For another example, Iceland has a reasonably compact shape, but its location in the North Atlantic Ocean, just south of the Arctic Circle, en. S ims of the island.

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r iter Med

ea nS a e an

Atlantic Ocean

FIGURE 9.8 Although Spanish troops seized the garrison towns of Melilla and Ceuta almost 500 years ago, and a majority of the exclaves’s residents are of Spanish descent, Morocco still claims sover towns. In r stopping points for tens of thousands of would-be migrants to Spain. Emigrants from Mali, Nigeria, and as far away as Kashmir and Iraq enter Ceuta and Melilla requesting political asylum and seeking work permits or visas to enter Europe. Today the enclaves are surrounded by fences. Llivia became an exclave in 1660 when Spain ceded the surrounding area to France in the Treaty of the Pyrenees. Gibraltar is a British colony, and Andorra is an independent ministate.

A state’s relative location, its position compared to that of other countries, is as important as its absolute location. Landlocked states, those lac ontage and surrounded by other states, are at a geographic disadvantage (Figure 9.9). They lack easy access to maritime (seaborne) trade and to the resources found in coastal waters and submerged lands. ontier along with its independence in 1825, but lost its ocean frontage by conquest to Chile in 1879. Its annual Day of the Sea ceremony reminds Bolivians of their loss and of continuing diplomatic efforts to secur The number of landlocked states—about 40—increased greatl the Soviet Union and the creation of new, ies out of such former m ies as Yugoslavia and Czechoslo In a few instances, a favorable relative location constiesource of a state. Singapore, a state of only 685 squar , is located at a crossroads of world shipping and commerce. Based on its port and commer and buttressed by its more recent industrial development, Singapore has become a notable Southeast Asian economic success. In general, history has shown that countr om a location on major trade routes, not only from the economic advantages such a location carries, but also because they ar sion of new ideas and technologies.

Many states have come to assume their present shape, and thus the location they occupy, as a result of growth over centuries. They gre om a egion, y expanding

FIGURE 9.9 Landlocked states. Landlocked states are at a commercial and strategic disadvantage, compared to countries that have ocean frontage.

P

into surrounding territory. The or leus, or y contains its densest population and largest cities, the most highly developed transportation system, and the most developed economic base. less intense away fr e. Urbanization ratios es decline, transpor ks thin, and economic development is less intensive on the periphery than in the core. Easily recognized and unmistakably dominant national cores include the Paris Basin of France; London and southeastern England; Moscow and the major cities of European Russia; northeastern United States and southeastern Canada; N tries have such clearl es, or more rival core areas. Chad, Mongolia, and Saudi Arabia have no clearl e, for instance, whereas Ecuador, Nigeria, Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Vietnam are examples of multicore states. The c y within its core region and frequently is the very focus of it, dominant not only bec ause of the concentration of population and eco That is, in many countries, the c or primate , dominating the str e of the entire country. Paris in France, London in the United Kingdom, and Mexico al, and economic primacy. This association of capital with core is common in what have been ca ed the unitary states, countries with highly cened governments, relatively few i ts, a str y, and borders that are c ly cultural as well as political boundaries. Most European cores and c pe. This association is also found in many newly independent countries whose former colonial occupiers established a primary center of exploitation and administration and developed a functioning core in a region that lacked an urban str e or organized government. With independence, the new states retained the established infrastructure, added new to the c and, through lavish expenditures on governmental, public, and commercial buildings, sought to create prestigious symbols of nationhood. In federal states, associations of more or less equal provinces or states with strong r esponsibilities, the c wly created to serve as the administrative center. part of a generalized core region of the country, the designated c ed few of the additional functions to make it so. Ottawa, Canada; Washington, D.C.; and Canberra, A e examples (Figure 9.10). A new form of state organization—regional government, or asymmetric federalism—is emerging in Europe as formerly strong unitary states acknowledge the autonomy aspirations of their several subdivisions and grant to them var ees of loc ol while r hands author v such as monetary policy, defense, and foreign relations. Autonomy is most likely to be granted to regions with the most outspoken

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FIGURE 9.10 Canberra, the planned capital of Australia, was deliberately sited away fr s two largest cities, Sydney and Melbourne. Planned capitals ar chitectural showcases, providing a focus for national pride. © Chris Groenhout.

residents, who claim that their region is different from the Such claims are mostly based on differences in religions, languages, or economic centers and interests. National governments may recognize regional capitals, legislative assemblies, and administrative bureaucracies. The asymmetr for example, now invol Wales, and Northern Ireland, with their own c Cardiff, and Belfast. That of Spain recogniz , with capitals in Barcelona and Vitoria, respectively. a capital located in the center of the country provides equal access to the government, facilitates communication to and from the political hub, and enables the government to exert its author y. Many c such as Washington, D.C., wer y located when they were designated as seats of government, but lost

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Some c

elocated outside of per t to achieve the presumed . Two examples of such relocation are from K inland to Islamabad in P and from Istanin the center of Turkey’s territory. ticular elocated c forward-thrust capital , one that has been deliberately sited in a state’s frontier zone to sigvernment’s awareness of regions away from the core and its interest in encouraging more uniform development. In the late 1950s, Brazil moved its capital from Rio de Janeiro to the ne velop the vast interior of the country. The West African country of Nigeria has been building the new c geographic center since the late 1970s, elocation there of go ly 1990s. The Br vernment relocated Canada’s c e regions,

ation that bridged that country’

igure 9.11).

Boundaries: The Limits of the State Rec c a has had

tion of the earth’s land surface is outside the that even uninhabited Antarcitor claims imposed upon it (see F e 9.3). ld’s states is separated from its neighbors by international boundaries, state’ . ies indicate where the sover Within its own bounded territory, a state administers laws, pro , and performs other

FIGURE 9.11 Canada’

Kingston was chosen as the first capital of the united Province of Canada in preference to either Quebec, capital of Lower Canada, or Toronto, that of Upper Canada. In 1844, governmental functions were relocated to Montreal, where they r they shifted back and forth—as the map indicates—between Toronto and Quebec. An 1865 session of the provincial legislature was held in Ottawa, the city that became the capital of the Confederation of Canada in 1867. Redrawn with permission from David B. Knight, A Capital for Canada. Geography, Research Paper no. 182, 1977, Fig. 1, p. vii.

such governmental functions. Thus, the location of the boundar ea use, the legal code to which they are subject, the army they may be called upon to join, and the and perhaps the religion children are taught in school. These examples suggest how boundaries serve as power einfor iation over the earth’s surface. Territor laims of sover e three-dimensional. International boundaries not only mark the outer limits of a state’s claim to land (or water) sur e projected do to the center of the earth in accordance with interating rights to subsurface resources. S oject their sovereignty up cer ause of a lack of agreement on the upper limits of territor Properly viewed, then, boundar eadth; it is a vertic face vereignties. Before boundaries were delimited, nations or empires were likely to be separated by ontier zones, ing areas mar ’s authority. Such zones were often uninhabited or only sparsely populated and were liable to change with shif Many present-day boundaries lie in former frontier zones, and in that sense, the boundary line has replaced the broader frontier as a marker of a state’s author .

Natu

and Arti cial Boundaries

Geographers have traditionall “ ” and “ar ” boundaries. Na r (or boundaries are those based on recognizable physiographic features such as mountains, rivers, and lakes. seem to be attractive as borders bec y exist in the landscape and ar boundaries have proved to be unsatisfactory. That is, they do not effectively separate states. ranges—for example, in the Alps, Himalayas, and Andes. Some have proved to be stable; others have not. Mountains are rarely total barriers to interaction. they do not movement, they are crossed by passes, roads, and tunnels. High pases may be used for grazing, and a mountain region may be a source of water for hydroelectric power. Nor is the y along a mountain range a simple matter. S w the crests of the mountains or the water divide eas)? e not always the same. e, t, the result of the failure of mountain crests and headwaters of major streams to coincide. Recently, glaciers shr in the Alps have forced y to renegotiate its borders Switzerland, France, and Austria, as the original borders were idge of the glaciers (Figure 9.12). Rivers can be even less satisfactory as boundaries. In contrast to mountains, rivers foster interaction. s are likely to be agr y or industr y productive and to be densely populated. For example, for hundreds of miles the

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FIGURE 9.12 Several international borders run through the jumble of the Alps.

.

y in Western Europe. imar oute lined by chemical plants, factories, and power stations and dotted by the castles and cathedrals that make it one of Europe’s major tourist attractions. It is more a common, intensively used resource than a barrier in the lives of the states it borders. e or ic, Frequently delimited as sections of , they are found y in Africa, Asia, and the Americas. The western portion of the United States–Canada border, which ws the 49th is an example of a geometric boundary. Many such boundaries were established when the areas in question were colonies, the land was only sparsely settled, and detailed geowledge of the frontier region was lac .

Boundaries C Boundaries can also be c were laid out before or after the pr ape developed. An antecedent boundary is one drawn across an area befor befor es developed. To continue our earlier example, the western portion of the United States-Canada boundary is such an antecedent line, tates and Great Britain in 1846. Boundaries drawn after the de landscape are termed ies. subsequent boundary is a consequent ethnographic) y, a border drawn to accommodate existing religious, ethnic, or economic differ tries. An example is the boundar orthern Ireland and Eire (Ireland). Subsequent superimposed boundies ced apes,

FIGURE 9.13 Since the reunification of Germany the Berlin Wall still standing are a relic boundary. Here, a section of the wall stands in Potsdamer Platz. .

a country, or a people by a conquering or colonizing power that is unconcerned about pr The colowers in 19th-century Africa superimposed boundaries upon established Afric es without regard to the tradition, language, religion, e 9.5). When Great Britain prepared to leave the Indian subcontinent after World War II, pendent states would be established in the region: India and P The boundary the countries, in the partition settlement of 1947, was thus both a subsequent and a superimposed line. om the northwestern portion of the subcontinent to seek homes in India, millions of Muslims left what would become India for P In a sense, they were attempting to ensure that the boundary would be eligion. This boundary example is mor y discussed in “Politic ubcontinent,” p. 445 in Chapter 13. If a former boundary line that no longer functions as such is still marked by some landsc es or differences on the it is termed a relic boundary. The abandoned castles ontier zo Wales and England are examples of a r . They ar vidence of the disputes that sometimes attend the process of boundary making. A more recent example is the Berlin W built by comm East and West Berlin. With the r ation of Germany in 1990, the was mostly dismantled. Berliners have chosen to preser ical monuments; elsewhere, ked by a double row of nes, another form of relic boundary (Figure 9.13).

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Ocean

Lake

FIGURE 9.14 Geographic sources of international stress. To illustrate the conditions that can give rise to conflicts between states, eminent British geographer Peter Haggett drew this map of a hypothetical state and identified potential trouble spots. Real-world examples of the stress points and disputes shown in this map are discussed in the text. Redrawn from Peter Haggett, Geography, a Global Synthesis (Prentice Hall, 2001). Figure 17.10, p. 522.

Boundaries as Sour Boundaries cr countries. At the star y, about 80 countries are involved in disputes with one or more of their neighbors. Although the c e varied, geographic considerations underlie many of them. Figure 9.14 shows for an imaginary state, a, the spatial conditions that could give r Each condition is iden, and each is illustrated by real-world examples in the discussio ws.

Landlocked States (Potential Trouble Spot #1) thetica is a landlocked country, as ar th of the world’s states (see Figure 9.9). To trade with overseas markets, landlocked states have to import and export their goods by land-based modes of transportation. They must cooperate with neighbor across a foreign country, A s. Typic y, the landlocked country arranges to use facilities at a foreign port and to have the right to travel to that port, but such arrangements are not without their problems. For centuries, landlocked countries have had to contend with restrictions, tolls, high fees for transit and storage, complicated customs formalities, the r and vement of goods to and from the sea. In addition, they have had little or no control over y of the transport and port facilities outside their borders, and they face the that lose their access to the sea. However, the situation

has improved in recent decades for countries that have signed international conventions permitting the movement of goods across intervening territories without discriminator tolls, or fr for example, has access to the Chilean port of Arica, the Per t of Ilo, and the Argenio on the P e 9.15). Rather than depend on another country’s port and goodsome landlocked states have gained access to the sea through a narrow corridor of land that reaches either the sea or a navigable river. Examples include the Congo Corridor of the Democratic Republic of Congo and the Capr trip of Namibia, which was designed by the Germans to give what was then their colony of Southwest Africa access to the Zambezi River and Indian Ocean. Although these corridors have endured, others—such as the Polish and Finnish Corridors ter World War I—were short-lived.

Wate ies (#2, #3, #4, #5) As we noted earlier (p. 284), although rivers and lakes form parts of many national borders, they create many opportunities for Any body of water that forms part of a border requires agreement on where the boundary line should lie: along the right or left bank or shore, along the center of the waterway, le of the navigable channel. Soviet insistence that its sover ian (Dongbei) bank of the Amur and Ussur USSR and the People’s Republic of China, only resolved with Russian agreement in 1987 that the boundary should pass along the main channel of the rivers. Even an agreement in

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na R

.

Pacific Ocean

Ch ub a t

Atlantic Ocean

Ge

a no

May o

Santa Cruz

gained access to the sea through arrangements with neighboring states. Unlike most landlocked countries, however, Bolivia can

Gallego

river changes its course, or dries up. Potential trouble spot #2 relates to the use of a watershed boundar one that runs along a ridge or cr areas. Disputes occur when states disagree about the interprey and/or the way y was delimited. tina and Chile, or ing S ule and then established by tr was to follow “the most elevated cr (Figure 9.16). Because the southern Andes had not been adequately explored and mapped, it wasn’t apparent that the cr wing rivers do not always coincide. In some places, the water divide is many miles east of the highest peaks, leaving a long, narrow area of about 52,000 squar (20,000 sq mi) in dispute. The discrepancies in claims made ly a century. Pressure point #3 shows a meandering river (one that changes its course). If the r t of the international boundary, as it does here, ver time. The boundar tates and Mexico, for example, which r , has changed as the river has altered its course.

do

h ic o

FIGURE 9.15 Like many other landlocked countries, Bolivia has

y be

Atlantic Ocean

Ch

Desea C

ico

Para

Pacific Ocean

FIGURE 9.16 and Chile in the southern Andes. The treaty establishing the boundary between the two countries preceded adequate exploration and mapping of the area, leaving its precise location in emaining territorial dispute between Chile and Argentina in the Andes was settled in an accord signed in late 1998.

Similarly, a lake (#4) requires agreement on where the boundies lies. In the case of the United States and Canada, ies agreed that a line equidistant from the shores of Lake Erie and Ontario would form part of the international border. Another trouble spot (#5) relates to a’s use of the r ws downstream into it from another country. Water use is an increasing source of among countries, particularly in arid or semiarid regions. When water is scarce, its abstraction, diversion, or pollution by one country can sigantl y of water available to those downstream. Gro tages of fresh water are leadivers, including the Jordan, Tigris and Euphrates, Nile, Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra.

y Group Ident ion (#6, #7, #8) Like nearly countries, a contains more than one culture group. In the real world, the locations of minor oups have led to international tensions, civil wars, wars of liberation, and

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international strife around the globe. cult pr ies must deal, minor oup ation is discussed in more detail in the section “Centrifugal Forces,” but brief examples of pressure points #6, #7, and #8 are provided in the following paragraphs. an arise if the people of one state claim and seek to acquire a terr ically or ethnic y related to that of the state but is now subject to a foreign government. This condition is represented by pressure point #6, minor oup overspill from a neighboring state. Under these conditions, the desire to expand the country’s borders is called irredentism, from the Italian word for “unredeemed.” Since 1950, both India and P laimed Jammu and Kashmir as part of their own national territory, based upon the fact that the ar and Hindu populations. Hungary’s claims to Transylvania, a Romanian province, are based on both historical and ethnic ties. ies have quarreled ov ies. Transylvania was under Hungarian control from 1649 until 1920, when—as part of the reordering of the politic wed World War I—it became part of Romania. In 1940, Germany y forced Romania to give the province back to Hungary, but the country had to surrender it again after World War II. We earlier discussed the case of the stateless nation (p. 276), a people without a state, and cited as examples Kurds, Roma, Basques, and Palestinians. Pressure point #7 shows a distinct ethnic group or nation located in both Hypothetica and a neighboring state. govern themselves in their own state and try to carve out a new nation-state from portions of existing countries. As the example of the Basques indicates, they need not represent a majority of their residents in order to foment discord. Basques live in a region overlapping France and Spain (F e 9.17). In an to dampen the separatist es that had burned there since the 1960s, Spain granted its three Basque pro ant degree of self-rule in 1978, but eme separatist movement Euskadi ta Askatasuna (ETA), which means “Basque Homeland and Liber .” The separatists contend that the Spanish state has attempted to destroy the Basques’ and to suppr , Euskadi, which is unrelated to th. They demand an independent, , not only for the Basque region of Spain but for a portion of southern Fr Even though the Basques in Spain already possess far more autonomy than those in France, Spain has been the site of more agitation and rance, leading scholars to theorize that in this instance the of place—in addition to the stronger nation-state history of France—has resulted in differential ation with the proposed state. The ETA observed a e for 14 months following the 1998 Good Friday accords in Ireland, ter Spain cracked down on the group militarily, e, the group

Bay of Biscay

FIGURE 9.17 The Basque region straddles the border between Spain and France. Although the Basques have been granted a measure of self-rule for their region, militant separatists in the Euskadi ta Askatasuna (ETA) want to see the establishment of an independent state for the Basque r southern France.

mainly aimed at hurting Spain’s tourist economy. In the case of pressure point #8, movement, the gr y cona. The Civil War in the United States in the 19th century is one example of a secessionist conbut wars of secession were numer , particularly in Africa and Asia. The 1967–1970 civil war in Nigeria is one example.

es (#9, #10, #11) Neighboring states are likely to covet the resources—whether they be valuable mineral deposits, r ounds, esource, such as a site of r ance—lying in border areas and to disagree over their use. In recent years, for example, the United States has been involved in resour immediate neighbors: Mexico over the shared resources ulf of Mexico and with Canada ov ounds in the Atlantic Ocean. ise when neighboring states disagree over policies to be applied along a border. Such policies may concern the mo y nomadic groups (#9), immigration, customs r and the like. U.S. relations with Mexico, for example, have been affected by the increasw of drugs entering the United States from Mexico (F e 9.18). (See “Broken Borders,” pp. 264–265, for more information on the U.S.-Mexico boundary.)

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FIGURE 9.18 To stem the flow of undocumented migrants entering California from Baja California, the United States constructed a fence einfor Califor

Eu

River

Tigris

phrates River

Shat al

ab Ar

The loc ant resource in a border region (#10) provides another opportunity for conOne of the causes of the 1990–1991 war in the Persian Gulf was the huge oil reservoir known as the R which lies mainly in Iraq, uwait (Figure 9.19). Bec ies had been unable to agree on percentages of ownership, or a formula for sharing production costs and revenues, Kuwait pumped oil from Rumaila without any international agreement. Iraq helped uwait by contending that the latter raqi oil in what amounted to economic warfare. As global warming shrinks polar ice in the Arctic, a new ar velops. Not only might the melting ice provide a quicker sea route from the Atlantic to the P anama Canal, but scientists estimate that the seabed might also contain as much as a quarter of the world’s undiscovered oil, gas, and minerals. Countries bordering the region, including Russia, Denmark, the United States, and Canada, are racing to establish claims to the area. Recently, a Russian submarine planted a titanium R orth Pole; a Danish expedition used crews of icebreakers to map the seabed; and w military bases in the Canadian Arctic. ouble spot is represented by site A on the map in Figure 9.14 (#11), the location of a resource that the state believes is crucial to its survival and that must be defended, even if it means claiming an adjacent piece of

ders of Texas and

.

Persian Gulf

FIGURE 9.19 The Rumaila oil field. One of the world’s largest oil r grievances over Kuwaiti drilling wer invasion of Kuwait in 1990.

der. Iraqi esponsible for Iraq’s

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land in a neighboring state. The resource might be physical, such as a military post, such as a hol . Syria and Israel, for example, dispute the ownership of the Golan Heights, which contains water and is high ground. It ws the country that controls it to look down upon and listen to the country on the other side—Israelis can literally look at Damascus from Mount Hermon. A disputed cultural resource is represented by Jerusalem, a site of great religious ance to Christians, Jews, and Muslims. It has been the sour crusade in A.D. 1096. Believing that Jerusalem is vital to its own identity, Israel has in recent years effectively annexed much of Muslim East Jerusalem. Currently, one of the prinvernment and Palestinians is access to and the control of holy sites in the city.

Centripetal Forces: Promoting State Cohesion

nation and the territor Most countries have mor e group that considers itself separate in an important way from other citizens. In a multi, nationalism helps integrate different groups has emerged in countries such as the United States and S zerland, where different e groups have joined together to create political entities commanding the lo citizens. States pr s. Iconography mbols that help unite people. National anthems and other patriotic songs, national sports teams, r and holidays are all developed as symbols of a state in order to promote nationalism and attract allegiance (F e 9.20). By ensuring that all citizens, no matter how diverse the population, mbols in common, they impart a sense of belonging to a politic , called, for example, Japan or Canada. In some

At any moment in time, a state is characterized by forces that pr rupt them. Politic ing factors as ipetal forces; they bind together the people of a state, enable it to function, and give it str on the other hand, destabilize and weaken a state. If centrifuces are stronger than those pr , the very existence of the state will be threatened. In the sections that w, we examine four for ing institutions, effective organization and administration of government, and systems of transportation and communication—to see how they can promote cohesion.

Nation

sm

One of the most power

ces is

N giance to a single countr represents. It is an emotion that pro and lo and of collective distinction from all other peoples and lands. States purposely tr their constituents, for such feelings give the political system str P e likely to accept the r ea and to participate in ocess establishing those rules. In light of the divisive forces present in most societies, not everyone, of course, ee of commitment or lo . The important consideration is that the major ’s population accept its ideologies, adhere to its laws, and participate in its effective operation. For many countries, such acceptance and adherence has come only recently and par y; in some, it is frail and endangered. Rec ue nation-states are rare; in only a few countries do the territory occupied by the people of a particular

FIGURE 9.20 The ritual of the Pledge of Allegiance is just one way in which schools in the United States seek to instill a sense of national identity in students. © PictureQuest RF.

Political Geography

countries, certain documents, such as the Magna Carta in England or the Declaration of Independence in the United States, serve the same purpose. Ro in Sweden, Japan, and Great Britain, the monarchy functions as the symbolic focus of Symbols and beliefs are major components of ever e. W y heterogeneous, composed of people different customs, religions, and languages, belief in the national unit can help weld them together.

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The answers to these questions and the relative imporom country to country, but they and similar ones are implicit in the expectation that the state in the words of the of the United States, “establish justice, insur , provide for the common defense, [and] promote the general welfare. . . .” If ns ar the lo omoted by ing institutions may be weakened or lost.

Transportation and Communication Institutions as well as symbols help develop the sense of commitment and cohesiveness essential to the state. Schools, particularly elementary schools, are among the most important of these. Children learn the history of their own country and relatively little about other countries. Schools are expected to ’s goals, values, and traditions; to teach the s them; oungsters y. O omote nationalism are the armed forces and, sometimes, a state church. The armed forces are, of , taught to the state. They see themselves as protecting the state’s welfare from what are perceived to be its enemies. In about one-quarter of the world’s countries, the religion of the majority of the people has by law been designated a state church. In such cases, the church sometimes becomes a force for cohesion, tion. This is true of Islam in Pakistan, Judaism in Israel, Buddhism in Thailand, and Hinduism in N In countries such as these, the religion and the church ar with the state that belief in one is transferred to allegiance to the other. The schools, the armed forces, and the chur e just three of the institutions that teach people to be members of a state. they operate primarily on the level of the sociological subsystem of culture, helping str e the . But by themselves, they are not enough to give cohesion, and thus strength, to a state. Indeed, each of the institutions we have discussed can be a destabilizing centr ce.

Organization and Administration ther bonding for organization of the state. Can it pro om external aggr e its resources distributed ated in such a way as to be perceived to promote the economic welfar ens? Ar ens afforded equal oppor y to participate in governmental affairs (see “Legislative Women,” p. 292)? Do institutions that encourHo y established are the rule of law and the power of the courts? Is the sy esponsive to the people’s needs?

A state’s transpor k fosters political integration by pr eas and by joining them economic y. The role of a transpor k in uniting a country has been recognized since ancient times. The say oads lead to Rome had its origin in the impressive system of roads that linked Rome to the rest of the empire. ies later, k was built in France, aris to the various depar . Often, the c lying cities are to one another. In France, for example, it can take less time to travel fr aris than by direct route. Roads and railroads have played a historicall ant role in promoting political integration. In the United States and Canada, they not only opened up new ar ural and urban areas. Because transportation systems play a major role in a state’s economic development, ws that, the more economic y advanced a country is, the more extensive its transport network is likely to be. At the same time, the higher the level of development, the more money there is to be invested in building transport routes. einforce one another. Transportation and communication, encouraged within a state, are frequently curtailed or at least controlled vice for promoting state cohesion thr (Figure 9.21). The mechanisms of control include restrictions on trade through tariffs and embargoes, legal barriers to immigration and emigration, and limitations on travel through passports and visa requirements.

Centrifugal Forces: Challenges to State Authority State cohesion is not easily achieved or, once gained, invariably retained. Destabilizing centr ces are ever-present, sowing internal discord and challenges to the state’s author“Terrorism and Political Geography,” pp. 294–295). Transportation and communication may be hindered by a country’s shape or great size, ts of the country not well integrated with the rest. A state that is not well organized or administered stands to lose the lo ens. an be a divisive force in others.

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FIGURE 9.21 Canadian-U.S. railroad discontinuity. Canada and the United States developed independent railway systems connecting their respective prairie regions with their separate national cores. Despite extensive rail construction during the 19th and early 20th centuries, the pattern that emerged even before recent track abandonment was one of discontinuity at the border. Note how the estricted the ease of spatial interaction between adjacent territories. Many branch lines approached the border, but only eight crossed it. In fact, for mor national border—and the cultural separation it represents—inhibits other expected degrees of interaction. Telephone calls between Canadian and U.S. cities, for example, are far less frequent than would be expected if distance alone were the controlling factor.

Politic

Religion, for example, can be a potent centrifugal force. It may compete with the state for people’ reason the former USSR and other communist governments suppressed religion and promoted atheism. majority and minor Catholics and Protestants in Northern Ireland or Hindus and Muslims in Kashmir and Gujarat State in India—can destabiliz . Opposing sectarian views within a single, dominant faith can also pr Recent years have seen Muslim militant groups attempt to over ism or replace a governy ardent in its imposition of religious laws and r Islamic fundamentalism led to the 1979 overthrow of the shah of Iran; more recently, Islamic militancy has been a destabilizing force in, among other countries, Afghanistan, pt, and Saudi Arabia and threatKyrgyzstan. Nationalism, in contrast to its role as a power ipetal agency, is also a potentially very disruptive centr ce. We previousl ypes of r states and nations: a nation-state, a multinational state,

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a part-nation state, and a stateless nation (see Figure 9.4). The idea of the nation-state is that states are formed around and coincide with nations. om that to the presumption that every nation has the right to its own state or territory. Centr ces are par ly strong in countries containing m ities, contrasting cultures, and a m eligions. Such states are susceptible to nationom within their borders: a country whose population is not bound by a shared sense of nationalism but is split by several loc primary suffers from subnaonalism. That is, many people give their primar oups or nations that ar lation of the entire state. Any country that contains one or more impor minor om within its borders if the minor oup has an explicit territor ation and believes that its right to self-determination—the right of a group to govern itself in its own state or territory—has In its intense form, reg a strong minority group self-awar ation with a region

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rather than with the state, can be expressed politic y as a desire for more autonomy (self-government) or even separation from the rest of the country. It is pre ts of the world today and has created currents of unr many countries, even long-established ones. Canada, for example, houses a powerful secessionist movement in Fr uebec, the country’s largest pro In October 1995, a referendum to secede from Canada and become a sovereign country failed by a razor-thin margin (49% yes, 51% no). Quebec’ strong feelings of collective identity and distinctiveness, as

well as by a desire to protect its and culture. Addiy, separatists believe that the province, which has ample resources and one of the industrialized world, would manage successfully as a separate country. In Western Europe, France, Belgium, Italy, and Spain) contain political movements whose members reject total control by the existing sovereign state and who claim to be the cor entity (F e 9.22). So regional autonomy, y in the form of self-government,

Politic

or “home rule”; others seek complete independence for their regions. In an effort to defuse these separatist movements and to accommodate politic y diverse peoples within their own borders, se opean governments have moved in the direction of r ecognition and devolution ation) of politic ol. Britain, France, Spain, Portugal, and Italy are among the countries that have recognized the need for administrative str es that r r concerns and have granted a degree of political autonomy to recognized political subunits,

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measure of self-rule short of complete independence. In 1999, for example, voters in Scotland and Wales elected representawly created legislatures—the Scottish Parliament and the National Assembly of Wales. The legislatures have author ver such domestic matters as local government, housing, health, education, culture, transportation, and the environment. The British Parliament kept its powers over broad national policy concerns: defense, foreign policy, the economy, y. Nationalist challenges to state authority affect many countries outside of Western Europe. Many countries

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North Sea

Atlantic Ocean

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(a)

FIGURE 9.22 (a) Regions with active autonomous movement. Despite long-standing state attempts to culturally assimilate these historic nations, each contains a political movement that has recently sought or is currently seeking a degree of self-rule that recognizes its separate identity. Separatists on the island of Corsica, for example, want to secede from France, and separatists in Catalonia demand independence from Spain. The desir Wales and Scotland wer eation in (b) 1999 of their own parliaments and a degree of regional autonomy, an outcome labeled “separation but not a divorce” from the United Kingdom. (b) ch to call for independence for the Basque region. Spain has granted limited independence to the Basque region in an example of asymmetric federalism.

containing disparate groups that are more motivated by enmit y have powerful centr The Basques of Spain and the Bretons of France have their counterparts in the Palestinians in Israel, the S the Tamils in Sri Lanka, the Moros in the Philippines, and many others. The countries of Eastern Europe and the republics of the former Soviet Union have seen many instances of r y rooted nationalist feelings. Now that the for , religion, , e are no longer suppressed by communism, ancient r ies are more e than at anytime since World War II. The end of the Cold War aroused hopes of decades of peace. Instead, the collapse of communism Numerous ethnic groups,

are asserting their

identities and what they perceive to be their right to determine their own political status. The national independence claimed in the early 1990s by the 15 former Soviet republics did not assure the satvements within them (see Figure 9.6). Many of the ne ies are subject to strong destabilizing forces that their territor integr The Russian Federation itself, the largest and most power remnant of the former USSR, has 89 components, including 21 “ethnic republics” and a number of other regions. Many are rich in resources, have non-Russian majorities, and seek greater autonomy within the federation. Some, indeed, want total independence. One, the predominantly Muslim republic of Chechnya, in 1994 claimed the r

Political Geography

secede from the federation, pro alated again in 1996 and 1999. The indiscriminate violence of Russia’s reaction spilled over to neighboring regions, the entire area a tinderbox. As the USSR declined and eventually disbanded, it lost control of its communist satellites in Eastern Europe. That loss and resurgent nationalism led to a dramatic reordering of the region’s political map. East Germany was r with West Germany in 1990, and 3 years later, the people of Czechoslo eed to split their countr separate, ethnically based states: the Czech Republic and Slovakia. More violently, Yugoslavia shatter pieces in 1991–1992, but with the exception of Slovenia, the boundar w republics did not match the territories occupied by nationalities, a situation that plunged the region into war as nations fought to r the boundaries of their countries. One tactic used to transform a multinational area into one containing only one nation is ethnic cleansing, the killing or forcible relocation of less-powerful minorities. It occurred in Croatia, BosniaHerzegovina, and the Kosovo province of southern Serbia. An uneasy truce now prevails in each of these regions, enforced in Bosnia and Kosovo by NATO peacekeeping forces. Few doubt that, if the soldiers were withdrawn, upt again. It is too early to tell whether these new states and others will be viable political entities. We can, however, make some generalizations about nationalist challenges to state authority. The two preconditions common to all separatist movements are territory and nationality. First, the group must be concentrated in a core region that it claims as a national homeland. It seeks to regain control of land and power that it believes were unjustly taken by the ruling party. Second, certain cultural characteristics must provide a basis for the group’s perception of separateness, identity, and cultural unity. These might be language, religion, or distinctive group customs, which promote feelings of group identity at the same time that they foster exclusivity. Normally, these cultural differences have persisted over several generations and have survived despite strong pressures toward assimilation. Other characteristics common to many separatist movements are a peripheral location and social and economic inequality. Troubled regions tend to be peripheral, often isolated in rural pockets, and their location away from the seat of central government engenders feelings of alienation, exclusion, and neglect. Second, e group is often seen as an exploiting class that has suppressed the loc , contr vice, and taken more than its share of wealth and power. Poorer regions complain that they have lower incomes and greater unemployment than prevail in the rest of the state and that “outsiders” control key resources and industry. Separatists in relatively rich regions believe that they could exploit their resources for themselves and do better

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economic y without the constraints imposed by the central state.

COOPERATION AMONG STATES The modern state is fragile and, as we have seen, its primacy may be less assured in recent years. In many ways, countries are now weaker than ever before. Many are economically frail, others are politically unstable, and some are both. Strategically, no state is safe from military attack, for technology now enables countries to shoot weapons halfway around the world. Is national security possible in the nuclear age? Recognizing that a country c either its prosper wn secur , many states have opted These cooperative ventur e pr erating quic y, and they involve countries ever e. They e w dimension to the concept of political boundaries, because the associations of states have borders of a higher Such boundies as the curr or Tr Organization (NATO) and non-NATO states, Eur ea and other European countries, represent a different sc ing of space.

Supranationalism Associations among states represent a new dimension in the ordering of national po Recent tr ation and international cooperation suggest to some that the sovereign state’s traditional responsibilities and authorities are being diluted by a combination of forces and partly delegated to higher-order political and economic organizations. Corporations and even nongovten operate in contr s outside of nation-state jurisdiction. The r porations dominant in global kets, for example, ies. Cyberspace and the Internet are controlled by no one and are largely immune to the state restrictions on w of information exerted by many governments. And increasingly, ens of any country have their lives and actions shaped by decisions not only of local and national authorities but also of r ., the North American Free-Trade Agreement), of m tar ., NATO), and of global politic (e.g., the United Nations). The roots of such multistate cooperative systems are ancient—for example, Greek world or the Hanseatic League of free German cities in Europe’s medie iod. New cooperative systems have proliferated since the end of World War II. They represent a world trend toward a suprana composed of associations of three or more states created for m

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achievement of shared objectives. ations decr that entails, the many associations in existence earl y are e vasiveness. Nearl ies, in fact, are members of at least one—and most are members of many— oupings.

The United Nations and Its Agencies The United Nations (UN) is the only organization that tries to Its membership has expanded from 51 countries in 1945 to 192 in 2009. The most recent state to be recognized as a member is Montenegro (2006). The UN is the most ambitious attempt ever undertaken to bring together the world’s countries in international assembly and to promote world peace. Stronger and more representative than its predecessor, the League of Nations, it provides a forum where countries can discuss international problems and r admittedly weak but ant, for forestalling disputes or, when necessary, for ending wars (Figure 9.23). The United Nations also sponsors 40 programs and agencies aimed at foster cooperation with r Among these are the Wor ation (WHO); the Food and Agrie Organization (FAO); and the United Nations Educational, ation (UNESCO). Many other UN agencies and much of the UN budget are nomic gro velopment. Member states have not surrendered sover UN, and the wor y and effectively unable to make or enforce a world law. Nor is there a world police force. Although there is recognized international law adjudicated by the International Court of Justice, rulings by this body are sought only by countries agreeing beforehand to abide by its arbitration. Finally, the United Nations has no author ver the military for ies. A pronounced change both in the relatively passive role of the United Nations and in traditional ideas of international r , however. Long-established r ver wed governments free of outside interference, are fading as the United Nations increasingly applies a concept of “interventionism.” The Persian Gulf War of 1991 was UNauthorized under the old rules prohibiting one state (Iraq) from ver After the war, the new interventionism sanctioned UN operations within Iraq to protect K . Later, the UN inter oops and relief agencies in Somalia, Bosnia, and elsewhere, an “international jurisdiction ov ights” that prevails without regard to state frontiers or sover In 2008, the UN had 116,000 personnel ser on four continents.

FIGURE 9.23 U.S. solidiers in Kosovo, 2000. A United Nations Security Council resolution established a civilian administration in the war-torn province. Under the auspices of the UN, soldiers fr ces and oups in many world r operations is indicated by the recent deployment of UN forces in the Congo, Sudan, and South Lebanon. © Historicus, Inc.

Whatever the long-term prospects for interventionism replacing absolute sover , for the short term the UN remains the only where the vast major of the world’s countries can collectively y to resolve their differences. It has been particularl ulating a law of the sea.

Maritime Boundaries Boundar al jurisdictions and areas of resource control, but claims of national author e not restricted to land ar Water covers of the earth’s surface, and increasingly countries have been projecting their sover laim adjacent maritime areas and resources. A basic question involves the right of states to control water and the resources it contains. The inland waters of a country, such as rivers and lakes, have y been r ver try. Oceans, however, are not within any country’s borders.

Politic

Are they, then, to be open to all states to use, or may a single country claim sovereignty and limit access and use by other countries? For most of human history, the oceans remained effectivel ol or international jurisdiction. The seas were a common highway for those daring enough to venture on them, ermen, and a vast refuse pit for the muck of civilization. By y, however, ies claimed sover ver a continuous belt 3 or 4 nautic nautical mile, or nm, equals 1.15 statute miles, or At the time, the 3-nm limit represented the farthest range of artillery and thus the effective limit of control by the coastal state. Though recognizing the rights of others to innocent passage, such sover cement of quarantine and customs r protection of ies, and made claims of effective during other people’s wars. The primary concern was with secur estricted commerce. No separately codihowever, and none seemed to be needed until after World War I. A L ations Confer ation of International Law, convened in 1930, inconclusively discussed mar eas of concern that were to become increasingly pressing after World W Important among these was an emerging shift from interest in commerce and national secur eoccupation with the resources of the seas, an interest fanned by the Truman Proclamation of 1945. Motivated by a desire to exploit offshore oil deposits, the U.S. federal government, under this doctrine, laid c esources on the continental shelf coasts. Other states, many claiming even broader areas of control, hurried to annex marine resources. Within a few years, a quarter of the earth’s surface was appropr coastal countries.

An International Law of the Sea Unrestricted extensions of jurisdiction and territorial disputes over proliferating claims to maritime space and resources led to a series of United Nations conferences on the Law of the

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Sea. Meeting over a period of years, delegates from more than 150 countries attempted to achieve consensus on a tr y agreed-upon “convention elating to the Law of the Sea.” The meetings culminated in a draft treaty in 1982, the United N OS). The convention delimits territor ies and rights ones of diminishing control (F e 9.24). 1. A territorial sea

eadth, over ver , including exclusive ights. V y y have the right of innocent passage through the territorial sea, although under certain circumstances noncommer (primaril y and research) c 2. A contiguous zone of up to 24 nm (38 km). ver this zone, it can enforce its customs, immigration, and sanitation laws and has the right of hot pursuit out of its territor 3. An exclusive economic zone (EEZ) of up to 200 nm (370 km), in which the state has recognized rights to explore, exploit, , and manage the natural resources, , of the seabed and waters (Figure 9.25). Countries have exclusive rights to the resources lying within the continental shelf when this extends farther, ond their coasts. The traditional freedoms of the high seas are to be maintained in this zone. 4. The high seas beyond the EEZ. Outside any national jurisdiction, they ar whether coastal or landlocked. Freedom of the high seas includes the right to sail ships, y over, lay submarine cables and pipelines, esearch. resources in the international deep seabed area beyond national jurisdiction are declared the common heritage of to be managed for the of all the peoples of the earth. By the end of the 1980s, ies, including the United States, had used the UNCLOS provisions to

FIGURE 9.24 Territorial claims permitted by the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS).

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FIGURE 9.25 The 200-nautical-mile exclusive economic zone (EEZ) claims of coastal states. The provisions of the Law of the om the 200-nm EEZ concept: (1) islands gained a new significance; (2) countries gained a host of new neighbors; and (3) the EEZ lines resulted in overlapping claims. EEZ lines are drawn ar s possessions as well as ar its own 200-nm EEZ. This means that, although the United States shares continental borders only with Canada and Mexico, it has maritime boundaries with countries in Asia, South America, and Europe. All told, the United States may have to negotiate some 30 maritime similar lengthy negotiations.

proclaim and reciproc y recognize jurisdiction over 12-nm (19-km) territorial seas and 200-nm (370-km) economic zones. Despite reservations held by the United States and a few other industrial countries about the deep seabed mining pro the convention received the necessar ation by 60 states and became international law in 1994.

O iz

y or essentially global supranational organizations social, eated. Most are specialautonomous and with their own

Nations and operating under its auspices. Among them are the Food and Agr e Organization (FAO), the World Bank, abor Organization (ILO), the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), the World Health Organization ( and—of growing economic importance— the World Trade Organization (WTO). The World Trade Organization, which came into existence in 1995, ant of the global expr nomic control. It is charged with enfor ew out of years of international negotiations under the terms of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). The basic principle behind the WTO is that the 153 members as of 2010

member countries should work to cut tariffs, dismantle nontariff barriers to trade, e trade in services, and tr other countries uniformly in matters of trade. Any preference Increasingly, however, r agr e being struck, and free-trade areas are proliferating. Only a few WTO members are not already part of another regional trade association. Some argue that such r ld trade less free by scrapping tariffs on trade among member states but retaining them on exchanges with nonmembers.

Regional Alliances countries have shown themsel elinquish some of their independence to participate in ,m systems. These groupings can be economic, military, or politic Cooperation in the economic sphere seems to come more easily to states than does politic y cooperation.

E

liances

Among the most power eaching of the economic are those that have evolved in Europe, particularly the Eur The EU grew out of the

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Atlantic Ocean

Black Sea

Mediterranea

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FIGURE 9.26 The members of the European Union (EU) as of September 2009. 2007. Turkey, whose application has been pending since 1987, is also a candidate for membership; formal talks ar . Other candidate countries include Croatia and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. The EU has stipulated that, in order to join must have stable institutions guaranteeing democracy, the rule of law, human rights, and protection of minorities; a functioning market .

Common Market, which was established in 1957 and was comFrance, Italy, West Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands, and L . It added new members slowly at the outset, as the United Kingdom, Denmark, and Por 1986; Greece, Spain, and Por ing the 1980s; Austria, Finland, and Sweden joined in 1995. As it gathered more countries were to the EU during the early 2000s, including the island states of Malta and us and eight former Soviet bloc nations, from Estonia in the north to Slovenia in the south (Figure 9.26). These additions brought the number of member nations to 27, increased the EU’s landmass by 23%, e than 495 million people, and expanded its economy to r that of the United States. The EU is the world’s largest and richest bloc of countries. Over the years, members of the European Union have taken many steps to integrate their economies and coordinate their policies in such areas as transportation, agr e, and ies. A council of ministers, a commission, a European parliament, and a court of justice give the European Union with effective to make and enforce laws. By January 1, 1993, the EU had abolished most remnant barriers to free trade and the free movement of capital

and people among its members, creating a single European market. In another step toward economic and monetary union, the EU’s single currency, the euro, replaced separate national currencies in 1999. N encies— such as the Por k—were Some countr S ving to the single currency. Countries outside of Europe join together in regional alliances as well. ocess, countries come together in an association to achieve economic and politic Sometimes members drop out, while others join. New treaties are made, and new coalitions emerge. Indeed, a number of such r economic and trade associations have been added to the world supranational map. None are as encompassing in power and purpose as the EU, but represent a cession of independence to achieve broader r NAFTA, the North American Free-Trade Agreement, was launched in 1994 and links Canada, the United States, and Mexico in an economic comm wering or removing trade and movement restrictions the countries. A new agreement, CAFTA (United States– Central America–Dominican Republic Free-Trade Agreement), is a comprehensive trade agr

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Rica, the Dominican Republic, El S vador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nic and the United States. Free trade is not the only reason states cooperate. The Americas have other, similar associations with comparable trade-enhancement objectives, though frequentl political, and ests in mind. Caribbean Comm ket (C OM), for example, was established in 1974 to further cooperation among its 15 members in economic, and foreign policy arenas. The Common Market of the Southern Cone (MERCOSUR), which unites Brazil, Argentina, Ur , and Paraguay (and associate eation of a customs union to eliminate levies on goods mo is a South American example. A similar interest in promoting economic, social, and cultural cooperation and development among its members underpins the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). A less-wealthy African example is the Economic Comm of West African States (ECOWAS). The Asia P nomic Cooperation (APEC) forum includes China, Japan, A Canada, and the United States among its 21 members and has a grand plan for “free trade in the P ” by 2020. More restricted bilateral and regional prefer arrangements have also proliferated, numbering more than 400 in 2010 and creating a maze of rules, tariffs, and comagreements that result in trade restrictions and preferences contrary to the free-trade intent of the World Trade Organization. Economic interests, then, motivate the establishment though politic social, and e largely in many. Although the themselves change, the idea of supranational associations appears to have been permanently added to the national politic . The wor eate must be recognized to understand the current international order. Three ther points about r international alliances are worth noting. in one area often stim eation of another by countries lef Thus, the creation of NAFTA was a precedent for CAFTA. Second, the new economic unions tend to be composed of contiguous states (F e 9.27). This was not the case with the recently dissolved empires, which inc ritories. y facilitates the movement of people and goods. Communication and transportation are simpler and more effective among adjoining countries than among those far removed from one another, tic, and politic ests are more to be expected in countries adjacent to one another. F y, it does not seem to matter whether countries are y different in their economies, as far as joining economic unions is concerned. There are examples of both. If the countries are dissimilar, they may complement each other. This was one basis for the European Common Market, which preceded the EU. Dairy pr e from

Denmark are sold in France, freeing France to specialize in the production of machinery and clothing. On the other hand, countries that produce the same raw mater by joining together in an economic , they might be able to enhance their control of markets and prices for their products. The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) is a case in point. O cartels and price agr oducing and consuming countries are represented by the International Tin Agreement, eement, and others.

y and P As we have seen, countries form alliances for other than economic reasons. Strategic, political, and cultural considerations may also foster cooperation. Military alliances are based on the principle that unity brings strength. Such pacts usually provide for mutual assistance in the case of aggression. Once again, action breeds reaction when such an association is created. The formation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), a defensive alliance of many European countries and the United States, was countered by the establishment of the Warsaw Treaty Organization, which joined the USSR and its satellite countries of Eastern Europe. Both pacts allowed the member states to base armed forces in one another’s territories,

Atlantic Ocean

CARICOM

Pacific Ocean

Bolivia

FIGURE 9.27 Western Hemisphere economic unions in 2009. The number of international trade organizations has risen rapidly since the 1960s.

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FIGURE 9.28 The NA

as of 2010 had 28 members. The newest members are Albania and Croatia; the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Montenegro, and Bosnia and Herzegovina are applicants for membership. Proponents of expansion eate a zone of stability and security throughout Europe. Opponents contend that enlargement is a divisive move that will cast a shadow over the future of relations with Russia, which is opposed to expansion so close to its borders.

a relinquishment of a certain degree of sovereignty uncommon in the past. Militar ceived common interests and politic ies involved. As political realities change, so, too, do the strategic alliances. NATO was created to defend Western Europe and North America against the Soviet military threat. When the dissolution of the USSR and Warsaw Pact removed that threat, the purpose of the NATO alliance became less clear. Since the 1990s, however, the organization has added seven members and has taken on a greater r (Figure 9.28). ecognize communities of interest. In economic and milit y associations, common objectives are clearly seen and described, and joint actions are agreed upon with respect to the achievement of those objectives. More-generalized m appeals to historic est may be the basis for primarily political alliances. Such associations tend to be rather loose, not requiring their members to yield much power to the union. Examples are the Commonwealth of Nations (formerly the British Commonwealth), composed of many former British colonies and dominions, and the Organization of American States (OAS), both of which offer economic as well as politic

There are many examples of abortive political unions that have foundered because the individual countries could not agree on questions of policy and wer ests to make the union succeed. The United Arab Republic, ican Federation, the Federasia and Singapore, and the Federation of the W ategory. observers of the wor “superstates” om one or mor w exist. Will a “United States of Europe,” for example, under a single common government, be the logic outcome of the successes of the EU? N ws, but as egarded as the highest form of political and social organization (as it is now) and as the body in which sover ests, y.

LOCAL AND REGIONAL POLITICAL ORGANIZATION The most profound contrasts in cultures tend to occur between, rather than within, states, one reason political geographers traditionally have been interested primarily in

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country units. The emphasis on the state, however, should not obscure the fact that, for most of us, it is at that local le tact with government and tion of our affairs. In the United States, for example, an individual is subject to the decisions and regulations made by the local school board, the municipality, the county, the state, and perhaps, a host of special-purpose districts—all in addition to the laws and regulations issued by the federal government and its agencies. Among other things, local political entities determine where children go to school, the minimum size lot on which a person may build a house, and where one may legally park a car. Adjacent states of the United States may be characterized by sharply differing personal and business rates; differing controls on the sale of earms, alcohol, and tobacco; variant administrative systems for public services; and different levels of expenditures for them. vernmental entities are spatial systems. Bec eas, and because they make behavior-governing decisions, they are topics of interest to political geographers. In the concluding sections of this chapter, c ation at the local and regional level. Our emphasis will be on the United States and Canadian scene simply because their local politic y is familiar to most of us. We should remember, however, that the North American structure of municipal governments, minor civil divisions, and pose districts has counterparts in other regions of the world.

rely on state legislatures for the task. Across the United States, the decennial census data are also used to redraw the boundaries of legislative districts within each state as well as those for loc boards. ysis of how boundaries are drawn around voting districts is one aspect of , which addr esults and their relationship to the socioeconomic characteristics of voters. In a democracy, it might be assumed that election districts should contain roughly equal numbers of voters, districts should be reasonably compact, and that the proportion of elected representatives should correspond to the share of votes cast by members of a given political par . Problems arise because the way in which the boundary lines are drawn c e, minimize, or effectivel wer of a group of people. ing aries of legislative districts so as to unfairly favor one politic ver another, to fragment voting blocs, or to achieve other nondemocratic objectives (Figure 9.29). A number of strategies have been employed over the years for that purpose. Stacked gerrymandering involves drawing circuitous

The Geography of Representation: The Districting Problem There are more than 85,000 local go United States. Slightly mor e municitownships, and counties. The remainder are school districts, water-control districts, airport authorities, sanitary districts, and other special-purpose bodies. Boundaries have been drawn around each of these districts. ber of districts does not change greatly from year to year, many boundary lines are redrawn in any single year. Such redistricting, or reapportionment, y by shifts in population, eas gain or lose people. Every 10 years, following the United States census, es are used to redistribute the 435 seats in the House of Representatives among the 50 states. Redrawing the congressional districts to r required by the Constitution, the intention being to make sure that each legislator represents roughly the same number of people. Since 1964, Canadian pro itories have entrusted redistr dent electoral boundaries commissions. Although a few states in the United States also have independent, nonpartisan boards or commissions draw district boundaries, most

FIGURE 9.29

. The term gerrymander originated in 1811 from the shape of an electoral governor es, the district resembled a salamander and quickly came to be called a . Source: © Bettmann/Corbis Images.

Politic

boundaries to enclose pockets of str group in power; y think of as gerrymandering. The excess vote technique concentrates the support of the opposition in a few districts, which it c y, but leaves it fe where. Conversely, the wasted vote ’s strength by dividing its votes among a number of districts. Assume that X and O repr oups with an equal number of voters but different policy preferences. there are equal numbers of Xs and Os, tricts are drawn affects voting results. In F e 9.30a, the Xs are concentrated in one district and will probably elect only one representative of four. The po ed in F e 9.30b, where they may control three of the four districts. The voters are evenly divided in F e 9.30c, where the Xs have the oppor epresentatives. F y, Figure 9.30d shows how both politic ties may agree to delimit the electoral districts to provide “safe seats” for incumbents. Such a par for change. Figure 9.30 depicts a hypothetical district, compact in shape with an even population distribution and only two groups competing for representation. In actuality, American municipal voting districts are often oddly shaped because of such factors as the city limits, historic settlement patterns, current population distribution, and transportation routes—as well as past gerrymandering. Further, in any large area, many groups vie for power. Each electoral interest group promotes its version of “fairness” in the way boundaries are delimited. Minorities seek representation in proportion to their numbers, so that they will be able to elect representatives who are concerned about and responsive to their needs. Gerrymandering is not automatically successful. First, a districting arrangement that appears to be unfair may be appealed to the courts. In addition, many factors other than political part Key issues may cut across party lines, scandal may erode (or personal charm increase) votes unexpectedly, and the amount of c ampaign workers may determine election outcomes if compelling issues are absent.

(a)

(b)

X controls one district.

X controls three districts.

y

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The Fragmentation of Political Power Boundary drawing at any electoral level is never easy, particularly when politic e their representation and minimize that of opposition groups. Furthermore, the boundaries that we may want for one set of districts may not be those that we want for another. For example, sewage districts must take natural drainage features into account, whereas police districts may be based on the distribution of the population or the number of miles of street to be patrolled. And school attendance zones must consider the numbers of school-aged children and the capacities of individual schools. As these examples suggest, the United States is subdivided into great numbers of politic whose areas of control ar y limited. The 50 states are partitioned into more than 3000 counties (“parishes” in Louisiana), most of which are further subdivided into townships, each with a still lower level of governing power. This political fragmentation is further increased by the existence of nearly innumerable special-purpose districts whose boundaries rarely coincide the standard major and minor civil sions of the country, or even with each other (Figure 9.31). Each district represents a form of politic ation of territory to achieve a aim of local need or legislative intent. Canada, a federation of 10 provinces and 3 territories, has a similar pattern of political subdivision. Each of the provinces contains minor civil divisions—municipalities—under provincial control, and all (cities, towns, villages, and r municipalities) are governed by elected councils. Ontario and Q unicipal units for certain purposes. municipalities are respone protection, local jails, roads and hospitals, water supply and sanitation, and schools, duties that are discharged either by elected agencies or by appointed commissions. Most North Americ In the United States, these, too, are subdivided, not only into wards or precincts for voting purposes but also into special distr e and police protection, water and electr y, education, recreation, and sanitation.

(d)

(c)

X and O each control two districts.

X and O each control o districts.

FIGURE 9.30 Alternative districting strategies. Xs and Os might represent Republicans and Democrats, urban and rural voters, blacks and whites, or any other distinctive groups.

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These distr ver coincide with one another, and the larger the urban area, the greater the proliferation of small, special-purpose go Canadian community has quite the multiplicity of governurban areas, major Canaowing sy e. Even before its major expansion on January 1, 1998, for example, metropolitan Toronto had more than 100 authorities that could be c “local governments.” The existence of such a great number of districts in metropolitan areas may c y in public services and hinder the orderly use of space. Zoning ordinances, for example, are determined by each municipality. They are intended 306

to allow the citizens to decide how land is to be used and, thus, are a clear example of the effect of political decisions on the division and development of space. Zoning policies dictate the areas where light and ies may be located, the sites of parks and other recreational areas, the location of business districts, pes and location of housing. Unfor y, in large urban areas, the efforts of one comm ed by the practices of neighboring communities. Thus, land zoned for an industr k oned for single-family residences in an adjoining m . Each community pursues its own interests, which may not coincide with those of its neighbors or of the larger region. In addition, some people y, poor and minor oups—often

do not or cannot exercise their political will through voting. This can have large and small consequences for these subgroups as well as the surrounding comm “Environmental Justice”). y and duplication of effort characterize not just zoning but many of the ser o al governments. The efforts of one comm t air and water pollution may be, and of e, counteracted by the rules and practices of other to egion, envir otection standards are now reducing such S ysic oblems spread beyo ies. Thus, nearby suburban communities ar ks the resources to maintain The provision of

health care facilities, electr , transportation, and recreational space affects the whole region and, many professionals think, should be under the control of a single metropolitan government. The growth in the number and size of metropolitan areas has increased awareness of the problems of their administrative fragmentation. Too much governmental fragmentation and ol are both seen as metropolitan problems demanding attention. On the one hand, multiple jurisdictions may prevent the pooling of resources to address metropoliswide needs. On the other hand, loc interests may be subordinated to social and economic problems of a core city for which outlying comm

307

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FIGURE 9.31

, Illinois. The map shows a few of the independent administrative agencies with separate jurisdictions, r . Among the other such agencies forming the fragmented political landscape are Champaign County itself, a forest pr health district, the county housing authority, and a community college district.

Summary of Key Concepts • The sovereign state is the dominant c ld.

in the politiession vasive as that inher , religion, . A product of al philosophy, the idea of the state was y by colonizing European powers. In most instances, ies they established have been retained as their international boundaries by newly independent countries.

• The greatly varying geographic characteristics of states contribute to national strength and . Size, shape, and relative loc ies’s economies and international roles, while national cores and capitals are the heartlands of states. Boundaries, of a state’s size and shape, determine the limits of its sovereignty. They may or may not r eexisting cultural landscapes and, in any given case, may or may not prove to be viable. Whatever their nature, boundaries

Politic

are at the r Maritime boundary claims, particularly as r United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, add a new dimension to traditional claims of territorial sovereignty. • State cohesiveness is promoted by a number of centripetal forces. Among these are national symbols; a var of institutions; and in the aims, organization, and administration of government. Also helping foster political and economic integration are transportation and communication connections. Destabilizing centrifugal forces, particularly ethnically based separatist

y

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movements, thr states. • Although the state remains central to the partitioning of the world, a broadening array of politic y and collectively. Recent decades have ant increase in supranationalism, in the form and var to which states have surrendered some sovereign powers. At the other end of the spectrum, expanding Anglo American urban areas and governmental responsibilities raise questions of fairness in districting procedures and of effectiveness when politic wer is fragmented.

Key Words antecedent boundary 285 ar ic) boundary 285 centr ce 290 centripetal force 290 compact state 279 consequent boundary 285 core area 283 devolution 295 y 304 elongated state 279 enclave 281 ethnic cleansing 297

European Union (EU) 300 exclave 281 exclusive economic zone (EEZ) 299 fragmented state 279 gerrymandering 304 irredentism 288 nation 276 nationalism 290 nation-state 276 y 284 perforated state 281

politic y 275 prorupt state 279 r state 275 subnationalism 393 subsequent boundary 285 superimposed boundary 285 terrorism 294 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) 299

Thinking Geographically 1. What are the differences among a state, a nation, and a nation-state? Why is a colony not a state? How can one account for the rapid increase in the number of states since World War II? 2. W ibutes differentiate states from one another? How do a country’s size and shape affect its power and w can a piece of land be both an enclave and an exclave? 3. How can boundaries be c 4. How do borders create oppor ibe and give examples of thr 5. centripetal and centrifugal political forces. Why is nationalism both a centripetal and a centr ce? What are some of the ways nation e achieved? 6. What characteristics ar movements? Where are some of these movements active?

Why do they tend to be located on the periphery rather than at the natio e? 7. W can you name? What were the purposes of their establishment? What generalizations can you make regarding 8. How does the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea ones of diminishing national control? What are the consequences of the concept of the 200-nm exclusive economic zone? 9. Why does it matter how boundaries are drawn around electoral districts? Theoretically, is it always possible to delimit boundaries “fairly”? Support your answer. 10. What reasons can you suggest for the great politic mentation of the United States? What problems stem from such fragmentation?

PART THREE

The Location Tradition Given, then, our population map, what has it to show us? Starting from the most generally known before proceeding towards the less familiar, observe first the mapping of London—here plainly shown, as it is properly known, as Greater London—with its vast population streaming out in all directions—east, west, north, south—flooding all the levels, flowing up the main Thames valley and all the minor ones, filling them up, crowded and dark, and leaving only the intervening patches of high ground pale. . . . This octopus of London, polypus rather, is something curious exceedingly, a vast irregular growth without previous parallel in the world of life—perhaps likest to the spreading of a great coral reef. Like this, it has a stony skeleton, and living polypes—call it, then, a “man-reef ” if you will. Onward it grows, thinly at first, the pale tints spreading further and faster than the others, but the deeper tints of thicker population at every point steadily following on. Within lies a dark crowded area; of which, however, the daily pulsating centre calls on us to seek some fresh comparison to higher than corraline life.a

T

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CHAPTER OUTLINE

Economic Geography

Economic Geography

T

he cr

ver and the potato, rish peasants, However, within a wrote Father Mathew, “I beheld one wide waste of putreThe wretched people were seated on the fences of their decaying gardens . . . bewailing bitterly the destruction that had left them foodless.” Colonel Gore found that “every k,” and an estate stew .. e has passed over them.” The potato was irretrievably ; famine and pestilence were inevitable. Within 5 years, y of the most densely populated country in Europe was forever altered. The United States r who provided the cheap labor needed for the c oads, and mines that it was cr velopment. New patws were initiated as American maize for the time found an Anglo-Irish ket—as part of Poor Relief—and then enter opean market that had op failure in that bitter year. Within days, a microscopic organism, the cause of the potato had ed the economic and human geograph

esulted from a complex set of inter causes and effects that demonstrates once again our repeated observation that apparently separate physic geographic patterns are r y interconnected parts of a single

FIGURE 10.1 This der

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r . Central among those patterns are the ones the economic geographer isolates for special study. Simply stated, is the of how , how livelihood sy ea, and how economic activities are spatially interrelated and linked. Of course, we cannot r y compr of the economic pursuits of approximately 7 billion human beings. We c oduction and service found ever e on the earth’s surface; nor c elationships, linkages, ws. Even if that level of understanding were possible, , for e constantly undergoing change. Economic geographers seek consistencies. They attempt to develop ations that aid in the comprehension of the maze of economic variations characterizing human existence. From their emerges a deeper eness of the dynamic, interloc prise, of the e, and of the increasing interdependence of differing national and regional economic systems (see “Economic Regions” in Chapter 13). The potato blight, uck onl y affected the economies of continents. In like fashion, the depletion of America’ resources and the “deindustr ation” of its economy and conversion to postindustrial ser ing the r ies, ws of interna, domestic employ and more (Figure 10.1).

d, Canada—a brownfield site—typifies the structural changes occurring in postindustrial economies. Established patterns of production and exchange are constantly subject to change in a world of increasing economic and cultural interdependence. Photo by Mark Bjelland.

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THE CLASSIFICATION OF ECONOMIC ACTIVITY AND ECONOMIES Understanding livelihood patterns is made mor economic activities of humans. Many pr e r y variable circumstances of the physical environment. The staple crops of the humid tropics, for example, are not part of the agr stems of the midlatitudes; livestock types that thrive in American feedlots or on western ranges are not adapted to the Ar of the Sahara Desert. The unequal distr deposits gives some regions and countries economic prospects and employment opportunities denied to others. For and depend on other resources unequal in occurrence, type, Within the bounds of the envir y possible, economic or production decisions may be conditioned by cultural considerations. For example, y based food preferences rather than environmental limitations may dictate the choice of crops or livestock. e is a preferred grain in Africa and the Americas; wheat in North America, Australia, Argentina, southern Europe, and U and rice in much of Asia. Pigs are not produced in Muslim areas. The level of technological development of a e affect its recognition of resources Preindustrial societies do not w of, or need, iron or lie their hunting, gathering, or gardening grounds. Political decisions may encourage or discourage—through subsidies, protective tariffs, or production restr . And, ultimately, production is controlled by economic factors of demand, whether that demand is expressed through a free market mechanism, through government intervention, or through the consumption requirements of a single family producing for its own needs.

Categories of Activity Such r y environmental, technological, politic and mar e generalized ways of categorizing the world’s productive work. One approach to that categoriz w economic activof product or service and increasing distance fr environment. Seen from that perspective, distinctive stages of production and ser an be distinguished (Figure 10.2). Pr ties are those that harvest or extract something from the earth. They are at the beginning of the production cycle, where humans are in closest contact with the resour onment. Such primary ve basic foodstuffs and raw material production. Hunting and gathering, grazing, agr e, , forestry, and mining and quarrying are examples.

FIGURE 10.2

. The five main sectors of the economy do not stand alone. They are

common to all.

Second y ac ties are those that add value to mater by changing their form or combining them into mor and therefore more valuable, commodities. That provision of form utility ranges from the simple handicraft production of pottery or woodenware to the delicate assembly of electronic goods or space vehicles (Figure 10.3). Copper smelting, steel, wor , automobile production, the textile and chemical industries—indeed, manufacturing and processing industr e included in this phase of the production process. luded are the production of energy (the “power company”) and the construction . Te consist of those business and labor speations that provide services to the primary and secondary sectors and goods and services to the general comm and to These include professional, clerical, and peroducer and consumer, for ter tantly include the wholesale and retail trade activities—including “dot-com” y in highly interdependent societies. In economic y advanced societies, a growing number of individuals and entire organizations are engaged in the processing and dissemination of information and in the administration and control of their own or other enterprises. The term quater is applied to this fourth class of economic activities, which is composed entirely of services rendered by white collar professionals wor ation, government, management, information processing, and research. Sometimes, y —is distinguished to recognize high-level decisionpes of large organizations, public or

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FIGURE 10.3 These logs entering a lumber mill are products of primary production. Processing them into boards, plywood, or prefabricated houses is a that increases their value by altering their form. The pr sheet steel from steel mills, for example—constitute “raw materials” for other manufacturers. © Mark E. Gibson.

private. tiary, quaternary, and quinary activities ar ther developed later in this chapter under the section “Tertiary and Beyond.” As F e 10.2 further suggested, transportation and communication ser oss ategories, unite them, and make possible prise requires. These categories of production and ser us see an underlying str e to the nearl things people do to earn a living and to sustain themselves. But they tell us little about the organization of the larger ker or enterprise is a part. For that wider organiz ld and r we look to systems rather than components of economies.

Types of Economic Systems Broadly viewed,

l stem: subsistence, commercial, or planned. None of these economic systems is or has

been “pure.” That is, none exists in isolation in an increasingly interdependent world. Each, however, displays certain underlying characteristics based on its distinctive forms of resource management and economic control. In a subsistence economy, goods and ser e created for the use of the pr oups. Therefore, ther y limited need for markets. In the (commerci ) economies that have become dominant in nearl ts of the world, producers or their agents in theory freely mar the laws of supply and demand determine pr , and market competition is the primary force shaping production decisions and distributions. In planned economies associated with communist-controlled societies, producers or their agents dispose of goods and ser ough governmental agencies that control both supply and price. The quantities produced and the locational patterns of production are tightly programmed by central planning departments. With a few exceptions—such as Cuba and North Korea— rigidly planned economies no longer exist in their classic form; ee

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market structures or are only par y retained in the lesser degree of economic control associated with governmental supervision or ownership of selected sectors of increasingly market-oriented economies. Nevertheless, their landscape evidence lives on. The physic es, patterns of production, and imposed regional interdependencies they created remain t the economic decisions of successor societies. y, few people are members of only one of these systems, although one may be dominant. A farmer in India may produce rice and vegetables primarily for the family’s consumption but also save some of the pr In addition, members of the family may market cloth or other handicrafts they make. With the money derived from those the Indian peasant is able to buy, among other things, clothes for the family, tools, Thus, that Indian farmer is stems: subsistence and commer In the United States, government controls on the production of var pes of goods and services (such as growing wheat or sugarcane, producing alcohol, constructing and operating nuclear power plants, or engaging in licensed personal and professional services) mean that the country does not have a purel ket economy. To a limited extent, its citizens participate in a contr ee market environment. Many African, Asian, and Latin American market economies have been decisively shaped by governmental policies encouraging or demanding the production of export

commodities rather than domestic s or promoting through import restrictions the development of domestic industries not readily suppor ket alone. ter example would show that there are very few people in the world who are members of onl nomic system (F e 10.4). Inevitably, inc systems and e subject to change. For example, commer Western European countries, some with siz ols, e being r ed by both increased fr World Trade Organiz . 300). Many of the countries of Latin America, ica, Asia, and the Middle East that y wer e no from technology om advanced economies and

Stages of Development Despite such changes and global convergences, disparities egions and countries in observable economic and y exist and, since the middle of the , have been the subject of theories and measurements of development and underdevelopment. We noted in Chapter 7 (pp. 199–204) that de

FIGURE 10.4 Independent street merchants, shop owners, and peddlers in modern China are members of both a planned and a market system. Free markets and private vendors multiplied after the government removed price controls on most food items in May 1985. Increasingly, nonfood trade and manufacturing, too, are being freed from central government control and are thriving in the private sector. ds of China’s gross domestic product and the private sector was growing twice as fast as the rest of the economy. The photo shows a row of outdoor chants in Wanxian, Sichuan Province. © Jon C. Malinowski.

Economic Geography

productive use of a country’ esources, and we traced the emergence of such comparative labels as developed, less-developed, developing, newly industrializing, and similar descriptors. There, too, we reviewed the UN-sanctioned r igur nomic y advanced industrialized “North” with relatively high per capita incomes and a “South” with little or no industr ization and low income levels (Figure 7.7). In that contrast, a key indicator was the degree of an economy’s industrialization and progression beyond a largely subsistence livelihood system. In the 1960s, a dominant theory described normal development as a progression fr e, low technology levels, and poorly developed commer ough “takeoff ” stages of incr e and human capital, application of modern technology to resource exploitation, ing industrial base. y, the developing state would achieve an “age of mass production and consumption” and, ultimately, the postindustrial status of the most-advanced, Western economies. That theoretically expected progression proved y; many less- and least-developed countries remained locked in the pre-takeoff stage, investments, and technology transfers from the more-developed states. The 1960s, 1970s, oclaimed by the United Nations as “Development Decades”—proved instead to be decades of disappointment, at least by economic measures. However, substantial economic gro veloping wor evived faith for many in the “stages of development.” Average per capita income gro developing countries in the 1990s was 1.5%, about three times the rate in the 1980s; their average per capita income growth increased to 3.5%, about double the rate for high-income states. Even sub-S ica posted an increase of 1.3% a year in the 2000–2005 period. The food ises that hit hard in many developing countries in isis and recession that spread from the United States to many other countries dampened what had been a long period of global economic expansion. Other de ies and models were proposed to supplement or replace the 1960s original. The concept of the “Big Push” concludes that underdeveloped economies can break out of pover basic (but high-wage) industries and infrastr e, expanding the consumer base while ensuring the volume production of lower-cost consumer goods. Another vie holds that differ o e rooted in differing investments in human c habits, education, y adopt advanced technologies and entrepreneur A cor y concept concludes that, for least-developed and newly industr countries, incentives encouraging foreign direct investment (see p. 346) and technology transfer are the most effective way to jump-start economic growth. equently criticized for their Western market economy biases, assessments of stages of economic

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development understandably emphasize standardized, easily obtainable measures of country contrasts. per capita income distinctions, ten concentrated ation of the labor force of different countries among the se ategories of activities (pr y, secondary, and so on, as outlined at the beginning of this chapter) and the relative contribution of agriculture, industry, and ser gross domestic product (GDP). Degree of development, it is held, can be traced through the r ation of labor resources from the basic pr y agr ising share of workers engaged in secondary, and then tertiary and quaternary endeavors. Underde Himalayan state), with 93% of its labor force in agr e, 2% in industry, and 5% in services, stands in obvious contrast to highly developed A with only 1.5% of labor force involvement in agr e, 19% in industry, and nearly 80% in services. In a similar way, using the relative contributions of the different categories of eveals meaning vels of national development. A sizeable contribution to GDP from agriculture, for example, coupled with onl om ser subsistence agr y low level of retail, and professional services—unmistakable indicators of economic underdevelopment (Table 10.1). Highly advanced, postindustrial societies, on the other hand, have relatively small inputs from primary production (including agriculture) and a dominating GDP input fr ofesmar wledgebased exchange economies. No matter what economic system loc y prevails, instances transportation is a key variable. No advanced economy c k. eas of developing countries—are characterized by their isolation from regional and world routeways (Figure 10.5), and that isolation restricts their progression to more-advanced forms of economic structure. Former sharp contrasts in economic organization are becoming blurred and countries’ economic orientations are changing as globalization reduces structural contrasts in national economies. Still, both approaches to economic c pe of activity and by organization of e and understand world economic In this chapter, our path to that understanding leads through the successive categories of economic , from primary to quinary, emphasis on the technologies, spatial patterns, and organiz stems that are involved in each category.

PRIMARY ACTIVITIES: AGRICULTURE ’s basic economic concern is producing or securing food resour y energy requirements and so as to nutr

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TA B L E 1 0 . 1

FIGURE 10.5 Patterns of access and isolation. Accessibility is a key measure of economic development and of the degree to which a world region can participate in interconnected market activities. Isolated ar eas slows their modernization and Source: Copyright Permission: Hammond Incorporated, Maplewood, NJ 07040.

needs. Those supplies may be acquired by the consumer directly through the primar , gathering, farming, “gathering”) or indirectly through the performance of other primary, secondary, or higher-level economic endeavors that y

to provide the earner and the earner’s famil obtain needed daily sustenance. Since the middle of the 20th century, a recurring but unr ed fear has been that the world’s steadily increasing populatio

Economic Geography

Instead, although global population has more than doubled since 1950, oduced worldwide since then has also more than doubled. The Food and Agr e Organization (FAO) of the United Nations has set the minimum daily requirement for caloric intake per person at 2350. By that measure, food supplies are mor ld needs. That is, resources were evenly distributed, everyone would have access y nourishment. In r , however, the number of undernourished people wor has climbed to ov veloping countries (F e 10.6). A 30-year trend of r hunger was re isis that began in 2007. Because the world economy is closely interlinked, the recession in developed countries meant less money sent home from immigrant workers, and higher energy costs translated into higher food costs, which pushed many of the world’s poor into the ranks of the chronic y hungry. This star food supplies and widespr ition r personal incomes; owth rates; lack of access to fertile soils, credit, and education; loc climatic conditions or catastrophes; and lack of transportation and storage facilities, among other reasons. , the increasingly interconnected wor to more than 9 billion and concerns with individual states’

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vitably continue and remain a persistent international issue. Before there was farming, hunting and gathering were the universal forms of pr oduction. These preagr pursuits are now practiced by at most a few thousand persons worldwide, primarily in isolated and remote pockets within the lo y high latitudes. The interior of New Guinea, rugged areas of interior Southeast Asia, diminishing segments of the Amazon rain forest, a few districts of tropic ica and northern Ausand parts of the ctic regions still contain such preagr Their numbers are few and declining, and wherever they are brought into contact with more-advanced es, their way of life is eroded or lost. Agr , o ops and the tending of livestock, whether for the subsistence of the producers , has replaced hunting and gathering as economic ant of the primary activities. It is y the most widespread, ld regions where circumstances—including adequate e, good growing season length, and productive soils—permit (Figure 10.7). Cr squar , about 10% of the earth’s total land area. In many developing economies, at ce is directly involved in farming and herding. In some, such as Bhutan in Asia and Bur

FIGURE 10.6 Percent of national population that was undernourished, 2004–2006. According to the FAO, in 2009 there were about 1.02 billion people worldwide facing chr nutrition, and deficiencies of essential iron, iodine, Vitamin A, and other micronutrients. More than one-third of people living in poor countries in 1970 were undernourished: by 2008, that figure had fallen to about 17%. Numerically, however, the total of malnourished people across the developing world began to gr Africa’s incidence of undernourishment has remained constant, a reflection of the region’ ogressive drop in per capita food production since the 1960s. In contrast, the FAO indicates that all industrialized countries have average daily per capita caloric intake above 110% of physiological requirements, although that generalization masks troubling incidences of areal and household hunger and malnutrition. Source: FAO, 2009.

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FIGURE 10.7 Ar

account for much of the world’s grain production and include the corn and wheat belts n Siberia and the rice-producing regions of India and Southeast Asia. A comparison of this map with Figure 10.6 will help explain the prevalence of undernourishment in sub-Saharan Africa.

Faso and Burundi in Africa, e is more than 90%. Ov however, emplo e is steadily declining in developing countries, echoing but trailing the trend in highly developed market economies, where direct employment in agr e involves only a fraction of the labor force (see Figure 7.6). icultural societies on tance of off-farm sales and the level of mechanization and technological advancement. Subsistence, traditional (or intermediate), and advanced (or modern) are y employed to recognize both aspects. These are not m y exclusive but, rather, are stages along a continuum of farm economies. At one end lies production solely for family sustenance, using simple tools and native plants. At the other is the specialized, highly c ed, industrialized agr e for off-farm delivery that marks advanced economies. emes is the middle ground of traditional agriculture, where farm production is in part destined for home consumption and in part oriented toward off-farm sale, either loc y or in national and international markets. We can most clearly see the variety of agr ols on their spatial patterns by examining the “subsistence” and “advanced” ends of the agricultural continuum.

Subsistence Agriculture A subsistence economic system involves nearly total selft of its members. Production for exchange Each family

or c oup relies on itself for its food and other most-essential requirements. Farming for the immediate needs of the family is, even today, the predominant occupation of In most of Africa, much of Latin America, and most of southern and eastern Asia, the major are primarily concerned with feeding themselves from their own land and livestock. Two chief types of subsistence agr e can be recognized: extensive and intensive. though eac e has several variants, ield per unit of land used and, therefore, population-supporting potential. involves large areas of land and minimal labor input per hectare. Both product per land unit and population densities are low. Intensive subsistence agr invol thr e of great amounts of labor per acre. Yields per unit area and population densities are both high (Figure 10.8).

Extensive S

iculture

Of the se extensive subsistence agr one fr e of particular interest: nomadic herding and shifting cultivation. Nomadic herding, the wandering but controlled movement of livestock solel , is the stem (Figure 10.8). That is, it requires the greatest amount of land area per person sustained. Over large portions of the Asian semidesert and desert areas, in certain highland areas, and on the fringes of and within the Sahara, a relativel e animals for

Economic Geography

FIGURE 10.8 Subsistence agricultural areas of the world. Nomadic her in tr and wheat the chief crops.

consumption by the herder group, not for market sale. Sheep, goats, and camels are most common, while cattle, horses, and yaks are loc y important. The reindeer of Lapland were formerly part of the same system. Whatever the animals involved, their common characteristics are hardiness, , forage. The animals provide a var oducts: milk, cheese, y t, and meat for food; , wool, and for clothing; ; and excrement for fuel. For the herder, they represent primary subsistence. Nomadic movement is tied to e regimes and to the ar y varying appearance and exhaustion of forage. Extended stays in a given location are neither desirable nor possible. Transhumance vement of livestoc y varying pasture conditions. Used by permanently or seasonall and pastoral farmers, transhumance involves either the r vertical movement fr summer and winter months or horiz established lowland grazing areas to reach pastures temporarily lush fr stem, nomadic herding is declining. Many economic, social, e causing nomadic gr entirely. On the Arctic fringe of Russia, herders under communism were made members of state or collective herding enterprises. In northern Scandinavia, Lapps (Saami) are engaged in commer e than in subsistence livestock farming. In the Sahel region of Africa on the margins of the Sahara, oases

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elatively few people, was the ages-old way tion, with rice

once controlled by herders have been taken over by farmers, and the great droughts of recent decades have forev ed the formerly nomadic way of life of thousands. A much differently based and distributed form of extensive subsistence agricultur moist, lo eas of the world. There, many people engage in . In these warm, wet tropic limates, oduction, dead plant matter decomposes rapidly and soil nutrients are quic y leached— washed away by surface water or groundwater. Thus, soil ferlines rapidly and, after harvesting se ops, the farmer is forced to move on. In a sense, they r than crops to maintain pr . This type of has a number of names, the most common of which are swidden (an English localism for “burned clearing”) and slash-and-burn. Each region of its practice has its own name—for example, milpa in Middle and South America, chitemene in Africa, and ladang in Southeast Asia. Characteristic y, the farmers hack do vegetation and burn the cuttings, which puts nutrients into the soil. Then they plant such crops as maize (corn), millet (a cer rice, manioc or cassava, yams, and sugarcane (Figure 10.9). Increasingly included in many of the crop combinations are such high-value, labor-intensive commer crops as coffee, providing the cash income that is evidence of the gro mies. yields—the and second crops—may be very high, but they quic y become lower with each successive planting on the same plot. As that occurs, cropping ceases,

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(a)

FIGURE 10.9 Preparation of a swidden plot in Liberia, Africa. (a) First the vegetation is hacked down. (b) Then the field is planted. Stumps and tr burn.

wed to reclaim the clearing, and gardening shifts to another newly prepared site. learing y not be used again for crops until, after many years, natural replenishes its fertility (see “Swidden Agrie,” p. 323). Less than 3% of the world’ e still predominantly engaged in tropical shifting cultivation on about one-seventh of the world’s land area (see Figure 10.8). Because the essential characteristic of the system is the intermittent cultivation of the land, each family requir ea equivalent to the garden plot in curr w for regeneration. Population densities ar istic y low, because much land is needed to support few people. It may ting cultivation is a highl adaptation where land is abundant in relation to population, and levels of technology and c e low. As those conditions change, the system becomes less viable.

Intensive Subsistence Agr About 45% of the world’s people are engaged in intensive subsistence agr e, which predominates in the areas shown in F e 10.8. As a descriptive term, intensive subsistence is no y applicable to a changing way of life and economy cial is decreasingly valid. Although families may still be fed primarily with the produce of their plots, the exchange stem is considerable. Proly growing urban markets is increasingl ural economies of subsistence

(b)

farming areas and for the sustenance of the gro oportion of national and regional populations no longer themselves engaged in farming. Nevertheless, hundr Chinese, P Bangladeshis, and Indonesians, plus ther millions in other Asian, African, and Latin American countries remain y subsistence producers of rice, wheat, maize, beans, Most live in monsoon Asia, where warm, moist districts ar suited to the production of rice, a crop that under ideal conditions can provide large amounts of food per unit of land. Rice equires a gr for planting rice shoots by hand in standing fresh water is a tedious art (Figure 10.10). In the cooler and drier portions of Asia north of 20°N, wheat is grown intensively, along with millet and, less commonly, upland rice. Intensive subsistence farming is characterized by large inputs of labor per unit of land; by the intensive use of fertilizers, e (see “The Economy of a Chinese V ,” p. 324); and by the promise of high yields in good years. For food secur and dietary custom, polycultur production of se ent crops, of is practiced. Vegetables and some livestock are part of the agr stem, eared in rice paddies and ponds. F lude swine, ducks, and chickens, but since Muslims eat no pork, hogs are absent in their areas of settlement. y eat little meat, mainly goat and lamb but not pork or beef. The large numbers of cattle in India e a source of milk and cheese, producers—through excrement—of fertiliz

Economic Geography

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323

N areas. Urban agr

ld’s subsistence farming is based in r e is a rapidly gro , with some o , according to United Nations es, one-seventh of the world’s food production. Occurr egions of the world, developed and underdeveloped, but most prevalent in Asia, urban agri-

FIGURE 10.10 Transplanting rice seedlings requires arduous hand labor by all members of the family. The newly flooded diked fields, previously plowed and fertilized, will have their water level maintained until the grain is ripe. The scene in this photograph is repeated wherever subsistence wet-rice agriculture is practiced. © Corbis RF.

livestock br eams. Using the bage dumps of Jakarta, the rooftops of Mexico , and meager dirt str oadways in Kolkata e feeding their o ying loc fruit, and even meat— oduced within the cities themsel tation. In Africa, a reported 20% of urban nutritional requirement is produced in the towns and cities; of three Kenyan and Tanzanian urban families engage in farming, for example, and in Accra, Ghana’s capital, urban farming provides the city with 90% of its fresh vegetables. ts of the developing world, urban-origin foodstuffs have reduced the incidence of ition in rapidly expanding cities.

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Expanding Crop Production Continuing population pressures on existing resources are s to expand the food supply available both to the subsistence farmers of the developing economies and to the wider world as a whole. Two paths to promoting increased food production are apparent: (1) expand the land area under cultivation and (2) increase crop yields from existing farmlands. oach—increasing cr ea—is not a pr . Approximately 70% of the world’s land area is agr y unsuitable, being too cold, too dry, too steep, y infertile. Of the remaining 30%, most of the ar eady under cultivation, and of that area, y are being lost through

soil erosion,

ation, deser ation, and the conversion ban, industr and transpor developed and developing countries. Only the rain forests of Africa and the Amazon Basin of South America retain sizeable The soils of those regions, however, are fragile, are low in nutrients, have poor water retention, and are easily eroded or destroy wing deforestation. By most accounts, then, world food output cannot reasonably be incr eas.

ation and the Green Revolution Increased pr

existing cropland rather than expanea has been the key to the gro ver the past few decades.

Economic Geography

wor oduction rose more than 62%. Despite some 2.3 billion more people in the world, grain production per capita for the period 2004–2005 was nearly 5% above the 1974–1975 level. The vast major oduction gro was due to increases in yields rather than expansions in cropland. For Asia as a whole, cereal yields grew by more than 40% l y, accounted for largely by increases in China and India; they increased by more than 35% in South America. Two interrelated approaches to those yield increases mark recent farming practices. First, throughout much of the developing world production inputs such as water, fertilizer, pesticides, and labor have been increased to expand yields on a relatively constant supply of cultivable land. Irrigated area, for example, has nearly doubled since 1960 to comprise by 2007 some 19% of the world’s cropland. Global consumption of fertilizers has dramatic y increased since the 1950s, and inputs of pesticides and herbicides have similarly grown. Tr w (uncultivated) to renew its fer y abandoned, and double and triple cropping of land where climate permits has increased in Asia and even in Africa, wher meet growing food demands. ation practices are part of the second approach, linked to the Green Re —a complex of seed and management improvements adapted to the needs of intensive agriculture and designed to br vests from a given area of farmland. Genetic improvements in rice and wheat have formed the basis of the Green Revolution. Dwarfed varieties have been developed that respond dramatic ations of fertilizer, that resist plant diseases, and that can tolerate much shorter growing seasons than ieties. Adopting the new varieties and applying the irrigation, mechanization, fertilization, and pesticide practices they require have created a new “high-input, high-yield” agr e. But a price has been paid. The Green Revolution is commer y oriented and demands high inputs of costly hybrid seeds, mechanization, irrigation, fertilizers, and pesticides. As the Green Revolution is adopted, traditional and subsistence agr e are being displaced. Lost, too, are the food secur that distinctive loc y adapted native crop varieties provide and the nutr ultiple-crop intensive gardening assure. Subsistence farming, wherever practiced, is oriented toward risk minimization. Many differy hardy varieties of a single cr ield whatever adverse weather, disease, or pest problems might occur. Commercial agr e, however, aims at pr mization, . There are other costs for Green Revolution successes. For example, irrigation, responsible for an important part of increased crop yields, has destroyed tracts of land; excesom poor irrigation practices is estimated to have a serious effect on the pr mor ld’s irrigated land. And the huge amount of water required for Green Revolution irrigation

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has led to serious groundwater depletion; agr and growing urban and industr water needs in developing countries, many of which are in subhumid climates; and to worries about scar e wars over water. The pr een Revolution are not eas or advantageous to everyone engaged in farming. Most poor farmers on marigated) lands, for example, have not om the new plant varieties requiring irrigation and high chemical inputs, and women have often been losers in the transition fr e-industrialized farming practices of the Green Revolution (see “Women and the Green Revolution,” p. 326). Africa is a case in point. Green Revolution crop improvements have concentrated on wheat, rice, and maize. Of these, only maize is important in Africa, where pr ops include millet, sorghum, cassava, manioc, yams, co and peanuts. In many areas showing greatest past successes, Green Revolution gains are leveling off. Recent cer ields in Asia, for example, are growing at onl the UN’s Food and Agr e Organization now considers Green Revolution technologies “ ” ther pr Little prime land and even less water remain to expand farming in many developing countries, and the adverse ecologic and consequences of industrial farming techniques arouse growing resistance. N as a promising new Green Revolution approach—seem likely . Consumer resistance to genetic (GM) food crops, fear of the ecological consequences of such ation, the continuing par ejection of GM foods in the European Union market, and the high cost of and restrictions on the new biotechnologies imposed by their corporate de e to inhibit the widespread adoption of the new technologies. Ne the production of engineered crops is spreading rapidly. In 1996, ops were commer y available, es (4.3 million acres) were own to es) by 2008. GM technology is rapidly diffusing to developing countr 25 countries used commercial GM crops in 2008. However, ld’s acreage of GM crops in 2008 was in the United States. Other top producers of GM crops included Argentina, Brazil, India, Canada, and China. The crops for which GM seeds are most pre e soybeans, cotton, corn, and rapeseed. ations recently introduced, herbicide resistance (Roundup Ready soybeans) and insect resistance (Bt corn and cotton) have been the most important and the most r ant increase in produceduction in costs of the crops involved. GM crop opponents note, indeed, that no engineered cr oduced have featured added nutr ibutes that could developing-world malnutrition. Rather, they have been genetic ed in way consumers.

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Commercial Agriculture Few people or ar y characteristic of pure subsistence economies. Nearly have been touched by a modern world of trade and exchange and, in response, have adjusted their traditional economies. ations of subsistence agr systems have inevitably made them more complex by imparting to them at least some of the

k the advanced economic systems of the more-developed world. Farmers in those systems produce not for their own subsistence but primarily for a mar . They are part of integrated exchange economies in which agr e is but one element in a complex structure that includes employment in mining, manufacturing, processing, and the ser tertiary, quaternary, and quinary sectors. In those economies,

Economic Geography

esumably r oduction responses to market demand expressed through price and are related to the consumption requir , rather than to the immediate needs of farmers themselves.

Production Controls Agriculture within modern, developed economies is characterized by specialization—by enterprise (farm), by area, and even by country; by rather than subsistence production; and by interdependence of producers and buyers linked through markets. Farmers in a free market economy supposedly produce the crops that their estimates of market price and production cost indicate will yield the greatest return. Supply, demand, and the market price mechanism are the presumed controls on agr oduction in commercial economies. T oduction costs, ev e market prices are among the many uncertainties that individust face. Beginning in the 1950s in the United States, farmers and corporate purchasers developed strategies for minimizing those uncertainties. Processors y. Vegetable canners—of tomatoes, sweet corn, and the like— requir oducts of uniform size, color, and ingredient content on dates that accorded with cannery and labor schedules. And farmers wanted the support of a ket at an assured price to minimize the uncertainties of their specialization and to stabilize the return on their investment. tic integrations (where production, processing, purchaser-processor. Broiler chic weight, c a minimum protein content, popping corn with prescribed characteristics, y demanded by particular fast-food chains, and similar pr ations became part of pr buyer-processor. In the United States, the percentage of total farm output produced under contractual arrangements or by vertical integration rose from 19% in 1960 to well over onethird by the of the . For example, in 2003 about 72% of hogs were sold under some form of contract; in 1980 only 5% were sold that way. The term agribusiness is applied to the gro , farm-centered crop economy and newer patterns of more integrated production and marketing systems. Even for famil ments to suppliers and purchasers, the older assumption that supply, demand, and the market price mechanism are effective controls on agr oduction is not wholly valid. In r , those theoretical controls are joined by a number of nonmarket go market forces in shaping farmers’ options and spatial production patterns. If there is a glut of wheat on the market, for

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example, the price per ton will come down and the area sown to it should diminish. It also diminish regardless of supply if governments, responding to economic or political considerations, impose acreage controls. Distortions of market control may also be introduced to favor certain crops or commodities through subsidies, price supports, market protections, and the like. The political power of farmers in the European Union, for example, secured generous product subsidies and, for the Union, immense unsold stores of butter, wine, and grains until 1992, when reforms began to reduce the surplus stockpiles even while increasing total farm spending. In Japan, the home market for rice is largely protected and reserved for Japanese rice farmers, even though their pr e low and their selling price is high by world market standards. In the United States, programs of farm price supports, acreage controls, , and other go involvements in agriculture have given recurring and equally distorting effects.

A Model of Agric Earl

ral Location

y, when transportation systems were e such go e the norm, Johann Heinrich von Thünen (1783–1850) observed that lands of apparently identical physical properties were used for different agr poses. Around each major urban market center, he noted, developed a set of concentric rings of different farm products (F e 10.11a). The ring closest to the mar ed in perishable commodities that were both expensive to ship and in high demand. The high prices they could command in the urban market made their production an appropr . ther away fr e used for less-perishable commodities with lower transport costs, reduced demand, and lower market prices. and grain farming r ket gardening of the inner ring. At the outer margins of pr agr e, farthest from the single central market, livestock grazing and similar extensive land uses were found. To explain why this should be so, von Thünen proposed a formal spatial model, yze He concluded that the uses to which parcels were put wer ing “rent” values placed on seemingly identical lands. Those differences, he claimed, r vercoming the distance separating a given farm fr ket to (“A portion of each crop is eaten by the wheels,” he observed.) The greater the distance, the higher was the operating cost to the farmer, since transport charges had to be added to other expenses. W ’s production costs plus its transport costs ket, a farmer was at the economic margin of its cultivation. Because in this model transport costs ar ections away from the center, the concentric zo von Thünen rings results (Figure 10.11a).

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1. Dairying and market gardening 2. Specialty farming 3. Cash grain and livestock 4. Mixed farming 5. Extensive grain farming or stock raising

(a)

evident on the landscape at increasing distance from major cities, particularly in regions dominantly agr economy. Farmland c , is used intensively ops, and is subdivided into relatively Land far from markets is used extensively and in larger units (F e 10.11b). With improved transportation systems for perishable pr in industrial and postindustr the von Thünen r ities have undergone change. Today, for example, the presence of the nearby city may be felt in the form of market gardens and orchards (often comm ted organic agr e or pick-your-o nursery and bedding plant operations, hobby farms (frequently with horses), and land withheld from farming by developers who have purchased the land in anticipation e subdivision.

Intensive Commer

(b)

FIGURE 10.11 (a) von Thünen’s model. Recognizing that, as distance from the market increases, the value of land decreases, von Thünen developed a descriptive model of intensity of land use that holds up reasonably well in practice. The most intensively produced agricultural crops are found on land close to the market; the less intensively produced commodities are located at moredistant points. The numbered zones of the diagram represent modern equivalents of the theoretical land use sequence von Thünen suggested some 175 years ago. As the metropolitan area at the center increases in size, the agricultural specialty areas are displaced outward, but the relative position of each is retained. (b) T In the model, perishable commodities such as fruits and vegetables have high ops have lower rates. Land rent for any farm commodity decreases with increasing distance from the central market, and the rate of decline is determined by the for that commodity. Crops that have both the highest market price and the highest transport costs will be grown nearest to the market. Less-perishable crops with lower pr own at greater distances away.

The von ideas of differ or soil fer , price. W y

oducing t costs, variations in topography ket ations, von Thünen’ op patterns and farm sizes

Following World War II, agr e in the developed world’s mar easingly to concentrated methods of production. Machinery, chemic irrigation, and dependence on a restricted range of car y selected and bred plant var e employed in a concerted effort to wring more production from each unit of farmland. of course, was to increase off-farm sales as American agr e increasingly shifted from an objective y to total commitment to a fully commercial, exchange-economy stance. Prior to 1950 most U.S. farms had ant subsistence orientation; they were “ gro ops, some for sale and some for feed for farmstead livestock—a milk co , chickens for the pot and for household eggs, a few hogs and steers, par y for farm slaughter and use. plied vegetables and fruits for farm family consumption and home canning. In 1949 the average American farm sold only $4100 worth of products. By 2007, however, most farms had a full commitment to the market, average off-farm sales rose to more than $135,000, and farm families—like other Americans—shopped the supermarkets for their food needs. With the increases in capital investment and the need e return on that investment, many Consolidation has reduced the number and enlarged the size of farms still in production. From a high of 6.8 million in 1934, the number of U.S. farms of all sizes dropped to 2.1 million in 2002 and then incr The recent increase in the number of farms was due to mor many of which were c le or retirement farms, in which farm products were not the primary source of income for the farmer. S eased in part as a response to consumers’ desire for organic and loc The reorientation of farm production goals in the United States and in most other highly developed market economies ant changes in r oduction

Economic Geography

patterns. ive for enhanced and mor ized output and the investment of large amounts of capital (for machinery, fertilizers, and specialized buildings, for example), e is “intensive.” But the se pes of ation differ in how much c hectare of farmed land (and, of course, capital inputs). Those differences underlie ed distinccial agr e. The term intensive agr is now usuy understood to r y to the production of crops that give high yields and high mar These include fruits, vegetables, and dairy products, which are highly perishable, as well as some “factory farm” production of livestock. Dairy farms and truck farms (horticulor “market garden,” farms that produce a wide range of e found near most medium-size and large cities. Because their products are perishable, transport costs increase because of the special handling that is needed, such as the use of refrigerated trucks and custom packaging. This is another reason for locations close to market. Livestock-grain farming involves the gro of grain to be fed on the producing farm to livestock, the farm’s cash product. In Western Europe, three-fourths of cropland is devoted to pr in Denmark, e fed to livestock for conversion into meat, butter, cheese, and milk. Although livestock-grain farmers work their land intensively, the value of their product per unit of land is usually less than that of the truck farm. Consequently, in North America at least, livestock-grain farms are farther from the main markets than are hor dairy farms. the livestock-grain belts of the world are close to the gr ial zone markets. The Corn Belt of the United States and the livestock region of Western Europe ar In the United States—and commonly in all developed countries—the traditional livestock and grain operations of y farms have been largely supplanted by very large-scale, concentrated animal-feeding operations involving thousands or tens of thousands of closely quartered animals (F e 10.12). From its inception in the 1920s, the intensive, industrialized rearing of livestock, particularly beef and dairy cattle, hogs, and poultry, has grown to dominate meat, dairy, and egg production. To achieve their objective of producing a large-volume, uniform product at the lowest possible cost, operators of livestock factory farms conages, treat them with antibiotics and vitamins to maintain health and speed growth, provide processed feeds that often contain low-cost animal by-products or crop residue, and deliver them under contract to processors, packers, or their parent company. Although serious concerns have been voiced about animal waste management and groundwater, stream, and atmospheric pollution, contractbased concentrated feeding operations now provide almost all supermarket meat and dairy products. The location of this form of intensive commercial farming is often determined

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FIGURE 10.12 This concentrated animal-feeding operation in Kansas exemplifies the changing scale of American agriculture. © Cathryn Dowd.

not by land value or pro ket but by land use restrictions and environmental standards imposed by state vernments.

Extensive Commer Farther from the market, on less-expensive land, there is less need to use the land intensively. Cheaper land gives rise to larger farm units. Extensive agr k ranching. Large-scale wheat farming requires sizeable capital inputs y, but the inputs per unit of land are low; wheat farms are very large. Nearly half the farms in Saskatchewan, for example, are more than 400 hectes (1000 acres). The average farm in Kansas is more than 300 hectares; in North Dakota, more than 525 (1300 acres). In North America, the spring wheat (planted in spring, harvested egion inc eastern Montana, and the southern parts of the Prairie Provinces of Canada. The harvested in midsummer) belt focuses on Kansas and includes adjacent sections of neighboring states (F e 10.13). y South American country to have comparable large-sc . In the Eastern Hemisphere, the sy y developed only east of the V thern Kaz t of West Siberia, and in southeastern and western A Livestock ranching antly from livestock-grain by its commer ientation and distribution, from the nomadism it super y resembles. A product of the o ban markets for beef and wool in Western Europe and the northeastern United States, ranching has been primaril to areas of European settlement. It is found in the western United States and adjacent sections of and Canada (F e 10.13); the grasslands of Argentina, Brazil, Ur , and Venezuela; the interior of A

330

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The Location Tradition

FIGURE 10.13 Generalized agricultural r

Sources: U.S. Bureau of Agricultural Economics; Agriculture Canada; Mexico,

Secretaría de Agricultura y Recursos Hidráulicos.

the uplands of South Island, New Z and the Karoo and adjacent areas of South Africa (F e 10.14). ew Z outh America have semiarid c even the most remote from markets, were a product of improvements in transportation by land and sea, the refrigeration of c iers, and meat-canning technology. introduced beef c eplaced or

such as bison on North America’s Great Plains, almost always with ev vere envir ioration. More recently, the mid cattle production and the extensive destruction of tropic for ica and the Amazon Basin, though in recent years Amazon Basin deforestation has r e the expansion of soybean farming than of beef production.

Economic Geography

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FIGURE 10.14 Livestock ranching and special crop agriculture. Livestock ranching is primarily a midlatitude enterprise catering to the urban markets of industrialized countries. Mediterranean and plantation agriculture are similarly oriented to the markets provided by advanced economies of Western Europe and North America. Areas of Mediterranean agriculture—all of roughly comparable climatic conditions—specialize in similar commodities, such as grapes, oranges, olives, peaches, and vegetables. The specialized crops of plantation agriculture are influenced by both physical geographic conditions and present or , former colonial control of areas.

egions, livestock range (and the area exclusively in ranching) has been reduced as crop farming has encroached on its more humid margins, e improvement has replaced less-nutritious native grasses, and as grain fattening has supplemented traditional grazing. Since ranching c y where alternative land uses ar w, ranching regions of the world characteristic y have low population densities, low capitalization per land unit, and relatively low labor requirements.

Sp Pro ket does not guarantee the intensive production of high-value crops, should terrain or climatic circumstances hinder it. Nor does great distance from the market inevitably determine that extensive farming on low-priced Special circumstances, most often climatic, make some places far from markets intensively developed agr eas. Two special cases are agr e in Mediterranean climates and in plantation areas (F e 10.14). Most of the arable land in the Mediterranean Basin itself is planted to grains, and much of the agr ea is used for grazing. Mediterr iculture ed farming economy, however, wn for grapes, olives, oranges, vegetables, and similar commodities. These cr ound and a great deal of sunshine in the summer. ated in F e 10.14 are among the most productive agr

in the world. The precipitation regime of Mediterranean climate ar ought—lends itself to the controlled use of water. Of course, much c ust be igation systems, another reason for the intensive use of the land for high-value cr e, for the most part, destined for export to industrialized countr eas outside the Mediterranean climatic zone and even, in the case of Southern Hemisphere locations, kets north of the equator. Climate is also considered the vital element in the production of what are commonly but imprecisel wn as plantation crops. The implication of planta on is the introduction of a foreign element—investment, management, and mar e and economy, often employing an intr ce. The plantation itself is an estate whose resident workers pr ed crops. Those crops, although native to the tropics, were frequently foreign to the areas of plantation establishment: Afric Western Hemisphere and American cacao, tobacco, and rubber in Southeast Asia and Africa are examples (F e 10.15). Entrepreneurs in Western countries such as England, France, the Netherlands, and the United States became interested in the tropics partly because they afforded them the oppor demand in temperate lands for agr producible in the market areas. Custom and convenience usually retain the term plantation, even where native producers of local crops dominate, as they do in cola nut production in Guinea, spice growing in India and Sri Lanka, oduction in the Yucatán. As Figure 10.14 suggested, for ease of

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The Location Tradition

FIGURE 10.15 W Here the women are also responsible for child care while working op, with operations typically established by for suitable physical environment (climate and soils) and producing an introduced cr first domesticated in East Africa, it is grown in many tropical midlatitudes.

.

access to shipping most plantation crops ar or near coasts, since production for export rather than for local consumption is the rule.

Agr

such extremes of rural control have in recent years been r or abandoned in most formerly str y planned economies, past centralized control of agr e altered traditional rural landscapes. Before the former So its r ape had been transformed fr erevolutionar fe y contro ed operating units. Even today, because of inadequacies in farm registry and boundary descriptions and because of clouded ownership rights, the remnants of the old So ate more than 90% of the country’s farmlands, but now they respond to market oppor not centralized directives. An incomplete progression from private and peasant agrie, thr ation, and back to what is vir ya private farming system took place in the planned economy of the People’s Republic of China. ter its assumption of power in 1949, the communist r edistr e, or 0.5-acre) subsistence holdings that wer y inadequate for the gro . Later, by the end of 1957, ed into about 700,000 communes, ther reduced in the 1970s to 50,000 communes averaging some 13,000 members. After the death of Chairman Mao in 1976, what became effectively a private farming system was reintroduced when 180 million new farms were allocated to peasant families. Currently, peasants have rene for 30 years, but they cannot o the land or their leases. Farmland remains owned and contr , and most staple crops ar ices to government purchasers. Today, production decisions ar y made by , based on the same market assessments that control c Increasingly, China’s farmers have turned to the production of labor-intensive specialty crops, such as fruits, vegetables, meat, not only for the country’s rapidly expanding domestic market but for expor China’s per capita food production and have increased dramatic y as this conversion to an agr ket economy, rather than a subsistence or planned economy, has progressed.

lanned Economies

As their name implies, planned economies have a degree of y directed control of resources and of key sectors of the economy that permits the pursuit of go y determined objectives. When that control is extended to the agr , state and collective farms and agr communes replace private crop production is divorced from market control or family need, and prices are established by plan rather than by demand or production cost.

OTHER PRIMARY ACTIVITIES In addition to agr e, primary economic activities include , for y, ying of minerThese industries involve the dir resources that are y in the onment and ye ent societies. Their development, therefore, ence of perceived resources, the , awar ( perception, and utilization of resources are explored in depth in Chapter 5.) T eg ing indusies based on har enewable resources, though ones in serious danger of depletion through

Economic Geography

overexploitation. ying are ies, removing nonrene inc from the earth’ e the initial raw material phase of modern industrial economies.

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Millions of tons 90 80 70 60

Fishing y about 15% of otein consumption, an estimated 1 billion people—primarily in the developing countries of eastern and southeastern Asia, Africa, ts of Latin America— imary source of protein. Fish ar very important in the diets of most advanced states, both those

50 40 30 20 10 0 1975

1980

1985

1990

1995

2000

2005

FIGURE 10.16

about 80% of the wor vest is consumed by humans, the remainder is processed into to be fed to livestock or used as fertilizer. ent markets have incr vest of Indeed, so rapidly have pressures on the world’s ks increased that e at least loc y, their maximum sustainable yield is ac ly or potentia y being exceeded. The of a resource

ecor rose irregularly from 66 million tons in 1975 to some 140 million tons in 2007. The 1993 and 1998 dips are associated with ocean temperature changes produced by El Niño. Chinese admission of regular overr , their marine captur totals actually registered an irregular downward trend each year since 1988. The FAO estimates that 20 to 40 million tons per year of unintended marine capture of juvenile or undersized fish and nontarget species are discarded each year. Source: Food and

to be renewed or to maintain the same future pr . F , that level is marked by a catch or harvest equal to the net gro eplacement stock. y comes from three sources:

Agriculture Organization (FAO).

1. the inland catch, from ponds, lakes, and rivers 2. wher e produced in a controlled and contained environment 3. the marine catch, on the high seas Fish c

e (catch) is r Inland waters supply less than 10% of that catch. F , ine, accounts for oduction (F e 10.16). Most of that marine c ies, and the relativel w coastal waters abo . N shore, w embayments and pro ing grounds and river waters supply nutrients to an environment highly pr Increasingly, eas seriously by from and ocean dumping, an envir oy e Commercial mar y concentrated in northern waters, where warm and cold curr and where such familiar food species as herring, cod, mackerel, haddock, and congregate, or “school,” on the broad continental shelves (F e 10.17). Two of the most heavily egions are the Northeast P orthwest Atlantic. Tropic because of their high oil content and unfamiliar , are less acceptable in the commercial market. They are, however, of great importance for local consumption. Only a very small percentage of total

marine catch comes from the open seas that make up more than 90% of the world’s oceans. Modern technology and more aggr of more countries greatly incr ine capture in the years after 1950. luded the use of sonar, radar, helicopters, and satellite communications to loc mor and factor epare and freeze the catch. In addition, more nations granted ever-larger subsidies to expand and reward their marine trawler operations. The rapid rate of increase led ojections of continuing or gro ies pr y and to optimism that the resources of the oceans were inexhaustible. Quite the opposite has proved to be true. In fact, in recent years, the pr of marine ies has declined because over (catches above reproduction rates) and the polluiously endangered the supplies of traditional and desirable food species. Adjusted wor c es indicate that, rather than the steady increase in c e rates shown in Figure 10.16, there has r y been a decline of more than 660,000 tons per year since the late 1980s. The decline, owing world population, has caused a serious drop in the average per c ine catch. The UN repor ld’s major oceanic eas ar ond c ; 13 are in decline. The plundering of Anglo American coastal waters has imper in 1993, Canada shut down its cod industr w stocks to recover, and U.S. authorities report that 67 North American species are over vested to c .

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FIGURE 10.17 The major commercial marine fisheries of the world. The waters within 325 kilometers (200 miles) of the U.S. coastline account for almost one-fifth of the world’ contamination of bays, estuaries, and wetlands have contributed to the depletion of the fish stocks in those coastal waters.

Over tly the r w that the world’ e common proper , a resource open to anyone’s use, with no one r , protection, or improvement. The r “open seas” principle is a — but one expression of the so-c the economic r when a resour each user, in the absence of collective controls, thinks he or she esour um, even though this means its eventual depletion. In 1995, more than 100 countries adopted a tr y binding in December 2001, to r side territor Applying to such species as cod, pollock, and is, to y and high-seas species—the tr equir eport the size of their catches to regional organizations that would set quotas and subject vessels to boarding to check for violations. control measur o wor e ks, though they appear to be too late to save or revive the marine food chain in such formerly impor ies as the Atlantic coast of Canada. One approach to incr y is through or , the br eshwater ponds, lakes, and canals or in fenced-off coastal bays and ies or enclosures. A e production has provided a growing shar ecent years; its contribution to the human food supply is even greater than raw proes suggest. Wherea a

The commons r

or

y had this meaning.

veryone; y, e. The Boston Common

catch is used to and oil, y e used as human food. Fish farming has long been practiced in Asia, wher e a major source of protein, but now takes place on every continent. Critic onmental problems associated with mar e exist: from wastes and chemic and transference of disks; k to pro genetic damage to wild stock from escaped y alter and more. Despite concerns about its potential adverse consequences, its rapid and continuing production incr e the fastestgrowing sector of the world food economy.

Forestry Forests, are a heavily exploited renewable resource. Even af learance for agriculture and, more recently, commercial lumbering, cattle ranching, wood gathering, forests still cover nearly a third of the world’s land area. Livelihoods based on forest resources are spatially widespread and parts of both subsistence and commercial economies. eatment of forest resources and their nature, distribution, and exploitation appears in Chapter 5.

Mining and Quarrying Societies at stages of economic development engage in agrie, , and forestry. The extractive industries—mining and drilling for nonrene y when cultural advancement and economic necessity made

Economic Geography

possible a broader understanding of the earth’s resources. Now those extractive industries pro y base for the way of life experienced by people in the advanced economies and are the basis for an important part of the international trade connecting the developed and developing countries of the world. Extractive industries depend on the exploitation of minervenly distributed in amounts and concentrations determined by past geologic events, not by contemporary market demand. Because usable deposits are the result of geologic accident, there is no necessary r e y and the resources its territory contains. Although larger states are more likel ies of such “accidents,” developing countries are major sources of one or more critical raw materials and, therefore, are important participants in the gro Transportation costs play a major role in determining where low-value minerals will be mined. Mater gravel, limestone for cement, and aggregate are found in such y when they are near the site where they are to be used. For example, gravel for road oad-building site, not otherwise. Transporting gravel hundreds of miles is an unpr . The pr y metallic minerals such as copper, lead, and iron ore—is affected by a ee forces: , the richness of the ore, and the distance to markets. Another factor, land acquisition and ro may equal or exceed other considerations in mine development decisions (see “Public Land, Private Pr p. 336). e favorable, mines may not be developed or even remain operating if supplies from competing sources are more cheaply available in the market. In the 1980s, mor on oreproducing c was permanently shut down in the United States and Canada as a result of such price competition. Similar declines occurred in North American copper, nickel, zinc, lead, and molybdenum mining as market prices w domestic production costs. Beginning in the early 1990s, as a result of both resource depletion and the availability of lowcost imports, the United States became a net importer of nonOf course, incr prices may be r eopening mines that, at lower returns, were deemed unpr However, the developed industr ies of commer whatever their former or even pr wment, frequently ves at a competitive disadvantage against producers in developing countr wer-cost labor and stateowned mines with abundant, rich reserves. When the ore is r it is pr the case of iron and aluminum ores) to ship it directly to the market for r . But, of course, the highest-grade ores tend Consequently, the demand for low-grade ores has been increasing in recent years as richer deposits have been depleted. Low-grade ores are often upgraded by various

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eatments at the mine site to avoid the cost of transporting waste mater ket. Concentration of copper is nearly always mine-oriented (Figure 10.18); r eas of consumption. The large amount of waste in copper (98% to 99% or more of the ore) and in most other industr ant ores not be considered the mark of an unattractive deposit. Indeed, the opposite may be true. Many higher-content ores e left unexploited—because of the cost of extraction or the smallness of the reserves—in favor of the use of large deposits of even very low-grade ore.

FIGURE 10.18 Copper ore concentrating and smelting facilities at the Phelps-Dodge mine in Morenci, Arizona. Concentrating mills crush the ore, separating copper-bearing material from the rocky mass containing it. The great volume of waste material removed assures that most concentrating operations are found near the ore bodies. Smelters separate concentrated copper from other, unwanted, compounds containing iron or sulfur. Because smelting is also a “weight-reducing” (and, therefore, transportation cost–reducing) activity, it is frequently—though not invariably—located close to the mine as well. © Cameramann International.

Public Land, Private Profit

Economic Geography

a size of reser ment of development c simultaneously, to assure a long-term source of supply. At one time, high-grade magnetite iron ore was mined and shipped from the Mesabi area of Minnesota. Those deposits are now exhausted. However, immense amounts of capital (including, since 2003, Chinese capital) have been invested in the mining and processing into high-grade iron or y unlimited supplies of low-grade iron-bearing rock (taconite) still remaining. Such investments do not assure the pr of the resource. ket is highly volatile. Rapidly and widel ices can quic y change pr mining and r es to losing under Marginal gold and silver deposits are opened or closed in reaction to trends in pr ices. T mater removal) in the Lake Superior region has materially slowed in response to the decline of the U.S. steel industry and the price advantage of imported ores. In market economies, cost and market controls dominate economic decisions. In planned economies, cost may be a less-important considervelopment and resource independence. The advanced economies have r ough their contr . therefore, are often consider ength

FIGURE 10.19

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and independence. W e absent, developed countr oil, Mineral and ces are given extended discussion in Chapter 5.

TRADE IN PRIMARY PRODUCTS With the liberalization of international trade policies that began in the 1980s, international trade has undergone massive expansion, ant fraction of the world’ . Primary commodities—agr goods, ter of the total ws. During much of the y, the world distribution of supply and demand for those items in general r w: from raw mater producers located within less-developed countries to the processors, ers, and consumers in the more-developed ones (F e 10.19). The re w carr ed goods processed in the industr ed states back to the developing countries. esumabl developed states by providing access to a continuing supply of industrial raw mater s not available domestic y and gave less-developed countries needed c to invest

Much of the developing world depends on rket demand © UN/DPI Photo.

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in their own development or to expend on the importation of ed goods, food supplies, or commodities—such as petroleum—they did not themselves produce. By the end of the 20th century, however, wor ws and export patterns of the emerging economies were radic y changing. Raw materials greatly decr ed goods increased in the expor ws from developing states. Even with the ov decline in raw material exports, however, trade in unprocessed goods remains dominant in the ecold’s poorer economies. Increasingly, ws on which they depend have been criticized as unequal and damaging to ting countries. Countries that depend on primary commodities for most of their export earnings ar technologic Prices may rise sharply in periods of product shortage or international economic gro swiftly decline when the world economy slows. During much of the 1980s and 1990s, ices moved downward, to the great detriment of material-exporting economies. Prices for agr raw materials, for example, dropped by 30% decr Such price declines cut deeply into the export earnings of many emerging economies. Whatever the current world prices of raw mater , oup, raw material exporting states have long expressed resentment at what they per ice manipulation by rich countries and corporations to ensure low-cost supplies. strated, technologic an reduce demand for pr y Glass replace copper wire in telecommunications applications; synthetic rubber r ; glass and car ovide the raw mater ods, and sheet panels and other products superior in performance and str eplace; and a vast and enlarging e the accepted raw mater e not even considered. That is, even as the world industr economy expands, demands and pr emain depressed. While prices paid for developing country commodities tend to be low, prices charged for the manufactured goods offered in exchange by the developed countries tend to be high. To c e pr ing pr themselves, some developing states have placed restrictions on the export of unprocessed commodities. Malaysia, the Philippines, and Cameroon, for example, have limited the export of logs in favor of increased domestic processing of sawlogs and exports of lumber. Some developing countries have also ing to reduce imports and to ts. Frequently, however, such exports meet with tariffs and quotas pr kets of the industrialized states. Many developing regions y dependent on commodiall 1970 and the early 21st century. Those declines are understandable in the light of greatly expanding international trade

in manufactured goods from China, Korea, Mexico, and other rapidly industrializing states and from the expansion of trade in both manufactured goods and primary pr the industrialized countries themselves within newly established r ee-trade zones. In 1964, in reaction to the whole range of perceived trade inequities, developing states promoted the establishment of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). y—the “Group of 77,” which had expanded to 130 developing states by 2008— continues to press for a new world economic order based, in part, on an increase in the prices and values of exports from developing countries, a system of import preferences for their ed goods, and a restr ing of international cooperation to stress trade promotion and recognition of the ies. The World Trade Organization, established in 1995 (and discussed in detail in Chapter 9) was designed, t, to reduce trade barriers and inequities. It has, however, been judged by its detractors as ineffective on issues of importance to developing countries. Chief among the complaints is the continuing failure of the industr ies antly (or at to reduce protections for their own agriies. The World Bank has calculated, for example, that agr iers and subsidies in rich countries reduce incomes in developing countries by at . In 2001, members of the World Trade Organization met in Doha, Qatar, to begin negotiations on opening world markets in agr e—of primary concern to developing states—and in industr incipal interest y developed countries. The “Doha Round” of discussions, with an original December 2004 deadline, continued over the next 4 years without reaching agreement. Despite the fact that agriculture makes up less than 10% of world trade, it has been the roadbloc trade ministers of 149 countries at the December 2005 WTO meeting in Hong Kong did agree to the elimination of export subsidies on farm goods by the end of 2013, the agreement was criticized by de the rich economies wanted reciprocal concessions on ed goods and services. After 7 years, the y 2008. eater eer wor ws, economic and de needs of poorer countries, and more fairness in international trade in primary products are yet to be achie ties.

SECONDARY ACTIVITIES: MANUFACTURING Since the Industrial Revolution and introduction of the factory sy y England, manufactur industry have been seen as the measures and symbols of economic development. Wherever introduced, ing has been the catalyst for the whole range of economic and social

Industrial Locational Models When market principles are controlling, entrepreneurs seek to e pr ating manufacturing activities at sites of lowest total input costs (and high revenue yields). In order

0

Price

0

CHAPTER TEN

Price

changes recognized as modernization and the eagerly sought escape from traditional subsistence economies. The factory system and mass production of standardized, lower-cost goods were the spur to inventions and improvements in transportation and to the urbanization of populations and their release from peasant agr udgery. Wages and a money economy became the norm. Wholesale and retail trade expansion, incr ation, the rise of an economic middle class, and social and politic movement away from rigid class divisions wer wing from the introduction and expansion of manufacturing— ope and Anglo America and now throughout the world. And ever e the new industr economy was introduced, it prospered or faltered to the extent that it observed the new sets of controls on loc behavior implicit in the new economic str e. ies are loc y tied to the esources they gather or exploit, secondary and later stages of economic activity e less concerned with conditions of the physic onment. For them, location is more closely r ysic cumstances. They are mo y tied and are assumed to respond to recurring loc equirements and controls. Those controls are r spatial behavior in general and economic behavior in particular. W eady explored some of those assumptions in earlier discussions. We noted, for example, spatial interaction decreases with distance—distance decay, we c Rec Thünen’s model of agr land use was rooted in conjectures about transportation cost and land value relationships. S accepted common set of controls and mo g human economic behavior. We assume, for example, that peoe economically rational; that is, given the information at they make loc production, or purchasing ception of what is most cost-effective and advantageous. From the standpoint of pr ther assumed that each is intent on maximizing pr To reach that objective, a host of production and marketing costs and al, competitive, and other limiting factors may be considered, pr remains clear. F y, in commercial economies it has been accepted that the best measure of the correctness of ket mechanism and ket prices establish (Figure 10.20). increasingly as too rigid and unr as explanations of human behav, underlie most curr y y.

Price

Economic Geography

0

0

0 Quantity

339

0 Quantity

FIGURE 10.20 Supply, demand, and market equilibrium. The regulating mechanism of the market may be visualized graphically. (a) The tells us that, as the price of a good increases, more of that good will be made available for sale. Countering any tendency for prices to rise to infinity is the market reality that, the higher the price, the smaller the demand as potential customers find other purchases or products more (b) The shows how the market will expand as prices drop and the good becomes mor dable and attractive to more customers. (c) Market equilibrium is marked and determines the price of the good, the total demand, and the quantity bought and sold.

to assess the advantages of one location over another, industriust evaluate the most important iable costs. They ategories and note how each y from place to place. In different industries, transportation charges, labor rates, power costs, or operation expenses, the interest rate of money, or the price of raw mater iable cost. The industriust look at each of these and, by a process of elimination, ev y select the lowest-cost site. If the producer then determines that a large enough market can be reached cheaply enough, the location promises to be pr In the economic world, nothing remains constant. Because production techniques, and marketing activities, y pr ations do not remain advantageous. Migrations of population, technologic and changes in the demand for products affect industrialists and industr ations greatly. The abandoned ies of New England or steel towns of Pennsylvania, even the “deindustrialization” of America itself in the face of changing domestic economy and foreign industrial cost advantages and competition, are testimony to the impermanence of the “best” locations. Similarly, the spread of manufacturing from the more-developed to the less-developed regions of the world since World W ceptions of manufacturing costs and locational advantages. iable costs as a determinant in industrial location decisions has inspired an extensive theoretical literature. Much of it is based on industrial patterns and economic assessments seen as contr ing the later 19th and early 20th centuries and extends the least-cost proposed by German location economist Alfred Weber (1868–1958), and sometimes c Weberian analysis. Weber explained the optimum loc ing establishment in terms of the minimization of three basic expenses: relative transport costs, labor costs, and agglomeration costs. Ag refers to the clustering of productive activities and people for

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m Such clustering can produce agglomeration economies through shared facilities and services. Diseconomies such as higher rents or wage levels resulting from competition for these loc ed resources may also occur. Weber concluded that transport costs were the major consideration determining location. That is, the optimum location would be found where the costs of transporting raw mater to the factor ket were at their lowest (Figure 10.21). He noted, however, that, if variations in labor or agglomeration costs wer y great, a location determined solely on the basis of transportation costs might not, in fact, be the optimum one. Assuming, however, that transportation costs determine the “balance point,” optimum location will depend on distances, the respective weights of the raw material inputs, oduct. It may be either material-oriented or market-oriented. Material orientation r a sizeable weight loss during the production process; market orientation indicates a weight gain (Figure 10.22). For many theorists, Weber’s least-cost analysis is unnecessarily rigid and restrictive. They propose instead a substitution principle which recognizes that in many industrial processes it is possible to replace a declining amount of one input (e.g., labor) with an increase in another (e.g., capital for automated equipment) or to increase transportation costs while simultaneously reducing land rent. With substitution, a number of different points may be optimal manufacturing Raw material 1

Raw material 2

locations. Further, they suggest, a whole series of points may exist where total revenue of an enterpr cost of producing a given output. These points, connected, k the spatial margin of pr ability ea within which pr e 10.23). Loc e within the margin assures some pr tolerates both imper wledge and personal (rather than economic) considerations.

Other Locational Considerations oduction sites under competitive conditions forms the basis for most classic ial loc . But such theory no longer y explains world or r alizaation, nor does it account for loc that is uncontrolled by objective “factors,” that ar by new production technologies and corporate structures, or that are directed by nonc Traditional theor ational decisions for plants engaged in mass production for mass markets where transportation lines wer t costs were

Market

Raw material 3

FIGURE 10.21 Plane table solution to a plant location problem. This mechanical model, suggested by Alfred Weber, e there are several sources of raw materials. When a weight is allowed to represent the “pull” of raw material and market locations, an equilibrium point is found on the plane table. That point is the location at which all forces balance each other and represents the least-cost plant location.

FIGURE 10.22 Spatial orientation tendencies. Raw material orientation is presumed to exist when there are limited alternative material sources, when the material is perishable, or when, in its natural state, it contains a large pr nonmarketable components. Market orientation represents the leastcost solution when manufacturing uses commonly available materials that add weight to the finished product, when the manufacturing process pr e expensive to ship than its separate components, or when the perishable nature of the product demands processing at individual market points. Redrawn with permission from T John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, NY.

Interpr

. Copyright © 1980

Economic Geography

FIGURE 10.23 The spatial margin of pr . In the diagram, 0 is the single optimal pr e within the area defined by the intersects of the total cost and total r ofitable operation. Some industries will have wide margins; others will be more spatially constricted. Skilled entrepreneurs may be able to expand the , a satisficing location may be selected by reasonable estimate even in the absence of the of information required for an optimal decision.

relatively high. antly dur y. Assembly line production of identic igidly controlled and specialized labor force for ed mass mar wn as For to recognize Henry Ford’s pioneering development of the system—became less realistic in both market and techIn its place, post-Fordist ing processes based on smaller production runs of a greater var , niche markets than were catered ing have become common. At the same time, information technology applied to machines and operations, incr , and declining costs for transportation services that were increasingly viewed from a cost-time rather than a cost-distance standpoint have mater ed underlying assumptions of the classical theories.

Transport Characteristics Within both national and international economies, pe y of transport modes, as well as transportation costs, have been central to the spatial patterning of production, explaining the location of a large var ties. Waterborne transpor ly always cheaper than any other mode of conveyance, and the enormous amount of commer rivers leading to coasts is an indication of that cost advantage. When railroads were developed and the commercial exploitation of inland areas could begin, be important as more and more goods were transferred there w-cost water and land modes. The advent of highway transportation vastly incr “ ” manufacturing locations by freeing the loc

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decision fr oute production sites. carrier mode, y, or cost str e has direct implications for locations of economic acti ty. In the rare instance when transportation costs become a negligible factor in production and marketing, an economic footloose. So ing is located without reference to raw materials; for example, the raw materials for electronic products such as computers ar , light, and compact that transportation costs have little bearing on where production takes place. Others are inseparable from the markets they and are so widely distributed that they wn as ubiquitous industries. Newspaper publishing, bakeries, and dairies, oduce a highly perishable comare examples. Ov transportation costs have been dec ciencies have been increasing. The advent of near-universal commercial jet aircraft ser , the development of large oceangoing superfreighters, and the introduction of containerization of goods have reduced the costs and increased the speed of freight services. As those costs have decreased, ing location has become mor t locaTo that extent, Weberian location theories have reduced applic .

Agglomeration Economies The geographic concentration of economic, including industrial, is the norm at the loc or r scale. The cumulative and reinforcing of industr concentration and urban gro e recognized locational factors, but ones not easil Both cost-minimizing and pr theories make provision for agglomeration, utual That is, both recognize that the areal grouping of industrial activities may pr that they not experience in isolation. Those or agglomer ue in the form of savings from shared transport facilities, vices, public utilities, communication facilities, and the like. Collectively, vices needed to facilitate industrial and other forms of economic development are ca ed Ar eate y labor; of capital, ancillary business services; and, of course, a market built of other industries and urban populations. Ne particularly, ant advantages in loc , for labor specializations and support services y ar eady in place. So pr e linked either as customers or suppliers. A concentration of capital, labor, customer base, infrastructure tends to attract still more industries from other locations to the agglomeration. In Weber’s terms, that is, economies of association distort or alter locational decisions that other

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would be based solely on transportation and labor costs, and once in existence, agglomerations tend to grow (Figure 10.24). Through a multiplier e each ne ther development of infrastr e and linkages. As we see in Chapter 11, the mulban) population growth and thus the expansion of the labor pool and the localized market that are part of agglomeration economies.

Just-in-Time and Fle

roduction

Agglomeration economies and tendencies ar aged by ne ing policies practiced by both older, established industries and by newer, post-Fordist plants. Tr ordist industries required the on-site storage of large lots of mater ed and deliver advance of their actual need in production. That

ough infrequent ordering and reduced transportation charges, and it made wances for delayed deliveries and for the inspection of received goods and components. The assurance of supplies on hand for long production runs of standardized outputs was achieved at high inventory and storage costs. Just-in-time (JIT) ing, in contrast, seeks to reduce inventories through the production process by purchasing inputs for arrival just in time to use and producing output just in time to sell. Rather than the costly accumulation and storage of supplies, JIT requires frequent order of goods for precisely timed arr yment . Such “lean manufacturing” based on the frequent purchasing of immediately needed goods demands rapid delivery by suppliers and encourages them to locate near the buyer. ing innovations thus reinforce and augment the spatial agglomeration tendencies e

FIGURE 10.24 On a small scale, the planned industrial park furnishes its tenants external agglomeration economies similar to those ovides a subdivided tract of land developed according to a comprehensive plan for the use of (fr ies or public agencies, supply the basic infrastructure of streets, water, sewage disposal, power private police and fire protection, park tenants are spared the additional cost of pr are available for r ers are © Cameramann International. resear

Economic Geography

the older industr ape and deemphasize the applicabil, single-plant location theories. T is one expression of a transition from mass production Fordism to more oduction systems. w producers to shift quic ent levels of output and, importantly, to move from one factory process or product to another as market demand dictates. F w technoloy repr ized machine tools and by ing systems. just-in-time proibution responsive to current market demand as monitored by computer-based information systems. Flexible production, to a large extent, requir ant acquisition of components and services from outside suppliers rather than from in-house production. For example, modular assembly, in which many subsystems of a complex product enter the plant already assembled, reduces factory space and worker requirements. The pr y places on proximity to component suppliers adds still another dimension to industr “Flexible production regions” have, according to some observers, emerged in response to the ne oduction strategies and interThose regions, it is claimed, are usually y—from established concentrations of Fordist industr ation.

Comparative Advantage, Outsourcing, shoring The principle of comparative advantage and the practices of outsourcing and shoring are of gro importance in decisions r ation. They are interconnected in that each r ization and each is dependent on free trade and the fr w of information. tells us that eas and countries can best improv dards through specialization and trade. follow if each area or country concentrates on the production of those items for which it has the greatest relative advantage over other areas or for which it has the least relative disadvantage and impor This principle is basic to the understanding of r ation, and it applies as long as areas have different r e goods and fr ecognized by econation and exchange invol ed goods whose relative costs of pr eas were c ly e dent. Today, when other countries’s comparative advantages may r wer costs for labor, land, and c the principle is seen in a much less favorable light by some critics. elocate from ket-country locations to lower-cost foreign production sites, ng jobs and income away from the consuming to the ent detriment of that ’s prosper .

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However, other obser the domestic economic consequences of such voluntary outsou oducing parts or products abr ican manuers ar ent from those resulting fr tion by foreign companies or from industr decisions favor y over others. Outsourcing has also come to mean subcontracting production and service sector work to outside, often nonunion, domestic companies. In 2006, U.S. companies outsourced more than $4 tr a 50% increase since the start of the century; outsourcing in that purely American context is growing at an estimated pace of 15% to 20% per year. Roughly one-half of the 2005 total value of outsourcing related to ing; about one-third of that share involves foreign, not domestic, suppliers. In ing, outsourcing has become an important element in just-in-time acquisition of preassembled components for snap-together fabric oducts. When comparative advantage and outsourcing ar porations, one expr oduction systems is evident in the erosion of the rigid spatial concentration of manufacturing assumed by classical location theory. A distinctive regional illustration of mor industrial deconcentration through outsourcing is found along the northern border of Mexico. In the 1960s, Mexico enacted legislation permitting for y, American) companies to establish “sister” plants, c maquiladoras, within ee assembly of products destined for re-export. By 2003 more than 3000 such assembly and manufacturing plants had been established to produce a diversity of goods, including electronic products, textiles, e, leather goods, toys, and automotive parts. The plants generated direct and indirect employment for more than a million Mexican workers (Figure 10.25) and for large numbers of U.S. citizens, employees of growing numbers of American-side maquila suppliers and of diverse service-oriented businesses spawned by the “multiplier effect.” On the broader world scene, outsourcing often involves production of commodities by developing countries that have om the transfer of technology and c om industrialized states and that use their ne to improve pr eas formerly dominated by the pr oducts and exports of a rich world state. For example, electrical and electronic goods from China and Southeast Asia compete with and replace in the mar formerly produced by W Such replacements, multiplied by numerous new country origins of the whole range of producer and consumer goods in world trade, have resulted in ne egions and specializations. y changed the developing world’s share of gr om an estimated 20% in the mid-20th y to mor measured in purchasing power par (see F e 7.7b). That improvement r in part, ow es share of their exports. For some observers, that change is ample pr impact of comparative advantage on the world economy.

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e disappearing in the face of a new era of hypercompetition, at least in business and provices. Sof e development, c and “bac ” activities are among the many now readily transferable cleric the performance of which is swelling the service component of developing countries’ economies. India in particular has y of sershoring, echoing China’s position as the preferred destination of production outsourcing. The exploitation of comparative advantage and utilization of outsourcing and offshoring, by transferring technology from economic y advanced to underdeveloped economies, is transforming the world economy by introducing a new international division of labor (NIDL). In the 19th century y, sion of labor invariably involved expor ed goods from the “industrial” countries and of raw materials from the “colonial” or “undeveloped” economies. Roles have no ed. ing no longer is the mainstay of the economy or the employment structure of Europe or Anglo America, and the world pattern of industr oduction is shifting to r owing dominance of countries formerly regarded as subsistence peasant societies that are now emerging as the source areas for manufactured goods of all types produced competitively for the world market. In recognition of that shift, the NIDL builds on the current trend toward the incr ing processes into smaller steps (and a similar fragmentation of stages of professional services). That subdivision permits multiple outsourcing and offshoring oppor ential land and c vels available in the globalized world economy. FIGURE 10.25 American manufacturers, seeking lower labor costs, began to establish component manufacturing and assembly operations in the 1960s along the international border in Mexico. U.S. laws allowed finished or semifinished products to be br ee, as they are from the Converse Outsourcing has moved a large pr e subsidiaries or contractors in Asia and Latin America.

shoring is the practice of either hiring foreign workers or, y, contracting with a foreign third-par provider to take ov ticular business processes or operations, such as c , , and similar nonproduction “back ” aspects of ing. Offshoring has become an increasingly standard cost-containment strategy, r ecent steep decline in communication costs, the ease of Internet use, owing technic ciency of foreign labor pools. With an ever-increasing portion of the developing world acquiring the education and experience to pro ovices of almost ever vel comparable to that formerly available only in advanced countries, traditional

Imposed Considerations Location theories dictate that, in a pure, competitive economy, the costs of mater transportation, labor, and plant should be dominant in locational decisions. Obviously, neither in the United States nor in any other market economy do the idealized conditions exist. Other constraints—some representing cost considerations, others politic affect, perhaps decisively, the locational decision process. Land use and zoning controls, governmental area development inducements, loc ment provisions or developmental bond authorizations, noneconomic pressures on quasi-governmental corporations, and other considerations constitute attractions or repulsions for industry outside of the context and consideration of pure theory (see “Contests and Bribery,” p. 345). If these imposed considerations become compelling, the assumptions of classical industrial location theory no longer dominate, and loc controls reminiscent of those enforced by current or former y planned economies become determining. No other imposed considerations were as pervasive as those governing industrial location in planned economies.

Contests and Bribery

The theoretic ols on plant locational decisions that apply in commercial economies were not, determinant in the y planned Marxist economies of Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union. In those economies, plant locational decisions were made by governmental agen-

Bur not mean that locational assessments based on factor cost were ignored; it meant that central planners were more concerned with other than purely economic considerations in the creation of new industrial plants and concentrations. Important in the former Soviet Union, for example, was a contr y of 345

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the rationalization of industry through full development of the resources of the country wherever they were found and without regard to the cost or competitiveness of such development. Ine y, the factors of industrial production are identical in capitalist and noncapitalist economies, the philosophies and patterns of industr ation and areal development Because major capital investments are relatively permanent additions to the landscape, the results of their often noneconomic politic or philosophic decisions ar ial r unist prese. Those same decisions and rigidities continue to inhibit the transition by the formerl y planned economies to modern capitalist industr

Transnational Corporations (TNCs) Outsour ession of the gro national str e of modern manufacturing and service enterprises. Business and industry are increasingly stateless and economies borderless as giant cor (TNCs)—pr established branch operations in nations foreign to their headquarter’s country—become an ever-more important dr ce in the globalizing world space economy. By 2006 there were about 78,000 transnational (or y introduced in Chapter 8) contr e than 900,000 for ying about 62 million workers. Excluding the parent companies themselves, the T of world GDP, and more than one-third of world exports. The largest transnational corporations have annual revenues larger than the GDP of many sizeable, developed or developing countries. For example, in 2008 Walmart Stores had 2.1 million employees and annual revenues of $406 billion (U.S.). If Walmart were a country, it would be ranked the 26th-largest economy in the world, just ahead of Iran, Greece, Denmark, and Argentina. The great majority of large TNCs are headquartered in the United States, Europe, or East Asia. With the exception of Walmart, most of the largest TNCs are invol ing or petroleum extraction and r . Ranked by foreign assets, the largest TNCs in 2007 were General Electric and Vodafone, while evenues would put Royal Dutch Shell, on Mobil, Walmart Stores, BP, and Chevron in the top Although tertiary and quaternary activities have also become international in scope and transnational in corporate structure, the locational and operational advantages of multicountry operation wer ers. The direct impact of TNCs was earlier limited to relatively few countries and regions. Foreig (FDI)—the purchase or construction of factories and other T ant engine of gloation. ws go to developing countries and the majority of that share is concentrated in

10 to 15 states, mainly in South, Southeast, and East Asia (China was the largest developing country recipient) and in Latin America and the Caribbean. The portion of FDI going to the 50 least-developed countries as a group, however— including nearl ican states—has been, and stays, consistentl amounting to onl ws in 1994 and remaining at that level in 2007, though in 2007 the ws were at their highest ever amounts of $20 billion. Because 80% of the world’s approximatel sumers live in the expanding developing nations, TNCs based in newly industrializing countries have the str iar kets and have an advantage in supplying them with goods and ser y cheaper to purchase, simpler and more familiar in operation, and more effectively distributed than those of many Western r TNCs. Nevertheless, despite poor countries’s hopes for foreign investment to spur their economic growth, the vast major ws not to the poor or developing worlds but to the rich. The advanced-country destination of those c ws is understandable: TNCs are activel or pur eady developed foreign market areas, and cross-border mergers and acquisitions have been the main stim behind FDI. Because most transnational corporations operate in only a few industries— computers, electronics, petroleum and mining, motor vehicles, chemic and pharmaceutic ldwide impact of ant. Some dominate the marketing and distribution of basic and specialized commodities. In raw mater a few TNCs account for 85% or more of world trade in wheat, maize, coffee, cotton, iron ore, and timber, for example. es, the highly concentrated world pharmaceutic Because they are international in operation with multiple markets, plants, and raw mater ces, TNCs actively exploit the principle of comparative advantage and seize oppor cing and offshoring. In manufacturing, ed the plant-siting decision process and have multiplied the number of loc y separated operations that must be assessed. TNCs produce in that country or region where the costs of materials, labor, or other production inputs are minimized, or wher company-owned factories can be easily expanded to produce rather than simply a national, market. At the same time, they can maintain operational control and declar in localities where the economic climate is most favorable. Research and development, accounting, and other corporate activities are placed wherever economic T ause global communications make it possible. Many have lost their original e no longer closely associated with or contr es, societies, and legal systems of a y. At the same time, their m ation of economic has reduced any earlier ations with single products or processes and has given rise to “transspanning a large spectrum of both service and industrial sectors.

Economic Geography

World Manufacturing Patterns and Trends Whether loc e made by private entrepreneurs or by central planners—and on whatever considerations those decisions are based—the results over many years have produced a distinctive wor ing. F e 10.26 suggests the str ominence of a relatively ial concentrations loc ed within relatively few countries primarily but not exclusively parts of the “industrialized” or “developed” world. These can be roughly grouped into four commonly recognized major ing regions: Eastern Anglo America, Western and Central Europe, Eastern Europe, and Eastern Asia. Together, the industrial plants within these established concentrations account for an estimated thr ths of the world’s manufactur Their continuing dominance is by no means assured. ee—those of Anglo America and Europe—were ies of an earlier phase in the development and spr ing following the Industrial Revolution y and lasting until after World W The countries within them now are increasingly developing postindustr ing and pr e of declining relative importance. The fourth—the East Asian industr t and forerunner of the wider, new pattern of world industriation that has emerged in recent years, the result of intertechnolo transfers in the , as br y reviewed in Chapter 7. The older, rigid industrial “North–South”

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developed and developing worlds has rapidly weakened as the om primar ocessing (e.g., the iron and steel industries) through advanced electronics assembly has been dispersed from, or separately established within, an ever-expanding list of countries. Such states as Mexico, Brazil, China, and others of the developing world have created industr egions of internaance, and the contribution to world manufactur , newly industrializing countries (NICs) has been gro antly. Even economies that until recently were ov y subsistence or dominated by agr ts have become important players in the changing world manufacturing scene. Foreign branch plant investment in low-wage Asian, African, and Latin American states has not only created their industrial infrastructures but also increased their gr oducts and per c y to permit expanded production for growing domestic—not just export—markets. In Malaysia, for example—one of the rapidly growing Southeast Asian economies—agr e’s share of gross domestic product was cut by nearly 60% and 2006, and the share of merchandise exports fr ing rose from 19% to 75%. For P outh Asia, manued goods jumped fr t values in that period. Collectively, the “developing world” accounted for nearly 30% of gross world product in 2008 using current exchange rates and closer to 50% measured at purchasing power par . Increasingly, e of that output is compr ed goods that formerly were nearly exclusively the product of the “advanced world” of the North.

FIGURE 10.26 World industrial regions. Industrial districts are not as continuous or “solid” as the map suggests. Manufacturing is a relatively minor user of land even in areas of its greatest concentration.

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High-Tech Patterns Major industr icts of the world developed over time as entrepreneurs and planners established traditional secondary industr ientations predicted by classical location theories. Those theories are less applicable in explaining the location of the latest generation of manufacturing activities: the high-technology—or high-tec ocessing and production that is increasingly part of the advanced economies. F new and different patterns of locational orientation and advantage have emerged, based on other than the traditional r High technology is more an ambiguous concept than a pr Today’ dard in just a few years and old, obsolete within a few decades. It probably is best understood as the application of intensive research and development efforts to the creation and manufacture of new pr white-collar”— and engineering character.b Pr workers make up a large shar ce. They include research scientists, engineers, W e added to administrative, supervisory, marketing, and other professional staffs, they may greatl oduction workers in a ’s employment str e. In the world of high tech, that is, y (manufacturing) and quaternary (kno kers is increasingly blurred. y a fe ial activity are generally reckoned as exclusively high tech—electronics, communications, computers, sof e, pharmaceutic biotechnology, aerospace, and the like—advanced technology is increasingly a part of the structure and pr of industry. Robotics on the assembly line, computer-aided design and manufacturing, electronic controls of smelting and r ocesses, and the constant development of new products of the chemic ies are cases in point. Indeed, in the United States in 2006 an estimated average of mor y y iented occupations. The impact of high-tech industries on patterns of economic geography is expressed in several ways. High-tech activities are becoming major factors in employment growth and ing output in the advanced and newly industrializing economies. Restricting the count onl tr y high-tech industries, there were 14.4 million American wage and salary jobs in 2002, about 11% of the total nonfarm jobs in the economy. High-tech employment is important, but it is not the dominating economic force it is sometimes claimed to be. The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics foresees high-tech ing declining faster than ov ing as T ibes high-technolog those “engaged in the design, development, and introduction of new products ing processes through the systematic application of wledge.”

physic oduction continues to move out of the country. The United Kingdom, Germany, Japan, and other advanced countries have had similar high-tech employment courses, while high-tech manufacturing has been established and grown most dramatic y in the newly industrializing countries of South, Southeast, and East Asia, ies initially of outsourcing and offshor , more recently, of independent, vigorous, mpetition in the world market. High-tech industries have tended to become r y concentrated in their countries of development, and within those regions they frequently form self-sustaining, highly specialized agglomerations in hubs of technologic vation (Figure 10.27). for example, has a share of U.S. high-tech employment far in excess of its share of American population. the P orthwest (including British Columbia), New England, New Jersey, Texas, and Colorado have proportions of their workers in high-tech industries abo these and other states or regions of high-tech concentration, ved prominence: Silicon V S an Francisco; Irvine and Orange os Angeles; the Silicon Forest near Seattle; North Carolina’s Research Triangle; Utah’s Sof e Valley; Routes 128 and 495 around Boston; Silicon Swamp of the Washington, D.C., area; O Canada’s, Silicon Valley North; and the Canadian Technology Triangle west of Toronto e familiar Anglo American examples. Within such concentration, specialization is often the r medical technologies in Minneapolis and Philadelphia; bioound San Antonio; computers and semiconductors in eastern V “S in Austin, Texas; and telecommunications in New Jersey’s Princeton Corridor; and telecommunications and Internet industries near Washington, D.C. Elsewhere, Scotland’s S Glen, England’s Sunrise Strip and S en, Wireless V in Stoc Zhong Guancum in suburban Beijing and the high-tech industries zo and High-T , Pune, and Bangalore, India, are other examples of industr apes characterized by low, modern, y buildings rather than by massive factories, or assembly structures, freight facilities, and storage areas. Planned business ks cater e increasingly a part of r al economic planning. The older distributional patterns of high-tech industries suggest that they respond to different loc ces than those contr ing industries. At least ecognized: (1) proximesearch facilities and to a large (2) the avoidance of areas strong labor unionization where contract rigidities might slow process innovation and wor y; (3) loc ec epreneur ing; (4) location in regions and major metropolitan areas with favorable “ ” reputations—climate, scenery, recreation, good universities, and an employ y large to supply needed workers and pro

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AR CT I C OC EAN Arctic Circle 60°

ATL ANT I C OC EAN 30°

30° Tropic of Cancer

PACIF IC OCE A N 0°

150°

120°

90°

PAC I F I C OCEAN 30°

0°

60°

90°

150°

0°

Equator

I N DI AN OC EAN Tropic of Capricorn 30°

60° Antarctic Circle

FIGURE 10.27 Global hubs of technological innovation. The technology innovation hubs shown with circles were identified by Wired magazine in 2000 based on the presence of research universities, research laboratories, established technology companies, venture capital, and entrepreneurial activity. The highest-scoring regions were Silicon Valley (California), Boston (Massachusetts), Stockholm (Sweden), Israel, Research Triangle (North Carolina), and London (U.K.). The technological achievement index was generated by the United Nations. Source: 2001. Adapted by permission from Bradshaw

for pr

y trained spouses; unication and transportation facilities to unite esearch, development, ing markets, and the go tant in supporting research. agglomerations have develipheries of metropolitan areas but oblems and disadvantages. Many have eas of subdivisions, shopping centers, schools, and parks in close pro ations and business parks that form their core. New York metropolitan area is a major high-tech concentration, most of the technology jobs are suburban, not in Manhattan, which is mor eative ies, such as advertising and Web design. Agglomerating forces are also important in this new industr The formation of ne frequent and rapid in industries where discoveries are constant and innovation is continuous. Because many are “spinoff ” al companies, areas of existing high-tech concentration tend to spawn new entrants and to pro Agglomeration, therefore, is both a product and a cause of spans. N oduction must be concentrated, however. The spatial attractions affecting the

orld Regional Geography, 2009.

professional,

wledge-intensive aspects of

ing and assembly operations, which may be highly automated or require in the way of labor These tasks, in our earlier loc y, are “footloose”; they require highly mobile capital and technology investments but may be advantageously performed by young women in low-wage areas at home or—more likely—in countries such as Taiwan, Hong Kong, Malaysia, China, and Mexico. Coners totally divorced spatially and manager y from the companies whose products they produce accounted in 2006 for an estimated 15% to 20% of the output of all electronics hardware. Most often, the same factory produces similar or identical products under a number of different brand names. Through manufacturing transfers of technology and outsourcing, therefore, e spread to newly industr ies. ation thr transfer and dispersion represents another impact of high-tech eady underant but variable change in response to the new technologies. The United S y the world’s leading producer of high-tech products from 1980 to 2002, contr ld high-tech output. In the earl y, the European Union remained in second place but was losing share to fast-rising Asian countries.

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Percent of U.S. labor force

1850 Primary workers

1900

1950 Secondary workers

1%

TA B L E 1 0 . 2

2009 Tertiary workers

FIGURE 10.28 The changing sectoral allocation of the U.S. labor force is a measur . Its progression from a largely agricultural to postindustrial status is clearly evident.

Asia’s market share steadily increased ov ades , by South Korea, Taiwan, and China in the 1990s. By 2001, South Korea produced 7.1% and China 8.7% of world hightech output. Such summary es tend to conceal relative tance in par oduction and trade. For example, by 2004 China had surpassed the United States in expor such as laptop computers, mobile phones, ameras and in 2007 30% of ing exports were in high technology.

TERTIARY AND BEYOND Primary you will rec gather, extract, or grow things. Secondary industries give form utility to the products of pr y through manufacturing and processing efforts. A major and gro , however, involves services rather than the production of commodities. These tertiary ations that provide services to the primary and secondary sectors, to , They imply puroduction of tangible commodities. As we saw earlier in this chapter, r course of their development. Subsistence societies exclusively dependent on pr ies may progress to secondarystage pr ing activities. In that progression, the importance of agriculture, for example, as an employer of labor or as a contributor to national income declines as that ing expands. As economic gro secondar e replaced by service, or ter, functions as the main support of the economy. Advanced economies that have made that transition are often referred to as postindustrial because of the dominance of their service secant dec ing as a generator of employment and national income. Perhaps more than any other major country economy, the United States has reached postindustr Its pr

om 66% of the labor force in 1850 to 1% in 2009, and the ser ose from 18% to 86% (F e 10.28). Of the 15 million new jobs created in the United S nearl after discounting for job losses in other employment sectors, occurred in services. Comparable changes are found in other countries. Early in the 21st century, jobs in such developed economies as Japan, Canada, Australia, Israel, and major Western European countries were also in the ser . ance of tertiar e-developed and less-developed states are made clear not just by employ differ ibution of ser oss domestic products of states. The relative importance of services displayed in F e 10.29 sho and subsistence societies. The greater the service share of an economy, the greater are the integration and interdependence . That share has grown over time among most r categories bec mies have shared to some degree in world de growth (Table 10.2). Indeed, the expansion of the ter sector in modernizing East Asia, South Asia, and the P was more than the world average in the 1990s. In Latin America and the ibbean, services accounted for 60% of Tertiary and service, however, are broad and imprecise terms that cover a range of activities from neighborhood barber to World Bank president. The designations ar y applicable to traditional, lo etail activities and to higher-order, wledge-based professional services performed pr ily for other businesses, consumption. Logic y, the composite service c ing to the dail t needs of individuals and local communities and those involving pr administrative, egional, and international sc Those different levels of activity and scope

Economic Geography

FIGURE 10.29 shared to some degr

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om about 50% 20 years earlier. As the map eatly; Table 10.2 indicates all national income categories Source: World Bank, World Development Indicators 2008 and CIA, World Fact Book 2008.

represent different loc inciples and quite different roles in their contribution to domestic and world economies. To recogniz we c y restrict the term tertiary y to the lower-level activities largely related to the day-to-day needs of people and to wns and cities worldwide. We can then assign higher-level, mor ed information, research, tive quaternary and quinary categories (see F e 10.2) with quite different and distinctive character ance.

Tertiary Services Some essential services are concerned with the wholesaling or retailing of goods, providing what economists call place utility to items produced elsewhere. exchange function of advanced economies and provide the market transactions necessary in highly interdependent societies. In commercial economies, tertiary activities also provide vitally needed information about market demand without which economicall oduction decisions are impossible. Most tertiary activities, however, are concerned with pery, cluster in cities large and small. The supply of those of low-level services of must be identic to the spatial distribution of e e demand—that is, wants made meaningful through purchasing power. Retail and service activities are loc ed by their markets, for the production of the ser e simultaneous

FIGURE 10.30 e demand and purchasing power are concentrated, as this garment repairperson working in a street in central Kathmandu, Nepal, demonstrates. Such “informal sector” employment—street vendors, odd-job handymen, open-air clothes mending, and the like—usually escapes governmental r © Mark Bjelland.

occurrences. Retailers and personal service providers tend to locate, therefore, where mar eatest and multiple ser demands are concentrated (F e 10.30). Their locational patterns and the employment support they imply are important aspects of urban economic str e and are dealt with in Chapter 11.

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ld’s increasingly interdependent postindustr the gro vice component not only r velopment of increasingly complex social, economic, and administrative structures; ates changes made possible by growing personal incomes or posy structure and indile. For example, in subsistence economies families produce, pr e, and consume food within the household. Urbanizing industrial societies have increasing dependence on ed farmers growing food and wholesalers and retailers selling food to households that largely pr e and consume it at home. Postindustrial America increasingly opts to purchase prepared foods in restaurants and fast-food and carry-out establishments with accelerating gro y foodser kers that change demands. People ar but the employment str e has changed. Part of the gro in the tertiary component is statistic rather than functional. In our discussion of modern industry, we saw that outsourcing is increasingly used as a de r ing and assembl ciencies. In the same way, outsourcing of ser ly pro in-house is also characteristic of current business practice. Cleaning and maintenance of factories, shops, and l t of internal operations—now ar ed ser providers. The jobs ar , perhaps even by the same personnel, but worker status has changed from “secondary” (as emplo ing plant, for example) to “tertiary” (as emplo Special note should be made of tourism—travel undertaken for the purposes of recreation rather than business. It has become not only the most important single tertiary sector activity but also the world’s largest industry in jobs and total value generated. On a worldwide basis, tourism accounts for some 250 million recorded jobs and untold additional numbers in the informal economy. Altogether, 15% or more of the world’s wor ce is engaged in providing services to recreational travelers, and in 2005 the total economic value of tourism goods and services reached about $4.5 trillion, or 10% of the world’s gross domestic product. In middle- and high-income countries, tourism suppor e of domestic expenditures through transportation-related costs, roadside ser entertainment, national park visits, and the like. International tourism, on the other hand, generates new income and jobs of growing importance in developing states. , wor ist visits numbered about 920 million in 2008, more than a third of them destined for the less-developed low- and middle-income countries. International tourism, accounting for 40% of global services trade in 2005, produced some 7% eign earnings of developing states and—in the form of goods and services, such as meals, lodging, and transport consumed by foreign travelers—constituted more than 45% of their total “service exports.” For half of the world’s 50 poorest countries, tourism had become the leading service export sector.

Whatever the origins of tertiary employment growth, the e comparable. The process of development leads to incr ation and economic interdependence within a country. That was ing the latter par mies, as Table 10.2 attests. Carried to the postindustr apita income, the service component of both the employed labor force and the gross domestic product rises to dominance.

Beyond Tertiary Available statistics, unfor y, do not always permit a c tertiary ser yment that is a r of daily le or corporate str changes and the more-specialized, higher-level quaternary and quinary activities. The quaternary sector can be seen realistically as an advanced form of ser ed knowledge, technic communic , or administrative competence. These are the tasks carr elementar lassrooms, hospitals and doctors’s theaters, accounting and br and the like. With the explosive growth in the demand for and consumption of information-based services—mutual fund managers, Internet and sof e developers, statisticians, and more—the sector in the most highly developed economies has unmistakably replaced all primary and secondy employment as the basis for economic gro In fact, over kers in r e in the “ wledge sector” oduction, storage, retrie or distribution of information. Q formed for other business organizations often embody the “externalization” ized services similar to the outsourcing of low-level tertiary ee-standing quaternary service establishments c y divorced from their clients; they are not tied to resources, affected by the environment, or necessarily loc ed by market. They can r e cost reductions thr ultiple clients in highly technic eas and permit c to achie ing to their own labor force. Often, of course, when high-le e required, the close functional association of client and ser y encourages quaternary establishment locational and employ headquarters distribution of the primar tries served. But the transpor y services y activities c y isolated from their client base. In the United States, at least, these combined trends have resulted both in the concentration of certain specialized services—mer underwriting, for example—in major metropolitan areas and in a r y sector to accompany

Economic Geography

the growing r deconcentration of the client base. Similar loc ven for the y more-restricted advanced economies of, for example, England and France. Information, administration, and the “ wledge” activities in their broadest sense are dependent on communication. Their spatial dispersion, therefore, underlying technologic electr ocessing and telecommunications transfer of data. That permits many “bac ” tasks to y distant fr ations of either the service or the c Insurance claims, credit card charges, m fund and stock market transactions, and the like are mor y and economic y recorded or processed in low-rent, low-labor cost locations—often in suburbs or towns and in r states—than in the districts of major cities. The production and consumption of such services can be y separated in a way not feasible for tery, Finally, there are the quinary activities, another separately recognized subdivision of the tertiary sector representing the special and highly paid skills of top business executives, go research scientists, and legal consultants, and so on. ness in major metropolitan centers, in and near major universities and research parks, al centers, and in cabinet- and department-le al capitals. Within their cities of concentration, they may be highly localized by prestigious street addresses (Park Avenue, W tr rinceton, New Jersey) or by notable “signature” Transamerica Building, Sears Tower, or John Hancock Building). Their importance in the structur numbers.

SERVICES IN WORLD TRADE economic growth the most-advanced states, so, too, have they become an increasing factor in international trade ws and economic interdependence. 2006, services increased from 15% of total world trade to 23%. The fastest-growing segment of that increase was in such private ser brokerage, and leasing activities, which had gro cial ser 2005. As in the domestic arena, rapid advances in information onic data transmission have been central ation of ser ed and wireless communication costs have been reduced to negligible levels. Many services considered nontradable even late in the 1990s are now actively traded at long distance, as the growth of services offshoring clearly shows. Developing countries have been ticular ies of the new technologies. Their exports of commer vices— valued at nearly $870 billion in 2006—grew at an annual

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15% rate in the 1990s, vice exports from industrial regions. The incr expanded the international comparative advantage of developing states in relatively labor-intensive long-distance service activities such as mass data processing and computer sof e development. At the same time, om incr state-of-the-art equipment and techniques transferred from advanced economies. The concentration of computer sof e development e, Pune, and Hyderabad has made India a major world player in sof e innovation, for example, whereas elsewhere in that country increasing volumes of bac work for Western insurance companies and airlines is being performed. Claims pr ibbean states to take advantage of lower wages and the availabilated workers there. ases, the result is an acceleration in the transfer rate of technology in such expanding areas as information and telecommunications services and an increase in the rate of developing-country integration in the world economy. That integration has increasingly moved to higher levels of economic and pr vices. y advantages of outsour accountancy, medical analysis and technical services, and research and development work in a nearly unlimited range of businesses are now widely understood and appreciated. Wired and wireless transmission of data, documents, medic al records, charts, X rays, and the like make distant quaternary and higher-level services immediately and y accessible. Further, many higher-level services are easily subdivided and performable in sequence or simultaneously in multiple locations. The well-known “follow the sun” practices of sof e developers who a day’s tasks only to pass on work to colleagues elsewhere in the world are now increasingly used by professionals in many When the practice involves highly educated and eceiving developing-world compensation levels, the cost attractions for developed country companies are irresistible. The necessary levels of education and technic tise are, to an ever-greater extent, more apt to have been acquired not by expensive training in European or North American universities but, rather, through distant learning programs and pr ough the Internet. Many of the current developing-country gains in international quaternary ser e the result of increased foreign direct investment (FDI) in the services sector. Those ws accounted for thr ly years of the 21st century. The major however, is transferred within the advanced countries themselves ial and developing states. In either case, porations use mainframe computers around the clock for data processing, they can exploit or eliminate time zone differ ies and host countr Such cr

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service transactions are not usually recorded in balance of payment or trade statistics but mater y increase the volume of ws. Despite the increasing shar by developing countries, world trade—imports plus exports— in ser verwhelmingly dominated by a very few (Table 10.3). The country and c e great, as

a comparison of the “high-income” and “low-income” groups documents. At a different level, in 2005, state of Singapore had a greater share (2.1%) of wor aharan Africa (1.2%). growth and

range of

and quinary y.

(a)

(b)

FIGURE 10.31 (a) The hierarchy of international financial centers, topped by New York and London, indicates the tendency of highest-order quater (b) e locations wher ol and national taxes finds refuge, suggests that dispersed convenience sites also national financial community. Source: Peter Dicken. . 4th ed. Guilford Press, 2003, Figures 13.8 and 13.10.

Economic Geography

TA B L E 1 0 . 3

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The pr ies have established foreign branches, and the world’s leading banks have become major presences in the primary capitals. In turn, a relatively few world cities have emerged as international are continuous and borderless, while a host of offshore banking havens have emerged to exploit gaps in r y controls igure 10.31). A advertising agencies, ternary sector establishments of North American or European origin primarily have increasingly established their internaesence, with main branches located in principal business centers worldwide. The list of tertiary, quaternary, and quinary employment is long. of modern life and of how far removed we are from the subsistence economies. As societies advance economic y, the shares of employment and national income generated by the primary, secondary, and composite ter y change, yr The shift is steadily away from primary production and secondary processing and toward the trade, personal, and professional services of the tertiary sector and the information and contr .

Summary of Key Concepts • Three recognized types of economic systems are subsistence, commercial, and planned. pr producers and family members. In the second, economic yr ket forces and reasoned assessments of monetary gain. In the third, at least some nonmonetar production decisions. • Economic activities may be grouped by the stages of production and the degr ation they represent into primary activities (food and raw material production), secondary industries (processing and ing), tertiary activities (distr vice), and the administrative, informational, and technic ations (quaternary and quinary activities) that mark highly advanced societies of either planned or commercial systems. • Different countries and regions display different stages of economic development; there is no single, inevitable pattern of progression from underdeveloped subsistence y, tertiary, and quaternary activities that marks a modern market economy. • Agriculture, the most extensively practiced of the primary industries, is part of the economy of both subsistence and advanced societies. , it is

responsive to the immediate consumption needs of the producer group and r onmental conditions under which it is practiced. In the second, agricule reacts to consumer demand expressed through free or contr kets. • Manufacturing is the dominant form of secondary activond the subsistence level. Location theories help explain observed patterns of industrial development. Those theories are iable costs of production and distribution, including costs of raw materials, power, labor, mar , and transportation. • Agglomeration economies and the m make attractive locations not other edicted for indiproduction decisions of entrepreneurs. Just-in-time and oductions systems introduce different locational ies. A growing number of transnational corporations (TNCs) kets, plants, and raw material sources actively exploit advantages of outsourcing and offshoreign direct investments away from their home country base. • A large share of global manufactur elativel

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concentrations and m egions. The mostadvanced countries within those regions are undergoing deindustrialization as newly industrializing countries e favorable cost structures compete for markets. In the advanced economies, tertiary, quaternary, and quinary activities become more important as secondary sector employment and share of gr oduct declines.

• No national economy exists in isolation; each is an interconnected part of a world system, of economic and cultural integration. Events affecting one to affect Despite differences in language, culture, or ideology, we are inseparably a single people economically, ation increasingly controlled by the gro banization discussed in the following chapter.

Key Words agglomeration 339 agr e 319 e 334 comparative advantage 343 economic geography 313 extensive commercial agr e 329 extensive subsistence agr e 320 external economies 341 extractive industries 333 Fordism 341 foreign direct investment (FDI) 346 gathering industries 332

Green Revolution 325 infrastr e 341 intensive commercial agriculture 329 intensive subsistence agr e 320 least-cost theory 339 market (commercial) economy 315 um sustainable yield 333 nomadic herding 320 offshoring 344 outsourcing 343 planned economy 315 plantation 331

primar quaternar

314 314 314 secondar y 314 shifting cultivation 321 subsistence economy 315 tertiar y 314 tragedy of the commons 334 poration (TNC) 346 variable costs 339 von Thünen rings 327

Thinking Geographically 1. What are the distinguishing characteristics of the economic systems labeled subsistence, commercial, and planned? Are they m y exclusive, or can they coexist within a single politic 2. How is intensive subsistence agr e distinguished from extensive subsistence cropping? Why, in your opinion, have such different land use forms developed in separate areas of the warm, moist tropics? 3. Br y summarize the assumptions and dictates of von Thünen’s agr How might the land use patterns predicted by the model be altered by an increase in the market price of a single crop? A decrease in the transportation costs of one crop but not of all crops? 4. What economic or ecological problems can you cite that do or might affect the gathering industries of forestry and hat is maximum sustainable yield? Is that concept related to the problems you discerned?

5. W ing assumptions did Weber make in his theory of plant location? In what ways does the Weberian search for the least-cost location differ from the recognition of the spatial margin of pr ability? 6. How, in your opinion, do the concepts or practices of comparative advantage and outsourcing affect the industr str e of advanced and developing countries? 7. As high-tech industries and quaternary and quinary employment become more important in the economic structure of advanced countries, what consequences for economic geographic patterns do you anticipate? Explain. 8. What have been the motivations and rewards of the outsourcing of quaternary ser veloped country s, do you think, has that outsourcing favorably or unfavorably affected the home country economies of the outsour

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C

airo was a world-c y. Situated at the crossroads of Africa, Asia, and Europe, it dominated trade on the Mediterranean Sea. By the early 1300s, e, with 10- to 14-story buildings crow . There were more than 12,000 shops, some of which specialized in y goods from over the world—Siberian sable, chain mail, music uments, cloth, songbirds. Travelers marveled at the size, , and var o, comparing it favorably with cities such as Venice, Paris, and Baghdad. Cairo’s chronicler of the period, Taqui-al-Din-Al-Maqrizi, recorded the construction of a huge building with shops on tments housing 4000 people. One Florentine visitor estimated that more people lived on a single Cairo street than in all of Florence. Travelers fr over Europe and Asia made their way through Cairo, and the shipping at the port of Bulaq outdistanced those of Venice and Genoa combined. Today, Cairo is a vast, sprawling metropolis representative of several recent trends in urbanization in developing countries where population growth far outstrips economic development. The population of Egypt was measured at 35 million in 1970. In recent decades, better health care has led to a big drop in infant mor , and the result is a countr people. Some 12 million reside in the Cairo greater metropolitan area. Greater Cairo now extends more than 450 square 27,000 per squar Population trends are expected to continue, with a predicted population of around 13.5 million by 2015. A steady str ives in Cairo daily because it is the place where people think oppor , where

life be and brighter than in the crowded countryside. Cairo is the sy a place where young people are willing to undergo deprivation for the chance to “make it.” But real opportunities continue to be scarce. The poor, of whom there are millions, crowd into row after row of apartment houses, many of them poorly constructed. Tens of thousands more live in roof Nile; orthern and Southern Cemeter wn as the Cities of the Dead—on Cairo’s eastern edge. On occasion, buildings collapse; the earthquake of October 12, 1992, measured 5.9 on the Richter sc caused enormous damage, leveling thousands of buildings. Yet ow, spreading onto valued farmland, thus decr y’s increasing population. One’ ession when arr o is , a stark contrast to what lies outside the center. High-rise apartments, regional headquarters buildings of mulporations, and modern hotels stand amid clogged streets, symbols of the new Eg F e 11.1). The well-todo can eat at McDonald’s, Pizza Hut, Taco Bell, or Chili’s; new suburban developments and exclusive r unities create enclaves for the wealthy. The plush apartments and expensive c however, are only a short distance from the slums that are home to masses of underemployed people, perhaps as much as 20% of Cairo’s population. The contrasts evident in Cair ver , ern str es and slums, vercrowding are profound. Like a number of large cities, Cairo has an urban explosion, one that sees an increasing proportion of the world’s population housed in cities without the str es to suppor

FIGURE11.1 Cairo, Egypt. The population growth in the greater metropolitan area—from some 3 million in 1970 to 12 million today—has been mirrored in many developing countries. The rapid gr

ate , and environmental deterioration. © Corbis RF.

An Urban World

Because of its rapid gro Cairo has not been able to plan and create an adequate infrastr e for its inhabitants. The 1992 earthquake pr ’ development plan. Tr ways a problem in Cairo, despite recent improvements, such as a ring road ar the construction of a metro. Vehicles id consum10% of Cairenes suffer respiratory illnesses due to air pollution. In fact, Cairo’s air pollution is worse than that of Mexico City, long thought to be the world’s worst. The and the crowding contribute to noise pollution, in which noise levels often reach 80 decibels or more. W ile and in treated dr shows dangerous levels of lead and cadmium, whose health These problems of size, population, pover , planning, and infrastructur to some degree and are some of the topics we consider in this chapter.

AN URBANIZING WORLD Cities today are gro In 1900 only 13 cities had a population of more than 1 people; in 2008 there were 455 such cities (Figure 11.2). It has been projected that by 2015 ther In 1900, no cities had a population of mor people. Nineteen metropolises had 10 million or more people in 2008 (Table 11.1 and F e 11.3). The United Nations c ls these megacities. Of course, as we saw in Chapter 6, we would expect the urban component to have increased as the world’s population has greatly increased. Urbanization and

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metropolitanization have increased more rapidly than the gro however. In the year 1800, only 3% of the world’s population lived in cities; now, e is about 50%. The amount of urban gro om continent to continent and from country to country, tries have one thing in common: the proportion of the people living in cities is rising. Table 11.2 shows world urban population by region. Note that the most industrialized parts of the world, North America and Western Europe, are the most urbanized in terms of percentage of people living in cities, while Asia and Africa have lower proportions of urban population. Industrialization fosters urbanization, but in developing countries, urbanization has resulted only partly from industrialization. P k ural eas, but they of The cities of sub-Saharan Africa are growing at a rapid rate, largely due to rural-to-urban migration. However, the urban growth is beyond the capability of the economic system to create employment, housing, and vices. S wns and squatter settlements, in addition to unemployment and underemployment, are characteristic of cities such as Lagos, Nigeria, ,S Figure 11.33 on page 389). It is interesting to note in Table 11.2 that China and Southeast Asia (Vietnam, Indonesia, etc.) have relatively low proportions of people in urban regions. Their absolute number of people in urban areas, however, is among the highest in the world. Given the huge populations in Asia, and the relatively iculture (excluding Japan and Korea), it sometimes escapes us that many large cities exist throughout parts of the world where most people are still engaged in subsistence agr e.

7.5% 12.0%

1.6%

1900

1950

Rural Cities of fewer than 1 million Cities of more than 1 million World population 1.6 billion

World population 2.5 billion

2020 2000

World population 7.7 billion

FIGURE 11.2 Trends in world urbanization. Note the steady decline in the pr pr and projections from Population Reference Bureau and other sources.

World population 6.1 billion

eas. The United Nations eas of the world. Sources: Estimates

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TA B L E 1 1 . 1

FIGURE 11.3 Metropolitan areas of 3 million or more in 2005. Only metropolitan areas with a population of 5 million or more are named. Massive urbanized districts are no longer characteristic only of the industrialized, developed countries. Note the clusters of large metropolitan areas in developing countries, such as Rio de Janeir ianjin in China, and the Mumbai (Bombay) region of India. Source: Population projections from United Nations Population Division.

An Urban World

TA B L E 1 1 . 2

In this chapter, factors responsible for the development, location, and functions of ur eas. Our second goal is to examine the systems of urban areas—the relationships they bear to one another. e of land use patterns within those areas. Fourth, we attempt to differentiate cities around the world by re wing some of the factors that help explain their special nature.

ORIGINS AND EVOLUTION OF CITIES People need to be near one another: they gather together to form couples, families, groups, organizations, and towns. Beyond companionship, people need each other to sustain important support systems. The origins of towns lie in se factors: the existence of a settled comm gather a concentration of people; groups not directly engaged in agr e; and the existence and governance of an elite group. These factors are the basis for ur and the under ation (note that city and civilization have the same Latin root, civis). ation was necessary befor wns and cities emerged, the development of cities depended on favorable circumstances, including fertile soil, the presence of water for transportation, building mater Technology in the form of agr oduction and food transport and storage was also necessary for urban development. Given these conditions, how did cities begin in the ancient world? First and foremost, the earliest cities depended on the existence of an agr plus. Many early cities included farms within their but the main distinction the

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yside stemmed from the nonagr aspect of most urban dwellers. This meant that food had to be provided to the urban population by the hinter surround. Advances in agriculture, stemming from fortunate circumstances and improvements in technology, created a food surplus in an area surrounding a population center. Those in the nascent town who were not involved in agriculture were fr e in other occupations—metalsmithing, ther the technology important in creating the food surplus. Others might become part of the ruling elite or pr y castes, helping to r wer structure and civilization that organized residents’ lives. Social organization and power, often r eligion, wer ecursor to urban development. Most ancient cities center , which housed the priests, the granary, the schools, and often the ruler. Cities bec wer, cementing the relationship to the hinter wing the extraction of the agr surplus from the hinterland and its redistribution in the city. Ancient cities grew in spots that were easy to defend. Positions along rivers aided in transportation, but hilltops offered defensive advantages. Often residents built walls to surround the town and aid in its defense. moats was a strategy used in much of Europe, but these defensive framewor Some cities, such as Rome, went through m uction, each addition extending the area in which residents could live. The fourth factor in the emergence of urban areas was the development of a more-complex economy. Cities extracted their sustenance from the surrounding hinterland. As the extended its power and organization, it could extend its hold over a wider hinterland. As agricultural technology improved, the hinterland could produce more food, and as methods of transportation and storage improved, cities could bring in more food and store it safely for ev edistribution to the urban population. The size of a hinterland could limit urban growth, as cities could grow only if the agr plus also grew. In Europe and Asia, from about the 10th to the 18th y, shifts in economic relationships changed the simple extractive r land. As trade became the engine of the economy, urban merchants In general, they traded raw mater wool, wood, spices—which were then used to pr goods, such as textiles, boats, and food. With the Industr Revolution, another shift in economic organization took place. The Industr volution accelerated urbanization, y in Europe. Power ne ies, owing wor lations, fostered mass production. Cities, once centered on the temple or the palace, once surr once focused on the marketplace and the river, ly: their economic fortunes centered on the factories, the railroads, and kers.

(a)

(b)

FIGURE 11.4

ences in size, density, and land use complexity are immediately apparent between (a) New York City and (b) a small town (Camden, Maine). One is a city, one is a town, but both are urban areas. (a) © Getty RF; (b) Corbis RF.

This very brief overview of the development of urban areas only scratches the surface of a very complex phenomenon and a very long history, but it is important to understand the origins of cities before examining other aspects of cities. First, we will star then turn to the factors ation of urban settlement and the economic structure of cities.

Defining the City Today Urban areas are not of a single pe, str e, or size. Their common characteristic is that they are nucleated, nonagriculAt one end of the size sc , urban areas are wns with perhaps a single main street of shops; at the opposite end, they are complex, m opolitan areas or megacities (Figure 11.4). The word urban is often used to describe such places as a town, , suburb, or metropolitan area, but it is a general term, particular type of settlement. People use common terms differently. What a resident of r Vermont or West Virginia c a may not at all be afforded that name and status by an inhabitant of California or New Jersey. In addition, one should keep in mind that the term urban differs the world over: in the United States, the Census Bureau describes urban places as having 2500 or more inhabitants; in Greece, urban as municipalities in which the largest population center has 10,000 or more inhabitants; in Nicaragua, it denotes administrative centers of localities with streets, electric lights, and at least 1000 inhabitants. It is necessary in this chapter to agree 362

on the meanings of terms commonly employed but interpreted in different ways. The words and town denote nucleated settlements, m , including an established central business district and both r uses. Towns are smaller in siz lear business concentration. Suburb denotes a subsidiary area, y specialized segment of a large urban complex, dependent on an urban area. It may be dominantly or exclusively residential, industrial, or commer Suburbs, however, can be independent political entities. The is the part of the urban area contained within the suburban ring; it usuall boundaries. Some or of these urban may be associated into larger units. An urbanized is a continuously built-up landsc no reference to political boundaries. It may contain a central cit towns, suburbs, and other urban tracts. A metropolitan area, on the other hand, refers to a large-scale functional , perhaps containing several urbanized areas, discontinuously built up but nonetheless operating as an integrated economic whole (Figure 11.5).

The Location of Urban Settlements Urban centers are connected to other cities and r eas as they provide services for themselves and for others and rely on outside areas for goods and services not produced loc y and

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Metropolitan area boundary

75°W

County A Central business district (CBD) Central city boundary (incorporated city limits) Farthest extent of continuous urban development Extent of suburban development Town boundary

T N O M I

D

40°N

A

E County boundary County B

units within a metropolitan area. of the central city are very expensive and contain areas commonly thought of as suburban or even rural. On the other hand, older eastern U.S. cities and some, such as San Francisco, in the West mor density land uses and populations of their metropolitan areas.

kets for their products and activities. To perform the tasks that support it and to add ne the larger economy, the urban unit m y located. y may derive fr , from the physic characteristics of its site, or from its location relative to the resources, productive regions, and a transpor k connecting it to its markets. In discussing urban settlement location, geographers frequently differentiate site and situation, concepts introduced in Chapter 1. Y ec site refers to the exact location of a settlement and can be described either in , or in terms of the physical characteristics of the site. For example, the site of Philadelphia is an area bordering and west of the Delaware River north of the intersection with the Schuy ennsylvania( F e 11.6). The description can be more or less exhaustive, depending on the purpose it is meant to serve. In the Philadelphia case, tly on the Atlantic coastal plain, is partly in the piedmont (foothills), and is served by a navigable river is important if one is interested in the development of the ing the Industrial Revolution. As Figure 11.7 suggests, water transportation and power were important localizing factors when major American cities were established on the East Coast.

L

I

P

P

A C O

FIGURE 11.5 A hypothetical spatial arrangement of urban

N

S

T

A

L

FIGURE 11.6 The site of Philadelphia.

ations of cities according to site characteristics have been proposed, r cumstances. These include break-of-bulk locations, such as river crossing points where cargoes and people must interrupt a journey; head-of-navigation or bay head locations where the limits of water transportation are reached; and railhead locations where a railroad ends. In Europe, secur island locations or elevated sites—were considerations in ear ations. Whereas site suggests absolute location, indicates relative location; it places a settlement in relation to the physic istics of the surrounding areas. Very often it is important to kno ties and activities exist in the area near a settlement, such as the distribution of raw materials, market areas, agr regions, mountains, and oceans. ago is 41°52′N, 87°40′W, on a lake plain. More important, however, is its situation close to the deepest penetration of the Great Lakes system into the interior of the country, astride the Great Lakes–Mississippi waterways, ing belt, the northern boundary of the Corn Belt, and the southeastern reaches of a major dairy region. References to railroads, coal deposits, and or ational characteristics (Figure 11.8). As a gateway to the West from the East and vice versa, Chicago’s O’Hare International Airport is one of the busiest in the United States. From this description of Chicago’s situation, implications relating to market, to raw materials, and to transpor can be drawn.

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FIGURE 11.7 The fall line separates hard Paleozic metamorphic rocks to the west fr

ocks of the coastal plain. Rivers flowing fr ed industries in colonial times and helped to determine the location of major cities such as Philadelphia, Richmond, and Baltimore. Source: Data from USGS.

with Pittsburgh’ ly growth, other factors are more important to its well-being today.

The Economic Base

Manufacturing belt Corn Belt Major coal-mining area

W ay Railroad

FIGURE 11.8 The situation of Chicago helps to suggest the reasons for its functional diversity and size. Railroad development in the Midwest and the W the growth or decline of a settlement.

The site or situation that or unit may not r and development for very long. labor force, and ur people and activities y unrelated forces. For instance,

y gave rise to an urban edient for its gro eady existing markets, to the initial loc uch to do

Every urban area has an economic base, the activities people do to support the ur These are activities such as manufacturing goods, repairing roads, managing stores, tending to the sick, and teaching children. The economic base of an urban area can be categorized in terms of basic and nonbasic sectors. The basic sector of an urban area’s economic str e is made up of the activities of people that bring in money from outside the community. People who produce goods or perform ser ban area are engaged in “export” For example, people manufacture computer chips in Hillsboro, Oregon. e bought by computer ver the world, turers part of the basic sector of the economic str e of boro. Other workers produce goods or services for residents . They are not bringing new money into the community, as their goods and services are not being exported. This is the nonbasic sector ’s economy, which is crucial . It includes the operation of stores, vernment, local transit, and school systems. The total economic structure of an urban area equals the sum of its basic and nonbasic activities. c k as belonging exclusively to one sector or the other, however. Doctors, for example, may have mainly local patients and thus are members of the nonbasic sector, but

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FUNCTIONS OF CITIES

City population 10,000,000

1,000,000

100,000

10,000

1,000 0

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10

20

30 40 50 60 70 Percentage of workforce

80

90

100

FIGURE 11.9 A generalized representation of the proportion of the workforce engaged in basic and nonbasic activities. As settlements become larger, a greater pr ce is employed in nonbasic activities. A city of 10 million ce engaged in basic activities, whereas one with only 100,000 residents will have more ce so employed.

the moment they treat someone from outside the community, they bring ne t of the basic sector. Variations in basic employment str e among urban units characteriz ole played by indiMost centers perform many export functions, and the larger the urban unit, the more m Nonetheless, ev , one expor , t activities, e of the comm .S ation permits the c ation of cities into categories: manufacturing, retailing, , transportation, government, and so on. Economic gro h has a m tiplier e ect: basic sector employment, basic sector and nonbasic sector positions, in addition to their dependents, owth. Dividing the employed population of an urban area into separate basic and nonbasic sectors makes it possible to establish a ratio yment groups. The basic/nonbasic ratio shown in F e 11.9 indicates that, as a settlement increases in size, the number of nonbasic personnel grows faster than the number of basic workers. This is because the more basic workers an urban area has, the more nonbasic workers are needed to support them. In cities a population of 1 million, the ratio is about 2 nonbasic workers for every basic worker. This means that adding 10 new basic employees expands the labor force by 30 (10 basic, 20 nonbasic). For example, if the computer chip o, Oregon, hires new technicians, eate a demand for more doctors, teachers,

Most modern cities take on m These include ing, r , tation hub, public administration, y uses, and site of major universities. Yet most cities e in categories, and ev can help to consider cities in regard to their r kets, sites of production, No matter what their size, ur formance of necessary functions. They have three main functions: (1) central place functions, or providing general ser ounding area; (2) transport functions; ily geared to the loc ea. wns pro tions, but not necessarily the third. Detroit, for example, grew to a population of 1,849,568 at its height in 1950 as it provided a point of general merchandise services, convenient transportation on the Great Lakes and the web of railr ks crisscrossing the Midwest, and a specializ ing automobiles. Now, there is only one automobile assembly plant in Detroit, but the city’s metropolitan area continues to grow. Other examples of specializ e those of Washington, D.C., which provides government services to the whole United States, and the Mayo Clinic in Rochester, Minnesota, which pro specialized health ser

Cities as Central Markets When people want to buy an item or purchase a service, they . For as long as cities have existed, they have served as marketplaces, not only for their own residents but also for the population beyo S o’s needs. But tr y unique items or special services can be found only in the biggest cities. The geographer Walter Christaller developed place y (see “Central Place Theory,” p. 366) to explain the size and location of settlements. He detected a pattern of medium, and larger settlements that were dependent on each other. S wns, would serve as marketplaces for the surrounding populations, while expensive y goods would be available in the large cities that served the surrounding towns. People would have to travel short distances for basic goods, such as groceries, and longer distances for rarer items, yc Christaller’s theories have been sho y valid in widely differing areas within the commercial world. When varying incomes, es, landscapes, and transportation systems are taken into consideration, the theories hold up rather well. They are particularly applicable to agr areas, y with regard to the size and spacing of cities and towns. If we combine a Chr stand industr ation and transportation alignments (see Chapter 10), we have a fairly good understanding of the location of most cities and towns.

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The interdependence of medium, and large cities c . The spher y proportional to its size. egion of, say, 65 squar , for example, its newspaper is delivered to that region. Beyond that area, Urban zones are the areas outside of a city that ar As the distance away fr eases, ’ surrounding countryside decreases (rec decay discussed in Chapter 8). Intricate relationships and hierarchies are common among es. Consider Grand Forks, North Dakota, which for loc ket purposes dominates the rural area immediately surrounding it. However, Grand For political decisions made in the state capital, Bismarck. For a var commercial, Grand For As a center of wheat production, Grand Forks and Minneapolis are subordinate to the grain market in Chicago. Of course, the pervasive agr and other political controls exerted from Washington, D.C., on Grand Forks, Minneapolis, and Chicago indicate how large and complex are the urban zo

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TA B L E 1 1 . 3

Cities as Centers of Production and Services Urban gro ticularly in the last 200 years, has been tied to the development of industries. ing of some sort was always an important part of cities, but before the Industrial Re With the growth of mass production, ing became the primary engine dr ban economy. Industrial products are y exported to other places and bring in money that is distributed throughout the urban economy. Most cities, especially large ones, perform many export Nonetheless, ev nomic base, a few export activities tend to dominate the structure of the communit pose within a system of cities. Rec multiplier e ’s employment and population grow with the ing workers and dependents as a supplement of ne ing employment. The gro cir and cumulative”—in a way related not to the development of industries that specialize in the production of mater for export, such as automobiles and paper products, but to the service a sizeable market, ce, extensive public and the like may generate basic and nonbasic additions to the labor force. In recent years, service industries have developed to a point where new ser ve older ones. For example, computer sy developing more iven systems. A list of the largest U.S. metr eas is given in Table 11.3.

Just as settlements grow in siz , so do they decline. When the demand for the goods and services of an ur fewer workers are needed, and thus both the stem are affected. There is, however, a resistance to decline that impedes the process and delays its impact. Whereas settlements can grow rapidly as migrants respond quic y to the need for more workers, under conditions of decline, many of those who have developed roots in the comm e hesitant to leave or may y unable to move to another loc Figure 11.10 shows that in recent years urban areas in the South and West of the United States have been growing rapidly, while those in the Northeast and the North Central regions have grown more slowly or even declined.

Cities as Centers of Administration and Institutions The earliest cities were marked by the presence of a temple, a granary, and the residence of the ruler. Cities have always been centers for administration. State and capitals are ways in towns of some size, y

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0 miles 0 km 200

200 400

400 600

Percent Change in Population 2000 to 2008

300 miles

100 miles

Decline 0–9% 10–19%

20–29% 30% or more

FIGURE 11.10 The pattern of metropolitan gr Shown are metropolitan areas with 600,000 or more people in 2008. The cities of the southern and southwestern Sunbelt showed the greatest relative growth. Only modest gr Source: Data from U.S. Bureau of the Census.

grow y once the government is in place, as governments are important employers. es, some proportion of the population is employed in government ser In addition to those in the government, whether it is federal, state, metropolitan, or local, educ are workers are often government emplo Within the education sector, people are employed in primary and secondary schools and in postsecondary, technic and professional education. Within the health c e sector, the government may employ people in social agencies, hospitals, and therapy facilities. Education and health care services must be accessible and thus must be located where the population is. Therefore, the size of the government sector of employment is y proportional to the size of the urban population. The r e of government sector employment and the size of the loc essarily hold for governmental services, which tend to be concentrated in c Educ losely linked to distribution of population, but some cities have a disproportionate education sector population, y cities that ar Madison, Wisconsin, for example, has large government sector emplo as it is the state c .

SYSTEMS OF CITIES Cities today are interdependent. w or multiple functions, ation and size. om, size of, and functions of other cities. Taken together, cities ar t of a system of urban settlement.

The Urban Hierarchy Perhaps the most effective way to recognize how systems of cities are organized is to consider the urban hierarchy, a ranking of cities based on their siz . One can measure the numbers metropolitan area provides. The hierarchy is then mid; a few large and complex cities are at the top, and many e at the bottom. There ar ways mor cities than larger ones. W chy, as in F e 11.11, it becomes clear that an ar opolitan centers, and to Goods, communications, and people w up and down the hierarchy. The few high-level metropolitan eas pro de speed functions for regions, while the

An Urban World

Boston w York

Wor Dominant Major Secondary Regional center Subregional center

0 miles 0 km

400 400

Miami

FIGURE 11.11 The global network connectedness of U.S. cities. Only the major metropolitan areas are shown. The network includes smaller urban areas (not Source: Data from P. J. Taylor and orld City Network,’” Metropolitan Policy Program, The Brookings Institutions (Feb. 2005).

icts. eas ound them, but because cities of the same level pro oughly those of the same siz o ed service, such as a major esear . Thus, level in the hierarchy are not independent but interr communities of other levels in that chy. Together, cench ban system.

Rank-Size Relationships The de stems on a global scale raises the question of the organiz stems within regions or countries. In some countries, especially those with complex economies and a long urban history, the rank-size rule describes the urban system. It tells us that the nth largest stem of cities will be 1/n the size of the largest city. That is, the second-largest settlement will be half the size of the largest, the tenth-biggest will be 1/10 the siz y, and so on. Although no national urban system exactly meets the requirement of the rank-size rule, those of Russia and the United States closely approximate it. The rank-size ordering is less applicable to countries with developing economies and those in which the urban system is dominated by a primate , one that is far more than the siz . In fact, there may be no obvious “ for a characteristic of a pr hierarchy is one very large city, few or no intermediate-size cities, and many subordinate settlements. For example, metropolitan Seoul (with 9.8 million in 2000) contains more

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n of South Korea. Bangkok is home to more than half of the urban residents of Thailand. The c veloping countr verwhelming primacy. In part, their primate city pattern is a her when economic development, and transportation and trade activities were concentrated at a single point. enegal), Luanda (Angola), and many other capital cities of African countries are examples. In other instances, development and population gro disproportionately in a c very size attracts further development and gro Many European countries (e.g., the France, and Austria) show a primate structure, often ascribed to the former concentration of economic and political power around the royal court in a capital city that was, perhaps, e.

World Cities Standing at the top of national systems of cities are a relatively few centers that may be c world These large urban centers are the “control and command” centers of the economy. They are control points for international advanced producer ser inc , advertising, banking, and law. London, New York, and Tokyo are the dominant world cities. They contain the highest number of transnational serters of multinational corporations, and they dominate commerce in their respective parts of the world. Each is directly linked to a number of other world cities. ks that control the organiz stem of , ing, and trade. They ar ization of the economy. F e 11.12 shows the links among the dominant centers and the suggested major and secondary world cities, which include Paris, Fr t, Hong Kong, Singapore, Milan, Toronto, Chicago, and Los Angeles. These cities ar connected by advanced communications systems among governments, major corporations, stock and futures exchanges, securities and commodity markets, major banks, ations. Major international corporations spur wor velopment and dominance. o porations dictate their need to outsource cenmiz

ol over dispersed operations. Those accounting, and y large pools of expertise, information, and talent available only in world cities.

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FIGURE 11.12 A classification of world cities. World cities are centers of international production, marketing, and finance. They are bound together in complex networks and all are inter ent ways. Source: Data from J. V. Beaverstock, P. J. Taylor, and R. G. Smith, “A Roster of World Cities,” Cities (1999).

INSIDE THE CITY Ur eas have distinct physic apes, so an understanding of the nature of cities is incomplete without a kno istics. So far, we have explored the or chic urban systems. No ban patterns of land use, changes in urban form, the areas of cities, and the institutional controls that determine much of the character of an urban area. imarily relate to cities in the United States, although most cities of the world have many of the same elements.

Patterns of Land Use What businesses are in the center of the town? Wh e they there? Many store owners wish to locate where they can be reached easil ers, as the commer ive. y is dominated by stores or adminisof people. Factories and r y locate outside the central c , as they have different needs. Factories need a convenient meeting point for their workers and their mater Residents desire easy access to jobs, stores, and schools. A . Ar tion densities exists within ur eas. There is a certain sameness to the way cities are y organized, y within one par e sphere, such as North America or Western

Europe. The major var use ar , ket in land, and the transportation technologies available during the periods of ur o

The Centr Business District In the United States, ew up around pedestrian movement and pack-animal haulage. Populations were During the late 19th and early ies, stems, which were costly but Even with their introduction, however, onl routes could be incor y into the expanding urban structure. W , locations at the e, c centr business ct (CBD), had the e therefore the most desirable for many functions. The central business district was located at the convergence of mass-transit lines (in European cities and large U.S. Land parcels at the city to their high accessibility. Business owners who demanded the gr for land parcels within the CBD. The slightly less accessible CBD par y bec (skyscrapers), the pr and similar land uses that helped pr line of the commercial city. Public uses, such as par and schools, were ated land according to criter . Land in the CBD was a scarce commodity, and its scarcity made it expensive, demanding intensive, high-density utilization. Because of its limited supply of usable land, the industrial

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FIGURE 11.14 distance from the ar the population density declines.

FIGURE 11.13 A generalized urban land use pattern. The model depicts the location of various land uses in an idealized urban area where the highest bidder gets the most accessible land.

It was characterized by high residential and str and at its margins ther p br ban and nonurban uses. The older central cities of the northeastern United States and southeastern Canada display this pattern.

O

ict

Outside the core area of the city, comparable but lowerorder commer egations de ying intersections—transfer points—of the mass-transit system. Industry controlled parcels adjacent to essential cargo routes: rail lines, waterfronts, rivers, and canals. Strings of stores, light industries, tment structures could afford om location along high-volume transit routes. The least accessible loc e left for the least-competitive users: lo esidences. A diagramepetitive allocation of space among competitors for urban sites is shown in F e 11.13. The competitive bidding for land should yield—in theory, elated distance-decay patterns. ease as distance from the CBD increases. L lines in a distinct pattern: there is a sharp dr t distance from the peak land value intersection, the most accessible and

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costly parcel of the central business district, and then the value declines less steeply to the margins of that built-up area. The populatio ws a comparable distance-decay arrangement, as suggested by F e 11.14. The land use r ities of the older, eastern mass-transit central cities were not y replicated in the y urban centers of the western United States. land use str es of those ne more by the automobile than by mass-transit systems. They spread more readily, evolved at lower densities, and therefore display less tightly str ed and standardized land use patterns than do their eastern predecessors. Even so, the patterns we have been discussing here have been recognized since the early 20th century by sociologists and geographers alike.

Models of Urban Form ban growth and land use patterns were proposed during the 1920s and 1930s. While such models generaliz ly is a tremendous degree of variation in cities, they also help us understand some regularities in urban shape. More recently, ur y models that help us better understand a decentraliz . The common starting point of the classic models is the distinctive central business district found in every older central . The cor ea displays intensive land use development: many stor and crowded streets. Framing the core is a fringe area of warehousing, transportation terminals, and light industries (as long as they require few raw materials and pollute very little). Just beyond the urban core, residential land uses begin. The concentric zone model (F e 11.15a) was developed by a sociologist, Ernest Burgess, in the 1920s. He descr ones, the CBD. The second ring, the zone of transition, is characterized by stagnation and deter , low-income slums, rooming houses, and perhaps ethnic ghettoes. The third is a zone of workers’ homes, ,

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(b) Sector Model

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(c) Multiple-Nuclei Model

FIGURE 11.15 Three classic models of the internal structure of cities: (a) the concentric zone model, (b) the sector model, and (c) the multiple-nuclei model. Redrawn from “The Nature of Cities” by C. D. Harris and E. L. Ullman in volume no. 242 of The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. Copyright © 1945 The American Academy of Political and Social Science, Philadelphia, PA.

older homes on modest lots; the fourth and th zones are areas of middle-c tments. The concentric zone model is dynamic. use and each group tends to mo zone. The mo t of a ceaseless process of invasion estr segregation by income level. The development of Chicago (F e 11.16) shows some accordance with this model. The sector model (see F e 11.15b), developed in the 1930s, focuses on transportation arterials. It states that highrent r along major transportation routes such as suburban commuter rail lines. As cities grow, this model proposes, the highestincome groups move into new homes in new neighborhoods that are located along existing transportation routes radiating . Middle-income housing clusters ar y, and low-income housing occupies land adjacent to the areas of industry and associated transportation, such as freight railroad lines. namic, as there tends to be a ing-down process as older areas are abandoned by the outward movement of their or with the lowestincome populations (c thest from the current loc y) becoming the dubious ies of the least-desirable vacated areas. The expansion not zo as in the concentric zone model.

de

, Canada, is suggested in F e 11.17. The third model of urban land use patterns, the m nuclei model (see Figure 11.15c), tion of the concentric zone and sector models—that urban growth and development spr core. This model states that large cities develop by peripheral spread from several nodes of gro not just one. Certain the retail distr , whereas a port needs a waterfront location, for example. Peripheral expansion of the separate nuclei ev y leads to coalescence and the meeting of e. The urban land use pattern, therefore, is not r ly structured from a single center in a sequence of circles or a series of sectors but is y expanding c e, , economy, these three models summarized have now been superseded, the physical patterns they explained r controls on the current landscape. Many cities prior to 1950 resembled the concentric zone or the sector models in that they had a clearl , but cities grew more and mor World War II. The m lei model may more closely accord with urban development in the recent past, but it should be supplemented by a fourth, the peripheral model.

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4

FIGURE 11.16 A diagrammatic representation of the major social areas of the Chicago region. The central business district is known as The Loop. Redrawn with permission from Philip Rees, “The Factorial Ecology of Metropolitan Chicago,” M. A. Thesis, University of Chicago, 1968.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Central city Residential area Circumferential highway Radial highway Shopping mall Industrial district park Service center Airport complex Combined employment and shopping center

FIGURE 11.18 The peripheral model of urban form. This model supplements the concentric zone, sector, and multiplenuclei models.

FIGURE 11.17 The land use pattern in and ar

, Physical and cultural barriers and the evolution of urban areas over time tend to result in a sectoral patter s central business district is the focus for many of the sectors. Revised and redrawn with permission from P Economic Geography, 38, no. 4, p. 328. Copyright © 1962 Clark University, Worcester, MA.

The per model takes into account the major changes in ur World W y suburbanization. The per rather than supplants the three earlier models of urban land use patterns (F e 11.18). It focuses on the peripheral belt that lies within the metropolitan area, . Functions of the per relationship to the center, but to other parts of the peripheral zone. In this model, a circumferential highway outside the velopment. Residences are relatively homogeneous and are located in large

developments. Nodes on the peripheral belt are centers for employment or services. These include shopping malls, industr ks, distribution and warehouse clusters, ks, and airport clusters (including hotels, meeting facilities, and car rental agencies). Much of the life of the residents of the periphery takes place on the periphery, , as they shop for food, clothing, ecreation in country clubs and entertainment complexes, yment in the industr ks. O ban scene disagree over the direction of the U.S. per . oposed the peripheral pattern felt that the peripher y separate fr ; t of the metropolitan area. More recently, U.S. cities are developing complex suburban downtowns that compete with the CBD. opolis is dividing into a set of increasingly self-contained urban realms, each served more or less by its own downtown. This trend relegates ban centers within the metropolis. The new polycentric metropolis shows a CBD and a surr ban downtowns, which ar y important to the metropolitan, and indeed the national, economy. The models of urban form discussed in this section aid our understanding of urban str e and development, but it must be stressed that a model is not a map and that many cities have some of the characteristics of several models.

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Changes in Urban Form y saw massive change in U.S. ur physic

ed change. First, ovement of the automobile increased its r , , , freeing its owner fr route public transit for access to home, work, or shopping. Then, ic not possible when workdays of 10 or more hours were common. After World War II, the United S cant increase in the number of its citizens owning their own homes, from below 50% in 1945 to 60% in 1960. The government stimulated this boom by authorizing increased spending for home loans by the F dministration (FHA) and the Veterans Administration (VA). These agencies offered much more generous terms than private bankers had before the war, when buyers had to put down large down payments (sometimes 50% or more) and repay their loans in a short time, often 10 years. The FHA and VA revolutionized homebuying, offering mortgages of up to 90% of a home’s and up to 30 years to pay off loans. The VA permitted many veterans to purchase homes with vir y no down payment. In addition, the development of the interstate highway system made commuting long distances more feasible. During the 1970s, the interstate highway sy y completed and major metropolitan expressways were put in place, e to be considered comm kplace and home. The combination of new transpor , spread homeownership, shorter wor and new roads opened up vast new acreages of nonurban land to urban development. These developments changed the prevailing patterns of population growth. Over the past 60 to 70 years, U.S. cities have experienced a depopulation at the center as residents, businesses, and industry mo bs; then a consequent dec ; and recently a slight re ends as some people have r core areas of many cities.

Suburbanization Demands for housing, ession and time restrictions, were loosed in a after 1945, and a massive suburbaniz ban America. ominent patterns of population gro e the metropolitanization of people and, eas, their suburbanization. The 2000 census showed tates’ 100 largest cities had as eat a gro rate in their suburbs as in the cities themselves over the pre Nearl o ban edge. land uses led the rush to the suburbs. Typic y, y discontinuous housing developments were built beyond the boundar cities. The new design was an unfocused sprawl because it was not tied to mass-transit lines. It also represented a massive

Lake Michigan

FIGURE 11.19 In Chicago, as in most larger and older U.S. cities, the slow peripheral expansion recorded during the late 19th and early 20th centuries suddenly 1945. The red line indicates the Chicago city boundaries. Revised , Chicago: Transformation of an Urban System, Ballinger Publishing Co., Cambridge, Mass. 1976, with additions from other sources.

relocation of purchasing power to which retail merchants were quick to respond. The planned major r ter became the suburban counterpar places and the outlying commer . S ip shopping centers gradually completed the retailing hierarchy. Faced with a newly suburbanized labor force, industry ve, attracted as well by the economies derived from modern single-story plants with of par yees. Industries no longer needed to locate near railway facilities; freeways presented new opporwer-cost, mor uck transportation. Service industries were also attracted by the purchasing power and large, ated labor force now in the suburbs, veloped, like the shopping at freeway intersections and ong freeway frontage roads and major connecting highways. The major metr eas rapidly expanded in area and population. Gro ago area are shown in F e 11.19. Cities gre lations away fr e. Figure 11.20 illustrates population change over time. It is a time-series graph of populatio veland, Ohio, over a 50-year period. om the CBD

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FIGURE 11.20 Population density gradients for Cleveland, Ohio, 1940–1990. The progressive depopulation of the central core and flattening of the density gradient to the margin of the city are clearly seen, as Cleveland passed from mass-transit to automobile domination. The Cleveland pattern is consistent with conclusions drawn from other studies of urban density: density gradients tend to flatten over time, and the larger the city, the flatter the gradient. Source: Anupa Mukhopadhyay and Ashok K. Dutt, “Population Density Gradient Changes for a Postindustrial City—Cleveland, Ohio 1940–1990,” GeoJournal 34:517, no. 4, 1994. Redrawn by permission of Kluwer Academic Publishers and Ashok K. Dutt.

in 1940, but in 1990 it was 5.8 miles. lose to the center decreased. By 2000, however, this pattern had re ounger people opted to live in the most accessible locations. a new urban Americ perimeters of the major metr eas. W easing ver-gr inge, per expansion slowed, the supply of developable land was reduced, velopment grew. No longer dependent , bs were reborn as vast, y ked by landsc ks, massive r and a proliferation of gated comm The new suburbia began to rival the older business district in siz . y, the new centers surpassed the central cities as generators of employment and income. T the suburbs perform the ter and quaternary services that mark the postindustr opolis. During the 1980s, mor eated in the subur ica. Tysons Corner, V Ar for example, became the ninth-largest central business district in the United States. ters of leading corporations, , pr major hotel complexes, and recr ame parts of the new outer cities, sometimes c edge and r ban area. Edge cities no egions of urbanized North America. The South Coast Metro Center in , ia center on Houston’s west side; russia and the Route 202 corr of Philadelphia; the Meadowlands, New Jersey, west of New York City; and Schaumburg, Illinois, in the western Chicago suburbs are a few examples of the new urban forms. There is even a suburb of Atlanta named Periphery Center.

In recent years, suburban areas have expanded to the point where metropolitan areas are coalescing. The Bostonto-Washington corridor, often c meg is a continuously built-up region with many new centers that compete with the business districts of Boston, Providence, New York, Philadelphia, e, and Washington, D.C. ther ysis of the northeastern U.S. urban corridor appears in “Megalopolis” in Chapter 13.

Dec emendous effect ict and of the inner ounding it. The CBD once enjoyed high levels of acces, at the center of streetcar and inter With the coming of the interstate highway sy ead air transportation, e increasingly viewed as overly congested and relatively inaccessible. ow works to their detriment. Many jobs have moved fr urban periphery, uch of the prosperous population. The upwardly mobile residents of the city—younger, , and better educated—took advantage of the automobile and the freeway to leave . The poorer, older, least-advantaged urbanites were left behind (Figure 11.21). bs became increasingly differentiated. L eas within the cities no y the poor and minor groups, a population barely able to pay the rising neighborhoods, and condition require. The services needed to support the poor include welfare payments, kers, e protection, stems, and subsidized housing. Central cities, by themselves, ar t such ause they have lost epresented by suburbanized commerce, ,

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FIGURE 11.21 A derelict slum in the Bronx, New York. Some areas of large cities have been abandoned and now house only the poor. .

FIGURE 11.22 Many elaborate—and massive— public housing projects have been failures. Chicago’ aylor buildings, the largest public housing unit in the world and the

and upper-income r Lost, too, are the job opportunities that were formerly a par e. Increasingly, the poor and minorities are trapped by employment and are isolated by distance, , om the few remaining lo which are now largely in the suburbs. cumstance is often c spatial mismatch. The population shif by retail and industr ly destroyed the traditional active, open auction of urban land. In the vacuum left by the depar e of private investors, the federal government, particularly since the landmark Housing Act of 1949, has initiated urban renewal programs with or without pro a partnership with private housing and redevelopment investment. Under a wide array of pr since the late 1940s, slum areas were cleared, public housing was built, ial parks were created, e reconstructed (Figure 11.22). With the continuing erosion of the urban economic base and the disadvantageous restr ing of the ulation however, the hard-fought governmental to maintain or re equently judged to be a losing one. Cities such as Detroit, Michigan, Toledo, Ohio, and Bridgeport, Connecticut, witnessed multiple failed

occupied a 3-kilometer-long (2-mi) stretch of South State Street, a concr and crime that wracked the project. The growing awareness that public high-rise developments intended to revive the central city do not meet the housing and social needs of their inhabitants led to the razing since 1990 of nearly 100,000 of the more than 1.3 million public housing units in cities ar , including the Robert Taylor Homes. © AP Images/Beth A. Keiser.

attempts at urban rene In recent years, been the destination of thousands of homeless people (see “The Homeless,” p. 378). Many live in public parks, in doorways, by street-level warm-air exhausts of subway trains, and in subway stations. y economies, and housing values, limited job oppor and inadequate resources for social services, appeared to many obse ers to offer few or no prospects for change. In the western United States, the stor has been slightly different from the East. Dur t , ur o were in the states of the Mountain and P West. In 1940 litly 90% were urbanites. izona, Nevada, have a higher percentage of New York, and

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TA B L E 1 1 . 4

FIGURE 11.23 Urban sprawl in the Las Vegas, Nevada, metropolitan area. Like many western cities, Las Vegas has grown over great expanses of desert in order to keep pace with a rapidly growing population. The fastest-growing metropolitan area in the United States in the 1990s, Las Vegas increased from a little more than 850,000 people in 1990 to more than 1,560,000 by the end of the decade, an increase of 83%. USDA-Natural Resources vice. Photo by Lynn Betts.

Las Vegas, Nevada, has similarly converted vast areas of desert landscape to lo ban use (Figure 11.23).

ation

7 of the 10 fastest-growing U.S. metr eas are in the West (Table 11.4). At the same time, the slowest gro t of the United States. For the most part, these newer, automobile-oriented metropolises were able to expand physic y to keep the new growth areas on their peripher boundaries. Nearl w restrictions on physical expansion. That unrestricted growth has often r verlarger metropolitan complexes. The speed and volume of growth have spawned a complex of concerns, some reminiscent of older eastern cities and others to areas of rapid urban expansion in the West. As in the East, the oldest parts of western central cities tend to be pockets of pover , and abandonment. In addition, vernments face nomic, social, estricted , Arizona, for example, covered 2.6 squar by 2000 it had grown to nearly 500 squar four times the physic size of San Francisco. P with dale has now coalesced, surpasses in sprawl Los Angeles, which has three times as many people. o

e often dismissed in the 1980s as anachronisms in the coming age of cell phones, the Internet, and wireless communic the face-to-face interaction intrinsic to cities. Instead, communic wledgebased industries and activities, , entertainment, are, and corporate management, that depend on dense, c geographic kets. Cities—par ly large metropolitan cor o unications uctur kers, customers, investors, research, and educ institutions needed by the modern, postindustrial economy. As a r rene emplo and gross domestic pr ’ ban areas e y in the 1990s, re line eceding decade. Demand for do ene and ev ing has re e companies pro ocesses. These, support a gro ed “cir ulative” o Part of the ne om their new residents. some 15 million immigrants ived in the United States, most concentrating in “gateway” cities, where they have become deeply rooted in their new communities by buying and reno eas,

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spending money in neighborhood stores, and, most importantly, establishing their own businesses (F e 11.24a). They e impor ban labor force, providing the and workers needed in expandk, service, and manufacturing sectors. Another par esidential re in the rehabilitation of housing in the oldest and now deter eas by middle- and highincome groups (F e 11.24b). Gentr ation has been a privatel ce in the rene essed neighborhoods surrounding central business districts in cities across the country. Gentr ation has its casualties, of course, as newer, wealthier residents raise housing costs that push out poorer, often minority, residents. wide found each expecting its downtown population to grow by 2010, some by double-digit percentages. The reason for that expected and actual gro demographics. Young pr e marr ing children later or, often, e divorced or ne ied. For them—a gro oportion of Americans—suburban life and shopping m ls hold few attractions, while central-ci r entertainment, and boutique shopping oppor lose at hand. Gay couples and families often choose to live in ur The younger group has been joined by “empty-nesters,” couples who no longer have childr ban lots no longer desirable. By their interests and efforts, groups have largely or completely remade and upgraded such ict of Minneapolis; the Armory District of Pro , Rhode Island; the Denny wn of Seattle; the Main S ket Square district of Houston; and many others throughout the U.S.

Loc state, and federal governments are fostering this return by investing in slum clearance, k development, center construction, sports facilities, and the like. Columbus, Ohio, for example, r y built a hockey arena downtown and a soccer stadium north of the CBD, promoted the rehabilitation of several neighborhoods near the downtown, and ies that now dominate the northern part of the main street of the downtown. Milwaukee built a r ivate investment. ing housing projects in the Chatham Arch neighborhood and selling them to developers for conversion into apartments and condominiums. Renovation of an old in the Cabbagetown district of Atlanta has produced 500 ne tments in a building-recycling project common to many older cities. And as whole areas are gentr edeveloped r y, other investment ws into nearby commercial activities. For example, Denver’s LoDo district, ow, has been wholly transformed into a thriving area of shops, restaurants, and spor ng with residential lofts. Gentr ation pr esidents and newcomers. Each group has different expectations for the ar . Once an area is completely gentr former residents of themselves searching for other lo , This dynamic also contributes to the continue of U.S. cities. In the southern and western parts of the United States, where the major y’s fastest-growing metropolitan areas are (Table 11.4), unrestr of the past 30 years or so has introduced differ ises. Prevented by state law fr have been unable to provide the infrastr e improvements

(a)

(b)

FIGURE 11.24 Revitalized central cities. (a) Entrepreneurs in New York City. Many Latin American and Asian immigrants have established their own businesses, fixing, making, or selling things, adding to the vitality of central cities. Some work out of sidewalk stalls; others have stores. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, 36% of New York City residents were born abroad. (b) Gentrified housing in Charleston, South Carolina. Gentrification is especially noticeable in the major urban centers of the eastern United States, from Boston south along the Atlantic Coast to Savannah, Georgia. It is also increasingly a part of the regeneration of older, deteriorated, first-generation residential districts in major central cities acr . (a) © David Grossman/Image Works; (b) © Getty RF.

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equire. Schools remain unbuilt and underfunded; water supplies are increasingl open-space requirements for par e ignored; street and highway improvements and repairs are inadequate even as demand for them increases. Each estricted gro more than the additional de evenue. Increasingly, central cities and metropolitan areas of both the eastern and the western United States ar to restrain rather than encourage physical gro Portland, Oregon, drew a “do not pass” line around itself in the late 1970s, prohibiting urban conversion of surrounding forests, farmlands, and open space. Rather than losing people and it has added both while preser easing par ban amenities. Other cities, metropolitan areas, ning to resist and restrict urban expansion. “S gro ” pro, e, Minnesota, and W These programs encourage governments and private de cr able neighborhoods, pr , provide a var tation options, and dir existing comm Develvelopments on new In both the West and the East, U.S. cities are beginning to tighten controls on unrestricted gro but private sector resistance to contr tant factor.

Social Areas of Cities The larger and more economic y complex cities e, the stronger is the tendenc esidents to segregate themselves into groups on the basis of social status, family status, and ethnicity. In a large metropolitan r this territor wn or unwanted; a desir of people; a response to income constraints; or a r iers. Most people feel more at ease when e near those with whom they can easil . In cities, people tend to gr stage in the life cyc and language or race (ethnic characteristics) (see “Birds of a Feather,” p. 381). Many of these gr e fostered by the siz of available housing. Land developers, y in cities, proeas. Of course, as time elapses, ther Land uses may change and new groups may r oups, leading to the evolution of ne istics.

Family S As the distance fr eases, the average age of the head of the household declines, the size of the family increases, or both. W y older people whose children do not live with them and young pr to live close to the center. The young families seek space

FIGURE 11.25 The social geography of American and Canadian urban areas. “Factorial Ecology of Metropolitan Toronto,” Geography Research Series, University of Chicago, 1969.

for child rearing, and older people covet more access to the . Wher unpleasant, there is a tendency for older people to migrate to the suburbs or to retirement communities. Within lo to emerge. Tr e housed in the , and families, , live farther from the center. The arrangement that emerges is a concentric-circle patterning according to famil (Figure 11.25). In general, eas house older people and outer-city areas house younger people. As the structure of American cities has changed over the y, more and more jobs have moved from cenbs. This has had long-reaching effects on those living in the central cities, where work oppor e now more limited. Many large urban areas, such as Detroit, have no mass transit besides a metropolitan bus service—and many more have minimal systems providing meager access to only certain parts of a city. In Detroit, it can take 3 hours and 3 buses to travel from the downtown to a job in the suburbs. This particularly affects those without the means to own or maintain an automobile, y women and minorities. Recent of pover wing: • •

The central cities of the United States have more households headed by women than by men. Wo

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The vast major Downto e elderly, among whom women predominate. Wo Minorities are more likely than whites to use public transportation.

Lo living in lo .

Access to jobs is determined by the location of the job, the location of other necessar ties, and the on nonwork hours. Such include responsibilities to other famil to respond quic y in c . Rents in the suburbs w-wage positions, commutes common for those who ar

S

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y is determined by income, education, occupation, In the United States, high income, a college education, a pr managerial position, tus. High home value can mean an expensive rented apartment or a large house with extensive grounds. A good housing indic room. A low number of people per room tends to indicate high

izes people with low-income jobs housing. There are many levels of e most of the heads of households are of similar rank. Social-status patterning agrees with the sector model. In most cities, people of similar social status are grouped in sectors that fan out from the innermost urban residential areas (Figure 11.25). The pattern in Chic Figure 11.16. If the number of people a given social group increases, they tend to move away fr along an arterial connecting them with the old neighborhood. Major transport r migration routes out from the center. Today, e of y in relative income. velopments ar egated, bec To preserve the upsc e of a development and pr verning comm associa ns enact ns and r ictions (see “The Gated Comm ,” p. 383). P these e, constr yards; xes. So esidents what trees they may plant, what pets and wher k their boats or recr

, les.

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5

5 210 405

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FIGURE 11.26 Racial/ethnic patterns in Los Angeles, 2000. Although Los Angeles County has an extremely diverse population, people tend to cluster in distinct neighborhoods by race and ethnicity. Between 1990 and 2000, the Hispanic population of Los Angeles County increased from 38% to 45%, and the pr ew from 10% to 12%. The pr decreased from 11% to 9%, while the pr om 41% to 31%. Source: U.S. Census Bureau as published in The New York Times, March 30, 2001, p. A16.

For some groups, ethnicity is a more-important residential locaeas of homoy of cities as separate clusters or nuclei reminiscent of the multiplenuclei concept of ur e. F oups, culously defended, even in the face of pressures for neighborhood change exerted by “Little ys” and “Chinato and of Polish, Greek, and other ethnic neighborhoods in many American cities is e egation. Cer oups, y blac have been segregated in nuc States has one or more black areas that, espects, may be consider .F e 11.26 Hispanics, oups in

barriers to mo ways been high. In ic the poorest residents are the blac who en relegated to the lo . Similar r ities.

Institutional Controls The governments—loc Western urbaniz ol aspects of urban life, including the rules for using streets, the provision of sanitary services, and the use of land. In this section, we touch only upon land use. Institutional and governmental controls have strongly owth patterns of most cities in the world. Cities have adopted land use ol regulations and zoning

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ordinances to realize those plans. They have adopted building, health, y acceptable urban development and maintenance. ols are based on broad applications of the police powers of municipalities and their rights to assure public health, safety, and well-being even when private-proper ights are infringed. These nonmarket controls on land use e designed to minimize incompatibilities (r y, for example) and pro eation in appropriate locations of public uses (the transportation system, waste disposal, government buildings, prisons, ks) and private uses (colleges, shopping centers, and housing) needed for and conducive orderly comm . , such c eclude the emergence of slums, so often the r of undesirable adjacent uses, and should stabilize neighborhoods by reducing market-induced pressures for land use change. In the United States, zo regulations have been used to exclude “undesirable” uses— apartments, low-income housing, om upper-income areas. Bitter court battles have been waged over “exclusionary” zoning practices: while pr more impor y, proper opponents e impor In

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recent years, some newly incorporated suburbs have sought to reduce the costs of growth—such as developing infrastr e and building schools and playgrounds—by zoning out housing that would bring in children. In most of Asia, there is no zoning, and it is quite comale industr esieas. Even in Japan, a house may contain se doing piecework for a local industry. In both Europe and Japan, neighborhoods have been built and r y over time, om varieet. In the United States and Canada, uch rarer and is of wed as a temporary condition as areas are in transition toward total redevelopment. Perhaps the onl is Houston, Texas, which has no zoning r

GLOBAL URBAN DIVERSITY The str regions, r

e, form, itages and economies. Much of

in the United States. But the models and descriptions of the U.S. cit y apply to cities in other parts of the world. Those cities have developed different functional and

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str some so radic y different from the models we have explor unfamiliar and uncharted landscapes, indeed. The cit its characteristics ar egional.

Western European Cities ic y y, Western European as a oup share certain common es. They have a much mor ic esidents are apar tend to be narrow, and front, side, or r e. Eur y a long historical tradition. y common heritage of medie igins, Renaissance restr ings, and industrial-period gro cities of Western Europe distinct es. Despite wartime destr edevelopments, impress of past occupants and technologies, even as far back as Roman times. An irregular system of narrow streets may be retained from the random street pattern developed in medie ian and pack-animal movement. Main streets radiating fr cumferential “ring roads” ation of high roads leading into town through the gates in cit w gone and replaced by cir vards. Broad thoroughfares, ks, and plazas mark Renaissance ideals of cit ation and the aesthetic need for processional avenues and promenades. opean cities were de opr The sprawl of Americ ban zo y absent. At , Much of ur ope predates the steel-frame building and the elevator. lines tend to be low, three to stories in height, sometimes (as in aris) held do es , often the cenF e 11.27). Wher r however, ected. Compactness, high densities, and apar encouraged the development and continued importance of public transportation, inc veloped subway systems. The private automobile has become much more common of late, eas have not yet been antly restr ed with wider streets and par ties to accommodate it. For instance, private autos are charged a high fee to enter the central business district of London. The automobile is not the universal need in Europe that it has become in American cities, as home and work are generally more closely spaced. Even though most European cities have core areas that tend to be stable in population and attract, rather than repel, le class and the upwardly mobile, they are also affected by the pr ation. Many residents choose to live in suburban locations as c ownership and use become more commonplace, seen in Canada (see “The Canadian City,” p. 385).

FIGURE 11.27 Even in their central areas, many European urban centers show a low profile, like that of Budapest, seen here. Although taller buildings—20, 30, and even 50 or more stories in height—have become more common in major urban areas since World War II, they are not the universal mark of the central business districts they have become in the United States, nor the generally welcomed symbols of progress and pride.

y e and the surr one of substandard housing, , and recent immigrants. European governments used the of grouping industr velopments and wor lass homes in suburban ar e; these have been the areas in which immigrants, often from North Africa and Turkey, have found housing. Some of these areas have been neglected and suffer decline, especially when unemployment rates are high.

Eastern European Cities Most of the cities that wer t of the communist world are located in Eastern Europe and the former European republics of the So The postcommunist city shares many of the traditions and practices of Western European cities, but it differs fr y administered planning principles that were, in the communist period (1945–1990), designed to shape and control both new and older The governments’ goals were, to limit city size to avoid metropolitan sprawl; second, to ensur ucture of y; and third, to segregate land uses. The planned comm y achieved none of these objectives, but by attempting them it has emerged as a distinctive urban form. The postcomm with relatively high building and population densities r ly universal apar , and with a sharp br ban and rural land uses on its periphery. The postcomm depends nearly exclusively on public transportation. During the communist period, the Eastern European city differed from its Western counterpart in its purely governmental, rather than market, control of land use and functional

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patterns. This control dictated that the central area of cities should be reserved for public use, not occupied by retail Western, c model. Eastern European governments preferred a large cene r with space nearby for a large recreational and commemorative park. They emphasized industr velopment of cities ed consumer ser eas were expected to be largely self-contained in the provision of loworder goods and ser minimizing the need for a journey to ed shopping locations. Residential areas are made up of microdistricts, assemblages of uniform apartment blocks housing perhaps 10,000 to 15,000 people, surrounded by broad boulevards, and cony sited nursery and grade schools, gr department stores, theaters, clinics, and similar neighborhood necessities and amenities (Figure 11.28). Plans c for the effective separation of residential quarters from industr tricts by landscaped buffer zones, but in practice many microdistricts were built by factories for their own workers and were located immediately adjacent to the workplace. Because microdistricts were most easily and rapidly constructed on open land at the margins of expanding cities, high residential densities have been carr ts of town. ades to come, as capitalist pr e adopted. Now that private interests can o the urban areas in postcommunist Eastern Europe may take on the basic form of the Western Eur . The weighting of the economy is changing, e on the

FIGURE 11.28 This scene from Bratislava, Slovakia, shows odistricts that contain their own shopping areas, schools, and other facilities. .

ser . The socioeconomic divisions in cities are increasing as the newly rich can afford spacious, privately owned apartments and newly constructed single-family homes, while housing shor

Rapidly Growing Cities in the Developing World The fastest-gro and the fastest-growing urban populations, are found in the developing world (F e 11.29). Industr ation has come to most of them only recently.

FIGURE 11.29 Average annual urban population gr In general, developing countries show the highest percentage increases in their urban populations, and the already highly urbanized and industrialized countries have the lowest—less than 1% per year in most of Europe. Demographers predict that population increase in cities in developing countries will be the distinguishing demographic tr , with the most-explosive gr a city’s population will double in just 14 years. Source: Data from United Nations Population Division.

An Urban World

Modern technologies in transportation and public facilities are sparsely available, es of their inhabitants are far different from the urban world familiar to North Americans. The developing world is vast in extent and diverse in its physic apes. The backgrounds, histories, and current economies and administrations of developing-world cities vary so greatly that it is impossible to generalize about their internal str e. Some are ancient, having been established centuries before the more-developed cities of Europe and North America. Some ar eindustr with only a modest central commer e; they lack industrial districts, public transportation, or any meaningful degree of land use separation. Others, though increasingly Western in form, are only beginning to industrialize. Despite the var ban forms found in such diverse regions as Latin America, Africa, the Middle East, and Asia, we c es common to most of them. First, most of what are currently categorized as developing countries y, and several major cities were established pr y to serve the needs of the colonizing country. The second aspect is that urban primacy and the tremendous gro y experiencing as their societies industr e have left many of these cities with inadequate facilities and no way to keep up with population growth. Third, most cities in developing countries are now characterized by neighborhoods hastily built by new migrants, away fr vices, and often occupy y. Such e a large and gro these cities and r ’s relative oppor pover . F y, in many cases, the government has responded with greater planning, sometimes going so far as to move the national capital away from the overcrowded pr new location or to create entirely new cities to house industr or transport centers.

Cities in developing countries originated for varied reasons and continue to serve se as market, production, government, or religious centers. Their legacy and pur ban form. Many cities in developing countries are products of colonialism, established as ports or outposts of administration and exploitation, built by Europeans on a Western model. For example, the Br New Delhi, and Mumbai (Bombay) in India and Nairobi and Harare in Africa. The French developed Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City (Saigon) in Vietnam, Dakar in Senegal, and Bangui in the Central African Republic. The Dutch used Jakarta as their main outpost, ly L is now the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and the Portuof cities in Angola and Mozambique. Colonialists controlled the economies of the regions from these urban centers. Urban str e is a function not just of the time when a or of who the founder was, but also of the

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r s in its o Land use patterns in c ation of government functions and the concentration of wealth and power in a single y (F e 11.30a). The physical layout of a religious center, or sacr , is conditioned by the religion it serves, whether it is Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, Christi, or another faith. T y, a monumental str e— such as a temple, mosque, or cathedral—and associated buildings rather than go (Figure 11.30b). Traditional market centers for a wide area (Timbuktu in Mali and Lahore in P apitals (Addis Ababa in Ethiopia and Cuzco in Peru) have land use patterns that r Like ,

(a)

(b)

FIGURE 11.30 Developing-world cities. Compare the monumental government buildings in (a) (b) a state capital, Guanajuato, Mexico, which is dominated by religious structures. (a) © Julia W

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Urban Primacy and Rapid Gro

h

The developing countries have experienced disproportionate population concentrations in their egional c Few developing countries have mature, y complex and medium-size centers. The primate dominates their urban systems. More than a quarter of ic and Libre contains one-third of the population of Gabon. Many cities in developing countries with rapidly gro F e 11.31). Such districts contain tan centers and are the places where the wealthik and often live. This , tourists, and other are most likely to see. Some cities have poured enormous efforts for example, the Petronas Towers in Kuala Lumpur, sia, rank among ld and were comFIGURE 11.31 High-rise buildings in São Paulo, Brazil. Contrast this pleted in 1998 after 6 years of planning and conphoto with that of favelas in Rio de Janeiro in Figure 11.33. © Y Corbis Images. struction (F e 11.32). However, the presence of gleaming downtowns cannot disguise the fact that most of these cities simply cannot keep pace with the massive gro e experiencing. The United States and other Western nations are about 76% urban; developing nations are about 40% urban. That statistic is changing rapidly, as it is expected that 60% of the world population will be urban by 2030, with most of that urban gro ing in developing countries. Many cities in Latin America, Africa, and Asia are adding population at terr in India, r ban migration is proceeding at such a pace that observers pr ers will continue to arrive in an Indian city every minute ov altogether. They leave their to become their family breadwinners; underclass, dr par or selling tea on street corners. Lagos, Nigeria, is the second most populous ica, following Cairo, Egypt. It has a curFIGURE 11.32 The Petronas Twin Towers in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. rent population of nearly 10 million and a gro © Getty RF. rate be een 6% and 8% yearly, which means it is growing 10 times faster than New York or Los Angeles. It adds 600,000 people each year, or 1644 daily. gh most port cities such as Dubai (UAE), Haifa (Israel), and Shangof the population of Lagos has access to electricity, only 65% hai (China) have a land use str e different from that of of households are connected to a water source and only 2% an industr such as Johannesburg (South are connected to a sewage or telephone system. Much of the Africa). Adding to the complexity are the facts that cities with ’s human waste is disposed of through open ditches that a long history r rought by successive rulers discharge onto the city’s waterfront. and/or colonial powers and that as some of the megacities in Nigeria and other developing countries are experiencing the developing world have grown, they have en lfed nearby urban growth that is spurred by rural-to-urban migration. In to

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2005, China had 114 to 150 million r ban migrants, at least 25 times the number of Irish immigrants to the United States from 1820 to 1930. The go ws such migration to promote cheap factory and construction labor and its y rural economy into an urban economy. Tr ly gro ways a problem. Most people do not own cars and must rely on public transportation. Where the public transport system is limited, the result has been an overcrow ed on a single major business district in the old tradition. In Lagos, it (6–12 mi), as there are only three bridges connecting the city’s four islands to the mainland. mobile use, congestion and air pollution have become severe. choked streets and bad air. For those who are well off, living in many of these cities can present a ser Unlike residents of cities in more-developed countries, they cannot take urban planning, and adequate protection for granted.

S

Settlements

The developing countries have experienced massive inmigrations from rural areas as vast numbers of low-income r jobs and improving their socioeconomic condition. That hope is rarely realized because the cities already have populations gr yment bases can support. In all of them, large numbers of people support themselves in the “ ” sector—as food vendors, peddlers of cigarettes or trinkets, streetside barbers or tailors, errand runners, or package carr of wage labor. Most of the new urbanites have little choice but to pack themsel fringes of the , isolated from sanitary facilities, public utilities, and job opportunities found only at the center. In some cities, towns, of . Impoverished squatter districts exist around most major ica, Asia, and Latin America (Figure 11.33). In , you r million people are estimated to live in Cairo’s Northern and Southern Cemeteries. In the sprawling slum district of Nairobi, Kenya, c eV , are squeezed into 15 squar no access to public services such as water, sewers and drains, paved roads, and garbage remo S towns and oximately one-fourth of the population of such Asian cities as Bangkok (Thailand), K Lumpur (Malaysia), and Jakarta (Indonesia). The percentage is even higher in a number of Indian cities, including Chennai

FIGURE 11.33 A favela o, Brazil. Where states or municipalities provide little or no housing for the poor, people create their own. The roughly 750 favelas spread throughout Rio house a significant percentage of the city’s population. In r (postal addresses, schools, electricity, and running water) to many favelas, and residents have replaced shacks made of cardboard and scrap wood with more permanent brick and cinderblock structures, as a comparison of this photograph with Figure 6.27 reveals.

Crumbling tenements house tens of thousands, many of whom are ev y for wns by the conversion of their residences into commercial property or high-income apartments. The Haitian earthquake of 2010 was y devastating due ly constructed shacks in Port-auPrince’ No more than 20% of new urban housing in developing countries is pr ; the rest develops informally, ignoring building codes, zoning restrictions, property rights, and infrastr e standards. Informal settlements house varying percentages of these populations, but for low-income developing countries as a whole during the 1980s and 1990s, only one formal housing unit was added for every nine ne new households found shelter in shanties or slums. Per squatter settlements, though densely built, may provide adequate household space and even water, sewers, ough the efforts of the residents. More often, however, overcrowding transforms these settlements into vast zones of disease and subject to constant danger from landslides, e, and . The and often illegality of the squatter housing solution means that those who impro wn shelters lack registration and recognized ownership of their homes or the land on which they stand. Without such legal documentation, no capital accumulation based on housing assets is possible, and no collateral for home improvement loans or other purposes is created.

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Planned Cities Some capital cities have been relocated outside the core regions of their countries, either to achieve the presumed advantages e-uniform national development; examples include Islamabad (P Ankara (Turkey), Brasília (Brazil), and Abuja (Nigeria) (see Chapter 9, p. 284). A number of developing countries have also created or are currently building new cities that are intended to draw population away from overgrown metr industr t centers. The huge numbers of r ban migrants in China have strained its cities’ c In Shanghai, the demand for housing has spawned hundreds of new apartment developments of multiple skyscrapers with names Tycoons. more than 4000 buildings 18 stor , far more than New York, and new satellite to e planned and established in a short time. An hour north of Beijing is S , a gated comm le houses; connected s, the area is schedvelopment. Urban populations are expected to gro y, so planning for new developments and to , Bangkok, Thailand, is one of the most densely populated cities in the world, with an estimated population of some 10 million in the metropolitan area. It is a pri; Thailand’ , Chiang Mai, has a population of less than half a million. In recent years, Bangkok traf c-choked arteries, which severely impede travel by car or bus. In 2006, Thailand opened Suvarnabhumi, a major airport located about an hour outside of Bangkok. Linked to a seaport and other transport facilities, the airport is intended to become an air transport hub for Southeast Asia; it is planned to suppor , in phase three. The government is developing plans for a new ,N uvarnabhumi, airport. P sion it as a major new economic center for the country, ee industries, warehouses, shops, and residences. The hope is that the new city

FIGURE 11.34 The Cyber Gateway Building in Hyderabad’s . The complex houses such firms as the multinational e companies Micr oshiba, as well as such Indian companies as Wipro, which provides information technology oduct design. Hitech City also houses professional schools in business and information technology. © Mehdi Chebil/Alamy.

will help dilute the dense population of Bangkok and generate money for what is now primarily a low-income agr area. Planning can also affect the fate of older cities experiencing huge population growth. Hyderabad, India, has a population of more than 5 million, which is expected to grow to 7.4 million by 2015. To cope with the growth, proviny, pharmaceutical, biotech, to planned suburbs (Figure 11.34). They directed funds into cleaning and “greening” the , planting trees and creating parks and gardens. In addition, uption , opening transaction centers to make paying bills and banking simpler. The city now plans an international airport to rival Mumbai and Delhi. Hyderabad is not alone: examples of city planners trying to cope with growth, some more successfully than others, exist on every continent.

Summary of Key Concepts • Cities developed in the ancient world under certain circumstances: in areas where there was a food surplus, nization, and a developing economy. e have been urban areas since ancient times, only recently have ur eas become home to the majored countries and the commer crossr veloping world. • owing beyo igins take side and to a As they grow, they become

y complex. Their economic base, composed of both basic and nonbasic may become diverse. Basic epr formed for the larger economy and urban system; needs of the urban residents themselves. Cities ar ketplaces, centers of production, and centers of go administration. • Systems of cities are r ban hierarchy and the rank-size rule. W in the country, it is termed a pr . Many countries

An Urban World

have this dominant as their main urban but there are only a few world cities, which dominate the global economy. • Inside North American cities, urban areas often take on similar forms. At the core, the central business district has . Outside the CBD, lowerorder commer These patterns have inspired geographers to summarize urban form in the concentric zone, sector, multiple-nuclei, and per models. The period following World War II brought massive changes in urban organization, with the decline and r , accompanied by the rise and expansion of the suburbs. These changes have been accentuated by the tendency for ur t themselves by famil social status, . In

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Western countries, these patterns ar go ols, which help determine land use. • Urbanization is a global phenomenon, and the Anglo Americ stems, land use, and social area y from cities in the rest of the world, r itages and economic struces. Western European cities differ from those in Eastern Europe, where land use r unist principles of city str e. Cities in the developing world are currently owing so quic y that they are unable to pro residents with employment, housing, safe water, sanitation, In some cases, go viate the what by planning new cities or applying planning principles to rapidly gro

Key Words basics ector 364 central business district (CBD) 370 362 central place theory 365 city 362 concentric zone model 371 economic base 364 edgeci 375 gated comm 383

gentr ation 379 hinterland 361 metropolitan area 362 multiple-nuclei model 372 multiplier effect 365 nonbasic sector 364 peripheral model 373 primate 369

rank-size r 369 sector model 372 site 363 situation 363 suburb 362 town 362 urban hierarchy 368 urban zone 367 urbanized area 362 world 369

Thinking Geographically 1.

2. 3.

4.

5.

wn in which you live or attend school or with which y e most familiar. In a brief paragraph, discuss that comm ’ point out the connection, if any, ation and the basic functions that it performed earlier or now performs. Describe the multiplier e as it relates to the population gro ban units. Is there a hierarchy of r ue most familiar? Of how many and vels is that hierarchy composed? What localizing forces affect the distributional pattern of retailing within that comm Br y describe the urban land use patterns predicted by the concentric zone, sector, multiple-nuclei, and peripheral models of urban development. Which one, if any, best corresponds to the gro comm ou? In what way family status, and ethnicWhat

expected distributional patterns of urban social ar e associated with each? Does the social geography of your comm edicted pattern? 6. How has suburbanization damaged the economic base 7. In what ways does the Canadian city differ from the pattern of its U.S. counterpart? 8. Why are metr eas in developing countries expected to grow larger than many Western metropolises by the year 2015? 9. What are primate cities? Why are primate cities in the developing countries overburdened? What can be done to 10. What ar ant differences in the generalized pattern of land uses of North American, Western European, and Eastern European cities? 11. How are cities in the developing world by their colonial pasts? If you had to create a model for land use in such cities as Mumbai and Bangkok, ments would you incorporate?

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CHAPTERO UTLINE

Human Impact on the Environment

Human Impact on the En ronment

S

ter competing in the Transpac sailing race in 1997, les Moore came upon an enormous stretch is that is now wn as the Eastern P bage Patch. Loc Hawaii and Japan, the patch consists of rubbish trapped by the currents of the North P yre, an ar rents and gentle winds that keep the trash swirling in a giant whirlpool—“like a toilet bowl that never as one observer put it. A similar patch lies east of Japan, and together wn as the Great P bage Patch (F e 12.1). res’ spiral patterns draw in waste material from across the North P Ocean, including coastal waters off East Asia and North America. Surface curr y mo is toward the center, trapping it in the region. It c that was carelessly disc at a Los Angeles beach or that was washed down a storm drain and out to sea to reach the patch. Estimates of the size of the Eastern Garbage Patch range from 700,000 e (270,000 sq mi) to double that number. That is, the patch is roughly either the size of T Most of the trash comes from land-based sources. It is thrown or blown into the water from coastal settlements or washed into it through rivers, drains, and sewage pipes. About th is discarded from ships and oil platforms. Roughly 85% of the refuse in the patch is plastic, durable, and disposable commodity present in both advanced and developing countries. Plastic bottles and caps, plastic bags, k rings, cups, bubble wrap, toothbrushes, (nets, buoys, and lines), and innumerable bits of Styr inhabit the patch. The sun’s ultraviolet rays make the plastic brittle, and waves break it into progressivel birds, tles have died by mistakenly eating the trash or by becoming entangled in the patch’s debris. On Midway Island, a major albatross rookery, for example, about 500,000 chicks are born each year. For percent of them die, star

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of bottle caps, Lego pieces, and other plastic bits. An added concern is that the plastic absorbs toxic chemicals, such as DDT and polychlorinated biphenyls, from the seawater. Fish that feed on plankton absorb the chemicals, and when larger pr birds, the toxins are transferred to their own tissue, affecting the entire food chain.

The Great P

bage P

w people c , air, Terrestr es and ocean basins, elements of weather and characteristics of climate, building blocks of that complex mosaic c environment, Plants and c ho environment is c

and nutrients, weather and ’s environment. ysic . It is critic oblems, y arise from a ld. onment that they Forests have been cleared, grasslands plowed, dams built, and cities constructed. On the natural environment, then, has been er onment, ing, ing, or destroying the communities and processes that existed before human impact was expressed. This chapter is concerned ronment that they have so gr y altered. S e, th, have distor elationships within e, and, in the process, have both enhanced and endangered ected. The e not only our topics her , , the raw materials we use, the products we create, and the wastes we disc biosphere, , water,

ECOSYSTEMS The biosphere is composed of three interrelated parts:

Eastern Garbage Patch

Western Garbage Patch

FIGURE 12.1 The Great Pacific Garbage Patch is just one of five that may be caught in giant gyres in the Indian Ocean, the South e information about the garbage patch can be found on the Internet, including maps, photographs, videos, and satellite images. Map: © Greenpeace.

1. the troposphere, the lowest layer of the earth’s atmosphere, ve the ground 2. the hydrosphere, including surface and subsurface waters in oceans, streams, lakes, glaciers, or gr uch of it loc th and not immediatel 3. the lithosphere, containing the soils that support plant life, equire to exist, es that humans exploit.

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disintegration of organic casses and droppings, dead vegetation, waste paper, and so on. In the process of decomposition, the chemical nature of the material is changed, and the nutr Miner it become available for reuse by plants or animals. Nutrients, the minerals and other elesoil ments that organisms need for gro are never destroyed; they keep mo om living to nonliving things and back again. Our FIGURE 12.2 bodies contain nutrients that were once part what”—a hierarchy that creates a food chain. In this simplified example, green plants of other organisms, perhaps a hare, a hawk, are the producers (autotrophs), using nutrients and energy from the sun to make their or an oak tree. own food. Herbivor y consumers) feed directly on the plants, and Ecosystems change constantly whether carnivorous foxes (secondary consumers) feed on the rabbits. A food chain is one e present or not, but humans have thread in a complex food web, all the feeding relationships that exist in an ecosystem. them more than has any other speFor example, a mouse might feed on the plants shown here and then be eaten by a cies. The impact of humans on ecosystems was hawk, another food chain in this food web. with lo e, energy and technologic vels. It has The biosphere is an intricately interlocked system, conincreased so rapidl y as to pr y , recogniz ied ecologic ises. The IPAT is things to use, and, presumably, that ever be available. izing the differ The ingredients of the biosphere must be, and are, constantly onment. The formula recycled and rene e. Plants pur , the air is written as I = PAT, where I (impact on the environment) is helps pur , e used equal to P (population) m er euse. T (a technology factor). The biosphere, therefore, The IPAT equation shows that growing populations and components: ce—the sun— r ibute to greater strain and requisite chemicals, and (2) a living world of plants and on the environment. Technologies, however, can increase In turn, the biospher or decrease that impact. For example, with rising standards ecosystems, of living often come preferences for a cleaner environment; isms (plants and animals) and physic es (air, water, soil, thus, pollution controls can be added to reduce environmenand chemic ticular area. The most tal impacts. As awareness of environmental has important pr stems is that everyincreased in developed countries, there has also been a tenthing is interconnected. Any intrusion or interruption ine dency to shif er bly r in cascading effects elsewhere in the system. Each regions. Persons in poorer regions often have less control over niche, or place, within an ecoonment where they live and work and thus may be system. In the energy exchange system, each organism plays disproportionatel ole; vive because of other human effects on the environment. T organisms that also live in that environment. The problem lies tice movement (see “Environmental Justice” in Chapter 9, not in recognizing the niches but in anticipating the chain of pp. 306–307) has arisen to demand a clean, healthy environcausation and the readjustments of the system consequent on ment for everyone. So disturbing the occupants of a particular niche. onment are the topic of the remainder of this chapter. Life depends on the energy and nutr ough an ecosystem. om one organism to another is one link in a food a sequence of organisms, such as green plants, herbivores, and carnivores, IMPACT ON WATER thr ials move within an ecosysThe world’s supply of water is constant, and most of it is tem (F e 12.2). Most food chains have three or four links, found in the oceans, where it is not available for direct human although some have only example, when human The system by which it continuously circubeings eat rice. Because the ecosy e is in a conlates through the biosphere is c hy cycle tinuous cycle of integrated operation, there is no start or end (F e 12.3). In that cycle, ito a food chain. There are, simply, nutr ough evaporation and condensation so that in which each lower level in t of its opriate properties to the ecosystems contained energy to the next higher-level consumer. of the earth. Evaporation, anspiration (the emission of water The decomposers ed in F e 12.2 e essential in vapor fr and precipitation are the mechanisms ycle of life. They cause the

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FIGURE 12.3 until the air becomes supersaturated. Atmospheric moisture is retur s surface as solid or liquid precipitation to complete the cycle. Because precipitation is not uniformly distributed, moisture is not necessarily returned to areas in the same quantity as it has evaporated from them. The continents receive more water than they lose. The excess retur oundwater. A global water balance, however, is always maintained.

by which water is r ibuted. W louds, condenses, th. There it is reevaporated and retranspired, onl e as precipitation. People’s dependence on water has long led to efforts to control its supply. S ed the quantity ivers and streams.

Availability of Water y, fresh water is abundant. Enough rain and sno ver the earth’ ea with 83 centimeters (33 in.) of water. y reckoned that the volume of fresh water annually renewed by the hydrologic cycle could meet the needs of a world population 5 to 10 times its present size. In many parts of the world, however, water supplies are inadequate and ling. The problem is not with the global amount of water but with its distribution (the average amount of precipitation an area receives) and r (the var of precipitation from year to year). y is also a function of the size of the population using the water and the demands it places on the resource. The W eports that, for the world as a whole, agriculture accounts for about 78% of freshwater use (Figure 12.4). Industry uses about 18%, and household and municipal use (water for dr , bathing, watering lawns, and so on) accounts for the remainder. Since 1950, the acreage of land under irrigation has tripled, as have withdrawals of fresh water from streams, lakes, aquifers, and other sources. (An

FIGURE 12.4 Irrigation sprinklers in the Central Valley of California. Irrigation agriculture produces about 40% of the world’s om about 17% of its cropland. Usually, much more water ops actually require, ce resource. “Drip irrigation,” which delivers water directly to plant roots thr tubes laid across the field, is one method of reducing water consumption. © Corbis RF.

aquifer is a zo the earth’s surface; the water it contains is c groundwater, in contrast to surface waters, such as rivers and lakes.) Scarcity is the word increasingly used to describe water ts of both the developed and developing world (F e 12.5). Mor

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FIGURE 12.5 A

enewable water per capita. Renewable water resources are those available from streams, lakes, and aquifers. Although the United States has tremendous quantities of fresh water, it also uses tremendous quantities. Water consumption rises with population growth, increases in the standard of living, expansion of irrigation farming, and the enlarged demands of municipalities that come with development. In a growing number of world areas, water is scarce, constraining sustainable development and requiring hard choices in the allocation of water among competing users. Source: Student Atlas of World Geography, 3/e, John Allen, Map 50, p. 63. McGraw-Hill/Dushkin, 2003.

world’s population—live in regions facing a scar . igation periodic y endangers crops and threatens famine; permanent streams have become interw; lakes are shr and from throughout the world come reports of rapidl that have gone dry. According to the World Bank, chronic water shortages that threaten to limit food production, economic development, sanitation, and en ronment protection eady plague 80 countries. Ten countries in North Africa and the Midd y run a water de they consume more than their annual renewable supply, y by pumping groundwater faster than it is r National data can mask water scar oblems at the local level. A number of countries have major crop-producing regions where groundwater overpumping and aquifer depletion have led to serious water shortages and restricted supplies. •

•

In northern China, for example, irrigated farmland and urban and industr owth are so depleting water supplies that for much of the year the Huang He (Ye ow uns dry in its lower reaches before arriving at the Yellow Sea. More than 100 of China’s large cities, most of them in the north, eady have serious water shortages. Across much of northern China, water tables are dropping an average of 1 to 2 meters (3 to 6 ft) each year. In India, the world’ , the ov rate of groundwater withdraw is ce the rate of recharge. In se thern states, including Haryana

•

•

and Punjab, the country’s most important agr region, excessive water use is c y up. Lake Chad has been severely reduced in size by drought om feeder rivers to irrigate agriculture. Once Africa’s second largest lake, with a surface area of 25,000 squar 1965, Lake Chad covered just 1500 squar (580 sq mi) in 2005. L esh water in Mexico, has lost about 80% of its intake water since the mid-1970s. The lake is fed pr erma, of the river’ w is no . bs extract water from their e can replenish the water. As a r emoving so much groundwater, t) dur .

In the United States, too, groundwater supplies are being depleted faster than they can be renewed in portions of Arizona, New Mexico, and Nevada. Demands upon the onl ant source of surface water in the southwestern United States, the Colorado River, are so great that the stream often reaches the ocean (at the Gulf of California) as little more than a briny tric Aqueducts and irrigation canals siphon off its water for use in seven western states and northern Mexico. A number of western cities, including Denver and Santa Fe, have imposed mandatory restrictions on water use.

Human Impact on the Environment

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of its salt and mineral content) to provide a technologic tion to water shor As long as the process is economic y however, it is unlikely to supply mor por ’s needs. enough, desalinization could help augment domestic water supplies; ver become cheap enough to provide water for agriculture.

Modification of Streams

FIGURE 12.6 The giant Ogallala aquifer, the largest underground water supply in the United States, provides about onefourth of all gr . Depletion of the aquifer is most severe in its souther e the Ogallala gets little replenishment from rainfall. Water tables have declined by 32 meters (100 ft) or mor Texas. The capacity of the aquifier has decreased by about onethird since 1950.

The country’s largest underground water reserve, the , which supplies about irrigated land, is being depleted thr eplenished (F e 12.6). Stretching from South Dakota to west Texas, the aquifer supports nearl ’s c industry, a fourth of its cotton crop, and a great deal of its corn and wheat. Mor e the aquifer, pumping water for irrigation, industry, and domestic use. The UN estimates that by 2015 nearl , or 40% of the projected world population, stressed countries wher Shortages of this indispensable resource pit developers against environmentalists, and users—agriculture, industry, and m one another. Tensions are exacerbated in areas wher or more countries share a river system. The world’s 263 transboundary rivers raise the r ver access to fresh water. Mexico, for example, is angered by U.S. depletion of the Colorado River before it reaches the international border; and by building dams and irr Turkey and Syria have taken much of the water of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, reducing the amount of water available in do eam Syria and Iraq. India’s diversion of a large portion of the Ganges River has left Bangladesh with water shortages. Because the oceans contain a never-ending supply of water, some have looked to desalinization (cleansing seawater

To prevent , to r the water supply for agrie and urban settlements, or to generate power, people ivers by constructing dams, canals, and reservoirs. y have achieved their purposes, these structures can have unintended as discussed in Chapter 5. These include reduction in the sediment load downstream, followed by a reduction in the amount of the nutrients available for crops an increase in the salinity of the soil; subsidence; and dramatic dec such as salmon, that hatch in freshwater rivers, migrate to the ocean, and then return upriver to their place of origin to spawn (see “Blueprint for Disaster: Stream Diversion and the Aral Sea,” pp. 398–399). Channeliz ing river w, is the constr straightening, widening, and/or deepening of channels to contr ov Globally, more iver have been dredged and channelized. Many of the great rivers of the world, including the Mississippi, the Nile, and the Huang He, are lined by embankment systems. Like dams, these systems can have unforeseen consequences. They r c wnstream, and can cause excessive erosion. Until 1960, lor turned as it traveled thr ake Kissimmee and Lake Okeechobee (Figure 12.7). The habitat supported hundreds of species of birds, reptiles, At the request of developers, ranchers, and farmers who had moved onto the wetlands and were bed by the tendency of the r ps of Engineers dredged the stream, dering river into a straight, dirt-lined canal onl (56 mi) long. After the completion of the c the wetlands disappeared, ved in, lations declined drastic y, and 90% of the waterfowl, including se ed species, vanished. Channelization and dam construction are deliberate iver regimes, action also affect r w. Urbanization, for example, has ant hydrologic impacts, including a lowering of the water table, and incr . Like , the remo est cover increases runoff, pr lowers the water table, and hastens erosion. Nevertheless, the pr y adverse human impact on water is felt in the ar . People withdraw water from

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lakes, rivers, or underground deposits to use for dr , bathing, agriculture, industry, and many other purposes. Although the water that is withdrawn r ycle, it is not always r of withdrawal. Water, like other segments of the ecosystem, is subject to serious pr

Water Quality by humans means the introduction into the biosphere of wastes that, because of their volume, their composition, or both, cannot be readil ecycling processes. In the case of water, esence of one or more substances that either it c purpose or it is less suitable for that use than it was in its natuPollution is brought about by the discharge into water

of substances that cause unfavorable changes in its chemic or physical natur isms living in the water. Pollution is a relative term. Water that is not suitable for dr may be completely satisfactory for cleaning streets. W ovide an acceptable environment for certain water plants. Human is not the only cause of water L om trees and decay, oil seepages, . There ar ocesses, however, to take care of such pollution. Organisms in water are able to degrade, assimilate, and disperse such substances in the amounts in which they natur ly occur. Only in rare instances do na r pollutants overwhelm the cleansing abilities of the recipient waters. What is happening now is that the quantities of wastes discharged by humans of pur itself. In addition, humans are introducing pollutants, nthetic organic substances, that take a very

Human Impact on the Environment

long time to break down or cannot be broken do na ral mechanisms. As long as there are people on Earth, ther tion. Thus, the problem is one not of eliminating pollution but of controlling it. Such control can be a matter of life or death. Water y childr . The people die from diarrhea and water-related diseases, One column in 3 at the back of this book shows, by country, the per n with access to safe water. The four major contributors to water pollution are agrie, industry, mining, and m esidences. “point” and “nonpoint” sources of pollution. As the name implies, point sources enter the envir such as a sewage treatment facility or an industr Nonpoint sources e more diffuse and, therefore, mor ol; examples include runoff from agr

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Agricultural Sources of Water Pollution On a wor United States, agr ries thr

agr

e probably contributes more . In the e is estimated to be responsible for eam pollution. Agr unoff carfertilizers, biocides, and

Fertilizers Agr e is a chief contributor of excess nutrients to water bodies. P have been used in fertilizers and that are pr manure drain into streams and rivers, ev y accumulating in ponds, lakes, ies. The nutrients hasten the process of eutr or the enrichment of waters by nutrients. Eutrophic y when nutrients in the surrounding area are washed into the water, but when the sources

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of enrichment are ar as is true of commer tilizers, the body of water may become overloaded with nutrients. e stimulated to gro y, bloc When they die and decompose, the level of dissolved o decreases. Fish and plants that cannot tolerate the poorly o genated water suffocate. It has been estimated that, worldwide, this accelerated eutrophic orth America, Europe, and Southeast Asia, some 40% in South America, and 28% in Africa. Symptoms of a eutrophic lake are pr o , rapid accum and water that has a foul taste and odor. High levels of nutrients from agr e a primary cause of about 200 “dead zones” around the world, wage plants, , ibute the nitrogen and phosphor sive gro ooplankton, which die and sink to the bottom, and then are eaten by bacteria that use up the o . A dead zo ea of o crabs, and other aquatic cr es cannot survive. The world’ ones inc Sea, the East China Sea, the Bay of Bengal, and the northern G ouisiana (Figure 12.8). The zones, whose sizes vary from year to year, reach their peak during the summer months, as the water grows warmer and solar radiation increases, c

(a) Before 1960

Biocides (b) After 1972

Atlantic Ocean

Gulf of Mexico

L. Okeechobee

The herbicides and pesticides used in agr e another source of the chemical pollution of water bodies. Runoff from farms where such biocides have been applied contaminates both ground- and surface waters. One of the problems connected with the use of biocides is that the long-term effects of such usage are not always immediately known. Dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane (DDT), for example, was used for many years before people discovered its effect on birds, and water plant life. Another problem is that thousands of these products, containing more than 600 active ingredients, are now in wide use, yet very few have been re ewed for safe rotection Agency (EPA). F y, biocides that leach into aquifers can remain there long after the chemicals are no longer used. Thus, waters even though its use was banned in the late 1960s.

(c)

FIGURE 12.7 The Kissimmee River in Florida (a) before and (b)

ned it into a straight canal

degraded bird and fish populations, and contributed to the deterioration of Lake Okeechobee and the Everglades. The federal goverment and the state of Florida have embarked on a long-term project to reestablish a natural flow of water to 69 kilometers (43 mi) of the river by returning it to a meandering path. You can check on the progress of the Kissimmee River Restoration Project on the Web. ater Management District.

Wastes ce of chemic wastes, y in countries wher e raised intensively. This is a problem both in feedlots, wher e crowded together at um densities to be fattened before slaughter, and on the factory-like farms where beef, hog, and production is increasingly concentrated (F e 12.9). American farms and large feedlots produce vast quantities of manure—nearl y lack

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Missi s

sip p

iR ive r

Human Impact on the Environment

(a) Gulf of Mexico

FIGURE 12.8 Louisiana-Texas coast in 2007 covered roughly 20,500 square kilometers (7900 sq mi), similar to the size of New Jersey. More than 40% of the United States is drained by the Mississippi River and its tributaries, and each year the Mississippi washes more than 1.6 million tons of excess nutrients—chiefly nitrogen and phosphorus—into the Gulf of Mexico. The sources of the nutrients ar eatment wastewater, and air pollution. The nutrients stimulate the gr algae, which eventually die, sink to the seafloor, and decompose, cr

sewage treatment facilities. The main method for disposing of the waste is to put it into open lagoons (containment ponds) and then spray it onto surrounding as a fertilizer, from which it can leach into the water table and rivers. The water om spreading manure on land is suspected by many to be responsible for recent outbreaks of the microorganism esteria piscicida in North Carolina and the Chesapeake Bay and its tributaries. Dubbed the “ om hell,” xic when exposed to high levels of nitrogen and phosphorus, byproducts of waste. The manure comes from the large yland, Virginia, and Nor olina. eria and there is some evidence that the organism also sickens humans.

Other Sources of Water Pollution As noted earlier, agr e is only one of the human activities that contribute to water pollution. Other sources are industry, mining, m and residences.

(b)

FIGURE 12.9 An industrial hog-production operation in Ohio. (a) On factory-style hog farms such as the one pictured here, thousands of animals are fed and raised indoors in large, rectangular barns for the 4 or 5 months it takes them to grow to 250 pounds. (b) Feces and urine are washed through slots in the floor into pipes and trenches that carry the waste outdoors into holding pits known as waste lagoons. If released improperly, the waste pollutes both nearby soils and water with diseasecausing pathogens and excess nutrients from the animal feed, ogen and phosphorus. (a) © Farm Sanctuary; (b) © Keith Meyers/New York Times Pictures/Redux Pictures.

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Industry In developed countries, industry probably contributes as much to contamination of the water supply as does agriculture. Many industries discharge organic and inorganic wastes into bodies of water. These may be acids, highly toxic minersuch as mercury or arsenic, or, in the case of petroleum r ies, toxic organic chemicals. The nuclear power industry has c ial has seeped from the tanks in which the wastes have been buried, either at sea or underground. Such pollution can have a var Organisms not adapted to living in contaminated water may die; the water may become unsuitable for domestic use or irrigation; or the wastes may reenter the food chain, with deleterious effects on humans. One of the most notor ases, which focused international attention on the dangers of industr pollution, occurr Japan. From 1932 to 1968, a chemical plant that used mercury in its manufacturing process discharged tons of waste mercury into Minamata Bay, where it settled into the mud. Fish ud absorbed the mercury and concentrated it; the were in turn eaten by humans. More than 700 people died, and at least 9000 others suffer . Mercur om industrial wasteed power plants, waste incinerators, and chemic cury into the air. Much of the mercury r Earth, contaminating lakes and streams, where it accum in and Canada, China, and Brazil are among the countr ant merIn the United States, the EPA reports that viry’ ivers are contaminated with mer , and 45 states have issued advisor Among the pollutants that have been discharged into the water supply in the United States are polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), a family of related chemicals used as lubricants ic vices, paints, and plastics. During the manufacturing process, companies discharged PCBs into rivers, from which they entered the food chain. Se lakes and rivers wher vels of PCBs than are considered safe. on human health are known, they have been linked to birth defects, damage to the immune system, liver disease, and cancer. In 1977, the Envir rotection Agency banned the direct discharge of PCBs into U.S. waters, but because they do not decompose readily, immense quantities of the chemicals remain in water bodies. More recently, percholate and vinyl chloride have been implicated in the contamination of aquifers and wells. Percholate is the major component of rocket fuel; vinyl chloride is used to make plastic pipes, e, . Dr , bathing in, an cause liver cancer, nerve damage, circulatory problems, The petroleum industr ant contributor to the chemic . Oceans and inlets are becoming

increasingly contaminated by oil. like that from the tanker Exxon Valdez in 1989—which about 42,000 tons of crude oil into Alaska’s Prince W Sound, pristine shoreline—command public attention, routinel ican waters each year. Ov y comes from oil tankers and barges, y because of r es in accidents. Much of the rest comes from r ies, and oil-drenched ballast water from tanker holds, and seepage from offshore dr The Gulf of Mexico, the site of extensive offshore drilling, is among the most seriously polluted major bodies of water in the world. Acid pr yc a by-product of emissions from factories, power plants, and automobiles, has affected the water and ecology of thousands of lakes and streams in the world. Because the precipitation is caused by pollutants in the air, it is discussed later in this chapter (see the section “Acid Rain,” p. 406). Many industrial processes, ic power production, require the use of water as a coolant. Ther occurs when water that has been heated is returned to the onment and has adverse effects on the plants and animals in the water body. If the heated wastewaters ar antly warmer than the waters into which they ar they can disrupt the growth, reproduction, populations. annot survive changes of even a few degrees in water temperature. They either die or migrate. The species that depend on them for food must also either die or migrate. Thus, the food chain has been disrupted. In addition, the higher the temperature of the water, the less o which means that only lower-order plants an sur

Mining Sur copper, gold, uranium, and other substances contributes to contamination of the water supply through the wastes it generates. Rainwater reacts with the wastes, and dissolved minerals seep into nearby water bodies. The exact chemic oduced depend on the compoe slag heaps and the reaction of the minerals with sediments or river water. Heap-leach gold mining, for example, involves pouring large yanide onto piles of low-grade ore in order to extract Major mining companies practice this relatively new ies, among them the United States, P Romania, Tanzania, and Indonesia. The companies dump yanide-laced waste into loc ivers, . , the contaminants have secondar vegetation, and Each , for , thousands of and birds in such western states as izona, Nevada, ter dr A similar contamination of the water supply is occurring in the Amazon River and its tributaries, cury

Human Impact on the Environment

rather than cyanide. Because mercury attaches itself to gold, an garimpeiros) in Brazil, Venezuela, and neighboring countries use the toxic liquid to separate gold from earth and rock. They pour mercury over the crushed ore they have dredged from riverbeds, press out the mercury with their hands, e to evaporate the r The gold mining is estimated to send about 100 tons of mercury into the Amazon , poisoning the water and and another 100 tons into the atmosphere. Because it can take decades for concentrations to reach toxic levels, mercury of streams is like a delayed-action time bomb, effects of mercury poisoning in the Amazon Basin may not wn for many years. W wn, however, is that through absor centage of miners have extremely high levels of mercury in their bodies and that they and others ar cur

and Residences ives fr urbanization. The use of detergents has increased the phosphorus content of rivers, and (used for deicing roads) increases the chloride content of runoff. Water runoff from urban areas contains contaminants from garbage, animal droppings, litter, vehicle drippings, and the like. Because the sources of pollution are so varied, the water supply in any single area is often affected by diverse contaminants. This diversity complicates the problem of contr . Contaminated dr in many locations across the United States. Chemicals have reached groundwater by seeping into aquifers fr septic tanks, bicides. The pollution of aquifers is par ly troublesome because, unlike surface waters, groundwater has a low c for puriing itself; it can remain contaminated for centuries. Sewage c depending on ho eated before being discharged. This is not simpl it directl Raw, untr uses responsible for dysentery, polio, hepatitis, and other diseases. unicipal wastewater treatment is increasing in the most-developed countries, more than 90% of sewage in the developing wor ectly into waterways without tr •

• •

A survey of 200 major Russian rivers shows that 80% of them are polluted by raw sewage and have dangerously high levels of bacteria and viral agents. eats less than 10% of its wastewater, sending its sewage into rivers that irrigate farmland. Full face waters in India are polluted, in large part because only about 200 of its more than tial sewage-collection and treatment facilities. In New Delhi alone, residents are not connected to the public sewage system.

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Instead, open sewers—ideal breeding ground for mosquitoes that carry malaria and dengue fever—line the narrow lanes of slums, and although the water is unsafe for dr , women use it to launder clothes, wash vegetables, and bathe their children. wage-treatment plants are common in the United States, only half of the American population lives in comm by the Clean Water Act. Aged sewage systems in 1100 ly treated sewage into streams, lakes, and oceans. When the sewer sy , Florida, ruptures, as it does periodic y, w, which empties into Biscayne Bay in do Similarly, beaches along the Great Lakes are subject to contamination—and closure—when untreated sewage over ws into the lakes from aging wastewater treatment plants. In many communities, special problems arise af rains, when stormwater containing animal wastes, street debris, and lawn chemic wers. As treatment plants become overloaded, both runoff and raw sewage are diverted into rivers, bays, and oceans. New Yor has more than 500 storm water outlets that over rains, pour eated sewage ’s total se and Long Island S . But 1200 other cities in the East, Midwest, and Northwest also have se ks that e combined with the over w systems for storm water.

Controlling Water Pollution As the IPAT equation reminds us, technologies can help reduce the environmental impacts of gro r .W an be mitigated, equires the concerted effort of a var actors. Public education programs and environmental organizations foster concern over polluted water. In many communities, per lean-up efforts remove trash and debris from waterways, riverbanks, and beaches. Some companies have adopted “green” plans to eliminate or reduce their pr Many countries have enacted water and many have entered into international agreements that have alr uit (Table 12.1). to avoid producing or releasing it into the environment in the place. Industries can r cle or reuse materials that otherwise would be discarded into the waste stream. Communities can emplo tiary treatment of their sewage and recycle the sludge. They can also c abandoned dumps. Legislation can ban the use of DDT, PCBs, phosphate detergents, and other toxins; it can also require the pr estoration of wetlands, sediment and contaminants. The use of double- instead of oil tankers, mandated by MARPOL (Table 12.1), ant dec

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TA B L E 1 2 . 1

Once r ed to as the sewer of Europe, now much cleaner than it was in the 1970s and 1980s because of r The ies the river have worked together to cut the ogen, lead, ammonium entering the river and, ev y, the North Sea. water treatment plants. Atlantic salmon have returned to the river after , antly. The Mediterranean Sea is on its way to recovery. In 1976, when the 18 countries that border the sea signed the Convention for the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea against P eated sewage into the sea; tankers spewed oily wastes into it; and tons upon tons of phosphorus, detergents, lead, and other substances contaminated the waters. Now many cities have built or are building sewage-treatment plants, ships are prohibited from indiscriminate dumping, e beginning to enforce contr om land-based sources. Bec , ces of water polsuch as agr ban r , e mor ol than those from point sources. Again, the educe the number and amount of pollutants before they reach water. F an be encouraged to apply less fer er, pesticides, and irrigation water to agr Cities can separate storm sewers and m wage lines to avoid over w during storms. an be developed to lessen chemic from mining and forestry. ol projects , e even higher. In the United States, vernment in 1972 took the lead in r Clean Water Act. Its objective was “to restore and the chemic physic and biologic ’s waters.” ess uniform ols for each catey and directed the government to pay most of the cost of new se eatment plants. Since 1972 such plants have been built to serve mor icans, and industr the Clean Water Act by r The gains have been impressive. Many rivers and lakes that were ecologic y dead or dying are now thr . Once

dumping gr ial waste, the Hudson, Potomac, Cuyahoga, and Tr e among the r e cleaner, more inviting, and more productive than before, and they now suppor , swimming, and recreational boating. Similarly, Seattle’s Lake Washington and the Great Lakes are healthier than they were in the 1980s. Efforts e to clean up the waters of Chesapeake Bay, the country’ y, and to undo much of the damage that lorida’s Everglades by impro ake Okeechobee.

IMPACT ON AIR AND CLIMATE The oposphere, the thin layer of air just above the earth’s surface, eathe. Every day thoue discharged into the air by cars and incinerators, factories and airplanes. Air is polluted when harmful effect on living things.

Air Pollutants Truly clean air has probably never existed. Just as there are ces of water pollution, so are there substances that Ash from volcanic eruptions, marsh gases, smoke from for es, and windblown dust ar ces of air pollution. N y, these pollutants are of low volume and are widely dispersed throughout the atmosphere. On occasion, a major volcanic eruption may produce so much dust that the atmosphere is temporaril ed. however, the ant, longterm effect on air, which, like water, is able to cleanse itself. F e impor ing pollutants are . ants r imarily from burning fossil fuels (coal, gas, and oil) and other mater F e burned in power plants that generate electr , in many industrial plants, and in cars, ucks, buses, planes. Scientists estimate that about three-quar om burning The r y result from industr ,

Human Impact on the Environment

Solid waste disposal 2%

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TA B L E 1 2 . 2

Miscellaneous 6%

FIGURE 12.10 Sour United States. directly into the atmospher

e materials that are emitted

onment. T is the single-largest source of human-caused air pollution. The second-largest sour ces, such as power plants and factories. Redrawn from Biosphere 2000, by Donald G. Kaufman and Cecilia M. Franz (NY: HarperCollins College Publishers, 1993, Fig. 14.3, p. 251).

wastes, for es, and the evaporation of solvents. F e 12.10 depicts the major sour Table 12.2 summarizes the major sour primary polOnce they are in the atmosphere, these may react with other primar normal atmospher such as water vapor, to form secondary oblem. A r World Health Organization (WHO) concluded that more than 1.1 billion people live in urban areas with unhealthful air. S xide levels are considered unacceptable for some 625 million people in developing countr , and levels of smoke, dust, and other particulates are unacceptable for Particularly at risk of br are r , Cairo, Delhi, Seoul, Beijing, ta. , dir According to the , ely each year fr

Factors Affecting Air Pollution Many factors affect the and the degree of air found at a given place. Those over which people have relatively little control are climate, weather, wind patterns, and topography. wn away or are likely to accumulate. Thus, a on a plain is less likely to exper . ant dispersal. A temperature inversion

cumstances, e decreases away from the earth’s surface. warm, dry air over a region, however, ev rising and cooling of air from below. As described in Chapter 4 (see F e 4.11 and “The Donora Tragedy”), the air becomes stagnant during an inversion. P ulate in the lowest layer instead of being blown away, so the air becomes more and more contaminated. N y, inversions last for only a few hours, tain areas experience them much of the time. T e inversions occur often in Los Angeles in . enough, over se s, it can contribute to the accum vels that seriousl The air pollutants generated in one place may have their most serious effect in areas hundr , as atmosphere circulaton moves pollutants freely without regard to political boundaries. Thus, the worst effects of the air pollution that originates in New Yor e felt in Connecticut and parts of Massachusetts. The chemic eaction that produces smog takes a few hours, and by that time air currents have carr om New York. In a similar fashion, New York is the r oduced in other places. Much of the acid rain that affects New England and eastern Canada or ed power plants wer Great Lakes and in the Ohio V extremely high smokestacks to disperse sulfurous emissions. Air pollution from China travels across the P ends up on the West Coast of the United States. based industries in Russia and Europe produce sulfate, carbon, e transported by air currents to the land north of the Arctic Circle, where they result in a contamictic haze. O ee of air e the levels of urbanization, industrialization, and adoption of pollution control technologies.

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FIGURE 12.11 Acid precipitation: points of origin and current problem areas. Prevailing winds can deposit acid precipitation far from its area of origin. The acids in the precipitation harm or destroy soils, vegetation, aquatic life, and buildings. Occurring primarily in industrialized countries, acid precipitation has become a serious pr ope, and Japan. Source: Student Atlas of World Geography, 5th ed., John Allen, Map 65, p. 81. McGraw-Hill/Dushkin, 2008.

Population densities, industries, and home-heating practices all help determine the the more urbanized and industrialized a place is, the more responsible it is for pollution. Where burning for farmland improv ly expanding urban and industr velopment—increasingly common in large areas of the developing world—widespread atmospheric contaminations results. For example, ameras r ly reveal a nearly continuous blanket of soot, organic compounds, dust, ash, and other air debris k that stretches across much of India, Bangladesh, and Southeast Asia, reaching northward to the industrial heart of China. The sources of pollution are so many and varied that we c . Instead, examine thr

Acid Rain precipitation is a more precise description, acid is the ly used for pollutants, y oxides of sulfur and nitrogen, that are created by burning fossil fuels and that change chemica y as they are transported through the atmosphere and fall back to Earth as acidic rain, snow, fog, or dust. The main sources of these pollutants are vehicles, industries, power plants, and ore-smelting facilities. When xide reacts with water vapor in the atmosphere, it becomes sulfuric acid, which is highly corrosive. Sulfur dioxide

contr About one-third comes from nitrogen oxides, transformed into nitric acid in the atmosphere. Once the pollutants are airborne, winds can carry them hundr depositing them far from their source. In North America, most of the pre e westerlies, which means that much of the acid rain that falls on the eastern seaboard and eastern Canada originates in 10 states Figure 12.11). Similarly, airborne pollutants from Great Britain, France, and Germany c ation problems in Scandinavia. Acid rain has thr terrestrial, aquatic, and material. The acids change the pH factor (the measure ale of 1 to 14) of both soil and water, setting off a chain of chemical and biologic eactions (F e 12.12). It is important to note that the pH sc logarithmic, which means every step on the scale represents a factor of 10. Thus, 4.0 is 10 times more acidic than 5.0, and it is 100 times more acidic than 6.0. The average pH of normal categorized as slightly acidic, but acid rainfalls with a pH of 1.5 more acidic than vinegar or lemon juice) have been recorded. Acid deposition harms soils and vegetation by soils and by coating the ground with partic and to such as cadmium and lead. microorganisms in the soil that break down organic matter and recycle nutrients through the ecosystem. S ant forest damage has occurred in the eastern United States, northern and western Europe, Russia, and China.

Human Impact on the Environment

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407

FIGURE 12.12 The formation of acid precipitation. Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides produced by the combustion of fossil fuels are eact with water vapor, they form sulfuric and nitric acids, which then fall to Redrawn from Biosphere 2000, by Donald G. Kaufman and Cecilia M. Franz (NY: HarperCollins College Publishers, 1993, Fig. 14.5, p. 259).

The aquatic effects of acid rain are manifold. of a lake or stream need not increase much before it begins to interfere with the early repr , the food chain is disr Acid rains have been linked to eams in the United States, Canada, and Scandinavia and to a decline where. On the verge of suffering from chronic e high-elevation streams, lakes, and ponds in the Sierra Nevada, the Cascade Range, the Roc Mountains, and the Adirondacks. The material effects of atmospheric acid are e damage to buildings and monuments. The acid etches and corrodes many building materials, inc ble, limestone, steel, and bronze (Figure 12.13). Wor , tens of thousands of str es are slowly being dissolved by acid precipitation.

FIGURE 12.13 Damage due to acid deposition. The Acidic fumes in the air, especially sulfuric and nitric acids, exact a

Photochemical Smog W xides are the chief cause of acid rain, oxides of nitrogen are responsible for the formation of photochemic smog. This of air pollution is created when nitrogen oxides react with the o esent in water vapor in the air to form nitrogen dioxide. In the presence of sunlight, nitrogen dioxide reacts with hydrocarbons from automobile exhausts, industry, ces to form new compounds, such

structures that are slowly being destroyed by acid rain are the Lincoln Memorial and the Washington Monument in Washington, eece, and the Taj Mahal in Agra, India. © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Photo by Louis Rosenstock.

as ozone. The primary component of photochemic , oz of three o Warm, dry weather and poor

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(a)

(b)

FIGURE 12.14 Los Angeles (a) on a clear day and (b) when it is cloaked by photochemical smog. When air over the city remains stagnant, it can accumulate increasing amounts of automobile and industrial exhausts, r noon sunlight to a dull haze and e-stringent restrictions on automobile emissions have resulted in reducing

air circulation promote ozone formation. The hotter and sunnier the weather, the more ozone and smog are created. In therefore, more ozone is produced during the summer months than during the rest of the year. Because the primary sources of the nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons are motor vehicles and industries, photochemic ban problem. The sever problem in any single area depends on climate, landforms, and Smog occurs around the world, affecting cities such as Ankara, Turkey; New Delhi, India; ; and Santiago, Chile. According to the World Bank, 16 of Asia’s cities with the worst smog are in China. So icans, or more than one-half of the U.S. live in or near ar standards for ground-level ozone that went into effect in June 2004. The warm, sunny climate and topography of California e particularly conducive to ozone pollution (F e 12.14). ’s s e encircled by mountains, which help hold air pollutants in the basins. When e inversions occur, the pollutants are effectively trapped, unable to escape to the stratosphere. And like their U.S. counterparts, more than of Canadians live in eas where ozone can reach unacceptable levels. The region from Windsor to Quebec has the worst air (F e 12.15). Approximately of the region’s ozone is generated loc y; the other half comes from the Ohio V veland and Detroit areas. Photochemic vegetation. Chronic exposure to smog causes permanent damage to lungs, aging them prematurely, and is believed to increase the incidence of such respiratory ailments as asthma, bronchitis, pneumonia, and emphysema. Because children

eathing passages and less-developed immune systems than adults, they ar y susceptible to damage from the polluted air. In addition to its effects on humans, ozone harms vegetation. Exposure over several days to ozone concentrations as low as 0.1 par ees, plants, and crops. iginates in urban industr it can affect areas downwind from them. Damage associated with photochemical smog has been documented in forests do om To o and Osaka in Japan; Beijing, China; Karachi, P and Los Angeles, among other places.

Depletion of the Ozone Layer Ozone, the same chemic ground,

xious pollutant near the e. There, approximately ve the ground, ozone forms a protective blanket c ozone layer, forms of life on Earth from overexposure to lethal ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun. Mounting evidence indicates that emissions from a var e destroying the ozone layer. Most important is a family of synthetic chemicals develchlor oc bons (CFCs), including halons, carbon tetrachloride, and methyl chloroform. CFCs are found in hundreds of products. They are used as coolants for refrigerators and air conditioners; as aerosol spray pr as a component in foam pac , home insulation, ; e retardants; and as cleaning agents. form, they are used to sterilize surgical equipment and to clean computer chips and other microelectronic equipment. ated in the depletion of the ozone layer is

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AB

BC

MB QUE NB

ONT

NS

NY CA PA OH MD AZ TN

NC

TX

MEXICO

FIGURE 12.15 U.S. and Canadian cities most polluted by smog. levels of ozone contamination. Despite significantly reducing harmful emissions in recent years, the Los Angeles basin still has the worst ozone pollution in the United States in terms of the number of “bad air” days per year. However, some of the worst smog days in the exas. In Canada, 10 of the 20 cities are in the Windsor-to-Quebec corridor, which is subject to cross-border pollution from the United States. Source of data: American Lung Association, Environment Canada.

methyl bromide, a pesticide used to sterilize soils and grain silos and to fumigate shipments of perishable goods. After the gases are r , they rise through the lower atmosphere and, after a per reach the stratosphere (F e 12.16). There, UV radiation breaks the t, producing free chlorine and bromine atoms. Over time, a single one of these atoms can destroy tens of thousands, , of ozone molecules. Each year, y, e ov cts to lose more and more ozone. ld, horiz tend to keep chemic in air But cir eezing whirlpool of air ov ents fr ing,

k to destroy the ozone. In 1985, researchers discovered what is popularly termed a “hole” y, a broad area of low-ozone concentrations) tates in the ozone layer over Antarctica, extending northward as far as populated areas of South America (Figure 12.17). The ozone depletion intening August and September before tapering off in October as temperatures rise, the winds change, and the ozoneounding atmosphere. A less dramatic but still serious depletion of the ozone shield occurs over the North Pole, and the ozone shield over the midlatiantly since 1978.

ws mor face. Increased exposur ancer and, by suppr mechanisms, increases risk from a var Bec it is y to reduce agr damage may occur in oceans. Incr

each

the earth’

y defense The most serious

oscopic ish just below the surface of form the base of the oceanic ole in the ear ’s CO2 cycle. The production of CFCs and other ozone-depleting substances is being phased out under the Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer of 1987, an international tr equired developed countries to stop production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances after 1995 and to cease in developing countries by 2010. The Montreal Protocol spurred a rapid decline in CFC output. CFC use decr and the use of methyl bromide by 66%. Even if countries ev y comply with the Montreal Protocol, however, ause ozone degradation for years to come. y used forms of CFCs stay in the stratosphere, br wn ozone molecules, for up to 120 years. Thus, ecovery of the ozone layer c . plants c the Antarctic Ocean. Ph

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FIGURE 12.16 How ozone is lost. CFCs and methyl bromide released into the air rise through the troposphere without breaking down (as most pollutants do) and eventually enter the stratosphere. Once they reach the ozone layer, UV rays break them down, releasing chlorine (from CFCs) and bromine. These elements, in turn, disrupt ozone molecules, breaking them up into molecular oxygen, and thus deplete the ozone layer.

FIGURE12.17 Ozonede pletion over the Southern Hemisphere on September16,2003. The color scale below the image shows the total ozone levels. The pinks and purples indicate the areas of greatest ozone depletion. The area of significant depletion varies in size from year to year. In 2003, the hole grew to near record size, 29 million square kilometers (11.1 million sq mi). Although depletion of e over Antarctica, a decline in stratospheric © National Centers for Environmental Prediction,

Human Impact on the Environment

Controlling Air Pollution

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A number of developments in recent years have given rise to the hope that people can reverse the decline in air . opped worldwide by 75% since 1970. Se ies, both industrialized and developing, eliminated leaded gasoline from their markets. Many others r introduced unleaded gasoline. The de ant because exposure to the microscopic particles of lead that are emitted into the atmosphere when leaded gasoline is burned contr etardation, high blood pressure, and an increased risk of heart attacks and strokes. As discussed earlier, the Montr rotocol of 1987 called for global efforts to reduce the release of ozone-depleting substances in order to protect the ozone layer. The tr ant difference. The protocol and its amendments ban CFC production in industrial countries, and by 2005, total world production of CFCs and methyl bromide antly. The drop has been most pronounced in the European Union and the United States. The producy has risen in China, India, and other developing countries, where it is still legal. There is good reason to believe that atmospheric concentrations of CFCs will wly over the next several decades and that sometime ic ozone levels will return to normal.

• •

vention on Long-Range Tr Pollution, signed by 33 countries in Europe and North America and intended to reduce the emissions of nitrous oxides and sulfur dioxides. During the 1980s, ope was reduced as, for example, Austria, West Germany, Sweden, and Norway cut their SO2 emissions by more than 50%. Emissions of nitrous oxides have proved mor ol. Air pollution remains a serious problem in many developing countries, however, particularly those where major metropolitan areas are growing at explosive rates. and Santiago, Chile, for example, pollution exceeds health standards 300 or more days per year. As noted earlier, China has 16 of the world’ tion that is not likely to improv e as long as the country’s economy continues to grow. By 2010, China surpassed the United S arbon dioxide. It is building an average of one ne ed power plant per week and, in another 20 years, e cars on the road. The United S ant progress in cleaning up its air. A series of Clean Air Acts (1963, 1965, 1970, After many years of debate, Congress in 1990 passed a Clean Air Act that represented the most sweeping legislation to date. It set forth goals to pr onment by reducing the amount of air pollutants that can be released, and it established a time table for reaching those goals. Major provisions c

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reducing ur wable levels of particulates and the concentration of ozone in the air using cleaner-burning fuels in the most polluted cities lowering nitrogen oxide and hydrocarbon emissions from motor vehicles requir educe their emissions of NOx and SO2

The country’s air is cleaner no several Clean Air Acts were enacted, despite the fact that the population, economy, and number of vehicles have grown. Since 1985, emissions of lead have dropped 98%, of sulfur dioxide by 50%, and of carbon monoxide by 32%. Nevertheless, the air in many parts of the countr ds. Reaching the goals of the Clean Air Act will require r om both stationary and nonstationary sources. A number of strategies can be employed to c ces. Technologic leaner-burning fuels; washing, which removes m e it is burned; and removing pollutants fr the smokestack by using scrubbers, precipitators, Another approach is to reduce energy consumption by using mor ipping and and str formance standards in the building codes for new buildings. Reducing emissions from nonstationary sources—mainly motor vehic an be accomplished in a number of ways. These include conforming to tighter tailpipe emission standards by retiring older automobiles, dr automobiles, phasing out leaded gas, and implementing rigorous vehicle inspection programs. ytic converters have ply reduced smog from vehicles. Travel can be made more ewarding those who carpool or use alternative means of transport, such as bicycles or mass transit.

IMPACT ON LANDFORMS People have affected the earth wherever they have lived. Whatever we do, or have done in the past, basic needs has had an impact on the landscape (Figure 12.18). To pro food, clothing, shelter, transportation, and defense, we have cleared the land and replanted it, r s, and built roads, fortresses, and cities. We have mined the earth’s resources, logged entire forests, terraced mountainsides, even reclaimed land from the sea. e of the changes made in any single area depends on what was there to begin with and how people have used the land.

Landforms Produced by Excavation Although we tend to think of landforms as “givens,” creocesses over millions of years, people have ant role in shaping local

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FIGURE12.18 Humant ransformationof the land. Humans have alter pristine” areas, covered with original vegetation, tend to be too high, dry

. The “almost

removal of original vegetation. Most are used for agriculture or livestock grazing. “Almost fully transformed” areas are those of permanent and intensive agriculture and urban settlement; little or no original vegetation remains. Source: Student Atlas of World Geography, 5th ed., John Allen, Map 83, p. 99. McGraw-Hill/Dushkin, 2008.

physical landscapes. So es are created deliberately, y or indirectly. Pits, ponds, ridges and trenches, subsidence depressions, c and reservoirs are es resulting from excavations. Some date back to neolithic times, . Excavation has had its greatest ies, however, as earth-mo operations have been undertaken for mining; for building construction and agr e; and for the construction of transport facilities such as railways, ship canals, and highways. Surface mining, which involves the removal of vegetation, topsoil, and rocks from the earth’s surface in order to get at the resources underneath, has perhaps had the greatest environmental impact. Open-pit mining and strip mining are the most commonly used methods of surface mining. Openpit mining is used primarily to obtain iron and copper, sand, gravel, and stone. As F e 12.19a indicates, an enormous pit remains after the mining has been completed, because most of the mater emoved for processing. Strip mining is increasingly employed in the United States more coal per year now comes from strip mines than from underground mines. P in this way. A trench is dug, the material is excavated, and another trench is dug, the soil and waste rock being deposited ench, and so on. Unless reclamation is practiced, the result is a ridged landscape (F e 12.19b). In a variation of strip mining c mountaintop removal, the tops of

mountains are blasted off with dy ers push the mountaintops and slag waste into the s and streams below (see “Mountaintop Removal: Good or Bad?,” pp. 414–415). Landscapes marred by vast open pits or unevenl trenches are one of the most visible results of surface mining. Thousands of square miles of land have been affected, with the prospect of thousands more to come as the amount of surface mining increases. Damage to the aesthetic value of an area is not the onl face mining. ea is large, wildlife habitats are disrupted, and surface and subsurface drainage patterns are disturbed. In the United States, current law requires strip-mining companies to level the ridges and regrade the area, restore the soil, and replant grass or other vegetation. The law is not always obeyed.

Landforms Produced by Dumping Exc ea often leads to the creation, via dumping, of landforms nearby. Both surface and subsurface mining produce tons of waste and enormous spoil piles. In fact, in terms of tonnage, mining is the single greatest contributor to solid wastes, with about 2 billion tons per year left to be disposed of in the United S The normal custom is to dump waste rocks and mill tailings in huge heaps near the mine sites. Unfor y, y effects onment.

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FIGURE12.19 (a) An aerial view of the Bingham Canyon open-pit copper mine in Utah, said to be the largest human-made excavationin t hewor ld. Since mining began at the site, approximately 15 billion tons of material have been removed, creating a pit mor , gold, silver, and molybdenum. (b) About 400 squar e lost each year to the strip mining of coal and other resources; far more is disrupted worldwide. On flat or rolling terrain, strip mining leaves a landscape of parallel ridges and trenches, the r den. The material taken from one trench to reach the underlying mineral is placed in an adjacent one, leaving the wavelike terrain shown here. Besides altering the topography, strip mining ns, destr ock on top of the new gr (a) © Dr. Parvinder Sethi; (b) © Jim Richardson/Corbis.

Carried by wind and water, dust from the wastes pollutes the air, and dissol by water sources. Occ y, the wastes cause greater damage, as happened in Wales in 1966, when slag heaps from the coal mines slid onto the village of Aberfan, burying more than 140 schoolchildren. Such tragedies c y destructive ways of disposing of mine wastes. Another example of the combined effect of excavating and ape is the agricu e characteristic of parts of Asia. In order to retain water and increase the amount of arable land, terraces are cut into the slopes of and mountains. Lo otect the patches of level land. Human impact on land has been particularly strong in areas where land and water meet. Dr tions undertaken for purposes of water control create landscape features such as embankments and dikes. In many places, the eline has been altered, as builders in In the Netherlands, es of land have been reclaimed from the sea by the building of dikes to enclose polders and c Farming practices in river ant effects on deltas. For example, increased sedimentation has often extended the area of land into the sea.

Formation of Surface Depressions The extraction of material from beneath the ground can lead to subsidence, the settling or sinking of a portion of the land surface. Many of the world’s great cities ar

because of the removal of (groundwater, oil, and gas) from beneath them. Cities threatened by such subsidence are located on unconsolidated sediments (New Orleans and Bangkok), coastal marshes (Venice and Tokyo), or lake beds W e removed, the sediments compact and the land surface sinks. Because many of the cities are on coasts or estuaries and are often only a few feet above sea level, subsidence makes them mor om the sea and rising sea levels associated with climate change. The remo solids and gold) by underground mining may r ver the mine. Sinkholes, or pits (circular, essions), and sags (larger and shallower depressions) ar ypes of landsc es pr F e 12.20). If surface drainage patterns are disrupted, subsidence lakes may form in the depressions. Subsidence has become a more serious problem as towns and cities have expanded over minedeas. As one might expect, subsidence damages structures built on the land, including buildings, roads, and sewage lines. A dramatic example occurred in Los Angeles in 1963, when subsidence caused the dam at the Baldwin Hills Reservoir to crack. In less than 2 hours, the water emptied , resulting in millions of dollars’ worth of property damage. The withdrawal of groundwater from beneath vere though differential subsidence. One of the reasons the 1985 earthquake in that city was so damaging was that subsidence had weakened building structures.

Mountaintop Removal: Good or Bad?

IMPACT ON PLANTS AND ANIMALS People have affected plant and animal life on the earth in several ways. When human impact is severe enough, a species can become extinct; that is, it no longer exists. fossil records sho e of life on Earth, scientists estimate that in recent history the rate of extinction has incr y—an increase due to . Endangered species are those that are present 414

in such low numbers that they are in immediate jeopardy of becoming extinct in the wild if the causes of endangerment continue, while vulnerable species have decreasing populations and are likely to become endangered within the foreseeable e. Both endanger e termed threatened. Certain of species have a greater pr than others of becoming extinct. They usually exhibit one or more of the following characteristics. They exist in small populations

of dispersed individuals; have low reproductive rates, y as compar ey upon them; live in a ea; e specialized organisms that rely for their survival on a few key factors in their environment. The Wor whose members include 81 governments and more than 850 nongovernmental groups, reported in 2006 that mor plants are at risk of disappearing, inc kno

endanger tion, many species of plants ar . According to a report released by the Wor , more than 30,000 of the world’ wn plant species (11%) are at risk of extinction. F e 12.21 shows the location of 34 hot spots vation International. A biodiverhot spot is an ea with y high number of endemic species (those that occur nowhere else) and that is at 415

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high risk of disruption by human activities. occupy onl centage of the world’s land area, they house 75% of the world’s most threatened mammals, birds, and amphibians, wn higher plant species. In this

section, we examine four major ways human activities animal and plant life and threaten to r .

Habitat Loss or Alteration The main c life. About three-four

FIGURE12.20 As inkholein G uatemalaCit y, Guatemala. Sinkholes form when the ground above an underground cavern suddenly collapses. They can be triggered by the lowering of the water table or by heavy rains that enlarge a crack in the cavern roof. Areas underlain by limestone, which is soluble in water, are such depr ©M oisesCas tillo/AP Images.

FIGURE12.21

, Indiana, and Missouri attest.

eatened spe-

op and livestoc ging and mining), and various forms of development (e.g., draining wetlands, c ing forests and grasslands for to oy the habitats in which plants and animals ld’ ests, c y diverse places on Earth, is by some estimates causing the extinction of hundr very year. As countries in Africa, Asia, and South America become more industr ed and more urbanized and expand their areas under cultivation, there be an increasingly negative impact life. In Africa, wild animals are vanishing fast, in part the victims of habitat destruction. In Botswana, for example, 250,000 antelope and zebra died in a decade, disoriented by fences erected to protect c The tropical rain forests of Indonesia, home to such animals as the silver are being destroyed by logging, by the conversion of forests to plantations to grow trees for palm oil and paper production; and by surface mining for gold and zircon. The

s biologically richest and most threatened ecosystems. Numbers indicate endemic as a high number of species found nowhere else and has already lost at least 70% of its original vegetation. Some areas with high biodiversity, such as Amazonia and the Congo Basin, are not included on the map because most of their land area is relatively undisturbed. Notice that the hot spots are in areas that have been relatively isolated from other areas for a long time, either because they are islands or because they have special climatic conditions (e.g., Mediterranean or tropical). Source: International, 2008.

Human Impact on the Environment

silvery gibbon lives only on the Indonesian island of Java, and the Indonesian island of Sumatra (Figure 12.22). Both species now are considered endangered. As selected animal species decline in numbers, balances among species are upset and entire ecosystems are disrupted. A number of Arctic species are being affected by habitat ing the current warming trend. Springtime arrives in the Arctic a month earlier than it did a decade ago. As the amount of ice has dec bears, uses, Habitat disruption characterizes de developing countries. T tates, for example, have been dr esidential and industr velopment. The loss of such areas reduces crustaceans, The whooping crane has been vir y eliminated in the United States because the marshes where it nested were drained, and roads and c ought intruders into its habitat. Its comeback, sought by breeding programs in the United States and Canada, is still uncertain.

Hunting and Commercial Exploitation Another way in which people have affected plants and is through their deliberate destruction. We have overhunted and over for food, , hides, jewelry, and trophies. In the past, unr ver the world and was responsible for the destruction of many populations and species. Beavers, sea otters, and buffalo are among the species brought to the edge of extinction in the

(a)

(b)

FIGURE12.22 Two victims of habitat destruction and the demands an expanding population puts on land. Among the animals facing extinction in the wild are (a) (b) om about 20,000 to between 400 and 2000. The population of orangutans is believed to have been halved since the early 1990s. (b) © Punchstock RF.

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United States by thoughtless exploitation. Under protective legislation, their populations are now increasing, but hunting in developing countr eat to a number of species. In Central and W ica, hunting rather than habitat destr eat to some species. Four African animals whose existence is threatened by hunting, are the elephant, the rhinoceros, the mountain gorilla, and the hippopotamus. •

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Prized for its ivory tusks, the African elephant has been ruthlessly slaughtered. elephants ar a number that dec Now, only 300,000 to 500,000 remain. The black rhinoceros, is now an endangered species. The population has declined from nearl ic about 3500 today. ee subspecies of gor e endangered; the rarest of all is the mountain gorilla. About 700 mountain gor e belie most of them in national parks in the Democratic Republic of Congo, Uganda, and Rwanda (F e 12.23). Since 1994, hunting has caused a precipitous decline in the population of the common hippopotamus in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and the species is no The pygmy hippopotamus of West Africa was c by 2006, fewer than 3000 remained, and the species had become endangered, at risk of extinction.

The decline in the pr ies, discussed in Chapter 10, is due in large t to the widespread use y, which has made hunting easier and mor The technology includes the use of sonar, radar, helicopters, and Global Positioning Systems to locate mor and factory trawlers to follo epare and freeze the catch. According to the UN Food and Agr e Organization, eas in the world are now being at or above sustainable levels; 13 are in decline. The plundering of United S iled a including haddock, w , and cod in New England waters; Spanish mackerel, grouper, and red snapper off the Gulf of Mexico; iped bass off California; and salmon and steelhead in the P orthwest. Commer from Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, and other countries use drift nets to c e squid, and salmon. The nets, which can str (40 mi), have been c “cur ” because they are devastatingly effective, y in their path—not just the target species but also millions of nontarsea birds, tles, and marine mammals. The World Wildlife Fund estimates that at least 60,000 dolphins, porpoises, and whales drown each year after becoming entangled

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FIGURE12.23 The mountain gorilla (

s most endangered primates. Although the gorillas live in ees for fuel and shelter—and illegal poaching have

reduced their numbers. © Getty RF.

aptures wn as bycatch; they antly depleted the populations of many of the oups of sea mammals, critic y endangering some of them. by cre

increased. In the United States alone, hundreds of harmful invaders have been discovered in recent years—harmful because they consume or outcompete native species. They include •

Introduction of Exotic Species A plant, or another organism (such as a microbe) that has been released into an ecosystem in which it did not evolve is nonindigenous (non-native)—an otic species. An exotic species that c considered invasive (Figure 12.24). Human actions are the primary means of invasive species introductions. The deliberate or inadvertent introduction of a species into an area where it did not previously exist can have damaging and unforeseen consequences. Introduced species have often lef edators and diseases—giving them an advantage over native species that are held in check by biological controls. The rabbit, for example, was purposely introduced into A The or ultiplied to a population in the thousands in only a few years and, despite programs of control, to an estimated 1 billion by 1950. Inasmuch as rabbits eat about as much as one sheep, oblem had been created. Rabbits became an economic burden and en ronment menace, ulating soil erosion. Invasions of exotic (also c alien) species have multiplied as the speed and range of world trade and travel have

•

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the Asian tiger mosquito, which was discovered in 1985 in a Japanese container of tires headed for a recapping plant in Texas and has since spread to 25 states; it carries a number of tropic viruses, including ye ow fever, dengue fever, and various forms of encephalitis zebra mussels, ake St. Clair, near Detroit, in 1985, which were released fr from Eastern European ships and have spread rapidly to northeastern Canada, eat Lakes, hundreds of inland lakes, ibutaries; pr eproducers, the mussels c intake pipes of water treatment plants, power plants, and industrial facilities, smother native mollusks, and the round goby, an aggr

eached U.S. om the Black and Caspian Seas and threatens to disrupt the Great Lakes’ ecosystem psy moth, a voracious eater of trees and some crops, which arrived in Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia in 1991 Africanized honeybees, more aggressive and venomous than European bees; they reached the southwestern United States in the 1990s after escaping from an experimental station in Brazil in 1957

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FIGURE12.24 A few of the appr 300 years. At least 750 of these species cause significant environmental and/or economic damage. You can check on the Web to see if any of these exist where you live.

•

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the Asian long-horned beetle, which probably arrived in Br yn, New York, om China in 1996 and has since appeared in the Chicago area; it threatens species such as maple, elm, willow, and birch er, ived in wood pac ial carried in cargo ships or airplanes; it was detected in Michigan in 2002 and within 5 years had spread to eight other states and Ontario, Canada, wher ees

In the United States, exotic species are second only to habitat loss as a cause of endangerment. thr y are in trouble at least partly because of them. P e particularly prone to extinction. N volved in isolation, with few diseases or predators. Furthermore, because many island species occur on just one or a few islands, the loss of only a fe an be devastating to small populations. In the United States, Hawaii has more endangered species than any other state. Half of the islands’ 140 native breeding bird species are now extinct, and of the 71 remaining, 32 are considered threatened. Bird declines were due both to habitat estation—and to such predators as tree-climbing rats, mongooses, and feral cats, dogs, and pigs.

Plants introduced to Hawaii include euc y ees, ginger, and gorse. Miconia, a large-leaved plant, was brought in as a tropical ornamental. O werpot, it grows to 50 feet or more, and its mammoth leaves (1 meter, or 3 ft, across) cast dense shade, it, promoting water runoff and erosion. S plants are sc ed throughout the islands, and there is a massive eradication program under b its spread. The fear is that miconia might do to Hawaii what it has done in Tahiti, where it has replaced 70% of the native rain forest and is threatening 25% of the island’s native wildlife species. As this discussion indicates, introduced plants, c Some 300 species of invasive plants now threaten native ecosystems in the mainland United States and Canada. At least half were deliberately imported, including purple loosestrife, the melaleuca tree, Norway maple, and water hyacinth. These and other imports have arr ead uncontrolled, driving out native species. An aquatic vine, hydrilla, imported into Florida from Sri Lanka for use in aquariums, was dumped into a canal in Tampa in 1951. wn as water thyme, it has overgrown more than 40% of Florida’s rivers and lakes and continues to spread rapidly. Transported on motorboat propellers and

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boat trailers, hydrilla has spread through the lakes and rivers of the South, as far west as California and as far north as Maine and the state of Washington. The plant creates dense canopies at the surface, interfering with swimming, , and boating. The mats clog boat pr pipes and reduce the amount of sunlight reaching the water bottom. By monopolizing the dissolved o and aquatic plants require to thrive, hydrilla reduces native diversi . In an attempt at biological control, importing a predator known to keep it in check elsewhere, Flor ted tilapia, to solve the problems created by hydrilla. W lear Flor s, they have driven out many

chemic tion at progressively higher levels in the food chain. Zooplankfor example, etain the toxins from water, sediments, and organic debris. They are eaten in shrimp, and clams, which build up higher concentrations of the toxins, as shown in Figure 12.25. The higher the level of a plant or an animal in the food chain, the greater the concentration of the poisons. The carnivores at the top of the food chain, large and humans, can accumulate such high levels of the biocide that it adversely affects their health and reproduction.

Disease-carrying microorganisms can also become invasive and do great harm. The Asiatic chestnut blight has destroyed most of the native American chestnut trees in the United States, tr ant commer thetic value. The cause was the importation from China to the United States of some chestnut trees that carr to the American chestnut tree but not to the Asiatic var . Similarly, Dutch elm disease greatly reduced the number of American elms. These are just a few of the many examples that illustrate an often ignored ecologic uth: plant and animal life are so interrelated that when people introduce a new species to a region, whether by choice or by chance, there may be unforeseen and far-reaching consequences. It is important to note, however, that not all introduced species are harmful. late well and coexist with the native stock. Further, an import may become a problem in one area but not be highly invasive elsewhere.

Poisoning and Contamination and contamination. In the last several years, we have become acutely conscious of the effect of insecticides, rodenticides, and herbicides, wn collectively as biocides. Some of the side effects of these biocides have been well enough documented for scientists to question their indiscriminate use. Once used, a where it may remain or may be washed into a body of water. In either case, it is absorbed by organisms living in the water, soil, or mud. If an organism is unable to excrete the biocide, its conease, a process called bioaccumulation. Toxins pr onment can reach dangerous levels inside cells and tissues. Food webs the effect of toxins in the onment. When a predator eats a large number of plants or wer trophic level, the pr concentrates the toxins from its prey. mag a(also c biomag ) is the accumulation of a

FIGURE12.25 The bioaccumulation and biomagnification of DDT. The numbers ar level of DDT in the water may be low, notice how the amount of DDT in the bodies of fish and birds increases as we go up the food chain. In this simplified example, birds at the top of the chain have concentrations of residues 50 times greater than small fish. Mer , aldrin, chlordane, and other chlorinated hydrocarbons, such as PCBs, undergo magnification in the food chain. Source: Cunningham, Cunningham, and Saigo, Environmental Science, 7th ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2003.

Human Impact on the Environment

One of the oldest and most danger odiphenyl-trichloro-ethane (DDT). acle, ing World War II as a delousing agent and to c ia-bearing mosquitoes from the paths oops. After the war, takings of the Wor ia Eradication Program, launched in 1955; its pr tool was DDT. Soon, tons of the pesticide were being used, both to comease agr w ant problems emerged: ation, or the increasing concentration of the chemic vels and (2) insecticide resistance—the reproduce immune to the poison. ation of R ’s Silent Spring in 1962 ted the public to the devastating effect of the pesticide on birds and other wildlife. The chemic aused a decrease in the thic so that a greater number of eggs br y would. Peregrine and brown pelicans were among the birds nearl eproductive process. tates in 1972, a number of countries, most of them in Africa, it. Because malaria is the biggest of en under age 5, and because DDT is one of the most effective insecticides against mosquitoes, the indoor spraying of DDT is supported by the Wor ation and other agencies. Meanwhile, other chlorinated hydrocarbon compounds have been developed and are in wide use. They include chlordane, aldrin, dieldrin, and dioxin. Because they do not break do y, they accum food chain, thus affecting many nontarget organisms. The deaths of thousands of seals, P and Mediterranean striped dolphins are thought to be caused by accumulation of the chemic The use of pesticides in the United States has increased steadily. According to the EPA, more than 2.4 million metric eds of active ingredients e applied each year. often contaminate the crops they are meant to protect, can cause allergic reactions, and sometimes sicken the farm workers who apply them. In addition, too often the pesticides are only temporarily effective. Biocides may, in fact, exacerbate the problem their use is designed to eradicate. ocesses that determine which pests (insects, rodents, weeds) in a populavive, biocides spur the development of resistant species. If all but 5% of the mosquito population in an area , the ones that survive are the most resistant individuals, and they are the ones that will produce the succeeding generations. There are now insects whose resistance to certain pesticides has led some scientists to conclude that the entire process of insecticide development may be self-defeating. Despite the enormous gro crop loss to insect and weed pests has actually grown. According to

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Department of Agr es, 32% of crops were lost to pests in 1945; 40 years later, such losses had increased to 37%. ease problems by destroy leaving it to breed Examples include the tobacco budworm and the brown planthopper, which were relatively minor pests before intensive cr oyed r

Preserving Biodiversity As people have become mor e of ho ten deleterious ways, pr of has mounted. y, not just in the 34 hot F e 12.21. In the broadest sense, ar causes of endangerment: commer the introduction of ex the ov Mor owly, focus either on prev on pr um biologic . Governments, nongov and other agenther their goals.

L

Protection

Three of the many legal measures for pr are the following. •

•

•

The UN Convention on Biological Diversity (1992): an international tr countries, its objective is for countries to de strategies for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (1973): by 2007 signed by more than 160 countries, it r fauna and the products made from some 700 threatened species. D products—the most important being ivor ican countries (Botswana and South Africa) have experienced ar ns. The Endangered Species Act ant tates. it prohibits hun r commerc eatened or endangered species; prohibits ting them out of the United States; and can mandate protection of a habitat that is critic The act has saved se species—inc , the peregr and ic

In addition, most countr ks or other government-protected areas (e.g., refuges, nature preserves, marine reserves). Many, par ly in developing countries, ant numbers of ecotourists, who shoot with a camera rather than a gun.

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Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs) Private organiz eserve and protect species and habitats and slow the accelerating rate of species extinction. Among these NGOs are The N e Conservancy, the World Wildlife Fund, The Wildlife and Conservation International. The N e Conservancy has joined with governments, private corporations, and indigenous people to purchase critical habitats. W ica, Asia, the Caribbean, and the Americas, it has undertaken projects in more than 30 countries tates to preser apes and the plants and animals they house. Greenpeace, established in 1971, has been actively involved in convincing world leaders to, among other things, ban commer , stop the destruction of ancient forests and the deterioration of oceans, and designate marine reserves in the Bering Sea. A number of zoos, aquariums, and botanical gardens have breeding programs to save severely threatened species. Two species saved by captive breeding programs are the condor and the nene. Hunting and fragmentation of their habitat had reduced the wild population of California condors to less than 20 birds by 1987. e captured and taken to the San Diego and Los Angeles Zoos to serve as breeding populations. By 2008, there were nearly 300 condors, about half of which had been released into the wild. Similarly,

wastes: the sheer volume of trash and the to e of much of it. Americans throw away more trash per person than any other country in the world, person per day. S e now the seconde of most local governments. Americans generate mor uch waste per person as do Japanese and Europeans, four times as much as P This volume of trash is the result of three factors— , packaging, . Craving convenience, Americans rely on disposable goods that they throw ter very limited use. Thus, although readily available substitutes are more economical, Americ y throw out billions of baby diapers, razors, pens, and paper plates, cups, towels, P ies repair and recyc eater proportion of domestic products. In addition, nearl e encased in some sort of wrapping, whether it be paper, cardboard, plastic, or foam. One-third of the yearly volume of municipal trash consists of these packaging materials. F y, with its relatively low popu, the United S y had ample space in which to dump unwanted materials. Countries with higher densities ran short of such space decades ago and have made greater progress in reducing the volume of waste.

from the tens of thousands in the 1700s to less than 30 by 1950. They were bred in c , and the wild population now numbers more than 500.

SOLID-WASTE DISPOSAL P way oblem of ridding themselves of materials they no longer need or want. Prehistor e located and yzed by their middens, the r broken tools, and other debris We have learned much about Roman and medie opean urban life by examining the refuse mounds that grew as in their Modern societies differ from their predeAs suggested by the IPAT equation, the greater a ’s population and mater the greater bage. Disposing of the waste is a problem that each and each m ust deal with.

Municipal Waste The wastes that communities must somehow dispose of include newspapers and beer cans, toothpaste tubes and old television sets, broken refrigerators, c and tires (F e 12.26). American commules in disposing of these

FIGURE 12.26 Some of the 290 million tires Americans replace each year. Piles of scrap tires pose two major hazards: (1) they are breeding grounds odents and mosquitoes, and (2) they are fir ds. If they catch fire, the piles can burn for a month or more, releasing thick black smoke and leaving behind a toxic, oily residue. In the last decade, markets for reuse of tires have expanded significantly. Some ar oad, some are retreaded, some are shredded and burned to generate electricity, others are shredded or ground to make mulch or rubberized playground equipment, and some are mixed with asphalt to pave str es are dumped, legally or illegally, in landfills or create nuisances in stockpiles. Although many states have enacted scrap-tire management pr when buying new tires, most scrap tires remain unused and unwanted. © Don Kohlbauer/San Diego Union-Tribune.

Human Impact on the En ronment

Although ordinary household trash does not meet the go hazardous waste discarded mater eat to human health or to the environment when improperly stored, transported, or disposed of—much of it is hazardous nonetheless. Products containing toxic chemicals include paint thinners and removers, old TV sets and computers, bleaches, oven and drain cleaners, used motor oil, pesticides (see “E-Waste,” p. 424). Countries use various methods of disposing of solid wastes; each has its own impact on the environment. Loading wastes onto barges and dumping them in the sea, long a practice for coastal communities, inevitabl Open dumps on land are a menace to public health, for they harbor diseasecarrying rats and insects. Burning the combustibles discharges chemicals and par . In the United States, three methods of solid-waste disposal are employed: incineration, and recycling (Figure 12.27).

Most U.S. m sanitary landwhere each day’s waste is deposited in a natural depression or excavated trench, compacted, and then covered by a layer of soil (F e 12.28). “Sanitary” is a deceptive word. Until recently, there wer e, and while some communities and states r many did not. Even if no commer ial waste has been dumped at

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the site, v y produce leachate (chemic y contaminated drainage), liquids that pollute the groundwater when they leak fr Leachate forms when precipitation enter materials. Thus, metals are leached from batteries and old electrical parts, while organic chemic out of leftover paint and other household products. Typic tains a m many of them poisonous. Envir w require that clay or plastic liners be used to protect groundwater supplies and that sy

FIGURE12.27 Methods of solid-waste disposal in the United States.

FIGURE12.28 As ndfill. Each day’s deposit of refuse is compacted and isolated in a separate cell by a covering layer of soil or clay. Although far mor onmental problems of their own, including potential groundwater contamination and seepage of methane and hydrogen sulfide, gaseous products of decomposition. By federal law, modern landfills must be lined with clay and plastic, equipped with leachate (chemically contaminated drainage from the landfill) collection systems to protect the groundwater, and monitored regularly for underground leaks—requirements that have increased significantly the cost of constructing and operating landfills.

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Human Impact on the Environment

New Yor Island, truc

’ Fr taten the problem. For more than half a y, y carried approximately 11,000 tons esidential waste to the site. Opened in 1948 as a temporary, 200-hectare (500-acr , Fr not constructed to hold its contents securely. Located in an ecologic ea and adjacent to residential communities, ous 1200 hectares (3000 acres) of decomposing garbage. Its four large mounds are as much as 70 meters (225 ft) high, Liber . Ever Fr y closed as a for municipal solid waste in 2001, it temporarily r is from the towers of the World Trade Center. Plans c site into the largest park in New Yor , with spor concert arenas, wild ies, and the like. The conversion will be technic y complicated and will take years. Construction cannot be completed until the garbage decomposes, , and the polluted water dissipates. The closing of Fr ew York ’s trash more complex and expensive. Sanitation trucks, tractor trailers, and railroads now carry about 70% of the ennsylvania, Virginia, South Carolina, Georgia, and Ohio. Many communities face similar problems in disposing of their solid waste. In 2003, for example, Toronto, Canada, trash to a to oit, Michigan, after its o closed and the cit wn in Ontar ing to be the site of a ne Finding acceptable locations oblem because “Not in My Backyard” (NIMBY ) protesters rise up in opposition nearly ever e they are proposed. The number of m tates antly during the 1990s, om about 6500 in 1990 to fewer than 1800 in 2006. They closed either because they wer ause they could not comply with environe replaced by huge, r In contrast to the United States, many Western European countr unicipal solid relying instead on incineration and recycling.

Incineration The quickest way to reduce the volume of trash is to burn it, a practice that was common at open dumps in the United States until it was halted by the Clean Air Act of 1970. Concern over ced the closure of old, incinerators (facilities designed to burn waste), pro designing a new generation of the plants. Municipal incinerators in the United States, mostly in the Northeast, burn about Canada incinerates about 8%. Most m incinerators are of the waste-to-energy pe, which use extra-high (980°C; 1800° es to reduce trash to ash and simultaneously generate electr steam, which is sold to help pay operating costs.

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A decade ago, incinerators wer tion to over but it has become apparent that they pose envir oblems of their own by generating to Air emissions from incinerator stacks have been found to contain an alphabet soup of highly toxic elements, ranging from a (arsenic) to z (zinc), and including, among other toxins, cadmium, dioxins, lead, and mercury, ant amounts of such gases as carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides. Emissions can be kept to acceptably lo electrostatic precipitators, and scrubbers to capture pollutants befor e released into the outside air, although the de y to the cost of the plant. A greater problem is created by the concentration of toxins, particularly lead and cadmium, in the ash residue of burning. y reduce trash by 90%; one-tenth remains as ash, which then must be bur In 1994, the U.S. Supreme Cour ust be tested for to led as hazardous waste if it exceeds federal safety standards. This means it must be disposed of in licensed haz which have double plastic linings, e collection systems, and tighter operating procedures than do ordinary m om incinerator byproducts has sparked strong protest to in the United States, they have become more accepted abroad. The seriousness of the air pollution and toxic ash problems, however, has aroused concern ever e. In Japan, where more than thr ths of municipal waste is incinerated, high atmospheric dioxin levels led the Ministry of Health in 1997 to strengthen earlier emission Some European countries c y halts to incinerator constr econsidered, and increasingly e refusing to take their residue.

Source Reduction and Recyc The pr erators have spurred interest in o ternative wastemanagement strategies: source reduction and recycling. By source reduction, we mean pr so as to shrink the volume of the waste stream and lower the monetary and envir and incinerators. Manufacturers can reduce the amount of paper, plastic, glass, and metal they use to package food and consumer products. Since 1977, for example, the weight of plastic soft-dr verage cans has been reduced by 20% to 30%. Detergents produced in concentrated form and pac equire less water and less plastic to make, and because they ar , more of the plastic bottles can be shipped at the same time, r eenhouse gas emissions. Another way to reduce the amount of waste needing disposal is by recyc , the recovery and reprocessing or reuse of previously used material into new products for the same or another purpose. Aluminum beverage cans usually are recast

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FIGURE 12.29 Recycled tires used as mulch. Shredded tire bits can be used as mulch in gardens to help hold moisture in the ground. Although it doesn’t enrich the soil with organic material, the mulch is clean and doesn’t rot or attract termites, as wood mulch does. It can also be used around playground equipment, as shown here, because it doesn’t accumulate dust or compact with use. T .americanrubber.com.

into new cans, for example, and glass bottles are crushed, melted, and made into new bottles. Old tires can be shredded and into rubberized road surfacing or used as m around playground equipment (F e 12.29). Some communities collect leaves and other yard waste, which accounts for al municipal waste stream, and turn it into compost. Recycling plastics is complicated by the many , which must be separated before being recycled. Recycled plastic can be converted arpeting, playground equipment, insulation for clothing, and other products. ead adoption of municipal recycling programs in the United States now diverts an estimated 25% to 30% of trash away fr The country currently recycles some 45% of the aluminum beverage cans, 48% of the paper, entering the waste stream. Compared with other methods of solid-waste disposal, recycling has a relatively benign impact onment, despite the fact that it takes water, energy, and other resources to recover, process, and convert the materials into new products. Recyc esources by wer trees, burn less oil, and mine Because it typic out of recycled mater ials, recycling . It also reduces the pollution of air, water, and land that stems from the manufacture of new mater om other methods of waste disposal, mater annot be recycled. W why isn’t recycling more widely practiced in the United States? Japan and a number

of Western European countries recycle a far greater proportion of their waste stream. ysts have offered a number of explanations: (1) the cost of collecting the goods to be recycled, ns in market prices for commodities, and (3) the lack of a ready market for pr ed from recycled material. Perhaps the most important factor, however, is that in the United States the price of energy historic y has been low and the supply abundant, and the true monetary and envir from raw mater ecycled ones are hidden. ies, where manufactured products are expensive but labor is cheap, recycling plays an important role in reducing the amount of solid waste. In many cities in developing countries, such as Manila (the Philippines), Phnom Penh (Cambodia), Cairo (Egypt), ,

sifting thr ’s trash, looking for recyclable goods—tin cans, copper, wood, electronics, clothing, and the like—that they can sell to middlemen for businesses and industries (F e 12.30). The wastepickers, or scavengers, ole in reducing the amount of trash that must be compacted and covered with a fresh layer of dirt each day. It is estimated that in Indonesian cities, for example, wastepickers r ban refuse by one-third. Unfortunately, onmental conditions under which wastepickers work are not good, and their life expectancy is considerably less than that of the general population. The isks include injuries from accidents, infections from disease-carrying organisms, and exposure to gases that seep out of the layers of fermenting trash and to hazardous wastes such as dio

Hazardous and Radioactive Wastes The problems of municipal and household solid-waste management are daunting; those of treatment and disposal of hazverwhelming.

Hazardous Waste As we have seen, the waste stream often contains highly toxic and hazardous mater the onment. The terms toxic and hazardous frequentl e used interchangeably, e. More str to elatively limited concept, referring to sube poisonous and can cause death or serious injury to humans and other organisms. Hazardous waste is a broader

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Such wastes contaminate the environment in different ways and by different routes. Because most hazardous debris is disposed of by dumping or burial on land, groundwater is most at risk of contamination. ial countries, at least some dr g water contamination from highly toxic solvents, hydrocarbons, pesticides, trace metals, and PCBs has been detected. Waste impoundments are also a source of air pollutants through the evaporation of volatile organic compounds. Finally, careless or deliberate distribution of hazardous mater eas can cause unexpected, but deadly, hazards. Although methdeveloped—including incineration, infrared heating, and bacterial decomposition—none is fully satisfactory and none is yet in wide use.

Radioactive Waste

FIGURE 12.30 Some of the estimated 80,000 wastepickers who make a living by scavenging the Promised Land dump in Manila, the Philippines, looking for items to resell. Metal, glass, plastic, paper, cloth, br are all candidates. W ce of income for many poor families, but the pickers, many of them women and children, usually work long hours in unhealthful conditions. Hundreds of people died here in July 2000, when the mountain of garbage, loosened by a week of monsoon rains, collapsed on their © Romeo Ranoco/Reuters.

term referr isk or that endanger the environment. The discarded mater contains substances that have one or mor istics: (1) ignit., gasoline), (2) corrosiveness (e.g., strong acids), (3) explosiveness (e.g., nitroglycerine), (4) toxicity (e.g., PCBs). The major producers of hazardous wastes are the chemical and petrochemic ies, mining, and electric generation. y har wastes they generate include organic chlorine and phosphate compounds, and solvents. The EPA has c e than 400 substances as hazardous, and currently about 10% of industrial waste mater e so categorized.

Ever oduces radioactive mater low-level waste, mater will decay to safe levels in 100 years or less. Nuclear power plants produce about half the total low-level waste in the form of material from decommissioned reactors, used resins, sludges, lubricating oils, and detergent wastes. Industries that manufacture radio-pharmaceutic smoke alarms, and other consumer goods produce such wastes in the form of machinery parts, plastics, and organic solvents. Research establishments, universities, and hospitals also produce radioactive waste mater Because low-level waste is generated by so many sources, its disposal is particularl ol. cates that m often the local m , where the waste chemic through the soil and into the groundwater. By EPA estimates, the United S ardous waste. As many as 2000 are deemed potential ecological disasters. High-level waste can remain radioactive for 10,000 years and more; plutonium stays dangerously radioactive for 240,000 years. High-level waste consists primarily of spent fuel assemblies of nuclear power reactors—termed civilian wast oduct of the manue of nuclear weapons, or military waste. The volume of y great but increasing rapidly, because approximately one-third of a reactor’s rods need to be disposed of every year. By 2008, more than 120,000 spent-fuel assemblies were being stored either indoors in the containment pools of America’s commercial nuclear power reactors or outdoors in sealed containers made of steel and concrete, awaiting more permanent disposition (F e 12.31). Thousands mor e y. Spent fuel is a misleading term: the assemblies are removed from commer eactors not because their radiation is spent but because they have become too radioactive for further use. The assemblies remain radioactively “hot” for thousands of years.

Yucca Mountain

(b)

FIGURE 12.31 (a) Highly radioactive spent-fuel rods are stored

(a)

428

in water-filled pools at nuclear reactor sites. (b) Nuclear power plants whose storage ponds are full store nuclear waste in large, ce of Civilian Waste aboveground casks. .

Co

ad lor

oR

r ive

Lake Mead

Unfor y, no country has yet solved the problem of how to safely dispose of the radioactive waste it already has, not to mention the added waste an expansion of nuclear power would produce. Until 1970, the United States, Britain, France, and Japan sealed wastes in protective tanks and dumped them at sea, a practice that now has been banned worldwide— Russia dumped 900 tons of waste into the Sea of Japan. Cardboard boxes containing wastes conototilled into the soil, on the assumption that the earth would dilute and absorb the radioactivity. The Netherlands is reported to have incinerated some radioactive wastes at sea. In the United States, much low-level radioactive waste has been placed in tanks and buried in the earth at 13 sites operated by the U.S. Department of Energy and 3 sites run by pr vel military waste ar ily stored in underground tanks at 4 sites: Hanford, Washington; S , South Carolina; Idaho

F Idaho; and West V , New York. Several of these storage areas have experienced leakages, with seepage of waste into the surrounding soil and groundwater. The most problematic may be the 177 tanks buried underground at the Hanford site. By the early 1990s, it had been determined that at least 66 of the giant tanks—some with a c wer , the soil, raising the fear that the highly radioactive waste had already reached undergr wing to . Many scientists believe that deep geologic bur safest way to permanently dispose of long-lived radioactive waste. This would involve packaging high-level solid and liquid wastes in containers that are buried deep underground. The United States has halted constr manent high-level waste repository in Nevada, (see “Yucca Mountain”). Finland has selected a site for its repository—the island of O weden is expected to do so soon. 429

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Winning loc t for a bur however, and as of 2009 attempts to do so in Britain, France, Switzerland, and Japan had not been successful. Solid waste will never cease to be a problem, but its impact on the environment can be lessened by reducing the volume of

waste that is generated, eliminating or reducing the production of toxic residues, esponsible dumping, ing ways to reuse the resources that waste contains. Until then, current methods of waste will continue to pollute soil, air, and water.

Summary of Key Concepts • We began this chapter with a description of the Great P bage Patch. Captain Moore’ mented that the patch “is a reminder that there’s nowhere that isn’ .” • Humans are par onment and depend, literally, for their lives on the water, air, and other resources contained in the biosphere. But people have subjected the intricately interconnected systems of that biosphere— the troposphere, the hydrosphere, and the lithosphere— to profound and frequently unwittingly destructive alteration. • All human activities have effects on the environment, effects that are complex and never isolated. An external action that impinges on any part of the web of nature inevitably triggers chain reactions, the ultimate consequences of which appear never to be fully anticipated. • Efforts to control the suppl eams, es such as dams and reservoirs often have unintended side effects. In many parts of the world, increased demand for fresh water has led to a lack of adequate supplies. • Pollutants associated with agr e, , and other activities have degraded the quality of freshwater supplies,

although regulatory efforts have brought about major improvements in some areas in recent years. • Combustion of fossil fuels has contributed to serious problems of air pollution. Some manifestations of that pollution, such as acid rain and depletion of the ozone layer, are ncern. • Activities such as agr e and mining have long helped shape loc apes, producing a variety of landforms. y, world population gro nomic expansion accelerated the degradation of air, water, and soil over much of the world. • P by importing them to areas where they did not previously exist, and by disrupting their habitats, hunting them, and using biocides to eradicate them. The greatest human impact is occurring in the tropical rain forests, where agriculture, industr ation, and urbanization are contributn of hundreds of species a year. • humans produce release contaminants into the surrounding environment, providing further evidence of the fact that people c , distort, pollute, or destroy any part of the ecosy or disrupting its str e.

Key Words acid rain 406 biologic

415 ation ation) 420

biosphere 393 channelization 397 chlor ocarbons( CFCs) 408 ecology 393 ecosystem 394

envir eutrophication 399 e-waste 424 exotic species 418 food chain 394 hazardous waste 423 hydrologic cycle 394 IPAT equation 394 ozone 407

398

ozone layer 408 photochemic smog 407 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) 402 recycling 425 subsidence 413 402 troposphere 404

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Thinking Geographically 1. Sketch and label a diagram of the biosphere. Br y indicate the content of its component parts. Is that content permanent and unchanging? Explain. 2. How are the concepts of ecosystem, niche, and food chain related? How does each add to our understanding of the “ e”? 3. Draw a diagram of or br y describe the hydrologic cycle. How do population growth, urbanization, and industr ization affect that cycle? 4. Is all pollution the result of human action? When can we say that pollution of a part of the biosphere has occurred? 5. Describe the chief sources of water pollution. What steps have the United States and other countries taken to control water pollution? 6. W pe and degree of air pollution found at a place? What is acid rain and where is it

7.

8.

9.

10. 11.

a problem? Describe the relationship of ozone to photochemical smog. Why has the ozone layer been depleted? W avation produced? Dumping? What are the chief causes and effects of subsidence? Br y describe the chief ways that humans affect plant and animal life. What is meant by ? Why may the use of biocides be self-defeating? What methods do communities use to dispose of solid waste? What ecologic oblems does solid-waste disesent? How does the go hazardous waste, and ho What activities result in the production of high-level radioactive waste, and wh Using the IPAT equation, discuss how the environmental y from country to country.

PART FOUR

The Area Analysis Tradition Gaul consists of three distinct regions, inhabited respectively by the Belgae, the Aquitani, and a people who call themselves the Celts. Variations in custom, language, and law distinguish these three peoples. —Julius Caesar, The Gallic Warsa Julius Caesar opened his 1st-century B.C. account of his transalpine military campaigns by observing that Gaul was divided into three regions. With that spatial summary, he gave to every schoolchild an example of geography in action. Caesar’s report to the Romans demanded that he convey to an uninformed audience workable mental pictures of places they had never seen. He was able to achieve that aim by aggregating spatial data, by selecting and emphasizing what was important to his purpose, and by leaving out what was not. He was pursuing the geographic tradition of area analysis, a tradition that is at the heart of the discipline and focuses on the recognition of spatial uniformities and the examination of their significance.

T

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CHAPTER OUTLINE

The Regional Concept

The Region Concept

The questions geographers ask, as we saw in Chapter 1 of this book, ultimately focus on matters of location and character of place. We asked how things are distributed over the surface of the earth; how physic es of areas are alike or different from place to place; how the varying content of different places came about; and what these differences and similarities mean for people.

THE NATURE OF REGIONS In the earlier chapters, we examined some of the physical and eas and some spatially important aspects . We looked at physic th processes that lead to differences from place to place in the environment. We studied ways in which humans organize their actions in earth space—through politic ns, by economic systems and practices, Population and settlement patterns and areal differences in human use and misuse th resour e considered as part of the scope of geography. F from landforms to cities, we found spatial r ities. We discovered that things e not y distributed over the surface of the earth, but r an underly ysic ocesses. We found, in short, that, e exactly the same, ecognize segments of the total world that ar y similar in some important characteristic and distinct in that feature from surrounding areas. These r ant uniformity of content are the geographer’ ian’s “eras” or “ages” and are assigned brief summary names to indicate they are different in some important way from adjacent or distant territories. The then, is a de eal generalization. It ecognizable component parts

the otherwise over earth’s surface.

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y of the

region, and all of us refer to regions in everyday speech and action. We visit “the old neighborhood” or “go downtown”; we plan to vacation or retire in the “Sunbelt”; or we speculate on the effects of weather conditions in the “Northern Plains” or the “Corn Belt” on grain supplies or next year’s food prices. In each instance, we have mental images of the areas mentioned. Those images are based on place characteristics and areal generalizations that seem useful to us and recognizable to our listeners. We have, in short, engaged in an informal place c ation to pass along quite complex spatial, organizational, or content ideas. We have applied the reg concept to br th’s surface. W y as individuals, geography attempts to do formall egions (Figure 13.1). The purpose is clear: y varying world around us understandable through spatial summaries. That world is only rarely subdivided into neat, unmistakable “packages” . Neither the environment eal actions pr ed order, any more than the sweep of human history has predetermined “eras,” e with species names. W ust c and the geographer c egional terms. Regions are spatial expressions of ideas or summaries useysis of the problem at hand. Although as many possible regions exist as there are physical, cultural, or organiz ibutes of area, only those ar iables that contribute to the understanding oblem. e disregarded as irrelevant. In our reference to the Corn Belt, we delimit a portion of the United States sho istics of farming

FIGURE 13.1

ent professional geographers. Agreement on the need to recognize spatial order and to define r ces concur in the significance of the Midwest as a regional entity in the spatial structure of the United States and agree on its core ar , however, in their New York: Wiley assessments of its limiting characteristics. Sources: (a) John H. Garland, ed.,

Jane McGuigan, Geography of the New World. Chicago: Rand McNally, 1961; and (c) Otis P. Starkey and J. Lewis Robinson, The Anglo-American Realm. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1969.

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economy and marketing practices. We dismiss—at that level of generalization—differences within the region based on slope, pe, state borders, or characteristics of population. The boundaries of the Corn Belt are assumed to be marked where the region’ ing characteristics change so mater y that different agr and different regional summaries are required. The content of the r its delimitation. Although regions may vary greatly, they share certain common characteristics: •

•

•

•

Regions have location, often expressed in the regional name selected, such as the Midwest, the Near East, Nor ica, and the like. This form of r underscores the importance of relative location (see Chapter 1, p. 7). Regions have spatial extent, recognized by territories over istics or generalizations about physic or organizational content are constant. Regions have boundaries based on the ar ead of the featur . Since regions are the r their ies are drawn wher es no longer occur or dominate. Regional boundaries are rarely as sharpl e 13.2 or by the regional maps in this and other geography texts. More frequently, there exist broad zones of transition from one distinctive core area to another as the egional features gradually om the core to the regional periphery. Linear boundaries are arbitrar necessary by the scale of world regional maps and by the summar Regions may be formal, functional, or perceptual, as we saw in Chapter 1 (p. 13). For

m) regions are areas of essential uniforoughout in one or a limited combination of physic es. In previous chapters, we encountered ysical regions as the humid subtropic limate zone and the Sahel region of Africa, egions in which standardized characteristics of language, religion, , or livelihood existed. The frontsheet maps of countries and topographic egions show other formal r Whate nition, egion is the largest area over which a valid generalization of attr Whatever is stated about one part of it holds true for its remainder. The or in contrast, sy a dynamic, organiz Its boundaries remain constant only as long as the interchanges establishing it remain unaltered. The commuting region shown in Figure 1.10 retained its shape and size only as long as the road pattern and r communities on which it was based remained unchanged.

FIGURE 13.2 Aachen, Germany, in 1649. The acceptance of regional extent implies the recognition of regional boundaries. At some defined point, urban is replaced by nonurban, the Midwest ends and the Plains begin, or the rain forest ceases and the savanna emerges. Regional boundaries are, of course, rarely as precisely and visibly marked as were the limits of the walled medieval city. Its sprawling moder e urban remains.

Not all regions are as rigorously and objectively struced as the formal and regions geographers devise and analyze. When regions have existed only in the perceptions of their inhabitants or the population at large, they are understandably called or vernacular) regions. As composites of the mental maps of ordinary people, they r ations—the sense of individuals and groups. As individual and gr emotional constructs, per egions are more immediate and meaning ecognize them than are the more objectively-based regions of geographers. •

Regions are hierarchically arranged. egions vary in sc , , and degree of generalization, none stands alone as the ultimate key to ar . Each y a par .

On a formal r ale of size progression, the Delva Peninsula of the eastern United States may be seen as part of the Atlantic Coastal Plain, tion of the eastern North Americ matic region, chy that changes the basis of regional recognition as the level and purpose of ation (F e 13.3). ict of Chicago is one chy that descr ago and the metropolitan r e. Each recognized r pr essions may stand alone and at the same time exist as a , itorial unit.

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objective, but in each, some or istics of regional delimitation and structure may be recognized. Each of the regional examples is based on the content of one of the earlier chapters of this book, and the page numbers preceding the different selections refer to the mater chapters most closel or explained further by, the r . ation of the r the examples are organized by reference to the remaining three traditions of geography.

PART I: REGIONS IN THE EARTH SCIENCE TRADITION

FIGURE 13.3 A hierarchy of regions. This is one possible nesting of regions within a regional hierarchy criteria. Each regional unit has internal coherence. The recognition of eal unit.

Such progr in spatial dominance of the phenomenon tion to the region. With particular attention to r by the distr e groups—but with application to regions delimited by other criteria—Donald Meinig suggested the term core to mean a centralized zone of concentration and gr . Areas in which e) is dominant, y of development, he labeled domains. F y, Meinig proposed the term sphere to recognize the zone of broadest but least-intensive expression of the r acter, wher e encountered but where it is no lo y dominant. e of r r r pose. They bring c to the seeming of the physic and es of the world we inhabit. pro the work for the pur

THE STRUCTURE OF THIS CHAPTER The remainder of the chapter contains examples of how geographers have used the regional concept to organize their observations about the physic ld. vignette explores a different aspect of r reality. Each organizes its data in ways appropriate to its subject matter and

, y the easiest to recognize, egion based on a single, readily apparent component or characteristic. The island is land, not water, and its unmistakable boundar y given where the one element passes to the other. The terminal moraine may mark the transition from the rich, black soils of recent formati-colored clays of earlier generations. The dense forest may break dramatic y upon the glade or the open prairies. The natur ent. The physic , although concerned with all of the ear onment, deals at the outset with single factor egions. Many of the ear es of concern to physical geography, of course, do not exist in simple, clearl The geographer must make judgments as to appropriate boundar in order to “regionalize” a particular phenomenon. A stated amount of received precipitation, the presence of certain important soil characteristics, the dominance in nature of particular plant associatio ust be decided on as regional limits, e subject to change through time or by purpose of the r .

Landforms as Regions (See “Stream Landscapes in Humid Areas,” p. 68.) The landform region exists in a more sharpl ion than such transitional physic es as soil, climate, and vegetation. For these latter areas, the boundaries depend on esearcher. The landform region, on the other hand, ar y and apparently unarguably—fr e itself, independent of ale. L egions of physic regions—mountains, lowlands, plateaus—is unquestioned in popular r climates, and even on the primary economies of subsistence populations has been noted in earlier portions of this book. The follo landform region, describing its and its relationships to other physical features of the landscape, is adapted from a classic study by W W.

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FIGURE 13.5 The “Needles” of the Black Hills result from erosion evices in granite.

FIGURE 13.4 The Black Hills landform province.

The Blac

rovincea

The Black Hills rise abruptly from the surrounding plains [Figure 13.4]. The break in topography at the margin of this province is obvious to the most casual observer who visits that part of our country. Thus the boundaries of this area, based on contrasts in topography, are readily determined. e deeply into the study of the natural environment may r ing plains the rock formations lie in a nearly horizontal position. They are sandstones, shales, conglomerates, and limestones. In the foothills those same sedimentary formations are bent upward and at places stand in a nearly v tical position. Precisely where the change in aphy occurs, able change in the geologic structure and thus discov iation in relief. The Black Hills are due to a distinct upwarping, or doming, of the crustal portion of the earth. Subsequent removal by stream erosion of the higher portions of that dome and the dissection of the core r e produced the present relief features. As erosion has proceeded, more and more of a complex series of ancient metamorphic rocks has been uncovered. Associated with the very old rocks of the core and, at places, with the sedimentary strata, there are a number of later intrusions which have cooled and formed solid rock. They have produced minor domes about the northern margin of the Black Hills. With the elevation of this part of our country there came an increase in rainfall in the area, and with the increase in elevation and rainfall came contrasts in relief, in soils, and in vegetation. a

Adapted from The Physiographic Provinces of North America by W lace W. © Copyright, 1940, by Ginn and Company. Used by permission of Silver, Inc.

.

As we pass from the neighboring plains, where the surface is monotonously level, and climb into the Black Hills area, we enter a landscape having great variety in the relief. In the foothill belt, at the southwest, south, and east, there are hogback ridges interrupted in places by water gaps, or gateways, that have been cut by streams ra om the core of the Hills. Between the ridges there are roughly concentric valley lowlands. On the west side of the range, where the sedimentary mantle has not been removed, there is a plateaulike surface; hogback ridges are absent. Here erosion has not proceeded far enough to produce the landforms common to the east margin. In the heart of the rang rugged intercanyon ridges, bold mountain forms, craggy knobs, and other picturesque features [Figure 13.5]. The range has passed through several periods of mountain growth and several stages, or cycles, of erosion. The rainfall of the Black Hills area is somewhat greater than that of the brown, seared, semiarid plains regions, and evergreen trees survive among the hills. We leave a land of sagebrush and grasses to enter one of forests. The dark-colored evergreen trees suggested to early settlers the name Black Hills. As we enter the area, we pass from a land of cattle ranches and some seminomadic shepherds to a land where forestry, mining, general farming, and recreational activities give character to the life of the people. In color and form, in topography, climate, vegetation, and economic opportunities, the Black Hills stand out conspicuously as a distinct geographic unit.

Dynamic Regions in Weather and Climate (See “Air Masses,” p. 95.) The unmistakable and enduring clar landform region and the precision with which its boundaries may be drawn are rarely echoed in other of formal physical regions. onment, despite its

The Region Concept

appearance of permanence and cer , is dy e. Vegetations, soils, and climates change through time by natural process or by the action of humans. Boundaries shift, perhaps abr y, as witness the recent migration southward of the Sahara. The core characteristics of whole provinces change as marshes are drained or forests are r That complex of physical conditions we recognize loc y and br y as weather and summarize as climate displays particularly clearly the temporar e of m ral environment that surrounds us, yet even in the turbulent change of the atmosphere, distinct regional entities exist with y consistent horizontal and vertic operties. “Air masses” and the consequences of tion of contemporary ysis and prediction. the criteria of multifactor formal regions, though their dynamic and their patterns of movement obviously mark them as being of a nature distinctly different from such stable physic egions, wing extract from Climatology and the World’s Climates by George R. Rumney makes clear. Air Massesb An air mass is a portion of the atmosphere having a uniform horizontal distribution of certain physical characteristics, especially of temperature and humidity. These qualities are acquired when a mass of air stagnates or moves very slowly over a large and relatively unvaried surface of land or sea. Under these circumstances surface air gradually takes on properties of temperature and moisture approaching those of the underlying surface, and there then follows a steady, progressive transmission of properties to greater heights, resulting ked vertical transition of characteristics. Those parts of the earth where air masses acquire their distinguishing qualities are called source regions. Four major types of source regions are recognized: continental polar, maritime polar, continental tropical, and maritime tropical. Polar air masses are continental when they develop over land or ice surfaces in high latitudes; these are cold and dry. They are maritime when they form over the oceans in high latitudes. A om these sources is cold and moist. Similarly, tropical air is continental when it originates along the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn over northern A ica and northern Australia and is therefore warm and dry. It is maritime when it forms along the Tropics over the oceans, where it develops as a mass of warm, moist air. A single air mass usually covers thousands of square miles of the earth’s surface when fully formed. An air mass is recognizable chie the uniformity of its primary properties—temperature and humidity— and the vertical distribution of these. Secondary qualities, such as cloud types, precipitation, and visibility, are also taken into account. These qualities are retained for a remarkably long time, often for several weeks, after an air mass has traveled b George R. Rumney, 1968. Used by permission.

World’s Climates. New York:

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far from its source region, and they are thus the means of disom other masses of air. The pr icas, their source regions, and their paths of movement are shown in Figure 13.6.

Natural Resource Regions (See “Coal,” p. 124.) The unevenly distributed resources on which people depend for existence are logical topics of interest within the earth science of geography. Resource regions are mapped, and raw mater e discussed. Ar elationships to industr rial extraction on alternate uses of ar ests in resource geograph esource regions. Those regions, however, ar y treated as if they were expressions of observable surface phenomena—as if, somehow, soil region or a forested district. What is ignored is that most mineral resources are three-dimensional regions beneath the ground. In addition to the characteristics of an area that may form the basis for r delimitations and descriptions of surface phenomena, regions beneath the surface add their own particularities to the problem of r They have, for example, upper and lower boundaries in addition to the circumfer face features. They may have an internal topography divorced fr ape. Subsurface relationships—for example, ibution elation to its enclosing rock or to groundwater amounts and movement—may be critical in understanding these ed, but r regions. An drawn from the Schuy egion of northeastern Pennsyl e of regions beneath the surface. The Schuy

c

Nothing in the wild surface terrain of the anthracite country suggested the existence of an equally rugged subterranean topography of coal beds and interstr ock, slate, e clays forming a total vertical depth of 900 meters (3000 ft) at greatest development. Yet the creation of the surface landscape was an essential determinant of the areal extent of the Schuylkill district, of the contortions of its bedding, and of the nature of its coal content. A county history of the area reports, “The physical features of the anthracite country are wild. Its area exhibits an extraordinary series of parallel ridges and deep valleys, like long, rolling lines of surf which break upon e.” Both the surface and the subsurface topographies re rong folding of strata after the coal seams were deposited; the anthracite (hard) coal result om metamorphic carbonization of the original bituminous beds. Subsequent river and glacial erosion removed as much as 95% of the original anthracite deposits and gave to those that remained c

By Jerome Fellmann.

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ysis Tradition

FIGURE 13.6 Air masses of North and South America, their source regions, and their paths of movement.

discontinuous existence in shar h as the Schuylkill [Figure 13.7], a discrete areal entity of 470 square kilometers (181 sq mi). The irregular topography of the underground Schuylkill region means that the interbedded coal seams, the most steeply inclined of all the anthracite regions [Figure 13.8], outcrop visibly at the surface on hillsides and along stream valleys. The outcrops made the presence of coal known as early as 1770, but not until 1795 did Schuylkill anthracit Reviled as “stone coal” or “black stone” e, anthracite found no ready commercial market, although it was used in wire and rolling mills located along the Schuylkill River before 1815 and to generate steam in the same area by 1830. The resources of the subterranean Schuylkill re ed human patt surface regions only after the Schuylkill Navigation Canal was completed in 1825 [Figure 13.9], providing a passage to rapidly expanding external mar for the output of y newly located atop the region. Growing demand induced a boom in coal exploitation, an exhaustion of the easily available outcrop coal, and the beginning of the more arduous and dangerous underground mining. The early methods of mining were simple: merely quarr om exposed outcrops, usually driving on a slight incline to permit natural drainage. Deep shafts were

FIGURE 13.7 The anthracite regions of northeastern Pennsylvania are sharply defined by the geologic events that created them.

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FIGURE 13.8 The deep folding of the Schuylkill coal seams made them costly to exploit. The Mammoth seam runs as deep as 450 to

FIGURE 13.9 anthracite region’s coal resour

e, provided an outlet to market for the © Elizabeth J. Leppman.

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unnecessary and, indeed, not thought of, since the presence of anthracite at depth was not suspected. Later, when it was no longer possible to secur om a given outcrop, a small pit was sunk to a depth of 9 to 12 meters (30 to 40 ft); when the coal and the water that accumulated in the pit could no longer safely be brought to the surface by windlass, the pit was abandoned and a new one was started. Shaft mining, in which a ver om the surface provides penetration to one or several coal beds, eventually became a necessity; with it came awareness of the complex interrelationships between seam thickness, the nature of interstr ock and clays, the presence of gases, and the movement of subsurface water. The subterranean Schuylkill region has a threedimensional pattern of use. ation and the variable thickness of the seams demand concentration of mining activities. Minable coal is not uniformly available along any possible vertical or horizontal cross section because of the interstr reme folding of the beds. Mining is concentrated further by the location of shafts and the construction of passages, in their turn determined by both patterns of ownership and thickness of seam. In general, no seam less than 0.6 meter (2 ft) is worked, and the absolute thickness—15 meters (50 ft)—is found only in the Mammoth seam of the Schuylkill region. Friable interstr ock increases the danger of coal extraction and raises the costs of cave-in prevention. Although the Schuylkill mines are not gassy, the possibility of gas release om the collapse of coal pillars left as mine supports makes necessary systems of ventilation even more elaborate than those minimally required to provide adequate air to miners. Water is ever-present in the anthracite workings, and constant pumping or draining is necessary for mine operation. The collapse of strata underlying a river may result in sudden disastr . The Schuy

subterranean anthracite region presents a ibution of physic features and of interr very bit as great and inviting of geographic ysis as any purely sur egion.

PART II: REGIONS IN THE CULTURE-ENVIRONMENT TRADITION The earth science tradition of geography imposes certain distinctive limits on ar ysis. Howe the regions that may be drawn ar e and do not result from human action. onment tradition, however, introduces to r iations of human occupation and organization of space. There is a corresponding multiplication of recognized r r Despite the differing interests of physical and human geographers, one element of study is common to their

concerns: that of process. The “becoming” of an ecosystem, ape, or of the pattern of exchanges in an economic system is an important open or implied part of l . Evidence of the past as an aid to understanding of the present is involved in much geographic investigation, for present-day distr ties of regions mark a merely temporary stage in a continuing process of change.

Population as Regional Focus (See “World Population Distribution,” p. 182.) In no phase of geography are process and change more basic to r The human condition is dy are ever-changing. these spatial distributions are related to the ways that people utilize the physical environment in which they are located, they are also conditioned by the purposes, patterns, and solutions of those who went before. In the wing extract taken from the work of Glenn T. Trewartha, a dean of American population geographers, notice how population regionalization—used as a focal theme—ties together a number of threads of r iption and understanding. The aspirations of colonist-conquerors, past and contemporary transportation physical geographic conditions, politic separatism, and the history and practice of agr e and r oduced to give understanding to population from a regional perspective. P

atterns of Latin Americad

A distinctive feature of the spatial arrangement of population in Latin America is its strongly nucleated character; the pattern is one of striking clusters. Most of the population clusters remain distinct and are separated from other clusters by sparsely occupied territory. Such a pattern of isolated nodes of settlement is common in many pioneer regions; indeed, it was characteristic of early settlement in both Europe and eastern North America. In those regions, as population expanded, the scantily occupied areas between individual clusters gradually and the nodes merged. But in Latin America such an evolution generally did not occur, and so the nucleated pattern persists. Expectably, the individual population clusters show considerable variations in density. The origin of the nucleated pattern of settlement is partly to be sought in the gold and missionary fever that imbued the Spanish colonists. Their settlements were characteristically located with some care, since only areas with precious metals for exploitation and large Indian populations to be Christianized and to provide labor ers. A clustered pattern was also fostered by the isolation and localism that prevailed in the separate territories and settlement areas of Latin America. d From Glenn T. Trewartha, The Less Developed Realm: A Geography of Its Population. ight © 1972 by John W ons, Inc. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

The Re on Concept

Almost invariably each of the distinct population clusters has a conspicuous urban nucleus. To an unusual degree the economic, political, and social life within a regional cluster centers on a single large primate city, which is also the focus of the local lines of transport. The prevailing nucleated pattern of population distribution also bears a relationship to political boundaries. In some countries . . . a single population cluster represents the core area of the nation. In more instances, however, a population cluster forms the core of a major political subdivision of a nation-state, so that a country may contain more than one cluster. A consequence of this simple population distribution pattern and its relation to administrative subdivisions is that political boundaries ordinarily fall within the sparsely occupied territory separating individual clusters. In Latin America few national or provincial boundaries pass through nodes of relatively dense settlement [Figure 13.10]. . . . The spectacular rates at which population numbers are currently soaring in Latin America are not matched by equivalent changes in their spatial redistributions. Any population map of Latin America reveals extensive areas of unused and

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underutilized land. Part of such land is highland and plagued by steep slopes, but by far the larger share of it is characterized by a moist tropical climate, either tropical wet or tropical wet and dry. Such a climatic environment, with its associated wild vegetation, soils, and drainage, admittedly presents many discouraging elements to the new settler of virgin lands. . . . [T]ropical climat nation for the abundance of near-empty lands south of the Rio Grande. Cultural factors are involved as much as, if not more than, physical ones. One of the former is the unfortunate land-holding system that has been fastened on the continent, under which vast areas of potentially cultivable land are held out of active use by a small number of absentee landlords, who not only themselves make ine e use of the land, but at the same time refuse to permit its cultivation by small operators. Because of the land-holding system, peasant proprietors are unable to secure their own lands, a situation that discourages new rural settlement. . . . The changes now in progress in the spatial distributions accompanying the vast increase in numbers of people do not appear to involve any large-scale push of rural settlement into virgin territory. Only to a rather limited extent is new agricultural settlement taking place. Intercluster regions are apidly. The overwhelming tendency is for people to continue to pile up in the old centers of settlement in and around their cities, r ontier into new pioneer-settlement areas.

Language as Region

Pacific Atlantic Ocean

Ocean

FIGURE 13.10 ns of South America. Population clusters focused on urban cores and separated by sparsely populated rural areas were the traditional pattern in Latin American countries. Simon & Schuster, Inc. from the Macmillan College Text Introduction to Latin America, by Preston E. James. Macmillan College Publishing Company, Inc.

(See “Language,” p. 213.) The gr e realms of the world (outlined in Figure 7.3) are historic y based composites of peoples. They are not closel , religion, or technolog e in varying combinations. e realms are therefore multifactor regions. Basic y is the r egions of single-factor that give character to their areas of occurrence and that collectively provide a needed balance to the sweeping generaliz e realm. L pro an example of such area variation, one par y explored in Chapter 7. families sho igure 7.19 conceal the r distinctions among the differ countries. These, ignor forms of minor who may base their o of pr In scale and recognition even below these ethnic regional languages are those loc iants frequently denied status as and cited as proof of ivation of their speakers. However, such a limited-area, limited-population tongue contains all the elements of the c y based region. Its ar its boundaries are easily drawn, it represents and it summarizes an areall

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ysis Tradition

anguagee

Isolation is a key element in the retention or the creation of distinctive and even externally unintelligible languages. The isolation of the ancestors of the some quarter-million presentday speakers of Gullah—themselves called Gullahs—was nearly complete. Held by the hundreds as slav shore islands and in the nearly equally remote low country along the southeastern United States coast from South Carolina to the Florida border [Figure 13.11], they retained both the speech patterns of the A ican languages—Ewe, Fanti, Bambara, Twi, Wolof, Ibo, Malinke, Yoruba, e to the slave groups and over 4000 words dr om them. Folktales told in the Gullah creole can be heard and understood by Kriospeaking audiences in Sierra Leone today. Forced to use English words for minimal communication with their white overseers, distorting, and interjecting A ican-based substitute words into that unfamiliar language, the Gullahs kept intonations and word and idea order in their spoken common speech that made it unintelligible to white masters or to more completely integrated mainland slaves. Because the language was not understood, its speakers were considered ignorant, unable to master the niceties of English. Because ignorance was ascribed to them, the Gullahs learned to be ashamed of themselves, of their culture, and of their tongue, which even they themselves did not recognize as a highly structured and sophisticated separate language. In common with many linguistic minorities, the Gullahs are losing their former sense of inferiority and gaining pride

in their cultural heritage and in the distinctive tongue that represents it. Out of economic necessity, standard English is being taught to their schoolchildren, but an increasing scholarly and popular interest in the structure of their language and in the nature of their culture has caused Gullah to be rendered as a written language, studied as a second language, and translated into English. In both the written and the spoken versions, Gullah betrays its A ican syntax patterns, particularly in its employment of terminal locator words: “Where you goin’ at?” The same A ican origins are revealed by the absence in English translation of distinctive tenses: “I be tired” conveys the concept that “I have been tired for a period of time.” Though tenses exist in the African root languages, they are noted more ds and structures. “He en gut no morratater fer mak no pie wid” may be poor English, but it is good Gullah. Its translation—“He has no more sweet pot enders it intelligible to ears attuned to English but loses the musical lilt of original speech and, more important, obscures the cultural identity of the speaker, a member of a regionally compact group of distinctive Americans whose territorial extent is clearly de by its linguistic dominance.

Mental Regions (See “Mental Maps,” p. 248.) The r and the methods of r ation they demonstrate, have a concrete r . They ar measurable content. They have boundaries drawn by some objective measur and they have location on an accurately measur id. Individuals and whole cultures may operate, and opery, with a much less formalized and less precise e of the nature of the world and of the structure of its parts. epresent perws of regions and regionalization. The private world views they embody are, as we also saw, colored by the culture of e members. Primitive societies, particularly, have distinctive world views by which they categoriz , and satisfactorily account for what is not. The Yurok Indians of the Klamea of nor e no exception. Their geographic concepts were reported by T. T. Waterman, from whose paper, “Yurok Geography,” the follo drawn. The Yurok World View f The Yurok imagines himself ent of landscape, which is roughly circular and surrounded by ocean. By going far enough up the river, it is believed, “you come

FIGURE 13.11 Gullah speakers are concentrated on the Sea Islands and the coastal mainland of South Carolina and Georgia. The isolation that promoted their linguistic distinction is now being eroded by coastal development. f e

By Jerome Fellmann.

Source: T. T. Waterman, “Yurok Geography,” University of in American Archaeology and Ethnology 16, no. 5 (1920): 189–93.

ublications

The Region Concept

to salt water again.” In other words, the Klamath River is considered, in a sense, to bisect the world. This whole earth mass, with its forests and mountains, its rive s, is regarded as slowly rising and falling, with a gigantic but imperceptible rhythm, on the heaving, pr . The vast size of the “earth” causes you not to notice this quiet heaving and settling. This earth, therefore, is not merely surr At about the central point of the “world” lies a place which the Yurok call qe’nek, on the southern bank of the Klamath, a few miles below the point where the Trinity River comes in from the south. In the Indian concept, this point seems to be accepted as the center of the world. At this locality also the sky was made. Above the solid sky there is a sky-country, wo’noiyik, about the topography of which the Yurok’s ideas are almost as de e as are his ideas of southern Mendocino County, for instance. Downstream from qe’nek, at a place called qe’nek-pul (“qe’nekdownstream”), is an invisible ladder leading up to the sky-country. The ladder is still thought to be there, though no one to my knowledge has been up it recently. The skyvault is a very de e item in the Yurok’s cosmic scheme. The structure consisting of of landscape and waters that it encloses is known to the Yurok as ki-we’sona (literally “that which exists”). This sky, then, tog ing of landscape, constitutes “our world.” I used to be puzzled at the Yurok confusing earth and sky, telling me, for example, that a certain gigantic redwood tree “held up the world.” Their ideas are of course perfectly logical, for the sky is as much a part of the “world” in their sense as the ground is. The Yurok believe that passing under the sky edge and voyaging still outward you come again to solid land. This is not our world, and mortals ordinarily do not go there; but it is good, solid land. What are breakers over here are just little ripples over there. Yonder lie several regions. To the north (in our sense) lies pu’ −k, downstream at the north end of creation. South of pu’ −k lies tsi’k-tsik-ol (“money lives”) where the dentalium-shell, medium of exchange, has its mythical abode. Again, to the south there is a place called kowe’tsik, the mythical home of the salmon, where also all have a “house.” About due west of the mouth of the Klamath lies rkrgr’, where lives the culture-hero wo’xpa-ku-mä (“across-the-ocean that widower”). Still to the south of rkrgr’ there lies a broad sea, kiolaaopa’a, which is half pitch—an Algonkian myth idea, by the way. All of these solid lands just mentioned lie on the margin, the absolute rim of things. Beyond them the Yurok does not go even in imagination. In the opposite direction, he names a place pe’tskuk (“up-river-at”), which is the upper “end” of the river but still in this world. He does not seem to concern himself much with the topography there. in F

The Yurok’s conception of the world can be summed up e 13.12.

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FIGURE 13.12 The world view of the Yurok as pieced together by T. T. Waterman during his anthropological study of the tribe. Qe’nek, in the center of the diagram, marks the center of the world in Indian belief. Source: T. T. Waterman, “Yurok Geography,” University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology 16, no. 5: 189–93, 1920.

Political Regions (See “Boundaries: The Limits of the State,” p. 284.) The most rigorousl e region is the Its boundaries are presumably car y surveyed and are, perhaps, There is no question of a gradual transition zone or of lessening to egional core. This rigidity of a country’s boundaries, its unmistakable placement in space, , anthem, government, army—that are uniquely its own give to the state an appearance of permanence and imm in other, mor e regions. ten more imagined than real. Political boundaries are not necessarily permanent. They are subject to change, sometimes violent change, as a result of internal and external pressures. The Indian subcontinent illustrates the point. Political Regions in the Indian Subcontinentg The history of the subcontinent since about 400 B.C. has been one of the alternating creation and dissolution of empires, of the extension of central control based upon the Ganges Basin, and of resistance to that centralization by the marginal territories of the peninsula. British India, created largely unintentionally by 1858, was only the last, though perhaps the most successful, attempt to br rol the vast ome Fellmann.

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ysis Tradition

Brah G an ge

s

maputra R.

R.

FIGURE 13.13 The sequence of political change on the Indian subcontinent. British India was transformed in 1947 to the countries of India and Pakistan, the latter a Muslim state with a western and an eastern component. In 1971 Pakistan was torn by civil war based on ethnic and political contrasts, and the easter

territory of incredibly complex and often implacably opposed racial, religious, and linguistic groupings. A common desir eedom from British rule united the subcontinent’s disparate populations at the end of World War II. That common desire, however, was countered by the mutual religious antipathies felt by Muslims and Hindus, each dominant in separate regions of the colony and eac ed with or subordinated to the other. When the British surrendered control of the subcontinent in 1947, they recognized these apparently irreconcilable re ences and partitioned the subcontinent into the second and seventh most populous countries on Earth. The independent state of India was created out of the largely Hindu areas constituting the bulk of the former colony. Separate sovereignty was granted to most of the Muslim-majority area under the name of Pakistan. Even so, the partition left boundaries, notably in the Vale of Kashmir, dangerously unde e. An estimated 1 million people died in the religious riots that accompanied the partition decision. In perhaps the largest short-term mass migration in history, some 10 million Hindus mov om Pakistan to India, and 7.5 million Muslims left India for Pakistan, “The Land of the Pure.” Unfortunately, the purity resided only in common religious belief, not in spatial coherence or in shared language, ethnicity, customs, food, or economy. During its 23 years of existence as originally conceived, Pakistan was a sorely divided country. The partition decision created an eastern and a western component separated by more than 1600 kilometers (1000 mi) of foreign territory and united only by a common belief in Allah [Figure 13.13]. West Pakistan, as large as Texas and Oklahoma combined, held 55 million largely light-skinned Punjabis with Urdu language and strong Middle Eastern cultural ties. Some 70 million Bengali speakers, making up East Pakistan, were crammed into an Iowa-sized portion of the delta of the Ganges and Brahmaputra Rivers. The western segment of the country was part of the semiarid world of western Asia;

the eastern portion of Pakistan was joined to humid, riceproducing Southeast Asia. Be y of religion, little else united the awkwardly separated country. East Pakistan felt itself exploited by a dominating western minority that sought to impose its language and its economic development, administrative objectives, and military control. Rightly or wrongly, East Pakistanis saw themselves as aggrieved and abused. They complained of a per capita income level far below that of their western compatriots, imination in the allocation of investment capital, found disparities in the pricing of imported foods, and asserted that their exports of raw mater ticularly jut e supporting a national economy in which they did not share proportionally. They argued that their demands for regional autonomy, voiced since nationhood, had been denied. When, in November of 1970, East Pakistan was struck by a cyclone and tidal wave that took an estimated 500,000 lives, the limit of eastern patience was reached. er what they saw as a totally inadequate West Pakistani e t of aid in the natural disaster that had befallen them, the East Pakistanis were further incensed by the re the central government to convene on schedule a national assembly to which they had won an absolute majority of delegates. Civil war resulted, and the separate new state of Bangladesh was created. [The sequence of political change in the subcontinent is traced in Figure 13.13.] The country and nation-state so ingrained in our conas displayed on the map inside the cover of this book, is both a recent and an ephemeral creation of the cultural regional landscape. It rests upon a claim, more or less e ely enforced, of a monopoly of power and allegiance resident in a government and superior to the communal, linguistic, ethnic, or re preceded it or that claim loyalties overriding it. As the violent recent history of the Indian subcontinent demonstrates, nationalism may be sought, but its maintenance is not assured by the initiating motivations.

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PART III: REGIONS IN THE LOCATIONAL TRADITION While location, as we have seen, is a pr y attr regions, r ation in the locational tradition of geography implies far more than naming regions and mapping their boundaries. ibution of human activities and the impact of those activities on the physic ape. In this sense, world regionalization of agr e and of the soils and climates with which it is related is within the loc For practic easons, however, such underlying physic luded under the earth science tradition. But the point is made: the loc es the “doing” in human affairs, and “doing” is not an abstract thing but an interrelation of life and the environment on which life depends. The locational tradition, therefore, encourages the recogthan do the earth science or

e-environment traditions.

action the recognition of formal regions. The interchange of commodities, the control of ur ket areas, ws of capital, and the collection and distribution activities of ports are just a fe anal y useful functional regions that one may recognize.

Economic Regions (See “World Manufacturing Patterns and Trends,” p. 347.) Economic r ation is among the most frequent, familiar, yments of the r Through economic r and resources, maps the limits of their occurrence or use, and examines the interr ws that are part of the complexities of the contemporary world. The economic region, examples of which were explored in Chapter 10, should be seen y more than a de for r It has increasingly become a device for examining what might The concept of the economic region as a tool for planning and a framework for the manipulation of the people, resources, and economic str e of a composite region took root in the United States during the Great Depression years of the 1930s. The key element in the planning region is the public recognition of a major territorial unit in which economic change or decline is seen as the cause of a var of interrelated problems, including population out-migration, r underdevelopment, and pover . h

Until the early 1960s, “Appalachia” was for most a loose reference to the complex physiographic province of the eastern United States associated with the Appalachian Mountain h

By Jerome F

k Bjelland.

FIGURE 13.14 This easter eminder of economic and social changes in Appalachia. While traditional landscape features such as this log cabin remain, higher incomes, oved highway networks, and new communication technologies have r and isolation long associated with the region. © Bob Douglas.

chain. If thought of at all, it was apt to be visualized as rural, isolated, and tree-covered, as an area of coal mining, hillbillies, and folksongs [Figure 13.14]. During the 1950s, however, the economic stagnation and the functional decline of the area became increasingly noticeable in the national context of economic growth, rising personal incomes, owing concern with the elimination of the poverty and deprivation of every group of citizens. Less dramatically but just as decisively as the Dust Bowl or the Tennessee Valley of an earlier era, Appalachia became simultaneously a popularly recognized economic and cultural region and a governmentally determined planning region. Evidences of poverty, underdevelopment, and social crisis were obvious to a country committed to recognize and eradicate such conditions within its own borders. By 1960, per capita income within Appalachia was $1400 when the national average was $1900. In the decade of the 1950s, mine employment fell 60% and farm jobs declined 52%; the rest of the country lost only 1% of mining jobs and 35% of agricultural employment. Rail employment fell with the drop in coal mining. Massive out-migration occurred among young adults, with such cities as Chicago, Detroit, Dayton, Cleveland, and Gary the targets. Even with these departures, unemployment among those who remained in Appalachia averaged 50% higher than the national rate. Because of the departures, the remnant population—only 47% of whom lived in or near cities in 1960, as against 70% for the entire United States—was distorted in age structure. The very young and the old were disproportionately represented; the productive working-age groups were, at least temporarily, emigrants. When these and other socioeconomic indicators were plotted by counties and by state economic areas, the maps revealed a coherent and clearly bounded region of economic distress [Figure 13.15]. It extended through 13 stat om

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ysis Tradition

FIGURE 13.15 The boundaries of “Appalachia” as defined by the Appalachian Regional Commission were based on social and economic conditions influenced by political considerations, not topography.

Mississippi to New York, covered some 505,000 square kilometers (195,000 sq mi), and contained 18 million people, 93% of them white. By 1963, awareness of the problems of the area at federal and state levels had passed beyond recognition of a multifactor economic region to the establishment of a planning region. A joint federal-state Appalachian Regional Commission was created to develop a program designed to meet the perceived needs of the entire area. The approach chosen was one of limited investment in a restricted number of highly localized developments, with the expectation that these would spark economic growth supported by privat In outline, the plan was (1) to ignore those areas of poverty and unemployment that were in isolated, inaccessible “hollows” throughout the region; (2) to designate “growth centers” where development potential was greatest and concentrate all spending for economic expansion there; the regional growth potential in targeted expenditur overcome charges of aiding the prosperous and depriving the poor; and (3) to create a new network of roads so that the isolated jobless could commute to the new jobs expected to form in and near the favored growth centers. Road construction would also, of course, open inaccessible areas to tourism and strengthen the economic base of the entire planning region. In the years since the Appalachian Regional Commission was established, and in ways not anticipated, the economic prospects of Appalachia have altered. During the 1980s, new industrial jobs multiplied as manufacturing relocated to, or was newly developed in, the Appalachia portion of the Sunbelt. The new factory employment opportunities initially exceeded local labor pools, and former out-migrants retur om cities outside the region, reestablishing a more balanced population

pyramid. At the same time, however, coal-mining jobs in the region plummeted and unemployment still remained above the national average. By the early 1990s, the Appalachian Regional Commission had committed more than $6 billion to the area, and over $10 billion mor om other sources. The commission’s investments combined with changing perceptions of the region to fundamentally alter the 1960s picture of unrelieved depression. Extensive construction of highways, water systems, and sanitation facilities improved access to jobs and the quality of basic services for many residents of the region. Poverty rates declined and the gap in per capita income between Appalachia and the rest of the United States narrowed. P abilized and some parts of Appalachia became popular second home and recreational destinations. Challenges remain. Some isolated areas of Appalachia were not served by the commission’s projects. Mechanization of coal mining and the shift to cleaner coal from the western United States reduced employment in that sector. Manufacturing has been concentrated in metals, wood products, textiles, and apparel—all sectors badly hurt by global competition. Lowpaying service sector jobs in the tourism industry have not made up for lost mining and manufacturing wages. In 2007, per capita income remained 20% lower in Appalachia than in the rest of the country. But instead of uniform social and economic distress, we see subregional contrasts between areas with relatively healthy economies and remaining areas of distress. In summary, the Appalachian Regional Commission’ an economically distressed region was ep in creating focused economic development plans that improved the quality of life for many and created a morediverse, stable regional economy.

Urban Regions (See “Megalopolis,” p. 375.) Urban geography occupies a center stage position in the locational tradition of geography. Modern integrated, interdependent on a world basis is urban-centered. Cities are oduction, exchange, and administration. y as essential elements in interlocked hierarchical systems of cities. Internally, they display complex but repetitive spatial patterns of land Because of the many-sided character of urbanism, cite particularly good subjects for r . They are themselves, of course, formal regions. In the aggregate, their distributions give substance to formal regions of urban concentration. egions of var ypes and hierarchical orders. Their internal diversity of functional, land use, and socioeconomic patterns invite regional ysis. The use of both the formal region and tion region concepts is clearly displayed by the geographer Jean Gottmann, who, in examining the data and landscapes of the eastern United States at mid-20th century, recognized and analyzed Megalopolis. The following is taken fr .

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FIGURE 13.17 The “Pine Barrens” of New Jersey is still a FIGURE 13.16 Megalopolis in 1960. The region was then composed of counties that, by U.S. census definition, were “urban” in population and economic characteristics. Much of the area is still distinctly “rural” in land use. i

The northeastern seaboard of the United States is today the site of a remarkable development—an almost continuous stretch of urban and suburban areas from southern New Hampshire to northern V om the Atlantic shore to the Appalachian foothills [Figure 13.16]. The processes of urbanization, rooted deep in the American past, have worked steadily here, endowing the region with unique ways of life and of land use. No other section of the United States has such a large concentration of population, with such a high average density, spread over such a large area. And no other section has a comparable role within the country or a comparable importance in the world. Here has been developed a kind of supremacy, in politics, in economics, and possibly even in cultural activities, seldom before attained by an area of this size. Great, then, is the importance of this section of the United States and of the processes now at work within it. And yet it om the surrounding areas, for its limits cut across established historical divisions, such as New England and the Middle Atlantic states, and across political entities, since it includes some states entirely and others only partially. A special name is needed, therefore, to ideneographical area. This particular type of region is new, but it is the result of age-old processes, such as the growth of cities, the division of labor within a civilized society, the development of world resources. The name applied to it should, therefore, be new as a i Jean Gottmann, Megalopolis: The Urbanized Northeastern Seaboard of the United States. Copyright © 1961. T und, New York. Reprinted with permission.

pr developers. © Elizabeth J. Leppman.

onmentalists and

place-name but old as a symbol of the long tradition of human aspirations and endeavor underlying the situations and problems now found here. Hence the choice of the term Megalopolis, used in this study. As one follows the main highways or railroads between Boston and Washington, D.C., one hardly loses sight of builtup areas, tightly woven residential communities, or powerful concentrations of manufacturing plants. Flying this same route one discovers, on the other hand, that behind the ribbons of densely occupied land along the principal arteries of tr and in between the clusters of suburbs around the old urban centers, there still remain large areas covered with woods and brush alternating with some carefully cultivated patches of farmland [Figure 13.17]. These green spaces, however, when inspected at closer range, immense scattering of buildings, most of them residential but some of industrial character. That is, many of these sections that look rural actually function largely as suburbs in the orbit of some city’s downtown. Even the farms, which occupy the larger tilled patches, are seldom worked by people whose only occupation and income are properly agricultural. Thus the old distinctions between rural and urban do not apply here anymore. Even a quick look at the vast area of Megalopolis reveals a revolution in land use. Most of the people living in the so-called rural areas, as “rural population” by recent censuses, have very little, if anything, to do with agriculture. In terms of their interests and work they ar “city folks,” but their way of life and the landscapes around their residences do urban. In this area, then, we must abandon the idea of the city as a tightly settled and organized unit in which people,

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activities, and riches are crowded into a very small area clearly separat om its nonurban surroundings. Every city in this region spreads out far and wide around its original nucleus; it grows amidst an irregularly colloidal mixture of rural and suburban landscapes; it melds on br onts with other mixtures, of some ent texture, belonging to the suburban neighborhoods of other cities. Thus an almost continuous system of deeply interwoven urban and suburban areas, with a total population of about 37 million people in 1960, has been erected along the Northeastern Atlantic Seaboard. It straddles state boundaries, stretches across wide estuaries and bays, and encompasses many re ences. In fact, the landscapes of Megalopolis o er such variety that the average observer may well doubt the unity of the region. And it may seem to him that the main urban nuclei of the seaboard are little related to one another. Six of its great cities would be great individual metropolises in their own right if they were located elsewhere. This region indeed reminds one of Aristotle’s saying that cities such as Babylon had “the compass of a nation rather than a city.” The descr epresents, as does any r , a captured moment on the continuum of geographic change. When that moment is lucidly described and the threads of ar learly delineated, the regional y of the present and a prediction e. ibed it, Megalopolis continued to de ized. Urbanization proceeded, physic y y, to encroach upon the r apes without regard for state boundaries or even the metropolitan cores that dominated in 1960. As then, new gro central cities in their own right—were linked to the expanding transportation corridors, though now the lines of importance are increasingly expressways rather than railroads. In the south, the corridors around W D.C., e air om it port in Virginia and, to the north into Montgomery County, yland, the I-270 corridor. The Virginia suburbs focusing on Tysons Corner specialized in defense-related and information technology industries, centers are rapidly converting rural land to general urban uses. The Maryland suburbs emphasized health, space, and communications interests in their own ne , industrial, and commercial “parks” and complexes. S ther to the north during the 1980s, in the “Princeton Corridor,” (26-mi) stretch along Route 1 from New Brunswick to Trenton, New Jersey, huge corporate parks pro research space to companies relocating from the New York area and to ne oximity to Princeton University. Morristown, New Jersey, and White Plains, in W , New York, were other similar concentrations of commer industr velopments north and west of New Yor . To the east, Stamford, Connecticut, y in-commuters became

by the late 1980s the headquarters center for major national corporations and had emerged as a trul y new on the scene in its pr described.

Ecosystems as Regions (See “Ecosystems,” p. 393.) A though ov of geography as “the study of the areal variation of the surface of the earth” suggested that the discipline centered on the c cation of ar th into regions. Considerations of organization and function were secondary and even unnecessary to the implied main purpose of regional : es and boundaries of areas uniform in physic operties. In our chapter reviews of the earth science, culture-environment, and loc of geography, however, we have stressed that a more-dynamic view of the discipline recognizes that humans constantly exert discernible, changeable, and frequently adverse impacts on the physical environments they occupy. The landscape evidences of those human impacts ar egional study, though often their investigation requir om techniques different from the descriptive methodologies often associated with r “Managing Ecoregions”). Newer research philosophies str human and environmental interactions from the standpoint of systems analysis. That approach emphasizes the organization, structure, and functional dy ea and provides ation of the space. The ecosystem or biome, introduced in Chapter 12, proexamination of the r onment and the biological realm, a relationship often impacted by human Because that relationship is str ed, e rather than spatial uniformity attracts attention and leads to new understanding of the region. The ecosystem concept, parly, pro w for investigating the complex onment. Much of our current appreciation of the Everglades ecosystem can be attributed to the evocative writings and tireless work of Marjory Stoneman Douglas. As a young newspaper reporter for the Miami Herald, she became impr the Everglades and in 1947 published a highl book, The Everglades: River of Grass. lassics, such as Silent Spring by Rachel Carson, her book is one of the most important pieces of environmental writing. The Everglades: River of Grass was released the same year that the Everglades National Park was dedicated, and it helped reshape the American public’s image of the Everglades region from that of an endless, dangerous, and useless swamp to that of a rich ecosystem with beauty and biologic treasures. Notice how in this opening passage from her book, Marjory Stoneman Douglas evokes the unique r character of the Everglades ecosystem.

Managing Ecoregions

The Evergladesj There are no other Everglades in the world. They are, they have always been, one of the unique regions of the earth, remote, never wholly known. Nothing anywhere else is like them: their vast glittering openness, wider than the enormous visible round of the horizon, the racing free saltness and sweetness of their massive winds, under the dazzling blue heights of space. They are unique also in the simplicity, the diversity, the related harmony of the forms of life they enclose. The miracle of the light pours over the green and brown expanse of saw grass and of water, shining and slow moving below, the grass and water that is the meaning and the central fact of the Everglades of Florida. It is a river of grass. More recent ecosystem conservation efforts have been carried forward by the South Florida Water Management j Everglades: River of Grass toneman Douglas. Copyright 1997 by Pineapple Press, Inc. Reproduced with permission of Pineapple Press, Inc. in the format Text right Clearance Center.

District. It, too, describes the unique character of the Everglades r ations and notes the landscape evidences of human impacts on the ecosystem. It is a low place in a low land—with a towering stature. It supports an ecosystem teeming with an array of plants and animals as rich in diversity as the A ican savannas. The world’s most famous wetland collects vast amounts of rainwater and shares it with an ever-growing urban population, ers and cleanses the water with the plants it nurtures, and captures pot ers like a giant sponge. It is the Florida Everglades—home to 68 threatened or endangered species, among them the Florida panther, the American crocodile, and the wood stork. Not so long ago, but for a very long time, the Everglades was a pristine wilderness. Seasons came and went. Summer rains fell and often caused Lake Okeechobee to spill its waters over the natural southern shore and form a river. The river spread over more than eight million acres, covering miles and miles, with a depth that ranged from a halffoot to two feet. It usually moved down the southern Florida 451

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Lake Okeechobee Catoosahatchee

R.

G ul f C oa st

Gulf of Mexico

Biscayne Bay

FIGURE 13.19 Open water, saw grasses, and tree islands, all visible in this scene, constitute separate biomes of the Everglades, which is home also to a teeming animal life. U.S. Fish & W photo by Steve Farrell.

Florida Bay

Today, the impacts to the Everglades are all too apparent. The great sheets of water once moving slowly across the expanse of the original Everglades, recharging the water table and pr reams and rivers are now harnessed in canals. The natural timing of wat as it crisscrossed the lower peninsula is now manipulated as it rushes through or stands behind manmade structures. Canals quickly drain the land into natural water bodies and are conduits for residential and agricultural r that pollute lakes, rivers, and estuaries. Most of the expansive Everglades is divided into “Water Conservation Areas” that supply water to the lower east coast of southern Florida. The natural ov important to the ecosystem is interrupted. As recently as the 1930s, an estimated quarter million wading birds inhabited the Everglades. Today, those numbers have decreased by more than 90%. There were 2500 wood stor eeding in this vast wetland 40 years ago; but by 1990, these birds had dwindled to just 375.k

Atlantic Ocean

FIGURE 13.18 The Everglades ecosystems stretching southward in Florida from Lake Okeechobee to the sea. Drainage and water-control systems have altered its natural condition.

peninsula, through a few outlets east and west, but mostly south to Florida Bay. Historically, it was a very slow river— ter mile a day [Figure 13.18]. Native Americans living in and around the river called it Pahayokee (pah-HIGH-oh-geh), the “grassy waters.” Englishmen saw a wide-open, green wet prairie and recalled the glades of their native countryside. They called this river, “Everglades,” since it stretched as far as one could see [Figure 13.19]. Humans were there, but the impact of their presence was so minimal it was almost non existent. Over the last century, many more people came and the vibrant southern Florida ecosystem was altered to accommodate their needs. As the area grew, the Everglades shrank, its water controlled for human uses.

k

South Florida Water Management District, The Living Everglades: Overview. verglades/index.shtml, last accessed January 13, 2010.

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Summary of Key Concepts The region is a mental construct, a created entity whose sole function is the organiz The scheme of that organization, the selection of data to be analyzed, and the region resulting from these decisions are r oblem posed. This chapter has not attempted to explore all aspects of the regional method. It has tried, by example, only to

document its basic theme: the geographer’s regions are arbitrary but deliberately conceived devices for the isolation of things, patterns, interrelations, and ws that invite geographic analysis. In this sense, all geographers are regional geographers, and the regional examples of this chapter logically complete our survey of the four traditions of geography.

Key Words egion 436 functional (nodal) region 436

perceptual (vernacular, popular) region 436 region 435

regional concept 435

Thinking Geographically 1. What do geographers seek to achieve when they recognize egions? On what basis are regional boundaries drawn? Are regions concrete entities whose dimensions and characteristics are agr th space? Ask thr who are not par of the “South.” If their answers differed, what implicit or explicit criteria of regional delimitation were they employing? What type of region were they recognizing? 2. What ar ing qualities shared egions? 3. What is the ing characteristic of a formal region? How are its boundaries determined? Name three different examples of formal regions drawn from any earlier chapters of this book. Ho purpose of its recognition?

4. How are functional regions What is the nature of their bounding criteria? Give three or four examples of egions that wer lier in the text. 5. The ecosystem was suggested as a viable device for regional delimitation. What regional geographic concepts are suggested in ecosystem recognition? Is an ecosystem identical to a formal region? Why or why not? 6. National, linguistic, historical, planning, and other regions have been recognized in this chapter. With what other regional entities do you have acquaintance in your daily affairs? Are e protection districts, police or voting precincts, and zoning districts regional units s regions as discussed in this chapter or elsewhere in this book? Ho are you in your private life by your, or others’, regional delimitations?

Appendix 1 Map Projections A map projection is a system for displaying the curved surface of the earth on a flat sheet of paper. No matter how one tries to “flatten” the world, it can never be done in such a way as to show all earth details in their correct relative size, shapes, distances, or directions. Something is always wrong, and the cartographer’s task is to select and preserve those earth relationships important for the purpose at hand and to minimize or accept those distortions that are inevitable but unimportant. If we look at a globe directly, only the front is visible; the back is hidden. To make a world map, we must decide on a way to flatten the globe’s curved surface on the hemisphere we can see. Then we have to cut the globe map down the middle of its hidden hemispher k quarters on their respective sides of the already visible front half. In simple terms, we have to “peel” the map from the globe and flatten it in the same way we might try to peel an orange and flatten F e A.1). Inevitably, the peeling and fl g process will produce a map that either shows tears or breaks in

the surface or is subject to uneven stretching or shr make it lie flat. Of course, mapmakers do not physic y engage in cutting, peeling, flattening, or stretching operations. Their task, rather, is to construct or project on a flat sur k idians of the globe grid, or graticule. This can be done in a number of ways. Before discussing them, it is impor cles appear on a globe’s spherical grid. A great circle is formed on the surface of a sphere by a plane that passes through the center of the sphere. Thus, the equator is a great circle, and each meridian is half of a great circle. eat circle bisects the globe, dividing it y into hemispheres. c segment of the great circle joining them is the shor on the earth’s surface. A le is the line created by the intersection of a spheric face with a plane that does not pass through its center. Except for the equator, of latitude are small circles. Different pr epresent great and small circles in different ways.

(b)

FIGURE A.1 (a) A careful “peeling” of the map from the globe

(a)

yields a set of tapered gores, which, although individually not showing much stretching or shrinking, do not collectively result in a (b) It is usually considered desirable to avoid or reduce the number of interruptions by depicting the entire global at circular, oval, or rectangular shape. That continuity of area, however, can be achieved only at the cost of considerable alteration of true shapes, distances, directions, and/or areas. Although the Mollweide projection shown here depicts the size of areas correctly

A-1

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APPENDIX 1

Map Projections

GEOMETRIC PROJECTIONS ojections can be described mathematic y, some can be thought of as being constructed by geometric techniques rather than by mathematic ulas. In geometric projections, the grid system is, in theory, transferred from the globe to a geometric figure, such as a cylinder or a cone, which, in turn, can be cut and then spread out flat (or develetching or tearing (Figure A.2). The surfaces of cylinders, cones, and planes are said to be developable —cylinders and cones can be cut and laid flat without distortion, and planes are flat to begin with. , geometric projections are constructed not by tracing shadows but by applying geometry and using lines, circles, arcs, and angles drawn on paper. Imagine a transparent globe with a light source located either inside or outside the globe. es) drawn on that ast shadows on any nearby surface. A tracing of that shadow globe grid represent a geometric map projection. As F e A.3 shows, the location of the light source in relation to the globe surface causes significant variation in the pr velopable geometric surface. An orthographic projection results from the placement of the theoretic ce at infinity. A gnomonic projection is produced when the light source is at the center of the globe. Placing the light at the antipode—the point exactly opposite the point of tangency, map—produces a stereographic projection.

Cylindrical Projections Suppose that we r ound a transparent globe so that it is tangent to (touching) the sphere at the equator. The line of tangency is c standard line (or standard parallel, along it, the map has no distortion. Instead of the paper being the same height as the globe, however, it extends far beyond the poles. For a

gnomonic projection, ce at the center of the globe, and the light would project a shadow map upon the cylinder of paper. The result is one of many cy ic of which e developed geometric y or mathematic y from a cylinder wrapped around the globe. Note the var id we have just projected and the true properties of the globe grid. The grid lines of latitude and longitude intersect each other at right angles, as they do on the globe, and they ar th–south or east–west lines. But the meridians do not converge at the poles, as they do on a globe. Instead, they are equally spaced, parallel, vertic Because the meridians are ever e equally far apart, the para els of latitude have all become the same length. there is no scale distortion along the line of tangency, the equator, distortion increases with increasing distance away from it. The polar regions are stretched nor and their sizes are enormously exaggerated. The poles themselves can never be shown on a cylindric ojection tangent at the equator with a light source at the center of the globe. The mathematic y derived Mercator pr was inspired by the idea of a cylinder tangent at the equator. It is one of the most commonly used (and misused) cylindrical projections. Invented in 1569 by Gerardus Mercator, the Mercator projection was created to ser t during a time when European exploration of other parts of the world was at its height. The Mercator is the standard projection used by navigators because of a peculiarly useful proper : a straight e on the map is a line of constant compass bearing. If such a line, called a rhumb line, is followed, a ship’s or a plane’s compass will sho ways at a constant angle with respect to geographic north (F e A.4). On no other projection is a rhumb line both straight and true as a direction. the Mercator projection frequently has been misused in book or on maps as a general-purpose world map—misused because it gives ossly exaggerated impressions of the siz eas away

FIGURE A.2 Geometric projections. The three common geometric forms used in such projections are the cylinder, the cone, and the plane. One can think of making a map projection by imagining a transparent globe with a light source inside it and a sheet of paper touching the globe in one of the ways shown here. The globe grid and the outline of the continents would be silhouetted on the paper to form the map.

Map Projections APPENDIX 1

A-3

Light source at infinity

Gnomonic Light source at center

Stereographic Light source at antipode

FIGURE A.3

ce location on planar

of latitude that occur when the light sour developables

ojections. Note the variations in the spacing of the lines ent map grids would result from using a cylinder or cone as the

75°

60° 45° 30° 15° 0° 15° 30° 45° 60°

75°

FIGURE A.4

150°

120°

90°

60°

30°

0°

30°

60°

90°

120°

150°

cator projection. ve-pointed star was drawn on a globe, and the latitude and longitude of the points of the star were transferred to the Mercator map shown here. The manner in which the star is distorted reflects the way the projection distorts land areas. The enlargement of areas with increasing latitude is so great that a Mercator map should not be published ent latitudes. The most significant pr cator projection is that it is the only one on which any straight line is a line of constant compass bearing, or rhumb line. Although a rhumb line usually is not the tion that will approximate the great circle route.

A-4

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Map Projections

90° 60° (Standard parallel) 30° 0°

90°

60° 30° (Standard parallel) 0°

FIGURE A.5 The Miller cylindrical projection is mathematicallyd erived.

from the tropics. Notice on Figure A.4 that Greenland appears many times bigger than Mexico, when in fact it is only slightly larger, size; , Brazil is more than five times as large. A number of cylindrical projections that ar area nor conformal, such as the Miller cylindrical projection shown in Figure A.5, are often used as bases for world maps. ojection does not increase as rapidly toward the poles as it does on the Mercator, so there is less distortion of the size of areas in etains no globe qualities, the Miller cylindric

(a)

Conic Projections Of the three developable geometric forms—cylinder, cone, and plane—the cone is the closest in form to of a globe. Conic projections, therefore, often are used to depict hemispheres or smaller parts of the earth. ojection in this c , and the easiest to e, is the simple conic projection. Imagine that a cone is laid ov , as in F e A.6a, tangent to the Distances are true only along this When the cone is developed, of course, the c of a circle, cs of concentric circles. With a central light source, easingly farther apart as they approach the pole, and distortion is accordingly exaggerated. One can lessen the amount of distortion by shortening the idian, at equal distances on that meridian, c rather than a point. Most of the conic pr e in general use employ such mathematical adjustments. When mor a polyconic projection results (FigureA .6b).

(b)

FIGURE A.6 (a) A simple conic projection with one standard parallel. Most conics are adjusted so that the parallels are spaced evenly along the central meridian. (b) The polyconic projection. The map is produced by bringing together east–west strips fr ent parallel. This pr om the simple conic in that the parallels of latitude are not arcs of concentric circles and the meridians are conformal, the projection portrays shape well. Note how closely the star r ve-pointed star, unlike the star shown in Figure A.4.

Map Projections APPENDIX 1

90° East

Eq ua

Conic projections are widely used because they can be adjusted to minimize distortions and become either equalarea or conformal. e, however, they can never show the whole globe. In fact, they are most for and generally restricted to maps of midlatitude regions of greater east–west than north–south extent. Many official map series use types of conic projections. The U.S. Geological Survey, for example, selected the Albers equal-area conic projection, shown in F e A.7, for its National Atlas of the United States of America. It is an ojection with very little distortion of shape even in an area as large as the United States.

A-5

r to

0°

180°

Planar Projections P (or azim ) projections ar ing a plane surface tangent to the globe at a single point. e the cartographer wishes, the polar case with the plane centered on either the North Pole or the South Pole is easiest to visualize (FigureA .8a). This equidistant pr ause it can be center e, facilitating the correct measurement of distances fr For this reason, it is often used to show air navigation routes that originate from a single place. When the plane is centered on places other than the poles, the mer iously curved, as is evident in Figure A.8b. Because they are particularl wing the arrangement of polar landmasses, planar maps are commonly used in atlases. Depending on the particular projection used, true shape, y, or a compr an be depicted. In addition, one of the planar projections is widely used for navigation and telecommunications. The gnomonic

(a)

90° West

(b)

FIGURE A.8 (a) The planar equidistant projection. Parallels

FIGURE A.7 The Albers equal-area conic projection, used cial U.S. maps, has two standard parallels. All parallels of latitude are concentric arcs of circles, the meridians are straight lines, and parallels and meridians intersect at right angles. The projection is best suited for regions of considerably greater east– west than north–south extent.

of latitude are circles equally spaced on the meridians, which are straight lines. This pr distances from the center to any other point are true. If the grid is extended to show the Southern Hemisphere, the South Pole is represented as a circle instead of a point. (b) A planar equidistant projection centered on Urbana, Illinois. The scale of miles applies only to distances from Urbana or on a line through it. The scale on the rim of the map, representing the antipode of Urbana, is infinitely stretched. permission.

A-6

APPENDIX 1

Map Projections

FIGURE A.10 Goode’s homolosine projection is a ent projections. It joins the sinusoidal and homolographic projections at about 40° o improve shapes, each continent is placed on the middle of a lobe approximately centered on its own central meridian. This projection can also interrupt the continents to display the ocean areas intact. Copyright by the by permission.

on Geographic Studies, University of Chicago. Used

FIGURE A.9 The gnomonic projection is the only one on which all great circles appear as straight lines. Rhumb lines are cator projection, on which rhumb lines are straight and great circles ar Figure A.4). Note that the distortion of shapes and areas increases away from the center point. The map is not conformal, equal-area, oreq uidistant.

centered on Washington, D.C.

FIGURE A.11 The azimuthal orthographic projection is

planar projection, shown in Figure A.9, is the only one on eat circles (or parts thereof ) appear as straight lines. Because great circles are the shor navigators need only connect the points with a straight line to findt hes hortestr oute.

formed by the projection of a hemisphere onto a plane, with the light source infinitely far away. It shows half the globe as it appears from deep space. An old projection, it was used by the Greek astronomer Hippar B.C. but probably was known earlier.

least distorted por

MATHEMATICAL PROJECTIONS The geometric projections we have just discussed c thought of as developed from the projection of the globe grid onto a cylinder, cone, or plane. Many projections, however, cannot be classified in terms of simple geometric shapes. They are derived from mathematical form y have been developed to display the world or a portion thereof in a fashion y acceptable. O e most common, but hearts, trapezoids, stars, butterflies, and other—sometimes bizarre— forms have been de poses. One such projection is Goode’s Homolosine, developed by the geographer J. P ea projection for statistical mapping. U y shown in its interrupted form, as in Figure A.10, y a product of fitting together the

ent projections (the sinuweide, or homolographic, projection) and centering the split map along m meridians to minimize the distortion of either land or ocean surfaces. This equal-area projection, epresents is widely used, y in Goode’s World Atlas. ojection (see p. A5), the azimuthal orthographic, wn to Egyptians and Greeks more than . It shows a hemisphere of the earth as it would look if seen from deep space, thus matching a person’s view of a globe (F e A.11). Used mainl poses, the orthographic is neither nor ea. Shapes and areas are severely distorted, par ly the edges, and directions are true only from the center point of the projection. The azim thographic and Goode’s projections show how projections can be manipulated or adjusted to achieve

Map Projections APPENDIX 1

A-7

The North

Ind. Ohio Ill.

FIGURE A.12

In this map transformation, the United States is shown as it might look if

the largest states wer

desired objectives. Since most projections are based on a mathematic y consistent render id, the possibilities for such manipulation are nearly unlimited. The map properties to be retained, the size and shape of areas to be displayed, and the ov uence the cartographer’s choices in reproducing the globe grid on the flat map.

Some very effective projections are non-Euclidian in origin, transforming space in unconventional ways. Distances may be measured in nonlinear fashion (in terms of time, cost, number of people, or even perception), and maps that show relative space may be constructed from these data. One example of such a transformation is shown in Figure A.12.

Summary of Key Concepts It is impossible to transform the globe into a fl distortion. Cartographers have devised hundreds of possible geometric and mathematic ojections to display to their best advantage the var ld’ es and relationships

e. Some projections are highl ized and restricted to a single, limited purpose; others achieve a mor y.

Key Words azimuthal projection A-5 conic projection A-4 cylindric ojection A-2

developable surface A-2 great circle A-1 Mercator projection A-2

planar (azimuthal) projection A-5 rhumb line A-2 small circle A-1

Appendix 2 C

, Soils, and Vegetation

SOILS AND CLIMATE Soil is one of the most important components of the physical environment. Life as we know it could not exist without it. Soils play an important role by storing and pur ing water and ar and thus animal and human, life.

Soil Formation Soil can be defined as a layer of fine material containing organic matter (dead plant and animal material), inorganic matter (weathered rock materials), air, and water that rests on the bedrock underlying it. The physic al disintegration of rock, called weathering (see Chapter 3), begins the process of soil formation. Weathering breaks do rock, ultimately producing finel ticles. These particles, together with the decomposed organic matter that comes to rest on top of them, are transformed into soils by water, heat, and the various living agents (such as bacteria and fungi) that decompose the organic matter. Soil formation is a dynamic process. The physic chemic and biological activities that produce it ar y at work. oad c v eas of the earth’s surface, istics of soil in a given place may differ markedly ov t distances. Variation is due chiefly to the five major factors involved in soil formation. 1. The geologic factor is the parent (underlying) rock, which the depth, texture, drainage, and nutrient content of a soil. 2. The climatic factor r e and precipitation on soil. Temperature affects the length of the gro the speed of vegetation decay, and the rate of evaporation. Pr ows in an area and thus the supply of humus, decomposed organic matter. 3. The topographic factor refers to the height of the land, the aspect of a slope (which direction it faces), and the angle of slope. ecipitation, cloud cover, and wind; temperature; and the surface runoff of water, drainage, and rate of soil erosion. 4. The biological factor refers to both and dead plants which add organic matter to the soil and interact in the nutrient cycle. P nutrients from the soil and r die. Microorganisms, such as bacter assist in the decomposition of dead organic matter, wher A-8

organisms, such as ants and worms, soil. 5. The chronological factor indicates the length of time the preceding four factors have been interacting to create a par Rec but gradual process. Soils that have been forming for short periods of time retain many of the characteristics of their parent-materials. Soils that have been forming for long periods of time are mor factors as climate and organisms.

Soil Profiles and Horizons Over time, soils tend to develop into layers of various thicknesses. These layers, c soil horizons, differ from one another in their structure, texture, color, and other characteristics. A soil profile is a vertic oss section of the soil, from th’s surface down into the underl ent-mater showing its different horizons (Figure B.1). • The surface layer, or O-horizon (O for organic), consists largely of fresh and dec leaves, animal droppings, dead insects, and so on. • Beneath the O-horizon lies the fer A-horizon, representing topsoil. Plant nutrients abound, and biologic e at their um. The humus helps give this horizon a dark color. • Water percolating through the soil removes some of the A-layer in a process called eluviation yielding the lighter-colored E-horizon. • The mater emoved from the E-horizon is deposited in the B-horizon, or zo Because , it is less fertile than the A-horizon. been deposited in this layer, it may be darker or more brightly colored than the E-horizon. • The C-horizon is where weathering is slowly transforming bedrock into soil particles. The older the soil becomes, and the warmer and wetter the climate, the deeper and more discernible the C-horizon will be. • The lowest layer, the unaltered bedrock, is designated the R-horizon (R for regolith). The designation is used only if the bedrock is within about 2 meters (6 ft) of the surface.

Climate, Soils, and Vegetation APPENDIX 2

A-9

Thic organic debr

F Mixture of hum and miner

Thick, alkaline, dark, very r in hum

Humus alumin

Clay, soil, miner

Parent-mater

Clay and calcium compounds

Parent-mater

Parent-mater Temperate deciduous soil

Coniferous forest soil

Grassland soil

Negligible Thin, hum miner

recycled quickly Acidic

Thick, dr containing variab accum of clay

alumin mix

solub

cla

Parent-mater

Parent-mater Tropical rain forest soil

FIGURE B.1 Generalized soil profiles found in five major ecosystems. The number, composition, and thickness of the soil horizons depending on the of soil. Not shown on these profiles is the lowest layer, the unaltered bedrock, or R-horizon. Source: From Biosphere 2000: Protecting Our Global Environment, 3d ed. by Donald G. Kaufman and Cecilia M. Franz. (New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 2000), Fig. 16.3, p. 313.

Soil Properties The four major components of soil—minerals, organic matter, water, and air—interact to produce distinctive soils. S proper es are the characteristics that enable us to distinguish one type of soil from another. Soils contain both organic and inorganic matter. The latter, produced by weathering, such as quartz, silicate clays, and iron and aluminum oxides. When weathering breaks down rocks into soil particles, the minerals are released to nourish plant growth.

Texture refers to the size of the mineral matter in the soil and is determined by the proportion of sand, silt, and clay particles. S tic , wed by silt and then clay. The most agr y pr e, called loam, is about 40% sand, 40% silt, and 20% clay. T e influences soil structure, which is defined by the way individual particles aggregate into larger clumps. The size, shape, lumps affect the c to hold water, air, and plant nutrients. Soils considerably in the nutrients they contain. These chemical elements—such as nitrogen, and

A-10

APPENDIX 2

, Soils, and Vegetation

c e essential for plant growth and to maintain the fer of the soil. Soils deficient in nutrients can be made productive by adding fertilizer artifi y. As we have noted, organic matter, or humus, is derived mainly from dead and dec . Humus holds water and supplies nutrients to plants. The highest amounts of humus are found in the fertile prairies of North America, the Argentinian pampas, and the treeless grasslands (steppes) of Russia. High hum k brown or black color, another soil property. In tropical and subtropical regions, iron compounds can give soil a yellow or reddish color. Light colors (gray or white) often indicate highly leached soils in wet ar y areas. Leached soils are those in which groundwater has dissolved and removed the waterThe pH sc , discussed in Chapter 12, measures the acidity or alkalinity of a soil. The most agr y productive y acidic and very

wn simply as Soil Taxonomy, which is based on the presentday characteristics of the soil (see “Soil T onomy,” p. A-11). It divides soils into 12 orders, e subdivided into suborders, great groups, subgroups, families, and, fi y, thousands of soil series. A so order is a ver ouping of soils with similar composition, horizons, weathering, and leaching processes. The sol at the end of each soil order is from the Latin solum, meaning “soil.” Figure B.2 shows the world distribution of soil orders.

NATURAL VEGETATION AND CLIMATE Each c

ed by a par e of —that is, the plants that would exist in an area if fer o ocess. N little of which remains today in areas of has close interrelationships not only with climate but soils, landforms, groundwater, and other features of habitat, inc

Soil Classification

Succession

Over the years, scientists have de s of c ing soils. One of the most commonly used classifications is that developed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture,

The natural vegetation of a particular area develops in a wn as succession until a fi equilibrium has been r onment.

Soil Orders

Alfisols Andisols Aridisols

Entisols Gelisols Histosols

Inceptisols Mollisols Oxisols

Spodosols Ultisols Vertisols

FIGURE B.2 World soils map. Source: Data from U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conser

Rocky land Ice/glacier

vey Division.

Climate, Soils, and Vegetation APPENDIX 2

Succession y begins with a relatively simple pioneer plant comm , the first organisms (e.g., lichens) to colonize bare rock. They begin the process of soil formation. Over time, the pioneer comm vironment; as the alterations become more pronounced, plants appear that could not have survived under the original conditions and eventually dominate the pioneer comm . For example, lichens may be replaced by mosses and ferns (Figure B.3). This vegetative evolutionary process continues as each succeeding community prepares the way for the next by the changes it has made in the topsoil, the soil structure, etain moisture, and so on. In general, each successive comm ws an increase in the number of species and the height of the plants. To continue our earlier example, mosses and ferns may be replaced by grasses and herbs, and once sufficient soil has accumulated, they will be succeeded by low shrubs, which in turn will be replaced by trees. The idealized plant succession depicted in Figure B.3 can take hundreds or even thousands of years to develop. The fi unities in a specific area is referred to as the c , a selfper climate and soils of an area. unities are not permanent, however. change. Volcanic eruptions, forest fires, floods, droughts, and bances alter the environment, forcing changes in vegetation.

A-11

Natural Vegetation Regions Figure B.4 shows the general pattern of the earth’ vegetation regions. In the hotter parts of the world, where attered throughout the year, the vegetation t tropical rain forest. Forests, in general, are made up of trees growing closely together, creating a continuous and overlapping leaf canopy. In the tropics, the forest consists of hundreds of tree species in any small area. Because the canopy blocks the sun’s rays, only sparse undergrowth exists. When tropical rainfall is seasonal, savanna vegetation occurs, characterized by a lo asional patches of forests or individual trees. The high evaporation rate denies the savanna region sufficient moisture for dense vegetation. Mediterranean, or chaparral, vegetation is found in the hot summer and mild, damp winter midlatitudes characterizing California, Australia, Chile, South Africa, and the Mediterranean Sea regions. This pe of vegetation consists mainly of shrubs and trees of limited size, such as the live oak. Together, they form a low, dense vegetation that is green during the wet season and brown during the dry season. Most dryland areas support some vegetation. Semidesert and desert vegetation is made up of dwarf trees, shrubs, and var pes of cactus, although in gravelly and sandy areas, virtually no plants exist. In temperate parts of the world with modest year-round such as central North America, southern South

A-12

APPENDIX 2

Lichens Grasses and Exposed weeds rocks Mosses

, Soils, and Vegetation

Mixed herbaceous plants

Shrubs

Young forest (tulip poplar)

Mature forest (white oak and hickory)

Climax forest (beech and sugar maple)

FIGURE B.3 An idealized plant succession in a temperate deciduous region. An increasing number of species are usually found ences in such factors as bedrock, elevation, temperature, sunlight, and rainfall. Source: From Biosphere 2000: Protecting Our Global Environment, 3d ed. by Donald G. Kaufman and Cecilia M. Franz. (New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 2000), Fig. 5.3, p. 86.

FIGURE B.4 World map of natural vegetation.

America, the most pre pe of vegetation is prairie, or steppe. These are extensive grasslands, y gro on high humus content soils. When is higher in temperate areas, deciduous woodlands. pes of trees, such as oak, elm, and sycamore, lose their leaves during the cold season.

Beyond temperate zones, in northerly regions that have mild summers and very cold winters, coniferous forests are common. Evaporation rates are low. U y, only a few species of trees predominate, such as pines and spruces. S farther north, forests yield to tundra vegetation, y low growing shrubs, mosses, lichens, and grasses.

Appendix 3 2009 World Population Data

A-13

A-14

APPENDIX 3

2009 World P

2009 World Population Data APPENDIX 3

A-15

A-16

APPENDIX 3

2009 World P

2009 World Population Data APPENDIX 3

A-17

A-18

APPENDIX 3

2009 World P

2009 World P

a

Infant deaths per 1000 live births. Average number of children born to a woman during her lifetime. c Special Administrative Region. d Kosovo declared independence from Serbia on Feb. 17, 2008. Serbia has not recognized Kosovo’s independence. e The former Y f Includes Kosovo. • Data prior to 2003 are shown in italics. (—) Indicates data unavailable or inapplicable. T om the 2009 World Population Data Sheet of the Population Reference Bureau. b

APPENDIX 3

A-19

Glossary A absolute absolute

Direction with respect to cardiwest, north, and south reference points. The shortest-path separation

of or y); also c r tance. absolute location (syn: mathematical location) The exact position of an object or a place stated in id system designed for loc purposes. In geography, the reference sy north or south of the equator and of meridians of longitude east or west of a prime meridian. accelerated ation The overnourishment of a water body with nutrients stemming from such as agr e, industry, and urbanization. The relative ease with which a destination may be r ations; the relMay be measured in geometric, or economic terms. The cultural modiÞcation or change resulting from one e oup or adopting traits of a more advanced or dominant society; velopment through o .Ó acid r n Pr y acidic; created when o ogen change chemic y as they dissolve in water vapor in the atmosphere and return to Earth as acidic rain, snow, fog, or dry particles. space ea within which people move freely on their rounds of r . adaptation A presumed modiÞcation of heritable traits through r onmental stim The spatial grouping of people or . economies (syn: mies) prise that result fr , a icul r densi The number of r esidents per unit of agr oductive land. The measure excludes a region alculation. Cultivating the soil, producing crops, and raising livestock; farming. mass iz variation in temperature, pressure, and humidity. The weight of the atmosphere as measured at a point on the earth face. fan A fan-shaped accum vium deposited by a stream at the base of a hill ormo untain. The sediment carried by a stream and deposited in a ß y, oups.

G-1

anaerobic digestion The process by which organic waste is decomposed in an o onment to produce methane gas (biogas). anecumene See nonecumene. animism abode of dead people, spirits, or gods who occay give the objects the appearance of life. antecedent before the area in question is well populated. Producing and harvesting of Þsh and shellÞsh in freshwater ponds, lakes, and c s and estuaries; . Underground porous and permeable rock that is capable of holding groundwater, y rock that supplies economic y signiÞcant quantities of water to wells and springs. land Land that is or can be cultivated. Arctic haze om the transport by air currents of combustion-based pollutants to the area nor ctic Circle. area ysis tra One of the four traditions of geography, that of regional geography. c togram (syn: ea map) pe of map in which the ar e proportional to the data they represent. ithmetic Seecr udedens . o A steep-sided, ß y, y dry, c ed out of desert land by rapidly ßowing water. facts The mater e, including tools, housing, systems of land use, clothing, and the like. Elements in the technological subsy e. See geometr . ocess of merging into a e, , y homogenized. asthenosphere y molten, plastic layer above the core and lower mantle of the earth. atmosphere The gaseous mass surrounding the earth. A near-cir low coral reef formed in low water enclosing a central lagoon; most common in the central and western PaciÞc Ocean. azim projection See planar projection.

B chan A crescent-shaped sand dune; the horns of the crescent point downwind. basic sector Those products or ser ban economy that are exported outside the city itself, earning income for the community. bench mark or k indicating the position and ele used as a reference point in sur . bioaccum The buildup of a material in the body of an organism.

biocide A chemic pests and disease organisms. See also herbicide, pesticide. hot spot y high number of endemic species that is at high risk of disruption by human activities. biological The accumulation of a chemical in the fatty tissue of an organism and its concentration at progressively higher levels in the food chain. See biological magniÞcation. biomass Living matter, plant and animal, in any form. biomass fuel Any organic material produced by plants, animals, or microorganisms that can be used as a source of energy through either direct burning or conversion into a liquid or gas. biome a single major ecologic egion. biosphere (syn: ecosphere) The thin Þlm of air, water, and earth within which we live, including the atmosphere, surrounding and subsurface waters, and the upper r th ust. bir rate (syn: crude birth rate) The ratio of the number of live births during 1 year to the population, y at the midpoint of the same year, expressed as the number of births per year per 1000 population. b zzard wstorm accompanied by high winds. A line separating one politic om another. A general agr ation of territory The plotting of a boundary line on maps or aerial photographs. cation boundary line on the ground; boundaryde velopment. l, ßat-topped, sides, limate regions.

C A substance that produces or incites cancerous o ca c The numbers of any population that can be adequately supported by the available resources on which that population subsists; for humans, the numbers supportable by the and utilized resourcesÑusually agr ana rea. ca A map that has been simpliÞed to present data in a diagrammatic way; the base nory is not true to sc carto aphy The art, science, and of ps. caste One of the her lasses in Hinduism that determines one . car

GLOSSARY

business dis ict (CBD) The center, or wn,Ó of an urban unit, where r stores, ces, e concentrated and where land values are high. t of the metropolitan area contained within the ies of the main around which suburbs have developed. place ibution of goods and ser ounding hinterland population. centr place theo A deductive theory formulated by W e and distr through reference to competitive supply of goods cen

force In politic y, a force that disrupts and destabilizes a state, threatening itsunit y. i force In geography, a force that pr . CFCs See oßuorocarbons. The process by which migration movements from a common home ea to a speciÞc destination are sustained by links of friendvers and later fo owers. ation ation of a stream channel; speciÞca y, the s aightening of meanders or eam channel to deepen it. channelized The tendenc tion to ßo eas that ar y and economic by economic trade considerations, or by some . chemic weathering The decomposition of earth mater because of chemic reactions that include oxidation, hydration, and carbonation. arbons (CFCs) A family of synthetic chemicals that have signiÞcant commercial applications but whose emissions are contributing to the depletion of the ozone layer. choropleth map A map that depicts quantities for ar y . cumpolar vortex cling the poles from west to east. Am central business district and both r nonresidential land uses. climate in a place or region. c comm An association of grasses, shrubs, and/or tr ium with the climate and soil of the site; the last stage of an ecologic climo aph A bar and line graph used to depict average monthl es and precipitation. The simultaneous use of a single fuel for the generation of electr w-grade central heat. co i on The pr gives mental meaning to information. cohort A population gr c common characteristic, such as age, and who are treated as a statistical unit during their lifetimes. commer economy (syn: ket economy) The production of goods and ser competitive markets where price and are determined by supply and demand forces. commer Commer y as coal, oil, or other biomass.

Common See European Union. compact state A state whose itory is ly cir . advantage A region potential for a pr tive areas of pr alternative uses of the r esources. concentric zone model A model describing urban land uses as a series of cir belts or rings ound a cor ict, each ring A map projection on which eas are accurately por conic A map projection based on the projection of the grid system onto a cone as the presumed developable surface. ectness of r of places; of connection and comm consequent (syn: ethnographic bound-

resour le ,

, such as r The wise use or preser e needs. The spread of a concept, a practicle from one ar ough

The hypothesis that an original single landmass (Pangaea) br the continents have moved very slowly over the asthenosphere to their present locations. contour The vertical distance separating contour of

elevation above or below a y mean sea level.

conur

e plane,

l The circulatory movement of rising . Rain produced when heated, moisture-laden air rises and then cools below the dew point. ea See Law of the Sea Convention. reef A roc w tropic water composed chießy of compacted coral and other organic mater core The nucleus of a region or country, the main y, commerce, population, political, in urban geography, that par ict characterized by intensive land development. core area The nucleus of a state, containing its most-developed area, gr densest populations, and clear . Cor A Þctitious force used to describe motion relative to a rotating earth; speciÞcally, the force that tends to deßect a moving object or ßuid to the right (cloc orthern Hemisphere and to the left (countercloc the Southern Hemisphere. See return migration. Sees tate. creole veloped from a pidgin to . cr ond which cost, t, verriding role in rate (CBR)

See birth rate.

crude death rate (CDR) (syn:

G-2

See death rate. ,

ude e of hy oc liquid state in underground reservoirs; oleum y, as it comes fr or ter extraneous substances have been removed. convergence The tendency for cultures to become more alike as they increasingly share ation str es in a modern world united by improved transportation and communication. The likelihood or tendency for es to become increasingly dissimilar with the passage of time. they occupy.

onments

The inter aspects of a culture; no part can be altered without impact upon other cultur lag The r e cumstances rendering themina ppropriate. landscape ape as ing the impr e gr ; onment. s, symbols, ues, , and social organizations, together with its tools, es, and artifacts; itage to succeeding generations and undergoing adoptions, ations, and changes in the process. complex e traits descr . One of the four y; in this text, identiÞed and behavy. hearth A nuclear area within which an e traits develops and from which ther distinctive technologies and ways of life. A collective of culture r sharing r e systems; a major world area cient distinctiveness to be perceived as set apart from other r in its characteristics and complexes. A formal or region istics prevail. It may be based on single culture traits; on culture complexes; or on politic social, or economic integration. system A generalization suggesting shared, e culture e of r e, such as the use of chopstic aste system; a single element of learned . cyclone A pe of atmospheric bance in which masses of air circulate rapidly about a region of low atmospheric pressure. cyclonic The rain or snow that is produced when moist air of one air mass is forced to rise over the edge of another air mass. cy ic projection A map projection based on the projection of the globe grid onto a cylinder as the presumed developable surface.

G-3

GLOSSARY

D database DDT

See geographicda tabase. inated hydrocarbon that is among

rate rate) A mor y calculated as the number of deaths per year per 1000 population. decomposers Microorganisms and bacteria that feed on dead organisms, causing their chemic disintegration. The c ing of land through total remo est cover. delta A tr deposit of mud, silt, or gravel created by a stream where it ßows into a body of standing water. demo aphic equa on A mathematic ession that summariz ibution of different ocesses to the population change ea during a speciÞed time period: P2 P1 B1 2 D1 2 IM1 2 OM1 2, where P2 is population at time 2; P1 is population at beginning date; B1 2 D1 2 is the number of deaths during that period; IM1 2 is the number of in-migrants and OM1 2 the number of outdemo ap c momen

See

economic development on pop ation gro

h.

death rates; the second phase displays high birth increases. Phase three shows reduction in population gro as birth rates dec to the level of death rates. fourth, stage implies again than at the star cle. y The scientiÞc study of population, with par of See . dependency The number of dependents, old or young, that each 100 persons in the productive years must, on average, support. deposition The pr sand, and roc ticles accumulate and create landforms, such as stream deltas and talus slopes. deser ation The conversion of arid and semiarid lands into deserts as a r limatic change or human activities such as overgrazing or deforestation. developable face A geometric form, such as a linder or cone, that may be ß devolution

The transfer of certain powers from

itory; decenation of politic ol. dew point e at which condensation forms, y. A region or socioeconomic variation of a mor The force that folds, faults, and compresses rock. k used to make a hole for planting. See objects, areas, or points; an extent of areal or linearmea sure. decay The exponential decline of an easing distance from its point of origin.

ation The successful transformation of plant or species from a wild state to a condition of dependency on human management, y with distinct physical change from rebears. doubling The time period required for any beginning total, experiencing a compounding gro to double in size. dune A wavelike deser blowns and.

o y oundings for people, regardless of their , level of pover , or place of residence. per and interpret, as well as the ideas they have about ollution. y or practice that groups, or communities because of their race or color; the epidem

E thquake The movement of the ear geologic fault or at some other point of th face. science of geography, identiÞed with physic

y

The scientiÞ w living creaes affect each other and what determines their distribution and abundance. economic base ing and ser formed by the basic sector of the labor for support the urban population. economic y w people earn a living, how livelihood sy area, and how economic activities ar y interrelated and linked. ecosphere See biosphere. ecosystem A population of organisms existing together in a particular area, together with the energy, air, water, and chemicals upon which itdep ends. ecumene The permanently inhabited areas of the earth. See also nonecumene. edge etail space on the outer fringes of a metropolitana rea. elector geography of voting districts and the spatial patterns of election results. electro s um The entire range of radiation, including the shortest as as the longest wavelengths. El Niño The periodic (ever of warm water along the west coast of South ica; r ent off the P coast, El Ni–o is supply) and shor elongated state A state whose territory is long and narrow. enclave A terr ounded by, but is not t of, a state. endangered species Species that are present in e in imminent energy energy, energy

.

k. See also

y om a conversion process to the total energyinp uts. S oundings; of that in any way may ysic c a region by a set of physic The vie ysic onment, ly c , velopment.

tra

Long-term shifts in ves

from high to low levels. projection See equator cles the globe orth and South Poles. A map projection on which tr ections can be measured fr projection A map projection on which eas of regions are represented in correct or constant pr th r ; ea projection. erosion The result of processes that loosen, dissolve, wear away, and remo th and rock mater Those processes include weathering, solution, abrasion, and transportation. agents The forces of wind, mo water, glaciers, waves, and ocean currents that carve, wear away, and remove rock and soil ticles. ine zone The relatively narrow area of wete salt water and fresh . estuary The lower course or mouth of a river where tides cause fr om ethanol Organic matter that has been fermented and distilled into alcohol; , forms gasohol. ethnic cleansing cible relocaoup by a more powerful one. , y, a minor Recognition is based primar y on culture traits, such as r distinctive customs, or native or igin. ethnic A religion with a ticoup and largely exclusive to it. ism wn ethnic group is super See . European Union (EU) An economic association established in 1957 of a number of Western European states that promotes free trade among member countries; often c Market. eutrophication The enrichment of a water body by the addition of nutrients received through erosion and runoff from the watershed. See also accelerated eutrophication. e The return of water from the land to the atmosphere through evaporation from the soil surface and transpiration from plants. e-waste A name for disc electric or electronic products. exclave A portion of a state that is separated from itor ounded by another country.

GLOSSARY

clusive economic zone (EEZ) As established in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, a zone of exploitation extending 200 nautic has exc ights over it. otic A plant, or another organism that has been deliberately or inadvertently introduced into an ecosystem in which it did not evolve; a nonindigenous species. e agr A crop or livestock system in e important than c put. t of either a commer subsistence economy. Extensive farming in a commercial economy; examples include large-scale wheat farming and livestock ranching. e subsistence agr Extensive farming in a subsistence economy; examples include nomadic herding and shif e economies See agglomeration economies. e of a par e Primary activities involvenewable esources. e rock Roc om molten material (magma) that has ßowed from beneath the th face onto it.

F faults Br ock produced by stress or the movement of lithospheric plates. fault escarpment A steep slope formed by the vertical movement of the ear ough whose lower end is Þ eawater. ea bordering a stream that is subject to inundation by ßooding. map A map used to portray linear movequantitative. fold A bend or wr ock r om compression and formed when the rock was in a plastic state. folk The body of institutions, customs, dress, artifacts, and traditions of a homogeneous, isolated, y selfcient, and relativel oup. food A sequence of organisms through ecosystem. A descriptive term applied to manufactur mater or product is not important in determining location of production. Fo ing economy and system derived from assembly line mass production and the mass consump on of standardized goods. Named after Henry Ford, who innovated many of its production techniques. investment (FDI) The purchase or eign factor ed assets by transnational corporations; also the pur eign companies. region A region distinguished e characteristics that can serve as the basis for an ar ation eas. form formÑand therefor mater .

ust c A c y sited in a state ontier zone. fossil Any of the derived from decayed organic mater th processes; petroleum, but luding tar sands and oil shales. state A state whose territory contains ts, separated and discontinuous. ic on e ect In c , the slo movement due to the frictional drag of the th urface. of distance e of the retarding Geny, the greater the distance, eater the iction , or the greater the cost of achieving the exchange. The line or zo masses of differ See clo c ( ont ) precipita on. That por boundaries and fronting another politic zone A belt ly y reas. Fujita sc A sc ategor . A region differentiated by what occurs within it rather than by a ysic th area recogniz iteria.

G gated comm A restr or neighborhood, of ounded by a barrier, with entry permitted only for residents and their guests; y planned in land use and design. ing ies Primary activities invol the harvesting of rene esources of land or water; commercial gather y implies forestr ies. gender y created, not biologic y based, . gender empowerment measure (GEM) A statistic politic and pr ticipation of women in the e members; a measure of r y. gene ow The passage of genes characteristic of one breeding into the gene pool of another by interbreeding. dr t A chance modiÞcation of gene composition occurr becoming accentuated through inbreeding. The process by which middle- and oups refurbish and rehabilitate housing in deteriorated inner-cit eas, thereby displacing low-income populations. geoc geodetic control data ing the horizontal and vertic geographic database In c tography, a digital record of geographic information. geographic id The set of imaginar ight angles to form a system of reference for locating points on the sur th. system (GIS) A conÞ ration of computer hardware and sof e for assembling, storing, , analyzing, and y referenced information.

geometric

(syn: artiÞcial ysic

G-4 A

basis; of meridian of longitude. geomor The scientiÞ origins, istics, and evolutions and their processes. y occurring steam and hot water pr oc th ust. mandering Dividing an area into voting districts in such a way as to give one politic par an unfair advantage in elections, to fragment voting blocks, or to achieve other nondemocratic objectives. GIS See geographic information system. glaci ll The deposits of roc silt, and sand left ter it has receded. trough A deep, U-shape ench osion. glacier A huge mass of slowly moving land ice. ation The increasing interconnection of ts of the wor politic economic, and environmental pr national in sc P System (GPS) A method of vations for the determination emely accurate locational information. A rise in sur es on Earth, a process believed by some to be caused by human activities that increase the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, ing the greenhouse effect. globe grid Seeg eographicg rid. globe The characteristics of the grid sy GPS See ositioning System. processes The processes of weathering, , and erosion that are responsible for the reduction of the land surface. grade (of A c their content of waste mater graphic sc A graduated line included in a map legend by means of which distances on the map may be measured in terms of gr great cle A circle formed by the intersection of the surface of a globe with a plane passing through the center of the globe. The equator is a great circle; meridians ar eat circle. greenhouse The heating of the earth surface as shor ough the atmosphere, which is transparent to it but opaque to r estr y. efers to incr atmosphere through the addition of increased amounts of carbon dioxide, nitrous o methane, and chloroßuoroc bons. greenhouse gases Heat-trapping gases added to the atmosphere by human activities; c bon dioxide, chloroßuorocarbons, methane gas, and nitrouso Green Re The great increases in food pr pr il opic eas, accomplished through the intr yielding grain crops, particularly wheat and rice. mean time (GMT) Loc prime meridian (zero degrees longitude), which passes thr y at Greenwich, England. gross income (GNI) See gross national product( GNP).

G-5

GLOSSARY

product (GNP) The total value of oduced by a country per year; also c oss national income (GNI). Underground water that accumulates in aquifers below the water table in the pores and cracks of rock and soil. In oceanography, face current.

H - fe The time required for one-half the atomic nuclei of an isotope to decay. hazardous waste Discarded solid, liquid, or gaseous mater eat onment when it is improperly disposed of, stored, or transported. herbicide A chemic y weeds. See alsobio cide,p esticide. hierarchic The process by which conh

at the same level of a hierarchy and then among elements at a lower level of the hierarchy (e.g., esidents acquire ideas or articles after they are common in large cities). hierar The tendency for individuve fr hierarchy of places The steplike series of urban units in classes differentiated by both size and function. high-level waste Nuclear waste that can r radioactive for thousands of produced pr y by the generation of nuc wer and the manufacture of nuclear weapons. hinterland ying r mater ea or r ved by a to . homeostatic plateau The equilibrium level of y by available resources; c . climate A climate of east coast iors of mid displaying e ranges resulting from cold winters and hot summers; precipitaA c coast of continents in lower middle latitudes, characterized by hot summers with convectional precipitation and cool winters with cyclonic precipitation. humus k bro k decomposed organic An economic and soc system lusively on the hunting of ing of food, Þber, and other mater om uncultivated plants. icane A severe tropic yc per hour (75 mph) originating in the tropic Ocean, Caribbean Sea, or G . hy cycle The system by which water is continuously cir ough the biosphere by evaporation, condensation, and precipitation. hydropower y of moving water converted into electric power by a power plant bines are driven by ßowing water. hydrosphere th face that is not chemic y bound in rocks; includes the oceans, surface waters, groundwater, and water held in the atmosphere. based pr

ing il

I

K

iconography y, the study of symbols that unite a country. subsystem The complex of ideas, beliefs, wledge, and means of their communic iz e. o rock Roc om cool, incinerator inc away from the perpendicular. Indus i Revolution The rapid economic and e and manufacturing that followed the introduction of the factory sysinfant mor

rate

y. A reÞnement of the death

year or less per 1000 live births. infrared Electr lengths gr e of ser lations, t industr agr and other economic development. into an ea of new ideas, oup itself. The solar radiation received at the urface. intensive agr ation of large amounts of c tivated land to incr may be part of either a commer . intensive commer Intensive farming in a commer ; crops have high ket value. intensive subsistence agr Intensive farming in a subsistence economy; the cultivation of e of great amounts of labor. Date Line eement, the designated line where each new day begins; y following the 180th meridian. intrusive rock Igneous rock from magma that has th face and that has penetrated or been for preexistingr ocks. IPAT equation An equation r onof uence, . irredentism The desire of a state to gain or r territory inhabited by people who have historic w live in a neighboring state. isochrone e equidistant in travel time from a common origin. , such as a contour line or an isobar. A h tion of the face assumed to be an unbounded, uniformly ßat plain with uniform distribution of population, purchasing power, transport costs, ,

J J

J, ic, o 2, 4, 8, 16 . . .). jet A meandering belt of strong winds in the upper atmosphere; ant because it guides the movement of weather systems.

y egion marked by caverns, ound streams. , mater an be converted into cr The energy that results from the motion of a particle or body. t

L land breeze ow from the land toward the sea, resulting fr essure gradient that moves winds from the cooler land surface to the warmer sea surface. region A large section of the earth face characterized by a great deal of homogeneity locked state A state that lac Landsat One of a series of continuously or arry sc uments to measure reßected light in both the visible and near infrared portions of the spectrum. l dscape The appearance of an area and the items comprising that appearance. A distinction is of hysical landsc soils, etc., and .). An organized system of speech by which people communic mutu comprehension. y A gr om a single, lapse rate The rate of of e oposphere; is about 6.4 C per 1000 meters (3.5 F per 1000 ft). map A repr ea, epresentative fraction of 1:75,000 or less. th or south of the equator, measured in degrees ranging from 0 oles). lava Molten material that has emerged onto the th urface. Law of the Sea Convention A code of sea law approved by the United Nations in 1982 that authorizes, among other provisions, territor waters extending 12 nautical miles from shore and 200-nautic lusive economic zones; y referr OS. leachate om a sanitary landÞ face or subsurface land or water. leaching The downward movement of water through the soil layer, resulting in the removal izons. least-cost (syn: Weberian ysis) The view that the optimum loc ing is at the place where the costs of transport and labor and the advantages of agglomeration or dispersion are most favorable. levee e, r eas to be ßooded. See also levee. a Any of the var guages used as common ton es among people of an area where se e spoken. gas (LNG) Methane gas that has been efrigeration for storage or transportation.

G-6

GLOSSARY

The outermost layer of the earth, comloam Agr y productive soil containing roughl ts of sand, silt, and clay. loc One of the four traditions of geography; in this text, identiÞed with economic, urban, and environmental geography. loess A deposit of windblown silt. lon de the prime (zero) meridian, measured in degrees ranging from 0 to 180 . long lot oper long, narrow str k from a river or road. current A current that moves roughly e and transports the sand that forms beaches and sand spits. low-level waste Haz vels in 100 years or less, produced pr y by industries and nuc owerp lants.

M magma Undergroundmo ltenma terial. i F or deÞ conditions of health. Thomas R. economist, , and cleric, who suggested that, ked by ol, , or disaster, y increase faster mantle theco re. map projection system fr surface of a map. map sc Sees c

ust and ing the grid face to the ßat

A r limate found on the west coast of continents in upper midlatitudes, rainy seasons relatively cool summers and relativel market economy See commer . mass movement The downslope movement of earth mater . mass See mass movement. material The tangible, physical items produced and used by members of a speciÞc culture group and reßective of their traditions, les, and technologies. mathematic loc See absolute location. um rate at ene ce c eplenished. ing The physic tion of materials, commonly by frost action, r or the de ystals. Medite ne c mate A climate of lower midized by mild, wet winters and hot, dry, sunny summers. , y populated urban complex with contained open, nonurban land, created through the spr rate metropolitan areas; (cap.) the name applied y ur ea of the northeastern seaboard of the United States from Mainet o Virginia. A unit of po watts) of electr .

ld, counies in his or locations colored by pereferences related to place. The central, enduring elements of a ess its values and beliefs, including language, religion, e, ar Elements in the ideological subsyse. Mercator y ical pr map y, r her mind; inc

ea a person c

A nor line of on the globe, verge at the poles. mesa An extensive, ßat-topped elevated tableland izontal strata, a resistant cap rock, and one or more steep sides; metamorphic rock Rock transformed from igneous and sedimentary rocks into a ne pe of roc ces that generate heat, pressure, or chemical reaction. metes-and-bounds survey A system of proper descr es (trees, boulders, streams, etc.) to descr the operties. area , , perhaps containing several urbanized areas, discontinuously built up but operating as a coherent economic whole. The permanent (or relatively permanent) reloc oup to a new, y distant place of residence. ea that sends major migration ßows to or receives major ßo min istic crystal structure, hardness, .

r An agr stem dominated by a single crop. monotheism e is only one God. monsoon stem that reverses direction y, producing wet and dry seasons; espey describes the wind system of South, Southeast, and East Asia. ted and deposited by a glacier. rate See death rate. mountain breeze The downward ßo , cool air at night from mountainsides to lower ations. m lei model The idea that large cities develop by peripheral spread, not from one central business district but from several nodes of gro ed use. m basic wor employ new basic sector employment.

N nation y distinctive group of people occupying a particular region and bound together ising from shar , beliefs, and customs.

of a state together; devotion to the interests of a an identiÞc and an acceptance of national goals. nation-state A state whose territory is identic that occupied by a particular nation. (syn: physic bound y) A recognizable physioes, such as mountains, rivers, or deserts. gas e of hydrocar quantities of nonhydroc bons existing in a gaseous state or in solution with cr r nat The growth of a population thr ths over deaths, excluding the effects of immigration or emigration. ape The ph environment

r

Opposed to

ape al landscape.

levee meandering r during ßoods. nat resource A physic y occurring item that y and useful . selection The pr repr oups best onment, leading to the per ea if humans did not interfere with its development. The advocacy of population control pr eserve and improve genosperit . neritic zone The relativel w part of the sea . net The differ and out-migration of an area. niche The place an organism or a species occupies in an ecosystem. region See nction region. nomadic movement of livestock solely dependent upon nonbasic sector urban unit that supply the resident population with goods and ser nonecumene (syn: anecumene) The portion of the earth face that is uninhabited y ily or intermittently inhabited. See also ecumene. resource A mineral used for purposes other than pro ce of energy. organiz (NGO) A oup of people acting outside government and major commer ating or lobbying auses. songs, and stories of a culture group its belief nonpoint source of po ution P om a br ea, such as one of fertilizer or pesticide application, rather than from a discrete source. wable ce esource that is not replenished or replaced by processes or is used at a rate that exceeds its replacement rate. Nor and S Poles th spins.

G-7

GLOSSARY

North Atlantic dr t The massive movement of warm water in the Atlantic Ocean from the Caribbean Sea and G of in a northeasterly direction to the British Isles and the Scandinavianp eninsula. nuclear The controlled splitting of an atom to release energy. nuclear deuter to release energy. nuclear power Electr wer e driven by steam proreactor. nutrient A mineral or another element an organism requir o velopment.

O shoring The relocation of business processes wer-cost foreign location; the shore outsourcing of, ly, technical, professional, and clerical ser oil shale Sedimentary rock containing solid organic material (kerogen) that can be extracted and converted into a cr ore A mineral deposit that can be extracted at a pr . organic Derived from living organisms; plant or xpor ies (OPEC) An international cartel composed of 11 countries that aims at pursuing common oil marketing and pricing policies. precipitation The rain or snow caused e-laden air is forced to rise over hills or mountains in its path and is thereby cooled. or A m ed, distortion-free aer tain supy information has been added. outsourcing (1) Producing abroad parts or prod(2) subcontracting pr forming those activities A gently sloping ea in front of a glacier composed of neatl c eams. overburden Soil and rock of or no value that overlies a deposit of economic , such as A value judgment that the resources of an area ar adequately its present population numbers. oxbow A crescent-shaped lake contained in an abandoned meander of a river. ozone A gas molecule consisting of three atoms of o 3) formed when diatomic o 2) In the lower atmosphere, it constitutes a damaging component of photochemical smog; in the upper atmosphere, y continuous, thin layer that bloc ozone layer A layer of ozone in the high atmosphere that protects life on Earth by absorbing om the sun.

P of ating the distance north or south of the equator.

PCBs Polychlorinated biphenyls; compounds containing chlorine that can be biologic y magnipeak intersection The most accessible and costly par ict and, therefore, in the entire urbaniz ea. percep , region A region perceived to exist by its inhabitants or the general populace. It has r e represented in the perforated state A state whose terr forated , independent y contained within its borders. periph model A model describing metropolitan area land uses in the circumferential belt ; nodes on the belt are centers for employment or services, and residents of the developments on the belt lead their lives largely on the peripher . perma ost Permanently frozen subsoil. A resour om an ce, such as the sun, A chemic rodents, weeds, and other pests. See also biocide, herbicide. Peters projection ea cylindric ojection de eters that purports to show developing countries in proper proportion to one another. pe oleum oducts in forms, such oils. pH factor The measur soil or water, on a scale of 0 to 14, rising with easinga lkalinity. smog A form of air pollution produced by the interaction of hydrocarbons and o ogen in the pr photovoltaic (PV) A de ts solar energy directly into electrical energy. See also ower. physic See . phy The number of persons per ea of agr See also population . ived, with reduce, N , it is employed to pro le for of trade or An extremel image. place (1) The per economic, attributes; ted to goods or ovide things c markets. planar (azim A map projection based on the pr id onto a plane as the presumed developable surface. planned economy A system of the production of y consumed or distributed by a go y, in quantities and at prices determined by go plantation , fr y foreign-owned, devoted to the production of a t crop. plate tectonics th consists of lithospheric plates that carry the continents and the ocean ßoor and ßoat slowly on the plastic upper mantle, .

playa A temporar ert environment. Pleistocene The geologic epoch dating from 2 million to about 10,000 years ago during occurred. point source of po Pollution originating from a discrete source, such as a smokestack or the outßow from a pipe. geography The branch of human geo aph ysis of political phenomena. The presence in the biosphere of substances that, bec , chemic nature, e, have a negative impact on the ecosystem or that cannot be readily disposed ecycling processes. polychlorinated biphenyls SeePC Bs. pol heism popul The constantly changing of mater through mass production and the mass media to an banized, heterogeneous, nontraditional . region See per egion. popula on densi A measurement of the numbers of persons per unit area of land within pr y politic boundaries. See also physiological densi . population y The branch of human geograph , composition, and distribution of humans in relation to iations in earth-space conditions. (syn: The tendency for population gro to continue despite str ograms because of a relativel A repor

e size, age,

assumptions applied to current data. population A graphic depiction of the population. The philosophic physic onment offers human beings a set of oppor and technologic eness. poten The energy stored in a particle or body. y renewable resource A r ce that can eplacement rate is not exceeded; examples include forests, oundwater, and soil. precipitation e, that th face from the atmosphere. pressure force Differences in air pressure eas that induce air to ßow from areas of high pressur eas of low pressure. pr The part of the economy involved esour ther processing; includes mining, agr e, for , , grazing. pr Mater such as par or sulfur dioxide, ectly into the atmospher y onment. primate A country leading , much larger y more complex than any other; y the capital and a center of wealth and power.

GLOSSARY

prime mer the Royal O longi de.

ough y at Gr England, eement as the zero degree line of

e conditions based on current trends. See also map projection. prorupt state A state of basic y compact form that has one or mor o itory. An assumed, reconstructed, or recorded language ancestral to one or more conproved (usable) reserves The por resource that has been identiÞed and can be y with curr . psy distance ceives distance. pull factor A characteristic of a region that acts as an attractive force, om other regions. purchasing power par (PPP) A monetary measurement that account of what money y buy . push factor istic of a region that contributes to the dissatisfaction of residents and impelst heirmig ration.

Q quaterna ac Employ research, with the gathering or disseminating of information, including levels. A sometimes separately recognized subsection of tertiary management functions involving highest-level decision in t of large organizations. deemed the most advanced form of the quaterys ubsector.

R race A subset of human whose members share certain distinctive, inherited biological characteristics. waste Solid, liquid, or gaseous waste containing radioactive isotopes, can range from less than 1 second to millions of years; usua y classiÞed as low-level or high-level pes of radioactivrank (of A classiÞc their age and energy content; those of higher rank are mor e and richer in energy. rank-size An observed r ysize distribution of some countries. In a ranksize hierarchy, wn y propor hierarchy; that is, the n n the siz . rate The frequency of occurrence of an event duriod. rate of increase The birth rate minus the death rate, suggesting the annual rate of population growth without considering net migration. recy The reuse of disposed mater have passed ough some of treatment (e.g., oduce ne redistr The of new electoral district boundar equirements.

The process of r to outer space some of the earth eceived insolation. In geography, an ar plays a distinctive grouping of physic y united as a single organizational unit. autonomy A measur vernance y. concept w that physic face of the earth are y arranged by complex but comprehenocesses. In politic y, minor oup identiÞc egion of a state rather than with the state as a whole. ( r ybased locational reference, such as the Far West, the Old South, or the Middle East. relative stance A transformation of absolute distance into such relative measures as time or Such measures yield different e constant by absolute terms, but relative distances may vary with improvements in transunic different psychological perceptions of space. relative humi A measur e con, essed as the amount of water vapor present relative to the um that can e. relative loc The position of a place or an activity in relation to other places or activities. y line that is still discernible and mar ape e. A value system that invol informal worship and faith in the sacred and relocation The transfer of ideas, behaviors, or articles from one place to another thr e transported; also, spatial relocation in which a phenomenon leaves an area of origin as it is transported to a new location. remote sensing Any of se sensor in direct physic photograph renewable resource y occurring material y inexhaustible, either because it ßows continuously (such as solar radiation or or is renewed a short period of time (such as biomass). See alsos ustained yield. replacement level The number of children per famil constant. Depen ng on mort i con tions, replacement le y c en. represent tion (RF) The sc expressed as a ratio of a unit of distance on the map to distance measured in the same unit on the ground (e.g., 1:250,000). A process by which the earth r solar energy to space; some of the shor solar energy that is absorbed into the land and water is returned to the atmosphere in the form esource. ion (co ion) The re rn of migrants to the region from which they had lier emigrated. ce

See

rhumb Richter sc

G-8

A line of constant compass bearing; it idians at the same angle. A logarithmic scale used to express thquake.

S Sahel id zo ert and the savanna area to the south in West Africa; district of r ing drought, famine, and environmental degradation. topsoil as a result of the evaporation of surface water; occurs in poorly drained soils in dry climates, often as a result of improper irrigation. An offshor eated by the bac spreading them in layers covered with enough soil or ashes to control odors, rats, and ßies. savanna A tropic ized by widely dispersed trees and experiencing pronounced yearly wet and dry seasons. sc In c y, siz size of that ar th face; map sc may be represented ver y, y, or as a fraction. In more general terms, scale refers to the size of the area studied, from loc S The horiz , or leveling, of an J-curve. sea breeze ow from the sea toward the land, resulting fr essure gradient that moves winds from the cooler sea surface onto the face. y involved in the processing of raw materials derived from primar includes manuing, construction, power generation. sector model A description of urban land uses as om the central business distr tation corridors. ticular uses to certain sectors. ism An ence to or rejection of reli. rock Rock formed by the accumulation of particles of gravel, sand, silt, and clay that were eroded fr eady existing rocks and laid do seismic waves Vibrations within the earth set off byea rthquakes. se -dete ination have the right to govern themselves in their own state or territory, a r shaded A method of representing the threeea by use of continuous graded tone to simulate the appearance of sunlight and shadows. The crude oil resulting from the distillation of kerogen in oil shales. A form of tribal religion based on belief in a hidden world of gods, its, and demons responsive only to a shaman, or inter riest. shifting cultivation (syn: slash-and-burn agriculture, swidden agriculture) Crop production of forest clearings kept in cultivation until their quic y-declining fertility is lost. Cleared plots are then abandoned and new sites are prepared.

G-9

GLOSSARY

A deep surface depression formed when ground co apses into a subterranean cavern. site The place where something is located; the oundings and their attributes. The location of something in relation to the physic region. See shifting cultivation. cle The line created by the intersection of a spheric face with a plane that does not pass through its center. map A representation of a large land ar es (e.g., highways, annot be shown true to sc sociofacts The and links indie, including family str e and politic educational, and religious components of the sociologic stem of culture. subsystem personal relations e or subculture. soil e of loose material, inc organic and inorganic compounds, air, and water, found th face and capable of supporting soil

nutrients from soil. soil erosion The wearing away and remo particles from exposed surfaces by agents such as mo , or ice. horizon A layer of soil distinguished from other soil zones by color, e, and other characteristics r om soil-forming processes. soil order ouping of soils with broadly similar composition, horizons, and weathering and leaching processes. soil A vertical cr izons. soil om one another, including organic and inorganic matter, e, structure, and nutrients. energy Radiation from the sun, is imar th surface and secondar y in the atmosphere. power The radiant energy generated by the sun; sun yc ed and dir y converted for human use. See alsop hotovoltaiccell. solid waste The unwanted materials generated in production or consumption pr e source In c , ea of uniform surface and relatively consistent temperaes where an air mass forms. southe osc a on The atmospheric conditions occurring periodic y near A eate the El Ni–o condition off the coast of South America. ead of a substance, a concept, a practice, or a population from its point of or eas. the earth

face. The movement (e.g., of people, goods, ent places; an indic eas. margin of The set of points delimiting the area within which a Þrm pr able operation is possible. speci -purpose map hematicma p.

spring wheat Wheat so ing for ripening during the summer or autumn. stage in life Membership in a speciÞc age group. standard y uniform with r , grammar, pronunciation, and voc y and representing the approved comm standard The tangent circle, y a par, in a conic projection; standard line, the sc . state (syn: country) An independent politic ned, permanently populated terr vereign control over its eign affairs. step A migration in which an ev long-distance relocation is undertaken in stages, as fr . steppe Treeless midlatitude grassland. The layer of the atmospher above the tropospher load The eroded mater arried by a stream in one of three ways, depending on the siz les: (1) in dissolved form, (2) suspended by water, or (3) rolled along the streambed. subduction The process by which one lithospheric plate is forced down beneath another into the asthenosphere as a r plate. The that one owes primary to a group or nation rather than to the state. subsequent ea in question has been ea. subsidence The or of a portion of the land surface, sometimes as a result of the extraction of ßuids, such as oil or water, from undergrounddep osits. subsistence agr Any of se mies in which most crops are gro ly exclusively for loc subsistence economy A system in which goods and e created for the use of producers Market exchanges are limited and of minor importance. subst principle , the tendency to substitute one factor of production for another in order to achieve optimum plant location and pr . suburb A y ed segment of a ban complex located outside the boundar . succession ocess in which an orderly wly ecentl ed landscape. A boundar over, and ignoring, supra The acceptance of the interests of more than one state, expressed as associations of states created for m achieve shared objectives. face water Water that is on the earth face, ivers, streams, reservoirs, lakes, and ponds. sustainable development Economic development and resour ent needs e generations to meet their o

ing with the growth of new stoc avoid depletion of the resource and ensure a perupply. agr See shif syncretism The development of a new form of, for example, religion or music, through the fusion of distinctive par sy The way words are put together in phrases ands entences. systems ysis An appr systems through (1) segregation of the entire systs, (2) investigation stem elements, and outputs, ßows, interactions, ies within the system.

T slope A landform composed of roc ticles that have accumulated at the base of a cliff, ormo untain. sand Sand and sandstone impregnated with il. subsystem The of mater by means of which people c y out their productive activities. An integrated system of knowledge veloped within a culture to c y pur oductive tasks. tectonic forces The processes that shape and reshape the earth ust, pes being diastrophic and volcanic. tempera inversion The condition caused by rapid r t. c area; the behavior associated with the defense of the home territory. production complex In the economic planning of the former So a design for large regional industrial, mining, and agr de ciency and the cr ed production for a larger national market. ism The c use of e a cause or for a leader, a government,

people support ,

t of the economy that o includes wholesale and retail trade and associated transportation, government, and information ser map (syn: pose map) A map that shows a speciÞc spatial distribution or category of data. The introduction of heated onment, adverse effects on aquatic life. Third World Or y (in the 1950s), ing countr irst WorldÓ Western c econd World unist bloc; y, countries consider y developed or in a state of underdevelopment in economic and social terms. species te i

ac

GLOSSARY

threshold In economic geography, the minimum ket needed to support the supply of a product ors top map A map that portrays the shape and elevation of the terrain, often in great detail. toponym Ap lace-name. The place-names of a region or, espey, the study of place-names. ado A sm , olent storm characterized by a funnel-shaped cloud of whirling winds that can form beneath a cumulonimbus cloud in proximont and that moves at speeds as fert rate (TFR) The average number of children that would be born to each woman if, during her childbear she bore children at the current year A nuc functionall . and range system A r sy eas are the township and section; wnships as being nor or west of a particular pr idian. Townships are into square sections 1 mile on a side. See tribal religion. tragedy of the commons The observation that, in the absence of collective control over the use of a resour it is to the advane their separate shares even though their collective pressures may diminish total yield or destroy the resource altogether. A break in roc one lithospheric plate slips past another in a horiz corporation (TNC) organization operating in at least separate religion (syn: traditional religion) An ethnic r localized, preindustrial cultur oup. forest The tree cover composed of tall, high-crowned evergreen deciduous species, y wet tropical lowlands. tropic rain forest c The continuously warm, frost-free c opic tor lowlands, with abundant e year-round. troposphere The atmospheric layer closest to the earth, ters (16 mi) at the equator. k The intensive production of fruits and vegetables for market rather than for processing or canning. Sea waves generated when an thquake, eruption, uptly moves the seabed, jolting the waters above.

The treeless area ly ee line of Arctic r y icecovered zone. A hurricane occurring in the western PaciÞc Ocean region.

U A market-oriented industry e distributed in direct proportion to the distr (market). under A value statement reßecting the w that an area has too few people in relation to its resources and population-supporting c . unitary state vee of loc e of loc units; a country with fe icts and a str . United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) See Law of the Sea Convention. A religion that claims uth and applicability and seeks the conubiquitous

chy ies of urban units (e.g., hamlets, towns, cities, metropolises) in c entiated by siz urban zone An ar is never . ur ation The transformation of a population from rural to ur the process of city formation and expansion. ur ed area A continuously built-up urban landsc tion densities with no reference to the politic boundar ; city and many contiguous to cities, suburbs, and unincor eas. usable See proved r ur

V y breeze The ßow of air up mountain slopes during the day. map See area c togram. variable costs In economic geography, the costs of production inputs that change as the level of production changes. They differ from the costs incurr ms that ver

productionch anges. scale A statement of the relationship units of measure on a map and distance on the ground, as epresents 1 mile.Ó (1) The nonstandard indigenous lan; (2) of or related to indigenous arts and architecture, such as a vernacular house; (3) of or related to the perceptions and understandings of the general population, egion.

G-10

ve acular region See per egion. volcanism th for face materials (often heated, sometimes molten) to or to face of the earth. von Thünen model The model developed by Johann H. von the forces that control the prices of agr commodities and how those variable prices affect patterns of agr ation. von Thünen rings The concentric zonal pattern of ound a single market center proposed in the von ThŸnen model. able Species whose numbers have been so reduced that they could become threatenedo re ndangered.

W ping The bo region of the earth surface due to the movement of continents or the wash , braided channel in the desert that remains after the r unoff water. water table one and therefore of groundwater; the top of the water within an aquifer. The state of the atmospher time and place. ing The mechanic al processes that fragment and decompose rock materials. Weber ysis Seelea st-costt . Weber model vised by ed W inciples governing the optimum location of industr tablishments. wetland A vegetated inland or ea that is either occ y covered by e. nd f m A cluster of wind-powered turbines producing commer . power ted into mechanical energ bines that drive generators to produce electr . winter wheat Wheat planted in autumn for early . world One of a small number of interconnected, y dominant centers (e.g., New York, London, To o) that together control the global sy ce.

Z zero pop (ZPG) which a population is not changing in size from , as a result of the combination of births, deaths, and migration. z Designating by ordinance areas in a m

Index A Absolute direction, 8 Absolutedis tance, 9 Absolute location, 7,281– 82 Accelerated eutrophication, 400 A , 11–13,12 f A 206, 210–12,211 f Acid precipitation, 406–7,406 f, 407f frombur ningco 127,406 carriedby w ind, 405,406 effects of, 402, 406–7, 407f formationo f, 406,40 7f points of origin and current problema reas, 406, 406f Activitys pace, 250 ,250 f, 252f 247, 250–51, 250f, 251f y, 250–51 oppor 251 stage in life, 250 Acute r 179 Adaptation, 236 Advanced countries. See Industr developed countries Advertising, as force for diffusion, 253f Afghanistan, 237f Africa census,p roblemsw ith, 189 143 th center, 208, 209f deforestation in, 153 desertification in, 145, 146f ethnic groups and regional boundaries, discrepan277, 278f expansion by Europeans into, 276–77,278 f fertili rates in, 191 forcedmig rationt o U.S., 257 woodus edin , 150 genderr oles, 239–40 HIV/AIDSin , 169,170–71 infant mor 168 egions, map of, 35f n umbero f, 213, 214t pread, 215,218 f , 220– 21, 221f

I-1

massive flows of immigrants from, 257 170 esources, 142 over , 186, 187f population pyramid for subSaharan, 172f undernourishment in, 319, 319f urbana gr ein , 323 urbanization of, 188, 188f African Americans, environmennjustice to, 306–7 Africanp late, 54f,55 f Agglomeration, 339–40,340 f, 341 Agglomeration economies, 340, 341–42, 342f 192–93, 192f Agribusiness, 327 Agr tion, 185,186 t Agr evolution ingo fg enderr oles, 238 initiation of, 161–62 as occasioned by plant and animal domestication, 204, 205, 206f Agriculture centers of plant and animal domestication, 207, 209f commercial, 326–29, 328f, 330–32,330 f,331 f conservation techniques, 148 defined, 319 emplo , 319–20 expanding crop production, 324–26 extensivec ommer 329, 330–31,330 f,331 f erosion, 148 gender differences, 238, 238f Green Revolution, 325–26 intensification, intensivec ommer 328–29, 329f invention of, 210 location,mo delo f agr 327–28, 328f overview, 317,318–20, 319 f, 320f percentage of labor force engaged in (2004), 201, 202f

in planned economies, 332 as primar , 317–32 production controls, 327 regions of North America, 330f as roadbloc talks, 338 shifting cultivation, 321–22, 322f,323 as sour (see Water agr ces of ) rops, 331–32,331 f, 332f subsistence( seeS ubsistence agr e) urban, 323 seby , 395,395 f,396 Agriculture,U .S.D epartmento f, data on crop loss to pests, 421 current, 92f AIDS. See HIV/AIDS (Human Immunodeficiency Virus/ Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) Airm asses, 95–96,96 f ollution controlling, 411 defined, 404 depletion of the ozone layer, 408–9,410 f factors affecting, 405–6 photochemicals mog, 407–8, 408f,409 f 404–5, 405f,405 t om Anacortes (W efinery, 11f e inversions trapping, 85,87 f,88 ,88 f, 405, 408, 408f Air pressure, as affecting weather, 85,87 –90,91 f convection system, 87, 88f Coriolis effect, 89–90,90 f,91 f frictionaleffec t, 90 ir-circulationp attern, 90,91 f land and sea breezes, 88,89 f mountain and v ley breezes, 88–89,89 f planetary wind and pressure belts, 90,91 f pressure gradient force, 87

e, as affecting weather, 82–85, 86f, 87f, 88f, 99 lapse rate, 85, 87f, 88f overview, 82 reflection, 84, 86f reradiation of solar energy, 84, 85f Alabama damage from El Niño (1997– 1998), 93 damage from Hurricane Katrina (2005), 81 Alaska climagraph for Fair 112f thquake (1946), 65 earthquake (1964), 59–60, 63 Exxon Valdez oil spill, 402 peatlands, 147 Tongass N orest, 152–53, 153f Alaska current, 92f Albatross mor om solid waste, 393 Alcohol as energy resource, 133 Aldrin, 420f, 421 Algeria, desertification in, 145 Alien species, 418 Allah, 223f, 230 Alliance of S tates, 280 69, 70, 70f Alluvium, 69, 70f Alps 1 unning through, 284, 285f Aluminum ore, 335 recycling, 156f reuse of, 121 Am gamation theory, 211–12 Amaz outh America) deforestation of, 153, 154f, 155f ived from, 220 mer pollution of, 402–3 Amenities, as incentive for migration, 260–61 American Mining Congress, 336 American plate, 54f Amish comm llinois, 210f Amnest 271 Am 398

INDEX

AmurR iver( ia), 286 Anaerobic digestion, 133, 134f Anasazi people, 201 AndeanC 287 Andes Mountains borderdis putebet ween southern, 287, 287f through, 284 settlemento f, 185 Anecumene, 184 Angola, 170 ndw ildlife , preserving (see Biodiversity, preserving) 416, 416f ation, 207, 209f exotic species, introduction of, 418–20,419 f habitatlo sso ra lteration, 416–17,417 f human impact on, 414, 415–22 hunting and commer exploitation, 417–18, 418f mor om solid waste, 393 poisoning and contamination, 420–21, 420f at risk of extinction, 415 Animism, 224,235 Antarctica as not meeting definition of a state, 276, 276f ozone depletion over, 409 seaic e,dim inishingo f, 114 territor , f, 284 Antarctic plate, 54f,55 f Antarctic Tr (1959), 275, 276f Antecedent boundaries, 285 Antelope, 416 Anthraciteco al, 125f,126 ,439, 440f,441 f,442 Antibiotics, 179 Apollo, 39 Appalachia, changes in, 447–48, 447f, 448f AppalachianM 414 Appalachian Regional Commission, 448 A e, 333,333 f, 334 Aquifers, 70, 70f,395 –97,397 f , 55f ,s tandarda nd iants, 216,217 185 tion, 276,277 f ea (Asia) dying, 398–99 apoosh, 159

Architectur s les as cul ral indicator, 240 ArcNews, 45 Arcticc limate losso ec ap, 114 resourcedis putes, 289 Area ysis tradition, 18–19, 18f,433 Area as map projection, 25, 27f Area cartograms, 34,36 f,38 Area symbols on thematic maps, 34,35 f,36 f Arêtes, 72f,73 ,73 f Argentina , 287,287 f massive flows of immigrants to, 257 war with Great Britain over F (1982), 280 Arithmetic , 185 Arizona English-only laws, debate over, 224 suing of federal government over costs of illegal immigration, 264 Army Corps of Engineers, U.S., 69 beach replenishment by, 77 r projectsby , 149,400 , effortsa t, 137 straightening of Kissimmee , 397, 400f wetlands protection mandated to, 149 oyos, 69–70 tifacts, 199–201, 206,207 f tifi boundaries, 284–85, 285f 425 Ash borer, emerald, 419 Asia. See also individual countries census,p roblemsw ith, 189 deforestation in, 153 demographict ransitionin , 176 desertification in, 145 expansion by Europeans into, 276–77,278 f,279 f fertili rates in, 169 flooding in India and Southeast Asia (1978), 90 fuelwoodu sedin , 150 high-tech industry, gro , 349–50 low par in economic activi , 239–40 massive flows of immigrants from, 257 mid-1700s map of Asia Minor, 20

proportion of urban population in Southeast, 359 f, 184 urbana gr ein , 323 urbanization of, 188, 188f AsiaP acific Economic Cooperation (APEC), 302 Aspiration level, 261 Assimilation, 212,237 Association of Americ phers, 7,16–17 Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), 302 Asthenosphere, 53,54 –57 pt), 68, 137, 188 ic federalism, 283 Atlantic Ocean garbage patches in, 393, 393f Georges Bank, resource dispute over, 288 plate movements in, 54–55, 54f seafloor, map of, 56f Atmosphere e in the (see Atmosphere, moisture in the) troposphere, 81,81 f Atmosphere, e in the, 92–99 over w, 92,92 f,93 ,94 f,95 pr pes, 95–96, 95f,96 f,97 f storms, 97–99, 97f,98 f,99 t, 100f 75 W ., 437 Austr ia administrationo auru, 119 Canberra as planned c 283f climagraph for Sydney, 109f copperdep ositsin , 143 forced f, 257 gross domestic product of, 317 land-usema po f, 14f massive flows of immigrants to, 257 esources, 142 asn uclear free, 131 oils ositsin , 129 rabbits,in troductiono f, 418 wetlands,l osso f, 149 Austria,p yramidfo r, 171,171 f Automobiles. See Motor vehicles A inox, 83,84 f Avalances, 64,6767 f oft heea rth, 82–83,82 f, 83f,84 f Azim ojections, 28, 28f

B Babbitt,B

, 336

I-2

Baby boom, 171, 173f Baha’i faith, 225 Bangladesh carrying c of, 186 family planning in, 165 fer , 166–67 formation of, 446f Bantu language, spread of, 215, 218f Barchan, 76 Bar map sc , 28–29, 29f Barometers, 85, 99 Barrier islands, erosion on, 76 Basalt, 51, 51f Basic sectors of urban eas, 365f Basques, 288, 288f, 296, 296f deposits of, 142f recycling, 156f Bay head location, 363 Beaches. See also concern over damage to, 76–77 formation, 74, 74f Beach replenishment, 76–77 Beetle Ash borer, emerald, 419 Asian long-horned, 419 Belgium nuclear power in, 131, 132f separatist movement in, 95, 296f Bell, 210 Bench marks, 32, 33 Benguela current, 92f Bering Sea, 422 Ber W as relic boundary, 285 Bhutan, gross domestic product of, 317 Big Push, 317 ation Act (1974), 224 220, 221f Binational state, 276, 277f Bioaccumulation, 420–21, 420f Biocides magnification in food 420–21, 420f 400 Biodigesters, 133–34 , preser , 421–22 otection, 421 through nongov organizations, 422 415–16, 416f, 421 Biogas generators, 133, 134f Biological control, 420 Biological resources, 144 Biomagnification, 420–21, 420f 133–34, 134f waste, 133–34, 134f wood, 133 Biomes, 421, 450

I-3

INDEX

Biosphere, 393–94 Birds, mortality from solid waste consumption or entanglement, 393 Birth rates, 163–64,164 f,166 f Biscayne Bay, 403 129 52,125 f,126 Black Hills (South Dakota), 61 Blight, Asian chestnut, 420 Blizzard, 98, 100f Bogs, 147 Bolivia independence,g aining, 282 asla ndlockeds tate, 282,286, 287f Bonne egon), 118 Border Patrol, U.S., 264 Borders irredentism, 288 minor roupident ification as sources of conflict, 287–88,288 f resourced isputes, 288–90, 289f Bosnia confl ith Kosovo, 297 f warfar erb and Croat in, 236, 237f Botswana HIV/AIDSin, 170 , 171, 172f Sanh unter-gatherer, 204,206 f zebra and antelope deaths fromfen ces, 416 Boundaries, 284–90,285 f,286 f, 287f,288 f,289 f classifiedby s ettlement, 285, 285f internationalbo undaries, 284 landlocked states as disadvantaged, 282,282 f,286 , 287f tifi 284–85, 285f ov w, 284 as sources of conflict, 286–90, 286f,287 f,288 f,289 f water ies, conflicts from, 286–87, 287f Boundaries of regions, 436, 436f Brandt Report, 204f burning of rain forest, 3 Conference on Environment and Development, United Nations (1992), 155,180 deforestation in, 144, 144f, 153, 154, 155f deforestation near Rondônia, 155f

ethanola sen esource, 133 fer yc ontrolin , 191,191 f fer , 166–67 government buildingsin Brasilia, 387f high-rise building in São Paolo, 388f hydropower, production and consumption, 134,135 massive flows of immigrants to, 257 mineral resources, 142, 142f oil shale deposits in, 129, 130f relocation of capital, 284 shant o, 389f Brazil current, 92f Break-of-bulk location, 363 British Phosphate Commission, 119 Broadw arping, 57 Bromine, 409, 410f Bubonic plague (Black Death), 168,176 Buddhism, 233–34,235 f beliefs ystem, 234 as dissident movements of Hinduism, 234 asun iversalizingr eligion, 223, 224,234 vehicles of, 234, 234f ia, joining European Union, 301f Bureauo aborS tatistics,U .S., 348 Bureauo ines,U .S., 336 Burgess, Ernest, 371, 372f ost, 210 Bush,Geo rge W.( president, U.S.), 264,265 Buttes, 70,70 f Bycatch, 418

C Cadmium, 425 Caesar, (Gallic Wars, The), 433 Cairo+5P lan( 1994), 180–81 Cairoea rthquake( Egypt, 1992), 358, 359 CairoP lan( 1994), 180–81 Calcium carbonate, in coral reef formation, 75 , 210 beach replenishment efforts at San Diego, 77 Chinato ea of San Francisco, 237 10, 10f

ape in Los Angeles, 200f damage from El Niño (1997– 1998), 93 desire line map of San Francisco Bay area, 12f dot map of population distribution, 34f English-only laws, debate over, 224,225 fires in San Bernadino Mountains, of, 42f geothermal power plants at The Geysers, 139f graduated-circle map of population distribution, 34f high-tech emplo 348 homeless people in San Francisco, 378 hydroelectricp owerin , 134 use in San Francisco, 363f elds of, 267f mountain and valley breezes in, 89 Northridgeea rthquake (1994), 63 ozone pollution over, 409f photochemical smog over Los Angeles, 408, 408f pover onmental risk in Santa Clara , 307 Proposition 187, 264 os Angles (2000), 382, 382f salinization in Central V ey, 147 SanF rancisco, 357 an FranciscoA irport, 41 borne radar mosaic of Los Angeles, 40f Reservoir( 1963), 413 suing of federal government ov immigration, 264 e inversions in Los Angeles, 85,87 f,88 f, 405, 408, 408f y plant at Daggett, 135,135 f topographic map of La Jolla, 31f travel times from do San Diego (2002), 8f wind energy, development of, 138,140 f Wor en’sP ar , 225 ent, 92f

230 Cambodia, Hindu temple complex in, 231 Cameroon, mits on exportation of logs, 338 Campos, 101 Canada brownfield site at Brantford, 313 372, 373f , istics of, 385 Toronto, 385 climagraph for Vancouver, 110f French Canadians, selective acceptance of Anglo influence, 210 humid continental climate in, 102f, 103f, 104t, 111f hydropower, production and consumption, 134 large-sc 329 massive flows of immigrants to, 257 maps of, 249 esources, 142 N ces Canada, 30 nuclear power in, 131, 132f ozone pollution, 408, 409f petroleum consumption and production in, 126 politic 305–7 oad, discontinuity and, 292f recognition of French-Canadian , 220 relocation of c 284, 284f resource disputes U.S., 288, 289f secessionist movement in, 294 151 y of urban areas, 380f tar sands deposits in, 129, 131f 112f wetlands, 147 Canada Land S ey System, 25 Canary current, 92f Canyonlands Nation Park (Utah), 70f y action in weathering, 63 Capr Strip (Namibia), 286 Carbonation, 64 Carbon dio , role of, 114 solution, formation of, 70 Carbon monoxide, 425 “Careers in Geography,” 7 Caribbean, maternal mor in, 170

INDEX

Caribbean Comm Common M ket (CA COM), 302 Caribbeanp late, 2,5 5f Carnivores, 394f Carryingc , 187 f Cars. See Motor vehicles (Silent Spr 421, 450 Cartography, 21 careersin , 6–7 historic verview, 21–22 Castes ystem, 231,232 ters, 411 Catholics, Roman. See also Chr birth rates, 164 cathedrals, in comm , f CatoI nstitute, 265 Census mar data from, 381 problemsw ith, 188,189 f reapportionmentfo llo , 304 CensusB ureau,U .S., 36f New Yor esidents born abroad, data on, 379f population gro data on, 161 Center for the S Systems, 37 ica. See also individual countries th center, 208, 209f deforestation in, 153 expansion by Europeans into, f declineo he, 375–77,376 f, 377f,377 t defined, 362 Central markets, cities as, 365–67 y, 365,366 Centrifugalfo rces, 290,291 , 293–97, 296f asde stabilizing, devolution, 295 nationalism, 293–97, 296f r 293–95 religion, 293 293 Centr rces, 290–91,292, 292f organizationa nda dministration, transportation and communication, 291 Chad,L ake( Africa), 396 Chad, 170 Chainm igration, 261–62

Chang J 68, 136 Channelization, 397–98 Channelized pattern migration flow, 268 f L ake( Mexico), 396 Chemic eathering, 63–64 Chesapeake Bay cleanup efforts, 404 Pfiesteria piscicidain , 401 Chestnut blight,A siatic, 420 tina, 287, 287f copper production in, 143 pollution in Santiago, 411 China,P eople’sR epublico f air pollution, 411 Beijing World Conference on Women( 1995), 239 beliefs ystems, 235 asben eficiaryo fo utsourcing, 344 biogasa sen ergys ource, 133, 134f birth rates in, 163, 164, 165 border disputes with India, 284 So 286–87 coal production and consumption, 124,126 th center, 208, 209f earthquake( 1976), 60 economic system in, 316, 316f e-waste piles, scavengers in, 424 fer ontrolin , 191,191 f fer y rates, 166,169 food, importation of, 187–88 gender-relatedde velopment index, 240 , owth of, 350 hydropower, production and consumption, 134 loessdep ositsin , 76 as member of nuc consortium, 132 mineral resources, 142 nuc ower in, 131 oil shale deposits in, 129, 130f ov shing by, 333f plannedc itiesin , 390 population, 161 populationp r, 172 progression of agr stems in, 332 proportion of population in urban regions, 359 rice-oriented ec onomy of, 324 solaren sagein , 135 urbanization of, 188

water supplies, depletion of, 396 Chitemene agriculture. SeeS hiftingc ultivation Chlordane, 420f,421 Chlorinated hydroc bons, magnification in the food chain, 420f,421 Chlorine, 409,410 f Chlorofluoroc bons (CFCs), 408–9,410 f,411 Chloropleth maps, 34,35 f Chr ,W , 365,366 Christianity, 229, 230f, 232f ystem, 227–28 diffusion paths of, 228, 230f 229 Jer dis puteo ver, 164 judaisma sr ooto f, 223, 229 mark of, on communi , 229, 230f,232 f Protestant Reformation, 228, 229 asu eligion, 223, 224 Chromium, 142 Cirques, 72f,73 ,73 f Cirrusc louds, 93,94 f Cities, 362 classifications, 362 defined, 362–63, 363f gateway, 377,379 Cities, functions of, 365–68, 367t, 368f as centers of administration and institutions, 367–68 as centers of production, 367, 368f,368 t kets, 365–67 Cities,in sidet he, central business district, changes in urban form, 374– 80, 375f,376 f, 377f, 377t,379 f decline of the center city, 375– 77, 376f,377 f,377 t downtownr ene 377, 379–80, 379f , 380,382, 382 f familys tatus, 380–81, 380f gentrification, 377,379 –80, 379f ols, 382–83 outsidet hebu sinessdis trict, 371,371 f patterns of land use, 371f,372 f, 373f population density curve, 371f reaso fc ities, 380–81, 380f tatus, 380,380 f,381

I-4

suburbanization, 374–75, 374f, 375f, 385 urban form, models of, 371– 73, 372f, 373f Cities, origins and evolution of, 361–65, 362f, 363f, 364f, 365f defi , 362– 63, 363f economic base, 364–66, 366f factors in emergence of, 361 location of urban settlements, 362–64, 363f, 364f overview, 361–62 Cities, systems of, 368–69, 369f, 370f rank-size relationships, 369 urban hierarchy, 368–69, 369f world cities, 369, 370f Cities in developing world, rapidl owing, 386–90, 387f, 388f, 389f, 390f colonial and noncolonial antecedents, 387, 387f overview, 386–87, 386f planned cities, 390, 390f squatter settlements in, 389, 389f urban primacy and rapid gro 388–89, 388f ation, 208, 361 Civil War (U.S.), 288 Claritas, Inc., 381 Clay, 52, 68 Clean Air Act (1963, 1965, 1970, 1977), 408f, 411, 414, 425 Water Act (1972), 149, 403, 404 Clear cutting in logging, 151, 151f Climagraphs, 101, 105 Climate, 81 change, c see Climatic change) classification of, 99, 101, 104t climatic periods, 112 regions in, 438–39, 440f Climate regions, 99–113, 114f arctic, 102f, 103f, 104t, 111, 111f, 112f dryland, 102f, 103f, 104t, 106, 106f, 107f, 108 102f, 103f, 104t, 111 hot desert c 102f, 103f, 104t, 106, 107f limates (see climates) humid mid , 102f, 103f, 104f, 108–10, 109f, 110f humid subtropic 102f, 103f, 104f, 108, 109f

I-5

INDEX

Climate regions—Cont. map of climates of the world, 102f,103 f marinew estco ast, 102f,103 f, 104t, 108–9,109 f,110 f Mediterranean, 102f,103 f, 104f,108 ,109 f mid ts and semideserts, 106,107 f monsoon, 101, 101f,102 f, 103f,104 t,106 f overview, 99,101 savanna, 101,101 f,102 f,103 f, 104t,105 f subarctic, 102f,103 f,104 t, 110–11,111 f,112 f tropicalc 101,101 f, 102f,103 f,104 t,105 , 105f tropical rain forests, 101,101 f, 102f,103 f,104 t,105 f Climatic change, 112–16, 113f, 114f,1 15f,116 f , 114–15,114 f, 115f,116 f greenhouse effect, 113–15, 114f,115 f,116 f long-term, 112,113 short-term, 113 Climatology and the World’s Climates (Rumney), 439 Clinton, WilliamJ .( president, U.S.), 306 Clouds formation, 93 pes, 94f CNN (Cable News N k), coverage of wars in Bosnia andK osovo, 271 Coal f, 127–28,128 f asener esource, 124,125 f, 126–28,128 f environmental problems associatedw ith, 127 formation, 52 grades, 126–27 mining( seeC ) resource reserves, 124, 125f, 126 sulfur content of, 127, 128f , 127–28,128 f accident in Quecreek, Pennsylvania mine (2002), 21 mountaint opr emo 412, 413f,414 –15 underground, 127 Coastal environments effect of predicted rising sea levels on, 115, 116f wetlands along, 147–49, 149f etlands, 147–49,149 f Coast and Geodetic Survey, U.S., 65 Coastlines. See also Beaches

concerno verda maget o, 76–77 effect of predicted rising sea levels on, 115, 116f landform formation as gradaocess, 74–75, 75f , 147–49, 149f Cobalt, 142 Cocosp late, 55f Cod,o verfishing of, 333,334 Coffee cultivation in Kenya, 332f Cohort, as used by demographers, 163,163 f Colonies, 276 Colorado Aspen, changing interactions in, 3f 129, 130f ation in, 147f temperaturein versionsin Denver, 405 Colorado River (Mexico, Southwestern U.S. ) conflict over, and Mexico, 397 disputes over shared resources of, 288,289 f ation, 147 edp hotography, 39, 39f Cols, 72f Columbia, 42 ColumbiaP lateau (Pacific Northwest U.S.), 61, 66f egon) Bonne am, 118 damming, 136 Commer 315, 316, 316f Commercial forests, 150–51, 150f Commission on Sustainable Development, United Nations, 155 338 Common Market, 300–301 Common Market of the Southern Cone (MERCOSUR), 302 ations, 303 Communication, ing force, 291 Compact states, 279,281 f Comparative advantage, 343 Competition theory, 212 Composite volcanoes, 60, 64f Concentric zone model, 371–73, 372f,373 f Concepts, 251 Condensation nuclei, 93, 94f Condor, captive breeding program for, 422 Conference on Environment and Development (Brazil) (1992), 180

Conferenceo n Tradea ndD evelopment, United Nations (1964), 204f,338 Conformal map projections, 25, 27f 235 Conglomerates, 52 Congo Corridor (Democratic Republic of the Congo), 286 , 11–13,12 f Consequent boundaries, 285 Conservation, 155–56,156 f Conser 415, 422 ConservationR eserveP rogram (1985), 148 Constantine, 228 Consti tion, U.S., 291,304 Contagious diffusion, 252–53, 252f,253 f ift, 53 onments, 84, 86f Continents, movement of the, 53–55,53 f,54 f,55 f,56 f, 57 Contour inter 32 Contour lines, 32, 32f Contour plowing, 148 Contraception, family planning with, 165 Controls, population, 190–91, 191f Convection, 87 ecipitation, 95, 95f Convection system, weather, 87,88 f Trade in Endangered Species, United Nations, 421 Convention on Long-Range Transboundar tion (1979), 411 Convention on Preserving Biologic y, United Nations, 421 Convention on the Law of the Sea, United Nations, 299–300,299 f,300 f Convergent plate boundaries, 55, 55f,57 ,57 f Copper cases f, 142–44,143 f concentrations needed for economical mining, 143,143 f mining, 143–44,335, 335 f, 412,413 f recycling, 143–44 resource reserves, 142 f, 142–43 eefs, 75, 75f Corea reas, 283 Core of regions, 437

Cor 89–90, 90, 90f, 91f Corn ethanol produced from, 133 hybrid, diffusion of, 255 Cornucopians, 191 Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) Standards, 127 a, wild 156 Cost-factor to migration, 266 Council for Urban Economic Development, 345 Countermigration, 267, 268f Country, defined, 276 Cranes, whooping, 417 Cree nation, 276 Creeping 67f Creole 218–19 Critic distance, –45, 245f Crop rotation, 148 Crows (Native Americans), 159 Crude birth rates, 163–64, 164f, 166f Crude death rates (CDR), 167– 68, 168f, 169, 170–71 Cr 185, 186t Crude oil. See Petroleum Crust, earth’s characteristics of, 53–54, 54f elements in, 138, 141, 141f Cuba, fertility rate, 167 ibutes, 10–11, 10f, 11f, 12f iers to migration, 266 considerations of eco314 , 200, 201, 202f Cul divergence, 200 Cul diversi , 212–13 y, 198–99, 200f environments as controls, 199 human impacts, 199, 200f, 201 y, 195–241 change as recurring theme (see e change) contrasts 196, 197f cul ral diversi , 212–13 ov w, 196, 197f reasons for, 196 ators, 240–41 206, 207f, 271 , 207 ape, 10, 10f, 199, 200f, 201 change in, 10–11, 11f interrelationships places, 11–13, 13f stems, 197–98, 198f iables, as incentives for migration, 260

INDEX

Culture components of, 196–98, 197f, 198f conditioning by, 159 contrastsw ithin, 196,197 f defined, 196 effects of religion on, 222 folk, 219 gender( seeGender ) andla f popularc e, 219 subsystemso f( seeC e, subsystemso f ) transmissiono f, 196 Culture, subsystemso f, 199,200, 201–6, 207f ideologic ubsystem, 199, 205–6,207 f sociologic ubsystem, 199, 204–5,205 f,206 f technologic stem, 199, 200, 201–2, 202f,203 f, 204,204 f Culture change, 206–12 206, 210–12, 211f change, as recurring theme, 206 innovation, 206 ov w, 206 spatial diffusion, 206, 208, 209–10, 210f Culture complex, 197,197 f Culture-environment tradition defined, 18 in organization of the book, 18,18 f,159 regions of the, 442–46, 443f, 444f,445 f,446 f Cultureh earth, 208,209 f Culture r of the modern world, 198,198 f Culture regions, 198,198 f Culture traits, 197,197 f Cum louds, 93, 94f, 95f,99 Cum louds, 93,94 f Currents,o cean. See also specific currents as affecting weather, 91–92, 92f generationo f, 91 asg rocess, 74–75, 75f precipitation, effect of currents on, 92 principal surface ocean currents of the world, 92f CuyohogaR iver( Ohio),c leanup efforts, 404 Cyanide, 402 Cyclones, 97,98 f Cyclonic precipitation, 95 Czech Republic, formation of, 297

D Dams AswanHig hD am( Egypt), 137,188 benefitsa ndp roblems, 136–37 Bonne egon), 118 construction of, 397 decommissioning of, 137 GrandC oulee( Washington), 134f hydropower, asen ergy resource, 134–35,134 f, 135f purposeso f, 136 ThreeGo rgesD am( China), 136–37 DDT( odiphenyltrichloroethane), 178 banningo f, 400,421 magnificationin fo odc 420–21,420 f Dead zones, 400,401 f Death rates, 167–68, 168f,169 , 170–71 DeccanP lateau (India), 61 Declaration ndependence, 291 Decomposers, 394, 394f Defense, U.S. Department of, GPS, developed and maintained by, 40,42 Deforestation soil erosion from, 144f of tropical rain forests, 153– 54, 154f,155 f Degreeo fde velopment, 317 Deindustr ation of U.S. economy, 313 e River (New Jersey, New York,P ennsylvania), 363 Deltas, 68,68 f , 339f Democratic Republic of Congo Congo Corridor, 286 deforestation in, 154f UNp eacekeeperss o, 273 Demographic equation, 180, 180, 181, 182, 182f,183 f immigration,imp actso f, 181–82 pop ation relocation, 180, 181–82, 183f Demographict ransitionmo del, 176–80,176 f,177 f,178 f over w, 176 problemsw ith, 178,179, 180, 182f stages, 176,176 f Western experience, 176–78, 177f,178 f Demography, 161 Denmark birth rate declining in, 169 genderequ , 240

mor , 167 asn uclear free, 131 k in Copenhagen harbor, 138 , SeeP Dependency ratio, 171 Deposition onbea ches, 76–77 byg laciers, 70, 71–73,72 f, 73 f byr ater, 67–70,68 f, 69f,70 f ation, 397 Desertification, 145–47,145 f, 146f,147 f,148 f Desert pavement, 75 Deserts, composition, 75–76 Deuterium, 132 Developed countries demographict ransition model in, 176–78,177 f,178 f, 179 fertili rates in, 165,166 gender differences in labor force, 239 mapo f, 204f mor 167, 168, 168f over , 186 trade flows in primary products, 337–38 Developing countries asben eficiaries of new technologies, 353 clusters of large metropolitan areasin , 360f demographict ransition model in, 178, 179,180 famil lanning in, 165 fertili rates in, 166–67 gender differences in labor force, 238,238 f industrial regions, rise of, 347 mapo f, 204f 170 mor 167, 168, 168f over , 186–87, 187f periodicma rkets, 238,238 f rowthr ates in, 175 vementsby , 181–82,183 rapidly growing cities in (see Cities in developing world, rapidly growing) ettlementsin , 359, 389, 389f trade flows in primary products, 337–38 undernourishment in, 319, 319f urbanization in, 188–89, 189f Devolution, 295

I-6

Dew point, 95 Dharma, 231 Dialect boundaries, 217, 221f Diamond, ed (Guns, Germs and Steel), 208 Diamonds deposits of, 142 reuse of, 121 179 Diaspora, 226, 228f Diastrophism, 57–60, 61f, 62f broad warping, 57 faulting, 58–60, 59f, 60f folding, 57–58, 57f Dieldrin, 421 Digital maps, 43 Dio 421, 425 Direction, 6, 8 absolute, 8 as map projection, 28, 28f relational, 8 Diseases. See also specific disease Distance, 6, 8–9, 8f absolute, 9 critical, –45 as map projection, 25, 27f, 28, 28f observation of, 244–45, 245f psychologic 245, 246f, 247f psychologic distance, 9 relative, 9 and spatial interaction, 244– 46, 245f Distance decay, –45 ies, 55, 55f Doctors Without Borders, 271 Dolomite Alps, 1 Domains of regions, 437 Domestic terrorism, 294–95 Dot maps, 33–34, 34f 172, 174–75, 174f, 174t, 175f Douglas, Marjory S. (Everglades, The), 450 Douglas, W O., 224 Downto enewal, 377, 379–80, 379f Drip irrigation, 395f D 73, 73f D land climates, 102f, 103f, 104t, 106, 106f, 107f, 108 hot desert c 102f, 103f, 104t, 106, 107f Dunes, 75–76, 75f Dust Bowl, 1930s (United States), 75 Dutch elm disease, 420

E Earth , 82–83, 82f, 83f, 84f

I-7

INDEX

Earth—Cont. inclination, 82–83, 82f,83 f, 84f polar circumference of, 23 Earthma terials, 51–53,52 f,53 f Earthquakes 1946), 65 1964), 59–60,63, 65 Cairo (Egypt, 1992), 358, 359 China( 1976), 60 distribution of, 56f,57 epicenters, 56f,61 f Haiti( 2010), 2,2 f,55 ,60, 62f,389 inadequatep r r, 55,57 Iran( 2003), 60 Kashmir( India,P 2005), 60 Northridge (California, 1994), 63 sc , 63 Earths ciencet radition, 18,18 f, 49 East A ent, 92f Eastern Anglo America industr r 347, 347f EasternAs iaindus tr egion, 347,34 7f EasternE uropein dustr egion, 347,347 f Eastern Pacific Garbage Patch, 393,393 f EastGr eenlandcur rent, 92f EastP acific Rise, 55f Ebola fever, 179 , 393 Economic activities assumptions underlying, 339 categor , 314–15, 314f,315 f classification of, 314–17, 314f, 315f,316 f,317 f,318 f, 318t economic y rational, people as, 339 rketing, 269,270 f, 271 , 269 ofit as goal, 339 primarya ctivities( seeP rimary activities) y activities, 314, 314f,315 ,352–53 ctivities, 314,314 f, 315,353 secondary activities (seeS econdar ser , 350–52,350 t, 351f,353 –54,354 f, 355t stageso fde velopment, 316– 17, 318f,318 t systems, pes of economic, 315–16,316 f

tertiarya 314,314 f, 315, 350–52, 350f, 350t,351 f transnationalc orporations, 269,270 f, 346 300–302, 301f,302 f Economic y rational, people as, 339 Economic barriers to migration, 266 Economic base of cities, –66, 366f Economic Comm West Africa States (ECOWAS), 302 Economic development , 318f comparative, 204, 204f degreeo f development, 317 gender-relatedde velopment index, 240,240 f income, views of, 203f inducements for companies, debateo ver, 345 as inter eligious beliefs, 223 levels of, 202, 203f,204 ,204 f stageso f, 316–17,318 f,318 t theories on, 317 Economic factors as contr economic activities, 314 Economic factors for migration, 259–60, 260f y, 5,312–55 defined, 313 economic activities (seeE conomic activities) overview, 313,313 f Economic inequ i , 297 Economic integration of globalization, 268–69, 269f rketing, 269, 270f, 271 , 269 transnationalc orporations, 269,270 f, 346 Economic regions, 447–48, 447f, 448f Ecoregions, managing, 451 Ecosystems defined, 393–94,394 f as regions, 450–52, 452f Ecuador,p eriodicm ket, 238f Ecumene, 184 Edgecit ies, 375 Effective demand, 351 o), 160 Cairo, growtho f, 358–59, 358f Cairoea rthquake( 1992), 358, 359 climagraphfo r Cairo, 107f th center in, 208, 209f

InternationalC onference on P Development, United Nations (1994), 180–81 overpopulation of, 186 population, 358, 358f salinization in, 146–47 urbanization of, 188 Electoral geography, 304 Electr ,g enerated by photovoltaic cells, 136,137 Electromagnetic spectrum, 39, 39f Electrostaticp recipitators, 425 Elements, ’ 138, 141, 141f Elephants, African, 417 ElN iño, 93,113, 333f Elongated states, 279,281 f ElS vador, desertification in, 146 Emigration, 261 Endangereds pecies, 414 EndangeredS peciesA ct( 1973), 421 ,defi ned, 121, 122 Energy, U.S.D epartmento f, 428 Energyeffi ciency, 122 EnergyI ndependencea ndS ecurityA ct, 127 Energ esources industr ation, use of resourcesdu ring, 121–22 nonrenewable (seeN onrenewable energy resources) renewable( seeR enewable energyr esources) England church a endance in, 226 description of London region ly1900s ), 311 London as wor , 369 y, 21 metes and bounds system used U.S., 24–25 Newland V ley, 432,433 Englishl Enlish-only laws, debate over, 224–25 asfi rst , 222 spreado f, 215,216, 220f Enhanced Fujita sc , 99 Enr laintainGa rden fault, 2 onment as control on c re, 199 defined, 393 onmental Defense Fund, 77 onmental determinism, 199 En ronment justice, 306–7 Environmental pollution, 398–99 Envir rotection Agency, U.S. (EPA)

biocides re wed by, 400 delaying of pol ide plant in Louisiana, 307 ecoregion maps, development of, 451 e-waste, data on, 424 mercury contamination of lakes, data on, 402 mountain top remo of, 414 Office of Environment Equity, 306–7 PCBs, , 402 pesticide us in U.S., data on, 421 value of, 10 306–7 efugees, 259–60 ystems Research Institute, Inc., 46 Epicenters of earthquakes, 56f, 61f Epidemiologic transition, 177, 178f ea map projections, 25, 27f Equator, in geographic grid system, 22–24, 22f Equatorial counter current, 92f Equatorial low pressure, 90, 91f Equidistant map projections, 25, 27f, 28, 28f ojections, 25, 27f Eratosthenes, 3 Erosion, 62 agents of (see Er agents) beach, 76–77 soil, –47, 144f, 145f, 146f, 147f, 148 stream landscapes in, 68–70, 69f, 70f Er 67–76, 78f glaciers, 70, 71–73, 72f, 73f 74f groundwater, 71f running water, 67–70, 68f, 69f, 70f waves, currents, and coastal landforms, 75f Escarpment, 58 Eskers, 73, 73f Estonia ,pop ation, 161 ine zones, 148, 149f Ethanol, 133 Ethiopia census, 188 desertification in, 145 Ethnic cleansing, 297 , 235–37, 237f defined, 213, 235 inside cities, 380, 382, 382f territorial segregation as trait of, 236, 237f Ethnic niche businesses, 262

INDEX

Ethnic religions, 226 Ethnocentrism, 235 Ethnographics, 285 Euphrates River (Iraq, Syria, Turkey) damming, 136 removal of water from, 397 Eurasian plate, 54f,55 f,58 ,65 Europe. See also individual countries aging of populations, 192 uenza epidemic (1781), 252f copperdep ositsin, 143 demographict ransitionin , 176–78,177 f,178 f Eastern European cities, 384, 386, 386f ica, Asia and Americas, 276–77, 278f,279 f life expectancies in, 168 vestock-gr n farming in Western, 329 170 migrations to and from, 257, 258f yramid for (2004), 171,172 f elocation by, 180–81 replacement levels not being sustainedin, 169 settlemento f, 182,1 84 Western Eur 384, 384f wetlands, losso f, 149 European Union (EU) candidatesfo rmember ship, 301f as ch lenge to state, 278 e-waste, policy on, 424 as member of nuclear fusion consortium, 132 product subsidies for farmers, 327 as r , 300–301,301 f r kers, 257 supranational r , 316 terrorism, response to, 295 transnationalc orporations headquarteredin , 270f Euskadit Basque Homeland and Liber f Eutrophication, 399–400,401 f Evaporation,inh ydrologicc ycle, 394–95,395 f Everest, Mount (N 58 Everglades (Florida), 147 deteriorationo f, 400f ecosystem, 450–52,452 f Everglades, The( Douglas), 450

E-waste, 424 Excess vote, 305 Exclaves, 281,282 f Exclusive Economic Zone, 299, 299f,300 f Extensivec ommer griculture, 329,330 –31,330 f,331 f Extensive subsistence agriculture, 320–22,321 f,323 341 Extinction, 414,415 Extinction, of a species, 414 Extractive industries, 333, 334–35 Extrusive igneous rocks, 51 Exxon Valdez, 402 icanes, 97, 98f

F F

oduction of livestock, 329,329 f,400 , 401f F slands , 185–86 eat Britain over the (1982), 280 F s, water, 68 F ges, 39,39 f Families, y of five, 247, 250f Famil lanning, 165,191 Familys in side cities, 380– 81, 380f Faults, 55,56 , 58–60, 59f,60 f defined, 55 pes, 55, 55f,62 f Favelas, 189f,389 f F iculture Improvement and Reform Act (1996), 148 F y Management , 42 F dministration (FHA), 374 Federal states, 283, 383f F See alsoGen der cult of true womanhood, development of, 238–39 farmers, restr and economic factors affecting, 326 maternal mortality ratio, 170 missing women, 173 politic fluence, increasing of, 292–93 self-employmento f, 238f shift in emplo of, 206 women in migration stream to U.S. from Mexico, 262 Feminist revolution, 239 Fer 164, 165–67, 166f, 167f,169 ,179

Fer

ers global consumption of, increasein , 325 399–400, 401f Fiji Islands, coral reefs at, 75f Financi centers, hierarchy of, 354–55,354 f Finland birth rate declining in, 169 genderequ , 240 Fiords, 73 Fish effects of acid rain on, 407 mortality from solid waste consumption or entanglement, 393 Fish farming, 333, 333f,334 Fishing bycatch, 418 global production, 333, 333f, 334f,417 um sustainabley ield, 333 overfishing, 333–34, 333f, 334f, 417 as pr , 333–34 r , 334 sources, 333 tragedy of the commons, 334 Fission, nuc , 131–32,132 f Flexiblema ing, 341 Flexible production systems, 342–43 Flooding erosion by, 68 from Hurricane Katrina, 80 in India and southeast Asia (1978), 90 proper from, U.S. Geological Surveyda tao n, 137 in U.S. from El Niño (19971998), 93 Floodplains, 68–69,69 f na ral levees formed in, 69 ast f wetland, 147 Florida damage from El Niño (19971998), 93 Everglades (see Everglades (Florida)) opographyin , 70, 71f migrationfi elds of, 267f r ing of sewer system in Dade , 403 SouthF lorida WaterM anagement District, 451 vernment ov immigration, 264 Floridac urrent, 92f Flow-linema ps, 35,36 f Folding, of rock, 57–58, 57f Folkc e, 219 Folk life, 219

I-8

Food ator, 241 genetic y modified food crops, 325 minimum daily requirement for caloric intake, 319 revolution in production of, 204, 205, 206f trend to global hunger, 319, 319f Food and Agr ation, United Nations, 186, 238 “Gender and Development Plan,” 239, 326 Green Revolution, data on, 325 imperiled fish species, data on, 417 minimum daily requirement for caloric intake per person, , 319 percent of industrial countries overnourished, data on, 319f per undernourished, data on, 319f Plan of Action for Women in Development, 326 F 394, 394f Food webs, 394f Ford, 270f Ford, , 341 Fordism, 341 Foreign direct investment, 346, 353–54 Forestry. See Logging Forests clear of, 151, 151f commer ests, 150–51, 150f forestry (see Logging) management techniques, 151 um sustainable in, 151 old-gro 152–53 as resource, 149–54, 150f, 151f, 152f, 153f, 154f, 155f selective cutting of, 151, 151f pes, U.S. N orests, logging in, 151–53, 152f, 153f of, 151 Forest Service, U.S. ecoregion maps, development of, 451 forest management, debate over, 151–52 F regions, 13, 14f, 436, 447 Form ut i , 314, 350 Forward-thrust c y, 284, 284f Fossil fuels burning, as sour tion, 404–5, 405f

I-9

INDEX

Fossil fuels—Cont. as spar ial Revolution, 122,124 Fragmented states, 279, 281, 281f France Basque separatist movement, f,296 ,296 f birth rate declining in, 169 lear Exper (ITER), 132 long-lot system used by French settlers in U.S., 24,24 f mandate over areas of Middle East f 274 y, 21 nuclearp owerin , 131,132 f photovoltaic cell roof systems in, 136 vement in, 294– 95, 296f women’s political participation in, 292 Freedomt oF arm, 148 Fr , recognition of, 220 French Canadians, selective acceptance of Anglo influence, 210 Frictionaleffe ct, 90 Friction of distance, 11, 245, 245f Frontal precipitation, 95 Frontier zones, 284 Fronts, weather, 96,97 f Fuelwood, 150 Functional r 13,15 f, 436, 447 Fundamentalism, 229 Fundamentals, The, 229 Fusion, nuclear, 132

G James, 38 Gallic Wars, The (Caes ), 433 ator, 241 India), 68f,397 bage. See Solidw aste Garimpeiros, 403 Gasfo rmation, 52 Gasoline, elimination of leaded, 411 Gated communities, 383 Gateway cities, 377,379 Gatheringind ustries, 332–33 Geddes,P artick, 311 Gemini, 39 Gender, 237–40,238 f defined, 237 gender-relatedde velopment 240,240 f

gender-specific r ation, emergence of, f labor force, differences in, 213, 238–39, 238f , differences in, 220 andmig ration, 262 “Gendera ndD evelopmentP lan,” 239,326 Gender-relatedde velopment index, f Genefl ow, 236 reemento n T iffs and Trade, 300 ic, 346 ed maps, 29, 30f pose maps, 29 Genetic y modified food crops, 325 Geneticdr ift, 236 Gentrification, 377, 379–80,379 f Geocaching, 43 Geodetic Control Lists, 33 Geographic database, 45,45 f Geographicdia lects, 217–19, 221f Geographic grid, 22–24,22 f,24 f Geographic information systems (GIS), 43–47, 44, 45f, 46f application of, 45–47, 46f careero ppor , 47 geographicda tabase, 45,45 f modelo f, 45f privacy issues connected to, 44 f, 46 World Trade Centera ttack, use of GIS following, 46 Geographic information technologies, 38–43 ositioning System (see ositioning System( GPS)) remotes ensing, 38–40,39 f, 40f,42 f virtual and interactive maps, 43 Geography, 1–19 careersin , 6–7 core concepts, 5–15, 16f defined, 2–3, 3f,450 as destiny, 208 evolution of discipline, 3–4, 4f interrelationsbet weenp laces, 11–13,12 f physic attributes, 10–11,10 f, 11f,12 f place similar egions, 13,14 f,15 subfields, 5 themes and standards, 15–17 traditionsin , 17–19,18 f f, 5 Geography (Strabo), 18

Geological Su ey, U.S. Geodetic Control Lists, maintenance of, 33 proper and from flooding, data on, 137 topographicma psby , 30,31 f, 32,32 f Geologic time, 10,53 Geology, 51 Geometr ies, 284–85, 285f Geomorphology, 51 Georgia damage from El Niño (1997– 1998), 93 G opulation, 443–44,444 f OkefenokeeS wamp, 147 methodso eatex traction, 137–38 power plants worldwide, location of, 139f asr esource, 137–38,139 f sourceso f, 138,139 f 138 Germanic languages, 214–15 Germany Ber W as relic boundy, 285 earl rations toU .S., 260f migrants r , from Yugosla a, 268 Nauru as colony of, 119 photovoltaic cell roof systems in, 136 r ies of Aachen, 436f reunification of, 297 use of maps for propaganda, 37 windp ower,u seo f, 138 Gerry,E lbridge, 304f Gerrymandering, 304–5,304 f Gibbons, very, 416–17, 417f Glacial retreat, 10 Glacial troughs, 73 Glacier N ark (Montana), 48,49, 114 Glaciers, 70, 71–73,72 f,73 f,74 f 72f deposition by, 70, 72f,73 ,73 f as er 70, 72f, 73, 73f formation, 71,72 f ice sheets, es formed by, 73, 73f location of, 71, 72f loss of, from global warming, um glaciation in NorthernHemis phere, 71,72 f Global air-circulationp attern, 90,91 f

Globalization, 12–13, 268–69, 269f, 270f, 271, 271f as ch lenge to state, 278 271 economic integration, 268–69, 269f gender economic differentiation from, 239 marketing, 269, 270f, 271 , 269 overview, 268 politic integration, 271, 271f of service , 312 transnational corporations, 269, 270f, 346 Malaria Eradication Program, 421 ositioning System (GPS), 40, 42–43, 42f development and maintenance of, 40, 42 geocaching, 43 locating schools of fish by, 417 operation of, 40, 42, 42f privacy issues connected to, 44 World Trade Center k, use of GPS following, 46 Global warming, 114–15, 114f, 115f, 116f Globe properties, 25 Gneiss, 52, 52f Goals 2000: Educate America Act, 17 Gobi Desert (China, Mongolia), composition, 75–76 Goby, round, 418 Gold deposits of, 142 heap-leach gold mining, 402 mer used for mining, 403 Gondwana, 54f Google Earth, 43 Gor mountain, 417, 418 Gottmann, Jean, 448, 450 processes, 61–64, 67–76 erosion (see Erosion) glaciers (see Glaciers) mass movement, 62, 64, 67, 67f waves, currents, and coastal landforms, 74–75, 75f weathering (see Weathering) as, 75, 76, 78f Graduated-symbol maps, 33–34, 34f Grameen Bank, 326 Grand Canyon N ark izona), rocks in, 53f W on), 134f Grand Teton National Park (Wyoming), 50

INDEX

Granite formationo f, 51 Roc y in Barre (Vermont), 310,311 Grant, Ulysses S. (president, U.S.), 336 Graphicma ps cale, 28–29,29 f Gray, Elisha, 210 Great Barrier Reef (A 75 GreatB ritain acculturationin, 211 administrationo auru, 119 establishment of India and P 285 pread, 215 mandates over following 274f Protestants and Catholics liveas of NorthenI reland, 225 war with Argentina over the F (1982), 280 Great Depression, 447 GreatL akesc leanupeffo rts, 404 GreatP acifi bage Patch, 393, 393f Greece,a snuc ee, 131 Greeks( ancient) changes in landscape caused by, 11 descriptions of known world, 184 development of geography by, 3–4,4 f,18 ,21 Greenhouse effect, 113–15,114 f, 115f,116 f Greenlandices heet, 115 Greenpeace, 271,422 GreenP lans, 403 Green Revolution, 191, 325–26 Green River formation, 129, 130f Gr nt ime, 23 Grinnell Glacier, 48,49 Gross domestic product (GDP), 317 Gr 201, 203f Gross national incomes per capita, 203 Grossw orldp roduct, 347 Ground-sourceh eatp umps, 138 Groundwater, 395–97,397 f as er 70–71, 71f polluted, 403 watert able, 70,70 f Groupo 338 G advertising in G as force for diffusion, f 176 desertification in, 145–46 , 416f Guineacu rrent, 92f

G tream, 92f,115 G lah, 443–44, 444f ng, 67, 68f Guns, Germs and Steel (Diamond), 208

H P eter, 286 Haiti desertification in, 146 ear 2010), 2,2f , 55, 60, 62f,389 fertility rate, 167 Hajj, 223 Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome, 179 Hanunóop eople( Philippines), 323 HawaiianI slands endangereds peciesin , 419 formationo ohi, 51 hot spots, volcano formation from, 60, 64f plumesu nder, 64f tsunami( 1946), 65 tsunami early warning system based in, 65 Hazardous waste, 423,426 –27 ation, 363 Heap-leach goldmin ing, 402 Hegira, 230 132 Hepatitis C, 179 Herbicides as water pollutants, 400 Herbivores, 394f Herding, nomadic, 320–21,321 f Her 3 Hierarchical diffusion, 253,253 f,254 f migration, 267–68 Hierarch 366 High birth rates, 163 Highlandc limates, 102f,103 f, 104t,111 High-level waste, 427–28 Highp ressurez ones, 90, 91f , 348–50, 349f , Edmund, 58 Him ayas international borders running through, 284 loss of ice fr , 114–15 Hinduism, 231,232, 233, 233 f beliefs ystem, 231 castesin , 231 castes ystem, Chennakeshava temple complex at Belur (India), 233f in establishment of India and P 285

as ethnic religion, 224,231 spreado f, 231 temple of Sri Mariamman (Singapore), 195 Hinterland, 361 Hippopotamus common, 417 pygmy, 417 Hispanic Americans Engish-only laws, opposition to, 225 envir , 306–7 H HumanI mmunodeficiency Virus/Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) inA frica, 169,170– 71 demographicimp acto f, 172, 177 mor om, 168,169, 179 Holocaust,dea thsin , 274f Homeland Security, U.S. Department of, 5 Homeless people, 376,378 Homeostatic plateaus, 190,191 f Honey fricanized, 418 Horns, 72f,73 ,73 f Hotde sertc 102f,103 f, 104t,106 ,107 f Hots pots, 57,60, 64 f Houses,c daptationsby , 207f Housing Act( 1949), 376 68 channelizationo f, 397 depletion of, 396 ew York) cleanupeffo rts, 404 , 403 Humang eography, 5 HumanI mmunodeficiency V cquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (H SeeH IV/ AIDS (Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) Humans, impacts on culture, 199, 200f Humboldt, 4 limates defined, 102f,103 f,104 t, 110–11,111 f,112 f subarctic, 102f,103 f,104 t, 110–11,111 f,112 f Humid mid climates, 102f,103 f,104 f,108 –10, 109f,110 f humids ubtropic 102f, 103f, 104f,108 ,109 f marine west coast, 102f, 103f, 104t, 108–9, 109f, 110f

I-10

Mediterranean, 102f, 103f, 104f, 108, 109f Humid subtropical climate, 102f, 103f, 104f, 108, 109f , dispute with Romania over Transylvania, 288 Hunter-gatherers, 204, 206f current practitioners, 319 ianism by, 238 lack of innovation by, 210 Hurricanes, 97 Katrina (2005) (see Katrina, Hurricane (2005)) mature, characteristics of, 97, 98f paths of, 97, 98f (2005), 81 Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale, 99t Hydri a, 419–20 Hydrocarbons, 123 Hydrogen, in nuclear fusion, 132 Hydrogen sulfide, fr 423 Hydrologic cycle, 394–95, 395f Hydrolysis, 64 Hydropower, as resource, 134–35, 134f, 135f Hydrosphere, 393 competition, 344 ic tints on topographic maps, 32

I IBM, 270f Ice age , 112–13 settlement expansion by humans since, 185 Ice cap, 104t, 114 Iceland birth rate declining in, 169 gender in, 240 y, use of, 138 mor in, 167 as nation-state, 276 Ice sheets, depositional es formed by, 73, 73f Iconography, 290, 290f Idaho, hydroelectric power in, 134 Ideologic subsystem, 199, 205–6, 207f Igneous rocks, 51, 52f Ikonos, 41 Illinois Amish communi in, 210f climagraph for Chicago, 110f deaths from sudden change in weather (1836), 49 owth pattern for Chicago, 374, 374f, 381

I-11

I

INDEX

Cont.

eas of Chicago, 372, 373f politicalfr agmentationin ChampaignC , 308f 9f Robert Taylor Homes public housing project in Chicago, 376 si ation of Chicago, 363, 364f Immigration impactso f, 181–82 involunta , 257, 258f Tempor Worker Program, 265 Immigrationa ndN ation Service,U .S., 264 Incineration,o fs olidw aste, 425 Inclination of the earth as affecting weather, 82–83, 82f,83 f,84 f cycle he, 113 India asbenefi ciaryo fo utsourcing, 344 biogasa se nergys ource, 133, 134f border disputes with China, 284 border dispute with P 288 census,p roblemsw ith, 189, 189f chain migration patterns in, 262 ein, 196,204 dam construction project, 136 deforestation in, 153 establishmento f, 285 fer ntrolin, 191,191 f fertili rates in, 179 floodingin( 1978), 90 garbage-littered beach in Mumbai, 392 gated communities in, 383 oundwater withdrawal in, 396 Hindu Chennakeshava temple complex at Belur, 233f Indus Va ey as cul ral hearth center, 208,209 f Kashmirea rthquake( 2005), 60 as member of nuc consortium, 132 mineral resources, 142f , 220 New Delhi c , 312 planneds uburbsin Hyderabad, 390 political regions in, 445–46, 446f pollution of surface waters, data on, 403

reduction in death rate after 1946, 178 salinization in, 146–47 seasonal shift, extreme variation in, 90 sof ein novation in, 353 subsistence farming in, 202f IndianOcea n garbage patches in, 393, 393f tsunami( 2004), 65 Indianp late, 58 pace Indo-Australian plate, 54f, 55f, 65 Indo-European languagefa mily, 214 Indonesia 156 damage from tsunami in Sumatra (2004), 65 deforestation in, 153, 154f fragmentation,p roblemsw ith, 281 houses on Nias Island, 207f Krakatoa volcano (1883), 113 loggingin , 150, 150f r 225 reluctant migration from Java, 257 Tambora volcano (1815), 113 184 tropicalr ainforestdes truction, 416–17 Inducements for companies, debate over, 345 Industr ies. See Industr veloped countries Industrialization as fostering urbanization, 359 metalu sedu ring, 121–22 resourceu se during, 121–22 Industrializ veloped countries, 204f Industrial locational models, 339–40, 340f,341 f Industrial par 342f Industrial Revolution, 114, 176, 177,178 asa cceleratingu rbanization, 361 y wing, trend toward, 200,205 , 122, 124 innovation during, 210, 210f Industry agglomeration, 339–40,340 f agglomeration economies, 341–42,342 f assumptions underlying, 339 comparative advantage, 343 economic y rational, people as, 339 extractive industries, 333, 334–35

flexible production systems, 342–43 footloose, 255,341 foreigndir ect investment, 346 gatheringin dustries, 332–33 high-tech, 348–50 imposed considerations, 344, 346 inducements for companies, debateo ver, 345 industrial loc 339–40,340 f,341 f infrastr e, 341–42,342 f least-costt heory, 339–40,340 f major regions, 347, 347f rofit as go , 339 new industrial economy, introduction of, 338–39 offshoring, outsourcing, 343,344 f ends, 347, 347f as secondar , 338–50 as sour 402 transnationalc orporations, 269,270 f, 346 transport characteristics, 341 variablec osts,e valuating, 339 seby , 395,396 Infant mor y rate, 167–68, 168f Infectious diseases, 179 Influenza, European epidemic (1781), 252f Infrastructure, industr 341–42, 342f fishing catch, 333, 333f wetlands, 147–48,149 f 74 Innovations ough, 206, 210, 210f defined, 207,251 , 251–53, 252f,253 f ands patialin teraction, 247 Insolation, 82 Intensification in agr e, 324–25 Intensivec ommer iculture, 328–29,329 f Intensive subsistence agr e, 320,321 f,322 ,323, 324 Interactive mapping, 43 Interdependence of producers and buyers in agr e, 327 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, The (IPCC), 114,115 International boundaries, 284 Pr 404

,

ence on Population and Development (Eg 1994), 180–81

International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL), 403, 404f t of Justice, 298 International Cr Court (Brussels), 295 International Date Line, 22f, 23–24, 23f International institutions as lenge to state, 278 International law of the sea, 299–300, 300f International terrorism, 294–95 International Thermonuclear Exper (ITER) (France), 132 International Water Management , 395 International Year of Microcredit, 326 Internet interaction of the, 254–55, 256f vernment policy, 271 Interventionism by United Nations, 298 Intrusive igneous rocks, 51 IPAT equation, 394, 403, 422 Iran climagraph for Tehran, 107f contraception, mandating of, 191 earthquake (2003), 60 persecution and execution wers of Baha’i faith, 225 , 185 religious control in, 225, 229 ation in, 146–47 Iraq Kuwait (1991), 298 British mandate over, wing W.W.I, 274f desertification in, 145 resource dispute with Kuwait over Rumaila oil field, 289, 289f Ireland maternal mortality in, 170 potato blight, effects of, 313 Iron, ore, 335, 337 Irredentism, 288 Irrigation shr ea from, 398 water use, 395, 395f, 396 Islam, 229–31, 232f, 233f architec es of, 230, 233f belief system, 229–30 birth rates, 164 , 230, 232f , 230 in establishment of India and P 285

INDEX

229 Jer dis puteo ver, 164 judaisma sr ooto f, low participation by females in economic acti ty, 239–40 pillars of faith, 223f,229 ,230 asuniver 223, 224 Isolines, 35 Israel dispute with Syria over Golan Heights, 290 establishmento f, 274f energ agein , 135 Western Wa 158,159 Italy birth rate declining in, 169 climagraph for Rome, 109f gondolier in Venice on cellphone, 269, 269f topographyin , 70,71 f asnuc learfr ee, 131 separatist movement in, 294–95, 296f

J Jackson, Alan, 294 Japan 211,211 f birth rates in, 164 demographict ransitionin , 177 254f 127 geothermal energy, use of, 138 home r ket protected, 327 incinerationo fs aste, 425 lac management and administration, 240 as member of nuclear fusion consortium, 132 mer Minamata, 402 nuc owerin , 131 over , 187 photo oof systems in, 136 recyclingin, 426 g agein, 135 steel, reductions in energy e, 156 To o as wor , 369 transnationalc orporations headquarteredin , 270f Japan, Sea of, radioactive waste dumpedin , 429 Japancur rent, 92f

J-curve growth, 174,175 f Jesus, 227 Jets treams, 90,91 f JohnB irchS , 38 Joints,in r ocks, 58 Jordan, desertification in, 145 Josephine, Lake (Montana), 48, 49 Judaism, 226–27,228 f beliefs ystem, 226 e hearth region, 209f, 226 dispersions, 226–27, 228f as ethnic religion, 226 Holocaust,dea thsin , 274f Jerusalem,dis puteo ver, 164 as root of Chr Islam, 223 Just-in-time production, 342–43

K K-2( China,P 58 Ka’ba, 223f Kames, 72f,73 f Kansas, 128–29 Karstt opography, 70,71 f Kashmirea rthquake( India, P 2005), 60 Katrina,Hu rricane( 2005) damage from, 69, 69f,80 ,81, 149 migration from New Orleans following, 245, 245f Kaz building dam on Sy , financing, 398 oil fields, development of , 124 Kentuc ,k y in, 70,71 f Kenya cultivationo fc offee in, 332f , 197, 197f eV ment in, 389 Kenya, Mount (Kenya), retreating glaciers on, 114 Kerogen, 129 73f o,M ount( Tanzania), retreating glaciers on, 114 energy, 122 lorida), channelization, 397, 400f Project, 401f 444 Köppen system, 99, 101,104 t Koran, 223f,229 ,230 Kosovo confl ithB osnia, 297 peacekeepingfo rcesin , 298f warin , 271

volcano( Indonesia, 1883), 113 Kurds, 276, 277f,298 K kedby I raq( 1991), 298 resource dispute with Iraq over Rumaila oil field, f

L Labrador current, 92f Ladanga iculture. SeeS hifting Lagoons, 74 LakeN asser( Eg 68 Lakes as boundaries, 284, 286–87, 287f Land breezes, 88,89 f Landfi 423, 423f,425 Landformr egions, 76–77 Landforms, 50–78 defined, 51 thma ter fo rmation from, 51–53, 52f,53 f erosional agents, formation from (see Er agents) geologict ime, 53 glaciation, formation from (see Glaciers) gradationalp rocesses, formation from, 61–64, 67–76 human impacts on (seeL andforms, human impacts on) mass movement, 64,67 , 67f mass movement, formation from, 62 movement of the continents, 53–55,53 f,54 f,55 f, 56f,57 as re ons, 437–38, 438f tectonic forces (seeP late tectonics) waves, currents, formation from, 75f weathering, formation from (see Weathering) Landforms,h umanimp actso n, 411–15,416 f dumping, landforms produced by, 412–13 over w, 411,412f produced by excavation, 411–12,412 f surface depressions, formation of, 413,416 f Landlockeds tatesa s disadvantaged, f,286 ,287 f Land Ordinance of 1785, 25 Land resources forestr esource( seeF orests) overview, 144

I-12

soils (see Soils) (see Wetlands) Landsat, 40, 42f Landscape, defined, 68 Landslides, 64, 67 67f Land use, urban, 370–73, 371f, 372f, 373f. See also Cities, inside the central business district, 370–71 outside the business district, 371, 371f urban form, models of, 371–73, 372f, 373f L families, 214–15, 216f, 217f L 213–22 creation of, 215 e and, 219–22, 221f defined, 213 216 importance of, 213, 214 family, 214–15, 216f, 217f lingua franca, 219 loss of, 215f numbers of languages, 213, 214t, 215f as r 443–44, f spread and change, 215, 216, 220f iants, 216, 217–19, 221f , 216 subfamilies, 214–15 world distribution of, 213, 215f Lapse rate, 85, 87f, 88f Large-scale maps, 29, 30f Lassa fever, 179 L 72f Latin America deforestation in, 153 demographic transition in, 176 desertification in, 145 wood used in, 150 immigrants to U.S., maternal mor 170 of, 184 , 442–43, 443f Latitude in absolute location, 7–8 in geographic grid system, 22, 22f, 23–24, 24f inc th, 82–83, 82f, 83f, 84f Laurasia, 54f Lautenberg, Frank, 77 Lava, 51 L ence, T.E., 274, 274f Leachate, 423 Lead from incineration of solid waste, 425 reuse of, 121

I-13

INDEX

League of Nations, 119,298, 299 Least-costt heory, 339–40, 340f Least-developed countries, 204f Lebanon desertification in, 145 Green Line in Beirut dividing Christians and Muslims, 225,227 f independence, gaining of, 274f Lee 95, 96f LehighC anal( Pennsylvania), 440f Leibnitz,Go ied, 210 Less-advancedco untries. See Least-developed countries Levees breaching of, 81 , 69,81 Liberia,p reparationo fs widden plotin , 322f Lidar (light detection and ranging) systems, 39, 40f,46 f Lignite, 125f,126 Limestone erosion of, 70, 71f formationo f, 52,52 f Line symbols on thematic maps, 34–35,36 f a, 219 eography, 217–19, 221f Linton, R (Study of Man, The), 212 Liquefi 128,12 9f Lithosphere, 53, 54–55,55 f,56 f, 57,57 f,393 Lithuania,nuc learp owerin , 131, 132f Livestock rmp roductiono f, 329, 400–401, 401f livestoc ng, 329 nomadic herding of, 320–21, 321f ranching, 329, 330–31, 330f, 331f transhumance, 321 Llanos, 101 Loado fa s tream, 68 Location, 6, 7–8, 8f absolute, 7 327–28, 328f relative, 7–8,8 f themeo f, 311 Locational tradition defined, 18 in organization of the book, 18,18 f,311 regions in the, 447–52, 447f, 448f,449 f,452 f Location maps, 29 Location of regions, 436 Loess, 76,78 f

Logarithms, of, 210 Logging clearcu tting, 151,151 f in commercial forests, 150f um sustainabley ield in, 151 as primar , 334 , 151, 151f in tropical rain forests, 153–54, 154f in U.S. National Forests, 151–53,152 f,153 f Lo in absolute location, 7–8 ing eographicg rids ystem, 22, 22f, 23–24,24 f Long-lots ystem, 24, 24 Longshorec urrents, 74,76 Louisiana bayous as wetlands, 147 , 307 damage from Hurricane Katrina( 2005), 69, 69f,81 migration from New Orleans following Hurricane Katrina (2005), 245, 245f 128–29 rshin , 149f Low birth rates, 163–64 Low-level waste, 427 Lo ressurez ones, 90,91 f Lutheran Church of America, 38

M Macao, , 185 Madagascarp er , 156 Magma, 51 MagnaC arta( England), 291 Magnetite, 337 Maine differ ew York 362f woodfu elu sedin , 133 Malaria DDT used in eradication programs, 178,421 deaths from, 179 Malaysia deforestation in, 153 industr egions, rise of, 347 limits on exportation of logs, 338 overpopulation of, 187 Petronas Twin Towers in K umpur, 388f des ertification in, 145, 146f

Malthus, Thomas R., 190–91 Mammoth Cave (Kentucky), 70 Manganese, U.S. importation of, 121 Manufacturing. SeeI Map projections, 25,27 f,28 ,28 f area, f 25,27 f direction, 28, 28f distance, 25,27 f,28 ,28 f shape, 25,27 f Maps, 20–47 desirel inema ps, 12f rid, 22 f, 24f geographicin formations ystems (seeGeo graphic information systems (GIS)) geographicin formation technologies (seeGeo graphic information technologies) long-lot system, 24, 24 metes and bounds system, 24–25 misuseo f, 35–36,37 f,38 projections (seeM ap projections) relative location on, 8f sc , 28–29,29 f,30 f thematicma ps( see Thematic maps) topographicma ps( see Topographicma ps) township and range system, 25, 26f f, 29–38 f, 21–22 vir 43 Maquiladoras, 343 Marine environments, 84 Marinefi shing catch, 333, 333f, 334f Marinew estc oastc limate, 102f, 103f,104 t, 108–9,109 f, 110f Maritimebo undaries, 298–300, 299f,300 f Market economies, 315,316 , 316f Marketequ ilibrium, 339,339 f Marketg ardenfa rms, 329 Market orientation, 340f Market-oriented locations, 340 Marshes, 147,417 Martinique,P elée, Mount,v olcano( 1902), 49 Maryland location of Baltimore, 364f line exposed by roadcut in, 59f Masai (Kenya, Tanzania), e compl of, 197, 197f

Mashups, 43 Massachusetts English-only laws, debate over, 224 maps of Boston at different scales, 30f Mass movement, 62, 64, 67, 67f Mass wasting, 64 Master-planned communities, 383 Material e, 219 Material-oriented locations, 340 , 170 Mathematic ation, 7 um yield, 151, 333 McCain, John, 37 Meandering streams, 68–69, 69f Measles, 179 Mechanic 63 72f Mediterranean agriculture, 331, 331f Mediterranean climate, 102f, 103f, 104f, 108, 109f Mediterranean Sea (Europe) cleanup efforts, 404 Megacities, 359, 360f, 360t Megalopolis, 375, 448–50, 449f Meinig, Donald, 437 maps, 245, 247f, 248–49 egions, 445f Mentifacts, 199, 205–6, 207f, 213, 219 Mercator map projection, 27f, 38 Mer from incineration of solid waste, 425 magnification in the food chain, 420f as water pollutant, effects of, 402–3 Meridians in geographic grid system, 22f, 23–24 in township and range system, 25, 26f Mesas, 70, 70f Mesopotamia (Middle East) as th center, 208, 209f Metamorphic rocks, 52–53, 53f Metes and bounds system, 24–25 Methane atmospheric, 114 from landfi 423 128 produced from waste, 133–34, 134f Methyl bromide, 409, 410f, 411 Metropolitan areas, 362, 363f, 377t Metropolitanization, 374

INDEX

Mexico over o Grande River, 287,287 f deser

10, 10f thern,

107f establishment of sister plants in, 343 geothermal energy, use of, 138 governmentbuilding sin Guanajuato, 387f from, 262–63, 263f, 264 petroleum consumption and production in, 126 M exico City, 411 resourcedis putesw ithU .S., 288,289 f,397 settlemento fp lateau, 185 subsidencein M exicoC , 413 traffic problems in Mexico , 389 waste reatment,da ta on, 403 women in migration stream to U.S., 262 Mexico,G ulfo f deadz one, 400,401 f petroleum dr , 124 , 402 Miami Herald, 450 lorida), 403 Michigan growth of metropolitan area of Detroit, 365 lack adequate mass transit in Detroit, 380 Microdistricts, 386,386 f , 55f Middens, 422 Middle East mapo f,r after W.W.I, 274,274 f hearth center, 208, 209f Midlatitudedes ertsa nds emideserts, 106,107 f Migration, 256–68 barrierst o, 266 defined, 256 in demographic equation, 180 forced, 257,258 f gendera nd, 262 gal, 262–63, 263f,264 –65 incentives to, 259–61, 260f, 261f, 262,263, 266 inter 257 interr 257 majorfl owso fr efugees, 259f overview, 256–57

patterns of, 266–68, 267f, 268f pr ecent ies, 183f reluctantmig ration, 257 rural-to-urban, 263,266 pes, 257,258 f,259 ,259 f , 257,259 Migrationfi eld, 266,267 f,268 f Militant 229 Militar 302–3, 303f Milpaa gr e. SeeS hifting cultivation Minamata Bay, 402 esources exploitation of, 138,141 extractive industries exploitation of, 335 lo , 335 mining of, 335,337 nonfuelmin esources (see Nonfuel mineral resources) Miner s, 51 distribution of, 141–42, 142f ores, 138,141 resource reserves, 141, 141t MiningA ct( 1872), 336 Mininga nd seeC ing) debate over, 336 gold mining, 402,403 heap-leachg oldmin ing, 402 lo 335 of met ic minerals, 335,337 mountaint opr emo 412, 413f,414 –15 open-pitmin ing, 412,413 as primar , 333, 334–37, 335f seabedmin ingo fc opper, 144 strip mining (see Strip mining) underground, 127 water pollution from, 402–3 Ministates, 280 Minnesota pace, 252, 253f lakes,ma nagemento f, 451 miningin M esabia reao f, 337 se travel patterns, 251f work and nonwork trips in Minneapolis Metroea, frequency distribution of, 251f Minnesota P ol Agency, 451 Minutemen, 264 id system, 23–24,24 f Mississippi bay 147 damage from Hurricane Katrina( 2005), 81

vees in, 69 channelizationo f, 397 flooding of, 69,81 floodplain, 69 reshapingo f, 149 itha pace, 250–51 Mohammed, 230 Mojave Deser rearranging of desert sands in, 107f y plant in, 135,135 f,136 pp rojections, 27f Moment magnitude, 63 Monaco, , 185 Mongolia, population densi of, 185 Monotheism, 223 Monsoon c , 101, 101f, 102f,103 f,104 t,106 f Monsoon drift, 92f Monsoon winds, 90 Montr rotocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer (1987), 409,411 Moore,C harles, 393 Moraines, 72f,73 Moran, Mount (Wyoming), 50 Morocco mineral resources, 142 nursing home in, 192 sover laimed over 282 , 167–68,168 f,169 , 170–71 Mosquitos use of DDT on, 421 Mosquitos,A sian tiger, 418 Moths,A sian g , 418 Motor vehicles c ters, 411 completion of interstate highway system, 374 consumption of petroleum for, 126–27 Mor

automobiles, 254 flex-fuel cars used in Brazil, 133 gasoline, leaded, 411 photochemic mogp roduced from, 408, 408f piles of scrap tires, hazards from, 422f dards for, 127 traffic problems in rapidly growingc ities, 389 Mountain breezes, 88–89,89 f

I-14

Mountains as ies, 284 locations of, 77 Mountain top mining, 414 Mountain top remo 412, 413f, 414–15 Mozambique fer , 166–67 replacement level fer 165–66 Multifactor regions, 439 Multifactor regions, 443 220, 221f 346 , 276, 277f Multiple-nuclei model, 372, 372f Multiple Use S Yield Act (1960), 152 Multiplier effects, 342, 365, 367 Music, ator, 241 Mussels, zebra, 418 Myanmar climagraph for Yangôn, 106f deforestation in, 153 logging in, 150 stupa in Yangoon, 235f Myers, 41

N Nacza plate, 55f Namibia, Capr Strip, 286 Napier, John, 210 N damming, 136 National Council for Geographic Education, 16 National Flood Insurance Program, 77 National Forests (U.S.), logging in, 151–53, 152f, 153f National Geographic, 119 National Geography Standards, 15–17, 17f N as centr force, 293 as centripetal force, 290–91 Nation i , as precondition for separatist movements, 297 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NO marks, 33 oor mapping by, 56f Nation-building, 277 Nations, defined, 276 Nation-states, defined, 276, 277f Native Americans Cree nation, 276 forced migrations of the Five Civilized Tribes, 258f

I-15

INDEX

Native Americans—Cont. preadby , 215 resources,us eo f, 120 settlement of Andes Mountainsa exico, 185 Yurok Indians (California), 445 f N ies, 284 f N equation, 180 N asener gyr esource, 122, 128–29, 129f,130 f resource r 128–29, 130f uses, 128 wor ows of, 128, 129f N ape, 10,10 f N levees, 69,81 N esources y, 119–20 classification of, 120f defined, 119,120 nonrenewable energy resources (seeN onrene resources) nonrenewable resources, 120 f regions, 439, 440f,441 f,442 renewableener gyr esources (see Rene resources) renewable r ces, 120, 120f terminology, 119–21, 120f, 121f N ces Canada, 30 N election, 236 N e Conservancy, The, 422 Nauru, resource depletion on, 119,119 f Nautic s, 299 Neneg oose,Ha waiian,c aptive breeding program for, 422 N 190–91, 191f Nepal biogasa sener gys ource, 134f informal sector employment in, 351f Nestle, 270f Netherlands buildingo fdik es, 413 as,ex portationo f, 129f offshor 138 Ne ks, 11–12 Nevada houses as refl elations in Las Vegas, 207f urban sprawl Las Vegas metropolitana rea, 377f waste treatment plant in Las Vegas, 178f Ne esources, 142

Ne labor, 344 New Jersey f,in 2005, 185 Ocean City beach replenishmentp roject, 76–77 Pine Barrens, 449f Newl strializingc ountries, 169 Ne , in, 128–29 Ne on, Isaac, 210 New York derelict slum in the Br 375, 375f differ ew York , 362f entrepreneurs inr e ed New York , 379f ethnic niche businesses in New York , 262 Fr , 425 GPS receivers used by law enforcementin , 44 Hasadic Jewish comm New York , 210 New Yor , 369 Palisades roc idge, 61 World Trade Center site (2001), 40f w of U.S. by a New Yorker, artist’s conception of, 246f World TradeC enter,l idar image of, 46f World TradeC enter k, wing, 46 New York Times, 98 NewZ ealand administrationo 119 geothermal energy, use of, 138 hydroelectric power consumption, 135 massive flows of immigrants to, 257 asnuc lear free, 131 wetlands,l osso f, 149 Niches, 394 Nickel,de positso f, 142 Niger desertification in, 145 170 Nigeria census, 188–89 owth rate in Lagos, 388 relocation of c 284 traffic problems in Lagos, 389 N ica), 188 boats as residences on, 358 channelizationo f, 397 delta, 68

N louds, 96 Nirvana, 235 Nitric acid in acid precipitation, 406,407 f Nitrogen, 400, 401f Nitrogend ioxide, 407 Nitrogeno xides in formation of acid precipiation, 407,408 from incineration of solid waste, 425 Nitrouso xides, 114 NobelP eaceP rize, 271 No Child Left Behind Act, 6,17 f Nodal regions, 13, 436 No 270f Nomadic herding, 320–21,321 f Nonbasics ectorso fu rban eas, –65,365 f Nonecumene, 184 No esources, 138, 141–44, 141f,141 t,142 f, 143f,143 t copper, c see Copper) distribution of, 141–42, 142f, 143t overview, 138,141, 141 f,141 t Nongov ations (NGOs), 271,271 f as ch enge to state, 278 preser through, 422 Nonindustr ountries. See Least-developed countries Nonmater e, 219 Nonpoint sources of water pollution, 399 Nonrene esources, 122–32 seeC see N nuclear( seeN uclear oils , 129,130 ,130 f,131 petroleum( seeP etroleum) sources of, in U.S., 122, 122f tars and, 129,130 , 131, 131f Nonrenewable resources, 120–21, 120f Norgay, Tenzing, 58 North America. See also individual countries agr egions of, 330f sseso f, 439,440 f copper deposits in western, 143 th center, 208, 209f expansion by Europeans into, 276–77,278 f languages pread, 215 vestock- ain farming in, 329 settlemento f, 184 source regions for air masses in, 95, 96f wetlands, 147

North American Free-Trade Agreement (NAFTA), 271, 301–2 North American Free-Trade Association, to state, 278 North American plate, 54, 55, 55f North Atlantic current, 92f North Atlantic drift, 92 North Atlantic Tr ation (NATO) formation, 302 membership, 303f peacekeeping force in Bosnia, and Kosovo, 271, 297 North olina, formation of Outer Banks, 74 North Dakota, urban zone of influence for Grand For 367 Nor 90, 91f North equator current, 92f Northern coniferous forests, 150 North Korea, as nation-state, 276 North Pacific current, 91–92, 92f North Pacific gyre, 393 North Pole in geographic grid system, 22–24, 22f North-South line, 204, 204f, 317 N y birth rate declining in, 169 gender in, 240 hydropower generation in, 135 gas, exportation of, 129f N , 148 Not in My Back Yard (NIMBY ), 425 Nuclear , 131–32, 132f fission, 131–32, 132f fusion, 132 problems 132 production and consumption, 131–32, 132f Nuc y Commission, 132 Nutrients defined, 394 399–400, 401f Nyerere, Julius, 277

O Obama, Barak, 37, 429 Obsidian, 51 Oceania, wood used in, 150 Oceans international law of the sea, 299–300, 300f maritime boundaries, 298–300, 299f, 300f

INDEX

water boundaries, conflicts from, 286–87, 287f Off-farm sales in agr e, 327 Offi onmental Justice, 306–7 Offshores andbars, 74f Offshoring, 344 , 397, 397f Ohio industr oduction operationin, 401f populationden sit atterns for Cleveland, 374–75, 375f Oil crude( seeP etroleum) formation, 52 spills, 402 Oils ands, 129 Oils hale, 129,130 ,130 f,131 402 Okeechobee, Lake (Florida), deteriorationo f, 400f OkefenokeeS wamp( Georgia), 147 O forced migration of the Five ed Tribes to, 258f 128–29 O

ornado (1999), 100f Old-gro rests, 152–53 Open-pitmin ing, 412,413 Oppor itha pace, 251 416–17, 417f Oregon hydroelectricp owerin , 134 prohibition of urban conversions in Portland, 380 W ationalF orest (Oregon), c in, 151 Ores, 138, 141. See also Mineral resources Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), 123,302 Orographic effect, 101,109 Orographic precipitation, 95,95 f O oman Empire, domination of Middle East, 274, 274f Outsourcing, 343,344 f O glacial, 73, 73f Overburden, 127,413 Overfishing, 333–34, 333f,334 f Overpopulation, 185–87,187 f Oxbowl akes, 69, 69f O in chemic ing, 63–64 Ozone depletion of the ozone layer, 408–9,410 f formation, 407–8,408 f pollution, 408,408 f

P Pacific Ocean copper,s eabedmin ingo f, 144 garbage patches in, 393, 393f ringo ffi re in, 56, 56f Pacific plate, 54, 54f,55 ,55 f,56 f P biogasa sen ergys ource, 134f border dispute with India, 288 census,p roblems with, 189 civilw ar, 446f creation by fragmentation, 281 establishmento f, 285 Kashmirea rthquake (2005), 60 religious control in, 229 relocation of c y, 284 ation in, 146–47 P ocky ridge( New York), 61 Pancasila, 223 Pangaea, 53, 54f Parabolic trough systems, 135, 135f,136 Paraguay,h ydropowerg eneration in, 135 P vation, 209–10 P id system, 23 Parasitic diseases, 179 Part-nation state, 276, 277f PatentO ffice, U.S., 247 Pattison, W D., 17 Peak land value intersection, 371 Pelée,M ount,v olcano (Martinque,1902) , 49 Pennsylvania coal mine accident in Quecreek, Pennsylvania (2002), 21 deathsfr omt e inversion holding in smog in Donora (1948), 88 nuclear accident at Three Mile Island (1979), 132 resourceba se of, 120 r egion, 59f Schuyl anthracite deposits, 126–27, 439, 440f, 441f,442 site of Philadelphia, 363, 363f, 364f Perceptual regions, 15, 15,16 f, 436 Percholate, 402 Perforated states, 281 Periodicma rkets, 238f Peripheral location, 297 Peripheralmo del, 372–73,373 f Permafrost, 71 Per esources, 120,120 f PersianG ulf War (1990–1991), 289,289 f,298 P wild 156 P rench, 55f

P mboldtc urrent, 92f Pesticides glob consumption of, increasein , 325 as water pollutants, 400 Peters, Arno, 38 Peters Projection, 38 Petroleum consumers, 123f defined, 52 asen erg esource, 122–24, 123f,124 f,125 f formation, 52 producers, 123,123 f production flow by sea, map of, 123,124 f refining of, 123 resource reserves, 123–24, 125f reuseo f by-products, 121 world dependence on, 123 Pfiesteria piscicida, 401 pHfa ctor, 406 P deforestation in, 153 geothermal energy, use of, 138 limits on exportation of logs, 338 P ,M ount, volcano (1991), 113 Promised Land dump in Manila, 427f sugar loading at port of Cebu, 337f PhilippineS eap late, 55f Phosphates depositso f, 142 miningo f, 412 inN auru, 119,119 f P a sw aterp 400,401 f Photochemic , 407–8, 408f,409 f Photography, remote sensing in th features, 39–40,39 f,40 f,42 f Photo electricity generated by, 136 Physic ibutes, 10–11, 10f, 11f, 12f Physicalba rrierst omig ration, 266 Physical environment as controlling economic activity, 314 Physicalg eography, 5,51 Physiologic tion, 185,186 t Ph 409 Pidginl , 218 P , Mount,v olcano (Philippines,1991) , 113 Places imilar , 13,14 f,15 Placeu , 261,351 Plains, locations of, 77 Planned cities, in developing world, 390,390 f

I-16

Planned economies agriculture in, 332 defined, 315, 316, 316f Plan of Action for Women in Development, 326 Plantation, 330–31, 332f Plantation crops, 331–32, 332f Plants , preserving (see , preserving) in biodiversity hot spots, 416, 416f centers of plant domestication, 207, 209f exotic species, introduction of, 418–20, 419f habitat loss or alteration, 416–17, 417f human impact on, 414, 415–22 hunting and commer tation, 417–18, 418f poisoning and contamination of, 420–21, 420f at risk of extinction, 415 Plateau regions, 77 Plate tectonics, 53, 54–61, 62f, 64f, 66f defined, 54 diastrophism, 57–60, 61f, 62f earthquakes (see thquakes) movement of the continents, 53–55, 53f, 54f, 55f, 56f, 57 tectonic forces, 57–61, 57f, 59f, 60f, 61f, 62f, 64f, 66f volcanism (see Volcanism) Platinum, deposits of, 142 Playas, 69 P , 290f Pleistocene period, 73, 74 Plumes, 64f Pneumonia, 179 Point sources of water pollution, 399 Point symbols on thematic maps, 33–34, 34f Poland as nation-state, 276, 277f Polar easterly winds, 90, 91f Polar high pressure, 90, 91f P 303, 303f Politic iers to migration, 266 P olling economic activities, 314 P geography, 5, 273–309 defined, 275 local organizations (see Political organization, local and r nations, 275–76, 277f nation-states, 275–76, 277f overview, 275, 275f states (see States) terrorism, 294–95 women, increasing influence of, 292–93

I-17

INDEX

Politic 260,260 f Politic ntegration, 271,271 f Politic ation, loc r 303–8f, 304f, 305f icting strategies, 305,305 f environmental injustice, 306–7 politic ower,fr agmentation of, 305–7,308 f representation, geography of, 304–5,304 f,305 f Politic egions, 445–46, 446f Politic stems, national. See States Po ack, overfishing of, 334 P defined, 398 environmental, 398–99 , 402 Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 306, 402 Polytheism, 223 Pol lc ide, 307 Pony Express, 244, 244f,266 Popularcult ure, 219 Popular regions, 15, 436 Population 163–64,164 f,166 f death rates, 167–68, 168f,169 , 170–71 definitions, 162–75 doublingt imes, 172, 174–75, 174f,174 t,175 f fer 164, 165–67, 166f,167 f,169 owth, 161–62,162 f,163 t human migration patterns in U.S.in1950s , 36 p amids, 171–72,171 f,172 f, 173f ease, 172, 174,174 –75,174 f, 174t,175 f as regional focus, 442–43, 443f replacement levels for a, 169 state is sized by number of residents (2000), cartogram where, 36 world( see World population) zero population growth, 169 Population, controls, 190–91, 191f Population chimneys, 172 Population data, 188–90, 189f P , 185–88, 186t, 187f,1 88f,189 f agr , 185,186 t ithmeticdens , 185 c , 186–87, 187f crudedens , 185,186 t over 185–87,187 f overview, 185,186 t physiologic densi , 185, 186t

urbanization, 187–88, 187f, 188f,189 f Population explosion, 169, 178, 182f Population geography, 160, 161–93 demographic equation (see Demographic equation) demographict ransition( see Demographic transition model) growth, 161–62,162 f,163 t replacement levels in, 169 Population momen m, 192,192 f Population projections, 189–90 Population prospects, 191–93, 192f aging, 192–93,19 2f momen m, 192 PopulationR eferenceB ureau, 161,163, 188 Possibilism, 199 Potato blight, effects of, 313 P ergy, 122 P y renewable resources, 120,120 f P t ratio, 193 P cleanupeffo rts, 404 Pover characteristics of, 380–81 onmental injustice with, 306–7 as motivation for migration, 259–60 trendt og unger, 319, 319f Precipitation effecto fo ceanc urrentso n, 92 as er 67, 68f iation in yearly, 112, 113f inh ydrologicc ycle, 394–95, 395f inlo w-pressurez ones, 88f overview, 92,94 f 95–96,95 f,96 f,97 f Pressure, air as affecting weather. See Air pressure, as affecteather Pressure gradient force, 87 Pr 314, 314f, 315, 315f agriculture( seeA gr e) defined, 314,350 examples, 314,314 f extractive industries, 333, 334–35 fishing (seeF ishing) gatheringin dustries, 332–33 logging( seeL ogging) see Mining and quarrying) trade in primary products, 337–38,337 f Primary consumers, 394f

Pr 405 Primatec ities, 283, 369 Primemer idian, 22f, 23–24 Prince William Sound, 402 Producers, 394f Programfo rM onitoringE merging Diseases (ProMED), 179 Projections, defined, 189 Projections, population, 189–90 Prorupts tates, 279,281 f Protectiono heM editerranean Sea Against Pollution, 404 Protectorates, 276 Protestantism. See also Chr churches in comm , f Protestant Reformation, 228, 229 Proto-Indo-Europeanl family, 214 Proved reserves, 121 Psychologic , 245, 246f, 247f Ptolemy, 4f,21 Publich ousingp rojects, 376,376 f P erP rize, 208 P 259, 260f Pumice, 51 Purchasingp owerp arity, 203 Pushfa ctorsfo rmig ration, 259, 260f Pyramids,p opulation, 171–72, 171f, 172f,173 f

Q Qatar, negotiations on opening world markets in agricule (Doha Round) (2001), 338 Quadrangle maps, 30, 31f Q 33 Quantitative maps, 33 Quartz, 51 Quaternar 314,314 f, 315,352–53 Q ya ctivities, 314,314 f, 315,353

R Rabbits, 418 Race, 236 R ing) systems, 39, 40f Radioactive waste, 427–30, 428f disposal, 428–30,428 f high-level waste, 427–28 low-level waste, 427 el, 427, 428

Railhead location, 363 Railroads as ing factor, 291, 292f Rain. See Precipitation Raleigh, Walter, 255 Rank-size , 369 R ease of a population, 172, 174, 174–75, 174f, 174t, 175f Rates as used by demographers, 163 R ation, 345–46 Raw mater ientation, 340f Reapportionment, 304 moraines, 72f Recycling, 156 copper, 143–44 e-waste, 424 of solid wastes, 425–26, 426f, 427f Redistricting, 304 , 148 Reefs, coral, 75, 75f Reference maps, 29 Reflection of solar radiation, 84, 86f Regional 300–303f, 301f, 302f 300–302, 301f, 302f military and politic 302–3, 303f Regional autonomy, 294–95 217–19, 221f y, 5, 433 Regional government, 283 Regionalism, 293–94, 296f Regions, 13, 14f, 15, 16f boundaries of, 436, 436f core of, 437 in the cultur onment tradition, 442–46, 443f, 444f, 445f, 446f defined, 13, 435 domains of, 437 in the earth science tradition, 437–39, 438f, 440, 440f, 441f, 442 economic, 447–48, 447f, 448f ecosystems as, 450–52, 452f formal, 13, 14f, 436, 447 13, 15f, 436, 447 as hierarchic y arranged, 436–37, 437f landforms as, 437–38, 438f egion, 443–44, 444f in the loc 447–52, 447f, 448f, 449f, 452f location of, 436 445f multifactor formal regions, 439 esources, 439, 440f, 441f, 442

INDEX

eo f, 435–37, 435f,436 f, 437f per 15,16 f, 436 political, 445–46,446 f population as r 442–43,443 f r 435–52 relative location of, 436 437 tento f, 436 spheres of, 437 f, 13–15,14 f,15 f,16 f urban, 448–50,449 f inw eathera ndc limate, 438– 39, 440f Relation direction, 8 Relative direction, 8 Relative distance, 9 , 93 Relative location, 281–82 Relative location of regions, 436 Relicbo undaries, 285 Religions, 222–35 as affecting birth rates, 164 ascen tr rces, 293 ascen tripetalfo rces, 291 classification and distribution of, 223, 224, 225–26, 226f,227 f defined, 222 diffusion routes of major, 226, 227f economic patterns as inter223 effectso ncult ure, 222 222, 225, 227f ethnic, 224 ov w, f principal( see individual religions) tr universalizing, 223,224 voodoo, 210 world,ma po f, 224, 226 Remotes ensing, 38–40,39 f,40 f, 42f Renewableener esources, 132–38,139 f,140 f biomass fuels (see Biomass fuels) seeGeo hydropower, 134–35,134 f, 135f ov w, 132–33 solarener seeS gy) windp ower, 138,140 f Renewabler esources, 120,120 f, 133 Renewal,do wntown, 377,379– 80, 379f Replacement level fer , 164, 165–66 Representative fraction map sc , 29, 29f

Reradiation ofs olar , 84, 85f Reserves, resource, 121, 121f coal, 124,125 f,126 minerals, 141, 141t 128–29, 130f oil, 123–24 Resource reserves. See Reserves, resource Resources, 119 management, 154–56, 156f na r y occurring (seeN atural resources) as sources of conflict, 288–90, 289f sustainablede velopmento f, 155 terminology, 119–21, 120f, 121f 267,268 f Reusabler esources, 121 Reuse benefits of, 156 of nonrenewable resources, 121 Western Europe) cleanup efforts, 404 asin y, 285 os,bl ack, 417 ket in Japan protected, 327 tion of, 322, 323f rice-or China, economy of, 324 , C.F., 63 , 63 egion, 58, 59f tV fever, 179 s, 58, 60f offi re, 55, 56, 56f,57 , U.S.) U.S. and Mexico, 287, 287f 396 Hu rricane( 2005), 81 179 vers. SeeS treams Robinson, J. Lewis, 17,18 Robinson map projection, 28, 28f Rockc ycle, 52–53,53 f Roc alls, 64, 67, 67f 214–15 Roman Empire de y by, 4,18–19 geographict radition, 433 official religion of, 228 Romania y over Transylvania, 288 as joining European Union, 301f Rotar 254f

Rumney, George (Climatology and the World’s Climates), 439 Runoff, agr 399–401, 400f RussianF ederation Chechnya war for independence from, 296–97 components of, 296 humid continental climate in, 102f,103 f,104 t,111 f hydropower, production and consumption, 134 as member of nuclear fusion consortium, 132 esources, 142 128, 129f elds, de , 124 oil shale deposits in, 129, 130f ivers, data on, 403 , 185 yramidfo r, 171, 171f tars andsdep ositsin , 129 technological change in, 206 Rwanda warfar Tutsi and Hutuin , 236 women’s politic ticipation in, 292

S S

r-Simpson Hurricane Sc , 99t S esert( Africa)c omposition, 75–76 S ation, 146–47,147 f S interruption of spawningby da ms, 137 S rshes development of, 74 ation, 146–47, 147f San Andreas transform fault as boundary of North American and Pacific plates, 55,55 f,57 ,62 f horiz , 59,61 f S fornia), satellite image of fires in, 42f Sand beaches, erosion and deposition on, 76–77 iven, 75–76 S 74, 74f Sandstone, 52 San Francisco, 21 San hunter-gatherer (Botswana), 206 Sanitaryl andfi 423, 423f,425

I-18

Sanitation systems in demographic transitions, 177– 78, 178f San Juan Mountains (Colorado), 73f Satellites spy, 40, 41 communication, action of, 255 Ikonos, 41 Landsat, 40, 42f remote sensing by, 39–40, 39f, 40f, 42f Satisficing ing, 341 Savanna climate, 101, 101f, 102f, 103f, 104t, 105f Scale of maps, 28–29, 29f, 30f size and, 9, 9f Sc See individual countries Scavengers, 424, 426, 427f Schistosomiasis, 179 Schuyl anthracite deposits (Pennsylvania), 126–27, 439, 440f, 441f, 442 Schuy (Pennsylvania), 440 Schuy ennsylvania), 363 Scotia Plate, 55f Scouring by glaciers, 73 190, 191f Sea breezes, 88, 89f Sea Islands (Georgia, South Car 444 Sea level, predicted rise in, 115, 116 Seasons of the year e in, 82–83, 82f, 83f, 84, 84f, 86f seasonal shift, extr iation in, 90 Secondar 314, 314f, 315, 315f defined, 314, 350 examples, 314, 314f ing (see Secondary consumers, 394f S 219 Seconds, in geographic grid system, 23–24, 24f Sections in township and range system, 25, 26f Sector model, 372, 372f S ism, 225–26 Sedimentary rocks, 51–52, 52f, 53f Seismic waves, 59–60, 63 Seismographs, 60 Selective cutting in logging, 151, 151f Self-determination, national, 293–94 Separatist movements, 293, 294, 295–97, 296f

I-19

INDEX

Serengeti National Park (Tanzania), 101 Ser 350–52,350 t, 351f,3 53–54,354 f,355 t Severe acute respirator ome (SARS), 179 Sewage treatment, 177–78,1 78f,403 as water pollutant, 403 Shaded r maps, 32 Shaftmin ing, 127 S , 52,52 f S il, 129 Shamanism, Shamans, 224 S wns, 189f, 359, 389, 389f Shape as map projection, 25, 27f Sheltered communities, 383 Shieldvo lcanoes, 60,64 f Shifting cultivation, 321–22, 322f,3 23 Shinto( Japanese), 224,235 ,235 f Shoppingcen ters, 374 S thaGa utama, 234 S borne radar (SLAR), 40 Sierra Leone, in, 170 Sierra Ne (Nevada), 58–59 S 234 Silent Spring (Carson), 421,450 Silicon, in photo 136 Silt aslo ado f as tream, 68 in sedimentary rock formation, 52 Siltstone, 52 Singapore, 282 aging of population, 192 birth rates in, 164 climagraphfo r, 105f Hindu temple of Sri Mariamman, 195 P amily Planning Board, 191 population gro 161 Singlefa ctorfo rmalr egions, 437 S formationo f, 413,416 f in a karst landscape, 70, 71f Site, 8, 363 Situation, 8, 363,364 f Sizea nds c , 9,9 f SLAR( irborne radar), 40 Slash-and-burn agr e. See Shifting cultivation Slate, 52 Sleepings ickness, 179 Slo formationo f, 297 superblocks in Bratislava, 386f Slovenia karstt opographyin , 70,71 f as nation-state, 276, 277f

S x, 178 S ale maps, 29, 30f S t gro ograms, 380 Smelting, 335 Smog photochemic 407–8,408 f, 409f e inversions trapping, 85,87 f,88 ,88 f, 405, 408, 408f Sm , diffusion of, 255 S thwestern U.S.), damming of, 136 S , 297 S sidec ities, 380, 380f,381 Sociofacts, 199,204, 206, 207f, 219 Sociologic ubsystem, 199, 204–5,205 f,206 f S eep, 64, 67 67f S areas with naturally fertile, 319, 320f creation of, 64 desertification, 145–47,145 f, 146f,147 f,148 f erosion, –47,144 f,145 f, 146f,147 f,148 asla ndr esource, 144–47,144 f, 145f,146 f,147 f,148 productivity,ma intaining, 148 ation of, 146–47, 147f Solar cells, 136 Solaren th’s inc 82–83,82 f,83 f,84 f y derived from, 122 asener esource, 135,135 f, 136,137 inh ydrologicc ycle, 395f in photochemical smog production, 407–8, 408f refl , 84, 86f reradiationo f solaren ergy, 84,85 f transformation into heat, 82 Solidw aste ant, 401 f Eastern Pacific Garbage Patch, 393, 393f e-waste, 424 GreatP acific Garbage Patch, 393, 393f mor om solid waste consumption or entanglement, 393 scavenging through, 424, 426, 427f volumeo f, 422 solid-waste disposal, 422–26, 422f,423 f,426 f e-waste, 424 incineration, 425

landfi 423, 423f,425 methodso f, 423, 423f m waste, 422–23, 422f over w, 422 source reduction and r cling, 425–26,426 f, 427f Solution, formation of, 70 Somalia lacko fa c ensus, 188 maternal mor 170 Sony, 270f Source reduction of solid wastes, 425–26,426 f,427 f Source regions, 95–96, 96f S frica 306 HIV/AIDSin , 169,170 mineral resources, 142, 142f South America. See also individual countries airma sseso f, 439,439 f copper deposits in western, 143 th center, 208, 209f expansion by Europeans into, f massive flows of immigrants to, 257 , 442– 43, 443f South American plate, 55f SouthC ar gentrified housing in Charleston, 379f G opulation, 443–44,444 f South Dakota, Blac 438, 438f South equator ent, 92f SouthK orea biogasa sen ource, 133 fertility in, 192 as member of nuc consortium, 132 as nation-state, 276 overpopulation of, 187 Seoula sp rimate , 369 f, 184 South Pole, in geographic grid system, 22 f SovietU nion( former). See Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) (former) Space Command, U.S., 41 SpaceI magingC orporation, 41 Spain vement, f,296 ,296 f birth rate declining in, 169 enclaves in North Africa and France, 282f separatist movement in, 95, 296f windp ower,u seo f, 138

S S

defined, 5–6 analysis demographics, 161 S behavior, 5 S data, 5 S 5, 12–13, 208, 209–10, 210f contagious, 252–53, 252f, 253f e change, 206 documenting, 255 hierarchical, 253 253f, 254f of innovation, 251–53, 252f, 253f routes of, 255 S ibution, 5, 13, 14f S extent, 5 S egions, 436 S interaction, 5, 11–12, 12f, 243–55, 256f automobiles, interaction on, 254 barriers to, 246 defined, and distance, 244–46, 245f and innovation, 247 maps, 245, 247f, 248 ov w, 244 of technology, 253–55, 256f telecommunications, 254–55, 256f S margin of profi , 340, 341f S 376 S 5 S processes, 5 S elationships, 5 S science, 5 S systems, 5, 304 S iation, 5 Special crop agr e, 331–32, 331f, 332f Special-purpose maps, 29 Species , pr see , preserving) endangered, 414 exotic species, introduction of, 418–20, 419f 414, 415 invasive, 418–19, 419f threatened species, 414 414 Speech communities, 216 Spent fuel, 427, 428 Spheres of regions, 437 Spits, 74f Spot heights, 32 Spot satellite (France), 40 Sprawl, 374–77, 374f, 377f Spring equinox, 83, 84f S 359, 389, 389f SriL anka, use of DDT in, 178 Stacked gerrymandering, Stage in life, 250 Stalactites, 70

INDEX

S 70 S , 216 Stateless nation, 276, 277f States boundaries( seeB ies) centr rces( seeC entr rces) centripetalfo rces( seeC entriprces) , 277–79 compared to nations and nation-states, 275–76, 277f cooperation among (seeS tates, cooperation among) coresa ndc apitals, 282–84, 283f,284 f defined, 275–76,275 f,277 f evolutiono fmo dern, 276–77 278f,279 f geographic characteristics of, 279, 281–84, 281f, 282f,283 f,284 f location, 281–82, 282f ministates, 280 r lliances( see Regional shape, 279,281, 281 f States, cooperation among, 297–303 297–98 United Nations (seeU nited Nations) Stepmig ration, 261–62 Steppes, 106,106 f St.H elens,M ount,v olcano (Washington, 1980), 57, 61, 66f Stone Mountain (Georgia), 61 Storms, 97–99, 97f,98 f,99 t,100 f Strabo Geography, 18 on human-environmental partnership, 4 on the task of geography, 3 Strata, 52, 53f Stratosphere, 81f,87 f Strato volcanoes, 60, 64f S louds, 93, 94f Streams arid areas, stream landscape in, 69–70,69 f asbo undaries, 284 erosion in, 67–70, 68f, 69f,70 f humida reas, stream landscapes in, 68–69, 69f landscapeo f, 68–70,69 f,70 f load, 68 modification of, 397–99 Strip-cropping, 148 Stripmining ofco 127 environmental damage from, 412,413 f on Nauru, envir damage from, 119 Study of Man, The (Linton), 212

S S

234,235 f cticc limates, 102f,103 f, 104t,110 –11,111 f,112 f Subduction, 57,57 f zones, y around, 138,139 f S 293 S orism, Subpolarl o inds, 90,91 f Subsequentbo undaries, 285 Subsidence, 413,416 f Subsistencea gr e, 320–22, 321f,322 f,323 ,323 f areaso he world, 321f extensive subsistence agriculture, 321 f,323 intensive subsistence agriculture, 320,321 f,322 , 323,324 overview, 320 in technic y less-advanced countries, 201, 202f Subsistence economic system, 320 Subsistence economies, 315,316 , 316f S fdiffer enten ergy sources, 156 S inciple, 340 Subtropic ighp ressure, 90, 91f Suburbanization, 374–75, 374f, 375f,385 Suburbs, 362 Sudan,s tatet errorismin , 295 Sugar, trade in, 337f Sugarcane, ethanolp roduced from, 133 S , 127,128 f S xide, 411 in acid precipitation, 406, 407f from incineration of solid waste, 425 S rioxide, 88 Summers olstice, 83, 84f Sun distance from earth, 83f energy or y derived from, 122 ergy( seeS olaren ergy) Superimposedbo undaries, 285, 285f Supersaturated air, 93, 94f Supply curve, 339f S 278, 316 S 297–98 Surfacemin ing. SeeS tripmin ing Surface runoff, as er 67,68 f S velopment, 155 Swahilil , spreado f, 218–19 SwampL andsA ct( mid-1800s), 149 Swamps, 147 Sweden birth rate declining in, 169

genderequ it , 240 mor in, 167 nuclear power in, 131, 132f offshor ks, 138 populationp yramidfo r, 171, 171f Swiddena griculture, 321–22, 322f,323 Switzerland hydroelectric power consumption, 135 as m , 277f Synclines, 59f Syncretism, 210 Sy 215 Sy 398 Syria ver Golan Heights, 290 independence,g ainingo f, 274f ation in, 146–47 Sy 398 Systematicg y, 5 Systemsa nalysis, 450

T Taconite, 337 Taiwan birth rates in, 169 fertili rates in, 169 overpopulation of, 187 settlemento f, 184 T 67,67 f Tamborav olcano( Indonesia, 1815), 113 Tanzania, culture complex of the 197,197 f Taoism, 235 T izi, 358 Tarns, 72f Tars and asen esource, 129, 130, 131, 131f Technological achievement index, 349f Technological development as control ng economic 314 Technological subsystem, 199, 200, 201–2, 202f,203 f, 204,204 f Technology high-tech industry, 348–50, 349f teractiono f, 253–55, 256f Tectonics defined, 57 plate tectonics (seeP late tectonics) Telecommunications, effects of spatial interaction on, f Telephones, of, 210

I-20

Temperate hardwood forests, 150 T e record, 114–15 air, as affecting weather (see e, as affecting weather) T e inversion, 85, 87f, 88, 88f, 405, 408, 408f Tempora Worker Program, 265 T U.S.) damming of, 136 hydropower generation from, 134 Tennessee V Authority (TVA), 134 Termi 72f Terracing, 148, 184 Territor , 250 Territorial segregation as trait of , 236, 237f Territory, as precondition for separatist movements, 297 Terrorism, 294–95 Ter activities, 314, 314f, 315, 350–52, 350f, 350t, 351f Ter 190 Texas 128–29 oz ver, 409f vernment ov immigration, 264 Thailand Bangkok as pr , 369 biogas as source, 133 deforestation in, 153 fertil 165 planned cities in, 390 traffic problems in Bangkok, 389 Thames River (England), 311 Thematic maps, 29 area symbols, 34, 35f, 36f data representation on, 32–35, 34f, 35f, 36f geodetic control data, 33 line 36f point symbols, 33–34, 34f Theme of location, 311 y, 135, 135f, 136 402 anners, 39, 40f Threatened species, 414 Three Gorges Dam (China), 136–37 Tigris ver (Iraq, S ia, Turkey) damming of, 136 drawing off of water, 397 Tilapia, 420 Till, 73, 73f Time vation over, 252, 252f time-distance, measurement by, 245

I-21

INDEX

Time Magazine, 271 Timez ones,w orld, 23–24, 23f Tin, 121 Tires inm aste, 422f recyc , 426f Tobacco, diffusion of, 255 Tobler’sF irstL awo fGeo graphy, 11 Tongass N orest (Alaska), 152–53, 153f Topic sh 333 Topographicma ps, 29–30 production of, 30, 31f symbolsu sed, 30,32, 32 f terrainr epresentation, 29,30, 31f,32 , 32f,33 Toponyms, 221 Toponymy, 221 Torah, 226 Tornados, 98–99,100 f classification of, 99 O ahoma Ci , O ahoma (1999), 100f Total fertility rate, 164,165 –67, 166f,167 f,169 Tourism, 352 Towns, 362 Township and range system, 25, 26f Townships, 25,26 f Tr y, 17–19, 18f Tragedy of the commons, 334 Transform plate boundaries, 55, 55f,62 Transhumance, 321 Tr thr ates, 164 Tr porations, 269, 270f, 346 Transpirationin h ydrologicc ycle, 394–95,395 f Transportation completion of interstate highway system, 374 as source of air pollution, 405 f rce, 291 Transportation, U.S. Department of, 127 Transport gradients, 328f Transverse dunes, 75f Trash. SeeS olidw aste Tr heP yrenees, 282 Trewartha,Glenn T., 442 Tribal religions, 224 Trinidad and Tobago as exporter of liquefied gas, 128 tars andsdep ositsin, 129 Tr Texas), cleanup efforts, 404 Tripp ames, 77 Tritium, 132 Tropic limates, 101,101 f, 102f–103f,104 t,105 ,105 f

monsoon, 101, 101f,102 f, 103f,104 t,106 f savanna, 101,101 f,102 f,103 f, 104t,105 f tropical rain forests, 101,101 f, 102f,103 f,104 t,105 f Tropicalfo rests medic esources from, 156 tropical lowland hardwood forests, 150, 151f tropical rain forests (see Tropical rain forests) Tropical lowland hardwood forests, 150, 151f Tropical rain forest climates, 101, 101f,102 f,103 f,104 t,105 f Tropical rain forests deforestation of, 144–45, 144f, 153–54. 154f,155 f medic esources from, 156 Tropico fC ancer, 101 Tropic of Capricorn, 101 Tropopause, 81f,87 f Troposphere, 81,81 f,393 , 404 T ck farms, 329 T roclamation of 1945, 299 Tsunami, 60 early warning system, 65 Hawaii( 1946), 65 IndianO cean( 2004), 65 Tuberculosis, 179 Tuna,o verfishing of, 334 Tundra, 102, 103f, 111,112 f Turkey Blue Mosquein I stanbul, 233f dam construction project, 136 desertification in, 146 relocation of c , 284 as source of Proto-IndoEuropean language y, 214 Typhoons, 97

U Ubiquitousin dustries, 341 Uganda fertil 165 yramidfo r, 171, 171f U , nuclear accident at Chernobyl (1986), 132 U 409, 410f UNAIDS ( Joint United Nations Program on AIDS), data on deaths from, 168, 169, 170 Underpopulation, 185 Uniformr egions, 13 Union of Soviet S lics (USSR) (former) boundarydis putew ithC hina, 286–87

c tographic distortions in, 36,38 y-contr turein , 332 Chechnya war for independence, 296–97 disbandingo f, 297 forcedmi grations in, 257 independent countries formed from, 279f infant mor 168 as m , 276, 277f nuclear accident at Chernobyl (1986), 132 ation in, 345–46 separatist mo countrieso f, 296–97 states, 283 fer 192 separatist movement in, 294– 95, 296f United Nations, 298–300, 298f, 299f,300 f liates, 298,300 aging of populations, data on, 193 States, 280 authorizingP ersian-G War, 298 Beijing Plus Five Conference, 239 Beijing Plus Ten Conference, 239 Beijing World Conference on Women( 1995), 239 Bosnia and Kosovo, sending of peacekeeping troops to, 271,298 Cairo+5P lan( 1994), 180–81 CairoP lan( 1994), 180–81 Commission on Sustainable Development, 155 Confer onment and Development (Brazil) (1992), 155,180 Conference on Trade and Development (1964), 204f,338 Trade in Endangered Species, 421 Convention on Preser Biologic , 421 Convention on the Law of theS ea, 299–300,299 f, 300f definitiono fs tates, 280 deforestation, data on, 153–54 desertification, data on, 145, 145f Development Decades, 317 Development Fund, 271

Economic and S 204f Educational, Scientific, and ation (UNESCO), 38 fertility rates, data on, 169 Food and Agr nization (see Food and Agr ation, United Nations) International Conference on Population and Development (Egypt) (1994), 180–81 International Year of Microcredit, 326 interventionism by, 298 Kosovo, peacekeeping forces in, 298f least developed countries, 179 maritime boundaries, 298– 300, 299f, 300f megacities, data on, 359, 360t missing women, data on, 173 ov w, 298 physic , data on, 238 population, data on, 167, 182, 183, 183f Population Di sion, 161, 181 population gro data on, 161, 162f Statistic ce, 188 Sudan, peacekeeping role in, 295 technologic achievement index, 349f UNAIDS ( Joint United Nations Program on AIDS), data on deaths from, 168, 169, 170 urban agr e, data on, 323 urbanization, data on, 187, 189f water-stressed countries, data on, 397 World Health Organization ( see World ation ( Year of Safe Motherhood, The, 170 United States acculturation in, 211, 211f average work trips in, 251 blizzards in February (2010), 98, 100f Blue States, Red States map (2008), 37 border dispute with Mexico over o Grande ver, 287, 287f broken borders, 264–65 y rates in (1998), 13, 14f carrying c of, 186 cash grain farm in Midwest, 197f

INDEX

channelizedmig rationfr om South to Midwest, 268f ar, 288 oduction and consumption, 124,126 ver water from Colorado , 397 contaminated dr we s in, 403 copper, production and consumption of, 143–44, 335, 335f deforestation in, 154 undaries, 217,221 f DustB owl( 1930s), 75 early migrations of Germans to, 260f economic system in, 316 English-only laws, debate over, ethanol,us eo f, 133 ethnic niche businesses in, 262 e-waste,g enerationo f, 424 fer , 167 urein, 219 foreign sour resources, reliance on, 142,143 t French Canadians, selective acceptance of Anglo influence, 210 gender differences in labor force, 238–39 geodetic control data markers in, 33 geographers employed by government, 6–7 , use of, 138, 139f workco nnectedness of cities in, 368, 369f high-tech emplo 348 homeless in, 378 human migration patterns in 1950s, 36 hydropower, production and consumption, 134, 134f om Mexico, 262–63,263 f, 264 immigrants concentrating in gate , 377, 379 incineration of solid wastes in, 425 incr by women, 239 invasive species, 418–19, 419f large-sc 329 major cities, map of, 15 loc 304 loessdep ositsin, 76,78 f manganese, importation of, 121

massive flows of immigrants to, 257 170 as member of nuclear fusion consortium, 132 metropolitan areas with populations more than 2 367t migrationw ithin, 260 motor vehicle theft rates by state, opleth map of, 35f ests, logging in, 151–53,152 f,153 f production and consumption of, 128, 129 eserves, 129 nuclear power, production and consumption, 131–32, 132f oil production and consumption, 123, 124f,125 f, 126–27 129, 130f 100% American, 212 outsourcingby in dustries, 343, 344f ozone pollution, 408, 409f ban gro decline, 367,368 f politic 305–7, 308f politic rationst o, 260, 260f (2000), 9f , in 2005, 185 ro

rate in, 175

areas, change in (20002008), 377t yramidfo r, 171f, 173f,174 f progress in air pollution cleanup, 411 problemsw ith, 429 railroadsdis 292f reasons for Americans’ migration, 260–61 recycling programs, 426 Red States, Blue States map (2008), 37 religious regions in, 229, 230f, 231f reor oduction goals in, 328–29, 329f resour and Mexico, 288–89, 289f,397 ation in, 147

y of urban areas, 380f soil erosion in, 146, 147f,148 solar energy, consumption and production, 135 state is siz (2000), cartogram where, 36 orist attacks on, 294–95 tidal marsh destruction in, 417 tin, importation of, 121 transnationalc orporations headquarteredin , 270f urban patterns in 20th century, changes in, 374 vernacular Midwest, map of, 15,16 f vertical integration in agriculture, 327 view of U.S. by a New Yorker, artist’s conception of, 246f waters upply, 396–97, 396f wetlandsin , 147–49 wind power, use of, 138, 140f women’sl egislative representation in, 292–93 wood as energy resource, consumption and production of, 133 113 United S mericaDominican Republic Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA), 301–2 religions, 223,224 Uranium, 142f Uranium-235, 131,132 Urban, 362 Urban agr e, 323 Urban geography journey to work, importance of, 250,251 f as subdivision of geography, 5 Urban hierarchy, 368–69,369 f Urban influence zones, 367 Urbanization, 187–88, 187f,188 f, 189f average annual population gro 386f Canadianc ities, 385 cities in developing world, rapidly growing (see Cities in developing world, rapidly gro defined, 187, 362–63, 363f , ban, 383–90 Eastern European cities, 384, 386, 386f functions of cities (seeC ities, ) inside the cities (seeC ities, insidet he) location of urban settlements, 362–64,363 f,364f

I-22

loss of cropland from, 188 megacities, 359, 360f, 360t metropolitan ar lion or more (2005), 360f origins and evolutions of cities (see Cities, origins and evolution of ) percentage of national population classified as urban, 187, 188f systems of cities (see Cities, systems of ) urban share of, 361t trends toward, 188, 359, 360f, 360t, 361, 361t Western European cities, 384, 384f Urbanized areas, 362 Urban regions, 448–50, 449f Urban rene 376 Usable reserves, 121 U.S.-Mexico Border Counties Coa tion, 264 Ussuri River (Asia), 286 Bingham Canyon open-pit copper mine, 413f 129, 130f sands deposits in, 129

V V eezes, 88–89, 89f V ea maps, 34, 36f Venezuela, tar sands deposits in, 129 Ver map sc , 28–29, 29f Vermont Roc y in Barre, 310, 311 wood used in, 133 Vernacular regions, 15, 436 Veterans Administration (VA), 374 Vietnam, deforestation in, 153 Vinyl chloride, 402 Virginia GPS receivers used by law enforcement in, 44 loc 364f esource usage, 120 Vir maps, 43 Vitamin D, 236 V , 346 Volcanism, 57, 60–61, 64f, 66f distribution, 56f, 57 gro of, 56f, 57 hot spots, 57, 60, 64f (Indonesia, 1883), 113 location of, 55, 56f, 60 Pelée, Mount (Martinque, 1902), 49

I-23

INDEX

Volcanism—Cont. Pinatubo,M ount,( P pines,199 1), 113 shieldvo lcanoes, 60,64 f St. Helens, Mount (Washington, 1980), 61, 66f strato volcanoes, 60, 64f Tambora( Indonesia,1815) , 113 von Thünen, Johann, 327–28f von Thünen rings, 327,328 f Voodoo, 210 VotingR ightsA ct( 1965), 224 V 414

W Wales, slag heap sliding into Aberfan, 413 W tS tores, 255,346 W ping, 57 W reaty Organizations, 302–3 Washes, 70 Washington hydroelectricp owerin , 134 pollution from Anacortes oil refinery, 11f precipitation in, 95, 96f St. Helens, Mount, volcano (1980), 61,66 f Washington, D.C. colorinfr edp hotoo f, 39f White House as reflecting 207f Washington, George, 219 Washington, Lake (Washington), cleanupeffo rts, 404 Waste esource, 133–34, 134f hazardous, 423,426 –27 radioactive (see Radioactive waste) solid( seeS olidw aste) Water f, 395–97,395 f, 396f,397 f asbo y, 284,286–87, 287f human impacts on, 394–404 hydrologicc ycle, 394–95,395 f in location of urban settlements, 363 pollution (see Water , 398–99 running, as erosional agent, 67–70,68 f,69 f,70 f scar f, 395–96,396 f Waterdefi cits, 396 Waterdivides , 284 Waterman, T.T., 444–45 W ollution agr ces of (see Water pollution, agrices of )

causeso f, 398–99 contributors to, 399 controlling, 403–4,404 t industrials ourceso f, 402 eements on, 404t from mining, 402–3 from m esidences, 403 om Anacortes (Washington) oil refinery, 11f Water pollution, agr sources of, 399–401, 401f animalw astes, 400–401,401 f biocides( seeB iocides) fertilizers, 399–400, 401f Waterspouts, 99 W able, 70,70 f W por, 92–95,92 f,93 f,94 f Waves formationo f, 74f asg radationalp rocess, 74–75, 75f storms, development during, 97 Weather, 81. See also Precipitation air pressure as affecting (see essure, as affecteather) e, as affecting e, as (see affecting weather) effects of ocean currents on, 91–92,92 f ElN iño, 93,113 regions in, 438–39, 440f storms, 97–99, 97f,98 f,99 t, 100f Weathering, 62–64 chemical, 63–64 mechanic 63 Weather watchers, 81 Weber, fred, 339,339 f,340 , 341–42 Weberiana nalysis, 339, 339f,340 Wegener,A lfred, 53 Welshla asp arto fc e, 220 survivalo f, 213f Wester 90,91 f Western and Central Europe industr egion, 347, 347f Western W 158,159 WestGr eenlandc urrent, 92f West N 179 West V W inddr ift, 92f Wetlands coastalw etlands, 147–49,149 f estuarinez ones, 148,149 f inland, 147–48,149 f as land resource, 147, 148–49, 149f valueo f, 149

Wheat farming, large-sc , 329, 330–31, 330f White,L eslie, 199 Wild fe. See wildlife Wild The, 422 W ationalF orest( Oregon), c 151 W Jody, 271 Wind. See also specific winds Coriolis effect, 89–90, 90f, 91f fr t, 90 generationo f, 85 ir-circulationp 90,91 f ocesses, 75, 76, 78f land and sea breezes, 88,89 f mountain and v ley breezes, 88–89,89 f Wind farms, 138,140 Windmi s, 138, 139f Windp ower, 138 asen esource, 138,140 f state, 138,140 f Winds convection system, 87, 88f pressure gradient force in, 87 Windward sides, 95 Winters olstice, 83,84 f Wiredma gazine, 349f Women. SeeF Wood,a sen esource, 133 Wor en’sP arty, 225 WorldB ank, 338 building dam on S , financing, 398 chronic water shortages, data on, 396 , 188 World Conference on Women, 239 World Conservation Union, 415 World Council of Churches, 38 WorldHea uthor , 424 World Health Organization ( 170 data on, 405 DDTs upportedby , 421 deaths related to pregnancy and childbirth, data on, 170 alariaE radication Program, 421 health standards, , 411 World population , 183f distribution, 182–85, 183f, 184f numbers, 161–62,162 f,163 t, 175,175 f,183 World Refugee Survey, 257

World time zones, 23–24, 23f World Trade Organization (WTO), 300, 302 as ch nge to state, 278 demonstrations against, in Geneva (Switzerland), 271, 271f establishment, 338 negotiations on opening world markets in agriculture (Doha Round) (2001), 338 supranational r , 316 World W I Peace Map by T.E. Lawrence, 274, 274f redrawing of map of Middle East following, 274, 274f Worldwatch , data on extinction of plant and anispecies, 415 World Wide Web, 43 World Wildlife Fund, 422 Wyoming of, in 2005, 185 129, 130f

Y Y

afe Motherhood, The, 170 Y Wyoming), 69f Yemen, transition in, 176 Yew, Lee Kuan, 161 Yucca Mountain (Nevada), radioat, debate over proposed, 428–29 Y (former) br up of, 297 in, 236, 237f Yuro 444–45, 445f

Z Zebra, 416 Zedong, Mao (president, People’s Republic of China), 165, 191 Zero population gro 169 324 Zimbabwe HIV/AIDS in, 170 subsistance agriculture in, 197f Zinc, reuse of, 121 Zionism, 226 Zoning ordinances, 306