Internationalising Learning in Higher Education: The Challenges of English as a Medium of Instruction 3030215865, 9783030215866

Table of contents :
Contents......Page 5
Notes on Contributors......Page 7
List of Figures......Page 11
List of Tables......Page 12
1: Introduction......Page 14
References......Page 23
Part I: Policy into Practice......Page 27
1 Introduction......Page 28
2 The Profiles of the University Professors Using English as a Medium of Instruction......Page 30
3 Written and Oral Skills Implied in the EMI Teaching Context......Page 32
4 Mechanisms to Verify the Level of Competence in the Language in Recruiting Processes......Page 33
5 A Description of the Procedure in the Recruiting Process at the UFV to Measure English Language Competence......Page 34
7 Analysis and Findings......Page 36
8 Conclusions......Page 42
References......Page 44
1 Introduction......Page 45
2.1 Systematic Review......Page 47
2.2 The Case of a Business School......Page 48
3.1.1 Identification of Studies......Page 49
3.1.2 Findings of the Systematic Review......Page 57
3.2.1 Academic Performance......Page 60
3.3.1 Business Internships......Page 61
3.3.2 Students’ Satisfaction Questionnaire (Business Internships)......Page 62
3.3.3 Employers’ Satisfaction (Business Internships)......Page 63
4 Discussion......Page 64
5 Conclusions......Page 65
References......Page 66
Part II: Training Issues......Page 72
1 Introduction......Page 73
2 Observation......Page 75
3 Professional Development Courses......Page 77
4 Trainer Perspectives......Page 78
5 Trainee Perspectives......Page 83
6 Discussion......Page 85
7 Limitations......Page 87
References......Page 88
1 Context......Page 91
1.1 Language Ability......Page 92
1.2 Pedagogic Skills......Page 94
1.3 Wider Curriculum Knowledge......Page 96
3 Methodology and Method......Page 98
4.1 Teacher Educators......Page 100
4.1.1 Lecturers in EMI contexts......Page 105
5 Summary of Findings......Page 110
6 Conclusions......Page 113
7 Implications for Future Practice......Page 115
References......Page 116
1 Background and Rationale......Page 119
2 Theoretical Framework......Page 122
2.1 Language Description......Page 123
2.2 Needs Analysis......Page 124
3 Methodology......Page 126
4.1 Use of English at Work and Challenges......Page 129
4.2 Skills and Resources Needed......Page 132
5 Conclusions, Limitations and Further Research......Page 139
References......Page 141
Part III: Specific Aspects of English as a Medium of Instruction......Page 143
1 Introduction......Page 144
2 Corpus......Page 147
3 Method......Page 148
4 Results......Page 149
5 Conclusions......Page 151
Annex......Page 153
References......Page 158
1 Introduction......Page 161
2 Background......Page 163
3.1 Research Design......Page 165
3.2 Participants and Setting......Page 166
3.3.2 Semi-structured Interviews......Page 167
3.4 Data Collection Procedures......Page 168
4 Results......Page 169
4.1 Expected Qualifications for EMI......Page 171
4.2 Perceptions of Students and Faculty Members on EMI......Page 173
4.3 Practices of Faculty Members Regarding EMI......Page 174
4.4 Choice of Course Medium......Page 175
4.5 Language Problems......Page 176
4.6 Language Support......Page 177
5 Discussion......Page 178
6 Conclusion......Page 180
References......Page 181
1 Introduction......Page 184
2 The Role of EMI in Higher Education......Page 185
2.1 Institutional Advantages......Page 187
2.2.1 International and National Challenges......Page 189
Accreditation......Page 190
Training......Page 191
2.3 Commerce......Page 193
3 Materials and Methods......Page 194
4.1 Implementation......Page 197
4.2.1 The Joint Venture......Page 199
References......Page 201
1 Introduction......Page 206
2 Theoretical Foundation of Neurosensory Stimulation......Page 212
3 Teaching Through EMI......Page 213
4 Methodology......Page 215
5 A Proposal for EMI Courses......Page 221
5.1 Phase One......Page 222
5.2 Phase Three......Page 224
5.3 Phase Four......Page 225
6 Conclusions......Page 228
References......Page 230
Index......Page 232

Citation preview

Internationalising Learning in Higher Education The Challenges of English as a Medium of Instruction Edited by María Luisa Carrió-Pastor

Internationalising Learning in Higher Education

María Luisa Carrió-Pastor Editor

Internationalising Learning in Higher Education The Challenges of English as a Medium of Instruction

Editor María Luisa Carrió-Pastor Universitat Politècnica de València Valencia, Spain

ISBN 978-3-030-21586-6    ISBN 978-3-030-21587-3 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-21587-3 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2020 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Contents

1 Introduction  1 María Luisa Carrió-Pastor Part I Policy into Practice  15 2 Coherence in Language Policy Making in Tertiary Education 17 Elena Orduna Nocito and Gretchen Obernyer 3 A Systematic Review of English as a Medium of Instruction in Higher Education Institutions: The Case of a Business School 35 Gisela Sanahuja Vélez, Gabriela Ribes Giner, and Ismael Moya Clemente Part II Training Issues  63 4 Observation as a Tool to Facilitate the Professional Development of Teaching Faculty Involved in English as a Medium of Instruction: Trainer and Trainee Perspectives 65 Rupert Herington v

vi Contents

5 Identifying In-Service Support for Lecturers Working in English Medium Instruction Contexts 83 Ben Beaumont 6 Designing an English for Occupational Purposes Framework Based on the Needs of University Administrative Staff: A Case Study111 Julia Zabala Delgado Part III Specific Aspects of English as a Medium of Instruction 135 7 English as a Medium of Instruction: What about Pragmatic Competence?137 María Luisa Carrió-Pastor 8 An Exploration of Perceptions of Faculty Members and Students: The Effects of English-Medium Instruction on Language Ability155 Elif Kir and Aslı Akyüz 9 Teaching through English: The Case of International Commerce179 Javier Muñoz de Prat 10 Neurosensory Auditory Stimulation and English as a Medium of Instruction201 Cristina Pérez-Guillot Index227

Notes on Contributors

Aslı  Akyüz is currently working as a research assistant at Istanbul Medeniyet University, the Faculty of Education Sciences, Foreign Language Teaching Department. Her research interests are teacher education, global citizenship, World Englishes and culture-integrated instruction. Ben  Beaumont  is Head of TESOL Qualifications at Trinity College London, UK. Having worked in a variety of sectors ranging from primary to tertiary in a number of different countries, Ben is keen to share knowledge and best practices across these sectors to support the development of teachers’ skills and agency. With experience, first as an English language teacher and later as a cross-curricular teacher educator in UK further and higher education, Ben has an interest in the effects of English on education, both as a tool for learning and as a language that may enable learner opportunity internationally. María  Luisa  Carrió-Pastor is a professor of English language at the Department of Applied Linguistics at the Universitat Politècnica de València, Spain. She is Head of the Department and the coordinator of the Doctorate Degree “Languages, Literature, Culture and, their applications”. Her research areas are contrastive linguistics and the study of academic and professional discourse both for second language acquisition and for vii

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Notes on Contributors

­ iscourse analysis. She is in charge of the project “Identification and d Analysis of Metadiscourse Strategies in Research Articles in English and Spanish”, funded by the Spanish Ministry of Economy. Rupert Herington  is a senior teaching fellow at the University of Leeds. He is a teacher trainer who is involved in designing and delivering training courses for teaching faculty to help them prepare for teaching subject-­ specific courses through the medium of English at their universities. The courses and follow-up support focus on helping participants to develop their awareness of language use and appropriate methodology applicable to the local teaching context. Elif  Kir is working as Assistant Professor at Istanbul Medeniyet University, the Faculty of Education Sciences, Foreign Language Teaching Department. Her research interests are Drama in Language Teaching, Language Policy and Second Language Acquisition. Ismael  Moya  Clemente  is Doctor in Agricultural Engineering by the Universitat Politècnica de València. His teaching and research experience is wide. He has published numerous books and scientific papers. He belongs to the most outstanding associations within the field of finance. He has been Vice-Dean and Dean, the Faculty of Business Administration and Management, as well as Vice-Rector of Academic Planning and Professor Organization of the Universitat Politècnica de València. He is currently working as Professor and Researcher at the Department of Economy and Social Sciences and Center for Research in Economic Engineering. Javier Muñoz de Prat  is a lecturer at Universidad Europea de Valencia and Universidad Católica de Valencia San Vicente Mártir in Spain. He holds a Master in Business Administration from the IE Business School and a Master of Laws in International Trade and Commercial Law. Gretchen Obernyer  is Professor of English Language and Literature at the Universidad Francisco de Vitoria (UFV). She graduated in Hispanic

  Notes on Contributors 

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Studies in Wartburg College, Iowa, USA, and obtained the RSA Certificate from Cambridge University in ESL (English as a Second Language). She also holds a Master’s degree in Humanities (UFV) and since 1999 has been part of the Language Centre at the UFV teaching English and English Literature. She currently holds the position of Language Centre Co-ordinator. Elena Orduna Nocito  holds a PhD in English Philology (UCM). She currently holds the position of Language Policy Director at the Universidad Francisco de Vitoria and teaches English in the undergraduate program of English Studies at the UCM.  Her research activity is devoted to second language teaching in Higher Education Contexts and the role of English in the internationalization of the university. Cristina  Pérez-Guillot  is Senior Lecturer in Business English at the Universitat Politècnica de València (UPV), Department of Applied Linguistics. She is Head of the UPV Language Centre (Spain) and President of ACLES (Spanish Association of Language Centres in Higher Education). Her research areas are assessment and testing of English as a second language, development of evaluation tools, e-learning and teaching English as a second language. Gabriela Ribes Giner  holds a doctorate in Industrial Engineering from the Universitat Politècnica de València. Since 1998 she has been teaching and researching within the fields of innovation management and human resources. She has published a wide variety of books and scientific papers. She has been Vice-Dean for Relationships with Industry and Student Body at the Faculty of Business, as well as Director of Academic Planning and Professor Organization. She is currently a professor and researcher at the Department of Organization and Business Management as well as the co-director of two Executive Masters.

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Notes on Contributors

Gisela Sanahuja Vélez  holds a BSc in Economy by the Universitat de València, an MSc in Business Administration and Management by the Universitat Politècnica de València, and an international doctoral degree in Economy by the Universitat Politècnica de València. She has a dual profile (manager and researcher) and wide professional experience in managing international programs and business internships in higher education. She is currently working as a Manager of International Programmes and Business Internships at the Faculty of Business Administration and Management of the Universitat Politècnica de València (Spain). Julia  Zabala  Delgado holds an MA in English Philology from Universitat de València and an MA in Language Testing from Lancaster University. She is Language Advisor at the Language Centre of the Universitat Politècnica de València, coordinating standardized exams, test development and rater training. She is an expert member of the Association of Languages Centres in Higher Education in Spain (ACLES). Her research interests include Language Testing, Development of Assessment Tools, Language Learning, Curricula Design, Translation studies.

List of Figures

Fig. 3.1 Fig. 6.1

Results from the systematic review search Factors affecting ESP course design based on the Hutchinson and Waters proposal (1987) Fig. 6.2 English for Occupational Purposes framework Fig. 10.1 Limitations of EMI Fig. 10.2 Different steps of training EMI teachers

40 115 128 204 210

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List of Tables

Table 2.1 Table 2.2 Table 3.1 Table 3.2 Table 3.3 Table 3.4 Table 3.5 Table 3.6 Table 5.1 Table 7.1 Table 7.2 Table 8.1 Table 8.2 Table 8.3 Table 9.1 Table 9.2

Level of English required for professors participating in bilingual programs based on Hallbach and Lázaro (2015) 21 Errors found in applicant’s written performance for task one 27 Studies included in the systematic review 41 Academic performance 51 International exchanges 52 Business internships 52 Business internships satisfaction—students’ questionnaire 53 Business internships satisfaction—employers’ questionnaire 53 Interviews 91 Mitigation strategies found in the learning objects 142 Boosters used in the learning objects 142 Students’ reflections regarding their own language abilities 164 Students’ reflections regarding the effects of EMI on their language abilities 165 Students’ reflections regarding their performances on the given tasks 166 English taught programs based on Wächter and Maiworm (2014)181 Teachers’ and students’ incentives 188

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List of Tables

Table 10.1 Problems encountered by EMI teachers when planning a lecture209 Table 10.2 Courses offered to support EMI teachers 216 Table 10.3 Programming of English music and texts 223

1 Introduction María Luisa Carrió-Pastor

The implementation of the Bologna process has internationalised higher education institutions in Europe. The recognition of degrees by means of the European Credit Transfer System (ECTS), mobility schemes for students and university staff and the implementation of European projects to encourage quality in teaching and research have made it possible. As an example, Spanish universities have responded to the changing times by designing internationalisation plans focusing on English as a lingua franca. One of the actions taken was the language policy framework for the internationalisation of the Spanish university system of the Spanish Conference of University Rectors (CRUE 2017). It established a series of steps for language training and the accreditation of language competence for students, teaching staff and administrative staff. As a way to reflect on these actions, this volume aims to provide some key issues that are related to the way higher education is internationalised nowadays and the role of English as a medium of instruction (EMI).

M. L. Carrió-Pastor (*) Universitat Politècnica de València, Valencia, Spain e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s) 2020 M. L. Carrió-Pastor (ed.), Internationalising Learning in Higher Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-21587-3_1

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Dearden (2014: 6) describes EMI as “the use of the English language to teach academic subjects in countries or jurisdictions where the first language (L1) of the majority of the population is not English”. This implies that higher education institutions offer similar subjects and, thus, can compete with those universities from Anglophone contexts (Cots et al. 2012; Margic and Vodopija-Krstanovic 2018). The positive aspects of offering subjects in English are evident: students are more proficient in an international foreign language, universities can enrol students from many different countries, higher education institutions share their educational models and students can choose from a wider variety of degrees. This may be the reason behind the many studies that analyse EMI implementation in European universities (Lazaruk 2007; Ruiz de Zarobe and Jiménez Catalán 2009; Lasagabaster and Ruiz de Zarobe 2010; Doiz et al. 2012; Paulsrud 2014; Earls 2016; Dafouz and Camacho-Miñano 2016; Breeze and Dafouz 2017; Margic and Vodopija-Krstanovic 2017, 2018), and in other countries from different continents, such as Uganda (Kyeyune 2003), China (Lei and Hu 2014; Li and Ruan 2015), United Arab Emirates (Belhiah and Elhami 2015), Japan (Toh 2016; Bradford and Brown 2017), Vietnam, Pakistan and Cambodia (Fenton-Smith et al. 2017), Korea (Kim et al. 2018), Hong Kong (Kirkpatrick 2010; Lo and Murphy 2010; Kan et al. 2011; Lo and Macaro 2012; Kirkpatrick and Sussex 2012; Du and Jackson 2018), Taiwan (Tsou and Kao 2017) and Cameroon (Kuchah 2018). These studies clearly illustrate the importance of EMI and the worldwide impact of English as an international language, as predicted by Graddol (2006). Most of these studies reflect on the role of English in higher education and analyse the different methodologies applied to the development of foreign language competences that students have to face when being taught and examined in a foreign language. Probyn (2005), Barnard and McLellan (2013), Blaj-Ward (2017) and Macaro (2018) also reflect on language learning in EMI, paying special attention to students’ perceptions. It should be highlighted that one of the key issues in EMI is the role of students and the impact of EMI on the development of learners’ competences. When exploring the challenges faced by EMI, one recurrent topic is the role of teachers and the way they should be trained to implement EMI in higher education. This aspect is crucial in the sense that EMI

1 Introduction 

3

teachers should be conscious of their role and of the methodological changes they have to face when preparing their subjects, teaching and assessing EMI. Some researchers have already paid attention to the role of teachers (Llurda 2005; Yassin et al. 2010; Camarrata and Tedick 2012; Dearden 2014) and also to the methodological issues involved in EMI (Genesee 2008; Dalton-Puffer 2011; Dalton-Puffer and Smit 2013) as well as to the importance of the language policies used to implement EMI (Earls 2016). Given the vast amount of literature being devoted to EMI, nobody can doubt its impact on university policies, economic matters and the design of courses devoted to training university staff involved in EMI. This is the reason why this book includes three parts that are critical to understanding the implications of EMI in higher education institutions, that is, language policies, the training of teachers and administrative staff and the methodologies applied in specific settings. This book sheds new light on the issues that higher education institutions have to face in order to implement EMI subjects and degrees, paying attention to the challenges and problems posed by this new teaching viewpoint. This collection of chapters invites readers to consider critical questions, such as the importance of training administrative staff, the different levels of students’ language proficiency in EMI subjects, the needs in the language training of teachers, and so on. The authors are experienced practitioners that pay particular attention to the problems derived from EMI, but also to its advantages and disadvantages that are described in the different chapters. The authors of the different chapters in this volume are conscious of the fact that English has gained an important role in different spheres of life over the last few decades. Because of this, English is used as a medium of instruction in secondary and higher education and this topic is of interest for many researchers whose field is language teaching and the different language policies that affect academic organisation at universities. This chapter focuses on three areas that are key for both language teaching staff and administrative staff; the former are in charge of designing academic EMI activities and the latter are the personnel hired by the university to collaborate with teaching staff in EMI activities. In this sense, both groups of university workers are involved in the planning, development and assessment of EMI.

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In Part I, named ‘Policy into Practice’, Orduna Nocito and Obernyer, and Sanahuja Vélez, Ribes Giner and Moya Clemente explain the policies of English as a medium of instruction in Spain with some examples that include the application of EMI in higher education focusing language policy making in tertiary education and the impact of EMI on academic outcomes. In the second chapter of this volume, “Coherence in Language Policy Making in Tertiary Education”, written by E. Orduna Nocito and G. Obernyer, the authors highlight the importance of offering the same language policy in Spanish universities. The authors state that this requires immediate attention as it is vital to have the necessary instruments with which to monitor and support the bilingual degree programs established to internationalise university profiles. The chapter focuses on a general requirement deemed necessary by universities, that is, that teachers involved in bilingual degree programs have a C1 level of English language proficiency (CEFR 2001). In this sense, it should be considered in this proposal that the procedure to certify the level is not standard, which results in the recruitment of professors who have neither full English proficiency nor background knowledge and experience in EMI teaching methodology, potentially undermining the quality of EMI classes in higher education. If we consider that students are expected to provide recognised certification of English proficiency to meet the challenges of today’s growing internationalised job market, the same certification should be demanded of those teaching EMI classes. Thus, the aim of this chapter is to describe the process established at the Universidad Francisco de Vitoria and analyse whether EMI teachers and students are required to have the same certificate to certify their English proficiency level. After the analysis of the data compiled by the authors, they observe that some concerns have arisen, such as the fact that the primary focus on oral skills overrides written skills in tertiary education, which has an effect on the written materials presented to and by the students. All in all, this chapter focuses on the implications regarding the effectiveness and quality of teaching-learning outcomes in university bilingual degree programs. Chapter 3, “A Systematic Review of English as a Medium of Instruction in Higher Education Institutions: The Case of a Business School”, whose authors are G. Sanahuja Vélez, G. Ribes Giner and I. Moya Clemente, focuses on the idea that EMI is a global tendency in a growing number of higher educa-

1 Introduction 

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tion institutions of non-English-speaking countries and is used by universities as an internationalisation and marketing tool. The focus of this chapter is the possible difficulties associated with the language proficiency of the students and teaching faculty, and its impact on the academic outcomes. In order to answer these questions, the authors reviewed the scientific literature published during the past ten years about EMI in higher education institutions and assessed an EMI group in the Bachelor of Business at the Universitat Politècnica de València, included in a High Academic Achievement Program. The findings of this chapter show that EMI led to an improvement in the students’ English language skills, and so learning was not hindered as most of the variables related to international exchanges were significantly higher. In Part II, which focuses on ‘Training Issues’, Herington, Beaumont and Zabala Delgado describe three things: the need to train the teaching faculty through observation, the study of lecturers’ concerns about their professional role and the needs of the university administrative staff involved in the supervision of EMI subjects. Chapter 4, “Observation as a Tool to Facilitate the Professional Development of Teaching Faculty Involved in English as a Medium of Instruction: Trainer and Trainee Perspectives”, by R. Herington, focuses on the number of linguistic, cultural, pedagogic or administrative challenges that teachers face when involved in teaching EMI courses. One such issue is how subject content in English should be presented to students to facilitate their understanding. The author presents the observation of teaching as a learning tool. He considers observation can be beneficial in illustrating EMI techniques. Observation has usually been conducted for particular purposes, for example, to analyse spoken discourse. As a result, some of the approaches to observation and the related instruments often assume an understanding of underlying educational theory and how an observation should be conducted. Herington considers that, given the growing number of teaching faculty involved in EMI in universities who may not be trained in educational theory or observation methods, there is a need for guidance for EMI trainees about how to observe teaching practice. In this chapter, he focuses on the observation of teaching from trainer and trainee perspectives and provides some recommendations about how trainees on an EMI training course context can be prepared. In Chap. 5, “Identifying In-Service

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Support for Lecturers Working in English Medium Instruction Contexts”, B. Beaumont reflects on the continual growth of EMI programmes around the world. He thinks that some reasons for the growth are the international student movement, globalisation and the perceived benefits of language acquisition. The growth of EMI comes with some concerns, ranging from it being a vehicle for post-imperialist control to the effect of EMI on student learning itself. Despite reservations about English replacing national languages at institutions of learning and student achievement, the number of courses and full degree programmes offered in English continues to grow. This, however, has not been supported by similar developments in lecturer training to help deliver content in English, with many lecturers feeling that they have neither the pedagogic skills nor the language ability to create an effective learning environment for EMI students. To help address lecturers’ concerns about their professional role when working in EMI contexts, in this chapter the author interviewed lecturers and teacher educators with the aim of identifying what in-service support they would find effective in helping develop their EMI delivery skills. Informed by Giddens’ Structuration Theory and the need for lecturers to develop professional agency to engage with the curricula in an age of super-complexity, the study used semi-structured interviews with respondents from seven countries and eight different institutional affiliations to gather data. The analysis of interview data and findings are underpinned by literature relating to areas of lecturer training and language support for content delivery, identifying common strands that both lecturers and teacher educators feel would develop lecturers’ EMI practice. This chapter identifies specific areas for teacher development that include targeted language support and pedagogic training and increase the agency of teachers as practitioners in a global educational context. In Chap. 6, “Designing an English for Occupational Purposes Framework Based on the Needs of University Administrative Staff: A Case Study”, J. Zabala Delgado reports a case study carried out at the Universitat Politècnica de València for the design of an English for Occupational Purposes (EOP) training framework based on the needs of administrative and services staff. The author designs a framework for a language programme that could balance the specific needs of the student population and those of the institution. She states that the acquisition of

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language competence on the part of administrative staff has been identified as a key step in the internationalisation of higher education institutions as they have to communicate with visiting faculty or students or design and implement international programmes. The design of suitable training programmes that encourage motivation while increasing commitment to learning and the optimisation of resources for administrative staff is a key issue that should be taken into account by higher education entities. In this sense, the results of this study intend to provide a framework for a training programme that would benefit from the pragmatism of EOP approaches while maintaining a strong focus on language learning and help administrative staff achieve successful communication in English in a higher education environment. Finally, Part III of this book focuses on some applications of EMI; the part is called ‘Specific Aspects of English as a Medium of Instruction’. It is devoted to four specific applications of the use of EMI in Spanish higher education. Carrió-Pastor, Kir and Akyüz, Muñoz de Prat and Pérez-Guillot analyse the importance of teaching pragmatic strategies in EMI, the perceptions of faculty members and students regarding the effects of EMI on the acquisition of language skills, the help needed by students to conceptualise the contents of the subject and improve their language proficiency and the auditory stimulation training provided to learners as a means of improving their understanding of English as a medium of instruction. In Chap. 7, “English as a Medium of Instruction: What about Pragmatic Competence?”, M. L. Carrió-Pastor explains the importance of teaching pragmatic competence in EMI. The rhetorical aspects of a language are frequently associated with cultural conventions and, consequently, teachers involved in teaching English as a medium of instruction should be conscious of the importance of rhetoric when introducing their subjects to students. The author aims to identify whether teachers involved in EMI use pragmatic strategies when explaining the key points of their subjects. Thus, the rhetorical strategies used by teachers were analysed and some metadiscoursal strategies, such as hedges and boosters, were identified in the learning objects recorded by teachers involved in EMI subjects at the Universitat Politècnica de València. Finally, the author carried out an analysis both quantitative and qualitative to identify whether teachers used pragmatic strategies in their presentations, and from those results, some strategies

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that may be used by teachers involved in EMI to improve pragmatic competence were described in detail. Chapter 8, entitled, “An Exploration of Perceptions of Faculty Members and Students: The Effects of EnglishMedium Instruction on Language Ability”, authored by E. Kir and A. Akyüz, expounds that EMI has become popular in higher education around the globe due to several factors, such as the role of English as an international language, the global tendency to internationalise educational policies and practices, and countries’ desire to cope with the global academic environment. In this chapter, the authors are conscious that there has been an extensive debate about the efficacy of EMI in higher education programs. They argue that this is due to the shortage of linguistically qualified teachers, the absence of pre-determined outcomes of the expected English language proficiency, the limited number of both organisational and pedagogical guidelines for the application of EMI and the need for both pre-service and in-service teacher education programmes to train EMI teachers. The study explained in this chapter describes the perceptions of faculty members and students regarding the effects of EMI on the acquisition of language skills and academic content within Turkish higher education. The findings of the authors provide suggestions for the enhancement of the teaching and learning of academic content through English language by reflecting on both faculty members’ and students’ current practices and experiences of EMI. In Chap. 9, “Teaching through English: The Case of International Commerce”, J. Muñoz de Prat explains the problems derived from the use of English in International Commerce and its subsequent application in the teaching of other subjects. The author considers that there are still two main problems confronted by students and lecturers in the classroom: how to structure concepts and images created and developed directly in English and how to use English as a communication vehicle between teachers and students and among fellow students. This affects basic and generic learning skills and the conceptualisation of International Commerce, as students face the difficulty of learning not only the terms but also the conceptualisation behind them. The second problem affects all the different generic teaching skills, that is, systemic, instrumental and interpersonal. Whereas in Spanish all the students have a fairly identical level of language use and their learning skills can be developed similarly,

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in English, lecturers deal with students with different levels of language proficiency and, thus, different levels of communication and understanding, including Erasmus students. This means that teachers need to find how to help students from different backgrounds conceptualise the subject while working with very different levels of language proficiency. In this chapter, the author proposes some solutions to these problems that may be useful to other teachers. In the last chapter of the section and the volume, “Neurosensory Auditory Stimulation and English as a Medium of Instruction”, C. Pérez-Guillot explains the advantages of stimulation through the Tomatis method, and she focuses on the improvement of oral comprehension and expression. She proposes a relationship between EMI and neurosensory auditory stimulation; that is, to enable the ear to adapt to the sounds, frequencies and rhythms of English in the EMI English training programme, taking into account the level of linguistic proficiency. She demonstrates the effectiveness of neurosensory stimulation, “resetting” the ear to be able to understand the frequencies it contains naturally. In the experiment described in this chapter, that it is possible to extend the range of listening frequencies has been proven. The participants were between 19 and 59 years of age and teachers, researchers, students, administration and services staff were involved in the research. The heterogeneous nature of the language proficiency of the volunteers participating in the project made it interesting to measure the effectiveness of the neurosensory stimulation process depending on their starting level. In the chapter, the author explains the stages of the experiment applied to EMI teachers and university staff. The objective of the neurosensory stimulation is to extend the range of frequencies that human beings are able to process in order to develop the listening capacity as well as the nervous system at the same time. The experiment has been carried out using an advanced audiometric test that indicates the degree of listening capacity that one human being has through a complete listening, auditory discrimination process, the dominance of one ear over the other and the disposition of the person to certain frequencies and sounds. The listening test gives a clear idea of the progress that a person may make when acquiring a foreign language, while always taking their initial level into account. According to the results, the experience

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has been successful and the majority of the participants have appreciated their improvement not only in listening but also in speaking. As a conclusion, this project is distinctive in the sense that it shows how EMI implies quality in higher education, the training needs of teaching staff and administrative staff involved in EMI and some aspects that should be taken into account to apply EMI successfully. The benefits of the book are twofold: it evinces the implications and outcomes of EMI in higher education, and, furthermore, it emphasises the importance of training teaching staff and administrative staff to implement EMI in a coherent and methodologically sound manner. This book is addressed to EMI teachers, second/foreign language teachers and administrative staff involved in teaching and designing materials in English at higher education. Thus, its primary market is EMI teachers and administrative staff who work at universities and researchers that focus on EMI implementation in higher education institutions. This is a matter of interest for researchers and teachers as the use of English as a medium of instruction involves putting into practice new approaches as well as training methodologies that lead to better teacher performance and enhance teaching quality. Furthermore, the proposal is addressed to staff involved in university management, especially those involved in language policies.

References Barnard, R., & McLellan, J. (Eds.). (2013). Codeswitching in university English-­ medium classes. Bristol: Multilingual Matters. Belhiah, H., & Elhami, H. (2015). English as a medium of instruction in the Gulf: When students and teachers speak. Language Policy, 14(1), 3–23. Blaj-Ward, L. (2017). Language learning and use in English-medium higher education. London: Palgrave Macmillan. Bradford, A., & Brown, H. (Eds.). (2017). English-medium instruction in Japanese higher education: Policy, challenges and outcomes. London: Multilingual Matters.

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Breeze, R., & Dafouz, E. (2017). Constructing complex Cognitive Discourse Functions in higher education: An exploratory study of exam answers in Spanish-and English-medium instruction settings. System, 70, 81–91. Camarrata, L., & Tedick, D.  J. (2012). Balancing content and language in instruction: The experience of immersion teachers. The Modern Language Journal, 96(2), 251–269. Cots, J.  M., Lasagabaster, D., & Garret, P. (2012). Multilingual policies and practices of universities in three bilingual regions in Europe. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 216, 7–32. Council of Europe. (2001). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, teaching, assessment (CEFR). Strasbourg: Council of Europe. Retrieved January 10, 2019, from https://rm.coe.int/1680459f97. Dafouz, E., & Camacho-Miñano, M.  M. (2016). Exploring the impact of English-medium instruction on university student academic achievement: The case of accounting. English for Specific Purposes, 44, 57–67. Dalton-Puffer, C. (2011). Content and language integrated learning: From practice to principles? Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 31, 182–204. Dalton-Puffer, C., & Smit, U. (2013). Content and language integrated learning: A research agenda. Language Teaching, 46(4), 545–559. Dearden, L. (2014). English as a medium of instruction—A growing global phenomenon. London: The British Council. Retrieved January 29, 2019, from https://www.britishcouncil.org/sites/default/files/e484_emicover_option_3_ final_web.pdf. Doiz, A., Lasagabaster, D., & Sierra, J.  M. (Eds.). (2012). English-medium instruction at universities: Global challenges. Bristol: Multilingual Matters. Du, X., & Jackson, J. (2018). From EFL to EMI: The evolving English learning motivation of Mainland Chinese students in a Hong Kong University. System, 76, 158–169. Earls, C. W. (2016). Evolving agendas in European English-medium higher education: Interculturality, multilingualism and language policy. London: Palgrave Macmillan. Fenton-Smith, B., Humphreys, P., & Walkinshaw, I. (Eds.). (2017). English medium instruction in higher education in Asia-Pacific. London: Springer. Genesee, F. (2008). Dual language in the global village. In T.  W. Fortune & D.  J. Tedick (Eds.), Pathways to multilingualism: Evolving perspectives on immersion education. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Graddol, D. (2006). English next. London: British Council.

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Kan, V., Lai, K. C., Kirkpatrick, A., & Law, A. (2011). Fine-tuning Hong Kong’s medium of instruction policy. Hong Kong: The Hong Kong Institute of Education. Kim, J., Kim, E.  G., & Kweon, S.-O. (2018). Challenges in implementing English-medium instruction: Perspectives of Humanities and Social Sciences professors teaching engineering students. English for Specific Purposes, 51, 111–123. Kirkpatrick, A. (2010). English as a lingua franca in ASEAN: A multilingual model. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. Kirkpatrick, A., & Sussex, R. (Eds.). (2012). English as an international language in Asia: Implications for language education. London: Springer. Kuchah, K. (2018). Early English medium instruction in Francophone Cameroon: The injustice of equal opportunity. System, 73, 37–47. Kyeyune, R. (2003). Challenges of using English as a medium of instruction in multilingual contexts: A view from Ugandan classrooms. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 16(2), 173–184. Lasagabaster, D., & Ruiz de Zarobe, Y. (2010). CLIL in Spain: Implementation, results, and teacher training. Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Lazaruk, W. (2007). Linguistic, academic, and cognitive benefits of French immersion. Canadian Modern Language Journal, 63, 605–628. Lei, J., & Hu, G. (2014). Is English-medium instruction effective in improving Chinese undergraduate students’ English competence? IRAL, 52(2), 99–126. Li, C., & and Ruan, Z. (2015). Changes in beliefs about language learning among Chinese EAP learners in an EMI context in Mainland China: A socio-­ cultural perspective. System, 55, 43–52. Llurda, E. (Ed.). (2005). Non-native language teachers: Perceptions, challenges, and contributions to the profession (pp. 63–84). Boston, MA: Springer. Lo, Y. Y., & Macaro, E. (2012). The medium of instruction and classroom interaction: Evidence from Hong Kong secondary schools. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 15(1), 29–52. Lo, Y. Y., & Murphy, V. A. (2010). Vocabulary knowledge and growth in immersion and regular language learning programmes in Hong Kong. Language and Education, 24, 215–238. Macaro, E. (2018). English medium instruction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Margic, B. D., & Vodopija-Krstanovic, I. (2017). Uncovering English-medium-­ instruction: Glocal issues in higher education. Bern: Peter Lang.

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Margic, B.  D., & Vodopija-Krstanovic, I. (2018). Language development for English-medium instruction: Teachers’ perceptions, reflections and learning. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 35, 31–41. Paulsrud, B. Y. (2014). English medium instruction in Sweden: Perspectives and practices in two upper secondary schools. Stockholm: Stockholm University. Probyn, M. (2005). Learning science through the medium of English: What do grade 8 learners say? Southern African Linguistics and Applied Language Studies, 23(4), 369–392. Ruiz de Zarobe, Y., & Jiménez Catalán, R. M. (2009). Content and language integrated learning: Evidence from research in Europe. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Toh, G. (2016). English as medium of instruction in Japanese higher education presumption, mirage or bluff? London: Palgrave Macmillan. Tsou, W., & Kao, S.-M. (Eds.). (2017). English as a medium of instruction in higher education. Implementations and classroom practices in Taiwan. New York: Springer. Yassin, S.  M., Ong, E.  T., Alimon, H., Baharom, S., & Ying, L.  Y. (2010). Teaching science through English: Engaging pupils cognitively. International CLIL Research Journal, 1(3), 46–59.

Part I Policy into Practice

2 Coherence in Language Policy Making in Tertiary Education Elena Orduna Nocito and Gretchen Obernyer

1

Introduction

The growing trend toward the internationalization of universities and the implementation of the ambitious plan of the European Higher Education Area (EHEA) has led to major changes in the Spanish university. Truly, tertiary education in Spain in the last ten years has experienced significant modifications, particularly regarding the use of a foreign language. Clear evidence of such changes is the presence and major role the English language has acquired in most undergraduate programs. According to data offered by Servicio Español Para la Internacionalización de la Educación (SEPIE 2015) regarding undergraduate programs, there are 283 which offer 30% of their subjects in English and 164 with at least 50% and E. Orduna Nocito (*) Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain e-mail: [email protected] G. Obernyer Universidad Francisco de Vitoria, Madrid, Spain e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s) 2020 M. L. Carrió-Pastor (ed.), Internationalising Learning in Higher Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-21587-3_2

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there are 80 undergraduate programs that are taught completely in English. When it comes to postgraduate programs, there are 322 taught completely in English. Thus, increasingly more researchers, professors, students, staff and members of the university community as a whole are now expected to have a certain command of this language and to use it in their natural working environment. The concept of internationalization of the Spanish university implies many actions. Some of these include the projection of the teaching activity and research beyond borders, the process of making the university at home more intercultural and open, the inclusion of subjects taught in English—or other languages—in different programs, and so on. This is done with the aim of attracting incoming mobility, giving national students the opportunity to experience internationalization at home and training professionals for the globalized market in which they will be working (MECD 2014: 4–5). In terms of employability, today’s professionals are required to have the specific competences of their particular field of knowledge, but also the command of one or even two foreign languages together with relevant intercultural experiences abroad. In order to make all this possible, different reports on language policy have been published by highly recognized institutions in order to help set guidelines and define a common framework for universities (MECD 2015–2020; CRUE 2016; Hallbach and Lázaro 2015). There is a common demand to define each university’s language policy and reflect upon the different elements it should comprise. By far, aspects such as the following are referred to: language certification systems, levels required by community members, mechanisms to improve the command of foreign languages, the need to initiate training programs on methodologies and evaluating systems for professors using English as a medium of instruction (EMI), and so on. Seeking coherence in language policy for Spanish universities is a serious challenge, one requiring immediate attention and support; however, university language centers are struggling to have the necessary instruments in place in order to monitor and keep up with the already running bilingual degree programs to internationalize university profiles. This chapter focuses on one of these general requirements deemed necessary

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by universities in Spain: that professors in bilingual degree programs have a B2 or C1 level of competence in the English language as described by the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CRUE 2016; Hallbach and Lázaro 2015).

2

 he Profiles of the University Professors T Using English as a Medium of Instruction

The regulation of Spanish universities (LOU (Ley Orgánica de Universidades 2001, Spain) and RD (Real Decreto, Spain) 420/2015) defines a university professor as someone devoted primarily to “teaching and researching”. These are the two pillars of tertiary education. However, there are two coexisting lecturer profiles at our national public and private universities. First of all, there is the full time professor who is exclusively devoted to academic life, thus leading scientific research and transferring the results to the discipline taught. This type of faculty member seems to form a more stable group. Second, there are those professors who hold a PhD and who have an active and profuse professional career. The latter profile allows for the creation of a solid link between what is taught in a university context and the changing demands of the professional world. It is challenging to spot professionals with this double profile (academic and professional) who, at the same time, are proficient in the use of a second language. They constitute a less stable group, probably due to the challenge of making both activities compatible. It is the hiring of this second profile that concerns the research carried out in this chapter. For obvious reasons, professors who are actively involved in a professional activity give an added value to any university program. In most cases, apart from teaching and contributing partially to research, one of their main responsibilities is to bring university students closer to the labor market. This is accomplished, principally, by inviting professionals to give talks, taking students to visit different enterprises, including “updated and real case studies” in their teaching materials, helping create professional networks, promoting employability and raising opportunities for graduates to join the workforce. In short, they personalize the necessary link between enterprises and universities.

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In most cases, these professionals occupy senior positions in management and are capable of working in international contexts, using English as a lingua franca. Yet, when English is used in these contexts, the focus on language is placed mainly on communication and intelligibility (Crystal 2012; Kuteeva 2013), not so much on language accuracy and the specific command over academic language. These professionals do not need to have their level of competence recently certified and the major focus is on oral (productive and receptive) skills, so a balance on all skills need not be achieved for their particular working purposes. In fact, the general practice in many recruiting processes followed by companies is to ask for command over only listening and speaking skills. When hiring these type of professionals at the university level, different variables need to be taken into consideration. On the one hand, higher academic requirements, such as holding a PhD and having an emerging research activity, are indispensable. On the other hand, prestige in their field of knowledge, a relevant management position, level of expertise, and so on, are also greatly valued. Today, increasingly more professionals from the working world who provide this valuable and real-world experience—both attractive and essential for today’s students—are drawn on to teach at university. Though providing successful international profiles and despite being effective communicators, English language competence often does not meet the C1 requirement, or it may in some of the skills but not in others. Furthermore, some recruiters have a false perception about the English proficiency level of candidates due to the fact that some candidates use the language on a daily basis, but not in a certified way. In order to respond to the demands of the EHEA, the following language requisites are crucial and must be incorporated into the recruiting process: the capacity to communicate in a second language and manage intercultural contexts in teaching need to be factored into the process. Nevertheless, identifying university professors with this profile is not an easy task and recruiters could succumb to the error of hiring professors who have neither full L2 competency nor background experience of teaching in intercultural contexts and are unaware of the specific methodology required in English as a medium of Instruction (EMI). Clearly, this may undermine the quality of the bilingual education provided.

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21

 ritten and Oral Skills Implied in the EMI W Teaching Context

When we think of a prototypical university professor, the expectations regarding the command of the use of the language in which the content is taught are high. This fact is taken for granted when recruiting teachers in the mother tongue, but should it be the same case for teachers of bilingual subjects? The data presented in Table 2.1 is extremely surprising. How can it possibly be that only a B1 or even a B2 level is required at some tertiary educational institutions? Should not universities be aiming at the same level they would expect for teachers using their mother tongue? Furthermore, for EMI teaching contexts, students need to have a threshold B2 level of English (Hallbach and Lázaro 2015), requiring them in most cases to provide recognized certification to join these undergraduate programs and compete in and meet the challenges of an ever-growing internationalized job market. Must not the same—or even more—be demanded of those who are teaching in these programs? A further concern that needs to be addressed is what to expect from a lecturer who uses English as a medium of instruction (EMI), when compared to a lecturer who teaches in his or her mother tongue. Here many questions arise such as, What do we expect from a university professor? Up to what extent should our expectations for an EMI professor be different? Are not all lecturers, in a way, language teachers? Is the academic Table 2.1  Level of English required for professors participating in bilingual programs based on Hallbach and Lázaro (2015)

Nivel

N°

Universidades

B1

2

València y Zaragoza.

B2

17

Alicante, Almeria, Carlos lll de Madrid, Castilla-La Mancha, Católica de València, Córdoba, Europea de Madrid, Granada, Jaén, La Rioja, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Miguel Hernández, Murcia, Oviedo, Politècnica de València, San Jorge y Vigo.

C1

14

Alcalá, Burgos, Autónoma de Madrid, Cantabria, CEU-Cardenal Herrera, Deusto, Islas Baleares, León, Navarra, Pablo Olavide, Rey Juan Carlos, UDIMA, UNED y Vic.

Tabla #1: Nivel de inglés para el profesorado que participa en programas bilingües

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E. Orduna Nocito and G. Obernyer

language and discourse of the discipline language not learnt from the teaching of our professors? What actual language functions are present in teaching? What are the actual responsibilities of an EMI lecturer at a written and at an oral level? All these issues need to be reflected upon. It is clear that to some extent a university lecturer needs to make use of both oral and written language in the many tasks he or she is to carry out. Therefore, not only should a good general command (C1) of the language be required. An accurate use of the general and academic register, as well as the main structures implied in teaching discourse (Dafouz Milne 2011), at a written and an oral level, is essential. It goes without saying that for any professor the written language constitutes a key tool in his or her daily activity. Part of the teaching job consists of writing a course syllabus, writing slides for class presentations, preparing study cases to be analyzed, marking papers, evaluating written exams, writing student reports, marking papers, and so on. Consequently, questions and concerns have arisen regarding whether the primary focus on oral skills overrides written skills in tertiary education, and what the implications for written materials presented to and by students are.

4

 echanisms to Verify the Level M of Competence in the Language in Recruiting Processes

There is a number of highly recognized certificates provided by outstanding institutions that comply with the standards of language testing and evaluation. The Conference of Spanish University Rectors (CRUE) and the Association of Language Centres in Tertiary Education in Spain (ACLES) have made a great effort to facilitate recommendations and guidelines on certificate acceptance. Nevertheless, some academic institutions are concerned about the extent to which these general language certificates measure the capacity of a speaker to handle a language in an academic context (teaching, researching or publishing). For this reason, different educational institutions have been working on their own systems which take into account this very

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specific academic purpose, one clear example being the creation of the HELA (Higher Education Lecturing Accreditation) by Vigo University. For reasons beyond the scope of this chapter, the University Francisco de Vitoria (UFV) has decided to adopt an internal mechanism in the recruiting process that allows the level of English of potential faculty members to be checked. Initially it was suggested that in the recruiting process any candidate should present a language certificate obtained in the previous three years. However, this demand was not realistic since most applicants had to be turned down for not having complied with this requirement. Furthermore, we realized it was not feasible to ask candidates to take these exams bearing in mind how short the recruitment period is. Finally, the university was not willing to set a budget to cover the expenses for the candidates who could possibly end up not being hired by the institution. As a result, the university decided that the Language Policy Department, along with the Language Centre, would be responsible for defining the needs and designing a procedure that could be used to check the level of English of candidates.

5

 Description of the Procedure A in the Recruiting Process at the UFV to Measure English Language Competence

The procedure adopted by the UFV consists of a level test in which three of the main language skills are measured (listening, writing, speaking) as well as the use of language. The reason for leaving out the reading skill is grounded in the fact that our previous research (unpublished) regarding the UFV teacher profile shows that this this more easily acquired skill is the one most lecturers have a greater command of, even if their general level of the foreign language is not very high. In the following lines, all parts of the test will be described in order to understand the full procedure. However, special emphasis will be given to the explanation of the written part so as to, later on, further analyze the present situation and determine whether there are grounds for our concerns regarding applicants’ writing skills.

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Firstly, candidates complete the use of English section which includes 100 multiple-choice questions. They are given 45  minutes to do so. Secondly, candidates are required to listen just once to three excerpts graded at different levels, dealing with academic issues, and expected to answer up to 40 open and closed questions. Thirty minutes are required for this part, and as in many other language exams, it looks for evidence of the ability to understand main ideas, opinions, attitudes and the purpose of an utterance in its specific communicative context. Thirdly, candidates are required to carry out the speaking section in which they first have to explain the basic ideas of one of their subjects. They are previously given certain points to include in their talk. Following this, the examiner poses some questions and establishes some interaction with the candidate. Subsequently, candidates are given an “academic case” to discuss with the examiner (negotiations for a joint program, attending to a student in a tutorial with a particular problem, etc.). Twelve to fifteen minutes are devoted to this spoken part and special attention is placed on fluency, coherence in speech, lexical and grammatical resources and pronunciation. Finally, the candidate is asked to complete the written part of the test which is the focus of research in this chapter. The instructions given to the candidates are the following: WRITING: (20–30 minutes) You have two tasks for this section. Task number one is compulsory and in task number two, you need to choose OPTION A or B and write your response. TASK ONE Professors at your university have been asked to write a brief course description in English to post on the university web page. The web page is aimed at international students who are interested in studying at your university. Select ONE of your subjects and write a brief course description in no more than 200–220 words. For task two, the candidates need to answer one of the two options given. They are not specified here, as they are not going to be used as corpus for this research. In this writing section task completion, length, appropriateness of register (and style) are taken into consideration, along with an accurate use of lexicon, grammatical and morphological structures.

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25

Aims and Description of Corpus

The first task of the writing part of the test, administered to candidates for bilingual teaching posts in 2016–2017, was chosen for further in-­ depth analysis, as it is compulsory and required of all candidates. The description of the task requires a somewhat technical, informative, formal and accurate use of language and the inclusion of factual information. It is supposed to be a piece of writing designed to appear on the university web page. Its intended audience is, on the one hand, young, non-specialized and international students. They are potential students who are considering the possibility of studying at the university. On the other hand, it is a communication to other professionals working in the same field of study seeking to expand their professional network. From a university’s point of view, this implies attention to detail as it is a reflection of quality, as it creates image. Anything that is published on a web page is creating image and image in today’s world is not to be ignored. More than 30 candidates were level-tested in the academic year 2016–2017  in order to join one of the four different degrees which include EMI subjects (Gastronomy, Business Studies, International Relations and Biotechnology). All candidates were working as professionals in their field of expertise and declared, in the hiring process, that they made use of the English language on a regular basis. When asked about the possibility of showing a language certificate from the past three years, most of them declared that they did not have one and reported a lack of need for one since their daily experience was evidence enough of their good command of the English language. The writings of 18 candidates, tested between the months of June and February 2017, have been analyzed. They were all potential lecturers in different undergraduate bilingual degree programs.

7

Analysis and Findings

The task analyzed here, as stated above, consists of writing a course description to post on a university web page. As is commonly known, a course description is a formal piece of writing and its main purpose is to

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inform in a brief and concise way what a course entails, along with, perhaps, a brief explanation of the methodology and requirements that would be applied. As we said before, the target audience is potential international students and peer professionals in the field of knowledge. Therefore, the task is considered adequate if the writer produces such a description in an appropriate register, style and form for online publication. Given the target audience and the web page setting, there may be some crossover between the formal and the informal register. Nonetheless, a degree of formality appropriate to professional writing is to be expected. To carry out the subsequent analysis we classified the different errors in the course descriptions according to the following categories: (1) register and style errors, (2) lexicon errors and (3) morphosyntactic errors. According to Obins Nuhu (2014), the following features should be, to some extent, present in a more formal, professional style of writing: (1) a clear, concise use of technical terms related to the field of study; (2) an impersonal style, meaning the use of third person rather than first or second, (3) a use of the passive voice, though not in excess, (4) no contractions, (5) an avoidance of the use of slang and other informal utterances, (6) numbers under 100 spelled out, (7) abbreviations written out fully the first time they are used, (8) sentences which do not start with , (9) complete sentences and (10) longer, more complex sentences. These features were searched for in the writings analyzed. Table 2.2 shows the most significant data within the field of gastronomy to which 12 out of the 18 candidates belong. Errors are highlighted in bold type. The data presented in Table 2.2 shows that most of these candidates still have major language problems that interfere to a great extent with communication at a written level. The fact is, not all candidates who a priori seem to have the required level according to the initial recruitment process actually do, at least not from a written point of view. If we analyze the data in detail, the most significant findings regarding register (and style) are, firstly, that candidates tend to use a register more closely linked to selling and calling for action, than for describing. Secondly, a lot of inappropriate and vague content has been included in

194

222

202

1. apart of 2. focused into / focused in 3. a food and beverage staff 4. theorical > theorethical 5. because, apart of master … 6. get the best of them 1…also with peace and war… 2.…has changed along the centuries… 3….plays a very important role for human evolution. 1. At the begging… > 1. Just enroll on our beginning course! 2. organitations 2. Inconsistent use of form with bullet points: 3. Emphize > emphasize? 4….we tech you how to drive mixing adjectives, the best strategies in put in verbs, nouns … practice… 3. “Selling” the subject, 5. to enrroll on it… when the objective is to “describe”

(continued)

1…provide students with the knowledge of the history of the world… 2. since the ancient Greece to the 21st c. 3. Being able to feed ourselves everywhere, is key for us being all over the world. 1. If you think __ and analyse in your society, how many types of managment came up to your mind? 3….from the Army Organizations… 4….in where there took place different courses about how to… 5…it exists movements… 6….that believe you need to ___ born with ___ skill of being a leader. 7….you can develop a good skills in order… 8. We consider the next point ___ relevant… 9. How to go up in your career leader and appy for new positions or help your emplyers for do it. 10. We wish you found this course…

1. a course in which the students could learn everything about food and beverage 2. prepared to work as a food and beverage staff in any place > anywhere 3. when the course will have been finished…

Morphosyntax errors 1. one of this systems…

Lexical errors 1. seeking tools for reviews, claims, complaints 2. messure > measure

1. Starts with an excuse 2. Use of I/we… (first person) 3. Repetitive: “we will learn” 1. Vague use of terminology 2. Vague in content 3. General English; non-specific use of terms 1. Use of contractions, e.g. It’s said … it’s time … 2. Punctuation problems

No. of words Style and register

119

Table 2.2  Errors found in applicant’s written performance for task one

188

1. Inappropriate format—letter style: Dear Students 2. Inappropriate content—does not complete the task 3. Informal resgister: By the way, for your free time, we have… (1st person)

1…. A good professional in all careers… 2.….the level of themes that you want. ¿? 3. Althought… 4….we have a nearest hotel…

(continued)

1. H and R Management [Course] is prepared 2….divided in different areas, as we can describe: Operational, HR … 3….from…to ___ use ___ balance sheets 4. Relationships with the different stakeholders to achieve the best … 5….you will practise in the best hotels and restaurants, which we have agreements. 1…to explain you all ___ benefits… 2….if you will applying ___a job. 3. The university have…. 4. You can learned different lenguages… 5….we are strictly with the level of students… 6….and ___ the other hand… 7….your favorites films… 8…when you finished your degree you could do practise in a good companies…

1….to get the knowledge…. 2. theachers 3. proffesionals

121

1….necessary to position its business in the best-inclass-top of 2….course development is as follows… 3…..to stablish… 4….a more solid value propositon for their business…??

1. In order to cover these goals… 3. 200hs > hrs (and use of abbreviation) 5….with 50% presential work and 50% individual and team homework

202

1. Extensive use of active voice 2. “Selling” the subject, not to “describing” 3. Inappropriate content: Applications should be received through the University web-site 4. Use of bullet points 1. During the next year, you will learn… Use of the 2nd person 2. We work with the best teachers […] Use of 1st person …

Morphosyntax errors

Lexical errors

No. of words Style and register

Table 2.2 (continued)

142

1. subjet 2. thechniques 3. In adition (¿) 4. it will upgrade your english 6. implement a quality management system 1. one of the most important 1. Frequent use of disciplines contractions: That’s the 2….places the customer in reason why … the middle of a company’s 2. Abbreviations: CRM, strategy or customer 3. theorical relationship 4. a global view about management … (beginning of writing) 5. multiple real __ experiences 6. satisfaction of your customers…

110

1. Vague, non-specific language 2. 2nd person

1. Inappropriate content: 1. Tapas, is a Spanish version of the small food which … To be honest, I think 2. posible we try…; welcome to 3….several people who Spain, Live the rest of conquested and remained you life with ___ ___ this country… Spanish touch 2. Punctuation problems

Lexical errors

222

No. of words Style and register

Table 2.2 (continued)

(continued)

1. ….by being able to propose the right offer > (enabling companies to…) 3. ….to reorient a company to a fully customer-centric

1. One of the favorite thing that you 2…enjoy eating and drinking ___ such as… 3. Always there are many reason … 4. The most important moments are closed to the table… 5…and all related to the food & beverage… 6. The reason for eating in this way… 7. The tapas matchs with 8. Can you imagine to eat in the street. 1. the students of the gastronomic degree 2….and the type of service is provided 3. english 4. This will bring you the opportunity to 5….participate during the last year of the degree at the Australian university

Morphosyntax errors

180

118

Lexical errors

1. The course is constructed 1. Inappropriate style: in two pilars: bullet point organization; amazing 4…..lead you to understand our amazing culture, having culture the best in each particular 2. Starting sentence with situation… And: And more important, 1. fundamentals of the 1. Inappropriate use of cuisine: cuts, stucks…2. numbers: 3 certificates; superior > advanced3… 3 months2. Bullet point student will get a healthy organization3. Use of and safe license…4. The 2nd person cost of the Diploma is 20.000€5. of a proffesional kitchen.

No. of words Style and register

Table 2.2 (continued)

1….a nine-months diploma2. 3 certificates: basic, intermediate and superior, each of them takes 3 months.4. fundamentals of the cuisine:5. During the intermediate ___ the student6. spanish récipes7. The top certificate is the superior.8. Some sentences are unintelligible: […] teach you the latest cooking techniques, in order to finish your Diploma. [?]9. By the end the student become a chef spezialized in…, and is able to cover differents areas […]

1….the best and the worse 2. …the course tries to help you studient… 3…to take the best of [something] 4. …which are fare away [common] from other european… 5. Helping to handle operatives very link to

Morphosyntax errors

2  Coherence in Language Policy Making in Tertiary Education 

31

these writings which does not fulfill the aim of being descriptive and concise. Acronyms are used without a previous use of the term they stand for. Furthermore, punctuation, spelling and capitalization are recurrent problems. The writings reflect features typical of spoken language, which are not adequate for a formal written text. For instance, there is a wide presence of contractions, first and second person instead of third person, active form where passive is to be expected. Another way in which the oral language interferes with the written is in the spelling of words, for instance, in “tech” instead of “teach”, or “subjet” for “subject”. Regarding lexicon, some aspects which lead to major concern are selection of the wrong term or words that convey different meanings. More often than not, they are a product of L1 transfer to L2 or semantic calques. The erroneous use of dependent prepositions appears throughout the texts. Finally, it has to be mentioned that the overall range of lexicon can be said to be poor and insufficient for an academic environment and for the teaching purposes in mind. In general terms, the texts are repetitive, lacking the use of synonyms and other lexical resources. It is the morphosyntactic aspect of the text that leads to most problems in intelligibility. The inaccurate use of grammatical structures, sentence word order and literal translation from L1 to L2 are the most evident aspects demonstrating a lack of the expected command of the target language which is not desirable in a university professor. Consequently, after having sat this test, many of the candidates were not hired as bilingual teachers

8

Conclusions

Having finished the 2016–2017 recruitment process, we now have an overall picture of how important the written skill is to determine the real level of competence in a foreign language and how unbalanced the oral and the written skills are in candidates who join the faculty from the professional world, where speaking and listening seem to play a more dominant role.

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E. Orduna Nocito and G. Obernyer

What has raised our concern is the fact that professionals in the world of teaching use the written word for many purposes and thus bilingual professors need to be capable of using the “English word” accurately. Part of their duty is to write teaching guides in the target language to be handed out to students and published on the university web page. Additionally, PowerPoint slides, summaries and reports are prepared to facilitate content for the student body and task descriptions are many times given to students in writing. Moreover, communication through social and professional networks, virtual classrooms, e-mail, and so on, is paramount to our current teaching environment and is, moreover, critical to our emphasis on a personalized, integral education at Francisco de Vitoria. Essays and reports are written by the students for subsequent correction, commentary and feedback. Final undergraduate theses may be written and presented in the target language. Last, but not the least, exams are prepared, administered and corrected. It is to our understanding that if a course in a bilingual degree program is taught in English, everything related to that course is done, presented and published in the English language. We can state, from the texts analyzed and our subsequent findings, that the vast majority of course descriptions, which are one of the responsibilities of university teachers, should not be published on the university web page without considerable editing of style, form and accuracy. The conclusion to be drawn is that oral skills, so frequently used to measure the level of English of professionals, does not prove to be sufficient evidence for a recruiting process in a university teaching context. In conclusion, to date, the level and quality of written language production submitted by potential candidates for professorship posts in bilingual degree programs is far from adequate for a university context if desired standards are to be maintained. There is, therefore, a major gap in qualified, professional teachers available to fill these positions to the detriment of growing student bodies who are being drawn to bilingual degree programs at Spanish universities. Further research and follow-up studies are needed to be carried out in the field.

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References CRUE—IC. (2016). Documento Marco de Política lingüística para la internacionalización del sistema universitario español. Madrid. Crystal, D. (2012). A global language. In R. Hogg & D. Denison (Eds.), A history of the English language (pp. 420–439). Cambridge: CUP. Dafouz Milne, E. (2011). English as the medium of instruction in Spanish contexts: A look at teacher discourse. In Y.  Ruiz de Zarobe, J.  M. Sierra, & F. Gallardo del Puerto (Eds.), Content and foreign language integrated learning: Contributions to multilingualism in European contexts (pp.  189–210). Frankfurt: Peter Lang. Hallbach, A., & Lázaro, A. (2015). La acreditación del nivel de inglés de las universidades españolas. Madrid: British Council. Kuteeva, M. (2013). English in academic and professional contexts. Nordic Journal of English Studies, 13(1), 1–6. MECD. (2014). Estrategia para la internacionalización de las Universidades Españolas 2015–2020. Retrieved January 15, 2019, from http://www.mecd. gob.es/educacion-mecd/gl/dms/mecd/educacion-mecd/areas-educacion/universidades/politica-internacional/estrategia-internacionalizacion/ EstrategiaInternacionalizaci-n-Final.pdf. MECD. (2015–2020). Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deporte. Secretaría General de Universidades Edita: © Secretaría General Técnica Subdirección General de Documentación y Publicaciones. Obins Nuhu, I. (2014). Register and style as distinct and ‘functional’ varieties of language. Research on Humanities and Social Sciences, 4(14), 63–68. SEPIE. (2015). Retrieved from http://sepie.es/doc/convocatoria/2015/erasmusplus-programme-guidees.pdf.

3 A Systematic Review of English as a Medium of Instruction in Higher Education Institutions: The Case of a Business School Gisela Sanahuja Vélez, Gabriela Ribes Giner, and Ismael Moya Clemente

1

Introduction

English-medium instruction (EMI) is a global trend in higher education institutions in a growing number of non-English-speaking countries worldwide, in a globalization and marketization context (Coleman 2006; Hu and Lei 2013). EMI is used by universities to improve English proficiency of students (Doiz et  al. 2011; Sert 2008), to enhance their employability (Coleman 2006) and their competitiveness (Byun et  al. 2011; Coleman 2006). EMI is also used as an internationalization and marketing tool to attract students (Byun et  al. 2011; Doiz et  al. 2011; Hou et  al. 2012). According to Coleman (2006), EMI increases alignment with the worldwide spread of English as a global lingua franca and as the language of science. According to the report “English as a Medium of Instruction—A Growing Global Phenomenon” (Dearden 2014: 1), EMI is defined by G. Sanahuja Vélez (*) • G. Ribes Giner • I. Moya Clemente Universitat Politècnica de València, Valencia, Spain e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] © The Author(s) 2020 M. L. Carrió-Pastor (ed.), Internationalising Learning in Higher Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-21587-3_3

35

36 

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“the use of English language to teach academic subjects in countries or jurisdictions where the first language (L1) of the majority of the population in not English.” According to this report, it is vital to provide a conceptual separation between EMI and content and language integrated learning (CLIL). While CLIL is contextually located (with its origins in the European ideal of plurilingual competence for EU citizens), EMI has no particular contextual origin. While CLIL does not indicate which second language (L2) academic subjects are to be taught, EMI stipulates that the language of teaching is English. Whereas CLIL has a solid objective of increasing both content and language as affirmed in its designation, EMI does not (essentially) have that objective. Nonetheless, various concerns have been raised in relation to EMI, such as difficulties associated to the English language proficiency of students and professors (Erling and Hilgendorf 2006) and especially about its impact on academic results, as some critics consider that EMI could be hampering students’ content learning. The Universitat Politècnica de València (UPV), in Spain, launched in the 2010–2011 academic year the High Academic Performance Groups (Grupos de Alto Rendimiento Académico, from now on ARA groups) for the Bachelor in Business Administration and Management of its Business School. This program, implemented in collaboration with the Department of Education, Training and Employment of the Generalitat Valenciana (the regional Government), aimed at strengthening the potential of the brightest students. It is characterized by a small number of students in the class, a large number of credits taught in English, and highly qualified teachers. It also includes training activities and incentives for teachers. The five degrees at the UPV which offered the ARA groups are the following: Degree in Business Administration and Management, Degree in Biotechnology, Degree in Aeronautical Engineering, Degree in Computer Engineering, and Degree in Electronic and Industrial Engineering. A review of the scientific literature in relation to high academic performance programs carried out prior to the start of the study revealed the absence of similar studies published in scientific indexed journals. By contrast, the scientific literature on English as a medium of instruction or

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teaching in non-English-speaking countries is wide. Nevertheless, we did not find a systematic review about English as a medium of instruction. The aim of this research was double. Firstly, we aimed at systematically reviewing the scientific literature published during the past ten years about English-medium instruction (EMI) in higher education institutions. Secondly, we wanted to assess an EMI group in Bachelor of Business Administration and Management, included in a High Academic Achievement Program of the Universitat Politècnica de València (Spain). We aimed at determining if EMI has had any effect on the academic outcomes of students, as well as on other variables related to the students’ participation in international programs and business internships.

2

Method

2.1

Systematic Review

We did a literature search and selection of studies about English-medium instruction (EMI) in the research literature and a sample of articles was identified using a personalized version of the approach developed by David and Han (2004) and later adapted by Newbert (2007), through the following criteria: 1. Search the “Web of Knowledge” database for articles published within the past ten years (from 2007 to 2016). 2. Ensure that articles contain the primary keywords in their title: (English) AND (medium OR language) AND (instruct∗). 3. Search only for peer reviewed published journal articles. 4. Eliminate substantively irrelevant articles by only selecting articles that appear in journals in which multiple articles appear. 5. Guarantee meaningful and empirical relevance by reading all remaining abstracts for relevant content. 6. Further ensure substantive and empirical relevance by reading all remaining articles in their entirety for substantive context and adequate content.

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7. Add articles which were found relevant and which did not appear in the database search because of different reasons and were found as result of a hand search. 8. Add articles which did not meet the criteria but were considered seminal and in force. The selected articles were examined for English-medium instruction (EMI) programs within the university context and its effects, as well as for variables affecting outcomes and satisfaction. These were listed and classified using the approach of Perelló-Marín and Ribes (2014), which is an adaptation of Q Sorting (Petter et al. 2007), taking the complete list of effects and issues identified at the first step and classifying them into different categories.

2.2

The Case of a Business School

We used a quantitative approach, including the 541 students of the Bachelor Degree in Business Administration and Management at the Business School of the Universitat Politècnica de València (Spain), during the period from 2010 to 2014; 107 of them belonged to the High Academic Achieving program, which is taught using EMI in a large proportion of the courses. We examined a set of variables related to five different categories: (1) academic achievement; (2) participation in international exchanges; (3) business internships; (4) employers’ satisfaction questionnaire (business internships), and (5) students’ satisfaction questionnaire (business internships). We did a statistical descriptive analysis and a bivariate analysis, which included all statistical contrasts required to measure the relationship between the performance of the variables and the condition of ARA or non-ARA student. These contrasts are carried out through parametric and nonparametric statistical techniques appropriated to each variable’s characteristics. We used the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test to prove adjustment to a normal distribution of the continuous variables. Student’s t-test was used for independent samples of continuous type and normal

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distribution. We used the Mann-Whitney test for two independent samples to test whether or not the distribution of a parameter, at least ordinal, is the same in two independent samples. Pearson Chi2 test was used to test association or dependency between two categorical variables, provided that the expected frequency was greater than five cases. Otherwise, and only for dichotomous variables, Fisher’s exact test was used. The level of significance used in all bivariate tests was 10% (α = 0.1).

3

Results

3.1

Results of the Review

3.1.1  Identification of Studies The identified papers in the database search (230) were screened against the established inclusion criteria, yielding 44 papers. One additional paper was identified through hand search and 6 additional seminal papers were added, yielding a final sample of 51 papers. Figure 3.1 shows the number of articles returned from this methodology at each step, with the final sample of 51 papers. As we did not find any other systematic review of articles about overall effects of EMI, a comparison in the size of the sample with any other study cannot be offered. Table 3.1 shows all the studies included and outlines selected characteristics. Out of the 51 included papers, 43 were empirical (16 were quantitative, 15 quantitative, and 12 mixed qualitative and quantitative methods) and 8 were more descriptive or think pieces. Geographically, the countries of origin of the papers were varied. Among them, South Korea stands out, with 12 articles. Other countries with a noteworthy representation were China, Spain, Taiwan, Japan, and Denmark.

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Search by primary keywords: English AND (medium OR language) AND (Instruct*) Total papers produced n=230 Include only Peer-reviewed articles Non Peer-reviewed n=29 Total papers produced n=201 Include only articles that appear in journals in which multiple articles appear No journals with multiple articles n=0 Abstracts screened n=201

Full papers screened n=52

Rejected at abstract n=149 Duplicates n= 2 Not a study about English Medium Instruction in higher education institutions = 131 Other languages=16 Rejected at paper n= 8 Not a study about English Medium Instruction in higher education institutions

Total papers included in the systematic review Identi‰ied via database n=44 Identi‰ied via hand search n=1 Seminal studies included n=6 Total n=51

Fig. 3.1  Results from the systematic review search

Year

Belhiah and Elhami

Botha

Bradford

Chang, Kim, and Lee

Choi

Costa and Coleman

4

5

6

7

8

2012

2012

2013

2016

2013

2015

Database search 2016 Barrios, López-­ Gutiérrez, and Lechuga 2013 Basibek, Dolmaci, Cengiz, Bür, Dilek, and Kara

Authors

3

2

1

Number Facing Challenges in English Medium Instruction Through Engaging in an Innovation Project Lecturers’ Perceptions of English Medium Instruction at Engineering Departments of Higher Education: A Study on Partial English Medium Instruction at Some State Universities in Turkey English as a Medium of Instruction in the Gulf: When Students and Teachers Speak English-Medium Instruction at a University in Macau: Policy and Realities Toward a Typology of Implementation Challenges Facing English-Medium Instruction in Higher Education: Evidence from Japan Identification of Essential English Productive Skills for English-Medium Instruction Course: A Syllabus Analysis English as an Instructional Medium in Korean Higher Education: Focusing on the Perspectives of Professors A Survey of English-­Medium Instruction in Italian Higher Education

Study title

Table 3.1  Studies included in the systematic review

Saudi Arabia Macau

Turkey

Spain

Country

South Korea

South Korea

(continued)

Italy International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism

English Language and Literature Teaching

English Teaching

Journal of Studies in Japan International Education

World Englishes

Language Policy

Procedia—Social and Behavioral Sciences

Procedia—Social and Behavioral Sciences

Magazine

3  A Systematic Review of English as a Medium of Instruction… 

41

Cristea

Dafouz and Camacho-­Miñano

Doiz, Lasagabaster, and Sierra Hahl, Järvinen, and Juuti

9

10

11

2013

Hu and Lei

16

15

2010 Hengsadeekul, Hengsadeekul, Raviunder, and Kaewkuekool Hou, Morse, Chiang, 2012 and Chen

14

2016

He and Chiang

2014

2011

2016

2016

Year

13

12

Authors

Number

Table 3.1 (continued) Country

China

Finland

Spain

Spain

(continued)

China

Taiwan

Thailand Selected Topics in Education and Educational Technology

English Today

International Journal of Applied Linguistics

World Englishes

English for Specific Purposes

Journal of Educational Romania Sciences and Psychology

Magazine

Challenges to Quality of English Medium Asia Pacific Education Review Instruction Degree Programs I Taiwanese Universities and the Role of Local Accreditors: A Perspective on NonEnglish-­Speaking Asian Country English-Medium Instruction in Chinese Higher Education Higher Education: A Case Study

How to Improve My Teaching Style? Teaching Business Law Through EnglishMedium Instruction. Graduate and Undergraduate Student’s Point of View Exploring the Impact of English-Medium Instruction on University Student Academic Achievement: The Case of Accounting Internationalization, Multilingualism and English-­Medium Instruction Accommodating to English-Medium Instruction in Teacher Education in Finland Challenges to English-Medium Instruction (EMI) for International Students in China: A Learners’ Perspective English as Medium of Instruction in Thai Universities: A Review of Literature

Study title

42  G. Sanahuja Vélez et al.

Authors

Hu, Li, and Lei

Huang

Huang and Singh

Jensen and Thogersen

Jiménez Muñoz

Joe and Lee

Kedzierski

Kim

Kim

Number

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

Table 3.1 (continued)

2009

2015

2016

2013

2016

2011

2014

2015

2014

Year English-Medium Instruction at a Chinese University: Rhetoric and Reality Exploring and Assessing Effectiveness of English Medium Instruction Courses: The Students’ Perspectives Critical Perspectives on Testing Teaching: Reframing Teacher Education for English Medium Instruction Danish University Lecturers’ Attitudes Towards English as the Medium of Instruction Content and Language: The Impact of Pedagogical Designs on Academic Performance Within Tertiary English as a Medium of Instruction Does English-­Medium Instruction Benefit Students in EFL Context? A Case Study of Medical Students in Korea English as a Medium of Instruction in East Asia’s Higher Education Sector: A Critical Realist Cultural Political Economy Analysis of Underlying Logics English-Medium Instruction: Perceptions of University Students of Different Academic Years and Lectures English Medium Instruction in Higher Education: Does It Promote Cultural Correction or Cultural Continuity?

Study title

English Language and Literature Training

Studies in English Education

Comparative Education

The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher

Porta Linguarum

Iberica

Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education

Procedia—Social and Behavioral Sciences

Language Policy

Magazine

(continued)

South Korea

South Korea

East Asia

South Korea

Spain

Denmark

Taiwan

Taiwan

China

Country

3  A Systematic Review of English as a Medium of Instruction… 

43

Kim and Sohn

Kim, Son, and Sohn

Kim, Tatar, and Choi 2014

Klapwijk and Van der Walt

Ko and Wei

Lasagabaster

Lee

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

2014

2015

2014

2016

2009

2009

2011

Kim

26

Year

Authors

Number

Table 3.1 (continued)

The Relationship Between Motivation, Gender, L1 and Possible Selves in English-Medium Instruction Why Students Don’t Participate in English Medium Instruction Classes in a Korean University: A Case Study

Korean Professor and Student Perceptions of the Efficacy of English-­Medium Instruction Expert System to Evaluate English Medium Instruction in Korean Universities Conjoint Analysis of Enhanced English Medium Instruction for College Students Emerging Culture of English-Medium Instruction in Korea: Experiences of Korean and International Students English-Plus Multilingualism as the New Linguistic Capital? Implications of University Students’ Attitudes Towards Languages of Instruction in a Multilingual Environment A Comparative Study on College EnglishMedium Instruction Policy between China and Korea

Study title

English Teaching

International Journal of Multilingualism

Korean Journal of Comparative Education

Expert Systems with Applications Expert Systems with Applications Language and Intercultural Communication Journal of Language, Identity and Education

Linguistic Research

Magazine

(continued)

South Korea

South Korea and China Spain

South Africa

South Korea South Korea South Korea

South Korea

Country

44  G. Sanahuja Vélez et al.

Authors

Lei and Hu

Lueg and Lueg

Manjet

Nguyen, Hamid, and Moni

Park

Salomone

Suliman and Tadros

Toh

Number

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

Table 3.1 (continued)

2016

2011

2015

2013

2016

2016

2015

2014

Year

Studies in English Language and Literature

Pertanika Journal of Social Science and Humanities Higher Education

International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching Academy of Management Learning and Education

Magazine

Language Problems and Language Planning Nursing Students Coping with English as a Nurse Education Today Foreign Language Medium of Instruction Latin American Journal Extrapolating from and Inquiry into Curricular Issues Concerning the Adoption of Content and Language Integrated of English as Medium of Instruction in a LACLIL Japanese University Situation

Is English-Medium Instruction Effective in Improving Chinese Undergraduate Student’s English Competence Why Do Students Choose English as a Medium of Instruction? A Bourdieusian Perspective on the Study Strategies on Non-Native English Speakers Academic Listening Practices Among International Graduate Students in English as Medium of Instruction … English-Medium Instruction and SelfGovernance in Higher Education: The Journey of a Vietnamese University Through the Institutional Autonomy Regime Issues and Challenges in Offering English-­ Medium Instruction: A Close Examination of the Classroom Experiences of Professors The Rise of Global English

Study title

(continued)

Japan

Saudi Arabia

USA

South Korea

Vietnam

Malaysia

Denmark

China

Country

3  A Systematic Review of English as a Medium of Instruction… 

45

2014

2006

Zaaba, Aning, Gunggut, Ramadan, and Umemoto Hand search Chen

Seminal studies Airey and Linder

Byun et al.

Coleman

Erling and Hilgendorf Sert

Tsuneyoshi

44

1

2

3

4

6

5

1

Werther, Denver, Jensen, and Mees

43

2005

2008

2006

2006

2011

2010

2014

2012

Torres-Olave

42

Year

Authors

Number

Table 3.1 (continued) Magazine

Country

Internationalization Strategies in Japan

Language and the Experience of Learning University Physics in Sweden English-Medium Teaching in Korean Higher Education: Policy Debates and Reality English-Medium Teaching in European Higher-Education Language Policies in the Context of German Higher Education The Language of Instruction Dilemma in the Turkish Context

Proficiency as a Factor in English-­Medium Instruction Online Tutoring

Germany

Europe

South Korea

Sweden

Taiwan

An International Journal Turkey of Educational Technology and Applied Linguistics Journal of Research in Japan International Education

Language Policy

Open Research Online

European Journal of Physics Higher Education

English Language Teaching

Higher Education Mexico Imaginative Geographies: Identity, Difference, and English as the Language of Instruction in a Mexican University Program Denmark Using English as a Medium of Instruction Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural at University Level in Denmark: The Development Lecturer’s Perspective Malaysia English as a Medium of Instruction in the Selected Topics in Education and Public Higher Education Institution: A Case Study of Language-­Education Policy Educational Technology in Malaysia

Study title

46  G. Sanahuja Vélez et al.

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47

3.1.2  Findings of the Systematic Review Effects of EMI on students: Most studies agreed that EMI increases English language skills of students (Belhiah and Elhami 2015; Byun et al. 2011; Doiz et al. 2011; Kim 2011; Sert 2008). As for the impact on students’ academic outcomes, the majority of papers concluded that EMI does not hinder them (Airey and Linder 2006; Byun et al. 2011; Dafouz and Camacho-Miñano 2016; Joe and Lee 2013), while fewer studies concluded that EMI hampered students’ content learning (Bradford 2016; Kim 2011; Sert 2008). It was also found that EMI facilitates the students’ participation in exchange programs (Coleman 2006; Doiz et  al. 2011), helps students prepare for future business careers or academic pursuits (Byun et al. 2011; Doiz et al. 2011), facilitates access to postgraduate degrees abroad (Doiz et  al. 2011), and increases employment of domestic graduates (Coleman 2006). On a different level, EMI produces stress on students (Lei and Hu 2014; Suliman and Tadros 2011), increased workload because of the language change, and cultural challenges (Bradford 2016). A good number of papers researched the effects that EMI has on the identity of students, finding that it produces identity issues (Bradford 2016; Hengsadeekul et al. 2010; Torres-Olave 2012). Since EMI makes students face language and instruction problems (He and Chiang 2016; Manjet 2016), they used strategies to cope with these difficulties (Airey and Linder 2006; Botha 2013; Hahl et al. 2014; Manjet 2016; Suliman and Tadros 2011). These strategies included avoiding asking or answering questions and reduced interaction within the classroom (Airey and Linder 2006; Suliman and Tadros 2011), resorting to one’s first language (Botha 2013; Hahl et al. 2014; Suliman and Tadros 2011), and focusing on note-taking (Airey and Linder 2006). Effects of EMI on faculty: According to Byun et al. (2011), EMI boosts the language skills and the confidence of professors. It facilitates the teachers’ participation in exchange programs (Doiz et  al. 2011), promotes greater staff mobility and idea exchanges (Byun et  al. 2011; Coleman 2006), and entails better access to teaching and research materials (Coleman 2006).

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EMI course preparation requires extra load of work and more complications (Doiz et al. 2011). Some teachers compensated their lack of fluency and terminology with well-prepared slides and other materials (Hahl et al. 2014). Effects of EMI on higher education institutions: EMI is an effective tool for internationalization (Byun et  al. 2011; Coleman 2006; Hou et  al. 2012) and increases university competitiveness (Byun et  al. 2011; Coleman 2006). EMI attracts international students (Byun et al. 2011; Doiz et al. 2011; Nguyen et al. 2016; Hou et al. 2012) and allows institutions to attract and employ visiting academics from abroad, specially qualified native-English-speaking scholars (Byun et al. 2011; Doiz et al. 2011; Nguyen et al. 2016). EMI stimulates international exposure of the students (Hou et  al. 2012) and can be a stepping stone to launch partnerships with foreign institutions (Nguyen et al. 2016). Effects of EMI on society: EMI provides the domestic labor market with graduates having a higher level of internationally oriented skills (Byun et al. 2011). Nonetheless, some of the included studies in China found that it functions to perpetuate educational inequalities, by making it a service to the privileged, the rich, and the elite (Hu and Lei 2013; Hu et al. 2014; Lueg and Lueg 2015). It was also found that, in China, business students from the lowest stratum self-select against EMI due to a pronounced fear of failure despite their awareness that EMI leads to higher employability (Lueg and Lueg 2015). Another research concluded that it gives place to geography of difference: constructing “us” and “them” (Torres-Olave 2012). Global English is having an intense effect on language rights, and it raises equity concerns across education (Salomone 2015). In a multilingual context, with a minority language, universities need to articulate a clear language policy whose primary goal is to find a balance with the co-official languages (Doiz et  al. 2011; Salomone 2015). Variables affecting effectiveness of EMI: The impact of English proficiency of students on academic learning and achievement is high, according to the majority of researchers (Erling and Hilgendorf 2006; Kim et al. 2014; Kim 2011; Nguyen et al. 2016), although, according to Joe and Lee (2013), students’ general English proficiency was not related to

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49

their lecture comprehension. English lack of proficiency in students produces learning difficulties and stress (Huang 2015) and therefore opportunities for appropriate language training do also affect the outcomes of EMI (Byun et al. 2011; Erling and Hilgendorf 2006; Tsuneyoshi 2005). Stating clearly the level of English proficiency required of students for certain EMI courses (Byun et  al. 2011) and teacher training (Nguyen et al. 2016) can affect success. The most cited variable affecting effectiveness of EMI was the faculty language skills (Bradford 2016; Erling and Hilgendorf 2006; Hahl et al. 2014; He and Chiang 2016; Kim 2011; Hou et al. 2012) and quality (Hou et al. 2012). In contrast to the international students in the English-­ speaking countries, in China, for instance, the language difficulties were attributed to the Chinese instructors (He and Chiang 2016). The level of support from the university, the perception of the program within the mission of the university (Hou et al. 2012; Doiz et al. 2011), and the program coherence and expansion (Bradford 2016; Doiz et al. 2011) are also key factors. The academic community needs to be more supportive about the presence of English-medium teaching at universities (Doiz et al. 2011). Attitude, competence, goal attainment, and performance were rated by a panel of experts as most important to effective EMI (Huang and Singh 2014). Attitude to EMI policy, experience with EMI teaching, student evaluation, and support are also relevant to effectiveness of EMI (Werther et al. 2014). The size of the institution was also found to be a chief factor, as larger size institutions tend to have fewer obstacles to developing EMI (Hou et al. 2012). If the program is open to international and to domestic students, this leads to better intercultural learning than a segregation policy (Hou et al. 2012). The human and financial support (Bradford 2016; Byun et al. 2011; Erling and Hilgendorf 2006; Hou et al. 2012) and a suitable compensation system for EMI instructors (Tsuneyoshi 2005) also have an impact on the success of the program. Participant satisfaction: On the one hand, research about student satisfaction with regard to EMI offers mixed results. Whereas students were not positive toward EMI in some researches (Joe and Lee 2013; Kim 2015; Kim et al. 2009), general satisfaction with EMI was positive (Byun et al. 2011; Cristea 2016; Lee 2014). Students with higher English lan-

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guage learning or experience were more likely to report their EMI courses as satisfactory (Lee 2014). A study in Korea revealed self-perceived lack of knowledge and understanding of subject content, lack of English language skills, and lack of motivation (Lee 2014). According to Kim et al. (2009), small class size and classes for cultural studies are preferred by EMI students. Also, the whole contents of EMI classes need to be offered in English for students’ higher satisfaction (Kim et  al. 2009; Kim and Sohn 2009), and the offered courses should reflect students’ preferences rather than the professors’ choices (Kim et al. 2009). The factor which has the most direct effect on students’ satisfaction is suitability (suitable professor, subject, and class size) according to Kim and Sohn (2009). On the other hand, professors did not generally hold positive opinions about EMI effectiveness (Kim 2015). A survey in Denmark (Werther et al. 2014) concluded that teaching in English is more of a problem than most teachers dare to openly admit. In this study teachers indicated that more systematic planning is needed. Another study in Turkey (Basibek et al. 2013) concluded that lecturers in partial EMI programs consider that they are less capable of performing their teaching obligations or may feel teaching to be more difficult. A research in South Korea concluded that professors perceive the EMI policy positively, expecting it to be favorable for both students and institutions, but they recognize that EMI will lower the standard of the academic experience of students (Choi 2012). Another study in South Korea (Park 2013) evidenced that professors had mixed feelings about their experiences of teaching EMI. While a few were positive about offering EMI because it stimulated students’ participation in class, other assessed their experience negatively because it required them to concentrate on improving students’ English skills.

3.2

The Case of a Business School

3.2.1  Academic Performance The sample included 541 students pursuing a degree in Business Administration and Management (107 ARA and 434 non-ARA). ARA students belong to the High Academic Achieving group (Alto Rendimiento

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Table 3.2  Academic performance Variable

ARA value

Non-ARA value

Bivariate analysis

Credits approved/year Average mark University access score Final year project mark Gender (% of women) Graduates in 4 years

53.173 6.831 8.142 9.000 42.1% 17.1%

54.913 6.827 7.668 8.639 49.5% 14.0%

0.299 (M-W) 0.536 (M-W) 0.000 (M-W) 0.816 (M-W) 0.165 (Chi2) 0.738 (Chi2)

Académico in Spanish), which is taught using EMI in a large proportion of the courses. Table 3.2 shows the results for the descriptive statistics and bivariate analysis of the academic performance variables. The only variable which presented statistically significant differences was the score with which students entered in the university.

3.3

International Programs

The sample comprised records of the 99 exchanges done during the period (56 non-ARA and 43 ARA). Table 3.3 shows the results of the descriptive statistics and bivariate analysis of the international exchange variables. Several variables related to international exchange programs presented statistically significant differences between the two groups. EMI students did more months of exchange, they approved more credits during their exchanges abroad, and they participated about four times more in exchange programs.

3.3.1  Business Internships We had a sample of 231 cases (33 ARA and 198 non-ARA). Table 3.4 shows the results of the descriptive statistics and bivariate analysis of the variables of the business internships. The percentage of students doing business internships and the number of hours per day was significantly lower in the case of ARA students. By contrast, the salary per hour was significantly higher in the case of ARA students.

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Table 3.3  International exchanges ARA value

Non-ARA value

Months of exchange Average mark during exchange Approved credits

7.88 7.61

6.95 7.77

39.57

32.05

Approved credits/semester

22.73

20.29

% of students undertaking exchanges

40.19%

12.90

Variable

Bivariate analysis 0.025 (M-W) 0.566 (student’s t-test) 0.021 (student’s t-test) 0.129 (student’s t-test) 0.000 (Chi2)

Table 3.4  Business internships Variable Number of days of business internships Number of total hours of business internships Number of hours of business internships/day Salary/month Salary/hour % of students doing business internships

ARA value

Non-ARA value

Bivariate analysis

63.42

60.7

0.421 (M-W)

292.61

298.25

0.631 (M-W)

4.37

5.35

0.067 (M-W)

406.45 4.09 30.84%

396.52 3.75 45.62%

0.436 (M-W) 0.088 (M-W) 0.006 (M-W)

3.3.2  S  tudents’ Satisfaction Questionnaire (Business Internships) We had a sample of 151 questionnaires answered by the students at the end of the business internships (24 ARA and 127 non-ARA). Table 3.5 shows the results of the bivariate analysis of the different questions of the students’ business internships questionnaire. The only variable which presented significant differences was the evaluation by the students of their technical contribution to the company.

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3.3.3  Employers’ Satisfaction (Business Internships) Concerning the employers’ opinion about the traineeships, we had a sample of 151 questionnaires answered by the employer at the end of the business internships (23 ARA and 128 non-ARA). Table 3.6 shows the results of the bivariate analysis of the different questions of the employers’ business internships questionnaire. The only variable which presented significant differences was the evaluation of the students’ dedication: personal initiative, which was higher in the case of the ARA students, in the opinion of the employers. Table 3.5  Business internships satisfaction—students’ questionnaire Variable

Bivariate analysis

Contribution to the company: technical Contribution to the company: human Dedication: personal initiative Dedication: directed work Integration: technical Integration: human Did you to your final year project in the company? Do you think you will be hired by the company Satisfaction with the business internship Satisfaction with the business internship office

0.017 (Chi2) 0.385 (Chi2) 0.988 (Chi2) 0.497 (Chi2) 0.288 (Chi2) 0.270 (Chi2) 0.724 (Chi2) 0.171 (Chi2) 0.759 (Chi2) 0.276 (Chi2)

Table 3.6  Business internships satisfaction—employers’ questionnaire Variable

Bivariate analysis

Students’ dedication evaluation: personal initiative Students’ dedication evaluation: directed work Initial training: technical knowledge Initial training: personal skills Integration: technical Integration: human Evaluation of the objectives attained by the student Would you hire the student? Satisfaction with the business internship Satisfaction with the business internship office

0.075 (Chi2) 0.118 (Chi2) 0.247 (Chi2) 0.493 (Chi2) 0.493 (Chi2) 0.270 (Chi2) 0.473 (Chi2) 0.554 (Chi2) 0.757 (Chi2) 0.652 (Chi2)

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Discussion

Concerning our first objective of doing a systematic review about English-­ medium instruction (EMI) in higher education, as we did not find other similar reviews, a comparison in the size of the sample with other study cannot be offered. Limitations of this review come from not including gray literature and studies in other languages. As for our second objective, the case of a Business School, our results about the impact of EMI on academic content learning corroborate the findings of Airey and Linder (2006), Byun et  al. (2011), Dafouz and Camacho-Miñano (2016), and Joe and Lee (2013), as we found that business content learning was not hindered. Our results do also support previous research related to enhanced participation in international programs (Coleman 2006; Doiz et al. 2011), as our EMI students participated in a much higher proportion in exchange programs. This outcome is paramount, as the relationship between participation in exchange programs and employability has been extensively evidenced (Berrell et  al. 2005, Crossman and Clarke 2010). In their research, Crossman and Clarke (2010) found strong relations between international experience and employability, given the outcomes linked with the shaping of networks, chances for experiential learning, language attainment, and the development of soft skills related to intercultural abilities. Our study also concluded that the percentage of students doing business internships and the number of hours per day of internships was lower in the EMI group. In our case this result has a natural explanation, as usually internships and exchange programs take place simultaneously during the last year, and therefore some students have to choose between one and the other. EMI students, with a more international vocation, are more likely to engage in an exchange program (which can also include an international business internship) rather than in a national internship. Nonetheless, the increase in the number of exchange programs in the EMI group (about four times more) is much higher than the decrease in internships, for which we believe the effect on employability is compensated and still favorable to EMI students. Nevertheless, the salary per hour as well as the students’ evaluation of their technical contribution to

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the company was higher in the case of EMI students. Additionally, the personal initiative in the case of the EMI students was significantly higher as evaluated by employers.

5

Conclusions

Concerning our first objective, this systematic review included 51 papers published during the past ten years relevant to EMI in higher education. The findings are abundant and varied. The most remarkable are that EMI increases the English language skills of students and enhances student participation in exchange programs, and most authors agreed that academic learning is not hindered. Nevertheless, a smaller number of authors concluded that EMI hampers content learning. This review has also listed a good number of variables that can affect the effectiveness of EMI, such as the English knowledge of professors and students, and the support and coherence of the institution. It also collected information from several satisfaction surveys, showing that results were mixed and that students were generally more satisfied with EMI than were professors. As for our second objective, the case in a Business School, we used a quantitative approach that included the 541 students enrolled for a Bachelor in Business degree from 2010 to 2014. This degree offers a high academic performance program where English is used to teach in a great part of the courses. We used descriptive statistics and bivariate analysis to compare the EMI and the non-EMI groups and we did not find any statistically significant differences in the academic performance. In our case, EMI did not have any negative impact on business content learning. Our results also showed that most variables related to international exchanges were significantly higher. Additionally, some variables related to traineeships, such as the salary per hour and the students’ evaluation of their technical contribution; also, the employers’ evaluation of personal initiative was higher in the case of EMI students. The results of our systematic review and empirical study are relevant to business schools, higher education institutions, tertiary education and employment authorities, as well as students and employers. Given English’s progressive dominance as a lingua franca, the extension of EMI

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at universities worldwide is an inevitable process that is likely to continue well into the future. This research and its findings will therefore be a valuable contribution to its effective implementation. On the one hand, we contribute to better understand EMI through an exhaustive review of all the relevant literature published in recent years, screening and listing in a systematic way all the possible effects on the different stakeholders, as well as the variables affecting effectiveness and satisfaction. On the other hand, we contribute to the empirical research about EMI with the results in a Business School, reporting that learning did not suffer as a consequence of using EMI. Additionally, if we consider the greater participation in exchanges abroad that we found in the EMI group, it is expected that these graduates will get a better reception in the labor market. The reason behind this is the enhancement of intercultural competences achieved during the international exchange programs, including language improvement, which are very attractive to employers. This enhanced employability is also supported by the evidence that EMI students received a higher salary per hour and had better evaluations of their technical skills during their traineeships. Higher education institutions can use the EMI programs to enhance academic excellence and potentially attract qualified students. They can also use them as a strategy to increase employability of graduates, having in mind that it is expected that the employability of EMI students will be boosted, while maintaining the quality and the quantity of the academic content learning.

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Werther, C. H., Denver, L., Jensen, C. H., & Mees, I. M. (2014). Using English as a medium of instruction at university level in Denmark: The lecturer’s perspective. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 35(5), 443–462. Zaaba, Z., Aning, I. N. A., Gunggut, H., Ramadan, F. I. M., & Umemoto, K. (2010). English as a medium of instruction in the public higher education institution: A case study of language-education policy in Malaysia. In H. Fujita & J. Sasaki (Eds.), Selected topics in education and educational technology (pp. 188–196). Iwate: WSEAS Press.

Part II Training Issues

4 Observation as a Tool to Facilitate the Professional Development of Teaching Faculty Involved in English as a Medium of Instruction: Trainer and Trainee Perspectives Rupert Herington

1

Introduction

English as a medium of instruction (EMI) is a growth area in universities in non-English-speaking countries due to institutional or national policies to facilitate internationalisation. According to research by Wächter and Maiworm (2014), in European universities the largest proportion of full degree programmes taught in English are offered at universities in Finland, Sweden and the Netherlands. English as a medium of instruction can be defined as “the use of the English language to teach academic subjects in countries or jurisdictions where the first language (L1) of the majority of the population is not English” (Dearden 2014: 4). The focus of this chapter will be on training courses for teaching staff from universities in Japan and China where EMI courses are being delivered.

R. Herington (*) University of Leeds, Leeds, UK e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s) 2020 M. L. Carrió-Pastor (ed.), Internationalising Learning in Higher Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-21587-3_4

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In China, EMI programmes have been introduced to facilitate interaction with overseas universities and to meet the development needs established for Chinese society. In addition, the impetus for such programmes has been to improve individual university positions in league tables (Hu and Lei 2014). The aim of introducing EMI programmes at universities in Japan has also been to facilitate internationalisation and reform, to increase enrolments by international students and to facilitate research collaborations with overseas institutions. Initially 13 national universities received funding from the Japanese Ministry of Education in 2010, with the project being widened to 37 universities in 2014 (MEXT 2014). University teachers delivering EMI courses in Chinese and Japanese universities will need to respond to a number of challenges. It is likely that they will need to use Chinese or Japanese in the classroom or lecture theatre, in addition to English, to help students understand the content due to students’ varying degrees of proficiency in English. Hu and Lei (2014) reported how in the Chinese university in their study, teachers used Chinese regularly to explain concepts to students because they felt it helpful to facilitate the students’ understanding. A second factor relates to the proficiency in English of the teachers and the ability to express ideas clearly. Linguistic problems can make it difficult for teachers to deliver content effectively through lectures (Wilkinson 2010). Hence there is a need for teachers to learn about alternative teaching and learning methods to assist teachers and enable students to acquire the content more easily. Another challenge is that there is likely to be a more heterogeneous mix of students enrolled on EMI courses compared to programmes taught in the local language because EMI programmes are often launched in order to recruit more international students. As a consequence, teachers may face administrative problems due to the mix of students on EMI courses. Brown and Iyobe (2014) reported in a study of EMI programme implementation in Japan that there were more international students on EMI courses than Japanese students. However, Bradford (2016) explained that at some Japanese universities there were teachers who were reluctant to teach on EMI courses as there were insufficient numbers of ­international

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students taking these courses to make it worthwhile for the teacher to deliver the course in English rather than in Japanese. A related challenge, which teachers will need to attend to, is the methodology used. In theory, teachers should employ techniques which will benefit students’ learning. Morell found that “lecturers who attempted to change their discourse were willing to do so but felt pressured by other factors such as having enough time to cover the content of the syllabus” (2004: 334). Hence, there are a variety of factors which makes teaching subjects through the medium of English different to standard teaching in the local languages, which teachers will need to address. Observation of teaching practice can help to inform a teacher’s perspective on these challenges and observation can also help teachers to develop their own personal professional practice. This chapter will firstly illustrate the benefits of observation of teaching as a means to facilitate the professional development of faculty involved in EMI teaching. It will then, with reference to two different formats for intensive professional development courses for teaching faculty involved with the delivery of EMI courses, discuss observation from the point of view of the trainer and the trainees. Finally, the chapter will outline how observation of teaching can be incorporated into professional development training courses for EMI teachers.

2

Observation

Observation of teaching can be interpreted in different ways. In the context of a training course for EMI teachers, observation of teaching is understood to mean observation of another teacher’s teaching by a course participant in order to inform his/her own professional practice. This could be considered to be a form of peer observation; however, in this case the “peer” is not necessarily a colleague from the same institution or necessarily same subject area. Peer observation of teaching, which according to Bell cited by Bell and Mladenovic (2008: 736), is a “collaborative, developmental activity in which professionals offer mutual support by observing each other teach; sharing ideas about teaching; gathering student feedback on teaching effectiveness; reflecting on understandings,

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feelings, actions and feedback and trying out new ideas.” In the training course context, the participants are observing peers (other course participants during teaching practice tasks), peers from other universities who may be experts in the same field or from other subject fields. The focus, though, is on observation for developmental purposes rather than observation as a performance management tool. There are a number of benefits of including the observation of teaching on a professional development course for EMI teachers, which will be explained in this section. Observation can help the participants to identify alternative teaching modes to the lecture, as well as appropriate techniques to use in the lecture theatre to facilitate interaction between teachers and students. Wilkinson (2010) makes the point that it is often difficult for teachers to deliver lectures effectively as a result of deficiencies in their use of English and pronunciation. In an exploratory study by Vinke et al. (1998) more than half of the participants reported that they experienced difficulties giving explanations in English which were clear and precise. Wilkinson (2010) suggests teachers should employ more “student-centered” teaching modes, which would be advantageous to not only the students but also the teachers. Observation can help to demonstrate suitable teaching modes, such as alternatives to traditional lectures. In a study of peer observation, which was used to assist teachers’ professional development, Sullivan et al. (2012: 30) reported that the teachers had found observation to be useful “to learn from and borrow teaching techniques from other teachers.” Some EMI teachers may not have undertaken any formal pedagogical training and may not know that the methods they are using when they teach are the most appropriate in an EMI teaching context. Vu and Burns (2014) reported in their study of university teachers in Vietnam, who were teaching EMI courses, that only some of the lecturers had attended training courses focused on helping them to prepare for EMI teaching. The needs analyses conducted prior to the training courses delivered at the University of Leeds confirmed this to be the case for the participants. The approach adopted by some EMI teachers may also be considered to be erroneous. Dafouz cited by Cots (2013: 117) asserts that little attention is often given to the use of English in the EMI classroom and “for many lecturers, the shift from L1 to EMI is reduced to a change in

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the vehicle of communication, and does not take into account that it usually requires an adaptation in the teaching methodology.” Hence, observation, according to Shortland (2004: 28), can benefit EMI trainees by helping them to become “reflective practitioners of teaching and learning.” In designing the training courses for the teachers from the two universities, Wallace’s “Reflective Practice Model of Professional Education/ Development” was used as a theoretical base for the courses. In this model, “received input” is complemented with “experiential knowledge.” The former refers to the input that a trainee would receive in the form of subject content and methodology related to teaching. Observation can contribute to the development of experiential knowledge but should not be a substitute for actual practice (Wallace 1991). Both received input and experiential knowledge inform the individual’s own teaching practice and based on this the teacher has the opportunity to reflect on that practice. The overall goal is to achieve professional competence. Hendry and Oliver, cited by Engin and Priest (2014: 2), pointed out that “evidence is increasingly emerging that learning from watching a colleague teach can be just as beneficial as, if not more than, receiving feedback, even when that feedback is well constructed.” The intensive training courses were designed to provide an opportunity for the participants to observe how certain behaviours and methodologies were being demonstrated, with a view to informing the participant’s own professional practice. Engin and Priest (2014: 4) argue that observation as a “learning tool” is beneficial because “observing another teacher stimulates reflection of our own teaching and can be a powerful catalyst for development and change. Since the focus is observing teaching rather than the teacher, there is no judgment making or evaluative feedback.”

3

Professional Development Courses

Two different formats for training will be presented briefly in this chapter, which have been delivered by the author and a colleague at the University of Leeds. The first was training for lecturers from a Chinese university, where a joint double degree programme is being delivered at the Chinese university through the medium of English. None of the

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­ articipants had ever taught their subject through the medium of English p before. Hence this was a pre-service training course for the participants. The course complemented some initial training that had been delivered at the university in China. Over a two-week period intensive training sessions about academic language and teaching methodology for the EMI classroom were provided. The course participants were given opportunities to meet with their subject counterparts at the University of Leeds, who would be co-teaching the same modules in China, and to provide opportunities for observation of lectures and practical classes. All the participants were lecturers from the same subject discipline. The second format for a professional development course, which was provided by the author at the University of Leeds, was a two-week course for a group of lecturers from a Japanese university. All were experts from a range of disciplines and most had started to teach their subjects to home and international students through the medium of English but none of the participants had ever taken any courses in pedagogy before. The course was designed to focus on the use of English for EMI teaching and appropriate methodology to facilitate student interaction and learning. During the course, the participants had an opportunity to observe live lectures related to their subject specialisms and students on English for Academic Purposes pre-sessional courses.

4

Trainer Perspectives

EMI trainees may have different objectives for the observation of lectures or classroom teaching and it is important for the trainer to assist trainees in identifying possible multiple purposes before each observation of teaching. For some trainees, especially if the individual has not delivered their subject in English before, observing how subject content in English is delivered may be of particular relevance. Another objective for a participant may be to learn presentation techniques applicable to the delivery of lectures, which would help to engage the students’ attention. In studies reporting higher education teaching practices, such as the one by Van Dijk and Jochems (2002), the objective was to identify teaching styles and use of appropriate teaching methodologies, such as methods to

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facilitate teacher and student interaction in the lecture theatre. The trainee may also be interested to observe the lecturer’s use of markers typical of lecture discourse. There have been numerous studies by applied linguists which were designed to analyse the nature of second language lecture comprehension (Flowerdew and Miller 1992). However, a focus on observing the linguistic aspects of lecture delivery was not the primary concern of the participants on the training courses delivered in Leeds. On each occasion, the participants were particularly interested to observe how subject content was delivered, as well as the use of teaching methods to facilitate teacher-student interaction. The trainer also needs to decide on the most suitable approach for observation to adopt. Research studies where the observation of teaching is involved tend to utilise one of three main approaches, which can be categorised as either a system-based, ethnographic or an ad hoc approach (Wallace 1991). Observation protocols, which are based on a system-­ based approach, tend to require the observers to document what they observe rather than to evaluate it. The advantage of this approach is that there is likely to be more objectivity to the observation. Observers refer to a series of behaviours previously identified in fixed categories and consequently better inter-rater reliability between observers can be achieved. (Wallace 1991). Reliability is important if the observation forms part of a research study or investigation into teacher behaviour as a form of formal performance management. Stuhlman et al. (n.d.: 3) advise that “if two independent observers can consistently assign the same ratings to the same patterns of observed behaviours, this speaks to the fact that ratings truly represent attributes of the teacher as defined by the scoring system, as opposed to attributes of the observer.” Subjectivity on the part of the observer can affect reliability. A disadvantage with a system-based approach is that the observation categories, being predetermined, can condition the observer’s view of the lecture or other teaching mode. Allwright (1988: 12) explains this drawback by saying that “inherent in any system of behaviour classification is the a priori postulating of a teaching model. The defined categories peremptorily represent judgements about which aspects of behaviour to observe and which to ignore.” The other disadvantage of many system-­ based observation protocols is that they tend to require the observers to

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spend a significant amount of time learning how to use the instruments (Wallace 1991). On most training courses sufficient time to engage in observer training is not there. Some research studies, where the observation of lectures is involved, adopt an ethnographic approach, where the focus tends to be more flexible in terms of the specification of observation categories and instruments to be used (Wallace 1991). For example, this was the approach adopted by Mallet (2011). He used an auto-ethnographic approach to observe and compare mathematics lectures taught in English with those taught in Spanish in order to identify comprehension difficulties for students who were studying mathematics in their second language. An ad hoc approach, where methods and procedures from the other approaches can be adopted with flexibility, may be the most appropriate approach to employ, if EMI trainees on a course are to undertake observation. There are an infinite number of teacher and student behaviours, in addition to other aspects such as the physical setting or technology usage, which could be observed by the EMI trainee during an observation of teaching. If a systems-based approach to observation is adopted, then it is likely that predefined categories referring to teacher and student behaviours will be identified. One example of specified observation categories is those used in the “Classroom Observation Protocol for Undergraduate STEM” (COPUS). This protocol has been developed and used at the universities of Maine and British Colombia to collect information about STEM (science, technology, engineering and mathematics) teaching practices in undergraduate lectures in order to document typical interactions between teachers and students. The results can be used to identify teacher development needs. In comparison to some other observation protocols, COPUS contains only 25 observation categories, which relate to either the teacher’s behaviours or the students’ behaviours. Observers can be trained in under two hours and a good level of inter-­rater reliability was reported by the authors from using this protocol (Smith et al. 2013). Trainees also need to be aware of what they should do during the observation and what instrument they should use to record the behaviours they observe. Stuhlman et al. recommend that it is important to identify the purpose of the observation and then to “select a ­measurement

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tool that is well aligned with their objectives” (n.d.: 4). Some instruments focus on recording very specific teacher and student classroom behaviours, while others are broader and less prescriptive. An example of a specific instrument with defined categories for recording behaviours is the instrument used with the COPUS protocol. Observers are required to document on a clear form the prescribed behaviours of the teachers and students at two-minute intervals. A graphical record of the lecture is produced, which, according to Smith et al. (2013), facilitates analysis. However, as previously explained, it is necessary to train observers to use this. It would be possible to give trainees no guidance other than asking them to record everything they observed during the observation; however, that might be potentially onerous and confusing for the participants. For EMI trainees, who may have limited pedagogical knowledge, not being required to make judgements about teaching quality is potentially a benefit. In the case of peer observation, some of the limitations, as explained by Bell and Mladenovic (2008: 737), are that it can be viewed to be “intrusive and challenging academic freedom, academics may be concerned that what is reviewed may not be representative, accurate or generalizable, and that observers may not be objective.” It is for these reasons that teachers are sometimes reluctant to engage in peer observation even if they understand the potential benefits. For the training courses delivered at the University of Leeds, the instrument used by the participants during the lecture observations consisted of three simple prompts. The reason for this was that the participants had diverse needs. It was felt that by prescribing certain categories of teacher and student behaviours to observe and record on the instrument, this might have restricted the participants from observing a range of behaviours and possibly conditioned their thinking about how the techniques they had observed might be adapted to their own situation. The first prompt was “what happened in the class or lecture you are observing?” This prompt was designed to encourage the participant to record what they had observed without any predefined categories. The second prompt was “what was different to your own teaching situation?” The purpose was to encourage the participants to reflect on typical teaching practices in China or Japan. Finally, a third prompt was given, which was “what

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could you apply to your own teaching situation?” This was included to draw the participants’ attention to certain techniques, which had been presented and demonstrated in the course input sessions. It was hoped that the focus of enquiry during each observation of live teaching would be on these techniques and use of academic English language. Although the instrument served a useful purpose, work is currently under way to design alternative instruments for the same purpose. The instrument used on the courses did stimulate the participants to reflect on what they had observed after each observation. A revised version of the instrument is in development which would be more objective and could be adapted to focus the observer’s attention on, for example, specific aspects of methodology or language in a non-judgemental manner and also to provide a more accurate record of behaviour in the class or lecture. Prior to the live observations, participants had watched extracts from recorded lectures, where particular techniques were exemplified. Recordings of teaching are a useful means of illustrating specific techniques or behaviours that the trainer wishes to demonstrate to the trainees. The advantage of a recording is that it can be played multiple times and the trainer can be assured that the behaviours being demonstrated align with the techniques he/she wishes to demonstrate to the trainees. There are, however, disadvantages of using recorded materials on a training course of this type. The participant needs to apply the same approach to observation and techniques as they would use in a live interaction. In addition, he/she does not benefit from the atmosphere of being present in a live class or lecture. It is also difficult to observe the behaviour of the students as most recordings are solely focused on the teacher. There can also be problems with comprehension due to sound quality or the ability to follow visual information that is being presented. There were also a number of practical challenges that were encountered in organising live observations of lectures and classes for the participants during the training courses. The literature about observation in the training of teachers for peer observation purposes is quite extensive. For example, Richards and Farrell (2005) provide detailed guidance about the etiquette of observation. Preand post-observation meetings should be held between the observer and the teacher delivering the lecture or the class. The participants on the

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training course for the teachers from the Japanese university had limited time to fully engage in discussions with the teachers concerned and as a consequence did not receive all the necessary information about the context in which the lecture was being delivered. However, the participants from the Chinese University benefitted from being paired with their subject counterpart. Although they only observed lectures and practical classes from their own subject specialisms and could not benefit from observing practices utilised in other subject disciplines, which the Japanese lecturers had experienced, they did have an opportunity to gain a more in-depth understanding of the subject content being delivered and how the lecture or class they observed was incorporated into the module. Another challenge related to the logistics of arranging suitable lectures for the participants to observe in the time available. This was a particular challenge for the participants from the university in Japan, who represented a wide variety of subject areas. In some cases, some of the subjects related to the participants’ specialisms were not available. This was because either the subject was not taught in Leeds or the particular modules from that subject area were not being taught that semester. In addition, it was not possible to pre-select lecturers as delivering best practice. It was hoped that all of the lecturers, who agreed to be observed, would demonstrate appropriate teaching behaviours.

5

Trainee Perspectives

At the end of each course a feedback questionnaire was administered to the participants, which mostly contained open-ended question prompts. Participants were anonymously asked for their opinions about the observation of teaching that had been provided to them during the course. The responses given by the participants illustrate their perceptions of observation and the benefits in helping to inform their own professional practice. As previously included in this chapter, observation can be a beneficial way to highlight alternative teaching modes. A participant commented how the observations helped to demonstrate a specific teaching mode

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which was unfamiliar to them: “We have little discussion style classes in our University, so the class observations were very interesting for me.” The issue of culture was also raised in the feedback surveys. Some of the participants referred to a “Western style” in their comments. One participant’s comment suggests that he/she was expecting to observe different lecturing styles to be demonstrated: “Some of the lectures are almost the same as the ones at my university. I am a bit relieved.” Comprehension of the lectures by the participants is another important issue which was raised. A participant commented about the lectures: “It was very interesting, but sometimes I couldn’t understand the contents.” At the end of the course survey for the teachers from the Japanese university, 75% reported that they had found understanding the lectures to be of “medium difficulty” and 25% reported that they had found the lectures to be “difficult.” The participants’ problems of understanding could be due to either a lack of subject knowledge by the participant of the lectures they observed or comprehension problems due to their level of proficiency in English. Although it could be argued that observing lectures or classes on subjects where the observer has no prior knowledge can be valuable as a way to observe the demonstration of certain teacher or student behaviours, it might be counterproductive to the participant observer if he/she is unable to understand the content due to a lack of basic subject knowledge. Sullivan et al.’s (2012) assertion that observations are a good opportunity for the participant to “borrow” teaching methods was supported by one of the participant’s comments: “It was a good opportunity to obtain the practical knowledge on how to organise the classes and instruct the students in an active manner.” Allwright (1988) in his review of the research related to classroom observation raised a potential problem with the nature of observation research in that its objective was to seek answers whereby teacher trainers could make recommendations to trainees. The following comment also suggests that the participant expected to be guided towards a particular methodology or approach: “The lectures I saw, especially on the scientific subjects, were similar to those in Japan. May I conclude that the traditional lecture style is suitable for science? Or, do you suggest any other style? I want an answer.” The same could be said as applying to the

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o­ bjective of observation for the trainees, which could be to identify what might be considered to be the most suitable teaching practices for EMI. Allwright (1988) wrote: The problem was to discover which method was ‘best’. Twenty years later the precise form of the question has changed, since we are now asking about ‘what makes one instructional procedure more effective than another’, but the under-lying problem remains the same: ‘What advice can we give to teachers about how to teach?’ (p. 256)

Finally, a participant raised the issue of how they could implement techniques they had gained from observation which would be appropriate to apply to their own teaching situation. One participant wrote, “I learned a lot of important things, but I wondered how can I do this in Japan.” This suggests the need for trainees to be supported in analysing the insights gained from the lecture observations and other teaching modes, to help them apply this knowledge to their own teaching situation. In the follow-up discussion sessions, where all participants shared their findings from the lectures and classroom observations, some participants were more willing to engage in reflection than others, at least publicly. Liu and Feng (2015) cite previous studies about the interplay of culture and educational borrowing stating that “educational borrowing often implies an acceptance of basic values or assumptions of educational activities. More and more studies have demonstrated that it is simple to overcome the technical obstacles, but cultural and social changes are complex and difficult” (p.2).

6

Discussion

There are a number of possible implications for the design of training courses for EMI teachers, if observation is to be included, which the experience of delivering pre-service and in-service training courses as described in this chapter has indicated. It is beneficial if one or two trainees can be paired with their subject counterpart(s) at the host university. If it is possible to achieve this, there

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is likely to be a better understanding by the trainee of the context in which the training is being provided. It also helps to facilitate mutual understanding between both parties, who possess a shared knowledge of the subject. The trainee can also acquire and share discipline-specific teaching practices. The teacher from the host university, who is delivering the lecturers, can benefit from examining his/her own teaching practice and share ideas about how to resolve issues related to the particular cultural context. There are less likely to be comprehension problems by the observer as he/she should have at least a basic understanding of the subject content being delivered. As previously explained, due to the intensive nature of the courses, there was little time for formal training in how to observe a lecture or classroom-based teaching. Training courses of this type, even if they are intensive, should contain some guidance for the participants about how to undertake an observation and guidance about the relationship between the data from observation and personal reflection on teaching. Using recorded as well as live lectures was a useful way to demonstrate certain desirable teacher-student interactions or specific pedagogical techniques and examples of English language usage. However, there are very few examples in the public domain of recorded lectures of teaching in an EMI context. Although the course participants on the courses at the University of Leeds stated the benefits of the training provided and the opportunity to observe teaching, they were not observing teaching being delivered in a similar EMI context or with comparable cohorts of students. Observations within a training course for EMI teachers should ideally be followed by opportunities for the participants to be involved in some type of peer observation scheme within their home institutions. This would help to address the problem, previously mentioned, of transferability. Trainees could be encouraged to keep a reflective log after they return home to help stimulate reflection on their teaching. In addition, peer observation for developmental purposes could be established within the trainee’s department. Byrne et al. (2010: 216) warn against a “one off peer observation” because it “does not necessarily lead to improvement in teaching. Active engagement in pedagogical theory and discourse, critical reflection and collaboration with colleagues are all necessary for

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­ eveloping an understanding of what constitutes good teaching at an d individual level.” Additional assistance to trainees can be provided to them through feedback by an expert tutor based on recordings of their teaching. Bell and Mladenovic (2008: 738) report a study conducted by Williams into peer and expert observation, “where teaching assistants who underwent a program of expert and peer mentoring and observation had significantly lower levels of anxiety about teaching at the end of the semester and higher student evaluations of their teaching compared to those in a group who received training only.” Some of the participants from the Japanese university who took the training course delivered at the University of Leeds submitted a recorded lecture of their EMI teaching several months after the end of the course. They were provided with detailed formative feedback by one of the EMI course trainers about their delivery skills, use of English language and teaching methodology. The participants, who submitted a recorded lecture, commented that the feedback provided to them had been very helpful as a way to inform their teaching practice.

7

Limitations

This chapter has outlined the role of observation as a tool to facilitate the professional development of EMI teachers. The tentative findings are based on the implementation of short training courses and the feedback given by course participants through an end of course survey where the comments are recorded anonymously. Hence, it is not possible to generalise given the specific nature of the context and the limited scale of the survey. Another limitation is that the participants were observing teacher and student behaviours delivered in a different cultural context (in this case, a UK university) to their own EMI teaching context. It could be argued that the validity of such observations could be open to question. However, currently lectures and classes delivered to students studying EMI courses in China and Japan, which are publicly available and could be used for observation purposes, do not exist.

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8

Summary

This chapter has indicated some of the main benefits of including observation of teaching as a learning tool to exemplify teaching techniques and to facilitate reflection on current or future teaching practice. From the feedback gained by the participants, observation of lectures and classes was a helpful component of each training course. However, it was found that the observation of lectures was a challenge for trainees with varying levels of proficiency in English, limited knowledge about observation techniques and, in some cases, limited knowledge about the subject of the lectures. Further investigation needs to be undertaken on how observation procedures and related instruments can best be matched to the needs of EMI teachers. The choice of approach and related instruments will need to be adjusted according to the needs of the trainees and the purpose for the observations. In addition, it would be advantageous to trainees if they observe the teaching of EMI courses in contexts similar to their own and a system of peer observation for developmental purposes could be established at their home universities.

References Allwright, D. (1988). Observation in the language classroom. London: Longman. Bell, A., & Mladenovic, R. (2008). The benefits of peer observation of teaching for tutor development. Higher Education Journal, 55, 735–752. Bradford, A. (2016). Toward a typology of implementation challenges facing English-medium instruction in higher education: Evidence from Japan. Journal of Studies in International Education, 20(4), 339–356. Brown, H., & Iyobe, B. (2014). The growth of English medium instruction in Japan. In N. Sonda & A. Krause (Eds.), JALT2013 Conference Proceedings (pp. 9–19). Tokyo: JALT. Byrne, J., Brown, H., & Challen, D. (2010). Peer development as an alternative to peer observation: A tool to enhance professional development. International Journal for Academic Development, 15(3), 215–228. Cots, J. (2013). Introducing English-medium instruction at the University of Lleida, Spain: Interventions, beliefs and practices. In A. Doiz, D. Lasagabaster,

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& J.  Sierra (Eds.), English-medium instruction at universities. Bristol: Multilingual Matters. Dearden, J. (2014). English as a medium of instruction: A growing global phenomenon. Madrid: British Council. Engin, M., & Priest, B. (2014). Observing teaching: A lens for self-reflection. Journal of Perspectives in Applied Academic Practice, 2(2), 2–9. https://jpaap. napier.ac.uk/index.php/JPAAP/article/view/90. Flowerdew, J., & Miller, L. (1992). Student perceptions, problems and strategies in second language lecture comprehension. Regional English Language Centre Journal, 23(2), 60–80. Hu, G., & Lei, J. (2014). English-medium instruction in Chinese higher education: A case study. Higher Education, 67, 551–565. Liu, S., & Feng, D. (2015). How culture matters in educational borrowing? Chinese teachers’ dilemmas in a global era. Cogent Education, 2 (1). Retrieved March 6, 2017. https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2015.1046410. Mallet, D. (2011). Walking a mile in their shoes: Non-native English speakers’ difficulties in English language mathematics classrooms. Journal of Learning Design, 4(3), 28–34. MEXT. (2014). Top global university project. Retrieved March 6, 2017, from http://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/houdou/26/09/__icsFiles/afieldfile/2014/10/07/1352218_02.pdf. Morell, T. (2004). Interactive lecture discourse for university EFL students. English for Specific Purposes, 23, 325–338. https://doi.org/10.1016/S08894906(03)00029-2. Richards, J., & Farrell, T. (2005). Professional development for language teachers. New York: Cambridge University Press. Shortland, S. (2004). Observing teaching in higher education. A case study of classroom observation with peer observation. International Journal of Educational Management, 4(2), 3–15. Smith, M., Jones, F., Gilbert, S., & Wieman, C. (2013). The Classroom Observation Protocol for Undergraduate STEM (COPUS): A new instrument to characterize STEM classroom practices. CBE Life Science Education, 12(4), 618–627. Stuhlman, M., Hamre, B., Downer, J, & Pianta, R. (n.d.). How to select the right classroom observation tool. In A practitioner’s guide to conducting classroom observations: What research tells us about choosing and using observational systems to assess and improve teacher effectiveness. Centre for Advanced Study of Teaching and Learning, University of Virginia. Retrieved March 6, 2017,

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from http://curry.virginia.edu/resource-library/practitioners-guide-to-classroom-observations. Sullivan, P., Buckle, A., Gregg, N., & Atkinson, S. (2012). Peer observation of teaching as a faculty development tool. BMC Medical Education, 12, 26. Van Dijk, L., & Jochems, W. (2002). Changing a traditional lecturing approach into an interactive approach: Effects of interrupting the monologue in lectures. International Journal of Engineering Education, 18(3), 275–284. Vinke, A., Snippe, J., & Jochems, W. (1998). English-medium content courses in non-English higher education: A study of lecturer experiences and teaching behaviours. Teaching in Higher Education, 3(3), 383–394. Vu, N., & Burns, A. (2014). English as a medium of instruction: Challenges for Vietnamese tertiary lecturers. The Journal of Asia TEFL, 11(3), 1–31. Wächter, B., & Maiworm, F. (2014). English-taught programmes in European higher education: The state of play in 2014. Lemmens: ACA Papers on International Cooperation in Education. Wallace, J. (1991). Training for foreign language teachers: A reflective approach. Cambridge: CUP. Wilkinson, R. (2010). English-medium instruction at a Dutch University: Challenges and pitfalls. In A.  Doiz, D.  Lasagabaster, & J.  Sierra (Eds.), English-medium instruction at universities. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.

5 Identifying In-Service Support for Lecturers Working in English Medium Instruction Contexts Ben Beaumont

1

Context

Recognising that while there are numerous linguistic, cultural and ideological concerns with the use of English as a medium of instruction (EMI), the fact that it is being used means that educators cannot ignore the support needs for those teaching and lecturing in these contexts. Where it does exist, the training support available for those working in EMI contexts is reported as generally being too short (Aritonang 2014; Pearson 2014), ineffective in terms of giving lecturers the skills they need to teach and lecture in English (Hu and Lei 2014; Werther et al. 2014) and it tends to focus on developing general language skills rather than pedagogic skills (Costa and Coleman 2013; Zacharias 2013). In a British Council study (Dearden 2014), which detailed responses from 55 countries, 83% of respondents said that they believed there were not enough qualified educators to deliver EMI programmes and 60% of respondents said that there were no clear guidelines for EMI delivery at their institutions. This would suggest that despite the surge in use of EMI in higher B. Beaumont (*) Trinity College London, London, UK © The Author(s) 2020 M. L. Carrió-Pastor (ed.), Internationalising Learning in Higher Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-21587-3_5

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education institutions (HEIs) globally, there has not been corresponding support for lecturers in EMI contexts or research into what training is perceived to be helpful for lecturers delivering course content in English. Much of the existing literature on developing in-service pedagogical support for lecturers focuses on developing skills for teachers/lecturers with English as a first language working with students who also have English as a first language (Brown and Bakhtar 1988; Gibbs and Jenkins 1984; Wilson and Korn 2007), rather than supporting those who work in the relatively new area of EMI. It therefore seems a logical step to move on from acknowledging the recognised problems identified with lecturing in EMI contexts to understanding what the complex interplay of issues affecting lecturers working in this area are. By doing this we will be better placed to devise support for lecturers to attend to the issues identified. Further to this, the growth of EMI begins to raise questions about the existing shape and future development of curricula to ensure they remain valued, both for student needs and for wider society. Lyotard (1984) suggested that in the knowledge society contemporary to his time of writing, knowledge was about relevance, where knowledge itself related more to the value of knowing something than the fact of it being true. I would suggest that this is still true today. Along with this realignment of knowledge is the mercantilisation of knowledge and knowledge-based performativity, reinforcing the use of knowledge for factors other than knowledge in and of itself, or as Barnett notes, “What counts is less what individuals know and more what individuals can do (as represented in their demonstrable ‘skills’)” (2000: 255). The next part of this chapter will therefore consider the areas of a lecturer’s valued knowledge and ability in an EMI context in the three areas of language ability, pedagogic skills and wider curriculum knowledge.

1.1

Language Ability

The fact that lecturers need to convey information that can be linguistically and conceptually abstract suggests that they should be operating at a minimum B2 on the Council of Europe (2001)’s CEFR (Common

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European Framework Reference of languages), B2 being the level which indicates that a language user will be able to complete such functions, although not without error. However, there are a great many lecturers in EMI contexts who are below B2 (Dearden 2014; Werther et al. 2014). While mapping skills to a single “rating” on the CEFR does provide us with a general description of someone’s language level, it is only a “broad brush” level description. We should recognise that many lecturers are below an overall B2 but have a higher proficiency in specific areas of language. In many cases, however, lecturers are below B2 across the four skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing, with no elements of their communication reaching the CEFR-suggested minimum level for discourse in abstract matters. Corpus-based studies, using corpora such as the British Academic Spoken English (BASE) Corpus and Written Academic Language Corpus (T2K-SWAL), have identified specific areas of language used by lecturers to structure discourse and convey meaning (Biber and Barbieri 2007; Camiciottoli 2007; Deroey 2012; Lynch 1994; Tyler 1992). Most identify global-level discourse markers, the language which organises a lecture (e.g. “firstly,” “next,” “however,” “as a result of,” etc.), as one of the key, common elements of lectures and seminars. Analysis (Biber and Barbieri 2007) has also identified common sentence patterns and “lexical bundles” (sets of four or more words) that carry key discoursal meaning in lecture discourse. These tended not to be whole phrases but “important building blocks” (ibid.: 270) that were at the beginning of clauses or phrases and served as “bridges” between phrases and clauses, for example, “I want you to” and “the fact that the.” With different sets of lexical bundles associated with different registers, it may be possible to identify common bundles associated with certain lecture functions and use those for a targeted approach to supporting lecturers’ language skills. Corpus analysis has also shown how specific language structures and prosodic features of phonology are commonly used to structure discourse: the use of wh-­ clefts (Deroey 2012), for example, “what” + verb or subject, and discoursal intonation to indicate key parts in a lecture, for example, a slowing down of speech and falling tone before a new point is made. For lecturers’ language development, it may be possible to take a descriptive approach, rather than a prescriptive one, focusing on common discourse markers,

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key “building blocks” of lecture discourse and “useful language” for setting up interaction during a lecturing session. A further point to consider when identifying relevant ability and devising support for lecturers to develop that ability is their own first language ability: what do the lecturers themselves believe they need and what have they found helpful when conducting lectures and how can this knowledge be transferred into a different medium of instruction? Taking this kind of descriptive and flexible approach to language requirements in an EMI HEI setting is something that can offer useful insights into lecturers’ language development. Initial data from Japan (Kunioshi et al. 2015) has shown that giving the data to lecturers and allowing them to decide what language is helpful to them has increased not only their agency, but also their engagement with EMI, helping address issues such as how to train lecturers working in different subject areas and with a variety of English language needs.

1.2

Pedagogic Skills

One key feature of training for lecturers in Higher Education is that it has tended to focus on the building of content knowledge rather than pedagogic skills, with pedagogic skills being secondary and, in some cases, not taught at all (Greer et al. 2016), relying on an apprenticeship of observation (Lortie and Clement 1975). This leaves lecturers without a potentially helpful set of skills to mitigate their own lack of English language ability or those of their students. The benefits of lecturers having developed teaching skills are well documented and include keeping students’ attention (Wilson and Korn 2007), aiding students’ cognitive processing (Gibbs and Jenkins 1984; Lynch 1994), supporting students’ learning (Wongkietkachorn et al. 2014) and helping lecturers structure their own content (Aritonang 2014; Walker et al. 2008). If we consider the processing demands for both lecturers and students in a high-content situation in a first language, then the tricks and stratagems that support the delivery of content in an additional language become even more important. Flowerdew (1994) details some of these processing demands and suggests that the issue is more than a problem of simple word recognition or

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changing one set of words for another (Werther et al. 2014). To attend to such demands, lecturers needs to deploy specific pedagogic and discourse skills such as cohesion through the use of lexical chains and lexical sets (Flowerdew 1994), the repeated use of words and synonyms to form a thread of continuum in a lecture and overall coherence through the use of relevant discourse structure and signposting. The ability to support students with the cognitive processing demands of learning is key to learning and achievement and the debate over how lecturers can best support students is still a lively one, whether or not this is in English or another medium of instruction. The likely problem, as described by Walker et al. (2008), is that it is the skill of the lecturer that is going to be a deciding factor in how helpful students find a lecture. The likely problem, be it language or pedagogy, still comes down to the skills of the lecturer. Regarding lecturers’ ability and what they need to be trained in if they are to help students understand session content, Lynch (1994) comments on the need to provide training that will “design out” some causes of comprehension difficulty and “design in” techniques that will help both lecturer and student. Three key areas to be “designed in” may appear at first to be common sense, but data available to Lynch suggests that these are not commonly in evidence in lecturer behaviours: 1. slow pace 2. clear articulation 3. greater degree of redundancy A slow and deliberate pace would benefit the processing time necessary for any new information, notwithstanding it being in a second language. The processing time for new information is something discussed by Flowerdew (1994) and suggests that having strategic mini-discussion breaks, where students discuss points together or quietly reflect on content, is something that could help improve content learning. If we extend Lynch’s “clear articulation” to include “accurate” or understandable pronunciation (see Jenkins 2000 for suggested international standards for pronunciation), then this advice seems particularly apposite in a medium of instruction where oral and aural skills have primacy.

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Lynch’s final point about redundancy recognises that repetition, reformulation, summaries and recapping are often necessary to ensure an audience does not miss key points, something which can be a problem when written discourse, for example, an academic journal, is simply transferred to spoken communication without any of the supportive features of spoken discourse to help listeners process a steady stream of speech. The level of repetition and reformulation of points will depend on the level of the audience, with some research suggesting that those with higher levels of language and content knowledge require less redundancy than those with lower levels (Chaudron 1983). But no matter the language level of the “receiver,” the ability to build in such redundancy becomes an important communication and pedagogical feature for an academic delivering high-content learning, such as a lecture.

1.3

Wider Curriculum Knowledge

In addition to the reading around the language and pedagogic needs of practitioners in EMI contexts, it is helpful to place the developmental needs of EMI lecturers into a wider educational context. With a knowledge of what is happening at a more macro level, we can begin to understand some of the tensions that are impacting upon lecturers and the changes that they face in lecture delivery, such as the changing vocational skills necessary to delivery and support learning when in a medium of instruction that is different to that of all or a majority of a student cohort. What is the effect of such change on curriculum development and on a lecturer’s demonstrable skills? If good lecturing is about enabling learning, then the ability to help students in an EMI context is therefore part of the role of a good lecturer and something they should be trained to do. These considerations relate to the very basis of what a lecturer thinks they are and their perceptions of themselves as practising academics. This therefore has a resultant implication on lecturer training as well as the role of English itself beyond it being only a medium of instruction. If we consider EMI and the use of language as a tool for orientation and social [or academic] alignment as opposed to a transparent means of

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communication, then the link between EMI and a lecturer’s beliefs about professional identify becomes clearer and something that needs to be integrated into practice. At a conceptual level, this is perhaps a matter of how a lecturer perceives themselves within the wider academic community and society in general. It may also be about how they engage with changes in professional context, like the growth of EMI, that affect their self-perception as educators working in an international environment. This will itself be linked to student cohorts and having the flexibility to react to their varied needs. If one considers a group with the same L1 and coming from a homogenous educational background and a different group of international students, with mixed L1s who have may have been through significantly different scholastic systems, the need for a lecturer to be able to have flexibility in their approach to delivery becomes clearer. At a performance level, therefore, the questions for lecturers working in EMI contexts are relatively straightforward and involve developing an understanding of what makes effective practice, finding ways to help individual lecturers develop the necessary skills to enable effective practice—that which enables learners to achieve their academic goals. An element of this will likely include a recognition that part of lecturing will include the teaching of subject-specific language: if an individual wants to be understood, the language professionals use amongst those in their profession is different from the language they will use with someone unfamiliar with their subject terminology. The way in which lecturers will support the use of such subject-specific language is not entirely different from the way in which they can support students with the use of language around it. Another curriculum question to consider, therefore, is when does subject-specific language support end and general English language support start? And when does a lecturer hand over to specialist language teachers and when do they handle remedial work themselves? An awareness of these areas becomes paramount when investigating lecturer ability and the role of the lecturer with their student cohorts. Arguably a policy-level issue, it is still necessary for lecturers to be aware of these issues so as to delimit their pedagogical responsibilities. This further demonstrates the point that lecturers are in an ever-changing academic environment and need to adapt if they are to remain relevant; they

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cannot rely on research skills and initial pedagogical training alone. There needs to be continuing development of ability. Lecturers need to upskill themselves and be more than just “academics” if they are to remain relevant, and engaging with EMI, beyond it simply being a medium of instruction, is one way in which they can do this.

2

Research Objectives

The focus of this study was to identify common areas that lecturers and teacher educators working in EMI contexts felt would be helpful in supporting day-to-day EMI lecturing practice. In order to do this, this study had the following research objectives: • identify what lecturers in EMI contexts themselves perceive as being helpful to include in short, in-service training programmes to support day-to-day EMI practice; and • identify what teacher educators feel should be included in short in-­ service training courses for those in EMI contexts to support their day-to-day practice.

3

Methodology and Method

This study followed an interpretivist, social constructionist approach to understanding the issues surrounding support needs for EMI lecturers. Within this paradigm, it uses a symbolic interactionism to give value to and make sense of participants’ responses. To identify commonalities across different EMI environments, this study used data collected from two different sets of participants working in and across different institutions in a number of different countries: 1. Teacher educators who were engaged in supporting lecturers in short, in-service EMI Continuing  Professional  Development (CPD) support courses.

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2. Lecturers who deliver their subject specialism in EMI contexts and who were on short, EMI, CPD support courses. Using both teacher educator and EMI lecturer participants was essential in developing a contextualised and multi-perspective understanding of EMI lecturers’ in-service support needs. The four teacher educators were European and gave their views based on their experiences running in-service educational support in different institutions in different academic sectors. The lecturers were from two European countries and two East Asian countries and gave their views based on the real and immediate needs resulting from their day-to-day EMI practice. Each participant was given the opportunity to be interviewed twice (see Table 5.1): first, before or during an in-service support course; second, after an in-service support course, giving participants a chance to reflect on their EMI context (see Table  5.1). The minimum duration between interviews was 4 weeks; the maximum 14 weeks. The first interviews were designed to elicit perceptions about lecturers’ needs and to identify suitable content for in-service EMI support courses. The second interviews allowed participants to reflect on their responses in the first interview, adding detail as necessary, and for lecturers to assess the impact of techniques taught in their EMI support course on their practice. The first stage of data analysis included transcribing interview data and then completing summaries of the interviews for participants’ review before finally identifying common themes (copies of the anonymised transcripts can be sought from the author).

Table 5.1 Interviews Group 1 (teacher educators) 1st interviews 2nd interviews

Group 2 (EMI lecturers)

At the beginning of/during an Before delivering an in-service EMI support course in-service EMI support course After delivering an in-service After taking an in-service EMI EMI support course support course

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4

Findings

This section is divided into two sections: the first, an analysis of the data collected from interviews with teacher educators; the second, an analysis of the data collected from interviews with lecturers working in EMI contexts.

4.1

Teacher Educators

Questions to teacher educators (referenced below as “W,” “X,” “Y” and “Z”) focused on identifying areas that they thought would be beneficial for inclusion on short, in-service support courses and other support that would help drive positive change in EMI lecturers’ practice. These areas are systematically listed below, starting with themes that all four teacher educators commented on, then themes that three out of four commented on. Those that only two teacher educators or a sole teacher educator commended on are not included, as the scope of this study was to find commonalities rather than to gather opinions in general. This resulted in the identification of the following eight areas. 1. Developing pedagogic skills to provide different ways to convey content knowledge and meaning (all four teacher educators) All teacher educators expressed this point in one way or another, ranging from explicit comments on the need for overall pedagogical development or for lecturers to be shown how to use different activities to help learners. The belief in the need for coherent, general teacher education support ran as a thread through all the interviews with teacher educators making the following comments: • “This isn’t a language course but is facilitating international student learning.” (X) • “To me this course is really a bog-standard methodology course.” (Z) • “I don’t think my courses are based on language at all. I think that they are actually based on how to teach.” (W)

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Examples of the kind of general support needed tended to focus on a “tool box” of activities that lecturers could repeat in their own context rather than enabling a deeper methodological understanding of teaching and learning: • “We do lots of activities for maybe ten minutes at a time where they will be doing pair work or exchanging ideas, and vocabulary recognition, and they like this. They realise these are things they can try out.” (Z) • “Teachers of all levels say that this access to practical ideas, tools, techniques, and activities are helpful because they may reach a point in the term where they need something fresh that they can try out.” (Y) 2. English language support (all four teacher educators) All teacher educators commented on how any English language support that is included should be focused on the language of classroom organisation and language for organising discourse: • “We looked at the functions of, for example, ‘now let’s move on’, and ‘as I said before.’” (Z) • “Many will ask for help … It is usually about their introduction and their conclusion and it is often the formality of language surrounding transitions.” (Y) Educators were also keen to ensure that lecturers knew that it is often better for learning if they do not use complex language, as this can prevent student understanding: • “I explained that it doesn’t matter if the words are all the same, or similar, as long as you are using them, because they usually don’t think to use them.” (Z) • “We look at a lot of instruction giving … because it aids confidence when they realise that it is really simple language that works and they feel much better about what they are able to do themselves.” (X)

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A further reason why any language support included should focus on organisational discourse rather than subject content is that lecturers usually have fewer problems with the lexis of their subject; it is only when they are off familiar ground that they might need support: • “In observations I noticed that the questions students ask in this field of engineering are so technical that that’s when the lecturer shines. If the student asks a random question, the professor will launch into a brilliant explanation and it doesn’t matter one bit that there is the odd grammatical mistake.” (Y) 3. Experiential learning (W, X, Z) The manner of delivery for EMI support courses was also raised as an important feature of courses with three out of four educators commenting on the importance of experiential learning and loop input (Woodward 1991): • “I would say it is a combination of [experiencing and trying techniques] that allows them to have a good discussion on this towards the end of the week, and they do so with an informed head.” (X) • “Nothing is just done without being analysed and reflected upon so it is always a case of ‘Ok, stop there, we’ve done it and enjoyed it but that is just the beginning and now let’s think about what you’ve learned by doing it. Let’s think how you could use it in your own teaching context.’ So yes, the reflection is very much the important part of it.” (W) 4. Pronunciation support (W, X, Z) Three teacher educators included explicit pronunciation work as being an important area to include, with two educators (Z and X) using “sound scripting,” a technique which uses bold fonts and spacing to indicate stress and pausing, respectively: • “There is a lovely part of the [redacted] where they have to chunk something and then practice saying it and performing it, and it is

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­ onderful to watch a B2 lecturer suddenly read something out and w they sound like a [proficient] speaker.” (X) 5. Concept checking (W, X, Z) Another strong theme linked to the area of general pedagogical training was that of in-session formative assessment, particularly the checking of students’ understanding throughout a session: • “These [lecturers] don’t think about conveying meaning or even checking meaning, or asking a question in a lecture, or having an activity in a lecture.” (Z) 6. Learning from each other (W, X, Z) The benefit of peer learning was something commented on by three educators, highlighting the importance of a co-construction of knowledge and of the educational benefit of creating a space for professionals to discuss matters relating to their practice: • “[Participants realise] that they can learn a huge amount off each other, even if their English isn’t as good.” (Z) • “I do something on ‘teaching large classes’ where we share practice because they learn so much from each other, even asking the question ‘What is your ideal class number?’” (W) 7. Direction and policy from the university (X, Y and Z) Institutional policy direction is not directly pedagogical point in terms of “best practice” in teaching techniques, but it is in terms of what actions and behaviours are expected and recommended. However, the fact that a lack of a coherent policy for EMI and/or EMI support training was mentioned independently by three out of four teacher educators suggests it is an area educators and policymakers need to be aware of:

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• “‘Direction’ is not an existing word and there is no support. And there is no question as to whether we would correct them or not, but just do it. [Lecturers] have all these foreign students coming in and [the university] say, ‘well you can do it can’t you?’” (Z) • “The target of all this work should be to enable the student more than anyone else and it seems a rather loose over statement to say ‘to give students an exposure to English’ because that only goes so far.” (Y) • “They are interested in finding out where their responsibility lay [about correcting students English], and they all felt quite differently about this.” (X) 8. Confidence and experience of the trainer Another area not directly related to course content but one that was raised by three of the teacher educators was the necessity for the teacher educator to be flexible and confident in their beliefs. The role of teacher educator or session facilitator is not under consideration in this study, but in terms of necessary attributes to run these professional support courses, there was a belief that being sensitive to contextual factors to identify what is needed in session content is key: • “Another thing that I have found useful is not to be afraid of raising questions about things I don’t understand.” (Y) • “Number one in big capital letters and flashing in neon is, ‘flexibility.’” (X) • “It has made me rethink my [planned] training. When you are actually in the country and you can see what these teachers are up against in terms of their resources, physical environment, and the resistance to change.” (W) Before moving on to a discussion of these points, we will now look at the responses from the seven lecturers who took part in this study.

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4.1.1  Lecturers in EMI contexts This section summarises the key responses to three questions relating to lecturers’ (referenced below as “A”–“G”) opinions on what they find difficult in their professional EMI practice, what has been helpful in overcoming some of these problems and what should be included in short, in-service support courses. The first two points help inform the third, the main focus of the questions. As with the teacher educators, because we are looking for commonalities, we will only focus on emerging themes that have been mentioned at least four times. Q1. What do lecturers find difficult when lecturing in English? 1. Speaking in English (all seven lecturers) More than being able to communicate content matter, lecturers initially appeared concerned with their own confidence when speaking a second language in front of others and the effect any errors had in undermining their professional practice: • “I have the feeling that I use phrases that are not very correct.” (A) • “I want to feel more confident about my grammar, and that I am using the correct grammar in my speech, so the Norwegian and Scandinavian students who speak excellent English won’t make me feel ashamed.” (C) 2. Classroom interaction (A, C, D, E and G) This area includes student engagement and their willingness to interact with the lecturer and other students. • “Teachers just pour out their knowledge to the class and the students receive the knowledge in a passive way. We haven’t designed activities and practical tasks.” (D) • “You can invite them to come to sit here, in the front, but they are not doing that. Maybe the English students come down but not the [redacted] students, but there is nothing, they don’t see any reason.” (G)

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3. Time to integrate interactive activities (A, D, E, F and G) This relates to two combined issues relating to a lack of time to integrate interactive activities and a lack of time outside of lectures to learn about and prepare more interactive classroom activities: • “I have to repeat the things to see if they understood it and stuff, which honestly sometimes I don’t do when I lecture. Either I don’t have time or the students are too passive.” (E) • “When I lecture in English I have to include English proficiency in oral and technical skills and I have to spend more time and energy thinking about how to design the class.” (D) 4. Differentiating learning for cohorts with mixed-ability language skills (A, E, F and G) There are no language levels given here with lecturers only commenting on students with low levels of English being in the same group as those with higher levels: • “We have students from different parts of Europe, for example, from Finland and their English is proficient. We also have students from Turkey and the level of their English is very low.” (F) • “Sometimes there is a problem because the students we are teaching have different levels of English language knowledge … In some cases, you have to lower the level of English language for the Spanish and French students so that they can understand you and on the other side you have Dutch students who can identify mistakes as their English language is of a high level.” (E) Q2. What has been helpful in developing their practice before going on their current EMI course? 1. Support and advice from colleagues (A, B, C, E and F)

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This area had the most common response, covering areas such as informal discussions with peers about a class to collaboration with session planning: • “I have thought about this and how I can learn a lot from other peoples’ examples and experiences. This is not actually planned and is not really regular.” (B) • “I am curious about what my colleagues are doing and I think it will be a very good opportunity to hear what they have to say.” (A) 2. Some kind of language support (B, C, E, F and G) Responses included general language support to raise fluency and focused language support to help with specific organisational stages within a lesson, for example, introductions and transitions: • “My strategy was sometimes to think about the effect of the expressions or phrases I would be using so that I could make sure that I was not stuck and I am using the correct words. This is the kind of preparation I do when I want to tell the students what is in my head. Sometimes I look up expressions.” (B) • “Sometimes I just simply forget the words and then I am looking at my English slides, because I have English slides for the lectures, and I try to find the right words or the right expression.” (G) 3. Copying other professionals (A, B, D and G) Using opportunities to see other lecturers, visiting speakers or going off-site for training or conferences, lecturers copied and adapted techniques seen for their own practice: • “Sometimes when I go to conferences I listen to people and I write down what is good for me, like how they start a sentence, how they change the course of the whole lecture, and things like that.” (A)

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• “It is easy to compare how they do it and how I do it, and it helps me give my lecture in English, if we have the visiting professors of whatever.” (G) Q3. What should be included in short, EMI support courses? 1. Practical activities for session use (all lecturers) All lecturers said that short, in-service courses should give examples of activities that they could use or be adapted for use in their own contexts: • “When I can see an example of a clear instruction or a delivery of the material that will be a reference point for me to see how it works for others and maybe something I can use.” (B) • “I prefer more pedagogical skills to be gained … I would still go with the skills and the options that we can employ to do it differently and this is more of what I am gaining. I think with the language you can go and do a course to improve and so I would go more with the pedagogical things.” (E) 2. Language support (A, B, C, E, F and G) Six lecturers explicitly commented on the need for language support in EMI courses with the seventh lecturer implicitly indicating this by saying that she had found the pronunciation work in her course very helpful. Of the six explicit responses, three were interested in building general language fluency (C, E and F) and three were interested in receiving support with language focused on classroom interaction (A, B and G), for example, giving instructions: • “I want to get feedback to see how I am doing [with my English] and I am quite sure that I make many typical mistakes but I have never been told, but I am ready to face this.” (A) • “Maybe some expressions or exact sentences that are useful for organising the lecture or instructions for the students. It will be helpful if I

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have some phrases in writing that are practical and can be used many times.” (B) 3. Sharing ideas with colleagues (A, B, E, F and G) Recognising the experience of their peers, five lecturers explicitly stated the benefit of including time to share ideas and experiences with peers as a way to develop their own practice: • “I have been teaching for a long time and it’s really time to get something back not only from [redacted] but also from the other participants on the course.” (A) • “Maybe this is the chance that I haven’t had before to share experiences about how to instruct students, prepare, and exchange ideas. Also, I will have good examples from them.” (B) 4. Peer observations and feedback (A, C, D, E and F) Five lecturers commented on the fact that peer observations either had been or would be helpful in developing their teaching practice: • “I am sure that if I had people regularly attend my course, like my colleagues who could give me feedback on my course it would be very useful but I don’t have anything like this.” (A) • “I think [observations] would be beneficial because then you could have a discussion with a professor who you may not know too well and they can come and help you and you can help them. I think this should be implemented as an activity and I am sure in some institutions they are doing this. I don’t want to see it as somebody coming to check on us but for somebody to come like a colleague and to give us some advice.” (E)

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Summary of Findings

The main areas emerging from teacher educators’ interviews about inclusion for short-course content were: 1 . developing lecturers’ pedagogic skills for conveying content; 2. focused language support (with some general fluency work); 3. experiential learning; 4. pronunciation support; 5. developing concept checking techniques; 6. giving time for peers to learn from each other’s experiences; and 7. policy directives from the institution on the practicalities of teaching EMI. The main areas of lecturer concern in relation to their EMI practice were speaking in English, matters relating to pedagogy and time. They then identified their peers’ and other professionals’ support and language development as things that had helped them attend to these needs. The responses to the same question asked to teacher educators, about areas for inclusion on short, in-service support courses, echoed these sentiments with the following four common points being identified: 1 . being given practical techniques for teaching activities; 2. English language development; 3. opportunities to share ideas and experiences with colleagues; and 4. feedback on observations/micro-teach sessions. It is interesting to note that the most common responses from both teacher educators and lecturers on what to include in short, in-service training courses are the same. The four areas identified by lecturers emphasise pedagogy, language development, peer interaction and contextual support. All of these are echoed in the teacher educators’ comments, with the addition of policy clarity, perhaps borne out of a frustration of what to plan for such short courses without diagnostic and policy guidance and different ways of operationalising EMI.

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The desire to include practical skills speaks to the need identified by Greer et al. (2016) for supporting lecturers with some form of training to help them in the day-to-day lecturing. In the interviews, it came out that many of the lecturers had progressed from research directly into lecturing roles and, while they had likely received research training as part of degree programmes, most had received no training in lecture delivery. This being the first area of inclusion in both sets of responses argues strongly for the need for structured training to help delivery in general, with a focus on practical techniques to aid session delivery. This would help lecturers, who already have a professional research profile, develop a professional teaching profile as well, something that may be missing from their professional training. As well as being beneficial to students, this would likely increase their sense of agency and ability in the classroom. Having identified pedagogical support as a key area of content inclusion in short courses, the next stage is to identify the type of content inclusion. Lecturers’ responses focused more on activities that could be used in sessions and different ways to convey meaning; teacher educators’ responses detailed general pedagogic support, including ways to convey meaning, using interactive tasks and deploying a variety of different ways to check meaning. These responses are in tune with the wider literature on support needs for those working in EMI and other HEI lecturing contexts (Lynch 1994; Marsh and Sink 2010; Walker et al. 2008). As well as including content that can be reused for lecturers’ own delivery, teacher educators noted the importance of reflecting on activities used, with lecturers also stating that doing this in a supportive environment was helpful, echoing previous research conducted in a single Italian university (Guarda and Helm 2017). The desire for focused language support shows that, as well as general fluency support, it is the specific language of lecturing that lecturers need help with. Participants’ responses chime with the literature about discourse management support for lecturers with English as a first or additional language (Flowerdew 1994; Lynch 1994; Thompson 2003; Tyler 1992). This suggests that, if identified as a diagnostic need, focused language support should be a strong thread in any short, EMI course. However, the range of that focus and support will necessarily depend on the needs of the training group. Interestingly, lecturers were less c­ oncerned

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about their language ability after having taken a short support course than they were before. Reasons given included increased confidence when lecturers realised that other lecturers had the same concerns and when they found they could interact completely in English during their support course. There were similar findings in an Italian study (Clark 2018) that showed that lecturers were more concerned about their language level than their students, suggesting that ability to deliver session content in English is related more to a lecturer’s personal perception about professionalism and its links to language than the reality experienced by others. Integral to language support is the desire for help with pronunciation, an area explicitly mentioned by both teacher educators and lecturers. Such pronunciation support does not need to be focused on honing a particular standard of accent (if it is even possible to have such a thing), but on having a universal intelligibility. This might be based on a phonological core (Jenkins 2000; Seidlhofer 2011), phonological paragraphing (Thompson 2003) or discoursal intonation (Brazil 1997). By adding areas such as classroom-appropriate language chunks (Kunioshi et  al. 2015), discourse markers (Deroey and Taverniers 2012) and “wh-clefts” (Deroey 2012), we can form the basis of a more detailed programme of focused language support that, in conjunction with a diagnostic assessment, would be useful in developing lecturers’ language training. A further point raised by both teacher educators and lecturers is the importance of having time to share experiences with colleagues. The second interviews, conducted after the interaction in short courses with peers, revealed that many lecturers not only took comfort from the fact that their peers had similar issues to contend with, but also gained confidence in their practice and a reduction in their levels of anxiety. These inter-institutional findings mirror those from a single institution study (Guarda and Helm 2017) which identified the development of communities of practice as being of paramount importance in helping develop profession lecturing skills in EMI contexts. Other benefits include helping professionalise lectures and enabling a greater sense of agency in their role as educators. Arguably, this increases agency and professional belief about ability and role as a source of guidance and knowledge in their subject area.

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The final point raised by both lecturers and teacher educators was that of individual feedback on observations (or micro-teaches), described by teacher educators as “experiential learning.” In the short courses participants were engaged in, all but one had micro-teach and feedback elements and, despite initial reservations about putting oneself before their peers, lecturers appeared to find this very helpful. Teacher educators were keen to get lecturers to try activities they had experienced in their training input. This could work on delivery itself, for example, sound scripting, or simply trying out activities in the safe environment of the training room before their use in a “live” teaching situation. By having personalised feedback after trying activities, lecturers would likely benefit from reflection based on experience and further guidance based on the professional advice of the person giving feedback. Even if the observer was not a professional teacher educator, it is likely that their comments on practice would be helpful in the process of development. Inclusion of actual session observations during a short course would likely be difficult to arrange, but several lecturers (A, C and E) suggested that having such support from peers on a regular basis, not as a managerial initiative but as a developmental one, would be desirable. This would further support lecturers’ ability to deliver session input and help professionalise their lecturing, bringing a sense of ownership and agency over lecturing that would reduce the anxiety many of them discussed in the interviews.

6

Conclusions

The research objectives for this study were to: • identify what lecturers in EMI contexts themselves perceive as being helpful to include in short, in-service training programmes to support day-to-day EMI practice; and • identify what teacher educators feel should be included in short in-­ service training courses for those in EMI contexts to support their day-to-day practice.

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As a general finding, we have seen a number of training commonalities identified and drawn links to supporting literature around discourse and pedagogical support. At a more granular level there remains ambiguity about what exactly should be included in a short, in-service EMI support course, something that will only be resolved through thorough diagnostic assessment and a contextual understanding. However, a recurring theme in Teacher Educator C’s responses was the need for those running courses to be flexible and to have a repertoire of teaching techniques and broad pedagogical knowledge to draw upon to in order to meet the needs of participants from different backgrounds, levels of experience and motivations. The saying that “the course for everyone is the course for no-one” is particularly apposite here; there is not one course that can meet the varied needs of lecturers working in EMI contexts, but there are at least areas that teacher educators can be prepared to cover. Rather than being contrary to existing strategies for generic teacher education or general guidance for discourse organisation and content delivery, this study sits alongside this approach and suggests ways in which we can support EMI lecturers through in-service training. This study was not a one-size-fits-all needs analysis, but a process to identify key areas for inclusion when planning a course which supports lecturers working in EMI contexts, something currently missing from the existing literature. The evidence suggests that such planning should include the following four areas: 1. pedagogic support in terms of activities lecturers can use to facilitate learning; 2. focused language support; 3. opportunities to share knowledge and experience with peers; and 4. feedback on practice. As well as this potentially helpful course content information, this study has revealed ways in which lecturers may be able to develop their professional ability and, by association, their identity as an educator. As noted earlier, the changing needs of society lead to changing needs for curriculum, and lecturers need to understand and react to those needs if they are to help shape them rather than be forced into tensions that exist because of them. The role of the academic as researcher may still exist,

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but in the case of the lecturer participants of this study, their role has come to include not just teaching skills but language support skills as well. This change of role is something that many of the lecturers interviewed appeared to understand, accompanied by a desire to work in EMI contexts to improve career prospects and enable opportunities to study and work in other countries. For those who choose to do so and are able, the desire to improve EMI practice and use teaching as a vehicle to move between institutions appears to enable a greater freedom of movement within academia than might be possible without ability in EMI contexts. And these courses provide a space, not necessarily to learn a new EMI methodology, but to reflect on their practice through the lens of EMI, using dialogue and activity to help them do this. For these lecturers, it is not about fighting curriculum change but about making it work for them, becoming a resilient and reactive professional who uses EMI as a way to increase their own agency.

7

Implications for Future Practice

By identifying common themes, this study has established outline content for in-service support with the goal of developing teaching and learning in an area which, until recently, has seen very little support in terms of research and teacher development. Based on the findings, it is recommended that stakeholders involved in EMI provision and support for EMI lecturers take into account the following points: 1. Lecturers working in EMI contexts need specific EMI pedagogical support to meet the needs of a diverse range of international students and be better at teaching course content. The anxiety and uncertainty created by a lack of training appears to be detrimental to lecturers’ professional and personal well-being and is affecting the level of education delivery and, by implication, students’ achievement. 2. In-service EMI support should operate in a framework that includes both pedagogical support (encompassing a range of practice techniques for delivery, experiential learning and personal reflection for

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application) and language support (focusing on specific language for classroom instruction). This should be in conjunction with needs analyses and diagnostic assessments to help tailor courses to meet the varied needs of different cohorts. 3. Lecturers benefit from peer support which allows them to focus on pedagogical development, professional ability and personal growth. 4. Those that run short, in-service EMI support courses need to be experienced, flexible and knowledgeable trainers, able to facilitate learning with lecturers from a wide variety of contexts. To return to and paraphrase Lyotard (1984), an expert knows what he or she knows and also knows what he or she does not. This study shows that suitably tailored EMI support courses help lecturers identify what they can do and where they need professional development, helping increase their level of expertise across different educational contexts, enabling an increase in knowledge, skills and professional agency.

References Aritonang, M. (2014). Motivation and confidence of Indonesian teachers to use English as a medium of instruction. TEFLIN Journal, 25(2), 147–167. Barnett, R. (2000). Supercomplexity and the curriculum. Studies in Higher Education, 25(3), 255–265. Biber, D., & Barbieri, F. (2007). Lexical bundles in university spoken and written registers. English for Specific Purposes, 26(3), 263–286. Brazil, D. (1997). The communicative value of intonation in English book. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Brown, G., & Bakhtar, M. (1988). Styles of lecturing: A study and its implications. Research Papers in Education, 3(2), 131–153. Camiciottoli, B.  C. (2007). The language of business studies lectures: A corpus-­ assisted analysis (Vol. 157). John Benjamins Publishing. Chaudron, C. (1983). Simplification of input: Topic reinstatements and their effects on L2 learners’ recognition and recall. TESOL Quarterly, 17(3), 437–458. Clark, C. (2018). The case of the non-native English speaker in EMI. Studi e ricerche, 13, 563–576.

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Costa, F., & Coleman, J. (2013). A survey of English-medium instruction in Italian higher education. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 16(1), 3–19. Council of Europe. (2001). Common European Framework of Reference for languages: Learning, teaching, assessment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Dearden, J. (2014). English as a medium of instruction—A growing global phenomenon. London: British Council. Deroey, K. L. (2012). What they highlight is…: The discourse functions of basic wh-clefts in lectures. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 11(2), 112–124. Deroey, K. L., & Taverniers, M. (2012). Just remember this: Lexicogrammatical relevance markers in lectures. English for Specific Purposes, 31(4), 221–233. Flowerdew, J. (1994). Research of relevance to second language lecture comprehension: An overview. In J.  Flowerdew (Ed.), Academic listening: Research perspectives (pp. 7–29). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Gibbs, G., & Jenkins, A. (1984). Break up your lectures: Or Christaller sliced up. Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 8(1), 27–39. Greer, D. A., Cathcart, A., & Neale, L. (2016). Helping doctoral students teach: Transitioning to early career academia through cognitive apprenticeship. Higher Education Research and Development, 35(4), 712–726. Guarda, M., & Helm, F. (2017). ‘I have discovered new teaching pathways’: The link between language shift and teaching practice. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 20(7), 897–913. Hu, G., & Lei, J. (2014). English-medium instruction in Chinese higher education: A case study. Higher Education, 67(5), 551–567. Jenkins, J. (2000). The phonology of English as an international language. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Kunioshi, N., Noguchi, J., Tojo, K., & Hayashi, H. (2015). Supporting English-­ medium pedagogy through an online corpus of science and engineering lectures. European Journal of Engineering Education, 1(1), 1–11. Lortie, D. C., & Clement, D. (1975). Schoolteacher: A sociological study. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Lynch, T. (1994). Training lecturers for international audiences. In J. Flowerdew (Ed.), Academic listening: Research perspectives. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lyotard, J. F. (1984). The postmodern condition: A report on knowledge (Vol. 10). Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press. Marsh, E. J., & Sink, H. E. (2010). Access to handouts of presentation slides during lecture: Consequences for learning. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 24(5), 691–706.

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Pearson, P. (2014). Policy without a plan: English as a medium of instruction in Rwanda. Current Issues in Language Planning, 15(1), 39–56. Seidlhofer, B. (2011). Understanding English as a lingua franca. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Thompson, S.  E. (2003). Text-structuring metadiscourse, intonation and the signalling of organisation in academic lectures. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 2(1), 5–20. Tyler, A. (1992). Discourse structure and the perception of incoherence in international teaching assistants’ spoken discourse. TESOL Quarterly, 26(4), 713–729. Walker, J. D., Cotner, S. H., Baepler, P. M., & Decker, M. D. (2008). A delicate balance: Integrating active learning into a large lecture course. CBE-Life Sciences Education, 7(4), 361–367. Werther, C., Denver, L., Jensen, C., & Mees, I. M. (2014). Using English as a medium of instruction at university level in Denmark: The lecturer’s perspective. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 35(5), 443–462. Wilson, K., & Korn, J. H. (2007). Attention during lectures: Beyond ten minutes. Teaching of Psychology, 34(2), 85–89. Wongkietkachorn, A., Prakoonsuksapan, J., & Wangsaturaka, D. (2014). What happens when teachers do not give students handouts? Medical Teacher, 36(9), 789–793. Woodward, T. (1991). Models and metaphors in language teacher training: Loop input and other strategies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Zacharias, N. T. (2013). Navigating through the English-medium-of-instruction policy: Voices from the field. Current Issues in Language Planning, 14(1), 93–108.

6 Designing an English for Occupational Purposes Framework Based on the Needs of University Administrative Staff: A Case Study Julia Zabala Delgado

1

Background and Rationale

The idea behind the European Higher Education Area of the Bologna Process is to create a system able to promote mobility amongst university students and staff in Europe, as well as to increase employability. The 2012 Bologna implementation report (European Commission 2012) talked about mobility as a main tool for internationalisation and reported that European Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) were taking steps in this area by creating international environments for their students and staff. The 2015 Bologna implementation report (European Commission 2015) further elaborated on this and established a differentiation between mobility and internationalisation, highlighting the benefits of internationalisation strategies for students, staff, HEIs and even countries. The 2018 Bologna implementation report (European Commission 2018) informs member states of the advances in national policies for the internationalisation of HEIs. The report identified Spain as one of the ten J. Zabala Delgado (*) Universitat Politècnica de València, Valencia, Spain e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s) 2020 M. L. Carrió-Pastor (ed.), Internationalising Learning in Higher Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-21587-3_6

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systems in Europe in which not only is there a national strategy for the internationalisation of universities, but all the HEIs in the country have also implemented their own internationalisation strategies. In parallel with this process, the 2013 European higher education in the world strategy (European commission 2013) broadened the scope of European HEIs by promoting educational agreements with non-EU countries. Such agreements are encouraged by promoting internationalisation strategies within member states and HEIs. The goal is defined in the Europe 2020 strategy, a smart, sustainable and inclusive growth of Europe. Within this context, the Spanish Conference of University Rectors published a linguistic policy framework document for the internationalisation of the Spanish university system (Martínez and González 2017) in which they drew the course of action for universities as regards the language training of students, faculty members and staff. In the case of training of staff, they emphasise the need to focus on the tools required to perform functions at an international level, thus effectively collaborating on the internationalisation process of Spanish universities. In order to do this, they suggest focusing on English for Occupational Purposes (EOP) courses and creating materials to disseminate information about the university, as well as encouraging exchanges with international universities and promoting actions to prepare staff to deal with multilingual contexts. To encourage staff to participate in such actions, they recommend universities to set up incentives such as offering courses suited to their specific needs, reducing costs for participants, encouraging and financing staff to take language competence accreditation exams (preferably of level B2 and above) and giving foreign language accredited staff an advantageous position in work promotions. The Universitat Politècnica de València (UPV) is a public technical university in Spain and, as a technical university, it is fully committed to internationalisation. In accordance with the goals of the European Higher Education Area, the UPV defined a strategic plan (UPV Strategic Plan 2015–2020) based on six strategic elements: reputation, internationalisation, cooperation, innovation, efficiency and commitment. Again, and in line with both European directives and the Spanish Conference of University Rectors, the focus is on opening the university to the world. Consequently, English as a medium of instruction, international

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a­ ccreditations for UPV degrees, English as lingua franca for PhD studies and degrees, life-long learning and research networks become primary goals to be attained. As advised by the Conference of Rectors, language competence is identified as one of the pillars for internationalisation, and extensive programmes have been put into place by the university’s Language Centre to help students achieve a CEFR (Common European Framework) (Council of Europe 2001) B2 upon graduation. Likewise, and given the exponential growth of English as a medium of instruction at the university, at both the graduate and the postgraduate level, the university defined a framework to help faculty deal with the challenges of teaching in a foreign language. In the case of language training for Administrative and Services Staff (ASS), incentive programmes had been implemented within general English courses at the Language Centre, complemented by short courses organised with specific skills in mind (telephoning, secretarial work, etc.). However, it was the university’s intention to create a framework for language training and accreditation specifically designed with this collective in mind. It is important to understand that Administrative and Services Staff at Spanish universities includes a wide range of professional profiles, from administration in charge of receiving students and maintaining relationships with other institutions, through support staff such as IT, human resources and financial consultants, to researchers or research managers involved in international projects. At the same time, the framework had to take into consideration not only the needs of the participants but also the needs of the organising institution. On the one hand, the UPV needed to focus on helping its staff communicate with international visitors and institutions but wanted to do so by focusing on helping them achieve a CEFR B2 level. On the other hand, the actions undertaken to do this had to motivate the staff and be cost-effective. The aim of this chapter was to determine the language needs of ASS at the UPV as regards communication in English at work, as well as their learning preferences, in order to identify an EOP framework that could combine the needs of both ASS and the institution.

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Theoretical Framework

Dudley-Evans and St John (1998) defines English for Specific Purposes (ESP) as a discipline oriented towards meeting the needs of learners that focuses on activities of the specific discipline it serves and targets the language needed for these activities. Hutchinson and Waters (1987) further specify that ESP should be regarded as an approach to language learning and not as a particular methodology, distinguishing between what learners do with the language—their performance—and the range of knowledge and abilities that allows them to carry out such performance, that is, their competence. Within ESP, the literature identifies two main branches, English for Academic Purposes and English for Vocational or Professional Purposes, although it is also expanded to include other disciplines such as English for Medical Purposes, English for Business Purposes, English for Legal Purposes and English for Sociocultural Purposes (Belcher 2009). In this chapter, we will focus on English for Occupational Purposes as an approach to language learning oriented towards helping people use the language to help them carry out their work (Cunningsworth 1998). However, and since the goal is to help design a learning programme, we will follow Koester (2013) in including within this approach the teaching of courses that aim to prepare learners to communicate in English in occupational settings. Since EOP branches out from ESP as a learner-­ centred approach to learning the language, it is in nature a pragmatic approach as it exists to satisfy a specific need. In this sense, it also has strong relationships with both the field of language assessment and communicative language teaching (Swales 2000). A comprehensive diagram of the factors involved in ESP course design can be found in Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 22) (see Fig. 6.1). This diagram is to serve as the basis for our theoretical framework in which language description corresponds to the way the language is broken down or described to inform the syllabus, learning theories addresses the methodology used to help students acquire the language and needs analysis relates to the particular context in which the course is going to be implemented. ESP has largely evolved since the beginnings of the research in the field, and it has done so thanks to corpus studies, genre analysis and the

6  Designing an English for Occupational Purposes Framework… 

WHAT? Language descriptions

Syllabus

ESP course

Methodology

115

HOW? Learning theories

Nature of particular target and learning

WHO? WHY? WHERE? WHEN? Needs analysis

Fig. 6.1  Factors affecting ESP course design based on the Hutchinson and Waters proposal (1987)

understanding of English as a lingua franca that introduced the importance of interculturality in communication. Further changes going towards more international and multi-methodological approaches to contextualise ESP are foreseen. Furthermore, there is a clear movement towards multimodality in resources and learning (Paltridge and Starfield 2017: 19). For the purposes of our study and since it is based in a technical university, we will look at the main factors affecting ESP course design specified above, but taking into consideration the new trends and the use of English as an international and intercultural language.

2.1

Language Description

Since the focus of the study was EOP for university ASS, it was important to use a language description that could not only inform the future syllabus but also offer a transparent reference for all stakeholders involved. Furthermore, in the context of a European university, the language description informing the framework needed to be coherent with the

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initiatives undertaken by the university to train other groups within the university community, such as students and faculty. With all these considerations in mind, the Common European Framework (CEFR) was the obvious choice. The CEFR is language neutral and can be applied to other languages if needed, it is context neutral and allows for interpretation according to the specificities of each context and is comprehensive in terms of language skills and offers indications for assessment. Furthermore, it increases transparency in terms of goals and outcomes and offers a clear point of reference accessible to all stakeholders, independent of their level of expertise in the field of language teaching. The CEFR approach “views users and learners of a language primarily as ‘social agents’, i.e. members of society who have tasks (not exclusively language-related) to accomplish in a given set of circumstances, in a specific environment and within a particular field of action” (CEFR: 9). This view seems particularly appropriate in a field in which language is used as a tool to carry out work-related tasks. Although there are disadvantages of using the CEFR can-do statements as a language description for the design of a language programme framework (Weir 2005), it is true that for the purpose of this chapter and in the context of HEIs, the advantages clearly overcome the disadvantages. Not only that, but it is precisely the flexibility and non-prescriptive nature of the framework that makes it particularly appropriate to use in a context in which several needs have to be addressed within a single framework. Furthermore, as mentioned above, EOP has a strong relationship with language assessment, which has been greatly influenced by CEFR (Little 2007) and the publication of the manual for relating language examinations (Council of Europe 2003).

2.2

Needs Analysis

In order to carry out a needs analysis appropriate for the task at hand, a review of the literature on needs analysis was undertaken. Munby’s Communicative Syllabus Design (1978) is one of the most influential works in ESP literature and its level of detail marked a before and after in the way ESP courses were designed. However, it has also been criticised for being too complex to apply and for focusing on the target situation

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while dismissing practical constraints and forgetting about the learning situation. Hutchinson and Waters (1987) went further and elaborated on Allwright’s (1982) analysis of needs (demands of the target situation), wants (what the learner perceives as his or her needs) and lacks (what the learner already knows and does not need). Based on their understanding of ESP as an approach to language learning, they focused on the process and talked not only about the needs of the target situation but also about the learning needs. Their model included what Munby’s did not, that is, the reason behind learners for taking the course, the way they learn the resources available and the particular characteristics of the learners as regards interests, background, attitudes, and so on. In fact, if we look at their model, needs analysis is multi-faceted and, accordingly, the literature identifies different components that can be taken into consideration to assess the needs of ESP stakeholders: target situation analysis (TSA), present situation analysis (PTA), learning situation analysis (LSA), strategy analysis and means analysis. Target situation analysis examines what the learners will need to do with the language in the future, present situation analysis focuses on the students’ needs and lacks and learning situation analysis focuses on the subjectively felt needs of students. Strategy analysis and means analysis deal with two slightly different aspects of needs; the first deals with the way in which students wish to learn the concepts they need, and the second refers to the sustainability of the framework, curriculum or syllabus designed after the analysis. Continuing with this idea of a multi-faceted field and focusing on the background of this study, ASS in a university context, the model introduced by Dudley-Evans and St John’s (1998) seemed more appropriate. In fact, it takes into consideration all the approaches above and proposes a model of needs analyses that pivots around the environmental situation, that is, the mean analysis or the situation surrounding the course and including: • Information about the learners: personal information, that is, to include all that can affect learners in their learning process, and professional information, that is, to examine the task that they will undertake in their professional context • Language information about the target situation

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• Learners’ lacks, the distance between the present situation and the target situation • Learners’ needs from the course • Learners’ learning needs • Communication in the target situation As illustrated by this literature review, the concept of needs analysis has widened and adjusted not only to adapt to the particular goals of the analysis but also to become an ongoing process carried out at different stages to allow for adjustments and changes and ensure quality. Ultimately, needs analysis needs to be a pragmatic process to be able to determine the needs of students and the means for these needs to be achieved in terms of contents and approaches. Dudley-Evans and St John’s model was chosen for the purpose of this study to encourage pragmatism and the replicability of the process for further analysis; however, the results were to be combined with a means analysis previously carried out with the institutions’ officials.

2.3

ESP Learning Theories

Sociodiscoursal approach, based on the collection of authentic materials from the actual occupational situations to be used for teaching. Sociocultural approach, based on immersion but with on-site training to assist learners with lower levels. Sociopolitical approach that considers collaborative work as a means to face difficulties in communication.

3

Methodology

The particularities of the context mentioned above implied that the data obtained needed to be examined at the micro level, since it involved a single institution and a specific population within the institution’s staff, thus restricting the research to a limited sample population. Case study research was selected as the method to follow and steps were taken to

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obtain results that could be useful, not only as exploratory evidence, as often occurs with case studies, but also as clues or guidelines that could be generalised to other cases within similar contexts (HEIs). In order to achieve this goal and following Sturman (1997: 65), procedures for data collection are explained and possible biases acknowledged, taking special care to clarify the relationship between assertion and evidence and distinguishing between description and interpretation. Data collection was performed by means of focus groups and research on ESP and EOP methodologies. Focus groups were chosen instead of interviews and/or questionnaires to allow for the generation of ideas by means of the interaction between the participants; the idea was to create a social interaction between the participants so that they would feel free to articulate their opinions. For practicality reasons, two focus groups were organised with 12 participants in total to be able to cover all different ASS profiles at the university. The participants covered a wide range of profiles: IT personnel, administrative staff in direct contact with visiting students and faculty, international relations staff and research managers. All participants had permanent positions at the university. It is important to mention that all the participants had shown previous interest in learning and/or practising languages at the university’s Language Centre and therefore there was a previous bias that needed to be accounted for. The use of an interview schedule ensured consistency between the two focus group sessions and kept the discussion focused on the researched topics. The interview included a section focused on the needs of ASS as regards communication at work and a section on their needs as regards resources as well as on their preferences for learning. The interview schedule was piloted with ASS belonging to the Language Centre at the university and the final version consisted of five main topics with subtopics. The focus groups were carried out in Spanish and so the interview schedule was designed in Spanish. The interview has been translated below to facilitate understanding: USE OF ENGLISH AT WORK • Do you use English?

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• In which situations? • Who do you use it with? • What challenges have you encountered? SKILLS • Which skill worries you the most? Could you justify your answer? • Which skill do you think is most useful for you at work? –– Listening –– Speaking –– Reading –– Writing • For which type of activity? RESOURCES • Which language resources would be practical when using English at work? • For which type of activity? LANGUAGE LEARNING • • • •

What type of course would be useful? Which teaching/learning method would you prefer? Which level would you need? Which topics are most useful for your line of work?

MOTIVATION • What motivates you in a language course? Focus group interaction was recorded after obtaining permission from the participants; notes were taken by the researcher and checked with the participants at the end of the focus group to make sure that they provided

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an adequate representation of what the participants meant. Participants were informed of the objective of the focus group and confidentiality was assured. Furthermore, they were told that although the researcher was going to ask them questions, the focus was on their opinions and interaction and the questions were there to ensure all topics were covered and time limits were respected. They were also informed that the researcher was going to contribute only by moderating the debate and maintaining the sequence of the topics or providing clarification if needed. The first focus group was carried out with ten participants and resulted in 46:51 minutes of recording time and the second one was carried out with two participants and resulted in 16:26 minutes of recording time. Notes were completed and expanded with the recordings to code themes and categorise them. Research on ESP and EOP methodologies was carried out after analysing the data obtained in the focus groups to find a methodology or a combination of methodologies that could inform the framework to allow for a balance between the needs and expectations of the participants and prospective learners and the requirements and resources of the organising institution. Furthermore, the particular characteristics of the population as regards age and motivation and that of the context, a public HEI, were also taken into account.

4

Results

What are the language needs of ASS at the UPV as regards communication in English at work?

4.1

Use of English at Work and Challenges

All participants reported their use of English at work, although in our case, this was to be expected as participants already belonged to groups already interested in English and were thus keen on practising their skills. In all cases, they reported both face-to-face interaction and written interaction by means of emails or online forms (the university offers an online

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service called policonsultas for students to ask questions through online forms). we don’t speak English every day, but there are two situations in which we do, Erasmus students that are lost [] they ask questions and are not from here and you try to help, their Spanish is not good [] also students that are from other places, foreigners from Africa or Eastern Europe, their Spanish is … less than basic … and you try to make yourself understood, with good will, you try to help but you would like to do more, have more resources, skills. we also deal face-to-face [] PhD students, visiting researchers. many times we get emails in English, and we send them to the international office [] we could answer them, sometimes you think you could, you don’t know what to do, maybe you don’t know enough [] if you send all to the international office, you end up collapsing their unit [] it would be helpful to be able to do it.

Only IT staff and staff working with students reported the use of the telephone as common. IT staff described telephone conversations as long and complicated although the use of vocabulary related to computers, which seems international, helped in the interactions. In all other cases, telephoning was rarely ever used. yes, I deal with telephone calls a lot, but we are lucky because the terms are the same, computer, internet, software, we have it easier in this sense, it helps.

As for the challenges encountered, the main problem reported by all participants was concerning the use of appropriate vocabulary to define elements of their work. sometimes, students that are not Erasmus, you say they need a certificate and they don’t understand the word ‘certificate’ [] they understand the word certificate, but it is something else, they bring something else [] it needs to be clear because it’s important for them, they can’t register [] they are confused and it’s frustrating yes, like he said, sometimes you say certificate and for you it’s clear but they understand something different, certificate is another document for them, these terms that are different … putting together the terms we use and the terms they use for us too, for research, researchers are from different places but they use

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English, or French, sometimes their English is half French, you need terms that are very simple and clear. for students too, working in grants, students from Maghreb speak English but the words are not always English [] if you use the same words, they understand.

When dealing with vocabulary, staff working in managerial positions or in positions dealing with human resources or finances were also concerned about learning-specific vocabulary that would help them bypass the language barrier or help them seem more proficient. They had the feeling that sometimes their English seemed lacking because of the lack of specific vocabulary. with financial resources … I can write an email, but sometimes it’s the vocabulary [] do they use these words? Do they use others? … maybe they won’t understand, but my grammar is good. I work in a research centre and my job involves using English, I had to have a B2 to get this job, but sometimes is not the English … it’s not the knowledge of English … I feel I need more vocabulary.

Their needs as regards language and their perception of the importance of speaking English was a recurring topic when talking about their use of English at work and the challenges they encountered. Although the questionnaire initially used work “challenges” to mean challenges when using the language, participants talked about the challenges of obtaining recognition for their efforts in learning a second and sometimes third language. What they perceived as challenges concerned in many cases the institution and the lacks of means or the mismatching between the requests of their posts and the resources offered by the institution. I think it is not right, something is not working, we ask students to come to the university with some English and need a B2 to graduate, but they go to administration here at the university and nobody can speak English, and those who do are paying for training themselves. you get a certificate, it’s you effort and time, it is not recognised [] you don’t get access to more training [] if you have a certificate, it is because you spent your time … you should be given preference for training opportunities.

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English cannot be compulsory for university workers, I know, because some people don’t need it, but it should for some posts, a basic level at least, only to say ‘good morning, I can’t help you but go to this office’. and it is even worse because we are a public university, it is a university, some public areas, hospitals, it’s different, but we are a university, I’m surprised sometimes but it is not because we don’t want to, things have changed and some people have looked for options to learn by themselves, but the university hasn’t organized anything … we go to colleagues that we know speak other languages, but it is not organized.

4.2

Skills and Resources Needed

The participants in general expressed concerns when dealing with face-­ to-­face interaction or on the phone in the case of IT staff; their main worry is speaking the language and being able to sustain a conversation. Their communication is always goal oriented and thus their concern is being able to get the message across. Because communication is mostly face-to-face, they are able to ask for repetitions and to use other forms of communication (gestural) to understand the message. However, there was a concern about the different accents of interlocutors. think that most people are not going to be native speakers [] Pakistanis, Chinese, even if they speak English, sometimes you need to be Houdini to guess what they are saying but it is more important to be able to speak because if you answer them and they understand you, then you know that you understood what they wanted … see? It is more important that they feel you understood them.

Most participants reported a need for basic communication skills that could help staff on their first contact with international visitors. They believe visitors need to feel they are treated politely. maybe something to say ‘go there’ ‘it is that’ something that would help them deal with a first contact, it would give them confidence [] and it is also good image, you don’t need to look for somebody else to say something very basic [] it

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gives a good impression if everybody can give directions, I’m just giving an example sometimes if you don’t know the words … you don’t want to be abrupt but you know only some words so … you are rude but not on purpose and you don’t know how to explain it.

Writing is identified as problematic as regards vocabulary, which is related to the resources they would like to have; databases with translations and common words were mentioned by almost all participants. Vocabulary is again the most important thing, they need to understand what you write, because they are coming to Spain and they need to come with everything, you cannot make a mistake google translate helps a lot, but not with vocabulary because sometimes is not the word we use, it helps with sentences, but the vocabulary, that is what we need [] I agree, and sometimes our grammar is not good, but if the word, the concept, is clear, that is the most important thing. If we had a list of the vocabulary, there are many different forms that are only in Spanish, to request certificates [] we need to help foreigners and you need to tell them what they need but the form is in Spanish. It is very difficult to translate that and it becomes complicated. It would save time to have forms translated with lists of vocabulary, I could send mine and they could send me theirs and we would all use the same, yes.

Reading is not mentioned by any of the participants; they all seem confident they can read and understand documents, as there are many tools available. The most problematic thing as regards reading is related to intercultural communication. There is a general concern about not being perceived as polite or not understanding whether someone is being polite or not. you send emails and get a response and sometimes you wonder, Are they rude? Maybe they didn’t like what I asked? Is this normal? in research agreements it is very important to be polite, and you don’t know if you are being perceived as polite [] in research projects you need to be very precise because you are justifying funding, you would need some support for that

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yes, we feel the level of other colleagues from other universities is sometimes very good but not native like, so … how do you know what they mean? not the basics, but in European projects you need to understand every connotation.

What are the language learning preferences that could motivate ASS to invest their efforts in learning English? All participants in general showed preference for classroom-based courses but insisted they needed to be practical and focused on what they really need. Classroom-based courses were preferred to be able to practise speaking: in case of online courses, I don’t mind if it’s for listening because I don’t need a teacher for that [] or to learn to write emails, writing, texts, I don’t need the teacher with me for that online courses are good for individual work, or you can share writings with others, but speaking? You need to be there; you need the teacher to be there

The fact that the university’s Language Centre already offers language courses and that the institutions subsidised them for staff was considered of value but they reported the need for specific courses for their needs. A common thread was the use of training materials for social abilities as means to improve foreign language skills. sometimes you see the title and the contents and is more of the same … to do that I can go to English classes, I want something specifically for me, maybe not for ME, but for the university globally teachers are key, you can use a book but you need to adapt it to your learners, we have specific needs, we need teachers to understand we have different needs, we don’t need specific books, we need specific tasks many of the courses that are offered for ASS in Spanish, to treat with people, manage teams, they would be great if we could have them in English, exactly the same, in English, some are online, so the same in English” “social abilities, communication, more than languages, courses on abilities and skills for people with a certain level of English”, “it motivates you because you learn things that matter.

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As for the organisation of courses, their main problem was in balancing work, personal lives and learning a language. They all expressed preferences for short seminars in different schedules so that they could work around their professional and personal obligations. Flexibility was identified as key. June and September is impossible and courses don’t stop in those months but it is not the same for everybody, financial resources is December for example, short courses or just activities you could join to practice but with flexibility you don’t need 80 hours on each topic, sometimes it is enough with two or three hours and then resources to use, if we could get the materials and some guidance, that would be enough, some support from a teacher.

Although most of the participants had a certain level of English, and thus they were biased in their opinions, they all reported the situation of their colleagues not being able to communicate at all in another language. They believed that in many cases the institution misunderstood their motives. Sometimes they talk about money, paying more money, but that is not it, well also, but not only, they think we only care about money but I want to be recognised” “Yes, in particular when you are facing the public and you are always making the effort, I don’t know how, maybe offering us more courses if we make the effort I think it is a question of making people understand that it is interesting, that you can offer a better service. Like knowing what foreigners that visit us think, I would be happy to hear they feel understood. I don’t know what they think The university should make an effort to change mentalities, you do not need to learn English, you need to learn to communicate in English, it is different

Talking about motivation and changes in mentalities, collaborative work was identified as a tool to motivate staff still not involved in language learning activities.

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Working in groups is really productive, maybe not in Spanish, but in English it helps with anxiety, you are less afraid, you see how the others deal and you help each other.

What EOP framework could be implemented to combine ASS and the institution’s needs? Based on the literature reviewed on EOP and on the environmental situation, including learners’ characteristics, learners’ use of the language, needs and lacks, the framework proposed is illustrated in Fig. 6.2. As we can see, the framework proposed would work around three assessment steps: • Step 1: A placement test would assign students a CEFR level according to their knowledge of the language and independently of their target situation or professional situation. This would allow the institution to cater for the different profiles in terms of levels and would coincide with their preferences in focusing on language level

Fig. 6.2  English for Occupational Purposes framework

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i­ ndependently of the specific purpose of their target tasks. Once learners are assigned a CEFR level, they are given access to an online platform where they can access materials with three different approaches: (a) Formulaic language training: the use of formulaic language to train adult learners with professional communicative goals has a bi-fold intention. On the one hand, because formulaic language represents between 20% and 50% of everyday discourse (Alali and Schmitt 2012); it can help lower-level students fulfil communicative needs of a “concrete type and immediate priority” (CEFR A2) in a relatively short period of time, making training efficient and increasing motivation. In fact, formulaic language is used for adult training and particularly so in early stages, because it is easy to learn and can satisfy communicative needs (Ellis et al. 2015). On the other hand, it can help students with a higher level of language improve their socio-­ pragmatic adequacy when dealing with non-native speakers of English from different backgrounds. In both of these cases, the impression given by the L2 speaker is improved. This methodology also complies with the needs of the institution as it is time-effective (users can give the impression of rapid improvement) and cost-effective (it can be taught irrespective of distance using computer platforms). (b) Task-based teaching with a language focus: the use of online platforms allows different levels to be implemented in a relatively cost-­ effective way. Furthermore, a computer platform allows for the use of videos and audios, which could represent actual daily communication at the university. Videos and recordings can simulate the target work environment, complying with the needs of the learners for it to be flexible (time wise) and the need of the institution to be effective (cost and resource wise). A collaborative platform allows students to upload their everyday interactions, which would be monitored by the teacher and used as training materials. This methodology is learner-­ centred and combines sociodiscoursal, sociocultural and sociopolitical approaches in that it uses authentic materials, offers learner support in real tasks and is collaborative. At the same time, although

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the material used is task-based, the focus is on the language as per the preferences expressed by the learners. (c) Shared terminology resources: an open access to terminology resources and templates for documents. Offering terminology resources and templates to learners covers their needs in that it helps them be effective in their work and increases confidence, as they are using templates that have been previously validated by teachers. Simultaneously, it opens the door to more collaborative work by allowing students to upload documents and terms for teacher revision and further inclusion into the database. Furthermore, it helps to harmonise university terms and facilitates understanding amongst non-native speakers by limiting vocabulary options. An additional benefit to using three approaches is that they can complement and support each other, creating a scaffolding structure for students with different levels of proficiency. Formulaic language can be taught to lower-level students by asking them to identify useful language chunks in real communication instances (Boers et al. 2006), which can be extracted from the materials in the task-based language learning section. Alternatively, students with a higher level can extract pre-formed sequences from collocations in terminological databases. • Step 2. Achievement exams, formative in nature, are used at the end of the online training to determine the level of success of the different learners. Exams correspond to each of their levels of study and can help motivate students while allowing the institution determine the level of success of the training programme. Exams are delivered only to the learners that have completed the course and all assignments and they are delivered in a classroom and under supervision. Individualised feedback is given to students to further increase motivation. According to the test results, learners are offered an option of modular short courses based on their professional needs and language achievements. On the one hand, the system aims to focus on the learner and his/her needs by providing individualised feedback and a personalised trajectory, while offering classroom-based training according to learners’

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preferences but only to those who have previously invested an effort in learning. On the other hand, by rewarding only those learners that complete the work and reach a certain level of success in the a­ chievement exam, the framework avoids unnecessary costs for the university in case of lack of attendance or course abandonment. Modular courses allow for flexibility in schedules and a more personalised approach depending on the different profiles. • Step 3. Proficiency exams are the final step for the learner in each level, although not the middle step for the institution, who should use the results for continuous improvement. The UPV, as many Higher Education Institutions in Spain, delivers CertAcles exams, which are language exams accredited by the Association of Language Centres in Higher Education (ACLES) and recognised by the local ministries and the Spanish Conference of University Rectors. These exams are used to access official posts (at the university and within governmental bodies) and are a requisite for job promotions. By offering learners the possibility of taking an exam as part of their training, the university is recognising their effort, which is one of the concerns expressed by the staff. Furthermore, by accrediting the language level of their staff, they are contributing to the internationalisation of the institution and confirming that the framework implemented is successful. Learners can then decide to continue on a further level or use their certificate (if achieved) for promotions. The university can use the results of the exams to analyse the results of the framework and implement improvements.

5

 onclusions, Limitations and Further C Research

The results of this study are not meant to be the basis for a definite framework, but the first step in the design of a framework that could lead to a curriculum design. The design would then need to be implemented and evaluated according to the feedback obtained by students, teachers and university officials. Furthermore, assessment, both formative and sum-

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mative, would need to be introduced as it has already been mentioned in the proposed framework, and the data and analysis of the results of the assessment further used for quality control. As mentioned above in the methodology section of the study, the main limitation was the small number of subjects and the fact that the study was performed at a micro level, focusing on a section of the staff of a particular university. These limitations determined the methodology selected and thus the drawbacks of case studies as regards generalisation of results are applicable to the results and conclusions of the present study. Nevertheless, the research followed Hamel et al. (1993) in trying to design the objective setting of the research so that the results could be generalised, if not based on numbers, based on similarity of contexts and settings. HEIs in Spain are in this case a good example, as ASS structures are similar and their role in internationalisation is defined by the educational system and the national and international setting, making their needs similar based on the similarities of their common context. Additionally, and as a further limitation of the results presented, the study was based on the needs of the learners and their institution, presenting one side of the story but failing to paint a picture of the needs of the interlocutors, them being visiting staff, students or other institutions with which communication is needed. It is precisely the limitations of the study that take us towards the further research that could be performed. On the one hand, more institutions in Spain could take part in similar research activities to increase the number of participants and obtain results that could be generalised. On the other hand, since communication is an act between two or more parties, the needs of visiting staff and students and those of institutions at the other end of the communications would need to be studied to paint a whole picture of the communicative process. Furthermore, the teachers of the courses should contribute with their expertise to inform on the progress and work on adjustments and improvements to the framework and the curriculum along the process. Additionally, and since HEIs in Europe are now working towards establishing networks for collaboration, an analysis of similar processes carried out in other universities would be interesting to avoid repeating mistakes and optimise both efforts and resources.

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References Alali, F. A., & Schmitt, N. (2012). Teaching formulaic sequences: The same as or different from teaching single words? Tesol Journal, 32, 153–180. Allwright, R. (1982). Perceiving and pursuing learner’s needs. In M. Geddes & G. Sturtridge (Eds.), Individualisation (pp. 24–31). Oxford: Modern English Publications. Belcher, D. (2009). What ESP is and can be: An introduction. In D. Belcher (Ed.), English for specific purposes in theory and practice (pp. 1–20). Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. Boers, F., Eyckmans, J., Kappel, J., Stengers, H., & Demecheleer, M. (2006). Formulaic sequences and perceived oral proficiency: Putting a lexical approach to the test. Language Teaching Research, 10(3), 245–261. Cunningsworth, A. (1998). Choosing your coursebook. Oxford: Macmillan Heinemann. Council of Europe. (2001). The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Council of Europe. (2003). Manual for relating examinations to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages. Strasbourg, France: Council of Europe. Dudley-Evans, T., & St John, M. J. (1998). Developments in English for specific purposes: A multi-disciplinary approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ellis, N. C., Simpson-Vlach, R., Römer, U., O’Donnell, M., & Wulff, S. (2015). Learner corpora and formulaic language in SLA. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. European Commission. (2012). The European Higher Education Area in 2012: Bologna process implementation report. Brussels: Eurydice. European Commission. (2013). European higher education in the world. Retrieved January 21, 2019, from https://ec.europa.eu/education/policy/internationalcooperation_en. European Commission. (2015). The European Higher Education Area in 2015: Bologna process implementation report. Brussels: Eurydice. European Commission. (2018). The European Higher Education Area in 2018: Bologna process implementation report. Brussels: Eurydice. Hamel, J., Dufour, S., & Fortin, D. (1993). Case study methods (Vol. 32). London: Sage.

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Hutchinson, T., & Waters, A. (1987). English for specific purposes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Koester, A. (2013). English for occupational purposes. In C.  Chapelle (Ed.), Encyclopedia of applied linguistics. New Jersey: Blackwell Publishing. Little, D. (2007). The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Perspectives on the making of supranational language education policy. Modern Language Journal, 91(4), 645–653. Martínez, P. B. and González, D. (2017) Linguistic policy framework document for the internationalisation of the Spanish university system. CRUE-IC Working subgroup on Linguistic Policy. Retrieved December 12, 2018, from http:// www.crue.org/Documentoscompartidos/Sectoriales/Internacionalizaciony Cooperacion/Politica_Executivesummary_VersionFinalReducido.pdf. Munby, J. (1978). Communicative syllabus design: A sociolinguistic model for defining the content of purpose-specific language programmes. London: Cambridge University Press. Paltridge, B., & Starfield, S. (2017). English for specific purposes. In Handbook of research in second language teaching and learning (vol. 3, pp. 56–67). Boston: Wiley-Blackwell. Sturman, A. (1997). Case study methods. In J.  P. Keeves (Ed.), Educational research, methodology and measurement: An international handbook (2nd ed., pp. 61–66). Oxford: Pergamon. Swales, J. M. (2000). Languages for specific purposes. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 20, 59–76. Universitat Politècnica de València. (2015). Plan estratégico UPV 2020. Retrieved February 21, 2019, from https://www.upv.es/organizacion/lainstitucion/ documentos/Plan_Estrategico_UPV_2015-2020_Resumen_ejecutivo.pdf. Weir, C. J. (2005). Limitations of the Common European Framework for developing comparable examinations and tests. Language Testing, 22(3), 281–300.

Part III Specific Aspects of English as a Medium of Instruction

7 English as a Medium of Instruction: What about Pragmatic Competence? María Luisa Carrió-Pastor

1

Introduction

Nowadays, teachers play a very important role not only in the teaching of knowledge but also in training learners’ communication strategies. Learners observe teachers and imitate them. This is the reason why teachers should be good communicators and know all the strategies and competences that should be used to convince learners. Among all the competences in which teachers should be proficient, one of the most important is pragmatic competence. As Bardovi-Harlig (2013: 68) explains, ‘I like to say that pragmatics is the study of how-to-say-what-to-­ whom-when and that L2 pragmatics is the study of how learners come to know how-to-say-what-to-whom-when’. Pragmatic competence becomes key when teachers communicate in a foreign language as communication involves engaging listeners and convincing them about ideas and new projects. Pragmatic competence is the ability to use language effectively in a contextually appropriate way M. L. Carrió-Pastor (*) Universitat Politècnica de València, Valencia, Spain e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s) 2020 M. L. Carrió-Pastor (ed.), Internationalising Learning in Higher Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-21587-3_7

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(Taguchi 2009), adapting to the environment and to the expected listeners or readers. Canale and Swain (1980) designed a framework that included three aspects: grammatical, sociolinguistic and strategic competence. Pragmatics is the last competence that it was called by these authors as strategic. In this chapter I refer to pragmatic strategies, but it should be noticed that this is a redundancy, as all pragmatic acts are strategies, the strategies speakers choose to guide, engage and convince listeners. This has been a critical aspect in language studies, as there has been quite a lot of literature devoted to the acquisition and teaching of pragmatic competence (Widdowson 1998; Kasper and Rose 1999, 2001; Bardovi-Harlig 1999, 2013; Kasper 2001; Eslami-Rasekh 2005a; Koike and Pearson 2005; Jianda 2006; Carrió-Pastor and Mestre-Mestre 2013a, b; Wiechmann and Kerz 2013; Carrió-Pastor and Casas-Gómez 2015, Carrió-Pastor and Martín Marchante 2016, 2018), but very few studies have focused on the pragmatic proficiency of teachers or on training pragmatics to teachers (Eslami-Rasekh 2005a; Eslami and Eslami-Rasekh 2008; Cohen 2016). It should be taken into account that the pragmatic competence of speakers should adapt to form-function-context as interlocutors should adapt their way of speaking to the familiarity of the situation, to moment-­ to-­moment attitudes and to the differing aims of the discourse. In this sense, interactional competence is another characteristic of pragmatic knowledge, as this is the ability to adapt to the context and achieve a communicative goal in collaboration with interlocutors. Most pragmatics studies devoted to oral interactions focus on the analysis of conversational structures (Koike and Pearson 2005; Jianda 2006). In this chapter, I focus on the analysis of oral presentations and, in this sense, this study fills a gap as the pragmatic competence of speakers in oral presentations has seldom been studied. Most pragmatics studies take as the starting point the impact of discourse on listeners or readers, but in this study, the speakers should prepare their speech to impact on listeners that may never give their feedback. So, in oral presentations, the speaker may be compared to a politician that prepares a speech but the public cannot interact with him/her. Nobody will ask questions or interrupt the speaker and so discourse should be fluent and should convince readers to listen to the presentation till the end. In this sense, proficiency in pragmatics

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c­ ompetence is crucial to motivate listeners and transmit the most important aspects. As Wyner and Cohen (2015: 521) state, ‘Pragmatic ability entails knowing the extent to which an utterance is acceptable and appropriate to other users of the language in conveying the speaker’s intended meaning’. Discourse should be planned in detail and rhetoric strategies should be chosen correctly to communicate with learners in a foreign language. Also, the use of certain pragmatic markers depends on the communicative context, as Qin and Uccelli (2019) point out in a recent study that contrasts colloquial and academic contexts. In this study, teachers that use English as a medium of instruction (EMI) are analysed. Most EMI studies focus on the methodological challenges, advantages and disadvantages of using English (Kyeyune 2003; Probyn 2005; Doiz et al. 2012; Barnard and McLellan 2013; Lei and Hu 2014; Dearden 2014; Li and Ruan 2015; Belhiah and Elhami 2015; Dafouz and Camacho-Miñano 2016; Blaj-Ward 2017; Bradford and Brown 2017; Margic and Vodopija-­ Krstanovic 2017, 2018; Breeze and Dafouz 2017; Kim et  al. 2018; Macaro 2018). This analysis fills a gap in the sense that I study the use of mitigation strategies and boosters in the oral discourse of teachers who present their subjects in learning objects as part of English as a medium of instruction courses or degrees. The purpose of this chapter is to emphasize the importance of knowing how to use mitigation or boosters when explaining contents in a recorded video of around five minutes to engage learners. Teachers should explain in a very short period of time concepts that should transmit concepts in a foreign language and should be clearly explained but in a compelling way that makes the contents attractive to learners. The oral discourse that teachers have to prepare is not recorded in a classroom or a contextualized environment, but it is recorded in a room looking at a camera. Teachers should prepare their talk to be recorded while they show a PowerPoint presentation. The final product is a digital speech to be watched by anyone interested in the topic, course or degree. All in all, these factors may affect the way discourse is organized or finally delivered by teachers and factors such as confidence or language proficiency may affect their pragmatic competence in the learning objects. In this context, mitigation strategies and boosters are

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i­ mportant to motivate learners. There are many studies on mitigation and boosters (Hyland 2004, 2005; Carrió-Pastor 2016; Qin and Uccelli 2019) as well as other metadiscourse devices, but there is none that has focused on the study of the use of these markers in the oral presentation of learning objects. This study focuses on the study of the use of pragmatic strategies, specifically on mitigation markers and boosters, in oral academic discourse delivered in a digital environment. The language chosen for the analysis is the presentations of courses or subjects done in English as a medium of instruction by teachers from different nationalities and stored at Universitàt Politècnica de València (UPV) as ‘Polimedia’. These presentations are learning objects or pills and are freely accessible at https://media. upv.es/#/portal. They are learning objects that are recorded for speakers of English as a foreign language to explain the most important aspects of a subject, a course or a degree. Thus, the objectives of this chapter are the following ones. First, to identify if the most frequent pragmatic markers used in oral presentations in a digital environment are mitigation devices or boosters. Second, to study the most frequent mitigation devices and boosters in context to observe if they were used effectively to empathize with the audience. Finally, strategies to be used by teachers involved in EMI to improve pragmatic communication were suggested. This chapter is structured as follows. The introduction defines pragmatic competence, the importance of pragmatics in oral presentations and in English as a medium of instruction. Then, the corpus is described and the method followed in the study detailed. In the following section, the results are shown in tables and examples. The last section offers conclusions.

2

Corpus

The material compiled for this study comprised learning objects or learning pills, which are recordings of a maximum of ten minutes. Teachers use them to explain some concepts, summarize ideas, do exercises or present a course. The presenters should synthesize information and also use

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linguistic strategies to engage listeners and to emphasize the information they offer to learners. The learning objects are recorded in recording studios and teachers use PowerPoint presentations to support their speech. They are later stored in UPV media, a digital portal, part of ICT support to teaching at Universitàt Politècnica de València (UPV). The learning objects are stored in three different sections: Featured channels, Among the most viewed and Last uploaded videos. The learning objects at UPV are delivered in Spanish, Catalan, French, German or English. For this analysis, 50 learning objects that lasted from 6 to 10 minutes were selected; these were presented in English as a medium of instruction subjects or courses. The presenters were not native speakers of English and were involved in English as a medium of instruction subjects at the University. The topic of the learning objects chosen was engineering and business. The corpus was selected at random; it was considered in the selection that the teachers should be involved in a subject of English as a medium of instruction and the topic should be specific.

3

Method

Once the 50 learning objects were selected, then, the language used in the presentations was analysed, paying special attention to pragmatic strategies. The 50 learning objects were listened to by two raters. A total of 528 minutes of presentations was analysed. Then, the mitigation devices and boosters were annotated in an excel file to identify those more frequently used by two raters. Once the markers were identified and counted, the frequencies were compared first between the two raters to avoid disagreement and then the occurrences of the mitigation markers and the boosters were contrasted. Some examples of the learning objects were analysed and discussed. Once the mitigation markers and the boosters used in the learning objects were studied, some recommendations were given to teachers. Finally, conclusions were drawn.

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Table 7.1  Mitigation strategies found in the learning objects Mitigation markers

Occurrences

May Could Can Seem Will Would Estimate Should Total

5 4 4 2 8 2 1 6 32

Table 7.2  Boosters used in the learning objects Boosters

Occurrences

Show Demonstrate Especially Usually Stated Mostly Satisfied Focus Tremendous effort Clearly Of course Total

6 3 2 2 1 1 2 1 2 3 4 27

4

Results

After the analysis of the 50 learning objects, the data extracted can be seen in Tables 7.1 and 7.2. In Table 7.1, the occurrences of the mitigation markers are shown on the right: Very few mitigation markers were used by the presenters. Most of the presentations were devoted to explaining technical or very specific contexts and so rhetoric aspects were not considered important by the speakers. The presenters did not mitigate or soften their discourse; they presented facts or concepts, providing examples or more detailed explanations.

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Some examples of the mitigation strategies found in the corpus analysed are seen in: 1. I hope you will enjoy this unit. [1] The presenter uses ‘will’ to mitigate the sentence as he was describing his course, as an intention of being modest. 2. We may consider using greener and more powerful devices. [2] We have some technologies that are used nowadays, for example, 3D printing, that can be used implemented in the antennas [2]. Here, the speaker uses mitigation markers to soften the propositions. 3. Some parts of the system may fail but the functionally should be guaranteed. [15] We should adapt and learn according to the environment conditions. [15] We should avoid any disaster. [15] The modal verb ‘should’ acts as a mitigation marker as it softens the advice that is entailed in the proposition. The speaker may have used the modal ‘have to’, but ‘should’ is preferred to act as a mitigation device. 4. It seems that it is the same than the previous one [17]. The presenter uses the verb ‘seem’ to make less emphatic the proposition. The results of the boosters found after the analysis of the corpus can be seen in Table 7.2. The frequencies of boosters were quite similar to the frequencies of mitigation devices. Initially, it was thought that presenters used more boosters, as the context of the speech made it necessary to use markers that highlight the certainty and conviction of the speaker about the topic. But the occurrences found were few if we consider the total number of words analysed. It seems that the presenters of learning objects are more interested in explaining concepts than in communicating effectively. In this sense, the results of the analysis show that the presenters take into account grammatical and lexical competences but they are not interested in the pragmatic competence. Examples of the boosters found in the learning objects can be seen below:

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5. Students were mostly satisfied by the course. [3] The topic was very interesting. [3] 6. There is a tremendous effort in cabling. [6] 7. We can observe clearly a difference into the warp and weft density in each of these images. [13] 8. This shows you how to calculate this temperature with the ambient temperature. [17] The presenters use some boosters to emphasize their certainty about some of the facts but given the low number of occurrences, the speakers did not consider boosters a key aspect in their discourse. After the results obtained in the quantitative analysis of the learning objects, it can be observed that pragmatic competence is not an aspect that seems important for presenters. This is a fact that seems to support the recommendations of several researchers (Kasper 2001; Kasper and Rose 2001; Alcón Soler 2005, Carrió-Pastor and Mestre-Mestre 2013b) that pragmatics should be instructed and that it is not acquired at the same time as grammar. The presenters of learning objects do not use pragmatic strategies to motivate listeners or to soften their discourse. This may be due to the context and medium of the presentations, but the number of frequencies is too low. In the presentations it was noticed that the use of English is correct, but the pragmatic strategies are null. The recommendation of this study is to use pragmatic strategies to introduce the topics, to highlight their certainty, to show their attitude to listeners. On the contrary, listeners may be bored or not interested in the content of the learning objects. Listeners cannot interact with the speakers and this is the reason for the importance of using pragmatic strategies to involve listeners in messages of the learning objects.

5

Conclusions

In this study, some of the pragmatic strategies used by presenters in learning objects are studied. The purposes of this chapter were first to identify if the most frequent pragmatic markers used in oral presentations in a

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digital environment are mitigation devices or boosters. As seen in the results, the occurrences found were quite similar in both categories of pragmatic markers. It should also be highlighted that pragmatic strategies were seldom used in learning objects. They may be caused by the medium and the context of the presentations. The presenters should explain in a brief and concise way an idea and so they seldom use mitigation devices or boosters. The rhetoric function of these markers is to soften discourse in the case of mitigation to avoid being commanding and to highlight the writers’ certainty and conviction in the case of boosters. After observing the data obtained, it could be stated that presenters do not feel the need to soften their discourse or to show they are sure about the concepts they present. The presenters were very focused on explaining concepts and so lexical density is one of the most important characteristics in learning objects. The second objective was to study the maximum frequent mitigation devices and boosters in context to observe if they were used effectively to empathize with the audience. The most frequent devices in the case of mitigation devices were ‘will’ and ‘should’ followed by ‘may’. Concerning boosters, the most commonly used markers were ‘show’, ‘of course’ and ‘demonstrate’. Given the low number of occurrences in all these devices, it can be stated that the teachers presenting the learning objects were not interested in empathizing with the audience; their main objective was to communicate ideas and explain concepts. Finally, the third objective of this chapter was to suggest some strategies to be used by teachers involved in EMI to improve pragmatic communication. After analysis of the learning objects and after observing that few mitigation devices or boosters were used, the pragmatic strategies recommended are to use mitigation devices and boosters to communicate with listeners. Communication is not only the correct use of grammar and lexis; pragmatics is crucial. Pragmatics is part of the knowledge of language that is key to communicate in an effective way. All language users should know how to use language and this aspect is even more important in digital discourse. The speakers use language in a different way when they know they are being recorded and there is no interaction. Most pragmatic manifestations of language are in context and appear after interactions; thus, if the speaker

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communicates without interaction, this may affect the efficacy of discourse. I am aware of the limitations of this study, as the number of recordings could be higher and more pragmatic strategies could be included in this study. In this sense, future work about the pragmatic strategies used by teachers in learning objects needs to be done, as most studies focus on the teaching of pragmatic strategies but none till now has focused on the need of training teachers in the pragmatic markers that make communication more effective.

Annex List of learning objects accessed 23/01/2019: 1. Antenna Measurement Unit. Presentation of the Unit https://media.upv.es/?query=objetos%20de%20aprendizaje#/ portal/video/41f9f7e3-4a01-6845-89d0-ff562ec38daf 2. Antennas for future user equipment https://media.upv.es/?query=objetos%20de%20aprendizaje#/ portal/video/8b9f6420-7efe-11e5-a227-ed2e8c60f390 3. Antennas for mobile communications https://media.upv.es/?query=objetos%20de%20aprendizaje#/ portal/video/1d442b3b-7df5-784e-93c2-5c273ce2eeb4 4. Antennas for Space Applications Course https://media.upv.es/?query=objetos%20de%20aprendizaje#/ portal/video/091ff2c8-a079-9344-9efd-f3d1a3c445b8 5. Antennas for Wireless Systems https://media.upv.es/?query=objetos%20de%20aprendizaje#/ portal/video/34e57b7b-8ef3-964e-adb7-3a7c3171b787 6. Architecture for mixed-critically systems https://media.upv.es/?query=objetos%20de%20aprendizaje#/ portal/video/6bf96502-6e46-ce4e-b63d-64a1358d7697 7. ARMv8 Secure Monitor Firmware for Mixed-Criticality systems. 8. AVD—T4—Program slicing—Computing the slice

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https://media.upv.es/?query=objetos%20de%20aprendizaje#/ portal/video/be1f5d10-d05a-11e7-b34f-a908cc3a4d1f 9. AVD. Unit 3. The WHILE language https://media.upv.es/?query=objetos%20de%20aprendizaje#/ portal/video/325d07e0-b01c-11e7-ab55-0730bed2d0ad 10. Bank-client queries laboratory https://media.upv.es/?query=objetos%20de%20aprendizaje#/ portal/video/11fe1d5e-f54c-ca4b-9116-32142fb6839a 11. Business process modelling https://media.upv.es/?query=objetos%20de%20aprendizaje#/ portal/video/d5825250-afb4-11e5-80f5-152d229b83e3 12. Business process reengineering (BPR) https://media.upv.es/?query=objetos%20de%20aprendizaje#/ portal/video/b496e470-afb4-11e5-80f5-152d229b83e3 13. Characterization of fabrics. Density https://media.upv.es/?query=objetos%20de%20aprendizaje#/ portal/video/5070b4b0-3984-11e8-9a34-bb43907413ae 14. Characterization of fabrics. Introduction https://media.upv.es/?query=objetos%20de%20aprendizaje#/ portal/video/48ea6fb0-3984-11e8-9a34-bb43907413ae 15. Control Benefits. A look at the future https://media.upv.es/?query=objetos%20de%20aprendizaje#/ portal/video/82ae85b6-34ee-454c-ba07-dd68d685d502 16. Economic effects of IT on business https://media.upv.es/?query=objetos%20de%20aprendizaje#/ portal/video/578e12f0-a4db-11e5-bb8d-bd0f81efa462 17. Effect of temperature on photovoltaic modules https://media.upv.es/?query=objetos%20de%20aprendizaje#/ portal/video/145812f3-6f16-3d48-aeba-bacc1934cd45 18. Exercise grid-connected systems. Design of a 100 kW PV array https://media.upv.es/?query=objetos%20de%20aprendizaje#/ portal/video/cd6a1197-0fc7-8b4b-b8c6-58fdda3a59c3 19. Fundamentals of electrical systems for photovoltaic installations: DC systems https://media.upv.es/?query=objetos%20de%20aprendizaje#/ portal/video/63c0cfb0-42e3-11e8-a436-7fb1fd687b49

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20. Fundamentals of Semiconductors (I) https://media.upv.es/?query=objetos%20de%20aprendizaje#/ portal/video/15307260-e9e4-11e5-80e1-3d0e58f91ea6 https://media.upv.es/?query=objetos%20de%20aprendizaje#/ portal/video/15fcca90-fbe1-11e5-bb5c-3f564e888730 21. Introduction Foundations of Business Management https://media.upv.es/?query=objetos%20de%20aprendizaje#/ portal/video/c84fd515-fa7f-2b45-a54f-8955569a92f9 22. Introduction of weaving formation https://media.upv.es/?query=objetos%20de%20aprendizaje#/ portal/video/7bb08040-4cf6-11e7-89a2-79552a9a09de 23. Introduction to the Course Advanced mathematics for Antenna Analysis https://media.upv.es/?query=objetos%20de%20aprendizaje#/ portal/video/1e115fd6-070d-4735-8ca0-a3e8e5441421 24. LENS ANTENNAS—Part 5.1: Graded index lenses https://media.upv.es/?query=objetos%20de%20aprendizaje#/ portal/video/db9f7760-7e51-11e5-a227-ed2e8c60f390 25. Master’s degree in Business, in business, Product and Service Management https://media.upv.es/?query=objetos%20de%20aprendizaje#/ portal/video/302252d2-bd42-4241-80af-5c539aea2c44 26. Mechanical testing. Fatigue https://media.upv.es/?query=objetos%20de%20aprendizaje#/ portal/video/d8687990-f42d-11e6-960d-8b09ff346a62 27. Mechanical testing. Other tests https://media.upv.es/?query=objetos%20de%20aprendizaje#/ portal/video/cef531a0-f42d-11e6-960d-8b09ff346a62 28. Mechanical testing. Tensile test https://media.upv.es/?query=objetos%20de%20aprendizaje#/ portal/video/c25d0300-f42d-11e6-960d-8b09ff346a62 29. Microwave Filters for Communications Systems Topic 3. Filter Synthesis Techniques and Topologies https://media.upv.es/?query=objetos%20de%20aprendizaje#/ portal/video/b2b8492b-fdd5-444a-b288-193cc005d4e5

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30. Microwave Filters for Communications Systems Topic 4. EM Techniques for the Physical Realization of Microwave Filters https://media.upv.es/?query=objetos%20de%20aprendizaje#/ portal/video/b70f3943-b6a6-ee42-a2bd-d7cfaeaf6910 31. Microwave Filters for Communications Systems. Topic 7 Practical Considerations Pic. 1 The System Perspective Course Outline & Highlights https://media.upv.es/?query=objetos%20de%20aprendizaje#/ portal/video/506e4ba8-13ca-5d4a-b7a3-a4c2cc1897ad 32. MIMO Antennas. Wireless environment https://media.upv.es/?query=objetos%20de%20aprendizaje#/ portal/video/83e3f0d0-cffc-11e5-b2d5-ab902080c1ef 33. Model-Based Development of Mixed Critically systems in AUTO FOCUS3 https://media.upv.es/?query=objetos%20de%20aprendizaje#/ portal/video/02b42edd-8aef-a44a-9d3d-37493b32c430 34. Office and Enterprise Systems. Business Intelligence System https://media.upv.es/?query=objetos%20de%20aprendizaje#/ portal/video/13931530-cbcd-11e7-9e66-91e2d42f60e2 35. Office and Enterprise Systems. Geographical Information Systems (GIS) https://media.upv.es/?query=objetos%20de%20aprendizaje#/ portal/video/a3f47290-cbcd-11e7-9e66-91e2d42f60e2 36. Office and Enterprise Systems. Supply Chain Management (SCM) https://media.upv.es/?query=objetos%20de%20aprendizaje#/ portal/video/5e1de080-cbcd-11e7-9e66-91e2d42f60e2 37. Optical sources (I): Fundamentals and LEDs https://media.upv.es/?query=objetos%20de%20aprendizaje#/ portal/video/05831480-e9e4-11e5-80e1-3d0e58f91ea6 38. Power electronics in grid-connected PV inverters https://media.upv.es/?query=objetos%20de%20aprendizaje#/ portal/video/66b14315-2e0f-5c41-ac26-35ac2c95474e 39. Process modelling https://media.upv.es/?query=objetos%20de%20aprendizaje#/ portal/video/a6b27870-a57c-11e5-ac4f-6f4762282819 40. Properties of Controlled Systems. Control systems performance

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https://media.upv.es/?query=objetos%20de%20aprendizaje#/ portal/video/8fc6a158-bf77-0a42-a980-7eeedabf5659 41. Properties of Controlled Systems. Question 5. Control subsystem https://media.upv.es/?query=objetos%20de%20aprendizaje#/ portal/video/0c6ed058-f0a7-2c4c-ae9f-78992b30315c 42. Sample preparation for the analysis of volatile compounds by GC-MS https://media.upv.es/?query=objetos%20de%20aprendizaje#/ portal/video/37dcb7d0-6e24-11e8-8c63-f1cdd0851276 43. The Spectral-Domain Approach (SDA) for the analysis of printed planar structures https://media.upv.es/?query=objetos%20de%20aprendizaje#/ portal/video/0f1000a8-f3aa-1644-b93c-0c4c01d81930 44. Types of Innovation https://media.upv.es/?query=objetos%20de%20aprendizaje#/ portal/video/084059d2-5f64-4d4e-8c25-9735bec314ee 45. Types of photovoltaic plants https://media.upv.es/?query=objetos%20de%20aprendizaje#/ portal/video/a0ee2e6f-8bcb-4c4c-ba6a-ee5359cc544f 46. Uni-QM: A step by step approach to excellence II https://media.upv.es/?query=objetos%20de%20aprendizaje#/ portal/video/e0fa7cbc-5c0e-3449-bd41-a2cd36cbfd1b 47. UNI-QM: Introduction https://media.upv.es/?query=objetos%20de%20aprendizaje#/ portal/video/9f89a0ee-552c-424d-bf93-a82d87434bcf 48. Wireless Communications. The Transmission Equation I https://media.upv.es/?query=objetos%20de%20aprendizaje#/ portal/video/e7cfc4e8-651b-fa45-89ba-8cf56690f663 49. Wireless Communications. The Transmission Equation III https://media.upv.es/?query=objetos%20de%20aprendizaje#/ portal/video/c7dd1d16-9578-2340-b985-9564b6dab86b 50. Wireless Communications. The Transmission Equation VI https://media.upv.es/?query=objetos%20de%20aprendizaje#/ portal/video/ad9de9ed-d60f-f54a-b0b7-bc1eae63b24a

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8 An Exploration of Perceptions of Faculty Members and Students: The Effects of English-Medium Instruction on Language Ability Elif Kir and Aslı Akyüz

1

Introduction

Due to globalization, a growing interconnection among people occurred all around the world. This enhanced the importance of being able to communicate and paved the way for an increasing demand to be a competent and proficient speaker of English as English assumes the role of international language (McKay 2000). The internationalization of higher education (Brumfit 2004; Coleman 2006) defined as “the process of integrating an international, intercultural or global dimension into the purpose, functions or delivery of post- secondary education” (Knight 2003: 2) raised the desire to cope with the global academic environment. It has also been emphasized that internationalization has several benefits for universities’ own reputation, the quality of research, the quality of education and graduate employability (Delgado-Márquez et  al. 2013). Grounded on these, English-medium instruction (EMI) defined by Dearden (2014: 2) as “the use of the English language to teach academic E. Kir (*) • A. Akyüz Istanbul Medeniyet University, Istanbul, Turkey e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © The Author(s) 2020 M. L. Carrió-Pastor (ed.), Internationalising Learning in Higher Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-21587-3_8

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subjects in countries or jurisdictions where the first language (L1) of the majority of the population is not English” has become popular in higher education all around the world. English as a medium of instruction (EMI) has spread rapidly and has been considered as a way of enhancing language acquisition as it provides a natural environment for sufficient exposure in the target language. Within such a natural environment, language learning is considered to take place effortlessly and peripherally as the learner does not have to make any deliberate effort for enhancing language ability but learns academic content. Despite little empirical findings claiming that EMI enhances language development, many countries keep investing in human capital and material resources for EMI all around the world. In contrast to the rapid spread and benefits of this phenomenon, EMI has not implied immediate success, especially with regard to implementation. Still, there has been an extensive and ongoing debate about the effectiveness of EMI in higher education programs, especially in English as a foreign language (EFL) contexts due to the shortage of linguistically qualified teachers, the absence of predetermined outcomes of the expected English language proficiency, the limited number of both organizational and pedagogical guidelines for the application of EMI and the need for both pre-service and in-service teacher education programs training teachers who are able to teach in an English-medium environment (Hamid et al. 2013; Kennedy 2011; Kyeyune 2010; Shohamy 2012). In the Turkish context, there are several universities and higher education programs in which the medium is English with the aim of internationalizing education. Grounded on this, the present study took part in one of the universities in which the medium of instruction of some departments is totally or to some extent (30%) in English with the aim of revealing faculty members’ and students’ perceptions of the effects of EMI on the acquisition of language ability and academic content in the Turkish EFL context.

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Background

Perception-based studies have mainly been questioning the views of students and teachers on the effectiveness of EMI in improving students’ language abilities, whether students are proficient enough to study at an English-medium environment and whether teachers and students are satisfied with being a part of an English-medium environment (Arkoudis and Starfield 2007; Kırkgöz 2005; Vogt and Oliver 1998; Vinke 1995). The findings of these kinds of studies provided suggestions for the current language policy, curriculum and programs. Craig (2007) reported that there is a significant deficit between teachers’ perceptions regarding students’ language abilities and the expected language abilities for an English-medium environment. It was also indicated that when students moved from the foundation level of English support courses to regular academic study, the language support and expectations for the development of language abilities decreased. Generally, it resulted from the idea of the teachers that they were not the ones who were responsible for enhancing language abilities of the students. Following this, in Turkey, Sert (2008) found out that the perceptions of the students varied as they perceived EMI either effective or ineffective. Sert also stated that most of the teachers were not pleased with English proficiency of the students. However, the teachers indicated that they believe the exposure to English and the active use of it will enhance students’ language skills. Another research on EMI conducted by Chang (2010) stated that students perceived EMI as an opportunity to improve their English proficiency even though they reported their proficiency as average. The students also indicated that they were better at receptive skills compared to the productive ones. Besides, the students reported little effort on the part of teachers for improving student language skills. As for the acquisition of academic content, the students attributed the challenges they experienced to their lack of knowledge of the target language. Furthermore, Collins’ study (2010) revealed that while 59% of the faculty members stated students’ English proficiency as average, 39% of them reported it as good. Students, on the other hand, reported themselves as proficient. Besides, the students mentioned some

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of the challenges they experienced within an English-medium environment such as the lack of acquiring detailed knowledge, not being able to take part in classroom discussions and not being able to follow the courses delivered in English. In another study, Byun et  al. (2011) claimed the positive outcomes of EMI such as the overall satisfaction level and the improvement of students’ English language proficiency. Besides, the findings revealed that students’ language proficiency needs improving as they have difficulty in language skills such as listening and speaking. On the other hand, Rogier (2012) indicated that there is a significant difference in students’ and teachers’ perceptions on students’ language abilities and the difficulties experienced in an English-medium environment. While students perceived their ability as good to excellent, the teachers indicated that their students were not proficient enough to meet the expectations of studying in an English-medium environment. As for the acquisition of the academic content, the teachers pointed out the need to simplify the content, course materials and assessment because of the students’ proficiency level. Within the Basque/Spanish context, Doiz et al.’s study (2013a) revealed that while local students reported their language ability as inadequate, international students claimed to have better language proficiency. The findings indicated that local students believed that their proficiency level was not sufficient to cope with the requirements of an English-medium environment while international students were much more confident with regard to EMI. In another study, Doiz et al. (2013b) revealed the perceptions of administrative staff at the university and stated that the administrative staff were not satisfied with students’ language abilities and had serious concerns regarding the proficiency level of students. In 2014, Lei and Hu reported that EMI had no positive effect on the language proficiency of the students compared to the students studying in their mother tongue within the Chinese context. Finally, Dearden and Macaro (2016) conducted a study in Austria, Italy and Poland which investigated the attitudes of university teachers teaching within an English-medium environment. The participants of the study reported no clear threshold for either students’ or their own English proficiency. The research presented above has indicated the varied results of the studies on the effects of EMI regarding English language proficiency and

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the acquisition of the academic content grounded on perception-based studies revealing teachers’ and students’ views in the EFL context both abroad and in Turkey. In brief, the previous research suggests the positive outcomes of EMI such as the overall satisfaction level and the improvement of students’ English language proficiency. However, problems with regard to language proficiency of the students are also emphasized. Due to the limited number of studies, further research is needed to contribute to the studies on the perspectives of faculty members and students regarding EMI taking part in EFL contexts, especially in Turkey. In response to this gap, this study aims to explore the faculty members’ and students’ perceptions of EMI in the Turkish EFL context. The research questions that guided the study are as follows: 1. What are the perceptions of Turkish faculty members regarding the effects of EMI on the acquisition of language skills and academic content? 2. What are the perceptions of Turkish EFL learners regarding the effects of EMI on the acquisition of language skills and academic content? 3. Do the perceptions of faculty members and students of EMI complement each other?

3

Methodology

3.1

Research Design

The present study was designed as a mixed method research in which both quantitative and qualitative data gathering techniques were used. As a descriptive study using this kind of design, the study aimed to find out faculty members’ and students’ perceptions regarding the efficacy of EMI in the acquisition of language skills and academic content within the Turkish context. For the collection of the quantitative data, the participating students were administered a questionnaire exploring their perceptions regarding the acquisition of language skills and academic content through EMI.  Following this, as for the qualitative data, interviews in

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semi-structured design were conducted with teachers and students for facilitating the triangulation and validation of the results.

3.2

Participants and Setting

The study was conducted in one of the state universities in Istanbul, Turkey, during the 2016–2017 academic year. The university offers a one-year English Preparatory Program (EPP) that is not compulsory for many of the departments because there are not many in which the medium of instruction is English; however, students can attend EPP voluntarily. As for the students for whom EPP is compulsory, students either study at this one-year program offering 24 hours of English classes per week including four basic skills or take an English proficiency test at the beginning of the academic year to be exempt from English. The participants were selected purposively (Patton 2002), which included 43 (28 females and 15 males) students and 10 faculty members from the departments of Molecular Biology and Genetics and Political Science and Administration as the medium of these programs is English. The student participants were freshmen EFL learners taking two hours of compulsory Basic English and some major area courses in which the medium was English at the same time. The students were placed in this university depending on the scores that they earned on the nationwide university selection and placement test. The participating students were native speakers of Turkish. Their ages ranged from 19 to 23 and approximate years of their English language learning ranged from 6 to 12 years. Approximately, these students began studying English in fourth grade in elementary school. However, some of these students had interruptions in their English language learning history and some of them started studying English only in junior high school. As for the faculty members, a demographic questionnaire was administered to get a full picture of their background information regarding their gender, age and experience. According to the results of this questionnaire, ten teachers are between 33 and 56 years of age. As for the gender of participants, eight were males while two were females.

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In the present study, the researchers used purposive sampling to select the participants including 43 students for the quantitative part of the study. On the other hand, for the qualitative part, the researchers randomly selected ten students from the entire participating students who had already completed the questionnaire in order to conduct the semi-­ structured interviews. In addition, with ten faculty members who were also selected randomly, in-depth interviews in semi-structured design were conducted. At the very beginning of the study, all of the participants were informed about the aim, content and methods of the research and asked to give informed consent.

3.3

Data Collection Tools

For the purposes of the present study, data were collected by means of an adapted version of the questionnaire used in Rogier’s study (2012) and in-depth interviews in semi-structured design with both faculty members and students for facilitating triangulation and validation of the results.

3.3.1  Questionnaire The Attitude Questionnaire developed by Rogier (2012) was used to explore the perceptions of students regarding EMI. In that sense, the data were collected by means of an adapted version of the questionnaire. It contained three sections consisting of 21 items which were answered on a five-point Likert Scale ranging from either “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree” or “poor” to “excellent” with the assigned values 1 to 5.

3.3.2  Semi-structured Interviews In-depth semi-structured interviews were used as a tool for qualitative data gathering. The questions were adapted from Rogier (2012). Following the questionnaire, the interviews in semi-structured design were conducted with ten students selected randomly among the entire participating students. As for the faculty members, all of them p ­ articipated

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in private interviews with the researcher. The interviews conducted with both faculty members and students were around from 10 to 30 minutes in length and in Turkish in order to avoid foreign language speaking anxiety. In each interview, the researchers introduced themselves and asked questions regarding participants’ perceptions of EMI. As interviews were in semi-structured design, additional questions were asked when needed to elicit further details regarding their perceptions of EMI.

3.4

Data Collection Procedures

This research started during the fall semester of the 2016–2017 academic year. At the beginning of the study, the researchers gave information to both participating students and faculty members about the nature and the aim of the study as well as privacy and confidentiality, and asked the participants to sign informed consent. Initially, the students were asked to fill out the questionnaire exploring their perceptions regarding the efficacy of EMI in the acquisition of language skills and academic content. Following the questionnaire, semi-­ structured interviews were held with ten of the students who were selected randomly among from all the participants for triangulation of the obtained results. The interviews lasted around 10 minutes and were conducted in Turkish with each participant. At the very beginning of the interviews, the participants were informed about the audio recording. The researchers introduced themselves and asked questions with the aim of exploring students’ reflections regarding their language abilities, the effects of EMI on their language abilities and their expectations from EMI-based courses. During the interviews, the participating students are expected to give more details about their perceptions. Follow-up questions were asked when needed to obtain more details about how students perceived EMI. Right after the interviews with the students, the researchers booked appointments at faculty members’ convenience. During the scheduled appointments, the faculty members were asked questions about their perceptions of EMI. In addition, the faculty members were expected to give details about their current classroom practices and English-medium

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e­ nvironment. The interviews lasted around 30  minutes and were conducted in Turkish with each faculty member. At the very beginning of the interviews, the participants were informed about the audio recording. After self-introduction, the researcher asked questions to find out how faculty members perceive EMI, what their current practices were and the current state of the English-medium environment in their own setting. Additional questions were asked when needed.

3.5

Data Analysis

The study was a descriptive one using both qualitative and quantitative data gathering strategies with the aim of facilitating triangulation. Therefore, it was a mixed method study in design as suggested by Lynch (1996). The data from the student questionnaire exploring their perceptions of EMI were analyzed by means of the program SPSS Statistics 24. As for the analysis of the qualitative data obtained from the interviews, pattern coding was used to reduce “the large amounts of data into a smaller number of analytic units” (Miles and Huberman 1994: 69). First, the researchers categorized and then interpreted the collected data grounded on the focus of the present study on the perceptions of both faculty members and students toward EMI.  During the procedure of checking the codes and analyzing the results, the researchers were supported by both quantitative and qualitative experts for the sake of credibility and trustworthiness of the study.

4

Results

Question 1. What are the perceptions of students regarding the effects of EMI on their acquisition of language skills and academic content? The questionnaire aiming to find out the perceptions of students on the efficacy of EMI in their acquisition of language skills and academic content revealed students’ reflections about language ability, the effects of EMI on their language skills and their self-reported performances on a

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Table 8.1  Students’ reflections regarding their own language abilities Section A

Poor

Fair

Average

Good

Excellent

The overall English ability The overall listening ability The overall reading ability The overall speaking ability The overall writing ability

0 (0%)

3 (7.0%)

6 (14.0%)

6

0 (0%)

5 (11.6%) 3 (7.0%)

13 (30.2%) 17 (39.5%) 5 (11.6%)

5

0 (0%)

28 (65.1%) 20 (46.5%) 15 (34.9%) 17 (39.5%) 20 (46.5%)

5

12 (11.6%) (27.9%) 0 (0%) 4 (9.3%)

(14.0%)

14 (32.6%)

(11.6%) 8 (18.6%) 4 (9.3%) 5 (11.6%)

list of tasks used to acquire academic content. Table  8.1 indicates students’ self-reported language abilities which are frequently reported as average. The results of the second part of the questionnaire, which aimed to explore students’ perceptions regarding the effects of EMI on their language skills, revealed that students believe the positive effect of EMI on the improvement of their language abilities as clearly indicated in Table 8.2. The results of the final part of the questionnaire aiming to explore the students’ self-reported performances on a list of tasks used to acquire academic content revealed that even if the students mark their abilities as average in general, they are better at dealing with receptive tasks rather than productive ones as is obvious from Table 8.3. Question 2. What are the perceptions of teachers regarding the effects of EMI in the acquisition of language skills and academic content? To triangulate the results, the researchers conducted in-depth interviews in semi-structured design with 10 students and 10 faculty members by conducting random sampling to gather more information about their perceptions regarding the efficacy of EMI in the acquisition of language abilities and academic content. Based on the analysis of the audio-scripts of the interviews, six major themes were identified: expected qualifications for EMI, perceptions of students and faculty members on EMI,

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Table 8.2  Students’ reflections regarding the effects of EMI on their language abilities Section B I believe my English ability has improved since entering the general education program. I believe my listening ability has improved since entering the general education program. I believe my reading ability has improved since entering the general education program. I believe my writing ability has improved since entering the general education program. I believe my speaking ability has improved since entering the general education program.

Strongly disagree

Disagree

Neutral

0 (0%)

3 (7.0%)

15 18 7 (16.3%) (34.9%) (41.9%)

1 (2.3%)

4 (9.3%)

14 19 5 (11.6%) (32.6%) (44.2%)

1 (2.3%)

2 (4.7%)

12 25 3 (7.0%) (27.9%) (58.1%)

0 (0%)

3 (7.0%)

17 16 7 (16.3%) (39.5%) (37.2%)

2 (4.7%)

10 17 10 4 (9.3%) (23.3%) (39.5%) (23.3%)

Agree

Strongly agree

practices of faculty members regarding EMI, choice of course medium, language problems and language support.

4.1

Expected Qualifications for EMI

As for the first interview question related to whether the students’ general language skills meet the expectations required for studying in an English-­ medium environment, in general the participating students indicated that they are able to deal with the presented content to some extent. They indicated that they believe their receptive skills are better compared to the

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Table 8.3  Students’ reflections regarding their performances on the given tasks Section C

Poor

Fair

Reading course materials Taking notes from course textbooks Doing course assignments Listening to and understanding lectures in class Taking notes during lectures Dealing with instructions Seeking information orally Giving information orally Making formal oral presentations Asking questions during class Writing academic papers

1 (2.3%)

6 (14.0%) 17 (39.5%) 9 (20.9%) 14 (32.6%) 6 (14.0%) 18 (41.9%) 5 (11.6%) 16 (37.2%)

0 (0%) 1 (2.3%) 0 (0%)

3 (7.0%)

Average

6 (14.0%) 22 (51.5%) 1 (2.3%) 3 (7.0%) 18 (41.9%) 1 (2.3%) 11 21 (25.6%) (48.8%) 0 (0%) 9 (20.9%) 21 (48.8%) 0 (0%) 11 20 (25.6%) (46.5%) 5 9 (20.9%) 15 (11.6%) (34.9%) 7 6 (14.0%) 17 (16.3%) (39.5%)

Good

Excellent

15 (34.9%) 12 (27.9%) 13 (30.2%) 16 (37.2%)

4 (9.3%) 8 (18.6%) 5 (11.6%) 6 (14.0%)

8 (18.6%) 4 (9.3%) 14 7 (32.6%) (16.3%) 7 (16.3%) 3 (7.0%) 10 (23.3%) 11 (25.6%) 10 (23.3%) 11 (25.6%)

3 (7.0%) 1 (2.3%) 4 (9.3%) 2 (4.7%)

productive ones while dealing with the academic content. Two of the students reported their ideas as follows: I think I am able to cope with the academic content presented through English. We have to listen, read, speak and write in another language. As for reading and listening, my friends and I have no problems regarding comprehension. However; we have difficulty in writing and speaking. (Student 3, semi-­ structured interview, January 16, 2017) That I successfully completed the preparatory program shows my language skills are sufficient for attending EMI based courses. However, it does not mean that I understand all the words that are coming out of the teachers’ mouth. (Student 4, semi-structured interview, January 16, 2017)

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In contrast to students’ perceptions, all the faculty members indicated that the students’ current language proficiency does not meet the expectations of an English-medium environment: If asked, the students’ language skills are not enough to study at this department. We simplify the course content in order to transmit the knowledge. Otherwise, they have no chance to comprehend such a complex content. (Faculty member 6, semi-structured interview, January 11, 2017)

4.2

 erceptions of Students and Faculty Members P on EMI

The second interview question was about both faculty members’ and students’ perceptions regarding the effects of EMI on the improvement of their English proficiency during the 4 years of study for an undergraduate degree. All of the students agreed on the idea that studying within a program whose medium is English will enhance their language skills on their way to acquire relevant content. Besides, they all emphasized the importance of their own effort to foster their language skills as shown in the students’ excerpts below: We have been exposed to English language since the courses started. All the instructions, exams, lectures etc. are in English. We’re expected to contribute to the courses by sharing our knowledge, opinions, and reflections. I believe that being engaged in English every day will enhance not only our listening and reading skills but also speaking and writing. Besides, thanks to practicing relevant terminology, we will be able to a have better understanding of the academic content. But you know … It depends on one’s own effort to learn more and more. (Student 1, semi-structured interview, January 16, 2017)

On the other hand, the faculty members indicated that they do not believe in any significant effect of EMI on the acquisition of language abilities and academic content. They stated that they employ simplified instruction when some of the students are not able to cope with the presented information:

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It is not our responsibility to teach them a foreign language. We assume that all the students understand and use the target language proficiently. Therefore; I do not think that their language proficiency will highly be effected through the academic content which they have difficulty in understanding. However; by simplifying the content and language, we try to help students learn more. In the future, we hope to welcome students who are already proficient in English to be able to teach the academic content as required. (Faculty member 10, semi-­ structured interview, January 13, 2017) Most of the students already have difficulty in understanding what we are talking about. I do not believe that we speak in another language will make them learn that language. Maybe it helps … Understanding textbooks and lectures … I do not know … I mean I really do not know how they are able to cope with it or whether they are able to. All the terms and concepts … They have to learn these all within another language. It does not make sense if they do not have a high level of English language proficiency. (Faculty member 5, semi-structured interview, January 10, 2017)

4.3

Practices of Faculty Members Regarding EMI

During the interviews with faculty members, they were asked how to adapt their teaching, strategies, course content, materials and assessment for the programs offered in English. They stated that their teaching will still be the same even if the medium is Turkish. As for enhancing language skills, the faculty members indicated no deliberate effort. However, they all reported that they simplify the exams in order to support students’ efforts on their way to acquire academic content through English: Teaching in another language have no effect on the way I teach. I am not a language teacher. So, I cannot help them while they learn a foreign language. I present the terminology for the relevant topic and expect students to learn them. As for course readings, we have pre-determined materials appropriate for proficient students. They have to learn the content as it is. On the other hand, we try to help students while preparing the exam questions and during the exams. They need to understand first to answer the exam questions. (Faculty member 6, semi-structured interview, January 12, 2017)

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In parallel with the reflections of faculty members, when the students were asked about the practices of their teachers, they indicated no effort on the part of their teachers to enhance their listening abilities. However, they admitted that they have to demonstrate a high level of competence in English language and are aware of the strategies that their teachers employ to teach the academic content through simplified instruction: We cannot deny their attempts to teach the relevant academic content by simplifying the instruction. They try to ask shorter questions, provide explanations and give more examples the moment they see our blank faces. As for the exams, we feel their support the moment we see the surface level questions that they ask. (Student 7, semi-structured interview, January 16, 2017)

4.4

Choice of Course Medium

The fourth question of the semi-structured interviews was about the students’ choice of course medium. All the students believe that it is a privilege for them to be a student at a program whose medium is English compared to Turkish which is their mother tongue, as indicated in an extract below: When you graduate from a department whose medium is Turkish, you just become an average person knowing about a particular subject. However; learning English will affect the way you perceive yourself in the world. It helps you build a global perspective. And honestly … You earn more and more! By the way you cannot imagine how it makes you feel privileged, superior and so on. (Student 9, semi-structured interview, January 16, 2017)

The faculty members shared the same ideas about becoming a global citizen through learning English. Besides, they indicated that it is a must particularly for students studying at such departments to learn English. They also stated the importance of using the course resources in their mother tongue to enhance students’ knowledge regarding the academic content:

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While dealing with the content, even within the departments whose medium is Turkish we keep asking students to read the books in their original language. I mean you cannot teach these in Turkish. Somehow you feel the need to switch to English. If the courses weren’t provided in English, this would limit our students’ ability to pursue career opportunities. (Faculty member 3, semi-­structured interview, January 9, 2017)

4.5

Language Problems

When the students were asked about the most persistent language problem they face through EMI, nearly all of the students indicated the difficulty they have in acquiring the relevant terminology and expressing themselves through the target language as stated below: Right after the preparatory program, I started studying at this department. I have difficulty in dealing with academic terms as our language education at prep school was based on not academic but general English. I hate it when I have to learn terms which I don’t know even in Turkish. (Student 4, semi-­ structured interview, January 16, 2017) I don’t have any problems with understanding course textbooks or teachers’ lectures. However; I am not good at expressing myself through English. I don’t know why but I can’t speak. It is the same for the rest of my classmates. You know it is not easy to be engaged in academic speaking tasks. (Faculty member 7, semi-structured interview, January 12, 2017)

In addition to the problems stated by the students, the faculty members indicated that their students are especially weak in the areas of speaking and writing: They are not able to express themselves both in spoken and written contexts. I feel that they understand what I mean, however; they can not say or write anything. It is so obvious that it is due to lack of language ability which they should already have. (Faculty member 5, semi-structured interview, January 10, 2017)

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4.6

171

Language Support

Finally, the students were asked whether they get any language support fostering their language abilities. The participating students indicated the need for language support due to the lack of one at the university. After the prep school, I did not have any chance to get any language support. I think there need to be some non-credit courses for academic writing, practicing speaking or learning terminology to enhance our language skills. Otherwise, we will keep struggling with both the language and the academic content. (Student 5, semi-structured interview, January 16, 2017)

Similarly, the faculty members pointed to the need to provide some non-credit courses or language clubs for the improvement of students’ language skills: We cannot teach them a language. We can only motivate or give them some advice on their journey to learn English. However; it is a must to indicate that the students need to demonstrate a high level of competence in English language. To achieve this, there should be an ongoing language support for the students either for receptive or productive skills. (Faculty member 5, semi-­ structured interview, January 10, 2017)

Question 3. Do the perceptions of faculty members and students complement each other in terms of the effects of EMI on the acquisition of language ability and academic content? The results of the questionnaire aiming to explore the perceptions of the students on the efficacy of EMI in their acquisition of language skills and academic content revealed students’ reflections regarding their language ability, the effects of EMI on their language skills and their self-­ reported performances on a list of tasks used to acquire academic content. While the students frequently reported their language abilities as average, they indicated their beliefs about the positive effect of EMI on the improvement of their language abilities. Finally, as for a series of tasks given in the questionnaire, the students reported to have better abilities

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in dealing with tasks compared to the productive ones. Besides, the reflections of both the faculty members and the students during the interviews revealed their opinions about the expected qualifications for EMI, perceptions of students and faculty members on EMI, practices of faculty members regarding EMI, choice of course medium, language problems and language support. In this context, the results of the questionnaire and interviews with students complemented each other as both of them indicated the positive effect of EMI on the acquisition of language skills and academic content. However, the interviews with teachers indicated that faculty members are not pleased with the current language level of their students and think that their students are especially weak in the areas of speaking and writing. They all indicated that they do not believe the possible positive effect of EMI on their language skills in the near future. Therefore, it is obvious that faculty members and students do not share the same opinion regarding the effect of EMI on the improvement of language skills and the acquisition of academic content.

5

Discussion

The present study aimed to find out the perceptions of faculty members and students regarding the effects of EMI on the acquisition of language ability and academic content. The findings of the study revealed that students have a positive level of perceived language ability and many of them believe that four years of study at an English-medium environment will enhance their language abilities and knowledge of academic content at the same time. While this finding provided counter-evidence against what Byun et al. (2011) stated regarding students not being satisfied with their English language skills, it supported the findings of Kırkgöz (2005) and Jensen et al. (2011) claiming that students were content with their language abilities. In contrast to students’ perceptions, teachers do not believe that students’ current language abilities meet the expectations of studying at an English-medium environment as reported by Doiz et al. (2013b). They generally reported that even if studying through EMI may enhance their language skills, the extent of improvement will not be enough for studying at an English-medium university. The findings

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proved what Rogier (2012) and Cots (2013) suggested, as students regarded their English skills in a more positive way than lecturers did. As for the effects of EMI on improving students’ language abilities, in contrast to Sert (2008) stating that students perceive EMI as neither effective nor ineffective, this study indicates that students believe the significant role of EMI in enhancing their language skills as it enables long-­ term exposure. In contrast, from teachers’ perspective, the present study supports the findings obtained by some studies (Arkoudis and Starfield 2007; Rogier 2012) reporting that teachers feel they are not responsible for fostering students’ language abilities but teaching academic content. Many indicated that they are not trained as language teachers. Therefore, they do not feel that they have a role in the improvement of students’ language content. These findings support some of the studies which are critical of EMI in terms of fostering language skills (Lei and Hu 2014; Collins 2010; Craig 2007) because the focus is not on language development but academic content through EMI. Grounded on its findings, the study has a number of recommendations. The present study suggests setting goals for language development within EMI programs. Students should be exposed to the target language systematically while acquiring academic content. Besides, students’ and teachers’ varied perceptions might lead to some problems with regard to implementation of EMI. While students perceive themselves proficient enough, faculty members are not satisfied with the current state of their level and they do not feel responsible for students’ language ability. Grounded on these, it is highly important to note that faculty members should not perceive students’ language abilities and their abilities regarding the acquisition of academic content through English separately. They should provide enough practice and feedback regarding language while students are engaged in presented academic content. Moreover, it is important to note that there needs to be an ongoing language support for both faculty members and students on their way to cope with EMI. For this, it is obvious that collaboration with teachers trained to teach English is a must to achieve a smooth transition from pre-faculty language programs such as preparatory year programme (PYP) to undergraduate study for continuous language development. Besides, the importance of collaboration and dialogue with teacher trainers should be emphasized to

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present the academic content properly along with language development. Trainings, workshops and seminars should be provided to faculty members on their way to present academic content through English. As for the limitations, initially, the results of the present study were drawn upon the participants’ perspectives based on their subjective understanding, which varied greatly due to their differing backgrounds and self-reported responses. Therefore, further research on the present issue can be supported with other sources of evidence by triangulation with curriculum, field notes, classroom observations, assessment papers and other kind of documents. Second, as the interviews are supposed to be conducted in the participants’ native language which is Turkish, the results obtained from the pattern coding were translated into English as the interpretation of certain terms and concepts might have brought some misunderstandings. However, this research still provides significant findings for the research on EMI as it sheds light on both faculty members’ and students’ current perceptions of EMI despite the provided limitations; moreover, the present study affords a foundation for further research on this issue.

6

Conclusion

The present study sheds light upon the perceptions of faculty members and students regarding EMI from the pedagogical perspective. In addition, in this study, as the researchers reveal the perceptions of faculty members and students, it is a remarkable attempt to provide suggestions to fulfill the needs of educating competent and proficient learners for a globalized world. The findings obtained from the study may also contribute to faculty members in the process of raising awareness and may trigger stakeholders to pay attention to the study regarding the need to raise awareness about EMI and how to make them able to improve their classroom practice. Finally, the present study is important as it helps both faculty members and students to reflect on their current practices and experiences of EMI as a way of enhancing teaching and learning.

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References Arkoudis, S., & Starfield, S. (2007). In-course language development and support. A discussion paper for a National Symposium: English language competence of international students. Canberra: Australian Education International. Brumfit, C. J. (2004). Language and higher education: Two current challenges. Arts and Humanities in Higher Education, 3(2), 163–173. Byun, K., Chu, H., Kim, M., Park, I., Kim, S., & Jung, J. (2011). English-­ medium teaching in Korean higher education: Policy debates and reality. Higher Education, 62, 431–449. Chang, Y. (2010). English-medium instruction for subject courses in tertiary education: Reactions from Taiwanese undergraduate students. Taiwan International ESP Journal, 2(1), 55–84. Coleman, J. A. (2006). English-medium teaching in European higher education. Language Teaching, 39(1), 1–14. Collins, A. B. (2010). English-medium higher education: Dilemma and problems. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 39, 97–110. Cots, J. M. (2013). Introducing English-medium instruction at the University of Lleida, Spain. Intervention, beliefs and practices. In A.  Doiz, D. Lasagabaster, & J. M. Sierra (Eds.), English-medium instruction at universities: Global challenges (pp. 106–128). Bristol: Multilingual Matters. Craig, R. (2007). Time for a change -back to the 70s: Language across the disciplines revisited. The International Journal of Learning, 14(9), 249–257. Dearden, J. (2014). English as a medium of instruction—A growing global phenomenon: Phase 1. London: British Council. Dearden, J., & Macaro, E. (2016). Higher education teachers’ attitudes towards English medium instruction: A three country comparison. Studies in Second Language Teaching and Learning, 6(3), 455–486. Delgado-Márquez, B.  L., Ángeles Escudero-Torres, M., & Hurtado-Torres, N. E. (2013). Being highly internationalised strengthens your reputation: An empirical investigation of top higher education institutions. Higher Education, 66(5), 619–633. Doiz, A., Lasagabaster, D., & Sierra, J. (2013a). English as L3 at a bilingual university in the Basque country, Spain. In A. Doiz, D. Lasagabaster, & J. M. Sierra (Eds.), English-medium instruction at universities: Global challenges (pp. 106–130). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.

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Doiz, A., Lasagabaster, D., & Sierra, J. (2013b). Globalisation, internationalisation, multilingualism and linguistic strains in higher education. Studies in Higher Education, 38(9), 1407–1421. Hamid, M. O., Nguyen, H. T. M., & Baldauf, R. B., Jr. (2013). Medium of instruction in Asia: Context, processes and outcomes. Current Issues in Language Planning, 14(1), 1–15. Jensen, C., Denver, L., Mees, I. M., & Werther, C. (2011). Students’ and teachers’ self-assessment of English language proficiency in English-medium higher education in Denmark: A Questionnaire study. In B.  Preisler, I. Klitgård, & A. H. Fabricius (Eds.), Language and learning in the international university: From English uniformity to diversity and hybridity (pp. 19–38). Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters. Kennedy, C. (2011). Challenges for language policy, language and development. In H.  Coleman (Ed.), Dreams and realities: Developing countries and the English language (pp. 24–38). London: British Council. Kırkgöz, Y. (2005). Motivation and student perception of studying in an English-medium university. Journal of Language and Linguistic Studies, 1(1), 101–123. Knight, J. (2003). Updated internationalisation definition. International Higher Education, 33(2), 2–3. Kyeyune, R. (2010). Challenges of using English as a medium of instruction in multilingual contexts: A view from Ugandan classrooms. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 16(2), 173–184. Lei, J., & Hu, G. W. (2014). Is English-medium instruction effective in improving Chinese undergraduate students’ English competence? International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 52, 99–126. Lynch, B.  K. (1996). Language program evaluation: Theory and practice. Cambridge University Press. McKay, S. L. (2000). Teaching English as an international language: Implications for cultural materials in the classroom. TESOL Journal, 9(4), 7–11. Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: A coursebook of new methods. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Patton, M.  Q. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Rogier, D. (2012). The effects of English-medium instruction on language proficiency of students enrolled in higher education in the UAE (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Exeter, Exeter, UK.

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Sert, N. (2008). The language of instruction dilemma in the Turkish context. System, 36(2), 156–171. Shohamy, E. (2012). A critical perspective on the use of English as a medium of instruction at universities. In A. Doiz, D. Lasagabaster, & J. M. Sierra (Eds.), English-medium instruction at universities: Global challenges (pp.  196–212). Bristol: Multilingual Matters. Vinke, A. A. (1995). English as the medium of instruction in Dutch engineering education (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Delft University, Illinois. Vogt, C., & Oliver, D. (1998). Kuwait University Faculty of Medicine students’ attitudes toward English and an English based curriculum. Almanakh, 8(1), 9–17.

9 Teaching through English: The Case of International Commerce Javier Muñoz de Prat

1

Introduction

The role of English in modern Spanish universities is the point of departure of this study. For the last 30 years, the use of English has grown exponentially in Spain and in all the European areas, as well as in the rest of the world (Dearden 2014). This expansion has produced a worldwide debate on whether this generalization of a foreign language (English) is positive or negative in higher education. This perception defines English as a threat or an opportunity depending on how the massive adoption of English in universities is perceived. Despite this never-ending debate on whether English has become the “new” lingua franca or a “killer language” (Coleman 2006), there is a more specific debate on whether to use English as a Medium of Instruction

J. Muñoz de Prat (*) Universidad Europea de Valencia, Valencia, Spain Universidad Católica de Valencia San Vicente Mártir, Valencia, Spain e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © The Author(s) 2020 M. L. Carrió-Pastor (ed.), Internationalising Learning in Higher Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-21587-3_9

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(hereafter EMI) or Content and Language Integrated Learning (hereafter CLIL) as the predominant way of teaching English in Higher Education (Macaro 2015; del Pozo 2015). The aim of this chapter is thus not to put an end to these dichotomy, since both expressions are identical and describe the same reality (Dearden 2014), but to describe a hands-on experience involving teaching international commerce through EMI. This chapter will start with an introduction on the role of EMI, followed by a contextualization of the study carried out outlining the ­advantages, disadvantages of EMI and the challenges in the internationalization of the Spanish university. The chapter develops a description of the methodology followed and the pedagogical implementation of the findings are then presented with a case in practice and the conclusions reached.

2

The Role of EMI in Higher Education

The United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference at Bretton Woods (1944) after World War II was the kick-start of globalization that settled the standards of commerce and shaped our modern culture. It was a political decision that triggered a globalization movement that was further consolidated with the arrival of the Internet and the widespread use of international communication. Both events, the political agreement and the technological advance, engaged in English communication (Ortiz 2013) and thus English became the language of commerce and trade and consequently of communication. A new globalized world emerged and Europe followed through by starting its own process of integration in which English became the common language (Graddol 1997; Bologna Declaration 1999). In 2008, the European Commission established that all EU citizens had to master two languages together with their native language (2 + 1). In this context, multilingualism became the strategic axis of European universities (European Commission 2011), which is reflected in the increase in the number of programs taught in English at European universities, as illustrated in Table 9.1. As part of its efforts to comply with the requirements of the European Higher Education Area (EHEA), the Spanish Ministry of Education

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Table 9.1  English taught programs based on Wächter and Maiworm (2014) Year

Programs

2001 2007 2014

725 2389 8089

established its strategy for 2015–2020 and vowed “to increase the number of Bilingual Degrees and master’s programs, taught in Spanish and English or other foreign languages” (Spanish Ministry of Education 2014; Spanish Law 14/2013 passed on September 27). The cornerstone of the internationalization of Spanish universities has become the use of languages in all the programs, in spite of the lack of national strategies to achieve this goal (Fernández Costales and González Riaño 2015). Nevertheless, the Ministry’s plan goes hand in hand with the reality of universities and the implementation of different degrees and postgraduate programs in English (Doiz et al. 2011). However, the need for a common ground for students in an international arena links with our second-long-lasting debate: EMI versus CLIL (Coleman 2006). The teaching of any academic knowledge through a foreign language is based on three main pillars: (1) mastering the language of instruction; otherwise, the exchange of any knowledge becomes impossible, (2) a teaching methodology in order to transfer that knowledge and finally (4) a personal attitude toward the language itself (Aguilar and Muñoz 2014). In this sense, CLIL has a more explicit approach to the foreign language than EMI, mostly because CLIL focuses much more on the language than on the content itself. For EMI, foreign language competence is not one of its objectives; the language is only a neutral vehicle to communicate the main objective: the content. The interest in EMI lies on the student’s comprehension and learning of the subject being taught, which is the reason why it might be more suitable for a university context (del Pozo 2015). In fact, as an example of this trend, up to 60% of European postgraduate courses are being delivered through EMI, “with the private education sector leading the way and the public sector being forced to ‘play catch up’” (Macaro 2015). The idea behind the adoption of EMI is that it will enhance or facilitate the learning of the subject for the national student

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as well as for the non-national ones. The reason behind this statement is that most relevant studies on the different fields are published in English, subsequently the oral and writing output from the student should too. Students are in a globalized world where English runs the exchanges of trade and communication; hence standard English Foreign Language (EFL) for academic purposes is simply not enough for the students in order to succeed at university and in their professional careers. In this sense, although it is not the final goal, EMI helps increase the students’ oral and written capabilities in English (del Pozo 2015) and thus improves their employability, presenting a win-win situation for both universities opening their doors to international students and students, preparing them for a globalized world. Furthermore, studies comparing non-EMI with EMI students have observed “significant differences between the final grades of all compulsory courses of the degree of the two groups of students” (Del Campo et al. 2015). Although in the case of Del Campo et al. (2015) the sample might be too small, the results are clearly in favor of EMI students. EMI makes practitioners aware of the students’ and sometimes lecturers’ limitations as regards mastery of the language and thus becomes more interactive and “less teacher centered”. Not only because most of the times there is no previous information about the student’s level of English, but also because the lecturer may face different levels of English proficiency amongst the students who in turn are confronted with a large number of unfamiliar or unknown words and ideas for which they lack the academic skills in their own native language. Hence, the overall creativeness of the student tends to decrease and success will depend on the teaching methodology as well as on the personal attitude of both the student and the teacher (Aguilar and Muñoz 2014). However, the workload of both— teacher and student—increases considerably (Sancho Esper et al. 2016), complicating the implementation of EMI at the university level.

2.1

Institutional Advantages

Taking as starting point the Bologna Declaration and the framework which establishes the European Higher Education Area (EHEA), it is

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fundamental to define how this legal and academic setting affects the Spanish university system, pushing it toward a more international, ­intercultural and global scope with regard to its goals and functions. Therefore, internationalization is the aspect chosen by the Spanish Government in order to make the Spanish university more appealing. Hence, internationalization unifies and triggers the use of EMI and CLIL, having as consequences the aspects briefly explained below (Coleman 2006): 1. Student Mobility. In this globalized world, mobility has become part of the current European outlook; it starts right from university, building the future international experience and projection of the student. The increase in mobility increases knowledge of foreign cultures (intercultural) and turns the use of a foreign language into a must in curricula (Sancho Esper et al. 2016). In fact, transnational companies search for qualified professionals capable of innovating worldwide (COM 2011). The Ministerial Memorandum of Lovaina (2009) stated that “by the year 2020 at least 20% of graduates in the EHEA will have completed a study period abroad”. However, in 2012–2013, Spanish students’ mobility (2.1%) was below the OECD average, which was 6.7%. 2. Teaching and Research Materials. Internationalization and the subsequent application of EMI or CLIL require new and adapted teaching materials and research on this field. 3. Lecturers’ Mobility. It becomes a cornerstone of their career improvement. It also links with their future projection in research and their employability. 4. Students’ and Lecturers’ Employability. Taking into account that 90% of jobs offered in Europe will require qualified or highly qualified candidates, knowledge becomes a pivotal need in the curricula. EMI, internationalization and mobility and its consequences reinforce the possibilities of both students and teachers being hired, especially by international companies. 5. Foreign Student Market. “Growing globalization and the need for knowledge endogenous growth affect all nations, including emerging ones such as (BRIC: Brazil, Russia, India and China; MINT: Mexico,

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Indonesia, Nigeria, Turkey, etc.)” (Spanish Ministry of Education and Science 2014). All these countries have the maximum home-based students studying abroad, so the possibility of placing Spanish universities in the international circuit is fundamental in order to attract those students. However, although Spain is the first destination for Erasmus students (45% of the total), worldwide students clearly prefer USA (16.5%), UK (13%) or Germany (6.3%) before Spain (2.5%) (OECD 2013) The university gains competitiveness as well as visibility, which in the end leads to its survival and financial security. Thanks to the mobility of students and the foreign student market, many universities have access to financial means that otherwise will be inaccessible. At the same time, international visibility encourages research: • In general, there is a rise in the quantity and quality of the publications. The interaction with international networks boosts the creation, collaboration and networking between universities and this flow enriches the academic level of the universities (del Pozo 2015; Aguilar and Muñoz 2014; Fortanet-Gómez 2012). From 2014 the launching of Erasmus Plus and “Horizonte 2020” for research has fostered interaction as well cooperation between universities. • At the same time, bilingual or foreign language programs and degrees are required in order to trigger this international appeal required by the Spanish Government (Spanish Ministry of Education and Science 2014).

2.2

Challenges

2.2.1  International and National Challenges EMI has a “payback”, which is the need to verify students’ and lecturers’ degrees in order to establish a minimum English standard. Although EMI focuses its attention on the subject and its contents, there is the need for a common ground. This common ground in Spain has four

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players: the European Union, the country (Spain), the different Spanish regions and finally the universities. And all these players have something to say in establishing the standards and quality processes that have a direct impact on the challenges. The whole process could be summarized in three words: Accreditation, Training and Incentives (Ministry of Education and Science of Spain 2014).

Accreditation Official accreditation and linguistic qualifications are required at all levels by Spanish administrations; this affects stakeholders, institutions and students/teachers (Pérez Cañado 2016). • Stakeholders: All the parties involved should clearly perceive the real gains of the state’s policies related to EMI in order to implement them. In general terms, all public administrations and public and private universities understand the need for visibility and internationalization although they differ on how to approach EMI (Marsh et  al. 2013; Smit and Dafouz 2012). Nevertheless, understanding the needs and the implementation of EMI does not mean an immediate understanding of the gains. In addition, there is no connection between these general gains and the more determined gains for the stakeholders. As an example, lecturers’ recognition and salary may not be related to the political and academic policies expressed above. Therefore, the implementation of EMI may need to be accompanied by human and financial resources (Byun et al. 2011) • State and Regional Level: A clear general language policy is needed in order to avoid heterogeneity on accreditation and certification. For example, university lecturers should be required to have a C1 in order to teach EMI, but this is not always the case; in fact, there are some Spanish regions—Andalucía and Cataluña—that only require a B1 or B2 (ACLES 2014; CRUE 2011). The same diversity happens with students; normally a B2 is required, but depending on the region these requirements and levels may change. It is easy to conclude that the use and demands of Proficiency English Language differ from one place to

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another in Spain. Although there is a written guidance on how to teach EMI, there is no clear idea of the details (Dearden 2014), nor any kind of coordination from the two public administrations more directly involved. • University Lecturers: They should make the difference between technical and day-to-day language clear. Both are needed in order to communicate and explain a subject in class. Lecturers need to transmit specific concepts but also help communicate ideas. • The main challenge of EMI for the teachers is to be able to explain and communicate in English and not be affected in their lecture by their use of English. The requirement of C1 does not mean that these English skills are clearly achieved. Standardized foreign language exams (Cambridge, TOEFL, CertAcles, and so on) are language tests that are not related to class methodology (Airey 2004; Lorenzo 2008). In fact, the student’s perception of the lecturer will be determined not so much by the teacher’s general lecturing competence and knowledge of the subject, but for their English skills. The risk of not being understood by the students and therefore being downgraded by them is evident (Jensen et al. 2013; Özmen et al. 2014). • Student: They face the same accreditation problems that teachers face. The majority of Spanish regions and universities require an English level B2. The problem arises when the student does not have the minimum standard for an EMI class but their university allows their joining that course (Gómez López et  al. 2014). Some universities implement an international test or objective level exams such as CertAcles, which can be an alternative and a challenge for their students. The majority of students do not understand that the accreditation is not only a requirement to graduate but a need to prepare their Erasmus year and their future professional career. In fact, Erasmus programs become part of this accreditation process and not its zenith.

Training The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR, Council of Europe 2001) established, as it was said above, C1 as the minimum English level for teachers in university who want to teach

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through EMI (Ruiz de Zarobe and Lasagabaster 2010). Even if the profile is C1, universities need to focus on training in order to develop the lecturers’ skills and for that purpose it is compulsory to understand the role of the teacher in EMI (Coleman 2006; Marsh 2006). The role of the teacher, once succeeding in obtaining a language certification complying with international quality standards, must focus on methodological training: knowledge of the subject, linguistic capabilities and pedagogical skills (Klaassen 2008; Airey 2004; Sancho Esper et al. 2016): 1. Knowledge of the Subject: The need to be an expert on the field “is crystal clear”. The question is how to adapt that knowledge to English as a Medium of Instruction. 2. Linguistic Capabilities: It refers to all the elements of a language, but above all the capacity to adapt the register to the subject and audience. Hence, many of the students may not have the same English level as the lecturer, but a heterogeneous competence in the language. The differences between their competences in the two languages increase communication difficulties and require a higher linguistic skill on the part of the teacher. These differences make the transfer of knowledge difficult, since some of the linguistic references are even opposed or have no relation (Dearden 2014; Mellion 2008). In order to overcome these problems, there are three elements to consider: teaching English as a foreign language, teaching international students and trying to transfer intercultural values and knowledge. Without taking these three elements into considerations it is very difficult—impossible—to teach through EMI (Gómez López et al. 2014). 3. Pedagogical Skills: The goal is to train and put into practice alternative pedagogical methods in order to explain the different subjects (Jensen et  al. 2013; Byun et  al. 2011; Bellés Fortuño and Fortanet-Gómez 2005). The following list, without seeking to be exhaustive, enumerates some relevant skills and activities: (a) Class management: Grouping and cooperative learning. (b) Integrated activities and case method (Almagro Esteban and Pérez Cañado 2004).

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Table 9.2  Teachers’ and students’ incentives Teachers

Accreditation Mobility Incentives Subsidizing linguistic training

Students

Subsidizing the course Fees Priority: Erasmus Practices



(c) Scaffolding of contents: From circular explanation to exemplification and comparison (Van de Pol et al. 2010). (d) New technologies.

Incentives Although incentives are highly interesting and without them the stakeholders’ gains as expressed before will not be clear, they are not a key element and exceed the scope of this chapter. Therefore, they will merely be enumerated in Table 9.2 in order to have a broader idea of some of the  main motivations for both teachers and students to become involved in EMI.

2.3

Commerce

There are two fields of human knowledge where EMI and CLIL became instantly “popular” or even a necessity: Science and Business (Coleman 2006). In both cases, the scientific production is mainly in English, so Spanish universities need to adapt the research and way of teaching in order to keep track of the global knowledge (del Pozo 2015). In the case of Business, especially Commerce and Trade, it is paradigmatic since its main object of study are the companies and how they trade and invest in each other and globally. The globalization in commerce describes a process in which companies first became exporters and importers, then international companies and finally multinationals (Johanson and Vahlne 1977; Bradley et al. 2006; Johanson and Vahlne 2009). The more the global this process, the more it talks in English; it is in its nature.

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In International Commerce, as in any other professional field, and in its subsequent academic counterpart there are some specific concepts, structures and vocabulary. The challenge arises when these concepts and structures are spread worldwide by the general practice (Lex Mercatoria) and later on incorporated in the different languages and cultures.

3

Materials and Methods

This chapter reflects the experience that had been taken place during the second trimester of the academic year 2016–2017 in the Business and Marketing degrees of the European University of Valencia. The European University of Valencia has two main lines in Business and Marketing, in which the use of English has a special role. 1. The Global Bachelor Degree. This degree has some particularities such as its internationalization and its high and demanding standards, but the most relevant feature is that all the students have the same English level (B2) from the beginning of the degree and all the classes are taught in English. 2. The Spanish Degrees. In this degree some classes are taught in English in order to improve the English level of the students and help them reach a B2 level before leaving university. Therefore, in these groups there is the possibility that lecturers face a bilingual lecture de facto; hence, not all the students—Spanish and Erasmus—have the same English level. In fact, these groups are really heterogeneous regarding their English levels. In these groups, the role of Erasmus students is fundamental; hence, they force the interaction in English. Furthermore, it helps to improve the overall use of English in the group activities and to learn from different cultural and academic perspectives. The academic subjects that have been studied in this chapter are International Marketing and International Strategy. International Marketing focuses on how to internationalize a company and how this process affects the marketing mix of that company; while International

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Strategy describes the different strategies a company may use to position itself and grow. Although the chapter describes an experience in two different subjects, but since the activities conducted, the typology of the students and the teacher were the same this analysis will consider all the students as one sample of the student population. The chapter and its survey take into consideration the following: No. of Students: 49 Type of Students: They are all undergraduate students, 61% of them between 20 and 22 years old. The majority of them are in their third university year, without Erasmus experience. Except for the non-­ Spaniards who are Erasmus students. Nationality: Although 87% of the students are from the EU, we need to consider that 63% are Spaniards. Despite 3% of non-Europeans, it is quite an interesting mix of cultures and nationalities. English Level: Nearly 50% have a B2. The interesting data is that 35% had a C1 or C2 certificate in English; hence, the level of the sample is even or above the requirements of the Spanish and regional government. Int. Examination: The majority of the student sample owns the University Language Certificate; only 34.7% had passed an international exam such as Cambridge (30.6%) and TOEFL (4.1%). In addition, among all the Cambridge students only three own Certificate in Proficiency in English. (a) Student Survey The majority of the respondents considered that EMI will help them improve their English (65.3%) and in the long run find a better job, since they will be better prepared (67.3%). The students underlined EMI’s language aspect more, rather than EMI as an instrument of teaching. Despite this, there is a “positive” minority (24.5%) that believes that EMI would increase their chance to study new ideas/ concepts through a more interesting methodology. When they are asked “Why study in English?” there is a constant group of students that answers “to meet new people and travel in the near future”. Apparently, for the majority of the respondents, there is

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no mental connection between reinforcing their English and their Erasmus year. Nevertheless, there is even a small number of students (14.3%) that thinks of EMI as a potential benefit for their Erasmus year. In any case, these students come to their Erasmus year better prepared than the rest even in an unconscious way. Materials: On a scale from 1 to 5, nearly 88% of the students grade the slides as a good vehicle for teaching; 53.1% out of this 88% qualified the slides with a 4 or 5, so they believe the slides are convenient and reliable. In general terms, the slides and the rest of the materials are not perceived as a difficulty, whereas the English skills of both the lecturer and the students are perceived as a problem. From the written answers, the students feel that the lecturer’s accent or fluidity are the main problems in following the explanations. It confirms other studies (Jensen et al. 2013) that consider that English skills of the lecturer may alter the students’ perception of the lecture. To conclude, the concepts and structures are considered the main source of difficulties by 32.7% of the student respondents. To some extent this is positive; hence, the contents seem to be clear for the majority of the contestants. (b) Teacher Survey In order to complete the study discussed in this chapter, a small but representative sample of 12 teachers had been asked to answer a series of EMI-related questions. Some of the teachers surveyed had a relation with the students and some of them did not know them at all. But they all teach EMI, and they had in common a similar English level and number of publications. It is relevant that nearly a quarter has less than a C1, although they are currently taking courses to improve their English level. In relation with international examinations, it is interesting to highlight that the majority own university certificates rather than international ones. In relation with EMI, the main answer has been to gain international and university projection and visibility. Then there is a draw between the challenge of teaching and the improvement of the English level (­ 33%). The salary is not one of the main triggers of teaching through EMI since only 25% of the respondents chose it as their first option.

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Consequences: The main one is that their English level improves. Although it was not a trigger, it is a consequence of teaching EMI for the survey respondents. On the other hand, their interaction in English and the overall evaluation of their lecture by the student is not perceived as a problem. It seems as if this connection between language and content does not affect them as much as stated in previous studies (Jensen et al. 2013). In relation with the implementation: changes on materials (66.7%), grouping and class management (25%) and new technologies (8.3%) were the tools more often used. Extra workload: The majority of the respondents (75%) believe that extra work is required. The main source of this extra work is the complexity of English for a non-native speaker, and the amount of time in the lecture preparation.

4

Results. Implementing EMI

4.1

Implementation

In order to teach these two courses, I have planned several pedagogical tools to support my explanations on the subjects. The idea is to help the students to understand the concepts and structures as much as help me to explain them. Of course, I cannot improve my English in a short period of time (Mellion 2008), but at least I have some pedagogical instruments to improve the comprehension of the subjects. 1. Language Skills. The first approach is creating a common vocabulary. Prior to each class, I prefer to highlight some of the key words and definitions by using open questions. The goal is to standardize and build a previous and common knowledge of the main concepts. Secondly, the use of scaffolding with exemplifications from the student’s daily life (student trip sharing cars, money …) as well as from an academic point of view. The goal is to understand and develop the definition of a joint venture by perceiving it from all the possible

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angles. To some extent, I use circular explanation so as to help the student understand this way of entry in a foreign market. 2. Materials. The main support are the slides; the idea is to temporarily substitute, in the short run, the books. It does not mean that the student cannot research and investigate more on the subject; the goal is to create a written base to all the students regardless of their English level and cultural differences. It is an attempt to adapt a heterogeneous student group to the lecture. There are also other written materials especially from newspapers and from some scientific papers on the subject. The newspapers are a quick and easy approach to the business reality while scientific papers are difficult by definition. Although it depends on the source, for Spanish students with an average level of English (B2), The Economist could be a difficult source of knowledge. The audiovisual/videos from international organizations, organisms and companies are valuable key source of information and learning materials for students. New technologies take a special role, because they allow the student to reach those organisms and companies in a direct way. The immediacy of email, Skype calls and, above all, the connectivity given by Internet helps the student to interact with people and access information that otherwise would have been impossible. 3 . Grouping. The main tool is to achieve a final project that could be a business plan or some sort of marketing plan that is based on the case method although it tries to build a real simulation of an international marketing problem. • It is compulsory to have a minimum of one Erasmus student per group. • It is strictly forbidden to have a group of the same nationality. The goal is to have as many international teams as possible. Another objective is to mix the different cultures, knowledge and English levels. It is cooperative learning, where the different students contribute with their different skills and capabilities. In this case, the students have undertaken and finished 12 different marketing plans. The subjects range from the analysis and

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description of existing companies (such as Repsol, Chipotle, Ryan Air …) and brand new companies that start from scratch. 4 . Foreign Lectures. They have an important role which is to bring different approaches to the subject and different English skills. Students are required to prepare in advance some of the main topics in order to understand the lecturer and participate during the lectures. In this case there have been two different lectures from the Netherlands (the University of Amsterdam). The lectures have been on the “International Service Sector: Healthcare”, “International Brands Appealing” and “Market Research”.

4.2

Case in Practice

The concept and use of the joint venture reflects the difficulty of using— or even translating—these business concepts and legal vehicles from the Anglo-Saxon culture to other languages and cultures. In both subjects, International Marketing and International Strategy, the joint venture plays an important role in how to approach foreign markets and build business alliances. The goal of this case is to help students understand and use the joint venture. As it has been said, first with easy day-to-day experiences, after that with some real business examples and finally by defining and developing the joint venture

4.2.1  The Joint Venture It is a strategic alliance (collaboration) between companies for the execution of a project or a specific activity. This collaboration may be structured by different legal vehicles. The role of the parties and their free will to define the different characteristics is fundamental in the creation of a joint venture. It is the paradigm of international commerce and how to display international direct investments since it is the perfect entry mode in some countries or industries. The first difficulty is in translation in order to incorporate it to the Spanish legal and commercial system. Since the joint venture did not

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exist in the Spanish legal system nor in the business sector, it is not part of the Spanish mindset. It has been slowly adopted by the interaction of Spanish companies with foreign companies abroad. In fact, the very first approach might seem wrong since the most extended denomination in non-English-speaking countries is the short one (joint venture) and not the real one “international joint business venture” (Guardiola Sacarrera 2004). The second challenge was to incorporate the joint venture into Spanish—but also French or German—legal system. For that purpose, it was necessary to translate it. That was the main problem: to translate something that did not exist before, that it could be defined but it lacked a proper or even a real name. Spanish and especially French jurisprudence and legal authors struggled trying to find several different names (Esteban de la Rosa 1999; Pauleau 2003; Puyo Arluciaga 2007; Michavila Núñez 2014). In the end, they adopted the English version as it had been done by economists many years before. The reason was mainly to avoid losing any of the senses and characteristics of the joint venture. On the other hand, it is interesting how easily the English name was adopted early on by Business and Commerce businessmen and researchers. If the etymological translation was difficult, the problems became even more evident when trying to develop it conceptually. The temptation was trying to include it in one of the preexisting legal vehicles. This distorted the real objectives and above all misinterpreted the key elements of the joint venture (strategic alliance and free will of the parties). During the last two decades many Spanish authors defined the joint venture as a temporary union of companies (UTE). Both institutions had many similarities, but the Spanish UTE cannot be exported outside of the Spanish borders since it tries to solve a Spanish real estate situation. Therefore, there is a misuse of both the joint venture and UTE based on the language and cultural structure preexisting. The structure of the case would be the following: 1 . Teacher/students: Day-to-day examples. 2. Teacher/student: Real Examples: International Cases: Nestea, Sony-­ Ericsson, Spanish Cases: Cola Cao, IVI/India. 3. Teacher: Joint venture: Concepts and structure.

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4. Group work: Market investigation in order to identify different possible joint ventures. 5. Group assignment: To identify and analyze a joint venture. To summarize: After taking the subject, the student should be able to identify, understand and develop a joint venture.

5

Conclusions

This study provides insights from a small but representative Spanish university, the European University of Valencia. As was previously explained, the aim of the chapter was to describe the challenges that a teacher may face while teaching international commerce in English. The first challenge was linguistic proficiency. Language skills are clearly a challenge; thus, I believe EMI allows me to teach in English, but at the same time to focus on the most relevant element of my subject: the content and not the vehicle of communication. Language skills are important to deliver and develop the content but remain secondary and understood as a vehicle and not a main goal. The second challenge is to shift the lecture toward a less teacher-­ centered methodology, highlighting several different pedagogical tools such as class management (grouping), language skills (scaffolding), materials (slides as a way of creating a common structure and language ground) and foreign lectures which broaden the linguistic and content boarders. Understanding EMI and analyzing experiences encourage lecturers to face these challenges and find new ways of dealing with these new environments while becoming key players in the internationalization of their institutions.

References ACLES (2014). CertaAcles. Accreditation model for ACLES exams. Retrieved March 9, 2017, from http://www.acles.es/multimedia/enlaces/9/files/ fichero_136.pdf.

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10 Neurosensory Auditory Stimulation and English as a Medium of Instruction Cristina Pérez-Guillot

1

Introduction

Spanish universities are currently promoting initiatives aimed at improving the multilingual and intercultural communicative competence of graduates to develop their international profile and provide them with specific skills to work in a globalised world. One such initiative is the implementation of bilingual/multilingual educational models, currently being adopted in Spain and based on the participation of a variety of stakeholders, including but not limited to university teachers, students and administrative staff. Furthermore, implementing a bilingual/multilingual educational model involves many aspects that can be decisive in its success, as, for example, a clear definition of the objectives of the programme. The changes required to implement bilingual/multilingual programmes in higher education involve the development of linguistic and pedagogical skills of teachers, successful implementation amongst students and the C. Pérez-Guillot (*) Universitat Politècnica de València, Valencia, Spain e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s) 2020 M. L. Carrió-Pastor (ed.), Internationalising Learning in Higher Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-21587-3_10

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effective management of the programmes on the part of administrative units. The harmonisation of the needs of these three groups can establish a solid base on which to build an effective strategy. It is important to assure quality as almost all universities now offer courses in English and it is vital that courses offer excellent teaching if Universitàt Politècnica de València (UPV) is to compete in this global market. In an era of blogs, feeds, reviews, and so on, word spreads quickly among prospective students if they are not satisfied with a university or a course. UPV wants to attract the best students to retain a good research profile, so it is essential that courses and teaching offer the highest quality. Oakland (2004: 162) explains: If we are to define quality in a way that is useful to its management, then we must recognise the need to include in the assessment of quality the true requirements of the ‘customer’—the needs and expectations. Quality then is simply meeting the customer requirements … This has wide implications. The requirements may include availability, delivery, reliability, maintainability and cost-effectiveness, among any other features. The first item on the list of things to do is to find out what the requirements are.

In this sense, UPV already offers very high-quality courses in other languages (e.g. Spanish, Catalan) and it is essential that English as a Medium of Instruction (EMI) courses meet these same standards and that students compare equally. Students are becoming increasingly critical of courses especially when they come from educational cultures where such criticism is encouraged. Ensuring courses are of the highest quality will protect individual teachers and faculties from criticisms in this forum. For quality assurance, then, it is sensible for teachers to measure themselves against some university-wide standards to reassure themselves that students are getting a consistent offer. This can help increase your confidence in your approach plus consistency helps to reduce anxiety and complaints from students. However, it is also worth thinking about a self-evaluation of your consistent ‘standards’ within a class or course. For each course, it is advisable to:

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• share with students: –– set standards of learning outcomes in English, –– details of what you expect students to understand, –– information about how they will be assessed (e.g. ongoing project, final exam). • have a systemised approach to feedback which students have access to. Feedback is very important for students and it needs to go beyond ‘right versus wrong’. They need details of how to improve and can share work as peers to help with this. Explain to them what kind of feedback you will give and how you expect them to respond to this feedback, for example, by repeating work, double-checking gaps/errors in next assignment. • collaborate with colleagues on intra-departmental checks both for yourself and to check consistency for students. Share standards and expectations so that students get a consistent and coherent message. You do not need to do everything the same but there should be some broad approaches which are consistent for the students and which explicitly support their learning. • collaborate with peers on challenges and assessments. Make sure you have the same goals even if achieved differently and share ideas for resolving challenges. • make clear what it is that you expect from the students via learning objectives, assessment criteria, aspects of independent learning, and so on. • foster wider academic skills in students. In our survey teachers identified the following skills as essential for students’ progression or success. Teachers should ensure students are aware of their need to acquire these skills and should help students in that journey. These skills need to be actively and overtly practised by building them into any work or tasks. If students successfully acquire these it will make learning more effective. The skills identified are: –– independent learning, –– critical thinking, analysis and evaluation, –– constructing an argument in writing and organising written work, –– active listening and taking notes, –– summarising in writing and using source texts.

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I consider it important to mention the following definition of EMI (Dearden 2015: 2): The use of the English language to teach academic subjects (other than English itself ) in countries or jurisdictions in which the majority of the population’s first language is not English.

But the challenges or limitations of EMI, according to Gröblinger (2017), should be considered; some of them are shown in Fig. 10.1. One of the most important is the lack of language proficiency of lecturers, something we all worry about. The CEFR’s (Common European Framework of Reference) C1 level is considered as the minimum advisable requirement for teachers involved in bilingual/multilingual degree programmes, as Halbach et al. (2016: 7) explain: Teaching in English requires a proficiency which allows instructors to do so fluently and naturally, a level of competence which may be reached at B2. However, in order to ensure the quality of teaching, it is recommended that instructors have a C1 level in the four language skills.

Fig. 10.1  Limitations of EMI

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Research shows that one of the main worries EMI lecturers have is whether their level of English is good enough, particularly when it comes to the more spontaneous speech acts related to interacting with students, for example, answering questions or clarifying ideas. Perhaps what should be kept in mind is that English isn’t the lecture’s first language and neither is it that of students. So, many of the students will probably be as anxious as lecturers are about having to interact with you or with the other students in English. One thing which makes them feel more confident could be starting their first class by recognising the fact that for most of them, teachers and students, English is not their native language. This is becoming normal in today’s globalised world where there are far more non-native speakers of English than native speakers. By clarifying this you may be able to make using English less stressful for everyone. UPV is a plurilingual university offering courses in Spanish and Catalan. UPV decided to offer courses in English as part of a programme to attract the best international students and to prepare home students for the international world of work. The technically based courses, which are UPV’s speciality, are especially suited to being delivered in English given their international reach. UPV supports and encourages EMI in the teaching of some courses for a variety of reasons. These include four important opportunities: • ensuring that UPV can attract students from around the globe, • improving quality standards in the range of courses offered by the university, • making sure UPV students have the best chance of employability after graduation and • attracting research projects and teachers from the wider global pool. Exchange and collaboration is seen as a key feature in academic excellence, and offering courses delivered through EMI is one way to promote this. Teaching staff should ideally have an accredited level of English at C1 on the CEFR scale. Teachers who are teaching through EMI with a level

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lower than this need to enrol in a language support class and become accredited via the ACLES (Association of Language Centres in Higher Education) or external exams. This requirement is currently not compulsory but is advisory in order to ensure staff can deliver courses confidently and that students perceive that the course is being delivered at an appropriate level of English. It is also at this level that teaching staff feel better able to manage questions and issues arising in lectures but it is recognised that many teachers with B2 level are delivering very effective lectures. As identified by the CRUE (Rector’s Conference of Spanish Universities) document, lecture style is as important as language level and advice on best practice in pedagogy is given in the Guidelines for Faculty. There is a strong system of training support for EMI tutors through the language centre (CDL) at the UPV. This is through a wide range of courses which change year on year depending on teachers’ needs but always include academic language, issues of pedagogy and language improvement for teachers, for example, pronunciation. The courses run by a language centre recognise that teachers are subject specialists and will only teach language in as far as it affects student expression much as it would in their first language, for example, organisation of writing, sourcing texts, effective summary skills. To this end, we analysed the possible reasons for teachers’ weakness in spoken English. Understanding and listening skills were rarely studied as the main cause of low speaking performance in language courses; in the training courses we developed, each of the four skills were practised independently. In line with Montgomery (2008), most English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students in general and CertAcles exam candidates in particular considered the listening section to be the most difficult, closely followed by the speaking section and by the writing and reading sections. These two were far behind in terms of perceived difficulty. This chapter explains how crucial it is to improve listening skills in order to strengthen our C1 teachers’ use of spoken English. The solid framework needed to achieve the specified objective was developed at the UPV as part of a language centre research project using neurosensory stimulation between December 2015 and September 2016.

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 heoretical Foundation of Neurosensory T Stimulation

In order to work on the issue of laterality and provide our research a theoretical basis, we have reviewed studies on neuropsychology and learning. Its origins are relatively recent as they date back to the twentieth century, while the first research took place by Broca (1985) and—at the time—it already established that in general the left hemisphere is predominant in men and, therefore there was a dominance of the right side. Wernicke (1984) worked on alterations of the nervous system, even naming one of them, that is, Wernicke’s aphasia. We have found references to the origin of this discipline on the back of the need to study and understand the cause-effect relationships between the alterations of the central nervous system and the behaviours related to brain activity—language, that is what interests us, among other things. Broca (1985) defends in his work that—at the time, he had already established that—in general, the left hemisphere dominates in man and therefore the dominance of the right side. He considers this as a classic definition of laterality. There is a more recent definition suggested by Dorsch (1976), that laterality is lateral dominance, lateral accentuation in the structure and functions of duplicate organs. This can be clearly seen with the hands but it takes place in many other organs such as the ears. Authors from this century such as Ferré and Irabau (2002) consider it more appropriate to speak of a referent instead of a dominant hemisphere, since although one hemisphere acts as a reference in any function, the intervention of the two hemispheres is always necessary. Throughout the bibliography researched we find works that bestow different functions to each of the two hemispheres. Ferre et al. (2006) establish the functions related to learning for each hemisphere. There are more recent investigations that conclude that the left hemisphere is in charge of those functions related to language, both oral and written (D’Ambrose 2003). The right hemisphere is the non-verbal hemisphere; it processes the information regarding visual-spatial issues, although it

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must also be taken into account in tasks related to language, since it deals with aspects such as prosody, intonation and emotional aspects thereof, facilitating the understanding of the environment in which the discourse takes place. I have focused our attention on the neuropsychological factors that influence school performance: laterality and perceptual processes (vision and hearing) (Gilmor 1984; Kandel et al. 2000; De Jong and Kaunzner 2000). Laterality has a direct impact on aspects related to neurofunctional maturation, which influences reading processes and therefore learning. I will focus on auditory functions. It can be observed that those controlled by the dominant ear capture the sonic or linguistic dimensions of the message. Also, regarding reading comprehension or listening, we see how a good binocular reading is necessary in order to be able to read, so that the information reaches both brain hemispheres. The dominant hemisphere decodes the word; the other hemisphere also receives information through the visual pathway and the corpus callosum and is responsible for integrating the right hemisphere as a whole and the analytical aspects of the left hemisphere. Thus, by reviewing the literature related to the influence of laterality in learning, many examples from researchers who have shown the close relationship between alterations of laterality and learning difficulties can be found.

3

Teaching Through EMI

EMI essentially refers to the teaching of a subject using the medium of English language, but where there are no explicit language learning aims and where English is not the national language. While the focus of the teaching is on subject content, teachers cannot ignore some linguistic elements such as cohesion, fluency, logic connections in arguments much as they would do in their first language. This means teachers will need to pay some attention to how subject content is expressed so that it considers academic language sub-skills rather than English language per se. Most teachers are concerned about ensuring that their EMI classes cover the same curriculum as would be required in Spanish. This can sometimes present problems if teachers feel their EMI classes run at a slower pace, or even lower level, than their Spanish-based courses.

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Table 10.1  Problems encountered by EMI teachers when planning a lecture New vocabulary: think about how you are going to define in English More explanations, examples, and so on, necessary Need more time to transmit the same contents You might use new teaching methods which can take up time, for example, interactive activities Finding material in English

But, we would like to check if it is more difficult for the teachers to plan a lesson to be delivered in English than in their own language. The problems that the teachers may likely face appear in Table 10.1. It may not be possible to design the course and classes given in EMI in the same way as the Spanish classes, especially if the focus is on depth of learning and retention rather than extent of learning so you may want to consider the following to ensure your EMI classes are properly supported: • agree a subject specialist vocabulary within the Faculty, • look at ways in which work can be given to the students to ensure that content is covered either in preparation or in follow-up—learner autonomy/independent learning stats. Planning EMI lectures will help teachers: • • • •

to think about the language they are going to need, to feel more confident during the lecture, to manage their time better, to foresee and plan ahead how to deal with possible problems the students might have connected to language, • to calculate and factor in the time they need for interactions. We have to keep in mind, although not everybody agrees, that students are learners of the content and the language so all aspects of t­ eaching usually require more care and teachers need to plan with regard to language as well as content.

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Develop an awareness that certain words, sentence structure and speed of delivery may be too difficult for students Develop strategies for scaffolding students’ learning.

Content obligatory language: key words Questioning techniques and feedback;. Signposting, Visuals Repetition, repair OR SELFCORRECTION and paraphrasing Focusing language Organizing language such as transitions and other markers.

Fig. 10.2  Different steps of training EMI teachers

That is one of the reasons, among others, that we should train EMI teachers as much as possible, taking into account the steps shown in Fig. 10.2. EMI teachers need to be language aware, develop an awareness that certain words, sentence structure and speed of delivery may be too difficult for students and develop strategies for scaffolding students’ learning. They have to support and to enable students to carry out a task which they could otherwise not complete successfully, to include content and language, giving emphasis to the key words of the topic.

4

Methodology

My focus in this chapter, as one of the teacher training coordinators, has been to observe teachers’ difficulties to improve their C1 speaking skills. The teachers involved in EMI subjects see their particular urgency to develop better speaking skills. CDL arranges the training by level referenced to the CEFR. Teachers are assigned classes based on either a place-

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ment test or a certification of their level from an exam. CDL also runs a series of specialist workshops to allow teachers to discuss and resolve critical issues that emerged from a survey of 110 EMI teachers. CDL also offers a system of class observation where a specialist English teacher observes the subject specialist and, following this, both teachers can discuss optimal strategies for teaching through EMI. We started a research project whose main goal has been to demonstrate the effectiveness of neurosensory stimulation on linguistic integration through the listening of previously filtered classical music. And demonstrating its effectiveness will lead us to the second goal, which is the design of a specific course based on stimulation to help the EMI teacher to improve not only their speaking skills but also their comprehension level. Furthermore, EMI teachers will need less time and effort. The aim of this neurosensory stimulation process is, so to speak, to ‘reset’ the ear so you can understand the frequencies it contains by nature and which have been lost due to lack of use. Thanks to auditory stimulation and after the research we proved it is possible to extend the range of frequencies that we are able to process. Neurosensory linguistic integration is most effective for those willing to learn, study or recover their skills in English as a foreign language. The main novelty of this study lies in the number of participants and their heterogeneous nature. The participants were between 19 and 59 years of age, involving not only teachers but researchers, students, administration and services staff, with a very different level of English among them. The participants ranged from those with basic knowledge (A1 level) to those participants who master English language (C1 level). It is, therefore, the first project of its kind to take place in Spain. It should be noted that, due to the heterogeneous nature of the volunteers participating in the project in terms of knowledge of the English language, it is possible (as well as interesting) to measure the effectiveness of the neurosensory stimulation process depending on the starting level of each of the volunteers. That is, checking whether, after stimulation, the learning pace at lower levels (A1, A2 or B1) is the same or different compared to the pace of those starting with a higher level of English (B2 or C1).

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The following phases were designed for the development of the research project: • • • • • •

Selection of volunteers Audiometry Listening test Level test Three periods of stimulation Analysis of results

The appropriate audiometry tests were conducted to rule out those volunteers with physiological problems in the ear or who did not comply with the appropriate parameters for the study. Along with the corresponding audiometry test, each potential project participant underwent a listening test which assessed their suitability to participate in the project. Alongside the initial listening test, three more tests were carried out by each participant (one at the beginning of the process, the second one before starting the intensive two and three tests and a final listening test at the end of the process). Assessing the progress of each of the participants in each phase and at the end of the process was the main objective. The listening test, and in regard to the linguistic integration of languages, will allow us to know those frequency bands that the person finds more complicated to work with or, on the contrary, what advantage one ear has over the other—in other words, the advantage of one person over another, when it comes to understanding and speaking a language. One of the basic elements for our study has been the listening test which is an advanced audiometric test that will indicate the degree of listening that the person has. I will compile information about not only the audible capacity of the person, but also the complete process of listening, auditory discrimination, dominance of one ear over another and disposition of the person before certain frequencies and sounds. At the same time, it gives us a clear idea of the progress that a person can have, always taking into account their initial level of English. Being ready for an auditory stimulation that allows training those frequency bands that the participant does not use or has not used as much and that

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therefore, it is not so conscious at the level of competence. In this case, the listening test consists of four parts: first, perception (thresholds); second, selectivity; third, laterality; and fourth, viability (availability). It is worth noting that the listening test works on two fundamental parameters that are not developed in other audiometric tests, that is, taking into account aerial conduction (AC), on the one hand, and bone conduction (BC), on the other. In the case of AC, aerial listening plays an essential role of adaptation at the social and communicational level, indicating the relationship of the person with the environment or how the environment influences such person, that is, it gives us an idea of ​​the bidirectional information between the environment and the person. This ability to adapt can be easy and may require minimal effort or, on the contrary, it may require great will power. BC reflects the real capacity of a person to receive (corporally), accept and manage a sound message. BC is an index of the person’s availability (in terms of emotion and attention) with respect to the sound information that is taken in. The operation and effective application of AC as a focused listening mode will depend on the state of BC. This is why we should always consider the AC/BC ratio, and not the two conduction types separately. Hence taking into account the relationship between AC and BC, as well as the discrimination that the ear is making of the different sounds and frequency bands, we can observe which sounds are more apt for the person and which sounds are not so suitable for the person regarding their perception, management and subsequent production. At the same time, all the participants had to perform a placement test for us to be sure about their level of competence in that specific moment. We used a placement test (Pérez-Guillot and Zabala-Delgado 2015) designed by the CDL to measure CEFR levels A2–C1 on a regular basis. The test has two sections. The first section assesses grammar and vocabulary and consists of 50 multiple-choice and close questions in which students have to complete sentences with one word. The programme automatically limits the time for this section to 30 minutes. Within this time, students can review and change their answers as often as they wish,

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knowing that wrong answers are not penalised. The second part of the computer-based test consists of listening comprehension. This section comprises three separate recordings corresponding to levels B1, B2 and C1. Each listening exercise has a set time. Students read the questions before listening to the recording and after listening they are required to answer multiple-choice questions. In order to be able to study the advances with different types of stimulation, we divided the persons admitted into three random groups: blue, green and orange, which were balanced (in terms of age, gender, English level…), to whom different types of stimulation were provided. For statistical purposes, a control group was set up to receive online language training identical to that of the participants although without any neurosensory stimulation. All participants admitted to the study took an English language test designed by the CDL, in order to measure the starting point of each of the participants. This level test took place at the end of the neurosensory stimulation process to determine the evolution, in this regard, of each of the participants. Similarly, each participant sent a voice recording that completed the information obtained in the aforementioned level test, and which provided data on pronunciation, intonation and prosody of each of the volunteers. Once the previous phases were completed, volunteers began the neurosensory stimulation period by listening to different kinds of filtered music (Mozart, Gregorian chant, waltz). This period lasted for 13 consecutive working days at the rate of two hours per day. In total, the project included three distinct listening periods with the abovementioned characteristics, that is, 13 consecutive days, two hours a day. During each of these periods, music and neurosensory stimulation was different since each seeks a different cognitive objective. It was essential that participants completed all stimulation periods from beginning to end so that the project could succeed. In the first stage, auditory stimulation consists of the reception through the ear, and via bone conduction, of filtered Mozart music with musical contrasts created through sudden changes of tone and intensity of the music to ‘surprise the brain’.

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The objective of the programme of linguistic integration is to give the ear the possibility of speaking. The ‘gift of tongues’ is not so much the gift of speaking them, but the ‘gift of listening’. In this process, the sound is perceived not only by the ears, but also by the upper part of the skull, thanks to headphones specifically designed for bone conduction of sound. The objective of the neurosensory stimulation is to extend the range of frequencies that we are able to process; we can assure that neurosensory linguistic integration is extremely effective for those people who want to learn, study or retrieve a language (the English language, in this case). It is assumed that we are all born polyglots, but over the years our auditory system starts to close up and does not process frequencies with which we had no contact. Each language uses spaces of different frequencies (passing bands). In the case of Spanish speakers, we hear frequencies between 125 and 2500 hertz; Russian speakers, for example, are capable of receiving and processing frequencies from 125 to 11,000 hertz, which explains why they learn languages more easily. The aim of this neurosensory stimulation process is, so to speak, to ‘reset’ the ear so you can understand the frequencies it contains by nature and which have been lost due to lack of use. Due to the requirements of the neurosensory stimulation process between each stimulation period, there must be a minimum rest period (about a month). These rest periods were used for participants to receive an online English training course to stay in contact with the language. Once the three neurosensory stimulation periods are completed, the study comes to an end with the completion of a new audiometry test by each of the participants, to be followed by the corresponding listening test and English language level tests. With all these we have all the necessary data to draw the corresponding conclusions, and that have led us to take actions in different aspects. Taking advantage of the fact that the study was conducted with members of the university community, a second aim was to obtain and measure the performance improvement of each of the participants; their skills and abilities to understand and speak English will be analysed in future stages of the project. In previous studies (Chiang and Dunkel 1992) it

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has been shown that these abilities are the ones which all the participants find most difficult at any level. This is also constantly reflected in the results obtained in the English certification tests (at any of these levels: A2, B1, B2, C1) that regularly take place at the UPV. So the information we gathered at the CDL has been used as a starting point for designing the neurosensory stimulation programmes this project deals with. This is a programme which considers the level of English of the participants and reinforces the stimulation with lessons specifically designed and delivered using talks group. Consequently, we will be able to design specific EMI courses based on those results.

5

A Proposal for EMI Courses

The CDL has been offering support for teachers. Table 10.2 shows the range of courses offered to support tutors teaching via EMI. Based on the research described above, EMI training courses and stimulation has been developed from B1+ to C1 levels that combines stimulation taking into account the level of the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) and linguistic training with a new approach. Stimulation and training is complemented by obtaining a more effective learning with an emphasis on listening and speaking skills. We will describe below the structure of the courses. Table 10.2  Courses offered to support EMI teachers Teaching in English (EMI) B2 Stage 1 Teaching in English (EMI) B2 Stage 2 Teaching in English (EMI) C1 Stage 1 Teaching in English (EMI) C1 Stage 2 Improving pronunciation (with Forbrain) Improving oral skills (with Tomatis) Improving your English C2

Presentation skills B2/B2+ Presentation skills C1/C1+ Teaching in EMI workshops Issues in assessment in EMI workshops Observation and feedback programme Academic writing skills

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5.1

217

Phase One

B2: English for the purpose of teaching 140 hours (accredited B1/B1+ level of English is a requirement for entry). This combined course includes a general English course, aimed at bringing the students up to a B2 level in English. We take into account the goals and descriptors for this level stated in the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) with the addition of specific English as a Medium of Instruction (EMI) content in order to support teachers in their use of English in the classroom. As an integral part of the course, there will also be a further 20 hours of study with specific preparation for the B2 CertAcles exam. B2: General English Course • Grammar: English verb system, use of auxiliaries, present and past habits, repeated actions and states, be used to, second and third conditionals, narrative verb forms, past perfect continuous, defining and non-defining relative clauses, ways of comparing, future verb forms, simple and continuous aspects, present perfect simple and continuous, passive, as, like, such as, future perfect, reported speech … • Vocabulary: Language ability, education, verb patterns, expressing frequency, feelings and opinions, suffixes. Observation as a C1: English for the purpose of teaching 140 hours (accredited B2 level of English is a requirement for entry). This combined course includes a general English course, aimed at bringing the students up to a C1 level in English. We take into account the goals and descriptors for this level stated in the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) with the addition of specific English as a Medium of Instruction (EMI) content in order to support teachers in their use of English in the classroom. As an integral part of the course,

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there are also further 20 hours of study with specific preparation for the C1 CertAcles exam. C1: General English Course • Grammar: Perfect forms, would, cleft sentences, noun phrases, wish and if only, passives, modal auxiliaries, linking words and phrases, dramatic inversion, patterns after reporting verbs, prepositions, talking about the future. • Vocabulary: Emphasising and exaggerating, binomials, description, phrasal verbs, giving opinions, challenging overgeneralisations, noun with of, arguments and discussions, commenting on what was said, talking about science, forming nouns and adjectives, nouns based on phrasal verbs, vague language, alliteration, irony and humour, discussing arguments and theories, contextualised questions, common sayings, verb forms and word families, rhetorical questions, backtracking, synonyms interjections … –– Regular listening practice with audio and video. –– Regular reading practice with varied texts. –– Constant speaking practice, pair work, group work, class discussions, presentations. • Study material: Outcomes Advanced National Geographic learning. • EMI content: Academic English: Academic words with several meanings, metaphors and idioms, academic verb combinations, prepositional phrases, fixed expressions, phrasal verbs in academic English, quantifying expressions, adjective noun collocation, verbs and prepositions, numbers/statistics, graphs, cause/effect. • Study material: Academic English in Use, Cambridge. • English for academic purposes: English for academic purposes: introducing a lecture—signposting /organisation/expressing main ideas/expressing key information/noun phrases/describing diagrams/writing simple descriptions/describing trends/speaking

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in seminars/expressing classification/presentation styles /collocation/the language of perspective and stance /presentations— avoiding script dependence, responding to comments and questions. • Study material: EAP UPPER, Oxford

5.2

Phase Three

English as a Medium of Instruction. EMI intensive course 30 hours (accredited C1 level of English is a requirement for entry). This course combines the practice and theory of using English as a Medium of Instruction (EMI) in the classroom. It is designed for teachers using EMI in the classroom who already have a certified Common European Framework of Reference C1 level in English. The course offers training, ideas and discussion about how best to approach the teaching of academic courses in English by teachers who are nonnative English speakers. An essential part of the course is the opportunity to implement strategies discussed during the course through practical exercises. The objective of the course is to give essential support and advice to EMI instructors with special emphasis on interactive learning and teaching strategies. Ten three-hour sessions that include: Session 1. Issues in EMI Session 2. Lecture framework Session 3. Lecture discourse Session 4. First day lectures Session 5. Communication skills Session 6. Interaction Session 7. Strategies for teaching in different teaching settings Session 8. Using your voice Session 9. Planning your lecture Session 10. Presentation of mini lectures

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Phase Four

Workshops • Teaching in EMI workshops: –– Pedagogical issues –– Assessment –– Fostering independent learning –– Giving feedback –– Observation and feedback programme Specialised courses: • • • • •

Teaching in English (EMI) B2 S Improving pronunciation Improving oral skills Presentation skills Academic writing skills

Furthermore, for those courses based on improving oral skills we have developed courses combining teaching and stimulation. The structure of these courses is as follows. The course focuses on improving your speaking skills through: • pronunciation practice of individual sounds, words and sentences, • encouraging conversation through role plays, discussions, presentations and debates. Each session is based on a theme built around a selection of the words practised during ‘auditory stimulation’. Phase one. 26 hours of duration distributed as follows: • Listening test • 2.30-hour session: 1.30  minutes stimulation  +  1-hour training for four weeks:

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–– Opening of the ear: 1 hour passive and 20 minutes active. –– Language training: 1 hour (12 hours six 2 hours’ modules). The contents included: • Class 1 theme: Motivation (pronunciation practice, vocabulary in use. Worksheet: types of motivation, group discussion, class discussion). • Class 2 theme: Intonation (pronunciation practice, vocabulary in use, intonation and changes in meaning, sentence stress and practice, worksheet; reading poems aloud and telling jokes). • Class 3 theme: Gender equality (pronunciation practice, vocabulary in use, group discussion, class discussion, group task). • Class 4 theme: Media pronunciation practice, vocabulary in use (group discussion, class discussion, reading text, team debate). • Class 5 theme: Advertising (pronunciation practice, vocabulary in use, class discussion, role play task). • Class 6 theme: Education (pronunciation practice, vocabulary in use, group discussion, class discussion, Kahoot! test). Phase two. Improving speaking practice course. 38 hours of duration distributed as follows: Training only: 12-hour module using for brain. • Class 1. Introduction. What we are going to do: Speaking and listening: Twenty-first-century communication. Unit 1, part 1. Pronounce. Speaking practice. IPA British English video: https://www.youtube. com/watch?v=0LzpH3AHX5g&list=PL67CF2C29C5D476A3 Text to read: Tell them to underline pronunciation/vocabulary problems. Tell them to read again. • Class 2. Speaking and listening: Twenty-first-century communication. Unit 1 part 2. Pronounce. British English pronunciation group of videos. Vowels and consonants. Text to read: Tell them to underline pronunciation/vocabulary problems. Tell them to read again.

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• Class 3. Speaking and listening: Twenty-first-century communication. Unit 2 part 1. Pronounce. Syllables. Text to read: Tell them to underline pronunciation/vocabulary problems. Tell them to read again. • Class 4. Speaking and listening: Twenty-first-century communication. Unit 2 part 2. Pronounce. The first pure vowel. Text to read: Tell them to underline pronunciation/vocabulary problems. Tell them to read again. • Class 5. Speaking and listening: Twenty-first-century communication. Unit 3 part 1. Pronounce. The /I/sound. Text to read: Tell them to underline pronunciation/vocabulary problems. Tell them to read again. • Class 6. Speaking and listening: Twenty-first-century communication. Unit 3 part 2. Pronounce. Close back vowels U U: Text to read: Tell them to underline pronunciation/vocabulary problems. Tell them to read again. • Class 7. Speaking and listening: Twenty-first-century communication. Unit 4 part 1. Pronounce. The Schwa sound. Text to read: Tell them to underline pronunciation/vocabulary problems. Tell them to read again. • Class 8. Speaking and listening: Twenty-first-century communication. Unit 4 part 2. Pronounce. The vowel in bird. Text to read: Tell them to underline pronunciation/vocabulary problems. Tell them to read again. • Class 9. Speaking and listening: Twenty-first-century communication. Unit 5 part 1. Pronounce. The vowel in horse. Text to read: Tell them to underline pronunciation/vocabulary problems. Tell them to read again. • Class 10. Speaking and listening: Twenty-first-century communication. Unit 5 part 2. Pronounce. The A in cat. Text to read: Tell them to underline pronunciation/vocabulary problems. Tell them to read again. It should be taken into account that auditory neurosensory stimulation requires the programming of English music and texts with certain technical parameters that vary depending on the level of languages to be worked on in each course (see Table 10.3). I would like to highlight that according to the results, the experience has been successful and the majority of the participants appreciated their improvement, not only in listening but also in speaking. The listening

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Table 10.3  Programming of English music and texts Programme for phase one The stimulation programme has a duration of 13 days, with 80-minute sessions each day, divided into four tracks of 20 minutes each. The tracks consist of:  –  Filtered music by Mozart: filtered music tracks by Mozart,  –  Gregorian chants: tracks of Gregorian chants, one for each day with a duration of 20 minutes,  –  Waltz: two tracks, one on day seven and another on day ten, 20 minutes each, English: one track each day of English repetitions to perform actively, with a duration of 20 minutes. Programme for phase two The stimulation programme has a duration of 13 days, with 80-minute sessions each day, divided into four tracks of 20 minutes each. The tracks consist of:  –  Filtered music by Mozart: filtered music tracks by Mozart, all with a pedagogical adjustment channel,  –  Passive English: one track each day with American English channel settings,  –  Active English: one track each day of English repetitions to perform actively, with a duration of 20 minutes. Programme for phase three The stimulation programme has a duration of 13 days, with 80-minute sessions each day, divided into four tracks of 20 minutes each. The tracks consist of:  –  Filtered music by Mozart: filtered music tracks by Mozart, all with a pedagogical adjustment channel,  –  Passive English: one track each day with American English channel,  –  Active English: one track each day of English repetitions to perform actively, with a duration of 20 minutes.

test administered prior to and upon completion of the whole process showed significant increase in auditory acuity

6

Conclusions

It may be concluded that the auditory stimulation itself reduces the time to obtain a correct pronunciation by half and more if we take into account the level according to the CEFR of the participants. It seems to accelerate the learning of foreign languages. I incorporate texts in English into the stimulation differential phases, anchored to the CEFR and in line with the level of each group that will affect the improvement of listening to

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that language. Thus, I relate classroom contents with the stimulation and the level of the participants, which undoubtedly facilitates the learning of the language, as has been explained. There is a strong system of training support for EMI tutors through CDL. This is through a wide range of courses which change year on year depending on teachers’ needs but always include academic language, issues of pedagogy and language improvement for teachers, for example, pronunciation. The courses run by CDL recognise that teachers are subject specialists and will only teach language in as far as it affects student expression much as it would in their first language, for example, organisation of writing, sourcing texts, effective summary skills. CDL arranges the training by level referenced to the CEFR. Teachers are assigned classes based on either a placement test or a certification of their level from an exam. CDL also runs a series of specialist workshops to allow teachers to discuss and resolve critical issues that emerged from a survey of 110 EMI teachers. CDL also offers a system of class observation where a specialist English teacher observes the subject specialist and following this both teachers can discuss optimal strategies for teaching through EMI. A key component in quality assuring the EMI courses offered by UPV is making sure UPV meets the requirements set out in the CRUE agreement established in 2016 and entitled Documento marco de política linguistica para la internacionalización del sistema universitario español. UPV was a core member in developing this agreement across several universities and this framework has been built around these agreed guidelines. Teaching staff should ideally have an accredited level of English at C1 on the CEFR scale. Teachers who are teaching through EMI with a level lower than this need to enrol in a language support class and become accredited via certification exams. This requirement is currently not compulsory but is advisory in order to ensure staff can deliver courses confidently and that students perceive that the course is being delivered in an appropriate level of English. It is also at this level that teaching staff feel better able to manage questions and issues arising in lectures but it is recognised that many teachers with B2 level are delivering very effective lectures.

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References Broca, R. (1985). La psychanalyse, un nouveau mode de lien social? Quarto, 20/ 21, 5–9. Chiang, C., & Dunkel, P. (1992). The effect of speech modification, prior knowledge, and listening proficiency on EFL lecture learning. TESOL Quarterly, 26(2), 345–374. Council of Europe. Common European framework of reference for languages: Learning, teaching, assessment. Strasbourg: Language Policy Unit. Retrieved January 15, 2014, from www.coe.int/lang-CEFR. D’Ambrose, C. (2003). Frequency range of human hearing. The Physics factbook. Retrieved February 28, 2018, from https://hypertextbook.com/facts/2003/ ChrisDAmbrose.shtml. De Jong, J. H. A. L., & Kaunzner, U. A. (2000). Acoustic training and development of language proficiency. In U. Kaunzner (Ed.), Pronunciation and adult learner? Bologna: Cooperativa libraria Universitaria Editrice. Dearden, J. (2015). English as a medium of instruction—A growing global phenomenon. London: British Council. Retrieved April 14, 2018, from https:// www.britishcouncil.org/sites/default /files/e484_emi_cover_option_3_ final_web.pdf. Dorsch, F. (1976). Diccionario de psicología. Barcelona: Herder. Ferré, J., & Irabau, E. (2002). El desarrollo neurofuncional del niño y sus trastornos. Madrid: Lebón. Ferre, J., Catalán, J., Casaprima, V., & Mombiela, J. V. (2006). Técnicas de tratamiento de los trastornos de la lateralidad. Madrid: Lebon. Gilmor, T. M. (1984). A pre-test and post-test survey of children and adolescent’s performance before and after completing the Tomatis Program. Final Report. Toronto, ON: MDS Inc. Gröblinger, K. (2017). What are the benefits and challenges of EMI in (international) study programs at UAS in Austria? Retrieved April 12, 2019, from http://ffhoarep.fh-ooe.at/bitstream/123456789/956/1/Panel_114_ ID_218.pdf. Halbach, A., Lázaro, A., & Maguire, B. (2016). Guía de buenas prácticas para la acreditación del nivel de lengua extranjera y español como lengua extranjera en la universidad española. Madrid: CRUE. Retrieved April 12, 2018, from https:// www.crue.org/Documentos%20compartidos/GBP_para_la_acreditacion_ del_nivel_de_lengua_extranjera_y_espa%C3%B1ol_como_lengua_extranjera_en_la_universidad_espa%C3%B1ola.pdf.

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Kandel, E. R., Schwartz, J. H., & Jessell, T. M. (2000). Principles of neural science (4th ed.). Michigan: McGraw-Hill. Montgomery, H. (2008). Self-reported listening strategies by students in an intensive English language program. UMI.  Retrieved April 7, 2018, from http:// media.proquest.com/media/pq/classic/doc/1588770111/fmt/ai/rep/ NPDF?_s=AUhtSGlP2Vw1kvP2xw5OiA1yA28%3D. Oakland, T. (2004). Use of educational and psychological tests internationally. Applied psychology: An International Review, 53(2), 157–172. Pérez-Guillot, C., & Zabala-Delgado, J. (2015). Comparing candidates’ beliefs and exam performance in speaking tests. Language Value, 7, 22–44.

Index

A

Administrative and Services Staff (ASS), 113, 115, 117, 119, 126, 128, 132

English-medium instruction (EMI), 1–3, 9, 10, 35–39, 47–51, 54–56 F

B

Bilingual degrees, 18, 19, 25, 32 Boosters, 139–145

Faculty members, 155–174 H

C

Conceptualization, 195 C1 level of competence, 19

Hedges, 7 Higher education, 1–3, 10 I

E

English for occupational purposes, 111–132

International commerce, 179–196 International exchanges, 38, 51, 52, 55, 56

© The Author(s) 2020 M. L. Carrió-Pastor (ed.), Internationalising Learning in Higher Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-21587-3

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228 Index L

R

Language acquisition, 6, 156 Learning, 36, 47–50, 54–56 Learning objects, 139–146 Lecturer training, 88

Research, 37, 47–50, 54, 56 S

Students, 155–174

N

Neurosensory stimulation, 206–208, 211, 214–216, 222 O

Observation, 65–80 P

Pragmatic competence, 137–146

T

Teacher development, 107 Teachers, 21, 23, 31, 32, 66–69, 71–80 Teachers of EMI, 201–206, 208–211, 216, 217, 219, 224 Teaching, 1, 3, 8, 10 Teaching skills, 187–188 Trainees, 65–80 Training programme, 130 Turkish EFL context, 156, 159