International Educational Exchange: An Assessment of its Nature and its Prospects 9783110800982, 9789027975621

Table of contents :
PREFACE
I. THE MAJOR PROBLEM AREAS
1. Some general considerations
2. Cross-national comparisons of student exchanges
3. International exchanges at the faculty level
4. The mechanics of exchanges
5. The consequences of exchanges
II. THE SE VEN NATIONAL STUDIES
Introduction
6. France
7. German Federal Republic
8. India
9. Japan
10. United Kingdom
11. United States of America
12. Yugoslavia
III. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS
13. International educational exchanges, present and future
NOTE ON BIBLIOGRAPHY

Citation preview

INTERNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL EXCHANGE AN ASSESSMENT OF ITS NATURE AND ITS PROSPECTS

Publications of the International Social Science Council

18

MOUTON · THE HAGUE · PARIS

International Educational Exchange An Assessment

of

Its nature and Its

Prospects

OTTO KLINEBERG With the cooperation of HEINE V O N ALEMANN and Colleagues from Seven Countries

M O U T O N · T H E H A G U E · PARIS

ISBN: 9027975620 (Mouton, The Hague) 2713200555 (E.H ( E.S.S., Paris) © 1976, Mouton and Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales Printed in. the Netherlands

Contents

PREFACE I.

II.

'

THE MAJOR

PROBLEM

AREAS

1.

Some general considerations

13

2.

C r o s s - n a t i o n a l c o m p a r i s o n s of s t u d e n t e x c h a n g e s

20

3.

International exchangee at the faculty level

45

4.

T h e m e c h a n i c s of e x c h a n g e s

50

5.

T h e c o n s e q u e n c e s of e x c h a n g e s

60

THE SEVEN

NATIONAL

STUDIES

Introduction

71

6.

France

73

7.

G e r m a n F e d e r a l Republic

93

8.

India

127

9.

Japan

147

10. United Kingdom

166

11.

U n i t e d S t a t e s of A m e r i c a

197

12.

Yugoslavia

226

I I I . CONCLUSIONS 13. NOTE

AND

IMPLICATIONS

International educational exchanges, present and future

ON BIBLIOGRAPHY

257 267

International Committee for the Study of Educational Exchange CHAIRMAN

V e r n o n I. C h e a d l e ,

Chancellor,

U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a ,

Santa B a r b a r a

MEMBERS G u i l a r d o M a r t i n s A l v e s , C o u n c i l of R e c t o r s of B r a z i l i a n Universities Asa Briggs,

Vice-Chancellor,

Leonhard F r o e s e , Lameck Goma,

U n i v e r s i t y of S u s s e x

f o r m e r R e c t o r , U n i v e r s i t y of M a r b u r g

Vice-Chancellor,

Theodore M. Hesburgh,

President, Notre-Dame

A l e x Kwapong, Vice-Chancellor, Choh-Ming Li,

U n i v e r s i t y of Z a m b i a Univers

U n i v e r s i t y of G h a n a

Vice-Chancellor,

Chinese University

Hong-Kong Felipe E. M a c G r e g o r , Rector, Sukenaga M u r a i , Jean Roche, Sarup

President, Waseda University

f o r m e r - R e c t o r , U n i v e r s i t y of P a r i s

Singh, P r o - V i c e R e c t o r ,

Ivan Supek,

U n i v e r s i t y of P e r u

former Rector,

William Winegard,

U n i v e r s i t y of D e l h i

U n i v e r s i t y of Z a g r e b

President,

Guelph U n i v e r s i t y

of

Preface

D u r i n g the p a s t t h r e e y e a r s an i n v e s t i g a t i o n h a s been c o n ducted into i n t e r n a t i o n a l u n i v e r s i t y e x c h a n g e s , both at the s t u d e n t a n d f a c u l t y l e v e l , i n s e v e n c o u n t r i e s , in e a c h of w h i c h one u n i v e r s i t y w a s s t u d i e d i n s o m e d e t a i l w h i l e a t t h e s a m e t i m e d a t a w e r e o b t a i n e d to p e r m i t a d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e g e n e r a l n a t i o n a l p r o f i l e . The p r o p o s a l f o r t h i s u n d e r t a k i n g c a m e f r o m t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o m m i t t e e f o r t h e S t u d y of E d u c a t i o n a l E x c h a n g e , c o m p o s e d of c u r r e n t o r f o r m e r h e a d s of u n i v e r s i t i e s f r o m a n u m b e r of d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s , w i t h C h a n c e l l o r V e r n o n I. C h e a d l e of t h e U n i v e r s i t y of S a n t a B a r b a r a , C a l i f o r n i a , a s C h a i r m a n ; i t w a s u n d e r t h e a u s p i c e s of t h i s C o m m i t t e e t h a t this s t u d y w a s c a r r i e d out. G e n e r a l p l a n s f o r the r e s e a r c h w e r e d e v e l o p e d t h r o u g h a s e r i e s of p r e l i m i n a r y d i s c u s s i o n s a n d a p p r o v e d b y t h e C o m m i t t e e a t i t s m e e t i n g i n A u g u s t , 1970, i n M o n t r e a l . T h e m o r e s p e c i f i c d e t a i l s of d a t a c o l l e c t i o n w e r e e l a b o r a t e d a t t w o m e e t i n g s in P a r i s of t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r s f r o m the v a r i o u s c o u n t r i e s c o n c e r n e d . In s p i t e of g e n e r a l a g r e e m e n t r e g a r d i n g t h e d a t a t o b e c o l l e c t e d and the t e c h n i q u e s p r o p o s e d , the situation in each p a r ticular country or u n i v e r s i t y v a r i e d so m u c h that c o n s i d e r a b l e i m p r o v i s a t i o n w a s r e q u i r e d o n t h e p a r t of t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r . In g e n e r a l it c a n b e s a i d , h o w e v e r , that the d a t a w e r e o b t a i n e d f r o m s t a t i s t i c s g a t h e r e d b y t h e u n i v e r s i t y o r f o u n d in n a t i o n a l a r c h i v e s , interviews with or questions submitted to a s a m p l i n g of u n i v e r s i t y p r e s i d e n t s o r r e g i s t r a r s , c o n v e r s a t i o n s w i t h i n dividuals knowledgeable about university exchanges at their own i n s t i t u t i o n o r w i t h p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e of a f o r e i g n s o j o u r n , with p r o f e s s o r s who have had contact with f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s o r w i t h d i r e c t o r s of " s t u d y a b r o a d " p r o g r a m s , a n d s o f o r t h . In s o m e c a s e s , p i l o t s t u d i e s w e r e c o n d u c t e d w i t h a s m a l l g r o u p of s t u d e n t s a n d p r o f e s s o r s ; a n d i n a l l c a s e s t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r s , w h o a r e t h e m s e l v e s " k n o w l e d g e a b l e p e r s o n s " in t h i s d o m a i n , p r e s e n t e d t h e i r own c o n c l u s i o n s a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s b a s e d on t h e d a t a to w h i c h t h e y h a d a c c e s s . I w o u l d l i k e t o e x p r e s s m y a p p r e c i a t i o n to t h e c o l l e a g u e s i n s e v e n c o u n t r i e s who m a d e e s s e n t i a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s to this p r o ject. They a r e :

8

Preface

F r a n c e : P r o f e s s o r P . B e s s a i g n e t and p a r t i c u l a r l y P r o f e s s o r J . P o i r i e r o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y of N i c e , a n d t h o s e w h o w o r k e d w i t h P r o f e s s o r P o i r i e r in t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h e F r e n c h report. G e r m a n F e d e r a l R e p u b l i c : P r o f e s s o r Ε . K. S c h e u c h and M r . H e i n e von A l e m a n n o f the I n s t i t u t e f o r C o m p a r a t i v e S o c i a l R e s e a r c h , Cologne. I n d i a : P r o f e s s o r H , C . G a n g u l i o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y of D e l h i . Japan: P r o f e s s o r K. United Kingdotn:

S ó m e y a of W a s e d a

Mr. James

University.

P i a t t and M i s s

Judith Powell,

C e n t r a l B u r e a u f o r E d u c a t i o n a l V i s i t s and E x c h a n g e s , London, and R o y P r y c e and A. J o n e s of the U n i v e r s i t y of S u s s e x . U n i t e d S t a t e s : P r o f e s s o r E v e r e t t C a r t e r a n d D r . W. H. A l l a w a y of the U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a . Yugoslavia: Professors versity.

V. S e r d a r a n d M .

B e n e of Z a g r e b U n i -

A c k n o w l e d g e m e n t is a l s o g r a t e f u l l y m a d e to: the V o l k s w a g e n F o u n d a t i o n f o r t h e g r a n t w h i c h m a d e p o s s i b l e t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o m p a r i s o n s a s w e l l a s t h e s t u d y in t h e G e r m a n F e d e r a l Republic, the A q u i n a s F u n d f o r f i n a n c i a l s u p p o r t f o r the F r e n c h C h a n c e l l o r C h e a d l e and Dr. A l l a w a y f o r c o n s t a n t m e n t and c o u n s e l ,

study,

encourage-

J o h n B o w m a n a n d J a c k E g l e o f t h e C o u n c i l on I n t e r n a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n a l E x c h a n g e , p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r help with the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a s p e c t s of the i n v e s t i g a t i o n , the l a t e C y r i l J a m e s , f o r m e r P r i n c i p a l of M c G i l l U n i v e r s i t y , and J e a n R o c h e , f o r m e r R e c t o r of the U n i v e r s i t y of P a r i s , who Were the valued consultants to the whole p r o j e c t , H* v o n A l e m a n n , w h o c o o p e r a t e d w i t h m e in the p r e p a r a t i o n of this r e p o r t , Peter Wollitzer,

f o r h e l p in e d i t i n g t h e n a t i o n a l s u m m a r i e s ,

and

T h e E c o l e d e s H a u t e s E t u d e s en S c i e n c e s S o c i a l e s , t h e A q u i n a s F u n d and the I n t e r n a t i o n a l S o c i a l S c i e n c e Council f o r t h e i r c o n tinuing s u p p o r t for the International C e n t e r f o r I n t e r g r o u p R e lations, which s e r v e d a s h e a d q u a r t e r s for this investigation. In t h e r e p o r t w h i c h f o l l o w s ,

I h a v e w r i t t e n in the f i r s t

person

Preface

9

p l u r a l r a t h e r than s i n g u l a r . T h i s is n o t the e d i t o r i a l " w e " a n d c l e a r l y n o t a n a s s u m p t i o n of r o y a l t y on m y part.' It i s r a t h e r m y w a y of i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h i s t r u l y r e p r e s e n t s a c o l l e c t i v e e n t e r p r i s e f o r w h i c h I h a v e t r i e d to be the s p o k e s m a n . I c a n n o t e x p e c t t h a t m y c o l l e a g u e s w i l l a g r e e w i t h e v e r y w o r d that I h a v e w r i t t e n , b u t I h a v e done m y b e s t to do j u s t i c e to t h e i r c o n t r i b u t i o n s . P e r h a p s I s h o u l d m a k e the u s u a l a c k n o w l e d g m e n t to t h e m f o r w h a t t h e y h a v e d o n e , a n d a c c e p t the b l a m e f o r a l l the e r r o r s ! I p r e f e r to e x p r e s s t h e h o p e t h a t t h e r e a r e not too m a n y of the l a t t e r ; a t the s a m e t i m e I a m r e a l l y g r a t e f u l to a l l t h o s e who p a r t i c i p a t e d .

P a r i s , April

15,

1975

Otto

Klineberg

PART I

The Major Problem Areas

CHAPTER 1

Some General Considerations

M a n y u n i v e r s i t i e s t h r o u g h o u t the w o r l d a r e now d e v o t i n g a s h a r e - s o m e t i m e s a c o n s i d e r a b l e s h a r e - of t h e i r r e s o u r c e s to e d u c a t i o n a l e x c h a n g e which is i n t e r n a t i o n a l in c h a r a c t e r . T h e y a r e e d u c a t i n g s t u d e n t s f r o m a b r o a d a n d s e n d i n g s o m e of t h e i r own s t u d e n t s to u n i v e r s i t i e s in o t h e r c o u n t r i e s ; they a r e a p p o i n t i n g f o r e i g n p r o f e s s o r s on e i t h e r a t e m p o r a r y o r a p e r m a n e n t b a s i s , and m a k i n g it p o s s i b l e f o r s o m e m e m b e r s of t h e i r own f a c u l t i e s to t e a c h o r e n g a g e in r e s e a r c h a b r o a d . The e x t e n t to which s u c h e x c h a n g e s h a v e i n c r e a s e d in r e c e n t y e a r s h a s f o c u s s e d a t t e n t i o n on the w h o l e p r o c e s s , and h a s r a i s e d q u e s t i o n s a s to its v a l u e a n d i t s e f f e c t i v e n e s s . In s o m e c o u n t r i e s , p r o p o s a l s h a v e r e c e n t l y b e e n m a d e to r e d u c e the n u m b e r a n d p r o p o r t i o n of f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s b e c a u s e it i s f e l t that the l i m i t e d r e s o u r c e s a v a i l a b l e m i g h t b e m o r e p r o p e r l y a p p l i e d to the e d u c a t i o n of o n e ' s own c i t i z e n s . T h e r e i s a t the s a m e t i m e a s t r o n g c o u n t e r - c u r r e n t of opinion in f a v o r of the m a i n t e n a n c e a n d e v e n e x p a n s i o n of e x c h a n g e p r o g r a m s on the g r o u n d that they h a v e a t r e m e n d o u s l y i m p o r t a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n to m a k e in a n u m b e r of d i f f e r e n t d i r e c t i o n s . A l t h o u g h the f a v o r a b l e j u d g m e n t s a r e c e r t a i n l y m o r e w i d e l y h e l d , the q u e r i e s r a i s e d r e g a r d i n g e x c h a n g e s e m p h a s i z e the n e e d f o r a s s e s s m e n t of t h e i r c o n s e q u e n c e s , a n d it i s not s u r p r i s i n g that t h e r e i s now in e x i s t e n c e a n e x t e n s i v e l i t e r a t u r e r e p o r t i n g the r e s u l t s of r e s e a r c h on t h i s t o p i c ( s e e b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l A p p e n d i x ) . T h e f a c t that e x c h a n g e s a r e f i n a n c e d not only by the u n i v e r s i t i e s t h e m s e l v e s but a l s o b y g o v e r n m e n t s (in m a n y countries university funds c o m e f r o m national, state, provincial or municipal governments), private foundations, internat i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s ( f o r e x a m p l e , U n e s c o ) , a s w e l l a s b y the i n d i v i d u a l s d i r e c t l y c o n c e r n e d , a c c o u n t s f o r the wide c o n c e r n with the n e e d f o r a s s e s s m e n t , or a s it i s s o m e t i m e s c a l l e d e v a l u a t i o n o r the s t u d y of i m p a c t . T h e a v a i l a b l e l i t e r a t u r e r a i s e s a l a r g e n u m b e r of s i g n i f i c a n t i s s u e s a n d s u g g e s t s m a n y i m p o r t a n t h y p o t h e s e s , but it l e a v e s c e r t a i n f u n d a m e n t a l q u e s t i o n s u n a n s w e r e d ; one of the m a j o r l i m i t a t i o n s a r i s e s f r o m the f a c t that with the r a r e s t of e x c e p t i o n s the r e s e a r c h h a s b e e n c a r r i e d out in one c o u n t r y a n d u n d e r o n e s e t of c o n d i t i o n s , s o t h a t e x t r a p o l a t i o n to i n t e r n a t i o n a l e d u c a t i o n a l e x c h a n g e in

lit

The major

problem

areas

general becomes impossible. There is, for example a t r e m e n d o u s d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e w a y in w h i c h t h e p r o b l e m p r e s e n t s i t s e l f to p r e d o m i n a n t l y r e c e i v i n g c o u n t r i e s (the U n i t e d S t a t e s , F r a n c e , G e r m a n y , G r e a t Britain) a s c o m p a r e d with sending c o u n t r i e s (India, I r a n , Ghana, Egypt, Senegal) and o t h e r s that a r e i n - b e t w e e n in t h i s r e s p e c t ( f o r e x a m p l e , J a p a n ) . In o n e s e n s e , the v e r y e x p r e s s i o n e x c h a n g e is i n c o r r e c t , s i n c e t h e r e i s n e v e r d i r e c t r e c i p r o c i t y in t e r m s of t h o s e w h o c o m e t o a p a r t i c u l a r c o u n t r y o r u n i v e r s i t y , a n d t h o s e w h o go a b r o a d ; i n a n y c a s e , t h e r e i s of c o u r s e a b a l a n c e b e t w e e n t h o s e w h o g o a n d t h o s e who c o m e f o r the e x c h a n g e p r o c e s s a s a w h o l e . A n y r e l i a b l e a s s e s s m e n t of i n t e r n a t i o n a l e x c h a n g e s o b v i o u s l y d e p e n d s on the g o a l s o r p u r p o s e s a s c r i b e d t o s u c h e x c h a n g e s . T h e r e a r e m a n y d i f f e r e n t goals that m a y be m e n t i o n e d , but f o r p u r p o s e s of c o n v e n i e n c e t h e y m a y b e s u b s u m e d u n d e r f o u r m a jor headings; f o r the individual, the u n i v e r s i t y , the nation, the i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o m m u n i t y . A s f a r a s a s s e s s m e n t is c o n c e r n e d , the following q u e s t i o n s w o u l d a p p e a r to h a v e p a r t i c u l a r r e l e vance. At the individual student l e v e l , one m i g h t a s k : Did he get what he c a m e f o r ? Did he p a s s his e x a m i n a t i o n s o r r e c e i v e the d e g r e e t h a t h e w a n t e d ? D i d he e n j o y h i s s o j o u r n a b r o a d ? W h a t d i f f i c u l t i e s d i d he e n c o u n t e r , a n d c o u l d t h e y h a v e b e e n a v o i d e d ? Did h e g r o w , in e x p e r i e n c e , in p e r s o n a l i t y ? Did his f o r e i g n s t u d y help h i m w h e n he r e t u r n e d ? Did it h a v e a f a v o r a b l e i n f l u e n c e on h i s c a r e e r ? M a n y of t h e s a m e q u e s t i o n s w o u l d b e p e r t i n e n t in t h e c a s e of t h e f o r e i g n t e a c h e r o r r e s e a r c h w o r k e r , w i t h o b v i o u s d i f f e r e n c e s in t h e c r i t e r i a u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e s u c cess or failure, respectively. A t the u n i v e r s i t y l e v e l the p r o b l e m is m u c h m o r e c o m p l i c a t ed. U n i v e r s i t y a u t h o r i t i e s u s u a l l y f e e l that t h e y a r e doing a g r e a t d e a l f o r t h e f o r e i g n s t u d e n t , b u t w o n d e r , i n v i e w of t h e time, energy and expense involved, whether they a r e getting a n y t h i n g i n r e t u r n . If t h e y a r e p r e p a r e d t o c o n t i n u e w i t h t h e p r o g r a m i n v i e w of t h e i r g o v e r n m e n t ' s i n v o l v e m e n t i n f o r e i g n aid, they m a y feel happy in the knowledge that t h e i r u n i v e r s i t y i s m a k i n g a c o n t r i b u t i o n to t h e d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s b y h e l p i n g t o t r a i n t h e i r s t u d e n t s . T h e r e a r e a n u m b e r of o t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , h o w e v e r , that s h o u l d be m e n t i o n e d . Do the f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s b r i n g s o m e t h i n g to t h e u n i v e r s i t y w h i c h it would o t h e r w i s e m i s s ? D o t h e y a i d i n t h e p r o c e s s of " e d u c a t i n g " t h e l o c a l s t u d e n t s ? D o t h e y b r i n g a n e w p o i n t of v i e w a n d n e w i n f o r m a t i o n i n t o c l a s s r o o m d i s c u s s i o n ? If n o t , w h y n o t ? T h e p r e s e n c e of a v i s i t i n g p r o f e s s o r r a i s e s e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t q u e s t i o n s , s i n c e he was p r e s u m a b l y invited b e c a u s e he was r e g a r d e d as having s o m e t h i n g to o f f e r , e v e n t h o u g h t h i s m i g h t b e t o a r e s t r i c t e d c l i e n t e l e .

Some

general

considerations

15

In this c a s e , the r e l e v a n t i s s u e r e l a t e s to the s u c c e s s of his t e a c h i n g or of his r e s e a r c h ; if indeed he was s u c c e s s f u l , he c l e a r l y m a d e a contribution to the u n i v e r s i t y which r e c e i v e d him. A s far as a sending, a s distinguished f r o m a receiving, u n i v e r s i t y is c o n c e r n e d , the r e l e v a n t q u e s t i o n would be whethe r the student o r f a c u l t y m e m b e r who went a b r o a d brought b a c k with h i m the t r a i n i n g or the s k i l l s which c o n t r i b u t e d to the d e v e l o p m e n t of t e a c h i n g o r r e s e a r c h a t the u n i v e r s i t y to which he returned. F o r a nation a s a whole, the s i t u a t i o n i s c l e a r in the c a s e of the d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s which s e e k f o r m a n y of their n a t i o n a l s the kinds of t e c h n i c a l and s c i e n t i f i c t r a i n i n g not a v a i l a b l e a t h o m e which a r e e s s e n t i a l f o r the conduct of both b a s i c and a p p l i e d r e s e a r c h . F o r the r e c e i v i n g c o u n t r i e s , once a g a i n the e x i s t e n c e of a i d p r o g r a m s s u p p o r t e d both by g o v e r n m e n t a n d p r i v a t e s o u r c e s would a p p e a r to o f f e r a d e q u a t e m o t i v a t i o n . In a d dition, one m i g h t l e g i t i m a t e l y a s k whether the p r e s e n c e of f o r e i g n n a t i o n a l s not only at the u n i v e r s i t y but in c o n t a c t with the g e n e r a l population in the s u r r o u n d i n g c o m m u n i t y d o e s not a d d a n i m p o r t a n t d i m e n s i o n of k n o w l e d g e to the n a t i o n a l c u l t u r e . T h i s in turn d e p e n d s , of c o u r s e , on the extent to which f o r e i g n e r s a r e a c c e p t e d , and the e x i s t e n c e of p r e j u d i c e a n d d i s c r i m i nation r e p r e s e n t s u n f o r t u n a t e l y a g r a v e p r o b l e m in connection with i n t e r n a t i o n a l e x c h a n g e s in m a n y p a r t s of the w o r l d . A t the i n t e r n a t i o n a l l e v e l , t h e g o a l m o s t f r e q u e n t l y m e n t i o n e d in the l i t e r a t u r e i s that of f o s t e r i n g u n d e r s t a n d i n g and f r i e n d s h i p a m o n g the n a t i o n s c o n c e r n e d . M u c h of the r e s e a r c h h a s b e e n c e n t e r e d on whether s t u d e n t s r e t u r n h o m e with a m o r e f a v o r a b l e attitude t o w a r d the h o s t c o u n t r y , t h e i r s t e r e o t y p e s c o r r e c t e d a s a r e s u l t of t h e i r own e x p e r i e n c e , t h e i r e t h n o c e n t r i c j u d g m e n t s m o d i f i e d , t h e i r i n t e r n a t i o n a l outlook s t r e n t h e n e d . H e r e we m u s t a s k : What kinds of e x p e r i e n c e a r e r e l a t e d to c h a n g e in the d e s i r e d d i r e c t i o n ; what kinds s e n d the s t u d e n t s (or t e a c h e r s ) h o m e with a t t i t u d e s unchanged, or even m o r e n e g a t i v e than when they s t a r t e d ? S u c c e s s o r f a i l u r e in r e a c h i n g individual or p e r s o n a l g o a l s will undoubtedly p l a y an i m p o r t a n t p a r t ; s o a l s o will the r e l a t i o n s to the s u r r o u n d i n g c o m m u n i t y , the d e g r e e of a c c e p t a n c e , the n u m b e r and depth of f r i e n d s h i p s f o r m e d , the j u d g m e n t s e n c o u n t e r e d r e g a r d i n g the h o m e c o u n t r y , and other r e l a t e d f a c t o r s . F r e q u e n t r e f e r e n c e is m a d e in the l i t e r a t u r e to the c o n s e q u e n c e s of " c u l t u r e s h o c k " which i n t e r f e r e s with the a d a p t a t i o n of the f o r e i g n e r and to " s t a t u s s h o c k " , when a n individual with high s t a t u s in h i s own c o u n t r y i s denied s u c h s t a t u s in the country of s o j o u r n ; he i s j u s t " o n e of t h e m " even if of high c a s t e , o r the s o n of a c h i e f . It h a s a l s o b e e n p o i n t e d

16

The major

problem

areas

out that t h e r e m a y b e a " n a t i o n a l s t a t u s s h o c k " when the c o u n t r y of o r i g i n i s c o n s i d e r e d i n f e r i o r a n d b a c k w a r d , o r i s c o m p l e t e l y unknown, in the c o u n t r y b e i n g v i s i t e d . A d i s t i n c t i o n m u s t b e m a d e a l s o b e t w e e n e x c h a n g e s f o s t e r e d on a b i l a t e r a l b a s i s , i n w h i c h one n a t i o n i s c o n c e r n e d with i m p r o v i n g o n e ' s i m a g e in, a n d r e l a t i o n s with, a n o t h e r n a t i o n , and w h i c h in the c a s e of the B r i t i s h C o m m o n w e a l t h and the F r e n c h C o m m u n i t y a r e p r i m a r i l y d i r e c t e d t o w a r d f o r m e r c o l o n i e s , a n d on the o t h e r h a n d what m i g h t b e c a l l e d o m n i l a t e r a l p r o g r a m s , a s in the c a s e of U n e s c o f e l l o w s h i p s , d e s i g n e d to c o n t r i b u t e to b e t t e r i n t e r n a t i o n a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g in g e n e r a l . (In s o m e c a s e s t h e r e m a y be m u l t i l a t e r a l p r o g r a m s r e p r e s e n t i n g an i n t e r m e d i a t e c a t e g o r y . ) The g o a l r e p r e s e n t e d by a i d to the d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s m u s t of c o u r s e a l s o b e k e p t in m i n d when e x c h a n g e s a r e j u d g e d a t the i n t e r n a t i o n a l level. T h i s l o n g l i s t of the g o a l s of e x c h a n g e s m a y a t f i r s t g l a n c e s u g g e s t that a s s e s s m e n t of t h e i r c o n s e q u e n c e s , a n d p r o p o s a l s f o r the i m p r o v e m e n t of e x c h a n g e p r o g r a m s , c o n s t i t u t e a n e x c e e d i n g l y c o m p l e x a n d d i f f i c u l t , if not i m p o s s i b l e , t a s k . A t the r i s k , h o w e v e r , of b e i n g a c c u s e d of a p r o f e s s i o n a l p s y c h o l o g i c a l b i a s (what the F r e n c h c a l l " u n e d e f o r m a t i o n p r o f e s s i o n n e l l e " ) , we would p r o p o s e that m a n y of t h e s e g o a l s m a y b e s t be a p p r o a c h e d b y a s t u d y of the e x p e r i e n c e s of the i n d i v i d u a l s i n v o l v e d in the e x c h a n g e p r o c e s s . What a u n i v e r s i t y or a n a t i o n g a i n s f r o m f o r e i g n n a t i o n a l s c l e a r l y d e p e n d s on w h a t they c o n t r i b u t e , by t h e i r p r e s e n c e , the point of v i e w a n d the i n f o r m a t i o n they b r i n g , t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s with the s u r r o u n d i n g c o m m u n i t y , t h e i r a d a p t a t i o n , t h e i r a t t i t u d e s . E v e n a t the i n t e r n a t i o n a l l e v e l , e v e r y t h i n g d e p e n d s on how the j u d g m e n t s of i n d i v i d u a l s a r e a f f e c t e d by the f o r e i g n s o j o u r n . T h i s in t u r n m e a n s that the m a n n e r in w h i c h t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s a r e r e c e i v e d , a n d t h e i r own j u d g m e n t of w h a t the e x p e r i e n c e h a s m e a n t to t h e m , b e c o m e c r u c i a l in the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the i m p a c t of the p r o g r a m on i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s . O t h e r f a c t o r s do, of c o u r s e , enter; administrative arrangements at particular universities, a s w e l l a s g o v e r n m e n t a l p o l i c i e s and p o l i t i c a l a l i g n m e n t s , f o r e x a m p l e m a y p l a y a n e x c e e d i n g l y i m p o r t a n t r o l e . The c o n s e q u e n c e , h o w e v e r a r e to b e found a t the i n d i v i d u a l l e v e l , a n d i t i s t h o s e w h i c h r e q u i r e the m o s t d i r e c t a n d m o s t d e t a i l e d c o n s i d e r a t i o n . We t u r n now to c e r t a i n c r u c i a l s i t u a t i o n s w h i c h e n t e r into the e x p e r i e n c e of the f o r e i g n s t u d e n t o r t e a c h e r , and w h i c h h a v e b e e n d e a l t with in a n u m b e r of p u b l i c a t i o n s in this f i e l d . T h e y p e r m i t us to i d e n t i f y a n u m b e r of s t a g e s r e l e v a n t to the s o j o u r n , and to d e s c r i b e a kind of l i f e h i s t o r y of the t o t a l experience. T h e r e i s f i r s t the q u e s t i o n of s e l e c t i o n .

Who g o e s

abroad,

Some

general

considerations

17

and how is he c h o s e n ? P r e s u m a b l y he g o e s , at l e a s t in p a r t , b e c a u s e he wants to; we know v e r y l i t t l e as y e t about the kind of human b e i n g f o r w h o m a f o r e i g n s o j o u r n a p p e a r s as a d e s i r a b l e e x p e r i e n c e , who s e e s what m i g h t be gained f r o m it, and who is o f t e n w i l l i n g to m a k e the s a c r i f i c e n e c e s s a r y to m a k e it p o s s i b l e . T h e s e l e c t i o n p r o c e s s w i l l o b v i o u s l y v a r y ; t h o s e who go as p a r t of a g o v e r n m e n t o r u n i v e r s i t y p r o g r a m , with a f e l l o w s h i p f r o m t h e i r own c o u n t r y or f r o m the c o u n t r y of s o j o u r n , m a y d i f f e r m a r k e d l y f r o m o t h e r s who go on t h e i r own i n i t i a t i v e and with t h e i r own r e s o u r c e s . S o m e t e a c h e r s a r e i n v i t e d to go a b r o a d ; o t h e r s m a y apply f o r funds in o r d e r to e n a b l e them to do s o . M a n y d i f f e r e n t m o t i v e s m a y o p e r a t e . T h e r e is the f u r t h e r q u e s t i o n as to when in the d e v e l o p m e n t of the individual and his c a r e e r a f o r e i g n s o j o u r n is undertaken, and when it would be m o s t p r o f i t a b l e ; as f a r as the students a r e c o n c e r n e d , the c o n c l u s i o n that a p p e a r s to e m e r g e f r o m the l i t e r a t u r e is that, other things b e i n g e q u a l , (;he m o r e m a t u r e the student, the g r e a t e r a r e his c h a n c e s of s u c c e s s . A n e x c e p tion should p r o b a b l y be m a d e f o r the Junior Y e a r A b r o a d p r o g r a m s of m a n y A m e r i c a n c o l l e g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s , w h i c h as the r e s u l t of c a r e f u l planning and s u p e r v i s i o n h a v e usually g i v e n good r e s u l t s . T h e s e c o n d s t a g e is that of p r e p a r a t i o n : how, when and w h e r e d o e s the student ( o r t e a c h e r , f o r that m a t t e r ) p r e p a r e h i m s e l f f o r what he w i l l f a c e a b r o a d ? He w i l l need to have adequate k n o w l e d g e about the institution to which he is g o i n g , the e d u c a t i o n a l s y s t e m i n v o l v e d , what is e x p e c t e d of the students ( o r t e a c h e r s ) and s o f o r t h . Should the f o r e i g n student h a v e a p r e l i m i n a r y p e r i o d of s c h o o l i n g o r " a p p r e n t i c e s h i p " b e f o r e e n t e r ing the n e w u n i v e r s i t y on a r e g u l a r b a s i s ? T h i s m a y b e p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t in c o n n e c t i o n with language f a c i l i t y : W h a t p r e c a u t i o n s a r e taken to e n s u r e that l a n g u a g e c o m p e t e n c e i s adequate f o r the w o r k planned? T h e r e is a l s o the p r o b l e m of p r e p a r i n g the f o r e i g n e r f o r l i f e in the c o m m u n i t y in g e n e r a l , f o r an understanding of the p a t t e r n s of b e h a v i o r w h i c h m a y be s t r a n g e to h i m , w h i c h w i l l p r o d u c e the " c u l t u r e s h o c k " to w h i c h r e f e r e n c e w a s m a d e a b o v e . W h a t does he n e e d to know to f a c i l i t a t e adaptation to the new e n v i r o n m e n t , a n d ' t o a v o i d u n n e c e s s a r y c o n f l i c t s with the l o c a l population? W h o can g i v e h i m the n e e d e d g u i d a n c e ? W h a t d o e s the l o c a l p o p u l a t i o n n e e d to know about the f o r e i g n v i s i t o r s ? T h e r e is next the a c a d e m i c e x p e r i e n c e i t s e l f , and tendant s u c c e s s o r f a i l u r e . T h i s i s of c o u r s e c r u c i a l w h o l e a s s e s s m e n t p r o c e s s ; w h a t e v e r the p u r p o s e of r e i g n e x p e r i e n c e , it w i l l not b e r e a l i z e d if the m o r e

its atin the the f o specific

18

The major

problem

areas

goal of passing the r e q u i r e d tests and examinations turns out to be beyond reach. This m a y be be cause the goal was s e t too high, or because it was the wrong goal f o r this p a r t i c u l a r i n d i vidual; a d v i c e and counsel, in addition to p r o p e r s e l e c t i o n and adequate training, w i l l be e s s e n t i a l . Is it a l w a y s a v a i l a b l e ? In what f o r m ? Through whom? Does the f o r e i g n student or teacher have a c c e s s to the needed guidance? Does he take advantage of the opportunities available f o r such counsel? In addition to the e x p e r i e n c e s at the a c a d e m i c institution i t s e l f , there is the question of the individual's relations with p e o ple in the host country. R e f e r e n c e has a l r e a d y been m a d e to the need f o r p r i o r knowledge of the norms of the new culture, and to the n e g a t i v e r o l e that m a y be played by p r e j u d i c e and d i s c r i mination. Many of the investigations which have been conducted on student exchanges indicate that s a t i s f a c t i o n is usually e x p r e s sed with the f o r e i g n e x p e r i e n c e when the student has made f r i e n d s in the new e n v i r o n m e n t . What can be done - what is being done to f a c i l i t a t e such contacts? F r i e n d s h i p s do d e v e l o p , but often with others of the same nationality, or with other f o r e i g n e r s , rather than with nationals of the country of s o j o u r n . N o a r r a n g e m e n t s , f o r m a l or i n f o r m a l , can be depended upon to c r e a t e r e a l f r i e n d s h i p ; can something be done, h o w e v e r , to help the f o r e i g n student or teacher to have at l e a s t s o m e d e g r e e of a c quaintance with the l o c a l people, both in and outside of the a c a d e m i c institution? F i n a l l y there is the return home - or the f a i l u r e to return. The second p o s s i b i l i t y , usually r e f e r r e d to as the " b r a i n d r a i n " , has constituted a s e r i o u s p r o b l e m f o r those r e s p o n s i b l e f o r e x change p r o g r a m s . It is the subject of an e x t e n s i v e investigation r e c e n t l y conducted by the Bureau of A p p l i e d S o c i a l R e s e a r c h of Columbia U n i v e r s i t y and as yet unpublished, under the auspices of the United N a t i o n s Institute f o r T r a i n i n g and R e s e a r c h . T h e question of what happens to the individual when he does return home has been e x p l o r e d in s o m e of the r e s e a r c h studies, but has not yet r e c e i v e d the c o n s i d e r a t i o n that it d e s e r v e s . In p a r t i c u l a r , the question must be r a i s e d as to whether non-return must a l w a y s , o r n e c e s s a r i l y , be r e g a r d e d as a " f a i l u r e " in the exchange p r o g r a m . The s e v e n country studies which constitute the basis f o r the p r e s e n t r e p o r t h a v e supplied at l e a s t p a r t i a l a n s w e r s to many of these questions. The U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a Self-Study, f o r e x a m p l e , which s e r v e d as the f i r s t i m p o r t a n t step in the p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n starts out with the question: "What a r e we d o i n g ? " . The next chapter w i l l ask the s a m e question,

Some

general

considerations

IS

a s w e l l a s s e v e r a l o t h e r s , in the c a s e of all of the s e v e n count r i e s (and u n i v e r s i t i e s ) i n v o l v e d in our study. P o l i c i e s s e t by g o v e r n m e n t s and a c a d e m i c i n s t i t u t i o n s , and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p r o c e d u r e s i n t r o d u c e d a s a c o n s e q u e n c e , h a v e an i n f l u e n c e on the v a r i o u s s t a g e s i d e n t i f i e d in the f o r e i g n e x p e r i e n c e - s e l e c tion, p r e p a r a t i o n , the a c a d e m i c e x p e r i e n c e , c o n t a c t with the h o s t population, the r e t u r n (or n o n - r e t u r n ) h o m e - all of which m a y be i n f l u e n c e d by s u c h p o l i c i e s and p r o c e d u r e s . Our a t t e m p t , t h e r e f o r e , will be to p r e s e n t a p i c t u r e , b a s e d on the r e p o r t s f r o m s e v e n c o u n t r i e s , of what is happening in the f i e l d of i n t e r n a t i o n a l e d u c a t i o n a l e x c h a n g e s . T h i s will l e a d us to a t l e a s t a t e n t a t i v e a s s e s s m e n t or e v a l u a t i o n of the p r o c e s s , and to the i n d i c a t i o n s that e m e r g e a s to what r e m a i n s to be done in o r d e r to i m p r o v e the c h a n c e s of s u c c e s s . In r e c e n t t i m e s i n v e s t i g a t o r s h a v e b e e n r e m i n d e d that t h e i r own v a l u e s m a y a f f e c t t h e i r r e s e a r c h , and that they s h o u l d a t l e a s t be h o n e s t about a d m i t t i n g j u s t what t h o s e v a l u e s a r e , and what they i m p l y . We g l a d l y a c k n o w l e d g e that we b e l i e v e in int e r n a t i o n a l e d u c a t i o n a l e x c h a n g e s , and f e e l that they should be e n c o u r a g e d . We a r e a l s o c o n v i n c e d , h o w e v e r , that they do not a l w a y s s u c c e e d . It i s our hope that we m a y be a b l e to m a k e a m o d e s t c o n t r i b u t i o n t o w a r d r e d u c i n g the n u m b e r of f a i l u r e s and adding to the p r o p o r t i o n of s u c c e s s e s in this i m p o r t a n t a r e a .

CHAPTER 2

Cross-national Comparisons of Student Exchanges

In t h e c h a p t e r s w h i c h f o l l o w w e s h a l l b e m a k i n g u s e of t h e m a t e r i a l s u p p l i e d f r o m the s e v e n c o u n t r i e s (and t h e i r u n i v e r s i t i e s ) w h i c h p a r t i c i p a t e d in the p r e s e n t s u r v e y . A n a t t e m p t will b e m a d e to d r a w f r o m t h e i n f o r m a t i o n c e r t a i n c o n c l u s i o n s w h i c h e m e r g e r e g a r d i n g i n t e r n a t i o n a l e x c h a n g e s i n g e n e r a l . It m u s t b e p o i n t e d o u t , h o w e v e r , t h a t the c o n t e n t of t h e r e p o r t s v a r i e s c o n s i d e r a b l y , n o t o n l y i n t h e a m o u n t of d e t a i l b u t a l s o i n t h e s p e c i f i c a s p e c t s of t h e p r o b l e m w h i c h h a v e b e e n c o n s i d e r e d , e i t h e r b e c a u s e of a v a i l a b i l i t y of t h e d a t a o r b e c a u s e of t h e i n t e r e s t s of t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r . A s a c o n s e q u e n c e , o n c e r t a i n p o i n t s w e s h a l l b e a b l e t o m a k e c o m p a r i s o n s a m o n g a l l of t h e s e v e n c o u n t r i e s , w h e r e a s on o t h e r s we s h a l l h a v e to c o n t e n t o u r s e l v e s w i t h w h a t is a v a i l a b l e ; we s h a l l t h e r e f o r e p r e s e n t o u r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s of t h e s e r e p o r t s in t h e f o r m of h y p o t h e s e s w h e n e v e r it i s i m p o s s i b l e to d r a w h a r d a n d f a s t c o n c l u s i o n s . M o r e i n t e g r a t e d a c c o u n t s of t h e s e v e n c o u n t r y s t u d i e s w i l l b e f o u n d i n P a r t II of t h i s r e p o r t , b u t s o m e of t h e f i n d i n g s p r e s e n t e d h e r e c o m e f r o m the m o r e complete s t a t e m e n t s r a t h e r than f r o m the s u m m a r i e s . I n t h e p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r w e d i s c u s s e d t h e g o a l s of i n t e r n a tional e x c h a n g e s , and a t t e m p t e d to i n d i c a t e t h e i r n a t u r e and t h e i r v a r i e t y . In t h e n a t i o n a l r e p o r t s , it is s t r i k i n g to n o t e the m a n n e r in which one or a n o t h e r goal is highlighted. T h e J a p a n e s e s t u d y s t a r t s w i t h t h e s t a t e m e n t t h a t t h e u l t i m a t e o b j e c t of i n t e r n a t i o n a l e x c h a n g e s i s t h e p r o m o t i o n of m u t u a l u n d e r s t a n d ing a m o n g p e o p l e s a n d the c o n t r i b u t i o n to w o r l d p e a c e ; t h e r e s h o u l d b e n o n a t i o n a l i t y in l e a r n i n g t o d a y . T h e G e r m a n r e p o r t s e e s t h e g o a l s of e x c h a n g e s a s r e l a t e d t o g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n , t h e d i f f u s i o n of k n o w l e d g e a c r o s s n a t i o n a l b o u n d a r i e s , a n d i n t e r national u n d e r s t a n d i n g . The Yugoslavs r e g a r d e x c h a n g e s as a s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e g r a t i v e f o r c e in t h e w o r l d , s i n c e p o l i t i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e s o f r e q u e n t l y b a s e d o n m u t u a l l a c k of k n o w l e d g e and c o n f i d e n c e ; e x c h a n g e s open up new p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a m o r e h u m a n b a s i s f o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s . T h e B r i t i s h m a k e p a r t i c u l a r m e n t i o n of t h e g o a l of d i v e r s i f y i n g the scientific c o m m u n i t y , the s p e c i a l n e e d s r e l a t i n g to the d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s , w h i c h s h o u l d r e c e i v e f u l l c o n s i d e r a t i o n by

Cross-national

comparisons

21

both sending and receiving nations and universities, and they a l s o i n d i c a t e t h e i m p o r t a n c e of t h e p o l i t i c a l a s p e c t s of t h e p r o g r a m s c o n c e r n e d . T h e F r e n c h r e p o r t , in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e m e n t a l h e a l t h i m p l i c a t i o n s of t h e f o r e i g n s o j o u r n , (to w h i c h w e s h a l l r e t u r n b e l o w ) r e f e r s t o the g o a l of t h e S t a t e , responsible both for the r e t u r n on the " i n v e s t m e n t " r e p r e s e n t e d by the F e l l o w s h i p s g r a n t e d , a n d f o r t h e b e h a v i o r of t h e i n d i v i d u a l s i n volved during their foreign sojourn and after they come home; a n d a l s o t o t h e g o a l s of t h e i n d i v i d u a l s w h o h a v e r e c e i v e d t h e F e l l o w s h i p s , and who have a c c e p t e d all the p r a c t i c a l d i f f i c u l t i e s of a s o j o u r n i n F r a n c e in t h e h o p e of a n i m p r o v e d p o s i t i o n at h o m e when their w o r k is completed. The California SelfS t u d y s t r e s s e s t h e e f f e c t of t h e p r e s e n c e of f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s on t h e u n i v e r s i t y c a m p u s , a s w e l l a s t h e e f f e c t of t h e U n i v e r s i t y on t h e f o r e i g n s t u d e n t - a d d i n g t h a t a r e s e a r c h p r o g r a m i s n e e d e d in o r d e r to e v a l u a t e the r e c i p r o c a l e f f e c t s m o r e f u l l y . We would add that s u c h e v a l u a t i o n is a l s o n e e d e d in the c a s e of f o r e i g n v i s i t o r s a t t h e f a c u l t y l e v e l . ( A l l t h e g o a l s c i t e d h e r e a r e i n c l u d e d in t h e l i s t d i s c u s s e d in the f i r s t c h a p t e r . ) 1) T h e d e v e l o p m e n t of S t u d e n t E x c h a n g e s . In o n e s e n s e , i n t e r national university exchanges a r e as old as universities. At E u ropean c e n t e r s like P a r i s , Oxford and Bologna, as well a s e l s e w h e r e , little or no distinction was m a d e between the foreign scholar (student or t e a c h e r ) and the n a t i v e - b o r n . T h e s e w e r e u n i v e r s i t i e s i n t h e t r u e " u n i v e r s a l " m e a n i n g of t h e t e r m . T h e r e w e r e of c o u r s e c o n t a c t s b e t w e e n s c h o l a r s e v e n b e f o r e u n i v e r sities were established; there was, for example, a large scale e x c h a n g e of s c h o l a r s b e t w e e n I n d i a a n d C h i n a w h i c h started a b o u t two t h o u s a n d y e a r s a g o , l a r g e l y f o c u s s e d on t h e t r a n s f e r a n d s p r e a d of B u d d h i s m f r o m I n d i a t o C h i n a , a n d i n v o l v i n g s e v e r a l h u n d r e d i n d i v i d u a l s . We s h a l l be c o n c e r n e d h e r e with m o r e recent history, which indicates that international student e x c h a n g e is i n d e e d a l a r g e - s c a l e e n t e r p r i s e t o d a y . S o m e of t h e m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t s t a t i s t i c s w i l l b e p r e s e n t e d in t h e n a t i o n a l s u m m a r i e s ( P a r t II), a n d w e s h a l l t h e r e f o r e c o n t e n t o u r s e l v e s a t t h i s p o i n t w i t h r a i s i n g a f e w of t h e m a j o r i s s u e s w h i c h a p p e a r to r e q u i r e d i s c u s s i o n , a n d w h i c h a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y r e l e v a n t to cross-national comparisons. T h e r e a r e m a r k e d v a r i a t i o n s a m o n g the s e v e n university s y s t e m s s t u d i e d i n t h e n u m b e r a n d p r o p o r t i o n s of f o r e i g n s t u dents. All the figures available a r e p r e s e n t e d with c e r t a i n r e s e r v a t i o n s ( s i n c e it is d i f f i c u l t to m a k e s u r e t h e y a r e c o m p l e t e ) , b u t t h e y d o g i v e a t l e a s t a n a p p r o x i m a t e i d e a of t h e d i m e n s i o n s of t h e o p e r a t i o n , a s w e l l a s i t s r e l a t i v e n u m e r i c a l i m p o r t a n c e

22

The major

problem

areas

in d i f f e r e n t p a r t s of t h e w o r l d . T h e s t a t i s t i c a l s e r v i c e s of U n e s c o e s t i m a t e d , f o r e x a m p l e , t h a t in 1968 t h e r e w e r e a b o u t 4 3 0 , 0 0 0 s t u d e n t s s t u d y i n g a b r o a d . In t h e s a m e y e a r , the f i g u r e g i v e n f o r t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w a s 127, 362, i n v o l v i n g 1, 800 d i f f e r rent academic institutions. Proportionately, however, foreign s t u d e n t s r e p r e s e n t a l i t t l e l e s s t h a n 2 % of the t o t a l s t u d e n t p o p u l a t i o n ; in S w i t z e r l a n d t h i s r i s e s to b e t w e e n 23 a n d 30 %, going s u b s t a n t i a l l y h i g h e r i n t h e c a s e of t h e U n i v e r s i t y of G e n e va b e c a u s e of t h a t c i t y ' s s p e c i a l i n t e r n a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r . In o u r s a m p l e t h e p r o p o r t i o n is r e l a t i v e l y h i g h in F r a n c e (5, 8 %), the U n i t e d K i n g d o m ( 7 , 3 %) and t h e F e d e r a l R e p u b l i c of G e r m a n y (5, 8 %), a n d l o w in Y u g o s l a v i a ( 1 , 4 %), J a p a n ( 0 , 7 %) a n d I n dia (0, 5 w i t h the United S t a t e s a s a l r e a d y i n d i c a t e d o c c u p y ing an i n t e r m e d i a t e p o s i t i o n , a l t h o u g h c l e a r l y a h e a d of a l l o t h e r c o u n t r i e s in the a b s o l u t e n u m b e r of f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s . T h e r e is a q u e s t i o n h e r e a s to w h a t i s m e a n t b y f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s . A s f a r a s " f o r e i g n " i s c o n c e r n e d , the F r e n c h s t i l l h a v e their O v e r s e a s departments (départements d ' O u t r e - M e r ) such as Guadeloupe and Martinique, whose inhabitants have F r e n c h nationality, although in background and c u l t u r e they m a y drffer m a r k e d l y f r o m t h o s e of the " m é t r o p o l e " . T h e B r i t i s h u s e t h e t e r m " o v e r s e a s s t u d e n t " to c o v e r b o t h C o m m o n w e a l t h a n d o t h e r f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s ; the t e r m " f o r e i g n " in t h i s c o n t e x t is m e a n t to r e f e r t o a l l n o n - C o m m o n w e a l t h c o u n t r i e s . In a d d i t i o n , s o m e s t u d e n t s d e f i n e d a s " B r i t i s h " f o r p u r p o s e of e l i g i b i l i t y f o r f i n a n c i a l a w a r d s u n d e r the L o c a l E d u c a t i o n A u t h o r i t y , m i g h t be c o n s i d e r e d " f o r e i g n " by o t h e r c r i t e r i a . T h e s e i n c l u d e , f o r i n s t a n c e , a s t u d e n t w h o h a d r e s i d e d i n t h e UK f o r a t l e a s t t h r e e y e a r s p r e c e d i n g h i s u n i v e r s i t y w o r k , o r one w h o h a s r e s i d e d in t h e UK o n l y one y e a r but w h o s e s p o u s e h a s b e e n t h e r e f o r t h r e e y e a r s . T h e w o r d " s t u d e n t " is e v e n m o r e a m b i g u o u s . If we c o m p a r e , f o r e x a m p l e , F r a n c e and t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , we f i n d t h a t the f i r s t y e a r of a F r e n c h u n i v e r s i t y is r o u g h l y the e q u i v a l e n t of the t h i r d y e a r of a n A m e r i c a n C o l l e g e . T h a t m e a n s t h a t A m e r i c a n " f r e s h m e n " and " s o p h o m o r e s " w o u l d in F r a n c e be c o n s i d e r e d " l y c é e n s " or h i g h - s c h o o l s t u d e n t s . The f i g u r e s f o r f o r e i g n e r s s t u d y i n g in t h e United S t a t e s w o u l d t h e r e f o r e i n c l u d e a s u b s t a n t i a l n u m b e r w h o would not b e c o u n t e d a s " é t u d i a n t s " in F r a n c e . E v e n within F r a n c e t h e r e a r e d i f f i c u l t i e s . " E t u d i a n t s " o r s t u d e n t s , p r o p e r l y s o - c a l l e d , a r e t h o s e e n r o l l e d in a u n i v e r s i t y ; t h e r e a r e a l s o " é l è v e s " (or p u p i l s ) of t h e " G r a n d e s E c o l e s " , the p r e s t i g e o r s t a t u s i n s t i t u t i o n s , s u c h a s t h e E c o l e P o l y t e c h n i q u e o r the E c o l e N o r m a l e S u p é r i e u r e ; " s t a g i a i r e s " , w h o c o m e for specialized professional or technical training at various l e v e l s ; and finally " a u d i t e u r s " , who f o r the m o s t p a r t a r e e n r o l l e d

Cross-national

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in c o u r s e s in F r e n c h l a n g u a g e a n d c i v i l i z a t i o n , f r e q u e n t l y u n d e r the a u s p i c e s of t h e A l l i a n c e F r a n ç a i s e . In G e r m a n y the t e r m " s t u d e n t s " r e f e r r e d until r e c e n t l y only to t h o s e a d m i t t e d to i n s titutions a u t h o r i z e d to g r a n t d o c t o r a t e s , for e x a m p l e , u n i v e r s i t i e s , i n s t i t u t e s of t e c h n o l o g y , a n d a f e w o t h e r s . T h e t e r m w a s not u s e d f o r t h o s e a t t e n d i n g t e a c h e r s ' c o l l e g e s a n d s c h o o l s of e n g i n e e r i n g , which i n c i d e n t a l l y have included v e r y few f o r e i g n e r s . If a l l of t h e s e e n t e r i n t o n a t i o n a l s t u d e n t s t a t i s t i c s in the f u t u r e , t h e r e w i l l be an a p p a r e n t s h a r p d r o p in the r e l a t i v e p r o p o r t i o n of f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s in G e r m a n y . The r e l e v a n t s t a t i s t i c s w i l l o b v i o u s l y v a r y g r e a t l y d e p e n d i n g on the d e f i n i t i o n of " s t u d e n t " w h i c h is f i n a l l y a d o p t e d . G r a n t i n g t h e s e d i f f i c u l t i e s , a f e w of the m o r e s t r i k i n g f i n d i n g s of o u r i n t e r n a t i o n a l s u r v e y m a y b e n o t e d . T h e G e r m a n d a t a , f o r e x a m p l e , go b a c k a s f a r a s 1860, w h e n 6 % of s t u d e n t s c a m e f r o m abroad; t h e r e was a s h a r p and understandable drop d u r i n g a n d a f t e r b o t h W o r l d W a r s , a n d a g a i n a d r o p b e c a u s e of a t o u g h e r a d m i s s i o n p o l i c y i n t r o d u c e d in 1963, but the m o s t r e c e n t e s t i m a t e s put t h e p r o p o r t i o n a t a b o u t 8 %, a n d t h e t o t a l n u m b e r of f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s a t a b o u t 22, 000. B e f o r e 189 5, the USA r e p r e s e n t e d the l a r g e s t s i n g l e f o r e i g n g r o u p ; l a t e r it w a s R u s s i a a n d E a s t e r n E u r o p e in g e n e r a l ; in m o d e r n t i m e s ( f o r t h e G e r m a n F e d e r a l R e p u b l i c ) it i s G r e e c e , I r a n , E g y p t a n d S y r i a , r e p r e s e n t i n g a g r e a t i n c r e a s e i n t h e a c c e n t on the d e v e l oping c o u n t r i e s . The m o s t popular fields a m o n g f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s a t the p r e s e n t t i m e a r e the h u m a n i t i e s , t e c h n o l o g y a n d n a t u r a l s c i e n c e , m e d i c i n e , social s c i e n c e s and law, in that o r d e r . In s o m e f i e l d s w i t h i n I n s t i t u t e s of T e c h n o l o g y , f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s a r e a c t u a l l y in the m a j o r i t y . Our B r i t i s h colleagues e s t i m a t e that there a r e about nineteen t h o u s a n d f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s , a p p r o x i m a t e l y half f r o m t h e C o m m o n w e a l t h , but w i t h t h e l a r g e s t s i n g l e g r o u p f r o m t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . T h e y e n r o l l p r i m a r i l y in t h e u n i v e r s i t i e s of L o n d o n , O x f o r d , C a m b r i d g e , L e e d s , E d i n b u r g h a n d W a l e s . In s o m e i n s t i t u t i o n s t h e y a r e found in p a r t i c u l a r l y l a r g e n u m b e r s , f o r e x a m p l e a t O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y in the I n s t i t u t e s of E c o n o m i c s , S o c i a l A n t h r o p o l o g y , O r i e n t a l S t u d i e s a n d F o r e s t r y . At t h e I m p e r i a l C o l l e g e in L o n d o n , s p e c i a l i z i n g in a p p l i e d s c i e n c e a n d t e c h n o l o g y , t h e r e a r e a s m a n y a s 21 % f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s , r i s i n g to 44 "j? a t the g r a d u a t e (or p o s t - g r a d u a t e ) l e v e l . T h e r e a r e s t r i k i n g v a r i a t i o n s b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t colleges within the s a m e u n i v e r s i t y . At the U n i v e r s i t y of L o n d o n , Q u e e n M a r y C o l l e g e h a s a v e r y h i g h , a n d W e s t f i e l d C o l l e g e , a v e r y l o w , p r o p o r t i o n of f o r e i g n (or o v e r s e a s ) s t u d e n t s . V a r i o u s f a c t o r s e n t e r i n t o t h e c h o i c e of a u n i v e r s i t y , p r e c e d e n t a n d t r a d i t i o n p l a y i n g a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e ; at

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S t r a t h c l y d e a n d H e r i o t - W a t t U n i v e r s i t i e s in S c o t l a n d a n d N e w C a s t l e - u p o n - T y n e in E n g l a n d , f o r e x a m p l e , N o r w e g i a n s a r e found in l a r g e n u m b e r s . In g e n e r a l , t h e r e a r e p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y m o r e p o s t g r a d u a t e than u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s ; m o r e e n c o u r a g e m e n t is g i v e n to a d v a n c e d s t u d e n t s , and they find it e a s i e r to be a c cepted. A s f a r a s F r a n c e i s c o n c e r n e d , it h a s a l r e a d y b e e n noted that the c o n c e p t of " s t u d e n t " m a y b e i n t e r p r e t e d in v a r i o u s w a y s . If we i n c l u d e t h o s e e n r o l l e d in the u n i v e r s i t i e s and t h e i r i n s t i t u t e s , the " G r a n d e s E c o l e s " , d e n o m i n a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s , " s t a g i a i r e s " a n d t h o s e who a t t e n d e d c o u r s e s in F r e n c h l a n g u a g e and c i v i l i z a t i o n , the t o t a l f i g u r e f o r 1 9 6 7 - 1 9 6 8 w a s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 1 0 , 0 0 0 . Of t h e s e about 3 0 , 0 0 0 w e r e in the s t a t e u n i v e r s i t i e s ; in t h e s e the_ p r o p o r t i o n went f r o m a p p r o x i m a t e l y 6 % in 1 8 9 9 , up to a s h i g h a s 22 % in 1 9 2 7 - 1 9 2 8 , a n d down to 6 % in the m o s t r e c e n t e s t i m a t e . There has been an a l m o s t s t e a d y i n c r e a s e in n u m b e r s , a n d the r e c e n t d e c r e a s e in p e r c e n t a g e is e x p l a i n e d by the t r e m e n d o u s influx of F r e n c h s t u d e n t s into the u n i v e r s i t i e s . An e a r l y (1916) r e p o r t s h o w s the l a r g e s t n a t i o n a l g r o u p s to be f r o m R u s s i a , R o u m a n i a , E g y p t , G r e e c e a n d S e r b i a ; in 1 9 6 7 - 1 9 6 8 , the v i s i t o r s c a m e m a i n l y f r o m the U S A , T u n i s i a , M o r o c c o , S o u t h V i e t - N a m , W e s t G e r m a n y , the United K i n g d o m , L e b a n o n a n d A l g e r i a . In 1 9 2 7 - 1 9 2 8 , they e n r o l l e d m a i n l y in the f a c u l t y of l e t t e r s , with m e d i c i n e a p o o r s e c o n d , f o l l o w e d by n a t u r a l s c i e n c e s a n d l a w ; the m o s t r e c e n t f i g u r e s s h o w m e d i c i n e f i r s t , l e t t e r s (and h u m a n s c i e n c e s ) s e c o n d , p h a r m a c y a c l o s e t h i r d , a n d d e n t i s t r y fourth. A l t h o u g h the l a r g e s t s i n g l e n u m b e r of f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s i s in P a r i s , m a n y F r e n c h u n i v e r s i t i e s r e c e i v e t h e m in s u b s t a n t i a l , and often g r e a t e r , p r o p o r t i o n s . M e n t i o n w a s m a d e a b o v e of U n e s c o ' s e s t i m a t e that in 1968 t h e r e w e r e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 120, 000 f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s in the U n i t e d S t a t e s in 1, 800 c o l l e g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s . The d i f f i c u l t y in o b t a i n i n g a d e q u a t e s t a t i s t i c s i s i n d i c a t e d b y the f a c t that the e s t i m a t e we w e r e given for 1969 w a s c l o s e to 1 3 5 , 0 0 0 in 1 734 d i f f e r e n t i n s t i t u t i o n s . S i n c e the l a t t e r f i g u r e s w e r e a c c o m p a n i e d by the i n f o r m a t i o n that t h e r e w a s a n 11 ^ i n c r e a s e o v e r the p r e c e d i n g y e a r , the d i s c r e p a n c y t u r n s out not to be too g r e a t . The n u m b e r s h a v e i n c r e a s e d r e g u l a r l y s i n c e 1 9 5 3 . In the e a r l i e r p e r i o d , t h e r e w e r e s l i g h t l y m o r e u n d e r g r a d u a t e than g r a d u a t e f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s ; they c a m e f r o m the F a r E a s t (36 %). L a t i n A m e r i c a (19 % ) , E u r o p e (14 %), M i d d l e E a s t (11 %), N o r t h A m e r i c a (10 %), A f r i c a (6 % ) , a n d O c e a n i a (2 %). The p r e f e r red subjects were engineering, humanities, natural s c i e n c e s , s o c i a l s c i e n c e s , b u s i n e s s , education, medicine and a g r i c u l t u r e in that o r d e r . T h e t o t a l s a r e l a r g e r but the p e r c e n t a g e

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s m a l l e r t h a n i n F r a n c e o r t h e UK; t h e y d o r e p r e s e n t a c o n s i d e r a b l e p e r c e n t a g e , h o w e v e r , in s o m e i n s t i t u t i o n s . The Univ e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a r e p o r t s a p r o p o r t i o n of 7 which has r e m a i n e d f a i r l y c o n s t a n t s i n c e 1964. A s i n t h e c o u n t r y a s a w h o l e , the F a r E a s t ( N a t i o n a l i s t China and Hong Kong) h a s the l a r g e s t contingent, followed by E u r o p e , the N e a r and Middle E a s t and L a t i n A m e r i c a . A t the p r e s e n t t i m e the p r e f e r r e d dis c i p l i n e s a r e the n a t u r a l s c i e n c e s , h u m a n i t i e s , s o c i a l s c i e n c e s and the p r o f e s s i o n s ; t h e r e a r e a l m o s t t h r e e t i m e s a s m a n y g r a d u a t e a s u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a from foreign countries. T h e A m e r i c a n p i c t u r e is c o m p l i c a t e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t t h e p r o p o r t i o n of f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s i s h i g h a t " e l i t e " i n s t i t u t i o n s w i t h prestigious graduate schools, and m u c h lower at the l e s s wellk n o w n c o l l e g e s a n d u n i v e r s i t i e s . In t h e f o r m e r , t h e r e l a t i v e p r o p o r t i o n of f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s is a s h i g h a s i n m o s t E u r o p e a n institutions. T h e f i g u r e s f o r J a p a n i n d i c a t e t h e p r e s e n c e of a b o u t 4 , 2 6 0 f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s i n 1971; a t W a s e d a U n i v e r s i t y t h e r e h a s b e e n a r e g u l a r i n c r e a s e in n u m b e r s f r o m 1910 t o 1966, b u t a de c r e a s e i n p e r c e n t a g e s , f r o m 8 % to l e s s t h a n 1 %. In 1970 t h e l a r g e m a j o r i t y came f r o m Asia, although t h e r e w e r e s o m e A m e r i c a n s and E u r o p e a n s , as well a s m o d e s t n u m b e r s f r o m t h e M i d d l e E a s t a n d L a t i n A m e r i c a . T h e p r e f e r r e d f i e l d s of study w e r e the s o c i a l s c i e n c e s , E n g l i s h , m e d i c i n e and the H u m a n i t i e s . W a s e d a U n i v e r s i t y e s t i m a t e s i t s p r o p o r t i o n of f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s t o b e a b o u t of one p e r c e n t ; U n e s c o s t a t i s t i c s i n dicate 0 · 7 % for Japan as a whole, although our Japanese colleagues suggest 0 . 2 5 % as a m o r e a c c u r a t e figure. In Y u g o s l a v i a , f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s b e g a n t o a r r i v e a f t e r W o r l d W a r II, a p a r t i c u l a r l y l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n f r o m C z e c h o s l o v a k i a ; the p o l i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n , and Y u g o s l a v i a ' s i n d e p e n d e n t p o s i t i o n , w e r e r e g a r d e d a s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r s l o w i n g up t h e p r o c e s s . It r e s u m e d a g a i n , h o w e v e r , i n 1955, a n d t h e n u m b e r s g r a d u a l l y i n c r e a s e d t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 % of t h e Y u g o s l a v s t u d e n t p o p u l a t i o n ; t h e i n c r e a s e w a s in f a c t m o r e r a p i d t h a n f o r s t u d e n t s i n g e n e r a l . Since 1955 t h e r e h a s b e e n s o m e r i s e in the n u m b e r s of E a s t E u r o p e a n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y B u l g a r i a n s ; A f r i c a n s s h o w e d the g r e a t e s t i n c r e a s e in 1965, s i n c e when the f i g u r e h a s c h a n ged v e r y l i t t l e ; A s i a n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y A r a b s , a r e g r a d u a l l y c o m i n g in l a r g e n u m b e r s , a n d t h e r e a r e s o m e A m e r i c a n s a s w e l l . T h e s i t u a t i o n a t p r e s e n t ( f i g u r e s f r o m 1968) s h o w s a b o u t h a l f the f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s c o m i n g f r o m A s i a , including the A r a b count r i e s , a b o u t o n e f i f t h f r o m E u r o p e (half of t h e s e b e i n g B u l g a r ians), and one sixth f r o m A f r i c a . T h e r e is wide variation

26

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a m o n g t h e Y u g o s l a v R e p u b l i c s ; m o r e A m e r i c a n s go to C r o a t i a , a n d B u l g a r i a n s to M a c e d o n i a ; t h e r e a r e no f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s i n Montenegro. The m a j o r specialties a r e medicine, a g r i c u l t u r e , technology and the s o c i a l s c i e n c e s ; in Z a g r e b they tend to c o n c e n t r a t e on s o c i a l s c i e n c e s . India's e x p e r i e n c e with f o r e i g n s c h o l a r s , as we have a l r e a d y i n d i c a t e d , h a s a l o n g h i s t o r y . In m o r e r e c e n t t i m e s d a t a on f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s , t h o u g h i n c o m p l e t e , a r e a v a i l a b l e s i n c e 1958. In that y e a r t h e r e w e r e about 3,500, i n c r e a s i n g - though i r r e g u l a r l y - t o 7 , 2 0 0 in 1970. T h i s w o u l d , of c o u r s e , r e p r e s e n t a s m a l l p e r c e n t a g e of t h e t o t a l s t u d e n t p o p u l a t i o n in I n d i a . A b o u t 40 % of t h e s e s t u d e n t s e n r o l in p r o f e s s i o n a l c o u r s e s , a n d a n o t h e r 30 % i n s c i e n c e s a n d a r t s . A s r e g a r d s g e o g r a p h i c a l o r i g i n , a p p r o x i m a t e l y 40 % c o m e f r o m b l a c k A f r i c a , a l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n of t h e s e b e i n g t h e m s e l v e s of I n d i a n o r i g i n . O t h e r s u b s t a n t i a l c o n t i n g e n t s a r e f r o m E a s t A s i a (24 %) a n d S o u t h A s i a (20 %). T h o s e f r o m M a u r i t i u s a n d O c e a n i a a r e a l s o in m a n y c a s e s f r o m I n d i a n f a m i l i e s . T h e r e a r e s m a l l n u m b e r s of E u r o p e a n s a n d North Americans. T h i s b r i e f g e o g r a p h i c a l s u r v e y g i v e s s o m e i d e a of t h e m o v e m e n t of f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s i n t o o u r s e v e n c o u n t r i e s . T h e r e a r e s t r i k i n g d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e e x t e n t of t h i s m o v e m e n t , i n t h e n a t i o n a l o r i g i n s of t h o s e i n v o l v e d , in t h e i r f i e l d s of s t u d y , i n t h e a m o u n t a n d d i r e c t i o n of c h a n g e t h r o u g h t i m e . I n g e n e r a l , h o w e v e r , the t r e n d h a s b e e n u p w a r d , and the i n t e r e s t in and c o n c e r n with foreign students have become increasingly c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of u n i v e r s i t y l i f e . T h e p r o b l e m s w h i c h t h i s h a s c r e a t e d a s well as the a t t e m p t s to solve t h e m will be e x a m i n e d l a t e r . 2) S t u d y A b r o a d . In t h i s s e c t i o n w e d e a l w i t h t h e o p p o s i t e m o v e m e n t , t h a t i s , t h e c a s e of s t u d e n t s f r o m t h e s e s e v e n c o u n t r i e s w h o go a b r o a d f o r s t u d y . If w e h a d d a t a f o r a l l t h e c o u n t r i e s of the w o r l d (available to s o m e extent in the U n e s c o ' s s t a t i s t i c s ) w e w o u l d in o n e s e n s e h a v e a c o m p l e t e l y r e c i p r o c a l p i c t u r e , s i n c e a f o r e i g n s t u d e n t f r o m one c o u n t r y is a t the s a m e t i m e g o i n g t o a n o t h e r . In t h e c a s e of a n y p a r t i c u l a r c o u n t r y , h o w e v e r , the situation m a y be entirely d i f f e r e n t . F r a n c e , for e x a m p l e , r e c e i v e s m a n y m o r e s t u d e n t s than it s e n d s a b r o a d ; India does j u s t the r e v e r s e ; the United S t a t e s s h o w s c o n s i d e r a b l e m o v e m e n t in b o t h d i r e c t i o n s . W e now l o o k b r i e f l y a t t h e s i t u a t i o n i n e a c h of o u r s e v e n c o u n t r i e s ; r e g r e t f u l l y w e d i s c o v e r t h a t m u c h l e s s i s k n o w n a b o u t t h e m o v e m e n t out t h a n t h e m o v e m e n t in. Japan r e p o r t s , for example, that each y e a r approximately 5, 000 s t u d e n t s a r e e n g a g e d in s t u d y a b r o a d ; t h i s i s s o m e w h a t in e x c e s s of t h e n u m b e r of f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s i n J a p a n ( 4 , 2 6 0 ) .

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A m o n g t h e c o u n t r i e s to w h i c h t h e y go, t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s c l e a r ly o c c u p i e s f i r s t place. At W a s e d a U n i v e r s i t y t h e r e is no t r u e p r o g r a m d e v o t e d t o s e n d i n g s t u d e n t s a b r o a d , a n d i n 1970 o n l y 78 w e r e s p e n d i n g a y e a r a w a y f r o m J a p a n , a n d t h e y w e n t m a i n l y to t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , W e s t G e r m a n y , F r a n c e a n d t h e S o v i e t U n i o n ; t h e p r i n c i p a l a r e a s of s t u d y w e r e t h e h u m a n i t i e s , E n g lish and social s c i e n c e s . T h e r e w e r e also m a n y b r i e f e r trips a b r o a d b y g r o u p s of J a p a n e s e s t u d e n t s . W a s e d a U n i v e r s i t y h a s a n A d v i s o r y C o u n c i l on O v e r s e a s T r a v e l w h i c h a i d s t h e s t u d e n t s with their t r a v e l a r r a n g e m e n t s . T h e F e d e r a l R e p u b l i c of G e r m a n y h a d a b o u t 10, 000 s t u d e n t s a b r o a d d u r i n g 1968, a s l i g h t i n c r e a s e o v e r 9 , 700 i n 1962; t h i s f i g u r e m a y b e c o m p a r e d w i t h the a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 5 , 0 0 0 f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s i n G e r m a n y . A t t h e U n i v e r s i t y of C o l o g n e , a b o u t 4 , 4 % of t h e s t u d e n t s h a d a t s o m e t i m e s t u d i e d a b r o a d , w o m e n s t u dents slightly m o r e f r e q u e n t l y than the m e n . Until a few y e a r s a g o t h e m a j o r i t y of G e r m a n s t u d e n t s s t u d y i n g a b r o a d w e n t to G e r m a n - s p e a k i n g countries such as A u s t r i a and Switzerland; recently there has been a shift toward other E u r o p e a n count r i e s and N o r t h A m e r i c a , but not enough to a l t e r the p r o p o r tion g r e a t l y ; A u s t r i a is s t i l l the f a v o r i t e goal, f o l l o w e d by the U n i t e d S t a t e s , S w i t z e r l a n d , F r a n c e , t h e UK a n d C a n a d a . The F r e n c h r e p o r t indicates that u n i v e r s i t i e s keep no s t a t i s t i c a l r e c o r d of t h e n u m b e r of t h e i r s t u d e n t s w h o e n g a g e i n s t u dy a b r o a d . U n e s c o s t a t i s t i c s , h o w e v e r , r e p o r t a s t e a d y growth i n t h e n u m b e r of F r e n c h s t u d e n t s a b r o a d , i n c r e a s i n g f r o m a r o u n d 5 , 6 0 0 in 1962 t o n e a r l y 9, 000' in 1968. ( T h e s e f i g u r e s a r e f o r s t a t e s u n i v e r s i t i e s o n l y , a n d do n o t i n c l u d e t h e " G r a n d e s E c o l e s " . ) M o s t s t u d e n t s w e n t to A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s , b u t s i g n i f i c a n t n u m b e r s w e n t to E u r o p e a n a n d N o r t h A m e r i c a n u n i v e r s i t i e s and m o r e r a r e l y to A s i a . T h e p r e f e r r e d c o u n t r i e s , w e r e in t h a t o r d e r , t h e USA, S w i t z e r l a n d , G e r m a n y , S e n e g a l , M a d a g a s c a r , A l g e r i a a n d t h e I v o r y C o a s t . T h e r e is c l e a r l y s t i l l a c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n F r a n c e and its f o r m e r c o l o n i e s . (Source : S t a t i s t i c s of S t u d e n t s A b r o a d , 1 9 6 2 - 6 8 ; R e p o r t N ° 18, U n e s c o , 1 9 7 1 . ) It i s p o s s i b l e , h o w e v e r , to o b t a i n a r e c o r d of t h o s e who have obtained f e l l o w s h i p s f o r this p u r p o s e , and it is b e l i e v e d t h a t in p r a c t i c e t h i s w o u l d i n c l u d e a l m o s t a l l F r e n c h s t u d e n t s w h o go a b r o a d t o u n i v e r s i t i e s . T h e r e a r e f e l l o w s h i p s g i v e n b y f o r e i g n g o v e r n m e n t s a s p a r t of b i l a t e r a l c u l t u r e e x c h a n g e p r o g r a m s ; 187 i n 1968, w i t h e a s t e r n E u r o p e a n c o u n t r i e s p r e d o m i n a t i n g . With o t h e r fellowships o f f e r e d by f o r e i g n g o v e r n m e n t s , 1, 182 F r e n c h s t u d e n t s w e n t a b r o a d i n 1967 a n d 1 , 4 8 2 i n 1968; m o s t of t h e s e a w a r d s w e r e f o r s t u d i e s i n l i n g u i s t i c s f o r t h e p u r p o s e of p r e p a r i n g F r e n c h t e a c h e r s of f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e s .

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T h e r e h a s r e c e n t l y b e e n an i n c r e a s e in p o s s i b i l i t i e s of s t u d y i n C a n a d a a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e P r o v i n c e of Q u e b e c ; in 1969 t h e r e w e r e 800 r e q u e s t s f o r Q u e b e c , a n d 500 f o r o t h e r C a n a d i a n f e l l o w s h i p s . T h e s e a r e not r e s t r i c t e d t o l i n g u i s t i c s , a n d a p p l y t o r e s e a r c h w o r k e r s a s w e l l a s to s t u d e n t s . T h e F r e n c h g o v e r n m e n t gave 205 fellowships for s t u d e n t s and r e s e a r c h w o r k e r s i n 1 9 6 8 , t h e m a j o r i t y g o i n g to t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s f o r w o r k in t h e n a t u r a l s c i e n c e s , l a w a n d e c o n o m i c s . T h e r e h a s r e c e n t l y b e e n a n i n c r e a s e d d e m a n d f o r f e l l o w s h i p s in A m e r i c a n B u s i n e s s S c h o o l s f o r a d v a n c e d t r a i n i n g in t h e f i e l d of m a n a g e m e n t . In g e n e r a l , a n i n c r e a s i n g n u m b e r of F r e n c h s t u d e n t s a r e b e c o m i n g i n t e r e s t e d in s t u d y a b r o a d , a n d t h e p r o s p e c t s a r e f o r a n i n c r e a s e in a v a i l a b l e f e l l o w s h i p s . T h e F r a n c o - A m e r i c a n C o m m i s s i o n for Educational Exchange ( f o r m e l y known as the F u l b r i g h t C o m m i s s i o n ) i s a l s o r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a n u m b e r of f e l l o w s h i p s , a s s i m i l a r g r o u p s a r e i n a l a r g e n u m b e r of o t h e r c o u n t r i e s a s w e l l . It i s c l e a r , h o w e v e r , t h a t F r e n c h s t u d e n t s a b r o a d r e p r e s e n t o n l y a s m a l l f r a c t i o n c o m p a r e d to t h e n u m b e r of f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s in F r a n c e . It is v e r y d i f f i c u l t to o b t a i n a c c u r a t e f i g u r e s f o r B r i t i s h s t u dents a b r o a d ; their n u m b e r , although substantial, probably does n o t c o m p a r e w i t h t h e m u c h l a r g e r n u m b e r of f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s in B r i t a i n . F e l l o w s h i p s f o r o v e r s e a s s t u d y a r e a v a i l a b l e t h r o u g h B r i t i s h University Awards, for example at Edinburgh and G l a s gow; O v e r s e a s U n i v e r s i t y A w a r d s , which often h a v e s p e c i a l l i n k s , a s in t h e c a s e of A u s t r i a n g o v e r n m e n t m u s i c s c h o l a r s h i p s ; a w a r d s m a d e through NATO, the C o m m i s s i o n for International E d u c a t i o n a l E x c h a n g e (UK a n d USA), e t c . I n d i v i d u a l u n i v e r s i t i e s a l s o f r e q u e n t l y h a v e s p e c i f i c a r r a n g e m e n t s , w h i c h m a y b e of a b i l a t e r a l c h a r a c t e r i n r e l a t i o n to a s p e c i f i c u n i v e r s i t y a b r o a d . O n e s t r i k i n g s i t u a t i o n is t h a t of t h e U n i v e r s i t y of S u s s e x , w h e r e t h e S c h o o l of E u r o p e a n S t u d i e s r e q u i r e s t h a t one y e a r (out of the r e q u i r e d f o u r ) , u s u a l l y the t h i r d y e a r , b e s p e n t in a n o t h e r E u r o p e a n c o u n t r y . O n the w h o l e , a good m a n y B r i t i s h s t u d e n t s go a b r o a d , b u t n o t n e a r l y s o m a n y a s t h e r e a r e f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s in B r i t a i n . ( T h e e s t i m a t e f o r 1968 w a s t h a t t h e r e w e r e a b o u t 1 0 , 0 0 0 B r i t i s h s t u d e n t s a b r o a d , a s c o m p a r e d to a p p r o x i m a t e l y 16,000 f o r e i g n students in.the UK.) T h e s i t u a t i o n in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s h a s a s p e c i a l c h a r a c t e r , a n d m u c h g r e a t e r d i m e n s i o n s . In 1967 t h e r e w e r e a b o u t 2 2 , 0 0 0 A m e r i c a n s t u d e n t s i n v o l v e d in S t u d y A b r o a d p r o g r a m s , a b o u t one t h i r d of t h e s e d u r i n g t h e s u m m e r o n l y , t h e r e m a i n d e r f o r a w h o l e a c a d e m i c y e a r . T h e s e p r o g r a m s v a r y in n a t u r e , a n d a r e c o n c e n t r a t e d m a i n l y i n F r a n c e , W e s t G e r m a n y , t h e UK, S p a i n a n d I t a l y , a f e w i n t h e M i d d l e E a s t a n d N o r t h A f r i c a , s t i l l f e w e r in A s i a

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and A f r i c a . F o r the Junior Year A b r o a d t h e r e w e r e 408 d i f f e r e n t p r o g r a m s o p e r a t i n g i n 1967; t h e r e a r e u n d o u b t e d l y m a n y m o r e t o d a y . It is e s t i m a t e d t h a t t h e n u m b e r of s t u d e n t s w h o go a b r o a d o n t h e i r o w n i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y e q u a l t o t h o s e i n v o l v e d in t h e o r g a n i z e d p r o g r a m s , a good m a n y of t h e m a t t h e g r a d u a t e r a t h e r t h a n a t t h e u n d e r g r a d u a t e l e v e l . T h e U n e s c o r e p o r t to which r e f e r e n c e was m a d e above indicates that about 12,000 A m e r i c a n s t u d e n t s w e n t a b r o a d in 1962, a n d t h a t t h e n u m b e r r o s e t o a b o u t 2 0 , 0 0 0 in 1968. N e a r l y h a l f of t h e s t u d e n t s w e n t to E u r o p e , but a s u b s t a n t i a l n u m b e r went to A s i a . T h e p r e f e r r e d c o u n t r i e s i n 1968 w e r e C a n a d a , t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , France, United Kingdom, G e r m a n F e d e r a l Republic and I s r a e l , in that order. D u r i n g t h e y e a r 1 9 6 9 - 1 9 7 0 , t h e U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a h a d 512 u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s i n i t s E d u c a t i o n A b r o a d ( m a i n l y J u n i o r Y e a r ) p r o g r a m , a n d 170 w h o w e n t a b r o a d u n d e r other ( i n c l u d i n g t h e i r own) a u s p i c e s ; t h e r e w e r e a l s o a b o u t 2 7 5 g r a duate students, and slightly m o r e women than m e n . Although p r e d o m i n a n t l y a " r e c e i v i n g " c o u n t r y , t h e s i t u a t i o n in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s is s t r i k i n g i n i t s e x t e n s i v e a n d g r o w i n g i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h Study A b r o a d p r o g r a m s for A m e r i c a n s t u d e n t s , and f o r its e m p h a s i s , u n u s u a l i n c o m p a r i s o n w i t h o t h e r n a t i o n s , on a " f o r e i g n s o j o u r n " during the u n d e r g r a d u a t e y e a r s . T h e o n l y d a t a a v a i l a b l e to u s r e g a r d i n g I n d i a n s t u d e n t s a b r o a d c o m e f r o m the U n e s c o r e p o r t c i t e d a b o v e , i n d i c a t i n g a n i n c r e a s e f r o m a b o u t 1 0 , 0 0 0 in 1962 t o 1 3 , 6 0 0 i n 1968; t h i s r e p r e s e n t s a b o u t 1 % of a l l I n d i a n s t u d e n t s . T h e p r e f e r r e d c o u n t r y i s t h e USA ( a l m o s t 70 %), t h e n C a n a d a (10 % ) , t h e UK (8 % ) a n d t h e G e r m a n F e d e r a l R e p u b l i c (5 % ) . A p a r t f r o m t h e U n e s c o s t a t i s t i c s , i t is d i f f i c u l t t o o b t a i n a c c u r a t e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t s t u d e n t s w h o o b t a i n p a r t of t h e i r a c a d e m i c t r a i n i n g a t f o r e i g n u n i v e r s i t i e s . The n e e d for b e t t e r , m o r e c o m p l e t e , and m o r e r e g u l a r l y g a t h e r ed data m a y be r e g a r d e d as the f i r s t conclusion which e m e r g e s f r o m this r e p o r t . 3) S e l e c t i o n a n d a d m i s s i o n of f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s . W e t u r n n o w to w h a t w e h a v e c a l l e d t h e l i f e - h i s t o r y of t h e e x c h a n g e p r o c e s s a s it a f f e c t s the i n d i v i d u a l s i n v o l v e d . O u r f i r s t q u e s t i o n s r e l a t e t o t h e m a n n e r in w h i c h t h e s t a g e s of s e l e c t i o n of t h e s t u d e n t s f r o m a b r o a d , a n d t h e i r a d m i s s i o n t o s t u d y , a r e h a n d l e d in t h e c o u n t r i e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s in our s u r v e y . E a r l i e r w e m a d e t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t w o g r o u p s of s t u d e n t s w h o go a b r o a d : t h o s e on t h e one h a n d w h o a r e s e l f - s e l e c t e d , w h o d e c i d e to go on t h e i r own i n i t i a t i v e o r o n t h e i r own (or t h e i r p a r e n t s ' ) r e s o u r c e s ( o r w h o p l a n to e a r n t h e m o n e y w i t h

30

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w h i c h t o f i n a n c e t h e i r f o r e i g n s o j o u r n ) , a n d on t h e o t h e r h a n d t h o s e w h o g o w i t h a f e l l o w s h i p f r o m t h e i r own c o u n t r y o r f r o m the u n i v e r s i t y o r c o u n t r y w h i c h they plan to v i s i t , o r f r o m an i n t e r n a t i o n a l a g e n c y , or u n d e r t h e a u s p i c e s of a w e l l - o r g a n i z e d program w h i c h is r u n b y t h e i r own u n i v e r s i t y ; t h e s e s t u d e n t s a r e u s u a l l y s e l e c t e d b y o t h e r s . B o t h of t h e s e g r o u p s w i l l p r e s u m a b l y h a v e in c o m m o n a n i n t e r e s t i n s t u d y a b r o a d , a n d a c o n v i c t i o n t h a t i t w i l l be a r e w a r d i n g e x p e r i e n c e ; b o t h are s e l f - s e l e c t e d in t h e s e n s e t h a t t h e y h a v e b o t h c h o s e n t o go a b r o a d , but in o t h e r r e s p e c t s they m a y d i f f e r m a r k e d l y , in the s t r e n g t h a n d c h a r a c t e r of t h e i r m o t i v a t i o n s a n d (as we s h a l l see) in t h e p r o b l e m s t h e y m a y f a c e d u r i n g t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e in t h e c o u n t r y of s o j o u r n . L i t t l e i s k n o w n d e f i n i t e l y a b o u t t h e s e l e c t i o n p r o c e s s . In s p e cific, w e l l - o r g a n i z e d p r o g r a m s such as the Junior Year Abroad, c a r e is p r e s u m a b l y taken to c h o o s e t h o s e s t u d e n t s who w o u l d be e x p e c t e d , i n t e r m s of t h e i r a c a d e m i c b a c k g r o u n d a n d q u a l i t i e s of p e r s o n a l i t y , to p r o f i t f r o m a n d s u c c e s s f u l l y a d a p t t o a f o r eign s o j o u r n , but v e r y little is known a b o u t the s p e c i f i c c r i t e r i a a p p l i e d . F e l l o w s h i p s a r e in t h e o r y g i v e n t o t h e m o s t p r o m i s i n g c a n d i d a t e s , b u t t h e r e is no i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e d e g r e e to w h i c h n e p o t i s m a n d o t h e r e x t r a n e o u s f a c t o r s (or f a c t o r s w h i c h s h o u l d b e e x t r a n e o u s ) e n t e r into t h e f i n a l d e c i s i o n . P e r s o n a l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e u n d o u b t e d l y t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t , b u t w e h a v e no k n o w l e d g e a s t o p r e c i s e l y what t h o s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e , w h i c h o n e s a r e m o s t r e l e v a n t , a n d how t h e y a r e d i a g n o s e d . R e g r e t f u l l y i t m u s t be a d m i t t e d t h a t o u r d a t a a d d v e r y l i t t l e t o the c l a r i f i c a t i o n of this i s s u e , a l t h o u g h i t s i m p o r t a n c e i s o c c a s i o n a l l y r e c o g n i z e d . The A m e r i c a n r e p o r t , f o r e x a m p l e , r e f e r s to the fact that s o m e s t u d e n t s use Study A b r o a d a s a n e s c a p e f r o m t h e i r d i f f i c u l t i e s a t h o m e . T h e w h o l e q u e s t i o n of h o w s t u d e n t s a r e s e l e c t e d f o r f o r e i g n study is one which d e s e r v e s the m o s t c a r e f u l c o n s i d e r a t i o n in f u t u r e r e s e a r c h . M o r e is k n o w n a b o u t a d m i s s i o n p r o c e d u r e s , b u t a s m i g h t be e x p e c t e d t h e s e r e f e r a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y to a c a d e m i c c r i t e r i a . In t h e UK t h e r e is o v e r a l l s u p e r v i s i o n b y t h e U n i v e r s i t y C e n t r a l C o m m i t t e e on A d m i s s i o n s i n t h e c a s e of t h e f i r s t d e g r e e s t u d y (undergraduate); beyond that level, application is m a d e directly t o t h e c o l l e g e o r u n i v e r s i t y c o n c e r n e d . T h e c o l l e g e s of O x f o r d a n d C a m b r i d g e a r e , h o w e v e r , a u t o n o m o u s in t h e i r a d m i s s i o n s p o l i c y . T h e U n i v e r s i t y of S u s s e x i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e f o r e i g n s t u dents m u s t m e e t its r e g u l a r s t a n d a r d s , but all a r e a r e eligible w h o s a t i s f y t h e e n t r a n c e r e q u i r e m e n t s of a C o m m o n w e a l t h u n i v e r s i t y . (It m a y b e a d d e d t h a t t h e A s s o c i a t i o n of C o m m o n w e a l t h U n i v e r s i t i e s n u m b e r s a t o t a l of 187 m e m b e r u n i v e r s i t i e s in 26

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d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s ; the r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r e n t r a n c e m u s t be e x p e c t e d to v a r y c o n s i d e r a b l y . ) A s a l r e a d y i n d i c a t e d , B r i t i s h univ e r s i t i e s find it e a s i e r to a d m i t p o s t - g r a d u a t e (or g r a d u a t e ) than u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s ; the R h o d e s S c h o l a r s h i p s a t O x f o r d and m a n y of the f e l l o w s h i p s given by the B r i t i s h C o u n c i l a r e p r i m a r i ly a t an a d v a n c e d l e v e l . A t W a s e d a U n i v e r s i t y t h e r e was i n t r o d u c e d in 1955 a s e p a r a t e s c r e e n i n g p r o c e d u r e for f o r e i g n a p p l i c a n t s , s i n c e it w a s found that it w a s too d i f f i c u l t f o r them to p a s s the s a m e e x a m i n a t i o n s a s w e r e r e q u i r e d of J a p a n e s e s t u d e n t s . T h i s w a s due l a r g e l y , but not e x c l u s i v e l y , to d i f f e r e n c e s in l a n g u a g e f a c i l i t y ( s e e b e low, S e c t i o n 5). The G e r m a n F e d e r a l R e p u b l i c , on the other hand, h a s had a t o u g h e r a d m i s s i o n s p o l i c y s i n c e 1963, a n d e n t e r i n g f o r eign s t u d e n t s a r e e x p e c t e d , a s a r e the G e r m a n s , to s a t i s f y the r e q u i r e m e n t s i m p o s e d by the S t u d i e n k o l l e g , s o that a l l s t u d e n t s e n t e r a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y the s a m e l e v e l . The F r e n c h follow a s y s t e m which i s in s o m e r e s p e c t s like that of the B r i t i s h , but which t u r n s out in p r a c t i c e to be m u c h m o r e l e n i e n t . T h e r e i s , in the f i r s t p l a c e a l o n g l i s t of " c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s " b e t w e e n the F r e n c h d e g r e e s ( b a c c a l a u r é a t , d i p l ô m e , m a î t r i s e ) and t h o s e obtained f r o m i n s t i t u t i o n s a b r o a d ; this l i s t i s continually b e i n g e x t e n d e d b y the m i n i s t r y of E d u c a t i o n . In addition t h e r e i s a n o t h e r l i s t of " e q u i v a l e n c e s " , d e t e r m i n e d e a c h y e a r by the s a m e m i n i s t r y ; t h e s e d e g r e e s c a n l i t e r a l l y be " e x c h a n g e d " f o r their F r e n c h e q u i v a l e n t s . S u c h an a r r a n g e m e n t c o n c e r n s in p a r t i c u l a r the f o r m e r F r e n c h c o l o n i e s , and m o r e s p e c i f i c a l l y the new A f r i c a n n a t i o n s and the M a l a g a s y R e p u b l i c . V e r y r e c e n t l y (1972) a s i m i l a r e q u i v a l e n c e h a s b e e n s e t up with G e r m a n u n i v e r s i t i e s , s o f a r a p p l i e d only in S a a r b r u c k e n . M o r e a d v a n c e d d i p l o m a s like the " l i c e n c e " , r o u g h l y c o m p a r a b l e to the M a s t e r ' s D e g r e e , a r e the s u b j e c t of s p e c i a l a r r a n g e m e n t s . Other g r o u p s of f o r e i g n v i s i t o r s , s u c h a s the " s t a g i a i r e s " and " a u d i t e u r s " a r e u s u a l l y a d m i t t e d with even l e s s f o r m a l i t y . The F r e n c h s y s t e m a s a whole h a s c o n s i d e r a b l e flexibility. A d m i s s i o n of f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s to A m e r i c a n u n i v e r s i t i e s v a r i e s in p r o c e d u r e and in d i f f i c u l t y with the i n s t i t u t i o n s c o n c e r n e d . A t the u n d e r g r a d u a t e l e v e l the p r o b l e m of e q u i v a l e n c e s b e c o m e s e s p e c i a l l y complicated, for r e a s o n s mentioned above; for a d v a n c e d s t u d e n t s the s i t u a t i o n i s s o m e w h a t c l e a r e r ; for e x a m p l e , the F r e n c h " l i c e n c e " in the p a s t , and the " m a î t r i s e " m o r e r e cently, a r e u s u a l l y a c c e p t e d a s the e q u i v a l e n t of the M a s t e r ' s D e g r e e , and p e r m i t the s t u d e n t to s t a r t w o r k t o w a r d his d o c t o r ate. M u c h r e m a i n s to b e done in the whole a r e a of r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r a d m i s s i o n ; no quick o r e a s y s o l u t i o n to this p r o b l e m c a n be

32

The major

problem

areas

anticipated. It is d i f f i c u l t , h o w e v e r , to o v e r e s t i m a t e the d i f f i culties and the consequent h e a r t b r e a k which this p r o b l e m m a y c r e a t e f o r the student who w i s h e s , or is o b l i g e d , to continue his studies in a f o r e i g n country. The F r e n c h and G e r m a n s spent a long t i m e in discussion b e f o r e a g r e e i n g on a s y s t e m of e q u i v a l e n c e s which would do justice to the a c a d e m i c s y s t e m of both c o u n t r i e s , but it is a little e a r l y to judge how w e l l the a g r e e m e n t w i l l w o r k out in p r a c t i c e . If f o r e i g n study is to be e n c o u r a g e d to g r o w in the future, it would appear to be e s s e n t i a l to w o r k out a whole s e r i e s of such e q u i v a l e n c e s . T w o f u r t h e r questions a r e r e l e v a n t : 1) Can the assumption be m a d e that the " b a c c a l a u r é a t " obtained in a u n i v e r s i t y in F r e n c h A f r i c a should be t r e a t e d as the equivalent of a s i m i l a r " d i p l ô m e " given by the u n i v e r s i t i e s of P a r i s or L y o n s ? (A s i m i l a r question has already been r a i s e d in connection with s o m e of the f o r m e r B r i t i s h c o l o n i e s . ) 2) In that c a s e , would the f a i r e s t and m o s t r e a s o n a b l e p r o c e d u r e be the introduction of s p e c i a l entrance examinations f o r all f o r e i g n students? T h e s e questions, as w e l l as the p r o b l e m s of s e l e c t i o n and a d m i s s i o n in g e n e r a l a r e , of c o u r s e , r e l a t e d to the whole issue of the s u c c e s s or f a i l u r e of the f o r e i g n sojourn. W e shall postpone until l a t e r an analysis of this i s s u e (Section 6) since it d e pends a l s o on a number of other f a c t o r s to which w e now turn our attention. 4) P r e p a r a t i o n f o r the f o r e i g n sojourn. In v i e w of the f r e q u e n c y with which r e f e r e n c e is made in the r e s e a r c h l i t e r a t u r e to the need f o r adequate p r e p a r a t i o n f o r study abroad, it is not s u r p r i s i n g that a number of our r e p o r t s e m p h a s i z e the i m p o r t a n c e of this a s p e c t of the total e x p e r i e n c e . C e r t a i n l y a g r e a t many students have e m p h a s i z e d that they needed m o r e i n f o r m a t i o n b e f o r e they e n t e r e d the f o r e i g n u n i v e r s i t y , and that they had d i f f i c u l t y in obtaining it. A m e r i c a n u n i v e r s i t i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y in their w e l l - o r g a n i z e d Education A b r o a d p r o g r a m s , have been v e r y much a w a r e of this need. The US r e p o r t indicates that orientation p r o g r a m s a r e c o m m o n , but that they v a r y g r e a t l y in content and timing. In v i e w of the r i c h e x p e r i e n c e of A m e r i c a n u n i v e r s i t i e s in this connection, it would appear to be worth w h i l e to c o l l e c t and c o m p a r e the judgments of those who have been i n v o l v e d in this p r o c e s s , in o r d e r to d e t e r m i n e whether t h e r e is any consensus as to what should be included, and how and when it should be presented. A t W a s e d a U n i v e r s i t y it was f e l t that f o r e i g n students should have advance knowledge of what to expect. It was suggested that

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t h i s n e e d cciuld a n d s h o u l d b e m e t b y W a s e d a a l u m n i a s s o c i a t i o n s f o u n d in m a n y p a r t s of t h e w o r l d , but i t w a s a g r e e d t h a t not a l l s u c h a s s o c i a t i o n s w e r e s u f f i c i e n t l y a c t i v e to p e r f o r m this r ô l e . J a p a n e s e e m b a s s i e s , and p a r t i c u l a r l y the c u l t u r a l a f f a i r s o f f i c e r s , w e r e a l s o r e g a r d e d a s p o t e n t i a l l y - b u t not a l w a y s in f a c t - u s e f u l in this c o n n e c t i o n . W a s e d a p u b l i s h e s Information for prospective foreign applicants, as well as a G u i d e to a d m i s s i o n s of f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s , b u t f e e l s t h a t more s h o u l d b e d o n e . It a l s o e x p r e s s e s t h e n e e d f o r t h e p e o p l e a t W a s e d a to be b e t t e r i n f o r m e d about the u n i v e r s i t i e s a t which t h e f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s h a d p r e v i o u s l y s t u d i e d .' T h i s " f e l t n e e d " c o u l d p r o b a b l y be e x t e n d e d to m o s t of t h e u n i v e r s i t i e s in t h e world which r e c e i v e foreign students. Many F r e n c h u n i v e r s i ties, like Waseda, publish Guides. The G e r m a n s r e p o r t that advice and i n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g s t u dy a b r o a d i s on t h e w h o l e n o t e a s i l y a v a i l a b l e , a n d t h a t a g r e a t d e a l of t h e i n i t i a t i v e i s l e f t to t h e i n d i v i d u a l s t u d e n t t o d i s c o v e r t h e n e e d e d f a c t s f o r h i m s e l f . It i s a g r e e d t h a t a g r e a t d e a l m o r e could and should b e done in this r e s p e c t , even though e x i s t i n g G e r m a n a g e n c i e s , which a l s o publish "Guides", have done their b e s t to f i l l t h e n e e d . T h e r e c a n b e no d o u b t a s to t h e i m p o r t a n c e of p r o p e r o r i e n tation or p r e p a r a t i o n for the f o r e i g n s o j o u r n , not only as r e g a r d s the u n i v e r s i t y , but a l s o the t o t a l c o m m u n i t y ( o r c u l t u r e ) i n t o w h i c h t h e s t u d e n t i s i n t r o d u c e d . A g r e a t d e a l of u n h a p p i n e s s m i g h t b e e l i m i n a t e d if t h e f o r e i g n s t u d e n d h a d a c l e a r e r p i c t u r e of w h a t w a s e x p e c t e d of h i m a t t h e a c a d e m i c l e v e l , a n d t h e t r a u m a of " c u l t u r a l s h o c k " m i g h t b e r e d u c e d if h e knew m o r e a b o u t g e n e r a l n o r m s o r s t a n d a r d s of b e h a v i o r . We m e n t i o n e d a b o v e t h e d e s i r a b i l i t y of e s t a b l i s h i n g a c o n s e n s u s a m o n g t h o s e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r A m e r i c a n p r o g r a m s of s t u d y a b r o a d ; i t w o u l d b e s t i l l m o r e i m p o r t a n t to c o m p a r e t h e o r i e n t a t i o n p r o g r a m s w h i c h h a v e b e e n a p p l i e d i n v a r i o u s c o u n t r i e s a n d in d i f f e r e n t s i t u a t i o n s to d e t e r m i n e what g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e s m i g h t be e s t a b l i s h e d in t h i s r e g a r d . 5) T h e s p e c i a l p r o b l e m of l a n g u a g e f a c i l i t y . A s o n e c o u l d e x p e c t , c o n s i d e r a b l e s t r e s s h a s b e e n l a i d in a n u m b e r of r e p o r t s on t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s c r e a t e d b y the f a c t t h a t s t u d e n t s f r o m a b r o a d very often h a v e to w o r k i n a f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e . T h i s f r e q u e n t l y c r e a t e s a p r o b l e m e v e n i n t h e c a s e of s t u d e n t s w h o c o m e f r o m c o u n t r i e s w h e r e F r e n c h o r E n g l i s h i s t h e l a n g u a g e of t h e u n i v e r s i t i e s , a n d w h o n o w a r e s t u d y i n g in F r e n c h o r E n g l i s h - s p e a k i n g a r e a s , r e s p e c t i v e l y ; t h i s i s , of c o u r s e , t h e s i t u a t i o n in m a n y of t h e f o r m e r c o l o n i e s . T h e s e s t u d e n t s s p e a k t h e s a m e l a n g u a g e

3k

The major

problem

areas

a s i n t h e h o s t c o u n t r y , but u s u a l l y n o t s o w e l l ; it i s a f t e r a l l t h e i r s e c o n d l a n g u a g e . In t h e f i e l d of t h e n a t u r a l s c i e n c e s o r m a t h e m a t i c s this m a y not c o n s t i t u t e a s e r i o u s h a n d i c a p , but e l s e w h e r e i t m a y b e t h e c a u s e of v e r y r e a l d i f f i c u l t i e s . M a n y u n i v e r s i t i e s do t h e i r b e s t t o o v e r c o m e t h e s e , e i t h e r d i r e c t l y o r t h r o u g h o t h e r e x i s t i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s . In F r a n c e t h e A l l i a n c e F r a n ç a i s e is m a i n l y r e s p o n s i b l e for this essential f u n c t i o n t h r o u g h i t s g e n e r o u s o f f e r i n g s of l a n g u a g e c o u r s e s , f i l l i n g a g e n u i n e n e e d in v i e w of t h e l a r g e n u m b e r of s t u d e n t s w h o c o m e t o F r a n c e b a d l y p r e p a r e d in t h i s r e s p e c t ; f r e q u e n t l y t h e w h o l e of t h e f i r s t y e a r m u s t b e d e v o t e d to f i l l i n g t h i s l a c u n a . T h e r e a r e a l s o a s e r i e s of c o u r s e s on F r e n c h l a n g u a g e a n d c i v i l i z a t i o n d e s i g n e d f o r t h o s e p l a n n i n g to t e a c h F r e n c h in o t h e r c o u n t r i e s , b u t a l s o a t t e n d e d by m a n y f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s w h o h a v e n o s u c h i n t e n t i o n ; t h e s e a r e u n d e r t h e a u s p i c e s of t h e " C e n t r e d e f o r m a t i o n p é d a g o g i q u e p o u r l ' e n s e i g n e m e n t du f r a n ç a i s à l ' é t r a n g e r " , which gives two c e r t i f i c a t e s at different levels, ind i c a t i n g t h e d e g r e e of f a c i l i t y r e a c h e d . In a d d i t i o n , i n d i v i d u a l universities (Montpellier, for example) have introduced intens i v e c o u r s e s of o n e m o n t h a t t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e a c a d e m i c y e a r . F o r e i g n s t u d e n t s in J a p a n h a v e a p a r t i c u l a r l y d i f f i c u l t l a n g u a g e p r o b l e m . L a n g u a g e i n s t r u c t i o n in J a p a n e s e is g i v e n to t h e m on a r r i v a l , s i n c e few of t h e m s p e a k t h e l a n g u a g e b e f o r e hand; they a r e given i n t e n s i v e c o u r s e s , f o r e x a m p l e , in the J a p a n e s e l a n g u a g e d e p a r t m e n t , a n d t h e I n s t i t u t e of l a n g u a g e t e a c h ing a t W a s e d a U n i v e r s i t y . It is r e p o r t e d , h o w e v e r , that e v e n a f t e r t w o o r t h r e e y e a r s m a n y s t i l l h a v e d i f f i c u l t y in f o l l o w i n g l e c t u r e s with r e a s o n a b l e e a s e . This constitutes a v e r y r e a l , a n d s o f a r u n r e s o l v e d , p r o b l e m . It m a y be t h e m a j o r r e a s o n f o r t h e r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l p r o p o r t i o n of f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s in J a p a n , in s p i t e of t h e i n t e r e s t o n t h e p a r t of u n i v e r s i t y a u t h o r i t i e s in i n c r e a s i n g their number. W e s t G e r m a n u n i v e r s i t i e s a l s o have s p e c i a l language c o u r s e s f o r s t u d e n t s f r o m o t h e r ( n o n - G e r m a n s p e a k i n g ) c o u n t r i e s on t h e i r a r r i v a l . In a d d i t i o n t h e G o e t h e I n s t i t u t e , w i t h b r a n c h e s i n v a r i o u s p a r t s of t h e c o u n t r y , c o n d u c t s r e g u l a r l a n g u a g e c o u r s e s especially for foreign students. A t t h e U n i v e r s i t y of S u s s e x , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e c a r e f u l s c r e e n i n g p r o c e s s i n c l u d e s t h e t e s t i n g of t h e l a n g u a g e f a c i l i t y of t h o s e w h o s e m o t h e r t o n g u e i s not E n g l i s h , a n d w h e n e v e r p o s s i b l e s a m p l e s of t h e i r w r i t t e n w o r k a r e a l s o e x a m i n e d . T h e I n d i a n r e p o r t a l s o s t r e s s e s t h e i m p o r t a n c e of p r o f i c i e n c y i n E n g l i s h . The Yugoslav situation is p a r t i c u l a r l y difficult, since the l a n g u a g e s u s e d v a r y c o n s i d e r a b l y in t h e d i f f e r e n t r e p u b l i c s . M a n y A m e r i c a n u n i v e r s i t i e s o f f e r s p e c i a l h e l p to s t u d e n t s r e q u i r i n g

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language instruction. T h e l a n g u a g e p r o b l e m is c e r t a i n l y o n e of t h e m o s t c o m p l e x a n d d i f f i c u l t in the w h o l e a r e a of i n t e r n a t i o n a l e d u c a t i o n a l e x c h a n g e , a n d t h e r e is no e a s y s o l u t i o n . S t r i c t s c r e e n i n g p r o c e d u r e s s u c h a s t h o s e i n s i s t e d upon b y m a n y B r i t i s h u n i v e r s i t i e s r e d u c e t h e c h a n c e s of f a i l u r e due to l a c k of l i n g u i s t i c f a c i l i t y , but t h e y e l i m i n a t e m a n y s t u d e n t s w h o m i g h t b e a b l e t o o v e r c o m e t h e i r h a n d i c a p in t h i s r e s p e c t if g i v e n a l i t t l e t i m e - a n d h e l p . U n f o r t u n a t e l y w e h a v e n o a d e q u a t e m e a n s of t e s t i n g in a d v a n c e the a b i l i t y of p r o s p e c t i v e s t u d e n t s to l e a r n a n e w l a n g u a g e ; if such a t e s t could be developed, the p r o b l e m m i g h t c o m e c l o s e r to a s o l u t i o n . In t h e m e a n t i m e , t h e b e s t t h a t c a n p r o b a b l y b e s u g g e s t e d is t o u s e the s c r e e n i n g p r o c e d u r e s w i t h s o m e f l e x i b i l i t y , g i v i n g f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s who f a i l to p a s s t h e l a n g u a g e t e s t the p o s s i b i l i t y of m a k i n g up t h e i r d e f i c i e n c y t h r o u g h i n t e n s i v e s t u d y , a n d the o p p o r t u n i t y to r e - a p p l y a s s o o n a s t h e y f e e l t h e y a r e r e a d y . 6) T h e a c a d e m i c e x p e r i e n c e ; the i s s u e of s u c c e s s o r f a i l u r e . It i s o b v i o u s t h a t if a s t u d e n t f a i l s i n h i s e x a m i n a t i o n a n d d o e s not o b t a i n the d i p l o m a o r t h e d e g r e e t o w h i c h h e a s p i r e s , h i s e x p e r i e n c e at t h e u n i v e r s i t y m u s t b e r e g a r d e d , w i t h the r a r e s t of e x c e p t i o n s , a s a f a i l u r e . T h e q u e s t i o n t h a t c o n c e r n s us a t t h i s p o i n t is w h e t h e r f a i l u r e o c c u r s m o r e f r e q u e n t l y in the c a s e of f o r e i g n t h a n of " n a t i o n a l " s t u d e n t s . If i t d o e s , t h e f a c t o r s to which r e f e r e n c e was m a d e above (selection, p r e p a r a t i o n , lang u a g e f a c i l i t y ) a s w e l l a s t h e a d a p t a t i o n to the n e w u n i v e r s i t y a n d the c o m m u n i t y (to b e d i s c u s s e d i n the n e x t s e c t i o n ) m a y be r e g a r d e d as being at l e a s t in p a r t r e s p o n s i b l e . What a r e the facts? T h e l i t e r a t u r e i n c l u d e s s e v e r a l r e f e r e n c e s to t h i s i m p o r t a n t p r o b l e m , a n d o c c a s i o n a l l y g i v e s t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t f a i l u r e is m o r e f r e q u e n t a m o n g f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s . In a s t u d y ( A i c h 1962, 1963) of t h e s i t u a t i o n in G e r m a n y , i t i s r e p o r t e d t h a t a b o u t 80 % of A s i a n a n d A f r i c a n s t u d e n t s f a i l i n i n t e r m e d i a t e , a n d 40 % in f i n a l e x a m i n a t i o n s . T h i s u n u s u a l l y h i g h p r o p o r t i o n of f a i l u r e s m a y b e d u e , in A i c h ' s o p i n i o n , to t h e f a c t t h a t t h e s e f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s h a v e l i m i t e d q u a l i f i c a t i o n s s i n c e m a n y of t h e m c a m e to G e r m a n y b e c a u s e t h e y c o u l d not g a i n a d m i s s i o n to u n i v e r s i t i e s in t h e i r own c o u n t r y . The e x t e n s i o n of A i c h ' s f i n d i n g s to f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s i n g e n e r a l , h o w e v e r , i s r e n d e r e d d o u b t f u l by d a t a w h i c h h a v e b e e n p u b l i s h e d r e c e n t l y by the G e r m a n S t a t i s t i c a l O f f i c e (cf. S t a t i s t i s c h e s J a h r b u c h f ü r d i e B u n d e s r e p u b l i k D e u t s c h l a n d , 1971, p. 83 f. ) In t e r m s of t h e r e s u l t s of a l l e x a m i n a t i o n s a t G e r m a n U n i v e r s i t i e s in t h e s u m m e r - t e r m 1968 a n d in t h e w i n t e r - t e r m I968-I969, G e r m a n a n d f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s d i f f e r only

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The major

problem

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v e r y s l i g h l t y a s f a r a s g e n e r a l s u c c e s s or f a i l u r e in e x a m i n a tions i s concerned. A s r e g a r d s f i r s t D i p l o m a s and S t a t e - E x a m ination s (roughly equivalent to the A m e r i c a n M a s t e r ' s D e g r e e ) , in the s u m m e r - t e r m both G e r m a n and f o r e i g n students had a s u c c e s s r a t e of 86 %; in the w i n t e r - t e r m G e r m a n s had a s u c c e s s r a t e of 90 % and f o r e i g n students 87 This m e a n s that, g e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g , only about 13 % of the f o r e i g n students f a i l e d in t h e s e e x a m i n a t i o n s . R e g a r d i n g d i s s e r t a t i o n s , w h e r e f a i l u r e s n o r m a l l y occur p r i o r to e x a m i n a t i o n s , the f a i l u r e r a t e of the f o r e i g n students is slightly higher than for G e r m a n s t u dents; 0 , 4 % f a i l u r e s for G e r m a n s in both p e r i o d s and f o r f o r eign students 1 % in the s u m m e r - t e r m and 2, 6 % in the wintert e r m . It should be added that the f a i l u r e s , a s well a s the s u c c e s s e s , v a r y with the d i s c i p l i n e studied. In e c o n o m i c s , for e x a m p l e , the f a i l u r e s s e e m indeed much higher for f o r e i g n s t u dents than f o r G e r m a n s (41 % a g a i n s t 27 %); the s a m e holds for technical fields (12 % f a i l u r e s for G e r m a n s a g a i n s t 17 % f o r f o r e i g n students). There a r e , however, s o m e f i e l d s in which the f o r e i g n e r s do better than the G e r m a n s , for e x a m p l e the n a t u r a l s c i e n c e s , in which l e s s than 1 % of the f o r e i g n students but 3, 5 % of the G e r m a n s f a i l . What we do not know, however, i s whether there a r e s o m e countries whose students p e r h a p s do better than o t h e r s . Since A i c h studied m a i n l y students f r o m developing c o u n t r i e s , his r e s u l t s m a y be explained by his s p e c i a l s a m p l e ; they do not hold, however, for f o r e i g n students a s a whole. F o r the U n i v e r s i t y of Edinburgh, K a p u r (1972) r e p o r t s that for m a l e students the b e s t p e r f o r m a n c e is shown by t h o s e whom he c a l l s "other B r i t i s h " ( E n g l i s h , W e l s h and I r i s h ) who show 13 % of f a i l u r e s and d r o p - o u t s , followed by the S c o t t i s h s t u dents with 24 %, and the f o r e i g n group with 40 %; t h e r e w e r e no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s in the c a s e of f e m a l e s t u d e n t s . The i n f e r i o r p e r f o r m a n c e of the S c o t t i s h m a l e s and the s u p e r i o r p e r f o r m a n c e of the f o r e i g n f e m a l e s a r e not explained; it s e e m s likely that the s e l e c t i o n p r o c e s s p l a y s an i m p o r t a n t r ô l e . We thus have two s t u d i e s , one in G e r m a n y and one in S c o t l a n d , which s u g g e s t that f o r e i g n students e x p e r i e n c e an unduly high proportion of f a i l u r e s ; we a l s o have G e r m a n s t a t i s t i c s which ind i c a t e the o p p o s i t e . In the p r e s e n t investigation s o m e of the o b s e r v a t i o n s m a d e a r e pertinent to this i s s u e . In the c a s e of the United S t a t e s , for e x a m p l e , the important question i s r a i s e d a s to whether the diff i c u l t i e s encountered by m a n y f o r e i g n students m a y be due to the fact that education is o r i e n t e d to the A m e r i c a n s i t u a t i o n , and whether the c u r r i c u l u m should be r e v i s e d s o a s to m a k e it

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m o r e r e l e v a n t t o t h e n e e d s of f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s . C e r t a i n l y v e r y l i t t l e h a s s o f a r b e e n d o n e in t h i s r e s p e c t , a n d d e c i s i o n s a s to w h e t h e r , when and how such m o d i f i c a t i o n s should be i n t r o d u c e d pose very difficult problems for p r o f e s s o r s and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s . In a r e c e n t s t u d y of s t u d e n t s f r o m d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s n o w a t t e n d i n g u n i v e r s i t i e s in E u r o p e ( K l i n e b e r g a n d B e n B r i k a , 1972) i t w a s f o u n d t h a t m a n y of t h e m c o m p l a i n e d in t h e v e r y t e r m s r a i s e d in t h e A m e r i c a n r e p o r t s ; t h e t r a i n i n g r e c e i v e d w a s f e l t t o b e too r e m o t e f r o m t h e t a s k s t h e y w o u l d b e c a l l e d u p o n to p e r f o r m on t h e i r r e t u r n to t h e i r o w n c o u n t r y . In F r a n c e , A u s t r i a a n d Y u g o s l a v i a l a r g e n u m b e r s of t h e s e s t u d e n t s f e e l f r u s t r a t e d b e c a u s e of t h e " i r r e l e v a n c e " of t h e i r s t u d i e s . It m a y b e t h a t t h i s f e e l i n g c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h e n u m b e r of a c a d e m i c f a i l u r e s a m o n g f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s . At W a s e d a , the b l a m e is p l a c e d on the low l e v e l of i n s t r u c t i o n r e c e i v e d in c e r t a i n d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s ; w e h a v e a l r e a d y n o t e d t h a t in J a p a n t h e l a n g u a g e p r o b l e m i s a p a r t i c u l a r l y s e r i o u s one. T h e s e l f - s u r v e y of t h e U n i v e r s i t y of S u s s e x , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , r e p o r t s a v e r y s m a l l p r o p o r t i o n of f a i l u r e s a m o n g f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s . This is a t t r i b u t e d in p a r t to the i n s i s t e n c e on c a r e f u l s e l e c t i o n , i n c l u d i n g a t e s t of f a c i l i t y in E n g l i s h , b u t i t i s t h e r ô l e of t h e T u t o r w h i c h is r e g a r d e d a s c r u c i a l in t h i s c o n n e c t i o n . E v e r y s t u d e n t , f o r e i g n o r n a t i o n a l , h a s t w o m e m b e r s of t h e f a c u l t y w i t h w h o m h e i s i n c o n s t a n t t o u c h , a n d t o w h o m he m a y a p p e a l f o r h e l p o r g u i d a n c e a t a n y t i m e ; o n e is h i s S u b j e c t T u t o r , t h e o t h e r h i s P e r s o n a l T u t o r . T h e s e T u t o r s u s u a l l y do n o t h a v e a v e r y l a r g e n u m b e r of s t u d e n t s u n d e r t h e i r s u p e r v i s i o n , and t h e i r f r e q u e n t contacts with them a p p e a r to r e p r e s e n t a valuable s y s t e m of d e f e n c e s a g a i n s t f a i l u r e . T o o l i t t l e i s k n o w n a b o u t t h e e x t e n t a n d n a t u r e of f a i l u r e s a m o n g foreign students. The fact that m a n y , p e r h a p s the m a j o r i t y in m o s t u n i v e r s i t i e s , a r e s u c c e s s f u l m a k e s i t n o l e s s i m p e r a t i v e to d i s c o v e r w h y m a n y a r e n o t . T h e r e i s of c o u r s e " w a s t a g e " a m o n g n a t i o n a l s t u d e n t s a s w e l l , b u t it w o u l d be of g r e a t v a l u e to know how the two g r o u p s - f o r e i g n a n d national - c o m p a r e in t h i s r e s p e c t . T h e r e i s a l s o t h e r e v e r s e p r o b l e m , r a r e l y m e n t i o n e d b u t v e r y t r o u b l e s o m e , of w h e t h e r g r e a t e r l e n i e n c y i s shown to f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y f r o m the d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s , on t h e g r o u n d t h a t if w i t h a l l t h e i r h a n d i c a p s t h e y do reasonably well they should get their degree, often "cum laude" o r " m e n t i o n t r è s b i e n " , e v e n if a s i m i l a r l e v e l of p e r f o r m a n c e by o t h e r s would be m o r e h a r s h l y judged. This tendency is h a r d to avoid; in f a c t s o m e p r o f e s s o r s r e g a r d it a s f u l l y j u s t i f i e d . D i f f i c u l t i e s m a y a r i s e b e c a u s e of w i d e v a r i a t i o n s i n t h i s r e s p e c t , e v e n a m o n g p r o f e s s o r s i n t h e s a m e u n i v e r s i t y , a n d in t h e s a m e

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The m a j o r problem

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discipline. The practice m a y occasionally r a i s e real questions a s t o t h e m e a n i n g of a d e g r e e , a n d of i t s e q u i v a l e n c e t o one o b t a i n e d e l s e w h e r e . Of c o u r s e t h i s s a m e i s s u e a r i s e s w i t h i n t h e s a m e c o u n t r y w i t h i t s own n a t i o n a l s , s i n c e " d e g r e e s " v a r y in quality between different institutions and even between different d e p a r t m e n t s in a p a r t i c u l a r u n i v e r s i t y . T h e q u e s t i o n of e q u i v a l e n c e s h a s b e e n d i s c u s s e d a b o v e in connection with a d m i s s i o n into a f o r e i g n u n i v e r s i t y , and m e n t i o n w a s m a d e of t h e m a n y a t t e m p t s t h a t h a v e b e e n m a d e t o f a c i l i t a t e the m o v e m e n t f r o m one u n i v e r s i t y s y s t e m to a n o t h e r . The G e r m a n r e p o r t r a i s e s this q u e s t i o n s p e c i f i c a l l y f o r stu d e n t s w h o go a b r o a d ; t h e y a r e f r e q u e n t l y i n s e c u r e a b o u t the c r e d i t s they will obtain for f o r e i g n study, and u s u a l l y h a v e to w a i t u n t i l t h e i r r e t u r n h o m e t o d i s c o v e r w h a t d e g r e e of r e c o g nition they will r e c e i v e for the w o r k a c c o m p l i s h e d . A g r e a t deal of w o r k r e m a i n s t o b e done in o r d e r t o e s t a b l i s h a s y s t e m of e q u i v a l e n c e s both at the b i l a t e r a l and m u l t i n a t i o n a l l e v e l . M o s t of t h e a g r e e m e n t s s o f a r r e f e r t o e q u i v a l e n c e s of d e g r e e s o b t a i n e d ; m o r e d i f f i c u l t b u t of e q u a l i m p o r t a n c e i s t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of e q u i v a l e n c e s o r c r e d i t s w h e n p a r t of t h e w o r k l e a d i n g to a d e g r e e i s d o n e in o n e c o u n t r y a n d p a r t in a n o t h e r . 7) T h e p r o b l e m of a d a p t a t i o n t o t h e n e w e n v i r o n m e n t . M a n y of t h e f a c t o r s a l r e a d y d i s c u s s e d a f f e c t t h e p r o c e s s of a d a p t a t i o n to the n e w e n v i r o n m e n t , both within the u n i v e r s i t y and o u t s i d e . A s f a r a s t h e u n i v e r s i t y i t s e l f is c o n c e r n e d , p r o b l e m s a p p e a r to a r i s e m a i n l y when the f o r e i g n s t u d e n t d o e s n o t e a s i l y obtain t h e i n f o r m a t i o n a n d a d v i c e h e r e q u i r e s , a n d in m o s t p l a c e s t h e a t t e m p t i s m a d e t o s e t up t h e m e c h a n i s m s r e q u i r e d to f i l l t h i s n e e d . In s o m e c a s e s no s e p a r a t e t r e a t m e n t i s c a l l e d f o r ; t h e tutorial s y s t e m d e s c r i b e d for S u s s e x and found in m a n y B r i t i s h colleges and universities functions v e r y s i m i l a r l y for foreign a n d f o r n a t i o n a l s t u d e n t s , a n d e v i d e n t l y w i t h e q u a l s u c c e s s . It i s , h o w e v e r , a n " e x p e n s i v e " s y s t e m , s i n c e it i n v o l v e s a r e l a t i v e l y h i g h p r o p o r t i o n of f a c u l t y m e m b e r s in r e l a t i o n t o t h e n u m b e r of s t u d e n t s . The usual p r o c e d u r e , p a r t i c u l a r l y c o m m o n in A m e r i c a n univ e r s i t i e s , i s t o a p p o i n t one o r m o r e " f o r e i g n s t u d e n t a d v i s e r s " w i t h t h e s p e c i f i c f u n c t i o n of s u p p l y i n g t h e n e e d e d h e l p a n d g u i d a n c e ; o c c a s i o n a l l y the a d v i s e r has had s p e c i a l t r a i n i n g in p s y chology. The a p p a r e n t consensus a m o n g those who have o b s e r v e d t h e f u n c t i o n i n g of t h i s a d v i s o r y s y s t e m is t h a t i t w o r k s r e a sonably w e l l , but that t h e r e is r o o m f o r c o n s i d e r a b l e i m p r o v e m e n t . One d i f f i c u l t y a r i s e s f r o m the f a c t that t h e f o r e i g n s t u d e n t a d v i s e r i s u s u a l l y not t h e a c a d e m i c a d v i s e r , t h a t t h e r e

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is often little or no c o m m u n i c a t i o n between the two , and t h e r e f o r e little integration between the a d v i c e given a t the p e r s o n a l and a c a d é m i e l e v e l s r e s p e c t i v e l y ; this i s r e g a r d e d (by our A m e r i c a n c o l l e a g u e s ) a s an i m p o r t a n t p r o b l e m . When there a r e questions that a r i s e in connection with a c a d e m i c work, the f o r e i g n student a d v i s e r s a r e not c a l l e d upon s u f f i c i e n t l y a s r e s o u r c e p e r s o n n e l . This p r o b l e m is p a r t i c u l a r l y acute at the b e ginning of the s t u d e n t ' s f o r e i g n s o j o u r n , and a l s o at the t i m e when a d e c i s i o n m u s t be m a d e a s to whether or not he should continue toward a higher d e g r e e . The F r e n c h u n i v e r s i t i e s have m a d e p r o v i s i o n for the appointment of f o r e i g n student a d v i s e r s a s p a r t of the recent educational r e f o r m s , and there a r e u s u a l ly a l s o o f f i c e s to which the student m a y apply when he needs help or information. It is too soon to judge of the e f f i c a c y of t h e s e p r o c e d u r e s , d e s i g n e d to r e p l a c e a l a r g e l y " l a i s s e z - f a i r e " policy which was the rule until a s h o r t time a g o . One difficulty which should be o v e r c o m e with a little m o r e t i m e and e x p e r i e n c e i s that m a n y students do not know of the e x i s t e n c e of euch s o u r c e s of help, nor where they a r e to b e found. At W a s e d a and s o m e other J a p a n e s e u n i v e r s i t i e s there is a s p e c i a l International Division which c o n c e r n s i t s e l f with foreign s t u d e n t s , and is p r e p a r e d to help when c a l l e d upon; This Divis i o n is a l s o r e s p o n s i b l e for a o n e - y e a r p r o g r a m , s p e c i a l l y d e s i g n e d for n e w l y - a r r i v e d f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s , and given in E n g l i s h , a c c o m p a n i e d o r followed by intensive c o u r s e s in J a p a n e s e . The J a p a n e s e r e p o r t u r g e s the appointment of f o r e i g n student a d v i s e r s to deal s p e c i f i c a l l y with p e r s o n a l p r o b l e m s , including those involved in r e l a t i o n s between the s e x e s ; e x i s t i n g m a c h i n e r y is e f f e c t i v e m a i n l y , if not e x c l u s i v e l y , at the p u r e l y a c a d e m i c l e vel. At Cologne and other G e r m a n u n i v e r s i t i e s f o r e i g n student a d v i s e r s function through the A k a d e m i s c h e s A u s l a n d s a m t , which i s s p e c i a l l y d e s i g n e d to be of help to f o r e i g n e r s . It is e s t i m a t e d that not m o r e than 50 % of f o r e i g n students e v e r c o m e into cont a c t with this institution, but it i s not c l e a r whether this i s b e c a u s e they do not need it, o r b e c a u s e they do not know of its e x i s t e n c e . T h e r e is a f a i r l y w i d e s p r e a d tendency to l e a v e the f o r e i g n students alone to s o l v e their own p r o b l e m s in their own way. Our s u r v e y s u g g e s t s that with s o m e exceptions (the U n i v e r s i t y of S u s s e x , for e x a m p l e ) the f o r e i g n student a d v i s e r is r e g a r d e d a s playing an i m p o r t a n t r ö l e in the adaptation of f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s , but that such a r ô l e needs both to be strengthened and c l a r i f i e d . It is c e r t a i n l y no e a s y t a s k for any one p e r s o n to a d v i s e students coming f r o m m a n y d i f f e r e n t b a c k g r o u n d s and

40

The major

problem

areas

f a c i n g a w i d e v a r i e t y of d i f f e r e n t p r o b l e m s . In m a n y u n i v e r s i t i e s , h o w e v e r , t h e r e w i l l b e m e m b e r s of t h e f a c u l t y w h o h a v e t h e i n f o r m a t i o n n e e d e d t o s u p p l e m e n t t h a t of t h e a d v i s e r . In p a r t i c u l a r t h e r e should be b e t t e r coordination b e t w e e n help giv e n at t h e p e r s o n a l a n d the a c a d e m i c l e v e l s r e s p e c t i v e l y . P e r h a p s we c a n b e s t s u m m a r i z e t h i s p o i n t by u r g i n g c l o s e r c o o r d i n a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e o f f i c e of t h e f o r e i g n s t u d e n t a d v i s e r a n d t h e r e s t of t h e u n i v e r s i t y . We w o u l d a l s o s u g g e s t t h a t a c r i t i c a l s t u d y b e m a d e of t h e f o r e i g n s t u d e n t a d v i s e r r ô l e a n d i t s r e l a tionship to Other s e r v i c e s , with s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n to c a s e s which h a v e (or h a v e n o t ) f u n c t i o n e d s u c c e s s f u l l y . T h e r e a r e , of c o u r s e , o t h e r m o r e i n f o r m a l s o u r c e s of i n f o r m a t i o n and guidance throughout the a c a d e m i c e x p e r i e n c e , but b e c a u s e of t h e i r v e r y i n f o r m a l i t y t h e s e c a n n o t a l w a y s b e c o u n t e d upon nor a r e they a l w a y s a v a i l a b l e . The f o r e i g n student m a y , f o r e x a m p l e , f i n d a p r o f e s s o r w h o i s a b l e a n d w i l l i n g to h e l p , but p r o f e s s o r s d i f f e r g r e a t l y in t h e i r d e g r e e of a c c e s s i b i l i t y . T h i s m a y be d u e t o t h e i r own i n d i v i d u a l t a s t e s a n d i d i o s y n c r a s i e s , but t h e r e m a y a l s o be c u l t u r a l or n a t i o n a l v a r i a t i o n s . The l a t e d i s t i n g u i s h e d G e r m a n - b o r n p s y c h o l o g i s t K u r t L e w i n , who t a u g h t f o r m a n y y e a r s in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , s t a t e d t h a t i n h i s view the m a j o r d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n A m e r i c a n and E u r o p e a n u n i v e r s i t i e s w a s t h a t t h e d o o r s of t h e o f f i c e s of A m e r i c a n P r o f e s s o r s w e r e a l w a y s open. A m o n g the c o m p l a i n t s voiced b y F r e n c h s t u d e n t s d u r i n g t h e c o n f r o n t a t i o n of 1968 t h e r e w a s f r e q u e n t c r i t i c i s m of t h e p r o f e s s o r s a s " m a n d a r i n s " , n o t o n l y i n t e r m s of the p o w e r a n d a u t h o r i t y which they w i e l d e d , but a l s o b e c a u s e of t h e i r " d i s t a n c e " f r o m the s t u d e n t s . T h i s s i t u a t i o n w o u l d n a t u r a l l y a f f e c t b o t h n a t i v e a n d f o r e i g n m e m b e r s of t h e s t u d e n t population but would b e felt m o r e keenly by the l a t t e r s i n c e they p r e s u m a b l y have a g r e a t e r need for contact and advice. O l d e r f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s often help, both those who have been to t h e s a m e i n s t i t u t i o n s in t h e p a s t a n d t h o s e w h o a r e s t i l l t h e r e , and o c c a s i o n a l l y t h e r e a r e a c q u a i n t a n c e s o r f r i e n d s a m o n g the l o c a l students who willingly p e r f o r m the s a m e a d v i s o r y function. M e n t i o n w a s m a d e a b o v e of t h e i m p o r t a n c e of f r i e n d s h i p s in r e l a t i o n t o f e e l i n g s of w e l l - b e i n g a n d s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h t h e f o r e i g n s o j o u r n ; f r i e n d s m a y a l s o f u l f i l t h e a d d i t i o n a l r ô l e of s u p plying the guidance n e e d e d in connection with the s p e c i f i c r e q u i r e m e n t s of t h e a c a d e m i c e x p e r i e n c e . H e r e t o o o n e w o u l d e x p e c t to find wide c u l t u r a l v a r i a t i o n s , and the u s u a l a s s u m p t i o n i s that it i s m u c h m o r e d i f f i c u l t to m a k e f r i e n d s a n d to be i n v i t e d i n t o l o c a l h o m e s in E n g l a n d a n d e s p e c i a l l y i n F r a n c e , f o r e x a m p l e , t h a n in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . T h i s i s p r o b a b l y c o r r e c t , b u t i t i s s t r i k i n g that it is o u r A m e r i c a n r e p o r t w h i c h m a k e s s p e c i f i c

Cross-national

comparisons

41

mention of the r e l a t i v e l a c k of contact b e t w e e n f o r e i g n and n a tive s t u d e n t s ; this is usually not s o t r u e in s m a l l e r institutions and in s m a l l e r c o m m u n i t i e s , but r e p r e s e n t s a r e a l p r o b l e m even t h e r e . S i n c e l a c k of p e r s o n a l contact with " n a t i v e s " m a y have an a d v e r s e e f f e c t on both s a t i s f a c t i o n with and s u c c e s s in the a c a d e m i c e x p e r i e n c e , this a s p e c t of the f o r e i g n s o j o u r n , should r e c e i v e s p e c i a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n . It c o n s t i t u t e s a d i f f i c u l t and often d e l i c a t e p r o b l e m , s i n c e even the best-intentioned a p p r o a c h e s by u n i v e r s i t y a g e n c i e s and l o c a l f a m i l i e s to m a k e the f o r e i g n e r " f e e l at h o m e " m a y s o m e t i m e s be i n t e r p r e t e d a s a p a t e r n a l i s t i c exploitation of the novel and exotic, rather than a s a d e m o n s t r a tion of true f r i e n d s h i p between e q u a l s . This r e a c t i o n m a y be p a r t i c u l a r l y frequent when the f o r e i g n student c o m e s f r o m a group which is " r a c i a l l y " (that i s , p h y s i cally) distinct, or one which i s i n f e r i o r in s t a t u s . This m a y constitute a p r o b l e m even within the u n i v e r s i t y , but i s m o r e likely to occur in r e l a t i o n to the community at l a r g e , often in connection with the s t u d e n t ' s s e a r c h f o r a lodging, or for work, or both. Although the r e p o r t s r e c e i v e d in connection with the p r e s e n t investigation (and s u m m a r i z e d in P a r t II of this r e p o r t ) m a k e little mention of the phenomenon of p r e j u d i c e and d i s c r i m ination, p r e v i o u s findings indicate that it m a y p l a y an i m p o r t a n t rôle. The question of lodgings f o r f o r e i g n students, on the other hand, has a r o u s e d c o n s i d e r a b l e i n t e r e s t on the p a r t of our c o l l a b o r a t o r s in this study. In G e r m a n y , the A k a d e m i s c h e s A u s l a n d s a m t helps the f o r e i g n student find a p l a c e to l i v e , a s well a s giving him a d v i c e r e g a r d i n g his w o r k at the u n i v e r s i t y ; it i s felt, h o w e v e r , that too m a n y students a r e l e f t to their own d e v i c e s a s f a r a s lodging i s c o n c e r n e d . With r e f e r e n c e to the kind of lodging to be r e c o m m e n d e d , the r e p o r t f r o m India s u g g e s t s that international h o u s e s or h o s t e l s c r e a t e a kind of i s o lation which p r e v e n t s contact with the l o c a l s t u d e n t s ; it should be added, h o w e v e r , that in many s u c h international h o u s e s in the United S t a t e s and the " h o u s e s " of the v a r i o u s c o u n t r i e s in the Cité U n i v e r s i t a i r e in P a r i s , c a r e i s a l w a y s taken to e n s u r e that t h e r e i s a s u b s t a n t i a l proportion of l o c a l students. In J a p a n housing p r o b l e m s a r e c o n s i d e r e d e s p e c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t in the c a s e of f o r e i g n students, and there it i s s u g g e s t e d that the ideal a r r a n g e m e n t i s for them to live with a J a p a n e s e f a m i l y ; unfortunately that is not a l w a y s p o s s i b l e . The A m e r i c a n r e p o r t r a i s e s the question a s to what kind of lodging should be p r e f e r r e d in the c a s e of f o r e i g n students - living with a f a m i l y , in a d o r m i tory, in an international h o u s e , alone o r with another student in a p r i v a t e a p a r t m e n t , etc. ? The s a m e r a n g e of c h o i c e s i s

The major

problem

areas

found in many other countries, although student d o r m i t o r i e s a r e not so common as in the United States, and special i n t e r national houses a r e r e l a t i v e l y r a r e . T h e r e is a general feeling, h o w e v e r , that not enough lodging is available at p r i c e s within the range of the f o r e i g n students' i n c o m e , and the difficulties which a r i s e as a consequence r e p r e s e n t one of the m a j o r sources of the complaints heard. A s f o r the kind of lodging to be recommended, no c l e a r consensus e m e r g e s ; perhaps the m o s t reasonable conclusion is that s o m e students a r e happier in d o r m i t o r i e s , others like the idea of living with a l o c a l f a m i l y , still others p r e f e r to be by themselves. It appears to be i m p o s s i b l e to make a decision in this connection which would hold f o r all f o r e i g n students. The p r o b l e m of housing is of course c l o s e l y linked to the a v a i l a b i l i t y of the n e c e s s a r y financial r e s o u r c e s . T h e r e a r e many fellowships or scholarships available, p a r t i c u l a r l y in F r a n c e , the United Kingdom and the United States, in the f o r m e r two countries e s p e c i a l l y numerous in the case of previous colonial p o s s e s s i o n s . The Junior Y e a r A b r o a d p r o g r a m s enabling American students to spend a year in foreign countries are usually financed through the regular f e e s paid by such students to their own universities, and t h e r e f o r e (except f o r t r a v e l ) do not c r e a t e any special financial problems f o r the participants. E l s e w h e r e the situation is not always so f a v o r a b l e . One of the recommendations in the C a l i f o r n i a Self-study r e f e r s to the need f o r m o r e adequate financial support; Waseda also s t r e s s e s the d e s i r a b i l i t y of having m o r e scholarships a v a i l a b l e . In the United Kingdom o v e r s e a s students who do not have scholarships a r e e x pected to be self-supporting; Sussex reports that all f o r e i g n students must show evidence of their ability to support t h e m s e l v e s . In addition, they a r e required to pay m o r e than native students f o r their tuition - a situation deplored by many p r o f e s s o r s throughout the country. F o r e i g n students in India complain about the lack of adequate financial support. In Yugoslavia f e w scholarships a r e available, but the foreign students pay no f e e s f o r their tuition. The A m e r i c a n estimate is that 38 % a r e e n t i r e l y self-supporting, 22 % a r e helped by US institutions, and the r e m a i n d e r p r e s u m a bly have r e c e i v e d scholarships f r o m their own countries; the're is mention a l s o of the fact that f e w m i n o r i t y students go abroad f o r study presumably because of the expense involved. In Germany, about 20 % of the foreign students r e c e i v e f e l l o w s h i p s . Such f e l l o w s h i p s as are available play a double r ô l e in m o s t countries. Not only do they solve the financial p r o b l e m r e a s o n a bly w e l l (although some students complain both of the inadequacy of their stipends and the frequent delays in r e c e i v i n g them) but

Cross-national

comparisons

k3

i n F r a n c e , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e y e n s u r e t h a t the s t u d e n t s w i l l b e w e l c o m e d by t h e r e l e v a n t l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s a n d h e l p e d in t h e p r o c e s s of e n t e r i n g into t h e l i f e of t h e u n i v e r s i t y a n d t h e c o m m u n i t y . They a r e given i n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g the u n i v e r s i t y , lodgings, a c c e s s to the i n e x p e n s i v e m e a l s a v a i l a b l e in the univ e r s i t y r e s t a u r a n t s , t h e i r r i g h t s to s o c i a l s e c u r i t y , a n d s o on. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , h o w e v e r , a l a r g e n u m b e r of s t u d e n t s a r e l e f t to fend f o r t h e m s e l v e s . The s a m e s i t u a t i o n h o l d s f o r the United K i n g d o m , w h e r e t h e B r i t i s h C o u n c i l t a k e s in h a n d m a n y f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s a n d s c h o l a r s o n t h e i r a r r i v a l , a n d e n r o l s t h e m in p r e p a r a t o r y c o u r s e s d e s i g n e d t o g i v e t h e m a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of l i f e i n B r i t a i n ; t h e i n s t r u c t i o n e v e n e x t e n d s to t h e n a t u r e of B r i t i s h f o o d a n d t h e m a n n e r in w h i c h i t i s e a t e n . T h i s m a y a p p e a r t o b e t r i v i a l b u t in p r a c t i c e m a y t u r n o u t t o b e v e r y i m p o r t a n t , s i n c e c e r t a i n a s p e c t s of t h e " c o n f l i c t of c u l t u r e s " a p p e a r to be r e l a t e d t o c o n t r a s t i n g w a y s of p r e p a r i n g f o o d . O n c e a g a i n , h o w e v e r , t h i s g u i d a n c e i s l i m i t e d t o t h o s e w h o c o m e t o t h e UK u n d e r t h e a u s p i c e s of t h e B r i t i s h C o u n c i l . It i s c l e a r t h a t w a y s s h o u l d be f o u n d to extend s u c h guidance to all s t u d e n t s . W h a t w e h a v e a l r e a d y r e f e r r e d to a s " c u l t u r e s h o c k " o r " c o n f l i c t of c u l t u r e s " m a y h a v e s i g n i f i c a n t c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r t h e l i f e of t h e f o r e i g n s t u d e n t b o t h w i t h i n a n d o u t s i d e t h e u n i v e r s i t y . D i f f i c u l t i e s m a y a r i s e in a w i d e r a n g e of s i t u a t i o n s ; t h e n a t u r e of the contact with the p r o f e s s o r s , b o y - g i r l r e l a t i o n s , food habits, p a t t e r n s of r e c r e a t i o n , a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d m o n e y , e x p e c t e d b e h a v i o r w h e n v i s i t i n g in s o m e o n e ' s h o m e , t h e e a s e o r d i f f i c u l t y in m a k i n g f r i e n d s , the signals t r a n s m i t t e d by n o n - v e r b a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n , a l l t h e s e a n d o t h e r s m a y v a r y s u f f i c i e n t l y f r o m one c u l t u r e t o a n o t h e r to c r e a t e m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d u n h a p p i n e s s . T h e s e difficulties a r e usually o v e r c o m e , but the p r o c e s s m a y take time. T h e y p r o b a b l y p l a y a n i m p o r t a n t r ö l e in w h a t i s r e f e r r e d to i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e a s t h e "U c u r v e " , r e g a r d e d a s t y p i c a l of t h e f o r e i g n s o j o u r n . T h i s p h e n o m e n o n , f i r s t d e s c r i b e d by C o r a Du B o i s ( 1 9 5 3 ) , w a s f o u n d b y L y s g a a r d (1955) t o be t y p i c a l of t h e e x p e r i e n c e of N o r w e g i a n F u l b r i g h t g r a n t e e s i n t h e U n i t e s S t a t e s . A f t e r a n i n i t i a l p e r i o d of f a v o r a b l e a d j u s t m e n t , t h e r e w a s e v i d e n c e of a d r o p in s a t i s f a c t i o n a s p r o b l e m s d e v e l o p e d , w i t h a r e a t t a i n m e n t of good a d j u s t m e n t if t h e f o r e i g n s o j o u r n l a s t e d l o n g e n o u g h . W h e n t h e v i s i t o r a r r i v e s , he l o o k s o u t on h i s n e w w o r l d as a s p e c t a t o r or o b s e r v e r , h a v i n g an e x c i t i n g a d v e n t u r e . H e t h e n , a c c o r d i n g to t h i s t h e o r y , e n t e r s i n t o a p h a s e of i n v o l v e m e n t , during which he e n c o u n t e r s m a n y p r o b l e m s and e x p e r i e n c e s a n u m b e r of d i s a p p o i n t m e n t s ; h e m a y b e d i s i l l u s i o n e d a n d e v e n d e p r e s s e d . F i n a l l y (if h e i s f o r t u n a t e ) h e a g a i n r e a c h e s

44 The major

problem

areas

a r e l a t i v e l y h i g h p o i n t of s a t i s f a c t i o n a s h e f i n d s a m a n y if n o t a l l of h i s p r o b l e m s . T h i s t h e o r e t i c a l d o e s not a p p l y to a l l c a s e s , a n d m o r e r e s e a r c h i s its n a t u r e , i t s c a u s e s , its i n c i d e n c e , its depth, its a n d its c u r e .

solution for formulation needed into consequences

8) T h e r e t u r n h o m e . The d a t a a v a i l a b l e f r o m t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y do not p e r m i t us to s a y v e r y m u c h a b o u t w h a t h a p p e n s t o t h e s t u d e n t s w h e n t h e y r e t u r n h o m e . An e a r l i e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n b y U s e e m a n d U s e e m on " T h e W e s t e r n - e d u c a t e d m a n in I n d i a " ( I 9 5 5 ) c o n s i s t e d of i n t e r v i e w s w i t h a n u m b e r of I n d i a n s who h a d a t t e n d e d u n i v e r s i t i e s in N o r t h A m e r i c a o r t h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m . O n e of the i m p o r t a n t f i n d i n g s is t h a t I n d i a n s t u d e n t s on t h e i r r e t u r n to t h e i r own c o u n t r y a r e f r e q u e n t l y d i s a p p o i n t e d w i t h the n a t u r e a n d s t a t u s of the j o b s t h a t a r e o p e n to t h e m ; it i s s t r i k i n g , f r o m t h i s p o i n t of v i e w , t o f i n d t h e s u g g e s t i o n in o u r own I n d i a n r e p o r t t h a t c o n t a c t s h o u l d b e m a i n t a i n e d w i t h , a n d h e l p o f f e r e d to, f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s who l e a v e I n d i a t o go b a c k t o t h e i r c o u n t r i e s of o r i g i n . T h e B r i t i s h r e p o r t a l s o r e f e r s to t h e p r o b l e m f o r the f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s of f i n d i n g w o r k a t an a p p r o p r i a t e l e v e l a f t e r t h e i r r e t u r n . T h i s a p p e a r s to us t o be a n i s s u e of f u n d a m e n t a l i m p o r t a n c e , a n d one w h i c h r a i s e s v e r y s e r i o u s q u e s t i o n s . S h o u l d o t h e r c o u n t r i e s s e n d , a n d the r e c e i v i n g c o u n t r i e s a c c e p t , only those students for w h o m s a t i s f a c t o r y openings w i l l b e a v a i l a b l e on t h e i r r e t u r n ? S h o u l d a s e r i e s of b i l a t e r a l a g r e e m e n t s be m a d e to this e f f e c t ? W o u l d n o t t h i s r e p r e s e n t a n u n w a r r a n t e d i n t r u s i o n into the l i v e s of s t u d e n t s f r o m , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s who w a n t to b e c o m e e x p e r t s on a t o m i c p h y s i c s o r C h a u c e r , e v e n if t h e r e is n o p l a c e f o r t h e s e s p e c i a l t i e s i n t h e i r h o m e c o u n t r y ? We s h a l l r e t u r n to t h i s p r o b l e m l a t e r w h e n w e d i s c u s s t h e i m p a c t of e x c h a n g e s on t h e c o u n tries concerned. T h i s i s s u e is in t u r n r e l a t e d to t h e q u e s t i o n of t h e " b r a i n d r a i n " , s i n c e n o n - r e t u r n is o f t e n l i n k e d to t h e c o n v i c t i o n t h a t it i s in t h e c o u n t r y of s o j o u r n , r a t h e r t h a n in t h e c o u n t r y of o r i g i n , t h a t t h e r e a r e o p p o r t u n i t i e s for u s i n g t h e n e w - f o u n d c o m p e t e n c e a n d s p e c i a l i z a t i o n . O u r r e p o r t s do n o t d e a l w i t h t h i s q u e s t i o n , e x c e p t f o r a r e f e r e n c e in the G e r m a n s t u d y to the f a c t t h a t in s o m e cases foreign students must return home after training. This q u e s t i o n , t o o , w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d b e l o w ( s e e C h a p t e r V).

CHAPTER 3

International Exchanges at the Faculty Level

T h e t e r m " f a c u l t y " in t h i s t i t l e m a y g i v e r i s e t o a c e r t a i n a m biguity in an i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o n t e x t . A t one m e e t i n g at w h i c h r e f e r e n c e w a s m a d e t o " e x c h a n g e of f a c u l t y " , a E u r o p e a n c o l l e a g u e t h o u g h t t h a t t h i s m e a n t t h e t r a n s f e r of a w h o l e u n i v e r s i ty u n i t (a f a c u l t y ) f r o m one c o u n t r y t o a n o t h e r , r a t h e r t h a n of i n d i v i d u a l p r o f e s s o r s , t h a t i s , of m e m b e r s of a f a c u l t y . A s e c o n d d i f f i c u l t y r e f e r s t o t h e l a c k of a n y h a r d a n d f a s t d i s t i n c t i o n , a t l e a s t in c e r t a i n c a s e s , b e t w e e n " s t u d e n t s " a n d " f a c u l t y " . A n a d v a n c e d g r a d u a t e o r p o s t - g r a d u a t e (in B r i t i s h t e r m i nology) student m a y a l s o be a u n i v e r s i t y a s s i s t a n t or i n s t r u c t o r ; a p r o f e s s o r f r o m a d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r y m a y go a b r o a d to s t u d y f o r a n a d v a n c e d d e g r e e ; a m e m b e r of t h e f a c u l t y e n g a g e d i n r e s e a r c h a t h i s own u n i v e r s i t y m a y f i n d i t d e s i r a b l e t o s p e n d s o m e t i m e a t a n o t h e r t o o b t a i n t r a i n i n g in a n e w t e c h n i q u e o r t o s i t a t t h e f e e t of a d i s t i n g u i s h e d p r o f e s s o r w h o i s a r e c o g n i z e d e x p e r t in h i s f i e l d ; s t i l l a n o t h e r , e v e n if h e h a s r e a c h e d a p o s i t i o n of s t a t u s a n d p r e s t i g e , m a y go a b r o a d t o " s t u d y " w h a t i s h a p p e n i n g in a n o t h e r d i s c i p l i n e w h i c h i s r e l e v a n t to t h e p r o b l e m s h e e n c o u n t e r s i n h i s own. T h e o v e r l a p p i n g b e t w e e n e x c h a n g e s a t t h e s t u d e n t a n d t h e f a c u l t y l e v e l , r e s p e c t i v e l y , is c o n s i d e r a b l e , a n d a s a c o n s e q u e n c e m a n y of t h e i s s u e s r a i s e d in t h e p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e r e f e r r i n g to p r e p a r a t i o n , language and g e n e r a l adaptation a r e equally r e l e v a n t in the p r e s e n t context. T h e r e a r e , however, specific problems which a r i s e when the p a r t i c i p a n t s in the e x c h a n g e e x p e r i e n c e a r e p r o f e s s o r s who w i s h t o s p e n d s o m e t i m e in a f o r e i g n u n i v e r s i t y a s t e a c h e r s o r r e s e a r c h w o r k e r s o r b o t h . M o t i v e s m a y v a r y g r e a t l y ; s o m e of t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s h a v e b e e n m e n t i o n e d a b o v e . T e a c h e r s m a y go b e c a u s e they a r e e a g e r to have the f o r e i g n e x p e r i e n c e ; o t h e r s m a y s e e i t a s a n o p p o r t u n i t y to c o n t r i b u t e to " f o r e i g n a i d " o r w h a t is now f r e q u e n t l y c a l l e d " f o r e i g n c o o p e r a t i o n " in r e l a t i o n to a developing c o u n t r y , and t h e i r g o v e r n m e n t m a y e n c o u r a g e t h e m in s u c h a n u n d e r t a k i n g ; s t i l l o t h e r s m a y w i s h to e n g a g e in j o i n t r e s e a r c h ( t r u e " c o o p e r a t i o n " ) w i t h c o l l e a g u e s in o t h e r c o u n t r i e s who h a v e s i m i l a r or c o m p l e m e n t a r y s k i l l s and i n t e r e s t s . T h e r e i s a l s o a c e r t a i n p r o p o r t i o n w h o go a b r o a d w i t h t h e i n t e n t i o n of s t a y i n g a b r o a d , a c c e p t i n g p e r m a n e n t a p p o i n t m e n t ,

kS

The major

problem

areas

if that i s a v a i l a b l e , with a f o r e i g n u n i v e r s i t y or r e s e a r c h e n t e r p r i s e . T h e r e a r e s t r i k i n g v a r i a t i o n s in the w i l l i n g n e s s , or l e g a l right, of u n i v e r s i t i e s in d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s to a c c e p t f o r e i g n e r s as r e g u l a r m e m b e r s of their f a c u l t i e s . The U n i v e r s i t y of S u s s e x r e p o r t s that t h e r e a r e no r e s t r i c t i o n s on the number of o v e r s e a s s t a f f , both a s t e a c h e r s and a s r e s e a r c h w o r k e r s ; in 1970 the proportion of " f o r e i g n e r s " was 37 %, but a number of t h è s e w e r e B r i t o n s who had r e t u r n e d f r o m a b r o a d r a t h e r than c i t i z e n s of another country. Other B r i t i s h u n i v e r s i t i e s a l s o p e r m i t the p e r m a n e n t appointment of f o r e i g n e r s . The s a m e is t r u e in the United S t a t e s and the F e d e r a l R e p u b l i c of G e r m a n y ; Cologne has about 80 foreign s t a f f m e m b e r s , m a k i n g up m o r e than 5 % of r e g u l a r faculty. F o r the United S t a t e s it is r e p o r t e d that in 1967 there w e r e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 12,000 f o r e i g n e r s t e a c h ing in A m e r i c a n u n i v e r s i t i e s , a l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n of t h e s e coming f r o m E u r o p e ; 44 % w e r e in the n a t u r a l s c i e n c e s , 1 6 % in the h u m a n i t i e s , and 15 % in m e d i c i n e . T h e r e a r e c l o s e to 1,000 at the U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a a l o n e ; the n u m b e r h a s been i n c r e a s ing until recently, but i s now beginning to show a d r o p b e c a u s e of financial d i f f i c u l t i e s . In J a p a n the national u n i v e r s i t i e s a r e prohibited by law f r o m employing f o r e i g n e r s a s f u l l - t i m e faculty m e m b e r s ; W a s e d a , a p r i v a t e u n i v e r s i t y , h a s no such r e s t r i c t i o n , and although there a r e not m a n y f o r e i g n e r s there at p r e s e n t , the u n i v e r s i t y i s in f a v o r of i n c r e a s i n g their n u m b e r . The F r e n c h u n i v e r s i t i e s have the s a m e r e s t r i c t i o n a s the national u n i v e r s i t i e s of J a p a n . (This is true a l s o of B r a z i l , Italy and a n u m b e r of other c o u n t r i e s . ) Since a number of y e a r s the F r e n c h m i n i s t r y of National E d u cation h a s a u t h o r i z e d the appointment of " p r o f e s s e u r s a s s o c i é s " or v i s i t i n g p r o f e s s o r s , with a l l the rights and p r i v i l e g e s of r e gular F r e n c h p r o f e s s o r s (except r e t i r e m e n t b e n e f i t s ) but for l i m i t e d p e r i o d s ; a t f i r s t the appointment was not to l a s t l o n g e r than two y e a r s , but m o r e r e c e n t l y m a n y e x c e p t i o n s have been m a d e and f o r e i g n faculty kept on for a longer p e r i o d , although they m u s t u s u a l l y be reappointed one y e a r at a t i m e . It was thought that all s u c h r e s t r i c t i o n s might be r e m o v e d when the F r e n c h u n i v e r s i t y s y s t e m was r e o r g a n i z e d following the " é v é nements de m a i " of 1968, but this p a r t i c u l a r p r o v i s i o n w a s l e f t unchanged. Many p r o f e s s o r s r e g a r d it a s an a n a c h r o n i s m and have been u r g i n g the government to take m e a s u r e s toward its elimination. Although it is not our p u r p o s e to c r i t i c i z e the educational s y s t e m s of different c o u n t r i e s , we f e e l j u s t i f i e d in urging that r e s t r i c t i o n b a s e d on the nationality of p r o f e s s o r s i s not in h a r m o n y with the " u n i v e r s a l " function of u n i v e r s i t i e s . T h e r e a r e equally s t r i k i n g v a r i a t i o n s in the w i l l i n g n e s s to

Exchanges

at the faculty

level

1^7

s e n d p r o f e s s o r s a b r o a d . In t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , l e a v e s of a b s e n c e a r e f a c i l i t a t e d by t h e i n s t i t u t i o n of s a b b a t i c a l y e a r s , b u t in this r e s p e c t individual u n i v e r s i t i e s h a v e t h e i r own s p e c i f i c r u l e s of p r o c e d u r e , w h i c h d i f f e r g r e a t l y i n t h e i r f l e x i b i l i t y a n d g e n e r o s i t y . T h e m o s t u s u a l s y s t e m i s a l e a v e of a b s e n c e w i t h p a y e v e r y s e v e n t h y e a r f o r t e n u r e d m e m b e r s of t h e f a c u l t y ; t h i s m a y b e f o r one s e m e s t e r w i t h f u l l p a y o r f o r a c o m p l e t e a c a d e m i c y e a r w i t h h a l f p a y ; it m a y b e g r a n t e d m o r e f r e q u e n t l y ; it m a y b e g i v e n u n c o n d i t i o n a l l y o r it m a y h a v e to be a p p r o v e d b y t h e u n i v e r s i t y a u t h o r i t i e s if t h e p r o f e s s o r c a n m a k e a g o o d c a s e f o r t h e p u r p o s e f o r w h i c h it w i l l b e u s e d . It i s e n t i r e l y l a c k i n g i n s o m e u n i v e r s i t i e s ; California, for example, usually gives a l e a v e of a b s e n c e f o r one y e a r w i t h o u t p a y , b u t t h e s y s t e m i s f l e x i b l e a n d e x c e p t i o n s c a n be m a d e . O b v i o u s l y not a l l l e a v e s o r s a b b a t i c a l y e a r s involve a f o r e i g n s o j o u r n , and it is difficult t o d e t e r m i n e w h a t p r o p o r t i o n of p r o f e s s o r s t a k e a d v a n t a g e of them for this purpose. T h e J a p a n e s e u n i v e r s i t i e s h a v e n o s a b b a t i c a l s y s t e m , b u t on application a p r o f e s s o r m a y receive his r e g u l a r s a l a r y during his stay abroad, usually for a relatively brief period. Waseda e s t i m a t e s t h a t i n t h e a c a d e m i c y e a r 1 9 7 0 - 1 9 7 1 , 130 of i t s p r o f f e s s o r s (out of a t o t a l of 992) s p e n t p a r t of t h e y e a r i n a n o t h e r c o u n t r y , the l a r g e m a j o r i t y f o r l e s s than t h r e e m o n t h s ; the p r e f e r r e d c o u n t r i e s w e r e the United S t a t e s , the United K i n g d o m , F r a n c e , W e s t G e r m a n y a n d S o u t h K o r e a , in t h a t o r d e r , a n d m a i n l y in t h e f i e l d s of t h e h u m a n i t i e s , E n g l i s h a n d t h e s o c i a l s c i e n c e s . A b o u t 50 % of t h e m e m b e r s of t h e f a c u l t y h a v e h a d s o m e e x p e r i e n c e a b r o a d ; t h e p r o p o r t i o n i s m u c h l o w e r in t h e c a s e of t h e a d ministrative staff. In t h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m t h e r e a r e g r e a t v a r i a t i o n s in t h e p r o c e d u r e s r e g a r d i n g l e a v e , b u t t h e r e is u s u a l l y n o c o n t r a c t u a l r i g h t t o a s a b b a t i c a l y e a r ; e x c e p t i o n s a r e t h e U n i v e r s i t y of L a n c a s t e r which grants a full a c a d e m i c y e a r , and the Open U n i v e r s i t y w h e r e t h e " s a b b a t i c a l " i s l i m i t e d t o two m o n t h s . E l s e w h e r e p e r m i s s i o n f o r a p e r i o d of a b s e n c e m u s t b e r e q u e s t e d , e i t h e r w i t h o r w i t h o u t s a l a r y ; t h e k e y r ô l e h e r e i s p l a y e d b y t h e h e a d s of t h e d e p a r t m e n t s c o n c e r n e d , a n d i t i s t o t h e m t h a t a p p l i c a t i o n s m u s t be s u b m i t t e d . In s p e c i a l c a s e s , B r i t i s h p r o f e s s o r s m a y go a b r o a d on l e a v e f o r u p to f i v e y e a r s , u s u a l l y t o u n i v e r s i t i e s in t h e f o r m e r c o l o n i e s , o r t h e y m a y be " s e c o n d e d " to a n o t h e r i n s t i t u t i o n f o r p e r i o d s r a n g i n g f r o m one t e r m to two y e a r s . In G e r m a n y l e a v e s of a b s e n c e w i t h p a y a r e o f t e n a w a r d e d , w h e n a p p l i e d f o r a n d if g o o d r e a s o n s a r e g i v e n , to p r o f e s s o r s w i t h t e n u r e and usually for one s e m e s t e r . A t l o w e r levels, leave without s a l a r y is p o s s i b l e . A t C o l o g n e i t i s r e p o r t e d t h a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y

48

The major

problem

areas

30 % of t h e f a c u l t y had b e e n a b r o a d f o r a t l e a s t h a l f - a - y e a r , m o s t of t h e m going to the U n i t e d S t a t e s , E u r o p e (Italy, F r a n c e , t h e UK, Y u g o s l a v i a and S p a i n ) w i t h a s u b s t a n t i a l p r o p o r t i o n to the developing c o u n t r i e s . T h o s e who t r a v e l have for the m o s t p a r t r e a c h e d a relatively s u p e r i o r position at the University. Y u g o s l a v i a r e p o r t s that t r a v e l of f a c u l t y a b r o a d o c c u r s m u c h m o r e f r e q u e n t l y t h a n v i s i t s of f o r e i g n f a c u l t y f r o m a b r o a d , due to t h e s u b s t a n t i a l n u m b e r s going t o the d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s , a l t h o u g h t h e r e i s s o m e r e c i p r o c i t y in t r a v e l to a n d f r o m w e s t e r n E u r o p e . The c o u n t r y ' s p o s i t i o n is r a t h e r s p e c i a l s i n c e it both r e c e i v e s and gives " t e c h n i c a l c o o p e r a t i o n " , the l a t t e r p r i m a r i l y to A r a b a n d s e c o n d l y t o b l a c k A f r i c a n a r e a s . A s p e c i a l s u r v e y c o n d u c t e d in Z a g r e b i n 1971 i n d i c a t e d t h a t 571 m e m b e r s of the f a c u l t y (27 %) had b e e n a b r o a d d u r i n g the a c a d e m i c y e a r , a n d t h a t d u r i n g the s a m e p e r i o d t h e r e w e r e 87 p r o f e s s o r s a n d r e s e a r c h w o r k e r s visiting f r o m a b r o a d ; usually the s t a y s a r e of r e l a t i v e l y b r i e f d u r a t i o n . M o s t of t h o s e w h o go a r e in m e d i c i n e , a n d of t h o s e who c o m e , in t h e s o c i a l s c i e n c e s . T h e v i s i t s i n b o t h d i r e c t i o n s a r e u s u a l l y by t h o s e in t h e u p p e r p r o f e s s o r ial r a n k s , but by no m e a n s e x c l u s i v e l y . W a s e d a a l s o r e p o r t s that few f o r e i g n p r o f e s s o r s a r e found a t the u n i v e r s i t y c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e n u m b e r s who go a b r o a d , in s p i t e of t h e f a c t t h a t e x p e r i e n c e in f o r e i g n u n i v e r s i t i e s is not c o n s i d e r e d to b e a n a d v a n t a g e w i t h r e g a r d to a d v a n c e m e n t in Japan. T h e s i t u a t i o n in F r a n c e h a s c e r t a i n s p e c i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . C o n s e r v a t i v e a s is t h e F r e n c h s y s t e m w i t h r e g a r d to the a p p o i n t m e n t of f o r e i g n p r o f e s s o r s , i t is e x t r e m e l y l i b e r a l w i t h r e g a r d t o p e r m i s s i o n f o r F r e n c h p r o f e s s o r s t o go a b r o a d , a n d e v e n u n d e r c e r t a i n c i r c u m s t a n c e s t o r e m a i n a b r o a d f o r a n u m b e r of y e a r s w i t h o u t a n y l o s s of i n c o m e o r of a d v a n c e m e n t w i t h i n the u n i v e r s i t y h i e r a r c h y . T h e r e i s no s a b b a t i c a l y e a r , b u t a s p a r t of " c u l t u r a l r e l a t i o n s ", p r o i e s s or s a r e a l l o w e d a n d e v e n e n c o u r a g e d to t e a c h in f o r e i g n u n i v e r s i t i e s , u s u a l l y in the d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s w i t h p a r t i c u l a r ( a l t h o u g h not e x c l u s i v e ) e m p h a s i s on the f o r m e r F r e n c h colonies. The B r i t i s h , as indicated above, have a s o m e w h a t s i m i l a r a r r a n g e m e n t with r e g a r d to C o m m o n w e a l t h u n i v e r s i t i e s , but t h e F r e n c h h a v e c a r r i e d t h e p r o c e s s m u c h f u r t h e r . It is m u c h m o r e c o m m o n in F r a n c e t h a n in t h e UK to m e e t a p r o f e s s o r who has spent ten or m o r e y e a r s in B r a z i l o r the Ivory C o a s t , and w h o on h i s r e t u r n f i n d s a u n i v e r s i t y p o s t o p e n f o r h i m a n d w h i c h i s c e r t a i n l y e q u a l in s t a t u s to the p o s i t i o n he would h a v e r e a c h e d if h e h a d s t a y e d h o m e . T h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a r r a n g e m e n t s in d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s w h i c h

Exchanges

at the faculty

level

tf-9

m a k e t r a v e l p o s s i b l e , both a t the s t u d e n t a n d f a c u l t y l e v e l , w i l l b e c o n s i d e r e d in c h a p t e r IV; a d i s c u s s i o n of the i m p l i c a t i o n s of t h e s e e x c h a n g e s will be p r e s e n t e d in c h a p t e r V. A t this point we s h a l l m e r e l y e x p r e s s the opinion that e x c h a n g e s a t the f a c u l ty l e v e l u n d o u b t e d l y h a v e g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e , s i n c e they t o u c h on s u c h f u n d a m e n t a l i s s u e s a s t e c h n i c a l a s s i s t a n c e to o r c o o p e r a tion with the d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s , the p o s s i b i l i t y of o b t a i n i n g a d v a n c e d t r a i n i n g p a r t i c u l a r l y in the m e t h o d o l o g y of r e s e a r c h , and a p r o b a b l e c o n t r i b u t i o n to the f u t u r e c a r e e r s of the i n d i v i d u a l s i n v o l v e d . It i s a s c o n s e q u e n c e s u r p r i s i n g a n d d i s a p p o i n t i n g to find that only a v e r y s m a l l p r o p o r t i o n of the r e s e a r c h l i t e r a t u r e i s d e v o t e d to an e v a l u a t i o n o r a s s e s s m e n t of e x c h a n g e s a t an advanced level.

CHAPTER 4

The Mechanics of Exchanges

We h a v e a l r e a d y r e f e r r e d t o a n u m b e r of w a y s in w h i c h i n t e r n a t i o n a l e x c h a n g e s of s t u d e n t s a n d f a c u l t y m e m b e r s a r e m a d e e a s i e r t h r o u g h f e l l o w s h i p s p r o v i d e d by v a r i o u s i n s t i t u t i o n s á n d g o v e r n m e n t s , t h r o u g h the a p p o i n t m e n t f o r s h o r t e r o r l o n g e r p e r i o d s of f o r e i g n p r o f e s s o r s , t h r o u g h t e c h n i c a l c o o p e r a t i o n p r o g r a m s , t h r o u g h t h e J u n i o r Y e a r A b r o a d in t h e c a s e of a n u m b e r of A m e r i c a n s t u d e n t s a n d a s o m e w h a t s i m i l a r a r r a n g e m e n t a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y of S u s s e x a n d e l s e w h e r e , a n d o t h e r r e l a t e d m e c h a n i s m s . In t h e p r e s e n t c h a p t e r w e h o p e b r i e f l y t o a d d t o t h i s l i s t of m e c h a n i s m s w i t h o u t a t t e m p t i n g to d e s c r i b e t h e m a l l i n d e t a i l , a n d t o i n d i c a t e s o m e of t h e p r o b l e m s r a i s e d in t h e p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n . (A m o r e c o m p l e t e a c c o u n t of p o s s i b i l i t i e s in t h e c a s e of s t u d e n t s m a y b e f o u n d in U n e s c o ' s p e r i o d i c a l p u b l i c a t i o n of S t u d y A b r o a d ; no s i m i l a r c o m p r e h e n s i v e s o u r c e c a n b e c i t e d , u n f o r t u n a t e l y , w h i c h d e s c r i b e s the s i t u a tion i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y as f a r a s faculty m e m b e r s a r e c o n c e r n e d . ) P e r h a p s the m o s t s t r i k i n g i m p r e s s i o n c r e a t e d by the r e p o r t s r e c e i v e d f r o m t h e c o u n t r i e s i n c l u d e d in t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y i s of t h e t r e m e n d o u s r a n g e a n d v a r i e t y of w h a t w e h a v e c a l l e d t h e m e c h a n i s m s of e x c h a n g e . T h e y d i f f e r , f o r e x a m p l e , i n t h e i r s p o n s o r s h i p a n d t h e s o u r c e of f i n a n c i a l s u p p o r t . T h e y m a y b e u n d e r t h e a u s p i c e s of i n t e r n a t i o n a l g o v e r n m e n t a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s s u c h as the United Nations, Unesco, the W o r l d Health Organization, the F o o d and A g r i c u l t u r a l O r g a n i z a t i o n , t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l L a b o r O r g a n i z a t i o n , and others; the m a i n goals which i n s p i r e these p r o g r a m s a r e t h e i m p r o v e m e n t of i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s on t h e one h a n d , a n d a i d t o t h e d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s on t h e o t h e r . A s t u d e n t f r o m a n y c o u n t r y m a y r e c e i v e a f e l l o w s h i p t o go to a n o t h e r , u s u a l l y f o r a d v a n c e d s t u d y ; a p r o f e s s o r m a y b e s e n t to s e t up a d e p a r t m e n t in a n e w u n i v e r s i t y in a d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r y o r t o o r g a n i z e a r e s e a r c h l a b o r a t o r y , o r a n " e x p e r t " m a y go on a " m i s s i o n " t o h e l p i n t r o d u c e a p r o g r a m f o r t h e r e d u c t i o n of i l l i t e r a c y o r t h e e l i m i n a t i o n of m a l a r i a , o r t o i m p r o v e a n d m o d e r n i z e t h e t e c h n i q u e of a g r i c u l t u r e o r m i n i n g . M o s t of t h e c o u n t r i e s i n c l u d e d in o u r i n v e s t i g a t i o n h a v e p r o f i t e d f r o m t h i s " o m n i l a t e r a l " p r o g r a m , and r e q u e s t s k e e p a r r i v i n g f o r m o r e s c h o l a r s h i p s and m i s s i o n s to fill s p e c i f i c n e e d s . One can only e x p r e s s

The mechanics

of exchanges

51

r e g r e t that the f u n d s f o r t h e s e p u r p o s e s a r e not a d e q u a t e to the d e m a n d , s i n c e with r a r e e x c e p t i o n s they a r e r e g a r d e d a s having m a d e a r e a l c o n t r i b u t i o n , m o s t p a r t i c u l a r l y in the c a s e of the developing countries. A t a s e c o n d l e v e l t h e r e a r e the e x c h a n g e s s u p p o r t e d b y m u l tinational o r g a n i z a t i o n s such as N A T O (The N o r t h Atlantic T r e a t y O r g a n i z a t i o n ) a n d o t h e r s w h i c h w e r e o r i g i n a l l y s e t up for m i l i t a r y or d e f e n s e p u r p o s e s , but which have u s u a l l y extende d t h e i r m a n d a t e to i n c l u d e p r o g r a m s of c o o p e r a t i o n in o t h e r f i e l d s . T h e s e s c h o l a r s h i p s a r e r e s t r i c t e d to m e m b e r s of N A T O ; t h e y a r e m e n t i o n e d in o u r B r i t i s h r e p o r t s a s c o n t r i b u t i n g to e x c h a n g e s in the U K . T h e B r i t i s h C o m m o n w e a l t h p r o g r a m i s a n e x t e n s i v e o n e , a n d the l i n k s b e t w e e n C o m m o n w e a l t h u n i v e r s i t i e s a r e s t r e n g t h e n e d by a n u m b e r of a r r a n g e m e n t s to f a c i l i t a t e e x c h a n g e s b e t w e e n t h e m . It i s e s t i m a t e d , f o r e x a m p l e , t h a t d u r i n g the f o u r a n d a h a l f m o n t h s w h i c h p r e c e d e d the p r e p a r a t i o n of the B r i t i s h r e p o r t , a b o u t 1 , 6 5 0 s c h o l a r s c a m e to t h e U K u n d e r t h e a u s p i c e s of t h e A s s o c i a t i o n of C o m m o n w e a l t h U n i v e r s i t i e s . T h e B r i t i s h C o u n c i l , the R o y a l S o c i e t y , the C o m m o n w e a l t h S c h o l a r s h i p C o m m i s s i o n and other o r g a n i z a t i o n s all contribute to s c h o l a r s h i p s f o r s t u d e n t s a n d t e a c h e r s f r o m the v a r i o u s c o u n t r i e s i n c l u d e d w i t h i n the C o m m o n w e a l t h s y s t e m . It i s i n t e r e s t i n g to note t h a t the B r i t i s h C o u n c i l e x t e n d e d i t s f e l l o w s h i p p r o g r a m t o the E E C (the E u r o p e a n E c o n o m i c C o m m u n i t y ) a f t e r B r i t a i n ' s entry a short time ago. T h e r e a r e a l s o about seventy R h o d e s s c h o l a r s h i p s g r a n t e d e a c h y e a r ; t h i r t y to C o m m o n w e a l t h c o u n t r i e s , t h i r t y to the U n i t e d S t a t e s , a n d ten to S o u t h A f r i c a . T h e F r e n c h h a v e a s i m i l a r i n v o l v e m e n t in r e l a t i o n to the c o u n t r i e s w h i c h w e r e f o r m e r l y c o l o n i e s , a n d now c o n s t i t u t e w h a t i s c a l l e d the F r e n c h C o m m u n i t y . M e n t i o n h a s a l r e a d y b e e n m a d e o f the w i l l i n g n e s s of the F r e n c h g o v e r n m e n t a n d u n i v e r s i t i e s to a l l o w t h e i r p r o f e s s o r s to s p e n d c o n s i d e r a b l e t i m e a b r o a d , u s u a l l y ( t h o u g h n o t e x c l u s i v e l y ) in the f o r m e r c o l o n i e s . It h a s b e e n s u g g e s t e d that t h e r e is now a t e n d e n c y to b e a l i t t l e l e s s g e n e r o u s in t h i s r e s p e c t t h a n h e r e t o f o r e , b u t o u r F r e n c h r e p o r t i n d i c a t e s that t e a c h i n g a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p e r s o n n e l m a y s t i l l b e s e n t f o r i n d e f i n i t e p e r i o d s b y the " S e r v i c e s d e l a C o o p e r a t i o n C u l t u r e l l e e t T e c h n i q u e " of the m i n i s t r y of F o r e i g n A f f a i r s to s e r v e p r i m a r i l y in the F r e n c h - s p e a k i n g u n i v e r s i t i e s of A f r i c a a n d M a d a g a s c a r . T h e m u l t i - n a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r of t h i s a r r a n g e m e n t i s d e m o n s t r a t e d a l s o by the l a r g e n u m b e r of g o v e r n m e n t s c h o l a r s h i p s g r a n t e d by t h e s e f o r m e r c o l o n i e s f o r s t u d y in F r e n c h u n i v e r s i t i e s ; the s a m e t e n d e n c y i s f o u n d in m a n y B r i t i s h C o m m o n w e a l t h c o u n t r i e s w i t h r e g a r d to the U K , but o t h e r c o u n t r i e s in the C o m m o n w e a l t h ( C a n a d a , A u s t r a l i a o r N e w

52

The major

problem

areas

Z e a l a n d , f o r e x a m p l e ) m a y a l s o b e c h o s e n by t h e r e c i p i e n t s of s u c h s c h o l a r s h i p s . T h e U n i t e d S t a t e s G o v e r n m e n t p a r t i c i p a t e s i n a n u m b e r of p r o g r a m s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e ( u n d e r t h e a u s p i c e s of t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s and its s p e c i a l i z e d a g e n c i e s , NATO, e t c . ) but its b e s t - k n o w n a c t i v i t y i n the f i e l d of i n t e r n a t i o n a l e d u c a t i o n a l e x c h a n g e s is t h e g r a n t i n g of F u l b r i g h t S c h o l a r s h i p s . This p r o g r a m w a s i n i t i a t e d i n 1949, a n d b y 1968 h a d m a d e m o r e t h a n 3 2 , 0 0 0 a w a r d s . It i s d i f f i c u l t t o d e c i d e w h e t h e r to c a l l t h i s a m u l t i - l a t e r a l o r a s e r i e s of m u l t i p l e b i l a t e r a l p r o g r a m s . In a d d i t i o n t o a c e n t r a l o f f i c e in W a s h i n g t o n , f u n c t i o n i n g w i t h i n t h e D e p a r t m e n t of S t a t e a n d r e s p o n s i b l e f o r e v e r - a l l p o l i c y a n d f i n a n c i n g , t h e p r o g r a m is a d m i n i s t e r e d in e a c h c o u n t r y b y a b i n a t i o n a l C o m m i s s i o n ; to t a k e o n e s p e c i f i c e x a m p l e , t h e F r a n c o A m e r i c a n C o m m i s s i o n for Educational and Cultural Exchanges has m e m b e r s f r o m both c o u n t r i e s , sends faculty and students i n b o t h d i r e c t i o n s , a n d r e c e i v e s i t s f i n a n c e s in a p p r o x i m a t e l y equal a m o u n t s f r o m both g o v e r n m e n t s . T h e s a m e p r i n c i p l e ope r a t e s i n m o s t o t h e r c o u n t r i e s . U n d e r t h e a u s p i c e s of t h e U S / UK C o m m i s s i o n , t h e r e w e r e 18 v i s i t i n g A m e r i c a n p r o f e s s o r s i n B r i t a i n i n 1 9 7 2 - 1 9 7 3 , a n d 32 B r i t i s h l e c t u r e r s s p e n t s o m e t i m e i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . T h e s e C o m m i s s i o n s in v a r i o u s c o u n t r i e s p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e p r o c e s s of s e l e c t i o n a m o n g c a n d i d a t e s a n d h e l p t h o s e w h o a r e a p p o i n t e d to a d j u s t to t h e u n i v e r s i t y a n d the c o m m u n i t y to which they a r e a s s i g n e d ; the C o m m i s s i o n ' s s t a f f i s a l s o a v a i l a b l e f o r h e l p if s p e c i f i c p r o b l e m s a r i s e . T h i s t e c h n i q u e h a s c e r t a i n l y b e e n h e l p f u l in c o n t r i b u t i n g to t h e s u c c e s s of t h e p r o g r a m , w h i c h i s h i g h l y a p p r e c i a t e d , in F r a n c e f o r e x a m p l e , b y b o t h the m i n i s t r i e s of N a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n a n d of F o r e i g n A f f a i r s , a s w e l l a s by t h e i n d i v i d u a l s a n d u n i v e r s i t i e s c o n c e r n e d . E v e n in t h i s c a s e , h o w e v e r , f a i l u r e s do o c c u r ; i t w o u l d b e of c o n s i d e r a b l e v a l u e to d e t e r m i n e w h y , a n d w h e t h e r t h e y c o u l d b e r e d u c e d in n u m b e r , if n o t e l i m i n a t e d e n t i r e l y , in the future. T h e r ô l e of g o v e r n m e n t s in t h e f i e l s of i n t e r n a t i o n a l e d u c a t i o n a l e x c h a n g e s i s b y no m e a n s l i m i t e d to t h e m u l t i - l a t e r a l a n d b i l a t e r a l a r r a n g e m e n t s mentioned above. Most governments m a k e p r o v i s i o n f o r exchanges which might be d e s c r i b e d as "open" or " u n r e s t r i c t e d " i n t h e s e n s e t h a t t h e l o c a t i o n of t h e e x c h a n g e s i s d e t e r m i n e d b y n e e d , e i t h e r on t h e p a r t of t h e i n d i v i d u a l conc e r n e d , o r of t h e i n s t i t u t i o n o r c o u n t r y t o w h i c h h e g o e s . T h e F r e n c h g o v e r n m e n t , t h r o u g h t h e m i n i s t r y of F o r e i g n A f f a i r s , g i v e s f e l l o w s h i p s o r s e n d s p r o f e s s o r s on l o n g l e a v e in t h e c a s e of c o u n t r i e s n o t i n c l u d e d i n t h e F r e n c h C o m m u n i t y ; t h e s a m e h o l d s t r u e f o r t h e UK. T h e G e r m a n F e d e r a l R e p u b l i c a l s o u s e s

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f e d e r a l funds for educational exchange p u r p o s e s , a d m i n i s t e r e d t h r o u g h the D A A D (the G e r m a n A c a d e m i c E x c h a n g e S e r v i c e ) a n d the H u m b o l d t F o u n d a t i o n w h i c h a r r a n g e f o r v i s i t s f r o m f o r e i g n s c h o l a r s , and the D F G (the G e r m a n R e s e a r c h A s s o c i a t i o n ) which p e r f o r m s a s i m i l a r s e r v i c e f o r G e r m a n s c h o l a r s g o i n g a b r o a d . In a d d i t i o n to t h i s s u p p o r t f r o m f e d e r a l funds the i n d i v i d u a l s t a t e s (the " L a e n d e r " ) a l s o c o n t r i b u t e to the e x c h a n g e p r o g r a m . G e r m a n y , a s a l r e a d y i n d i c a t e d , i s p a r t i c u l a r l y but b y no m e a n s e x c l u s i v e l y c o n c e r n e d with a i d to the d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s . In the U n i t e d S t a t e s , g o v e r n m e n d funds p l a y a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t not only t h r o u g h the F u l b r i g h t p r o g r a m m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , but a l s o t h r o u g h the e x t e n s i v e s u p p o r t g i v e n to d e v e l o p ing c o u n t r i e s t h r o u g h AID (the A g e n c y f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t ) and t h r o u g h the P e a c e C o r p s , f o u n d e d in 1 9 6 1 , which h a s h a d a s i g n i f i c a n t e d u c a t i o n a l i m p a c t in a n u m b e r of c o u n t r i e s . T h e r e a r e a few g o v e r n m e n t f e l l o w s h i p s a v a i l a b l e in J a p a n a n d Y u g o s l a v i a : the r e p o r t s f r o m both c o u n t r i e s i n d i c a t e the d e s i r e a n d the n e e d f o r m o r e . I n d i v i d u a l u n i v e r s i t i e s in a l l the c o u n t r i e s i n c l u d e d in this s u r v e y p l a y a s i g n i f i c a n t r ô l e in the f i n a n c i n g a s w e l l a s in a l l o t h e r a s p e c t s of i n t e r n a t i o n a l e d u c a t i o n a l e x c h a n g e s of s t u d e n t s a n d f a c u l t y . One of the m a j o r m e c h a n i s m s f o r the r e a l i z a t i o n of t h e s e e x c h a n g e s i s t h r o u g h b i l a t e r a l a g r e e m e n t s with i n d i v i d u a l u n i v e r s i t i e s in o t h e r c o u n t r i e s . T h e f i r s t point that s h o u l d b e m a d e i s that h e r e , a s e l s e w h e r e , t h e r e is no s t r i c t l i n e of d e m a r c a t i o n between b i l a t e r a l and m u l t i l a t e r a l p r o g r a m s ; s o m e of the a r r a n g e m e n t s a r e m a d e t h r o u g h a C o n s o r t i u m in w h i c h s e v e r a l universities participate; there a r e , for example, triang u l a r e x c h a n g e s b e t w e e n B r i s t o l , B o r d e a u x a n d H a n n o v e r , and b e t w e e n B i r m i n g h a m , L y o n s and F r a n k f u r t . M o r e c o m m o n l y , h o w e v e r , the l i n k is b e t w e e n two u n i v e r s i t i e s , a n d the e x c h a n g e s m a y involve t e a c h e r s , students a n d / o r books and other m a t e r i a l s . O c c a s i o n a l l y a p r o f e s s o r m a y d i v i d e h i s t i m e b e t w e e n two u n i v e r s i t i e s in two d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s ; H a r v a r d and P a r i s , f o r e x a m p l e , o r C a l i f o r n i a ( B e r k e l e y ) and C o l o g n e , or O s l o and Essex. B i l a t e r a l a r r a n g e m e n t s a r e r e p o r t e d f o r a n u m b e r of the c o u n t r i e s a n d u n i v e r s i t i e s r e p r e s e n t e d in the p r e s e n t s t u d y , a l t h o u g h they do not a l w a y s f u n c t i o n a s a c t i v e l y a s i s d e s i r e d . W a s e d a r e p o r t s that b i l a t e r a l a r r a n g e m e n t s f o r e x c h a n g e of f a c u l t y m e m b e r s h a v e b e e n s e t up with P a r i s a n d B o n n , and m o r e r e c e n t l y with H a n y a n g (South K o r e a ) and M o s c o w S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , a s w e l l a s in t e c h n i c a l s t u d i e s with the U n i v e r s i t y of M i c h i g a n a n d W a s h i n g t o n U n i v e r s i t y in S t L o u i s ; the only one now o p e r a t i n g , h o w e v e r , is with the G r e a t L a k e s C o l l e g e A s s o c i a t i o n . C o l o g n e

5U

The major

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h a s a number of b i l a t e r a l p r o g r a m s , a m o n g o t h e r s with u n i v e r s i t i e s in A f g h a n i s t a n , A r g e n t i n a , F r a n c e and the United S t a t e s , but indicates that they v a r y g r e a t l y in e f f e c t i v e n e s s . Z a g r e b h a s worked out exchange a r r a n g e m e n t s with R o s t o c k and D r e s d e n in E a s t G e r m a n y . The F r e n c h b i l a t e r a l a g r e e m e n t s , in addition to the e x a m p l e s mentioned above, include a n u m b e r of s p e c i f i c teaching and r e s e a r c h a c t i v i t i e s which involve e x c h a n g e s at the faculty level and (with g o v e r n m e n t aid) a s e r i e s of p r o g r a m s of student f e l l o w s h i p s . The UK has a s u b s t a n t i a l number of b i l a t e r a l p r o g r a m s , including Oxford-Bonn, E x e t e r - R e n n e s , and m a n y o t h e r s ; these links a r e d e s c r i b e d as the b a s i s f o r e x c h a n g e s of i n f o r m a t i o n and m a t e r i a l s , r e s e a r c h and teaching s t a f f , and s t u dents. In the United S t a t e s it i s e s t i m a t e d that during the a c a d e m i c y e a r 1967-1968, 110 u n i v e r s i t i e s and c o l l e g e s w e r e eng a g e d in over 190 exchange p r o g r a m s with o v e r s e a s institutions, m a n y of them with s o m e f o r m of government or foundation a s s i s t a n c e . T h e s e p r o g r a m s u s u a l l y c o n c e n t r a t e on the exchange of m a t e r i a l s and i n f o r m a t i o n , but a s i g n i f i c a n t p r o p o r t i o n p r o v i d e s for faculty and student e x c h a n g e s a s well. The C a l i f o r n i a Chile Convenio is an outstanding e x a m p l e . With r e g a r d to b i l a t e r a l p r o g r a m s in g e n e r a l , we a r e s t r u c k by their extent and their v a r i e t y but a l s o with the f a c t that they do not always w o r k . It would s e e m that this is one m e c h a n i s m of international educational exchanges which i s in need of c a r e ful examination to d e t e r m i n e why it works in s o m e c o u n t r i e s and s o m e institutions and not in o t h e r s . We would h a z a r d the g u e s s that one difficulty a r i s e s f r o m the d i f f u s i o n of r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for b i l a t e r a l e x c h a n g e s , s i n c e they a r e s o often initiated by one group of s c h o l a r s whose s u c c e s s o r s m a y not bring s u f f i c i e n t e n t h u s i a s m - and p e r h a p s a l s o ability - to e n s u r e the s u c c e s s ful continuation of the p r o g r a m s . Individual u n i v e r s i t i e s a l s o have their own p r o g r a m s which contribute to e x c h a n g e s without n e c e s s a r i l y following the b i l a t e r a l pattern. They m a y o f f e r fellowships to students for f o r eign study, or they m a y m a k e s p e c i a l a r r a n g e m e n t for f o r e i g n students (such a s r e m i s s i o n of f e e s ) or they m a y invite a f o r eign s c h o l a r to s e r v e a s a v i s i t i n g p r o f e s s o r . In s o m e countries ( F r a n c e and G e r m a n y , for e x a m p l e ) this will be done under government a u s p i c e s , but with c o n s i d e r a b l e autonomy v e s t e d in individual u n i v e r s i t i e s ; in others (the UK and US) the r e l e v a n t a r r a n g e m e n t s a r e m a d e d i r e c t l y by the u n i v e r s i t i e s c o n c e r n e d , with g r e a t v a r i a t i o n s f r o m one u n i v e r s i t y to another a s a cons equence. R e f e r e n c e w a s m a d e above to the p a r t played by p r i v a t e found a t i o n s ; their r ô l e h a s expanded g r e a t l y in r e c e n t y e a r s but

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only in c e r t a i n c o u n t r i e s , a n d m o s t s t r i k i n g l y i n the U n i t e d S t a t e s . A m e r i c a n e x c h a n g e s , in b o t h d i r e c t i o n s , h a v e b e e n s u p p o r t e d b y the S o c i a l S c i e n c e R e s e a r c h C o u n c i l , the A m e r i c a n C o u n c i l of L e a r n e d S o c i e t i e s , the C a r n e g i e , C u g g e n h e i m , F o r d and R o c k e f e l l e r F o u n d a t i o n s , and many, m a n y o t h e r s . In G e r m a n y the V o l k s w a g e n F o u n d a t i o n i s m a k i n g a n i m p o r t a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n , a n d p r i v a t e f o u n d a t i o n s a r e b e g i n n i n g t o be a c t i v e in J a p a n . R e f e r e n c e w a s m a d e a b o v e to a n u m b e r of e x c h a n g e s c h e m e s s u p p o r t e d by f o u n d a t i o n s in t h e U K ; m o s t of t h e s e a r e g o v e r n m e n t - s p o n s o r e d a n d f i n a n c e d , b u t in r e c e n t y e a r s p r i v a t e f o u n d a t i o n s s u c h a s the N u f f i e l d a n d L e v e r h u l m e h a v e p l a y e d a n e x c e e d i n g l y i m p o r t a n t p a r t , and of c o u r s e the p r i v a t e l y - e n d o w e d R h o d e s T r u s t is o n e of the b e s t - k n o w n a m o n g s p o n s o r s of i n t e r n a t i o n a l e d u c a t i o n a l e x c h a n g e s . F i n a l l y w e m u s t m e n t i o n a g a i n t h o s e who g o a b r o a d " o n t h e i r o w n " . T h i s p h e n o m e n o n m a y not e x a c t l y q u a l i f y a s a m e c h a n i s m of e x c h a n g e s , but it a f f e c t s s u c h a l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n of s t u d e n t s who t r a v e l ( s o m e e s t i m a t e s go a s h i g h a s 50 %) t h a t it s h o u l d c e r t a i n l y n o t b e n e g l e c t e d . It p l a y s a m u c h l e s s i m p o r t a n t r ô l e in the c a s e of p r o f e s s o r s , who u s u a l l y w a i t f o r a n i n v i t a t i o n to go a b r o a d , o r a r r a n g e to r e c e i v e s u c h a n i n v i t a t i o n t h r o u g h s o m e j u d i c i o u s p r o d d i n g , o r a p p l y f o r a f e l l o w s h i p to m a k e t h e i r f o r e i g n s o j o u r n p o s s i b l e . A s a l r e a d y i n d i c a t e d , the s e l f s e l e c t e d , s e l f - s u p p o r t e d s t u d e n t s c o n s t i t u t e a s p e c i a l g r o u p in n e e d of p a r t i c u l a r s t u d y . How do t h e y d i f f e r f r o m t h o s e w h o s e w a y i s p a i d t h r o u g h one of the m e c h a n i s m s l i s t e d a b o v e ? A r e t h e y ( a s one m i g h t e x p e c t ) m o r e h i g h l y m o t i v a t e d ? A r e they a e s u c c e s s f u l w i t h i n the u n i v e r s i t y ? D o t h e y a d a p t m o r e - o r l e s s - s u c c e s s f u l l y to t h e c o m m u n i t y ? A r e t h e y m o r e - o r l e s s - s a t i s f i e d with their f o r e i g n s o j o u r n ? T h e s e and s i m i l a r questions would be worth while r a i s i n g , and a n s w e r i n g . Our F r e n c h r e p o r t i n d i c a t e s that n o n - s c h o l a r s h i p students have a m o r e d i f f i c u l t t i m e on a r r i v a l than the o t h e r s , but d o e s not t e l l us how s u c c e s s f u l t h e y a r e in o v e r c o m i n g t h e i r d i f f i c u l t i e s . T h i s b r i e f r e v i e w of w h a t we h a v e c a l l e d " t h e m e c h a n i c s of e x c h a n g e s " i s e n c o u r a g i n g in its i n d i c a t i o n of the m a n y a n d v a r y ing i n s t i t u t i o n s c o n c e r n e d with the f a c i l i t a t i o n of a f o r e i g n s o journ for both students and faculty m e m b e r s . Their very varie t y , h o w e v e r , r a i s e s the i m p o r t a n t i s s u e of the c o o r d i n a t i o n , o v e r l a p p i n g a n d p o s s i b l e i n t e g r a t i o n of the v a r i o u s p r o g r a m s . E v e n within a s i n g l e u n i v e r s i t y t h i s p r o b l e m m a y b e c o m e a c u t e . T h e U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a u n d e r l i n e s the n e e d to e s t a b l i s h a n a l l - u n i v e r s i t y C o m m i t t e e on I n t e r n a t i o n a l P r o g r a m s in o r d e r to e n s u r e c o o r d i n a t i o n . S u s s e x s e t u p an O v e r s e a s R e l a t i o n s h i p C o m m i t t e e in 1 9 6 5 but it w a s d i s c o n t i n u e d in 1 9 6 7 ; it

56

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now s u g g e s t s that the r e i n s t a t e m e n t of s u c h a c e n t r a l mechan i s m s h o u l d be r e c o n s i d e r e d . Z a g r e b s p e a k s of e x c h a n g e p r o g r a m s a s f r e q u e n t l y due to p r i v a t e , s p o r a d i c and o f t e n i n c i d e n t a l a r r a n g e m e n t s , a n d r a i s e s the q u e s t i o n of w h e t h e r a m o r e s y s t e m a t i c p r o c e d u r e might not be introduced. The A m e r i c a n r e p o r t u r g e s m o r e c o o r d i n a t i o n both within the s a m e i n s t i t u t i o n s and a t the n a t i o n a l l e v e l . T h e G e r m a n s t u d y i n d i c a t e s that the g o v e r n m e n t p l a y s an i m p o r t a n t r ô l e , but that t h e r e is no c e n t r a l p l a n n i n g r e g a r d i n g i n t e r n a t i o n a l e x c h a n g e s . P e r h a p s our q u e s t i o n s h o u l d not be w h e t h e r c o o r d i n a t i o n i s j i e e d e d , but r a t h e r how m u c h ? R o o m s h o u l d c e r t a i n l y be l e f t f o r i n d i v i d u a l i n i t i a t i v e on the p a r t of a d m i n i s t r a t i v e and f a c u l t y p e r s o n n e l at a p a r t i c u l a r u n i v e r s i t y to d e v e l o p t h e i r own, o f t e n i m a g i n a t i v e and e x p e r i m e n t a l p r o g r a m s in an i n d e p e n d e n t m a n n e r ; two d i f f e r e n t f o u n d a t i o n s , e v e n within the s a m e c o u n t r y , m u s t have f r e e d o m to m o v e in d i r e c t i o n s c o n s o n a n t with the w i s h e s of the d o n o r s a n d the j u d g m e n t of the t r u s t e e s . We w o u l d s u g g e s t that t h e r e s h o u l d be i n t e g r a t i o n a n d c o o r d i n a t i o n within a s i n g l e i n s t i t u t i o n , l i k e a u n i v e r s i t y , a n d a l s o m u c h m o r e c o m m u n i c a t i o n and d i s c u s s i o n b e t w e e n i n s t i t u t i o n s s o a s to a s s u r e a n a d e q u a t e d i v i s i o n of r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s a n d an e f f e c t i v e c o o p e r a t i o n in o r d e r to r e a c h the d e s i r ed g o a l s . T h i s d o e s h a p p e n o c a s i o n a l l y , a s when t h e s a m e i n d i v i d u a l a p p l i e s to two d i f f e r e n t f o u n d a t i o n s w h o s e representat i v e s then d i s c u s s h i s c a s e j o i n t l y , a n d a r r i v e a t a c o m m o n d e c i s i o n r e g a r d i n g the a c t i o n to be t a k e n . T h e r e p o r t s c o n t r i b u t e d to this i n v e s t i g a t i o n j u s t i f y our i n s i s t e n c e on the n e e d f o r m o r e c o o r d i n a t i o n within, a n d m o r e c o o p e r a t i o n b e t w e e n , i n s t i t u t i o n s i n v o l v e d in e x c h a n g e s . We h a v e a l r e a d y m a d e r e f e r e n c e to the p o l i c i c a l a s p e c t s of e x c h a n g e s . G o v e r n m e n t p o l i c y i s o b v i o u s l y i n f l u e n c e d by p o l i t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , s u c h a s the r e l a t i o n of the UK to the C o m m o n w e a l t h and of F r a n c e to the F r e n c h C o m m u n i t y . M e m b e r s h i p in the E u r o p e a n E c o n o m i c C o m m u n i t y h a s a l r e a d y h a d i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r a c a d e m i c r e l a t i o n s h i p s a s w e l l , a n d the " n o n a l i g n m e n t " of Y u g o s l a v i a h a s b e e n m e n t i o n e d a s a f a c t o r i n f l u e n c i n g the n a t u r e o f t h a t c o u n t r y ' s e x c h a n g e p r o g r a m s . M o r e s p e c i f i c p o l i t i c a l e v e n t s will a l s o p l a y t h e i r p a r t ; the U K ( a s w e l l a s the United S t a t e s , G e r m a n y a n d F r a n c e ) a c c e p t e d m a n y C z e c h o s l o v a k s t u d e n t s a f t e r the p a s s i n g of the P r a g u e S p r i n g , a n d it i s a t this p a r t i c u l a r m o m e n t i n v o l v e d with the i s s u e of C h i l e a n s who w i s h to continue t h e i r s t u d i e s in B r i t i s h U n i v e r s i t i e s . T h e r e h a s a l s o b e e n a c o n s i d e r a b l e e x o d u s of f a c u l t y m e m b e r s f r o m S o u t h A f r i c a b e c a u s e of d i s a g r e e m e n t with g o v e r n m e n t policies, and f r o m Czechoslovakia, Poland and B r a z i l -

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and m o s t recently f r o m Chile - of many p r o f e s s o r s who had lost their university posts. The Vietnam w a r was responsible f o r the departure of a number of students and a s m a l l e r number of teachers f r o m the United States, usually in the direction of Canada. W e can do no m o r e than mention this phenomenon, since international exchanges w i l l unfortunately continue to be, at l e a s t in part, at the m e r c y of the political situation, but no summ a r y of the "mechanics of exchange" would be complete without at l e a s t a r e f e r e n c e to political f a c t o r s . One further problem, which f o r obvious reasons is of conside r a b l e concern both to governments and to u n i v e r s i t i e s , is the financial cost of international exchange p r o g r a m s . Our C a l i f o r nia r e p o r t indicates that the costs a r e d i f f i c u l t to establish with any p r e c i s i o n , but that students abroad actually cost l e s s per capita than do those who remain at the university; this, h o w e v e r , l e a v e s out the cost of educating f o r e i g n students who come to C a l i f o r n i a . F o r India it is estimated that this cost as far as Indian universities a r e concerned amounts to one quarter of one per cent of the total cost of higher education in the country, which is certainly a modest proportion. This whole issue is c o m p l i c a t ed not only by the lack of adequate information, but also by the distinction made e a r l i e r between predominantly " r e c e i v i n g " count r i e s , whose costs a r e r e l a t i v e l y high, and " s e n d i n g " countries, whose students create costs abroad but with much s m a l l e r local expenses in view of the small proportion of f o r e i g n students who enter. It should not be forgotten, h o w e v e r , that the r e c e i v i n g countries a r e usually wealthier and technically m o r e advanced, so that the expense involved m a y l e g i t i m a t e l y be r e g a r d e d as part of the p r o c e s s of technical assistance or cooperation. A n other way of looking at costs is to ask what the r e c e i v i n g countries or universities gain as a consequence of exchanges; even though it m a y be difficult to attach a financial " p r o f i t " to such a gain, it m a y still constitute an important argument in favor of continuing, and possibly even of extending, the p r o g r a m . W e shall attempt to deal with this and related issued in the f o l l o w ing chapter. One of the m a j o r concerns of this international study of e x changes was to determine the nature of the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a r rangements in each country ( o r university) in o r d e r to see what general principles e m e r g e d , and what p r a c t i c a l suggestions might be made as a consequence. This has been the purpose of the present b r i e f chapter, which m a y be usefully complemented by a reading of the s u m m a r i e s of the individual country reports presented in P a r t II. We would like at this point to r a i s e a few additional questions which a r e based on these reports as w e l l as

58

The major

problem

areas

on o t h e r m a t e r i a l w i t h w h i c h w e a r e f a m i l i a r , a n d w h i c h in o u r judgment r e q u i r e m u c h fuller c o n s i d e r a t i o n than they have so f a r r e c e i v e d ; s o m e of t h e s e h a v e a l r e a d y b e e n t o u c h e d u p o n . 1) L a c k of c o o r d i n a t i o n in t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e p r o g r a m s is f r e q u e n t l y m e n t i o n e d . A t the l o c a l , u n i v e r s i t y l e v e l it h a s b e e n p r o p o s e d (by S u s s e x a n d C a l i f o r n i a ) t h a t a u n i v e r s i t y - w i d e C o m m i t t e e be e s t a b l i s h e d to s u p e r v i s e e x c h a n g e s ; a t t h e l e v e l of a c o u n t r y , a t the v e r y l e a s t b e t t e r a n d m o r e f r e q u e n t c o m m u n i c a tion a m o n g all r e l e v a n t agencies has been strongly urged. What a b o u t t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l l e v e l ? If s t u d e n t s , f r o m o n e c o u n t r y ( I r a n , f o r e x a m p l e ) a t t e n d u n i v e r s i t i e s i n a n o t h e r (the G e r m a n F e d e r a l Republic), what m e c h a n i s m s a r e t h e r e for r e g u l a r consultation b e t w e e n r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of t h e t w o c o u n t r i e s c o n c e r n e d ? T h e r e a r e occasional a r r a n g e m e n t s for such consultation, but our evidence indicates that they a r e relatively r a r e and not always effective. 2) T h e r&le of f o r e i g n s t u d e n t a d v i s e r s h a s a l s o a t t r a c t e d c o n s i d e r a b l e a t t e n t i o n . T h e y h a v e f u n c t i o n e d f o r a n u m b e r of y e a r s in the United S t a t e s ; t h e y h a v e j u s t b e e n i n t r o d u c e d i n t o F r e n c h u n i v e r s i t i e s . W e h a v e a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d t h e n e e d f o r an a s s e s s m e n t of t h e i r u s e f u l n e s s w i t h i n o n e c o u n t r y . W o u l d i t b e p o s s i b l e to c o o r d i n a t e t h e i r f u n c t i o n i n g a t the i n t e r n a t i o n a l l e v e l , s o t h a t a d v i s e r s in a n y o n e n a t i o n c o u l d p r o f i t by t h e e x p e r i e n c e in o t h e r s ? T h e r e is in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n o r g a n i z a t i o n c a l l e d N A F S A , t h e N a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n of F o r e i g n S t u d e n t A d v i s e r s . Is i t p r e m a t u r e t o c a l l f o r t h e c r e a t i o n of a n I A F S A , a n I n t e r n a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n of F o r e i g n S t u d e n t A d v i s e r s ? 3) T h e q u e s t i o n of t h e e q u i v a l e n c e of u n i v e r s i t y d e g r e e s h a s b e e n r a i s e d by a n u m b e r of o u r c o l l e a g u e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y in t h e F r e n c h r e p o r t , w h i c h r e f e r s in t h i s c o n n e c t i o n to c e r t a i n a g r e e m e n t s w h i c h h a v e b e e n r e a c h e d w i t h G e r m a n u n i v e r s i t i e s . It s e e m s c l e a r t h a t t h i s p r o c e s s s h o u l d be e x t e n d e d a t a m o r e c o m p l e t e l y i n t e r n a t i o n a l level. T h e r e a r e v e r y r e a l d i f f i c u l t i e s in s u c h a p r o c e d u r e ; can they be o v e r c o m e , and how? The p r o b l e m m a y b e c o m e p a r t i c u l a r l y a c u t e in t h e c a s e of t h o s e s t u d e n t s w h o w i s h (or a r e f o r c e d ) t o t a k e p a r t of t h e i r c o u r s e w o r k in o n e c o u n t r y a n d p a r t in a n o t h e r . T h e G e r m a n s t u d y i n d i c a t e s t h a t s t u d e n t s m u s t w a i t until a f t e r they r e t u r n b e f o r e l e a r n i n g what " c r e d i t s " they will receive. This uncertainty would p r e s u m a b l y reduce the likel i h o o d of a f o r e i g n s o j o u r n . C a n a n y t h i n g b e d o n e to r e d u c e t h e uncertainty?

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4) B i l a t e r a l p r o g r a m s between u n i v e r s i t i e s in two d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s a r e o f t e n r e s t r i c t e d to p a p e r a g r e e m e n t s which a r e n e v e r i m p l e m e n t e d , o r which m a y be a b a n d o n e d a f t e r a b r i e f p e r i o d . What a d m i n i s t r a t i v e t e c h n i q u e s c o u l d be i n t r o d u c e d s o a s to e n s u r e m o r e c a r e f u l p r e p a r a t i o n of s u c h p r o g r a m s , with g r e a t e r l i k e l i h o o d that they will b e i m p l e m e n t e d , and that they will p e r s i s t ? 5) P r o g r a m s of study a b r o a d s o m e t i m e s a r r a n g e f o r s t u d e n t s to e n t e r d i r e c t l y into the f o r e i g n u n i v e r s i t y s y s t e m , and in other c a s e s c r e a t e in the c o u n t r y of s o j o u r n a b r a n c h of the home univ e r s i t y , although often with s o m e of the c o u r s e s given by t e a c h e r s f r o m the l o c a l c o m m u n i t y . Which s y s t e m w o r k s b e t t e r ? One m i g h t h a z a r d the g u e s s that the s e c o n d a r r a n g e m e n t (there a r e of c o u r s e a n u m b e r of p o s s i b l e i n t e r m e d i a t e f o r m s ) h a s the a d v a n t a g e of m o r e c l o s e l y i n t e g r a t i n g the y e a r a b r o a d with the s t a n d a r d s of the h o m e u n i v e r s i t y , but g i v e s the students l e s s opportunity for " i m m e r s i o n " in the new c u l t u r e . What e v i d e n c e h a v e we a s to the r e l a t i v e m e r i t s of t h e s e two a p p r o a c h e s ? T h e s e few i s s u e s by no m e a n s e x h a u s t the r a n g e or p r o b l e m s r e l a t e d to a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a s p e c t s of i n t e r n a t i o n a l e x c h a n g e s , a l though they a p p e a r to us to be a m o n g the m o s t i m p o r t a n t . A s this c h a p t e r h a s i n d i c a t e d , h o w e v e r , a l l the m e c h a n i s m s i n v o l v ed in e x c h a n g e s h a v e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e i m p l i c a t i o n s . S o m e p e r s o n o r s o m e o r g a n i z a t i o n i s e x p e c t e d to a s s u m e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r s e l e c t i o n , p r e p a r a t i o n and i n t e g r a t i o n of both f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s and f a c u l t y ; f o r f i n a n c i a l a r r a n g e m e n t s ; f o r a i d in obtaining h o u s i n g and, o c c a s i o n a l l y , j o b s ; f o r a d v i c e r e g a r d i n g c o u r s e s to take o r d e g r e e s to s e e k ; f o r o b t a i n i n g r e s e a r c h f a c i l i t i e s ; even f o r s o c i a l c o n t a c t s . Our i n v e s t i g a t i o n h a s i n d i c a t e d that t h e r e i s in s o m e c a s e s no p r o v i s i o n m a d e to f i l l t h e s e n e e d s , that the r e l e v a n t a d m i n i s t r a t i v e m a c h i n e r y i s often l a c k i n g , that f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s (and f a c u l t y ) m a y be l e f t to f e n d f o r t h e m s e l v e s . We a r e not s u g g e s t i n g that they s h o u l d be taken by the hand and guided a s if they w e r e c h i l d r e n ; this they n e i t h e r n e e d nor d e s i r e in m o s t c a s e s .' What d o e s a p p e a r to be n e c e s s a r y is the c r e a t i o n of the b a s i c a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e d e s i g n e d to give help to t h o s e who r e q u i r e it.

CHAPTER 5

The Consequences of Exchanges

T h i s p a r t i c u l a r i n v e s t i g a t i o n w a s i n s p i r e d b y the n e e d a n d the d e s i r e to l e a r n m o r e a b o u t the i m p a c t , the c o n s e q u e n c e s , of i n t e r n a t i o n a l e d u c a t i o n a l e x c h a n g e s . It w a s f e l t , h o w e v e r , that this n e e d could b e s t b e f u l f i l l e d in two s t a g e s , with the e m p h a s i s p l a c e d f i r s t on w h a t w a s h a p p e n i n g , in the e x p e c t a t i o n that this would p r e p a r e the w a y f o r the s e c o n d s t a g e , the s t u d y of i m p a c t . T h e r e w a s no a t t e m p t to a d h e r e to a s h a r p l i n e of d e m a r c a t i o n , h o w e v e r , and m o s t of the r e p o r t s which we r e c e i v e d do e x p r e s s j u d g m e n t s r e g a r d i n g the m a n n e r in which the e x c h a n g e p r o g r a m is o p e r a t i n g and o f t e n i n c l u d e s u g g e s t i o n s f o r i t s i m p r o v e m e n t . The C a l i f o r n i a U n i v e r s i t y S e l f - S t u d y , the f i r s t o r p i o n n e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n which p r e p a r e d the w a y f o r the c r o s s - n a t i o n a l c o m p a r i s o n s , in f a c t b e g a n with the f o l l o w i n g s e r i e s of q u e s t i o n s : What a r e we d o i n g ? S h o u l d we be doing i t ? How w e l l a r e we doing i t ? What s h o u l d we be d o i n g in the f u t u r e ? The a n s w e r s to a l l of t h e s e q u e s t i o n s , with the p a r t i a l e x c e p t i o n s of the f i r s t , i n v o l v e e v a l u a t i o n , and e v e n though i t w a s the f i r s t q u e s t i o n w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e d the p r i m a r y f o c u s of the p r e s e n t s t u d y , we h a v e a l r e a d y i n d i c a t e d that the d e s c r i p t i v e a s p e c t s cannot - a n d s h o u l d not - be kept e n t i r e l y d i s t i n c t f r o m a l l the o t h e r s . A t the s a m e t i m e we m u s t a d m i t that the i n f o r m a t i o n we h a v e o b t a i n e d r a r e l y p e r m i t s us to d r a w d e f i n i t e c o n c l u s i o n s r e g a r d i n g e v a l u a t i o n , a n d we s h a l l f r e q u e n t l y h a v e to l i m i t o u r s e l v e s to p r e s e n t i n g h y p o t h e s e s which a r e in n e e d of f u r t h e r e x p l o r a t i o n . We a r e not s u r e how m u c h w e i g h t we s h o u l d g i v e to the f a c t that a l l t h o s e who p a r t i c i p a t e d in the p r e s e n t s t u d y g i v e the i m p r e s s i o n of b e i n g e n t h u s i a s t i c a b o u t i n t e r n a t i o n a l e x c h a n g e s .' T h i s d o e s not m e a n that they do not o c c a s i o n a l l y c r i t i c i z e i t s m o d e of o p e r a tion; it d o e s m e a n t h a t they a l l a p p r o v e it in p r i n c i p l e . T h i s m a y of c o u r s e m e r e l y i n d i c a t e that t h o s e who w e r e w i l l i n g to j o i n in this i n v e s t i g a t i o n w e r e a l r e a d y f a v o r a b l y c o m m i t t e d to the i d e a of e x c h a n g e s , but it i s our opinion that this c o m m i t m e n t i n c r e a s e d in the p r o c e s s of c o l l e c t i n g the d a t a , a n d b e c a m e of d e f i n i t i v e " e g o - i n v o l v e m e n t " b e f o r e the end. In what f o l l o w s we s h a l l c o n s i d e r the e v a l u a t i o n of e x c h a n g e s f r o m f o u r d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s : l ) the i n d i v i d u a l s i n v o l v e d ; 2) the univ e r s i t i e s ; 3) the c o u n t r i e s c o n c e r n e d ; and 4) i n t e r n a t i o n a l a t t i t u d e s .

The

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6l

A s we s h a l l s e e , t h e s e c a n n o t be kept e n t i r e l y d i s t i n c t , a l t h o u g h it m a y s t i l l b e a l i t t l e s i m p l e r to h a n d l e t h e m s e p a r a t e l y . F r e q u e n t l y t h e r e will be c o n v e r g e n c e in the c o n s e q u e n c e s ; if the i n d i v i d u a l who p a r t i c i p a t e s in the e x c h a n g e p r o g r a m is d i s s a t i s f i e d a n d u n s u c c e s s f u l , h i s s o j o u r n w i l l b e u n l i k e l y to b e n e f i t his u n i v e r s i t y o r h i s c o u n t r y . O c c a s i o n a l l y , t h e r e m a y b e a c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n the d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s ; a b r i l l i a n t s t u d e n t who a c c e p t s an i n v i t a t i o n to r e m a i n in the h o s t c o u n t r y ( a s p a r t of the " b r a i n d r a i n " ) w i l l u s u a l l y be c o n s i d e r e d a " f a i l u r e " a s r e g a r d s h i s own c o u n t r y o r u n i v e r s i t y . We s h a l l r e t u r n to t h e s e p r o b l e m s later. In c o n n e c t i o n with the f o r e i g n s o j o u r n a t the i n d i v i d u a l l e v e l , C h a p t e r s II a n d III have r a i s e d a n u m b e r of i s s u e s which m a y a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t the s u c c e s s of the e x c h a n g e e x p e r i e n c e . T h e s e i n c l u d e the f r e q u e n t l y h a p h a z a r d c h a r a c t e r of the s e l e c t i o n p r o c e s s ; the kind of p r e p a r a t i o n - or l a c k of it - a v a i l a b l e to s t u d e n t s a n d t e a c h e r s b e f o r e t h e i r f o r e i g n v i s i t ; the p r o b l e m of l a n g u a g e ; d e g r e e of i n t e g r a t i o n within the u n i v e r s i t y a n d a v a i l a b i l i t y of h e l p and a d v i c e f r o m f o r e i g n s t u d e n t a d v i s e r s , t u t o r s and o t h e r s ; o c c a s i o n a l f a i l u r e in e x a m i n a t i o n s ; " c u l t u r e s h o c k " , w h i c h inc l u d e s the d i f f i c u l t y of a d a p t a t i o n to a new s o c i e t y with d i f f e r e n t n o r m s a n d p a t t e r n s of b e h a v i o r ; the t r a u m a of e t h n i c p r e j u d i c e a n d d i s c r i m i n a t i o n ; p r o b l e m s r e l a t i n g to a d e q u a t e f i n a n c i n g a n d h o u s i n g a n d o t h e r m a t e r i a l a s p e c t s of the s o j o u r n . A l l of t h e s e r e q u i r e m u c h m o r e c a r e f u l c o n s i d e r a t i o n than they u s u a l l y r e c e i v e , and the s o l u t i o n of the p r o b l e m s they r a i s e w o u l d undoubtedl y r e d u c e the a m o u n t of f a i l u r e a n d d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n which d o e s o c c u r . T h e f a c t r e m a i n s , h o w e v e r , t h a t the l a r g e m a j o r i t y of t h o s e who go a b r o a d a r e h a p p y with t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e , a n d our c o n c e r n with the n e g a t i v e c a s e s s h o u l d not l e a d to a n u n d e r e s t i m a t i o n of the p r o p o r t i o n of s u c c e s s e s . T h e C a l i f o r n i a r e p o r t i n c l u d e s an a c c o u n t of the o p i n i o n s e x p r e s s e d r e g a r d i n g the e x c h a n g e e x p e r i e n c e in t h e c a s e of s t u d e n t s . M o s t f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s a r e s a t i s f i e d - but not a l l . T h e f a c ulty h a s a f a v o r a b l e r e a c t i o n to the m a j o r i t y of f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s but i s d i s a p p o i n t e d with s o m e who a r e i l l - p r e p a r e d a n d i l l - e q u i p ped a c a d e m i c a l l y or financially, or l i n g u i s t i c a l l y , or e m o t i o n a l l y ; it i s p o i n t e d out that m o r e c a r e f u l s c r e e n i n g or s e l e c t i o n i s n e e d e d . With r e g a r d to C a l i f o r n i a s t u d e n t s a b r o a d , the j u d g m e n t of the f a c u l t y i s that the total e d u c a t i o n a l - c u l t u r a l e x p e r i e n c e i s a v a l u a b l e o n e , even though the s t r i c t l y a c a d e m i c g a i n m a y in s o m e c a s e s b e q u e s t i o n e d . D u r i n g the s e v e n y e a r s of the E d u c a tion A b r o a d P r o g r a m , only t h r e e % of the s t u d e n t s i n v o l v e d f a i l e d to c o m p l e t e t h e i r a c a d e m i c y e a r , a n d t h e r e w e r e a f e w who h a d to r e t u r n p r e m a t u r e l y b e c a u s e of the p o l i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n

62

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in t h e c o u n t r y of s o j o u r n ; t h e l a r g e m a j o r i t y c o u l d be c h a r a c t e r i z e d , t h e r e f o r e , a s having had a s u c c e s s f u l a c a d e m i c e x p e r i e n c e . In a d d i t i o n , t h e y u s u a l l y o b t a i n e d b e t t e r m a r k s a f t e r t h e i r r e t u r n . A n i n q u i r y a m o n g m e m b e r s of t h e f a c u l t y s h o w e d t h a t a b o u t 8 t o 10 % go a b r o a d i n a n y o n e y e a r f o r a t l e a s t one m o n t h ; of t h o s e w h o w e n t to t h e " r i c h e r " c o u n t r i e s , 77 % r a t e d t h e e x p e r i e n c e a s h i g h l y s a t i s f a c t o r y ; v i s i t s to t h e " p o o r e r " o r d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s w e r e s i m i l a r l y r a t e d in 73 % of t h e c a s e s . A t W a s e d a U n i v e r s i t y also, m o s t p r o f e s s o r s who had been a b r o a d w e r e v e r y s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e e f f e c t s of t h e i r f o r e i g n s o j o u r n on t h e i r o w n f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h a n d a l s o w i t h t h e i r c o n t a c t s w i t h t h e p e o p l e in t h e c o u n t r y v i s i t e d , but t h e r e w a s s o m e d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n e x p r e s s e d a s w e l l . In t h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m it w a s f e l t t h a t b o t h in t h e c a s e of s t u d e n t a n d f a c u l t y e x c h a n g e s , b e t t e r a r r a n g e m e n t s w e r e n e e d e d with r e g a r d to r e c e p t i o n a t the i n s t i t u t i o n v i s i t e d , a s w e l l a s a c l e a r e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e u n i v e r s i ty s y s t e m in the c o u n t r y of s o j o u r n . T h e US r e p o r t a l s o s u g g e s t s that the A m e r i c a n p r o f e s s o r or r e s e a r c h e r who goes a b r o a d is not a l w a y s s u f f i c i e n t l y u t i l i z e d o r p r o p e r l y r e c e i v e d a t t h e h o s t u n i v e r s i t y . The c o n s e n s u s in both c o u n t r i e s is, h o w e v e r , that it i s u s u a l l y a v a l u a b l e e x p e r i e n c e . T h e s a m e h o l d s t r u e f o r G e r m a n y , w h e r e all the p r o f e s s o r s i n t e r v i e w e d e x p r e s s e d the b e l i e f t h a t t r a v e l w a s of r e a l v a l u e a n d s h o u l d b e e n c o u r a g e d ; o n l y 71 % , h o w e v e r , t h o u g h t i t w a s e q u a l l y u s e f u l in t h e c a s e of s t u d e n t s .' In F r a n c e , the m a j o r i t y of f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s w e r e s a t i s f i e d with t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e , and felt that it was valuable. F o r e i g n s t u d e n t s i n India a r e d e s c r i b e d a s e x p e r i e n c i n g w i t h s o m e f r e q u e n c y a s e n s e of " c u l t u r e s h o c k " , i n c l u d i n g a s u b j e c t i v e f e e l i n g of l o s s , i s o l a t i o n a n d l o n e l i n e s s ; t h e y m a y b e d i s o r i e n t e d , p u z z l e d a n d h o m e s i c k . T h i s a p p e a r s , h o w e v e r , to b e a t r a n s i t o r y p h e n o m e n o n in m o s t c a s e s , e q u i v a l e n t to t h e t r o u g h in t h e U - c u r v e d e s c r i b e d a b o v e , a n d u s u a l l y r e p l a c e d by a m o r e p o s i t i v e r e a c t i o n a s t i m e e l a p s e s . It i s f o r t h i s r e a s o n t h a t w e c o n s i d e r t h a t t h e s t u d y of t h e i m m e d i a t e i m p a c t of a f o r e i g n s o j o u r n n e e d s to b e s u p p l e m e n t e d b y a l o n g - t e r m a p p r o a c h . Since the r e s u l t s obtained by an i n v e s t i g a t o r during the actual s o j o u r n m a y be i n f l u e n c e d , t o a n u n k n o w n d e g r e e , by t h e p o i n t on t h e c u r v e a t w h i c h t h e i n d i v i d u a l h a p p e n s t o b e i n t e r v i e w e d , it b e c o m e s i m p o r t a n t t o d e t e r m i n e h o w t h e e x p e r i e n c e i s e v a l uated f r o m the p e r s p e c t i v e gained with t i m e . The c o n s e q u e n c e s of a f o r e i g n s o j o u r n m a y n o t a l w a y s '- p e r h a p s n o t u s u a l l y - r e veal t h e m s e l v e s immediately. Psychologists have m a d e frequent r e f e r e n c e to a " s l e e p e r - e f f e c t " , that i s , a n e f f e c t which is not a p p a r e n t u n t i l t h e p a s s a g e of a c e r t a i n a m o u n t of t i m e . A r e t r o s p e c t i v e l o o k m a y b r i n g out c e r t a i n a s p e c t s of t h e e x p e r i e n c e

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which only begin to make themselves felt at a later period. This does not mean that study of the actual f o r e i g n sojourn, as it is l i v e d and experienced at the time, should be neglected; on the contrary it is in need of a much m o r e thorough analysis than it has so f a r r e c e i v e d . The e x p e r i e n c e m a y be considered in t e r m s of the "mental health" of the individual, not only in its negative aspects (unhappines s, loneliness, frustration, and in e x t r e m e cases breakdown requiring therapy) but also in its positive aspects (satisfaction, growth, the ability to " c o p e " w i t h a new situation and solve n e w p r o b l e m s ) . E x p e r i e n c e indicates that exposure to a novel cultural environment may produce a v a r i e t y of d i f f e r e n t reactions. Some f o r e i g n students w i l l be p o s i t i v e l y attracted and stimulated by the new culture, a c t i v e l y seeking out what is novel, finding definite satisfaction through contact with a way of l i f e that is d i f f e r e n t . Others may look f o r security through a s s o ciation with students of their own nationality or m a y w e l c o m e in the new culture only those aspects which r e s e m b l e those to which they w e r e accustomed at home. Still others m a y attempt to find refuge in groups made up of f o r e i g n students f r o m v a rious countries, d i f f e r i n g among themselves but united in the common task of adjusting to a new culture. Others again may devote themselves to their books and studies, finding a kind of c o m f o r t in behavior which r e q u i r e s a minimum of such adjustment but may still result in f e e l i n g s of satisfaction and a c c o m plishment. T h e r e w i l l , of course, be intermediate and o v e r l a p ping f o r m s of behavior as w e l l . F o r our purposes, the i m p o r tant point is that the coping mechanisms chosen m a y be s u c e s s ful or unsuccessful, in the sense that they m a y on the one hand contribute to personal growth and development, o r on the other, to f e e l i n g s of failure or frustration. The r e s e a r c h p r o b l e m then b e c o m e s one of determining the conditions under which the individual student makes use of the f o r e i g n e x p e r i ence as a factor contributing to growth and to mental health in its positive aspects, and the conditions which a r e a s s o c i a t e d with failure and even breakdown. The U - c u r v e may be common but it is c e r t a i n l y not inevitable. One of the main tasks b e f o r e us is to distinguish between those students who do, and those who do not, go through the unhappy and disoriented period r e p r e s e n t e d by the trough in the U - c u r v e , and to d i s c o v e r the conditions a s s o c i a t e d with these two d i f f e r e n t v a r i e t i e s of e x p e r i e n c e . We m a y s u m m a r i z e our conclusions r e g a r d i n g the impact of a f o r e i g n sojourn on the individuals concerned, whether students or faculty m e m b e r s , in the following t e r m s . The l a r g e m a j o r i t y

64

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f e e l that it (ör h a s been) a u s e f u l and r e w a r d i n g e x p e r i e n c e . T h o s e who h a v e had d i r e c t c o n t a c t with the e x c h a n g e p r o c e s s , a s t e a c h e r s , student a d v i s e r s , a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , participants and o t h e r s in a p o s i t i o n to know, a p p e a r to be a l m o s t u n a n i m o u s l y in f a v o r of continuing and if p o s s i b l e of e x p a n d i n g the r e l e v a n t p r o g r a m s . They f e e l that it h a s u s u a l l y e n r i c h e d the l i v e s of t h o s e who t r a v e l a s well a s of t h o s e they m e e t on t h e i r t r a v e l s . T h e y a r e a l s o a l m o s t u n a n i m o u s , h o w e v e r , in i n s i s t ing that t h e r e h a v e been f a i l u r e s in a c e r t a i n n u m b e r of i n d i v i d ual c a s e s ; t h e s e c o n s t i t u t e a m i n o r i t y , although t h e i r e x a c t n u m b e r h a s not y e t b e e n c l e a r l y e s t a b l i s h e d , and they undoubtedly v a r y in f r e q u e n c y f r o m one p r o g r a m to a n o t h e r . T h e m a j o r t a s k in this context i s to r e d u c e , if not to e l i m i n a t e , this m i n o r i t y , and h e r e the v a r i o u s f a c t o r s l i s t e d a b o v e , f r o m the s e l e c t i o n p r o c e s s t h r o u g h the entire s o j o u r n , r e q u i r e c o n s i d e r a t i o n . T h e r e i s a l s o an u r g e n t n e e d to s t u d y the l o n g - t e r m c o n s e q u e n c e s of the e x p e r i e n c e , a s well a s to a r r i v e a t a d i f f e r e n t i a l d i a g n o s i s of s u c c e s s f u l a n d u n s u c c e s s f u l c a s e s of c o p i n g with the p r o b l e m s p r e s e n t e d by the new c u l t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t . At the u n i v e r s i t y l e v e l the " k n o w l e d g e a b l e p e r s o n s " to whom r e f e r e n c e w a s m a d e above a l s o a p p e a r to b e u n a n i m o u s in c o n s i d e r i n g that the p r e s e n c e of f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s a n d p r o f e s s o r s a t t h e i r u n i v e r s i t y r e p r e s e n t s a d i s t i n c t a d v a n t a g e . A m o n g the r e p o r t s c o n t r i b u t e d to the p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n , the C a l i f o r n i a S e l f - s t u d y i s p a r t i c u l a r l y a r t i c u l a t e on this point, but s i m i l a r v i e w s a r e e x p r e s s e d by u n i v e r s i t y a u t h o r i t i e s in other c o u n t r i e s . In s o m e c a s e s the a d v a n t a g e i s d i r e c t and c l e a r ; f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s m a y m a k e a s p e c i f i c contribution to l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g , f o r e x a m p l e , and a f o r e i g n p r o f e s s o r m a y b r i n g d e t a i l e d k n o w l e d g e of a p a r t of the w o r l d , and often of an a r e a of r e s e a r c h , which is o t h e r w i s e not e a s i l y a c c e s s i b l e on a p a r t i c u l a r c a m p u s . T h e r e a r e a l s o i n d i r e c t b e n e f i t s which m a y b e m o r e d i f f i c u l t to d e m o n s t r a t e but which m a y be e q u a l l y v a l u a b l e a s p a r t of the e d u c a tional p r o c e s s , through d i r e c t c o n t a c t on the p a r t of l o c a l s t u d e n t s with t h o s e who bring with t h e m a d i f f e r e n t b a c k g r o u n d and point of v i e w . S u c h an e n l a r g e m e n t of i n t e l l e c t u a l h o r i z o n s m a y a l s o a f f e c t the s u r r o u n d i n g c o m m u n i t y a s well a s the u n i v e r s i t y . Our r e p o r t s i n d i c a t e , h o w e v e r , that m o s t u n i v e r s i t i e s do not a d e q u a t e l y e x p l o i t the a d v a n t a g e s which s o u l d a c c r u e f r o m the p r e s e n c e of f o r e i g n e r s at a p a r t i c u l a r i n s t i t u t i o n . E s p e c i a l l y a t the i n f o r m a l l e v e l c o n t a c t s a r e o f t e n m i n i m a l . C e r t a i n c o u n t r i e s , l i k e the U n i t e d S t a t e s for i n s t a n c e , a r e u s u a l l y r e g a r d e d a s b e i n g p a r t i c u l a r l y " o p e n " in this r e s p e c t , with c o n t a c t s e a s y to e s t a b l i s h a n d f r i e n d s h i p , a t l e a s t a t the s u p e r f i c i a l l e v e l , r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e ; o t h e r s , l i k e F r a n c e , have the r e p u t a t i o n of b e i n g

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r e l a t i v e l y " c l o s e d " , with a h i g h e r t h r e s h o l d of a c c e s s i b i l i t y on the p a r t of s t r a n g e r s . It is t h e r e f o r e s t r i k i n g to n o t e that both o u r A m e r i c a n a n d F r e n c h r e p o r t s r e f e r to the i s o l a t i o n of m a n y f o r e i g n e r s and the l a c k of f r i e n d l y r e l a t i o n s h i p with the l o c a l s t u d e n t s . The C a l i f o r n i a s t u d y i n c l u d e s , a s one of its conclus i o n s , the n e e d f o r p h y s i c a l f a c i l i t i e s to p r o m o t e interaction b e t w e e n f o r e i g n a n d A m e r i c a n s t u d e n t s ; it a l s o u r g e s the d e v e l o p m e n t of a r e s e a r c h p r o g r a m to e v a l u a t e the e f f e c t of f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s on the c a m p u s a s w e l l a s o f the u n i v e r s i t y on the f o r e i g n students. S u c h r e s e a r c h i s c e r t a i n l y n e e d e d , but the p r o m o t i o n of i n t e r a c t i o n is a d i f f i c u l t a n d c o m p l e x u n d e r t a k i n g . O u r i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f f e r s no c l e a r g u i d e l i n e s a s to how it m i g h t be r e a l i z e d . U n i v e r s i t y c i t i e s with t h e i r d o r m i t o r i e s , i n t e r n a t i o n a l h o u s e s , c l u b s a n d s o c i e t i e s of v a r i o u s k i n d s , s p e c i a l e n t e r t a i n m e n t p r o g r a m s , i n v i t a t i o n s to h o m e s - a l l of t h e s e p l a y a p a r t , but u s u a l l y r e a c h only a s m a l l f r a c t i o n of the s t u d e n t s c o n c e r n e d . T h e s i t u a t i o n , a s a l r e a d y i n d i c a t e d , i s u s u a l l y m u c h b e t t e r in the s m a l l e r i n s t i t u tions a n d c o m m u n i t i e s , but even s o t h e r e m a y be a m i n i m u m of a d e q u a t e and u s e f u l c o n t a c t . We s h a l l h a v e to c o n t e n t o u r s e l v e s a t t h i s p o i n t with a n e m p h a s i s on the n e e d to e n c o u r a g e m o r e p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s l e a v i n g it to t h o s e in p o s i t i o n s of r e s p o n s i b i l i t y in p a r t i c u l a r i n s t i t u t i o n s to s h o w the i n g e n u i t y r e q u i r e d to d e a l with a n i s s u e a s e l u s i v e a s the f a c i l i t a t i o n of h u m a n i n t e r a c t i o n a n d , h o p e f u l l y , the d e v e l o p m e n t of f r i e n d s h i p s a c r o s s n a t i o n a l l i n e s . Our r e p o r t s h a v e l i t t l e to s a y a b o u t the c o n s e q u e n c e s of e x c h a n g e s a t the n a t i o n a l l e v e l , e x c e p t t h r o u g h f r e q u e n t r e f e r e n c e s to s u c h p r o g r a m s a s c o n t r i b u t i n g to the n e e d s of t h e d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s . The B r i t i s h a n d F r e n c h e f f o r t s in r e l a t i o n to f o r m e r c o l o n i e s a r e o u t s t a n d i n g e x a m p l e s , but the U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d G e r m a n y a r e a l s o m a k i n g e x t e n s i v e e f f o r t s in the s a m e d i r e c tion, a n d a s i m i l a r p r o g r a m i s b e g i n n i n g to d e v e l o p in J a p a n . Y u g o s l a v i a d e s c r i b e s i t s e l f a s a c o u n t r y in n e e d of t e c h n i c a l a s s i s t a n c e i t s e l f but a l s o p r e p a r e d t o o f f e r it to o t h e r s . India h a s g r e a t l y d e v e l o p e d i t s own u n i v e r s i t i e s , but s e n d s a l a r g e p r o p o r tion if its s t u d e n t s a b r o a d to l e a r n the t e c h n i q u e s w h i c h the c o u n try n e e d s f o r i t s d e v e l o p m e n t . A v e r y r e c e n t u n p u b l i s h e d d o c t o r a l t h e s i s b y K o t o b i (1974) i n d i c a t e s t h a t a l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n of I r a n i a n s t u d e n t s a r e in f o r e i g n u n i v e r s i t i e s , a n d that the c o u n t r y i s g r e a t l y in n e e d of the t r a i n i n g w h i c h they r e c e i v e , p a r t i c u l a r l y in r e l a t i o n to the e x p l o i t a t i o n of o i l r e s o u r c e s . ( U n e s c o s t a t i s t i c s a l s o s h o w a v e r y s u b s t a n t i a l p e r c e n t a g e of I r a n i a n s t u d e n t s a b r o a d . ) In v i e w of the g e n e r a l c o m m i t m e n t to the p r o g r a m of t e c h n i c a l c o o p e r a t i o n in a i d of d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s , the f a c t that i n t e r n a t i o n a l e d u c a t i o n a l e x c h a n g e s c o n t r i b u t e to that m a y

66

The major

problem

areas

p e r h a p s be r e g a r d e d as sufficient justification for their d e v e l opment. This i s s u e is complicated by the fact that m a n y foreign stud e n t s n e v e r go b a c k to t h e i r own c o u n t r y , a n d s o m e t i m e s the w h o l e p r o c e d u r e of e x c h a n g e s h a s b e e n c a l l e d i n t o q u e s t i o n a s a consequence. Special concern has b e e n e x p r e s s e d in India a n d I r a n a t the l o s s of t r a i n e d m a n p o w e r ; T u r k e y h a s r e p o r t e d t h a t a l a r g e n u m b e r of d o c t o r s t r a i n e d i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s d o not r e t u r n . It h a s b e e n s u g g e s t e d t h a t the B r i t i s h H e a l t h S e r v i c e s w o u l d h a r d l y be a b l e to f u n c t i o n if i t w e r e n o t f o r the p r e s e n c e of s o m a n y Indian a n d P a k i s t a n i p h y s i c i a n s , b u t t h i s m a y b e c o l d c o m f o r t f o r India and P a k i s t a n . In s o m e p r o g r a m s (in G e r m a n y , f o r e x a m p l e ) s t u d e n t s a r e o b l i g e d to r e t u r n h o m e a f t e r t r a i n i n g , b u t t h i s r e q u i r e m e n t is not e a s i l y e n f o r c e d , a n d i n a n y c a s e d o e s not a p p l y u n i v e r s a l l y . The m o s t r e c e n t s u r v e y of the " b r a i n d r a i n " , c o n d u c t e d b y W. A . G l a s e r of t h e C o l u m b i a U n i v e r s i t y B u r e a u of A p p l i e d S o c i a l R e s e a r c h f o r the U n i t e d N a t i o n s I n s t i t u t e f o r T r a i n i n g a n d R e s e a r c h , i n c l u d e s a p r e l i m i n a r y r e p o r t b a s e d on a n s w e r s t o q u e s t i o n n a i r e b y 5, 500 r e s p o n d e n t s . I n d i a n s t u d e n t s t u r n out t o h a v e a v e r y h i g h r a t e of m i g r a t i o n , a l t h o u g h e x c e e d e d b y those f r o m Egypt, A r g e n t i n e , T r i n i d a d and Lebanon. A m o n g t h e c o n c l u s i o n s of the s t u d y we would l i s t the f o l l o w i n g : 1) M a n y of t h o s e who s t a y on do i n t e n d to r e t u r n h o m e e v e n t u a l l y ; I n d i a n s , f o r e x a m p l e , t e n d to w o r k a b r o a d f o r a f e w y e a r s a n d t h e n go back. This " w o r k " might reasonably be r e g a r d e d as an extens i o n of t h e i r e d u c a t i o n a l t r a i n i n g . 2) S t u d e n t s in a g r i c u l t u r e , b u s i n e s s a n d t h e p h y s i c a l s c i e n c e s a r e m o s t l i k e l y to r e t u r n ; t h o s e i n a r c h i t e c t u r e , the a r t s , e d u c a t i o n a n d l a n g u a g e s a r e m o s t l i k e l y to s t a y . 3) M i g r a t i o n a p p e a r s u n r e l a t e d to s o c i a l c l a s s , a g e , l e n g t h of s t u d y , g r a d e s o b t a i n e d (with a s l i g h t t e n d e n c y f o r t h e l e a s t a b l e s t u d e n t s t o b e m o r e l i k e l y to r e t u r n ) ; no d i f f e r e n c e s w e r e found in t h i s r e s p e c t b e t w e e n g r a d u a t e and u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s . 4) T h o s e w i t h s c h o l a r s h i p s f r o m t h e i r g o v e r n m e n t o r e m p l o y e r s t e n d to r e t u r n , b u t g r a n t s f r o m t h e u n i v e r s i t y a b r o a d a r e m o r e f r e q u e n t l y a s s o c i a t e d with m i g r a t i o n . 5) T h o s e who c o m e " o n t h e i r o w n " a r e m o r e l i k e l y to s t a y t h a n t h o s e w h o o b t a i n s c h o l a r s h i p s . 6) The q u a l i t y of t h e u n i v e r s i t y p l a y s no c l e a r r ô l e . 7) T h e m o t i v a t i o n s f o r s t a y i n g on o r f o r r e t u r n i n g v a r y g r e a t l y , and i n c l u d e n o t o n l y f i n a n c i a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s but a l s o the d e g r e e of i n t e g r a t i o n w i t h i n t h e h o m e c o m m u n i t y , r e l a t i o n s with f a m i l y a n d f r i e n d s , w o r k o p p o r t u n i t i e s , p a t r i o t i s m , p o l i t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a n d m a n y o t h e r s . 8) T h e l a r g e m a j o r i t y of f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s do r e t u r n h o m e . A s h a s a l r e a d y b e e n i n d i c a t e d , t h i s r e p r e s e n t s one s i t u a t i o n

The consequences

oí exchanges

67

in w h i c h the d e s i r e s a n d i n t e r e s t s of t h e i n d i v i d u a l m a y b e j u d g e d to c o n f l i c t w i t h t h o s e of his c o u n t r y . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , the s t u d e n t o r s c h o l a r who s t a y s a b r o a d m a y m a k e a n i m p o r t a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n to h i s a d o p t e d c o u n t r y , a n d t h r o u g h it to the w o r l d a t l a r g e . It is s t r i k i n g to n o t e the n u m b e r of A m e r i c a n N o b e l L a u r e a t e s i n s c i e n c e s a n d m e d i c i n e who h a v e c o m e to the U n i t e d S t a t e s f r o m a b r o a d ; i t is p o s s i b l e t h a t if t h e y h a d b e e n f o r c e d to s t a y a t h o m e t h e y m i g h t n e v e r h a v e h a d the o p p o r t u n i t y to r e a c h the s a m e l e v e l of a c h i e v e m e n t . T h e " b r a i n d r a i n " i s n o t j u s t a p h e n o m e n o n of l o s s ; i t m a y a l s o in m a n y c a s e s r e p r e s e n t a r e a l g a i n . T h e i m p r o v e m e n t of i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h a s f r e q u e n t l y b e e n m e n t i o n e d a s a goal of e x c h a n g e s ; o u r J a p a n e s e , G e r m a n a n d Y u g o s l a v c o l l e a g u e s a l l s t r e s s t h e i m p o r t a n c e of t h i s a s pect. The m a t e r i a l placed at our d i s p o s a l does not, h o w e v e r , c o n t a i n e n o u g h i n f o r m a t i o n to p e r m i t a n y d e f i n i t i v e c o n c l u s i o n . T h e r e is c e r t a i n l y a w i d e s p r e a d c o n v i c t i o n t h a t c o n t a c t b e t w e e n p e o p l e s c o n t r i b u t e s to f r i e n d l i e r r e l a t i o n s , but an o c c a s i o n a l note of s c e p t i c i s m a l s o i s s o u n d e d . S o m e y e a r s ago a t a U n e s c o m e e t i n g on the s u b j e c t of i n t e r n a t i o n a l t e n s i o n s , the d i s c u s s i o n t u r n e d t o t h o s e s p e c i f i c a c t i v i t i e s u n d e r t a k e n f o r the p u r p o s e of i m p r o v i n g r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n p e o p l e s a n d , m o r e p a r t i c u l a r l y , to t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of f e l l o w s h i p s o r " e x c h a n g e of p e r s o n s " . A n A u s t r a l i a n p o l i t i c a l s c i e n t i s t p r e s e n t v o l u n t e e r e d a p e r s o n a l o b s e r v a t i o n . In A u s t r a l i a , h e s a i d , the l e a d e r s of o r g a n i z a t i o n s a n d a c t i v i t i e s d e v o t e d to s t r e n g t h e n i n g the b o n d s b e t w e e n m e m b e r s of t h e B r i t i s h C o m m o n w e a l t h a n d e n c o u r a g i n g f r i e n d l y a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d the U n i t e d K i n g d o m , w e r e a l l r e t u r n e d R h o d e s S c h o l a r s w h o , a f t e r s p e n d i n g two y e a r s o r m o r e a t O x f o r d , c a m e h o m e f u l l of e n t h u s i a s m f o r the m o t h e r c o u n t r y . He t h e n a d d e d t h a t the l e a d e r s of the m o v e m e n t f o r m o r e complete independence for A u s t r a l i a and withdrawal f r o m the Commonwealth were also returned Rhodes Scholars ¡ A l t h o u g h n o t h i n g i s p r o v e d by a n a n e c d o t e , t h i s c o m m e n t by a p e r s o n of wide i n t e r n a t i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e i n d i c a t e s t h a t h e r e , a s e l s e w h e r e , m o r e evaluation is n e e d e d . P r e v i o u s r e s e a r c h indic a t e s t h a t m o s t p a r t i c i p a n t s in e x c h a n g e p r o g r a m s do r e t u r n w i t h f r i e n d l i e r a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d t h e h o s t c o u n t r y , b u t by no m e a n s a l l . T h i s m a y be due to d i f f e r e n t e x p e r i e n c e s , s u c h a s s u c c e s s o r f a i l u r e in u n i v e r s i t y w o r k , d e g r e e of f r i e n d l y c o n t a c t w i t h l o c a l students, a c c e p t a n c e or r e j e c t i o n by the c o m m u n i t y , political i s s u e s , the financial situation, a n d m a n y o t h e r s ; it m a y a l s o be r e l a t e d t o t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s w h i c h the f o r e i g n s t u d e n t o r t e a c h e r b r i n g s w i t h h i m to the n e w c o u n t r y . T h e l i t e r a t u r e in t h i s f i e l d d e a l s m a i n l y w i t h the a m o u n t and d i r e c t i o n of c h a n g e ; we n e e d to know m o r e a b o u t t h e w h y of c h a n g e .

PART II

The Seven National Studies

Introduction

Up to t h i s p o i n t we h a v e d i s c u s s e d a n u m b e r of i s s u e s r e l a t e d to i n t e r n a t i o n a l e d u c a t i o n a l e x c h a n g e s , r e f e r r i n g w h e n e v e r p e r t i n e n t to the d a t a p r e s e n t e d in the s e v e n d i f f e r e n t n a t i o n a l (and u n i v e r s i t y ) r e p o r t s , and i n t r o d u c i n g e r o s s - n a t i o n a l c o m p a r i s o n s w h e n e v e r p o s s i b l e . In t h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n s we s h a l l , in a c e r t a i n s e n s e , a l l o w e a c h c o u n t r y (and u n i v e r s i t y ) to s p e a k f o r i t s e l f , and to p r e s e n t i t s own a c c o u n t , in b r i e f , of i t s own e x c h a n g e p r o g r a m s . U n f o r t u n a t e l y a s u m m a r y c a n n e v e r do j u s t i c e to the c o m p l e x s i t u a t i o n i n e a c h c o u n t r y , p a r t i c u l a r l y s i n c e in s o m e c a s e s a m a n u s c r i p t of o v e r t h r e e h u n d r e d typed p a g e s had to b e r e d u c e d to t h i r t y p a g e s o r l e s s . F o r s o m e c o u n t r i e s t h e s e s u m m a r y s t a t e m e n t s w e r e p r o v i d e d b y the i n v e s t i g a t o r , but f o r o t h e r s we m a d e o u r own s u m m a r i e s ; we h a v e a l s o t a k e n the l i b e r t y of i n t r o d u c i n g a few e d i t o r i a l c h a n g e s as w e l l a s a d d i t i o n a l m a t e r i a l o c c a s i o n a l l y a v a i l a b l e , in o r d e r to m a k e the s e v e n s u m m a r i e s m o r e o r l e s s c o m p a r a b l e . T h i s goal c o u l d o n l y be a c h i e v e d in p a r t , s i n c e the c o n t e n t of the v a r i o u s r e p o r t s d i f f e r s c o n s i d e r a b l y . In s o m e c a s e s , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e y i n c l u d e a p i l o t study of a g r o u p of s t u d e n t s o r f a c u l t y m e m b e r s ; i n o t h e r s , n o t . S o m e t i m e s the i n f o r m a t i o n p r e s e n t e d t o u c h e s o n l y c e r t a i n a s p e c t s of e x c h a n g e s ; i n o t h e r s it i s m o r e c o m p l e t e . We h a v e done the b e s t we c o u l d , and w e ask o u r c o l l e a g u e s to f o r g i v e t h e e r r o r s of o m i s s i o n a n d c o m m i s s i o n f o r which we h a v e been inadvertently responsible. T h e n a t i o n a l s u m m a r i e s now f o l l o w i n a l p h a b e t i c a l

order.

CHAPTER 6

France*

6. 1

IN TROD UC

TION

W h a t i s a s t u d e n t ? In t h e s t r i c t s e n s e of t h e w o r d , a s t u d e n t in F r a n c e is s o m e o n e who h a s a b a c c a l a u r é a t o r e q u i v a l e n t d e g r e e , a n d w h o i s e n g a g e d i n a c o u r s e of s t u d y w i t h i n t h e f r a m e w o r k of F r e n c h h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n . T h i s s t u d y h a s u s e d a d i f f e r ent definition, b r o a d e r in s c o p e , w h i c h i n c l u d e s the following: - s t u d e n t s i n t h e s t r i c t s e n s e of t h e w o r d w h o a r e e n r o l l e d in the various u n i v e r s i t i e s . - s t u d e n t s of t h e " g r a n d e s é c o l e s " a n d of t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l s c h o o l s . - students, with or without s c h o l a r s h i p s , coming f o r s o m e type of s p e c i a l o r s p e c i a l i z e d t r a i n i n g , u s u a l l y f o r a l i m i t e d p e r i o d of t i m e ; t h e s e a r e o f t e n p e o p l e w h o h a v e a l r e a d y e n t e r e d p r o f e s s i o n a l life and a r e b r o a d l y r e f e r r e d to a s " s t a g i a i r e s " . - p a r t i c i p a n t s in c o u r s e s g i v e n b y s u c h o r g a n i z a t i o n s a s t h e A l l i a n c e F r a n ç a i s e o r in F r e n c h u n i v e r s i t y s u m m e r s e s s i o n s .

6. 2

CHARACTERISTICS

OF FRENCH

HIGHER

EDUCATION

T h e t r a d i t i o n a l , c e n t r a l i z e d , h i e r a r c h i c a l s y s t e m of F r e n c h h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n w a s e x t e n s i v e l y r e s t r u c t u r e d by t h e L a w of N o v e m b e r 12, 1968. I t s c u r r e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t a t u s , a l t h o u g h s t i l l fluctuating, m a y be defined by the following f e a t u r e s : 1) T h e d e p a r t m e n t o r " u n i t é d ' é t u d e e t de r e c h e r c h e " ( U E R ) ( u n i t of i n s t r u c t i o n a n d r e s e a r c h ) w h i c h is t h e n e w b a s e u n i t . 2) M u l t i - d i s c i p l i n a r y u n i v e r s i t i e s c o m p r i s i n g s e v e r a l " U E R " . 3) T h e r i g h t of t h e u n i v e r s i t y t o a u t o n o m y , s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n , and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n by an e l e c t e d p r e s i d e n t . 4) S t u d e n t p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s , a n d i n t e g r a t i o n of t h e u n i v e r s i t y i n t o e c o n o m i c l i f e .

φ S u m m a r y s u p p l i e d by J e a n P o i r i e r , b a s e d on r e p o r t p r e p a r e d b y h i m w i t h t h e c o l l a b o r a t i o n of W . H. A l l a w a y , A n n e C h a n t e u r , Georges J a e g e r , F r a n ç o i s M. R. Raveau, P i e r r e Schwan and Jean Wiesnievsky.

74

5) 6)

7) 8) 9)

10) 11) 12)

The seven

national

studies

C o - o r d i n a t i o n of u n i v e r s i t y a c t i v i t y w i t h t h e a c t i v i t y of o t h e r regional organizations. G e n e r a l a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y by a C h a n c e l l o r who is a l s o t h e R e c t o r of t h e A c a d e m y a n d t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e M i n i s t r y of E d u c a t i o n . F a v o r a b l e a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d r e s e a r c h w h i c h i s to b e p r e s e n t a t a l l l e v e l s of h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n . University extension enabling continuing adult education. R e p l a c e m e n t of t h e old s y s t e m of " c e r t i f i c a t s " w i t h a c o m p o n e n t o r " u n i t " s y s t e m ( " u n i t é de v a l e u r " ) of c r e d i t i n g c o u r s e work toward a m a j o r . R e p l a c e m e n t of t r a d i t i o n a l e x a m i n a t i o n s b y a s y s t e m of c o n tinuous monitoring. P o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r s t u d e n t s to w o r k on a n d r e c e i v e c r e d i t f o r group projects. E s t a b l i s h m e n t of n e w r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n i n s t r u c t o r s a n d students.

6.2.1

General

summary

See

Tables

below

1,

2, 3,PP.

75,

76 and

77.

France

ρ—' Ν m O rt -.'

fft 00 f j Tf'

Ο ® ΙΊ t* H (M α

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β

ο ο 9 a a

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« ί ο 3 M ¿ « -2 "í¡ .ï u 5

o 00 o o m o o o^ ^ O^ θ" -H fvj en

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8 · !0 "S •· Ή sβ _ S * α S S β (χ « 3 M 41 β I s ™ rt u « 41 υ 3 α o .3 -'S -5.1 3 κ t; 3 « rt g W (0 Ok ~ < « σ.

rt

„

-I O H

75

The seven

national

studies

France

77

78

The seven national

studies

F o r e i g n students enrolled in the faculties During the academic year 1967-1968, the faculties had an enr o l l m e n t of 478, 327 of which 265, 654 w e r e men and 212, 673 w e r e women. Of this total, 39,442 ( 6 . 4 %) w e r e f o r e i g n students c o m p r i s i n g 21,275 m e n ( 8 . 2 % ) and 8,717 women (4.1 % ) (see T a b l e . 3 , p. 77). The principal nationalities of f o r e i g n students w e r e , in descending o r d e r of numbers:

Nationality

Number of students

% of total

A m e r i c a n (USA) Tunisian Moroccan South V i e t n a m e s e West German English Lebanese Algerian Irish Spanish Greek Cameroon Italian Canadian I v o r y Coast Syrian Mada gasean Belgian Swiss

2, 333 2,043 1, 687 1, 187 1, 185 1, 168 1,019 1,00 6 768 696 667 643 562 552 445 416 360 348 348

7. 6 6.7 5. 5 3. 9 3. 9 3. 8 3. 4 3. 3 2. 5 2. 3 2. 2 2. 1 1. 8 1. 8 1. 5 1.4 1. 2 1. 1 1. 1

F o r e i g n students in the institutes It should be mentioned, in addition to the f i g u r e s a l r e a d y p r e sented, that there a r e 5,431 f o r e i g n students, c o m p r i s i n g 20.7 % of the total student population, e n r o l l e d in institutes belonging to the various faculties. 1,888 of these a r e law students, 343 a r e in the sciences, 3, 129 in the l i b e r a l a r t s , and 71 a r e in m e d i c i n e F o r e i g n students in university institutes of technology The "instituts u n i v e r s i t a i r e s de t e c h n o l o g i e " ( I U T ) (the u n i v e r s i ty institutes of technology) allow students to undertake courses

France

79

of s t u d y ( u s u a l l y f o r t w o y e a r s ) w h i c h a r e d i r e c t l y t i e d to t h e d e m a n d s of t h e job m a r k e t . T h e r e w e r e 141 f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s ( 2 . 6 % of the t o t a l ) e n r o l l e d i n s u c h i n s t i t u t e s in 1 9 6 7 - 1 9 6 8 . "Grandes écoles" T h e i m p o r t a n t p o s i t i o n h e l d b y the " g r a n d e s é c o l e s " i s u n i q u e to F r a n c e ' s s y s t e m of h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n . S o m e f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s a r e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y e n r o l l e d a t o n e of the g r a n d e s é c o l e s a n d a t a u n i v e r s i t y , b u t t h e n u m b e r of s u c h c a s e s can o n l y be e s t i m a t e d . T h e p r o p o r t i o n of f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s w h o a r e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y e n r o l l e d (in r e l a t i o n to t h e t o t a l n u m b e r of f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s e n r o l l e d a t t h e g r a n d e s é c o l e s ) i s , , m o r e o v e r , s m a l l e r t h a n t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g p r o p o r t i o n of F r e n c h s t u d e n t s i n t h e s a m e s i t u a t i o n . T h e r e a r e a t l e a s t 2, 400 f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s in the g r a n d e s é c o l e s . Denominational higher education A.

C a t h o l i c : T h e r e a r e s i x g r o u p s of c a t h o l i c i n s t i t u t i o n s of h i g h e r l e a r n i n g in F r a n c e ; t h e s e a r e in P a r i s , L y o n , L i l l e , A n g e r s , T o u l o u s e , a n d S t r a s b o u r g . In a d d i t i o n to t h e s e , t h e r e a r e the s e m i n a r i e s a n d v a r i o u s i n s t i t u t i o n s c o n n e c t e d w i t h them. Altogether, they r e c e i v e 1,800 foreign students.

B.

P r o t e s t a n t : T h e r e a r e f i v e s c h o o l s of t h e o l o g y (with v a r i o u s dependent institutes) located in P a r i s , M o n t p e l l i e r , A i x - e n P r o v e n c e , V a u x - s u r - S e i n e , and S t r a s b o u r g . The theology s c h o o l of S t r a s b o u r g h a s s p e c i a l s t a t u s a s a d i v i s i o n of t h e S t r a s b o u r g U n i v e r s i t y of the H u m a n i t i e s . D a t a o n t h i s s c h o o l , t h e r e f o r e , c o m e u n d e r t h e h e a d i n g of " u n i v e r s i t i e s " a s i n p a r a g r a p h " g r a n d e s é c o l e s " a b o v e . T h e n u m b e r of f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s a n d " a s s i m i l é s " is a p p r o x i m a t e l y 400. *

C.

O t h e r s : J e w i s h i n s t i t u t i o n s a c c o u n t f o r a p p r o x i m a t e l y 200 f o r e i g n students and o t h e r denominational e s t a b l i s h m e n t s s u c h a s t h e I n s t i t u t e of O r t h o d o x T h e o l o g y a t S a i n t - S e r g e o r t h e I s l a m i c I n s t i t u t e a t t h e M o s q u e of P a r i s a c c o u n t f o r a n o t h e r 100.

D e n o m i n a t i o n a l h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n i n F r a n c e i s , a c c o r d i n g to t h e s e f i g u r e s , r e s p o n s i b l e f o r 2, 500 f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s i n a l l , of w h o m 200 a r e w o m e n .

80

The seven

national

studies

P r i v a t e s c h o o l s of e n g i n e e r i n g and other p r i v a t e s c h o o l s In t h i s r e a l m , we a r e dependent on e s t i m a t e s only. The 43 p r i vate s c h o o l s of e n g i n e e r i n g which w e r e p o l l e d r e p o r t e d 375 f o r eign s t u d e n t s , of w h o m 14 w e r e w o m e n . In a d d i t i o n to t h e s e , s e v e r a l h u n d r e d o t h e r p r i v a t e i n s t i t u t i o n s e x i s t in P a r i s a n d the p r o v i n c e s f o r which no p r e c i s e f i g u r e s a r e a v a i l a b l e . We will s e t the f i g u r e f o r f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s in a l l s c h o o l s of t h i s c a t e g o r y at 1, 100, of whom 100 a r e w o m e n .

6. 2. U

Stctgiaires

and similar

students

T h e s e s t u d e n t s s t u d y in F r a n c e f o r v a r y i n g l e n g t h s of t i m e (a few m o n t h s to two y e a r s or l o n g e r ) and f o r a wide r a n g e of r e a s o n s . T h e y a r e g e n e r a l l y o l d e r than r e g u l a r s t u d e n t s , and s o m e a r e on s c h o l a r s h i p s . The a f f a i r s of s t a g i a i r e s a r e h a n d l e d b y s e v e r a l a d m i n i s t r a t i v e b o d i e s ( s e e S e c t i o n Π), but t h e i r c o m p l e x i t y and the c o m p l e x i t y of t h e i r f i n a n c i a l a i d s e e m to be o v e r w h e l m i n g . The nine c a t e g o r i e s of s t a g i a i r e s and s i m i l a r s t u d e n t s that we w e r e able to d i s t i n g u i s h a r e a s f o l l o w s : 1. S t u d e n t s s p o n s o r e d and s u p p o r t e d by i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s : a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1, 500. 2. S t u d e n t s s p o n s o r e d and s u p p o r t e d by the F r e n c h m i n i s t r y of F o r e i g n A f f a i r s : 5, 505 in 1 9 6 8 - 1 9 6 9 . 3. S t u d e n t s r e c e i v i n g s u p p o r t f r o m the F r e n c h m i n i s t r y of F o r e i g n A f f a i r s f o r s p e c i a l i z e d s t u d y : 197. 4. S t u d e n t s r e c e i v i n g s u m m e r s c h o l a r s h i p s : 1, 5 0 0 - 2 , 0 0 a n n u a l l y . 5. S t u d e n t s r e c e i v i n g s u p p o r t u n d e r p r o g r a m s of b i l a t e r a l t e c h n i c a l c o o p e r a t i o n s p o n s o r e d by the s e c t i o n on C u l t u r a l A f f a i r s ; 2,169. 6. S t u d e n t s r e c e i v i n g s u p p o r t f r o m the s e c t i o n on C u l t u r a l A f f a i r s for s p e c i f i c professional training: 3 , 1 7 7 . 7. S t u d e n t s r e c e i v i n g one of the g o v e r n m e n t s c h o l a r s h i p s g i v e n b y d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s to t h e i r s t u d e n t s who go a b r o a d : 5 , 0 0 0 in 1968. ( A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s and M a d a g a s c a r which h a v e a r a t h e r s p e c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p with F r a n c e g i v e the g r e a t e s t n u m b e r of s u c h s c h o l a r s h i p s : 2 , 0 4 3 in 1 9 6 7 - 1 9 6 8 , 2, 813 in 1 9 6 8 1969 and 4 , 0 4 6 in 1 9 7 1 - 1 9 7 2 . ) 8. Independent s t u d e n t s r e c e i v i n g p r i v a t e f i n a n c i a l s u p p o r t f r o m various institutions, institutes, organizations, or corporations, both F r e n c h and f o r e i g n , o r f r o m c o r p o r a t e o r i n d i v i d u a l e m p l o y e r s who h a v e s e n t them to F r a n c e f o r the p u r p o s e of p r o f e s s i o n a l i m p r o v e m e n t : a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 , 0 0 0 . The b e n e f i c i a r i e s of s u c h s u p p o r t h a v e a wide v a r i e t y of o r i e n t a t i o n s :

France

81

industry, c o m m e r c e , journalism, social or political action, or religious activities. 9. A v e r y l i m i t e d n u m b e r of s t a g i a i r e s who a r e i n F r a n c e on t h e i r o w n f o r t h e p u r p o s e of c a r e e r p r e p a r a t i o n . In o r d e r t o a c c u r a t e l y i n t e r p r e t t h e d a t a , i t s h o u l d b e k e p t in m i n d t h a t t h e r e a r e a n u m b e r of d o u b l e e n r o l l m e n t s . T h e n u m b e r , w i t h the e x c e p t i o n of t h o s e in c a t e g o r y 2 a b o v e , i s , h o w e v e r , quite s m a l l . O t h e r c a t e g o r i e s in which double e n r o l l m e n t s o c c u r c o n s i s t of t h o s e t r e a t e d in S e c t i o n s II, V, a n d IX. T o a v o i d o v e r e s t i m a t i n g t h e t o t a l n u m b e r of s p e c i a l s t u d e n t s , w e w i l l l i m i t o u r f i g u r e to 7 , 0 0 0 . 6. 2. 5

Public and private in France

language

and

civilization

courses

T h i s is a n e x t r e m e l y c o m p l e x t o p i c f o r w h i c h t h e r e h a s b e e n no g e n e r a l s u m m a r y to date. F o r e i g n s t u d e n t s m a y , p r e s u m i n g t h e y h a v e t h e e q u i v a l e n t of the b a c c a l a u r é a t , apply f o r t h r e e d i p l o m a s : the C e r t i f i c a t P r a t i que de Langue F r a n ç a i s e , the Diplôme d ' E t u d e s F r a n ç a i s e s , and t h e D i p l ô m e S u p é r i e u r d ' E t u d e s F r a n ç a i s e s . In a d d i t i o n t h e r e a r e study c e n t e r s which grant a certification stating that specified c o u r s e s w e r e s u c c e s s f u l l y completed. V a r i o u s d i p l o m a s w h i c h m a y be t a k e n a t a w i d e r a n g e of t h e s e study c e n t e r s m a y b e g r o u p e d into five c a t e g o r i e s : 1. U n i v e r s i t y p r o g r a m s i n P a r i s w i t h a t o t a l of 9, 000 f o r e i g n e n r o l l m e n t s s u c h a s t h o s e o f f e r e d by: - t h e U E R C o u r s de C i v i l i s a t i o n F r a n ç a i s e ( C o u r s e i n F r e n c h c i v i l i z a t i o n ) a t P a r i s IV w h i c h h a s 5, 500 f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s . - the U E R d ' E t u d e s F r a n ç a i s e s p o u r l ' E t r a n g e r (Studies f o r F o r e i g n S t u d e n t s ) a t P a r i s III w h i c h , t o g e t h e r w i t h i t s I n s Institut d e s P r o f e s s e u r s de F r a n ç a i s à l ' E t r a n g e r ( I P F E ) ( I n s t i t u t e f o r T e a c h e r s of F r e n c h A b r o a d ) , i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r 2, 500 f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s . - v a r i o u s o t h e r g r o u p s , including the C e n t r e de R e c h e r c h e et d ' E t u d e pour la Diffusion du F r a n ç a i s ( CREDIF) (Center f o r R e s e a r c h a n d S t u d y on t h e D i s s e m i n a t i o n of F r e n c h ) and the Institut Britannique de Phonétique (British Institute of P h o n e t i c s ) , w l j i c h a r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a b o u t 1 , 0 0 0 s t u d e n t s , 2. U n i v e r s i t y p r o g r a m s i n t h e p r o v i n c e s (9.000 s t u d e n t s annually) given at twenty u n i v e r s i t i e s which have r e g u l a r s u m m e r c u r r i cula; these u n i v e r s i t i e s a r e located in Aix, Avignon, A m i e n s ,

82

The seven

national

studies

Besançon, Bordeaux, Caen, C l e r m o n t - F e r r a n d , Dijon, Grenoble, Lille, Lyon, Montpellier, Nancy, Nice .Poitiers, Rennes, Rouen, S t r a s b o u r g , T o u l o u s e , and T o u r s . ( T h e r e a r e a l s o t h r e e u n i v e r s i t y - r e l a t e d i n s t i t u t i o n s in L y o n , V i c h y a n d U s t a ritz. ) 3.

P r o g r a m s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the C a t h o l i c i n s t i t u t e s i n c l u d i n g the f o l l o w i n g f o u r : the I n s t i t u t d e L a n g u e et de C u l t u r e F r a n ç a i s e ( I L C F ) ( I n s t i t u t e of F r e n c h L a n g u a g e a n d C u l t u r e ) , the Cours U n i v e r s i t a i r e s d'Eté (CUE) (University S u m m e r P r o g r a m ) , the C e n t r e I n t e r n a t i o n a l d ' E t u d e s F r a n ç a i s e s ( C I D E F ) ( I n t e r n a t i o n a l C e n t e r f o r F r e n c h S t u d i e s ) , a n d the I n s t i t u t S u p é r i e u r de C u l t u r e F r a n ç a i s e C o n t e m p o r a i n e ( I S C F C ) ( I n s t i tute f o r the A d v a n c e d S t u d y of C o n t e m p o r a r y F r e n c h C u l t u r e ) , in L i l l e . ( T h e s e a r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r 3 , 7 0 0 s t u d e n t s , a f i g u r e w h i c h c a n b e r a i s e d to 3, 900 if the C a t h o l i c F a c u l t y of L y o n is added. )

4.

P r i v a t e p r o g r a m s n u m b e r i n g i n t o the h u n d r e d s a n d h a v i n g m a j o r d i f f e r e n c e s in q u a l i t y a n d s i z e , the p r i n c i p a l o n e s of which a r e : - t h e C e n t r e s d ' E t u d e s F r a n ç a i s e s P r a t i q u e s ( C e n t e r s of P r a c t i c a l F r e n c h S t u d i e s ) (which h a v e o f f i c i a l M i n i s t e r i a l r e c o g n i t i o n ) in P a r i s ( 1 , 1 0 0 s t u d e n t s ) , C a p d ' A i l (650 s t u d e n t s ) a n d A m b r o s e (200 s t u d e n t s ) ; - I n t e r l a n g u e s (650); - L a n g u e s et C o o p é r a t i o n ( L a n g u a g e s a n d C o o p e r a t i o n ) , P h o n a p , a n d the C e n t r e A u d i o - V i s u e l d e L a n g u e s M o d e r n e s ( A u d i o - V i s u a l C e n t e r f o r M o d e r n L a n g u a g e ) (in V i c h y ) , which together have 4 , 2 0 0 s t u d e n t s .

5.

A l l i a n c e F r a n ç a i s e , w h i c h r e c e i v e d 19, 833 E u r o p e a n F o r e i g n s t u d e n t s in 1 9 6 7 - 1 9 6 8 , a s w e l l a s 11, 125 o t h e r f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s in t h e s a m e y e a r , a t t h e i r E c o l e I n t e r n a t i o n a l e de P a r i s : a t o t a l of 30, 9 5 8 s t u d e n t s . S u m m a r y of F r e n c h L a n g u a g e and C i v i l i z a t i o n

Courses:

U n i v e r s i t y p r o g r a m s in P a r i s U n i v e r s i t y p r o g r a m s in t h e p r o v i n c e s Catholic institutes Private programs (Est.) Alliance Française

12,000 9, 0 0 0 3, 900 4,000 31,000

TOTAL

60,000

France

83

Auditors The b e s t e x a m p l e in this c a t e g o r y is the College de F r a n c e which has 1,500 auditors, s e m i n a r y students, or c l e r g y m e n attending on a t e m p o r a r y b a s i s . 6. 2. 6

Contacts

of French

students

and teachers

abroad

I n f o r m a t i o n o n m e m b e r s of t h e u n i v e r s i t y c o m m u n i t y a b r o a d f o r a s h o r t p e r i o d of t i m e is l i m i t e d t o t h a t w h i c h w a s r e c e i v e d f r o m t h e 17 u n i v e r s i t i e s a n s w e r i n g o u r q u e s t i o n n a i r e . T h e s e 17 u n i v e r s i t i e s s e n t 629 p r o f e s s o r s of F r e n c h n a t i o n a l i t y a b r o a d f o r a s t a y of l e s s t h a n t h r e e m o n t h s , a n d 42 f o r a p e r i o d of l o n g e r d u r a t i o n . At the s a m e t i m e , t h o s e u n i v e r s i t i e s r e c e i v e d 461 f o r e i g n p r o f e s s o r s f o r a p e r i o d of t h r e e m o n t h s o r l e s s , a n d 162 f o r a l o n g e r p e r i o d of t i m e . A c a u t i o u s e x t r a p o l a t i o n of t h e s e f i g u r e s y i e l d s a m e a n e s t i m a t e of 2 , 0 0 0 F r e n c h t e a c h i n g p e r s o n n e l g o i n g a b r o a d e a c h y e a r , a l a r g e m a j o r i t y of t h e m s t a y i n g less than three months. F r e n c h universities annually receive a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1, 500 f o r e i g n p r o f e s s o r s of w h o m a f a i r l y l a r g e p e r c e n t a g e (30 %) s t a y in F r a n c e l o n g e r t h a n t h r e e m o n t h s . O n e can o b s e r v e f r o m this extrapolation that f o r e i g n p r o f e s s o r s in F r a n c e generally stay longer than F r e n c h personnel abroad. T h o s e m e m b e r s of t h e u n i v e r s i t y c o m m u n i t y w h o a r e a b r o a d f o r l o n g p e r i o d s of t i m e c o n s i s t m o s t l y of F r e n c h s t u d e n t s d o i n g l i n g u i s t i c s t u d i e s . T h e i r v i s i t s a r e n o r m a l l y a r r a n g e d for one y e a r t h r o u g h the Office National d e s U n i v e r s i t é s (National Office of U n i v e r s i t i e s ) ; a l a r g e m a j o r i t y of t h e v i s i t s a r e t o Great B r i t a i n . Those who r e m a i n a b r o a d indefinitely include F r e n c h p r o f e s s o r s r e g u l a r l y appointed to f o r e i g n posts and young m e n doing m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e a b r o a d as t e a c h e r s under an a g r e e m e n t of c o o p e r a t i o n . It s h o u l d b e n o t e d , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e l a t t e r of t h e s e two c a t e g o r i e s is no l o n g e r v e r y w i d e s p r e a d . ( S e e T a b l e 4 a t t h e e n d of c h a p t e r . )

6. 3 6. 3.1

ADMINISTRATIVE Reception

and

AND

SOCIAL·

PROBLEMS

orientation

Initial r e c e p t i o n f o r groups is p r o v i d e d by the s p e c i a l s e r v i c e s b r a n c h of a n u m b e r of d i f f e r e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n s . S t u d e n t s w h o a r r i v e i n d e p e n d e n t l y a n d on t h e i r o w n i n i t i a t i v e p o s e p r o b l e m s w h i c h a r e , a s y e t , u n r e s o l v e d . In t h e m a j o r i t y of s u c h c a s e s ,

84

The seven

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" w e l c o m e " organizations do, nonetheless, provide t e m p o r a r y a c c o m o d a t i o n s . The regional university s e r v i c e o r g a n i z a t i o n s t a k e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r the s t u d e n t s u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s s e t b y the i n t e r m i n i s t e r i a l d e c r e e of S e p t e m b e r 8, 1967. B e n e f i t s i n c l u d e i n e x p e n s i v e r o o m a n d b o a r d and s o c i a l s e r v i c e s . A r e c e n t d e c r e e ( N o v e m b e r 15, 1971) had l e d to the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a s p e c i a l f o r e i g n s t u d e n t r e c e p t i o n s e r v i c e in e a c h u n i v e r s i t y which i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r f o r e i g n s t u d e n t o r i e n t a t i o n a n d a s s i s t a n c e on the f o l l o w i n g l e v e l s : - d i s s e m i n a t i o n of i n f o r m a t i o n on o r g a n i z a t i o n s a n d p r o g r a m s . - l i s t i n g of F r e n c h l a n g u a g e s k i l l s . - evaluation of f o r e i g n a c a d e m i c d e g r e e s . - o r g a n i z a t i o n of i n t r o d u c t o r y c o u r s e s in F r e n c h l a n g u a g e a n d civilization. - o r g a n i z a t i o n of c o u r s e s f o r f u t u r e f o r e i g n t e a c h e r s of F r e n c h . P r a c t i c a l l y s p e a k i n g , the m o s t i m p o r t a n t c o n s e q u e n c e of this new s e r v i c e w i l l be the e x t e n s i o n of the C e n t r e R e g i o n a l d e s O e u v r e s U n i v e r s i t a i r e s et S c o l a i r e s ( C R O U S ) ( R e g i o n a l C e n t e r of U n i v e r s i t y a n d S c h o o l S e r v i c e s ) p r i v i l e g e s to a l l s t u d e n t s i n s t e a d of j u s t t o s c h o l a r s h i p s t u d e n t s . It s h o u l d b e n o t e d , h o w e v e r , that a c o n s i d e r a b l e a m o u n t of t i m e is n e c e s s a r y f o r s u c h o r g a n i z a t i o n s to b e g i n f u n c t i o n i n g e f f e c t i v e l y . A f t e r the i n i t i a l w e l c o m i n g p e r i o d , C R O U S p r o v i d e s i m p o r t a n t s e r v i c e s in the r e a l m of p e r m a n e n t l i v i n g a r r a n g e m e n t s ; one of the m o s t i m p o r t a n t of t h e s e i s a c c e s s to the s t u d e n t r e s t a u r a n t s . In 1 9 7 1 - 1 9 7 2 , m e a l p r i c e s w e r e : 1. 8 5 F f o r the c a t e g o r y of " r e g u l a r u s e r s " . 3. 7 0 F f o r the c a t e g o r y of " a d m i t t e d u s e r s " . 4. 4 0 F f o r the c a t e g o r y of " t r a n s i e n t u s e r s " . S t u d e n t r e s t a u r a n t s at p r e s e n t c a n a c c o m o d a t e 9 9 , 0 7 7 s e a t e d guests. L o d g i n g s in a s t u d e n t d o r m i t o r y or r e s i d e n c e i s a l s o a b e n e f i t d e r i v e d f r o m C R O U S . Monthly r e n t of a s i n g l e r o o m in P a r i s is 1 6 0 F a n d o u t s i d e P a r i s , 1 1 0 F . The t o t a l n u m b e r of e x i s t i n g d o r m i t o r y a c c o m o d a t i o n s in F r a n c e i s 9 8 , 8 1 4 ; of this n u m b e r , a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 5 , 0 0 0 a r e filled by f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s . Unfortunately, m a n y a u d i t o r s a n d s t a g i a i r e s , s i n c e they a r e not e n r o l l e d in univ e r s i t i e s o r o t h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s of h i g h e r l e a r n i n g , a r e not e l i g i b l e f o r the l o d g i n g b e n e f i t s they could h a v e a s C R O U S c a r d h o l d e r s . T a b l e 5 g i v e s ( s e e a t the end of c h a p t e r ) p r e c i s e f i g u r e s f o r the d i s t r i b u t i o n of f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s in v a r i o u s r e s i d e n t i a l s i t u a t i o n s in a n d a r o u n d P a r i s . It s h o u l d b e r e m e m b e r e d that a p p r o x i m a t e l y 4 5 , 0 0 0 s t u d e n t s , a u d i t o r s a n d s t a g i a i r e s r e s i d e in P a r i s d u r i n g the a c a d e m i c y e a r , to w h i c h a n o t h e r 2 5 , 0 0 0 s u m m e r s t u dents m a y be added.

Fran c e

85

A g o o d n u m b e r of s t u d e n t s a r e o b l i g e d t o r e n t r o o m s f r o m individual l a n d l a d i e s in town: a f a c t which is m e t with m i x e d e m o t i o n s i n c e s o m e s t u d e n t s a r e f o r c e d into this situation b e c a u s e of i n s u f f i c i e n t s t u d e n t h o u s i n g a n d o t h e r s p r e f e r i t b e c a u s e of i t s g r e a t e r p r o x i m i t y t o t h e c o m m e r c i a l a n d n i g h t l i f e of t h e c i t y , a n d b e c a u s e i t a f f o r d s b e t t e r o p p o r t u n i t i e s to m e e t others. S o c i a l s e r v i c e s a r e p r o v i d e d by m a n y o r g a n i z a t i o n s a n d i n clude aid in finding housing, t e m p o r a r y and p a r t - t i m e jobs, etc. In P a r i s , t h e s e a r e o b v i o u s l y t h e C R O U S , t h e O f f i c e de C o o p e r a t i o n et d ' A c c u e i l U n i v e r s i t a i r e (OCAU) ( U n i v e r s i t y O f f i c e of R e c e p t i o n and Cooperation), the C e n t r e I n t e r n a t i o n a l d e s E t u d i a n t s e t S t a g i a i r e s (CIES) ( I n t e r n a t i o n a l C e n t e r f o r S t a g i a i r e s ) , the A g e n c e pour la C o o p é r a t i o n Technique I n d u s t r i e l l e et E c o nomique ( ACTIM ) (Agency for Technical, Industrial and E c o n o m i c C o o p e r a t i o n ) , p l u s the A l l i a n c e F r a n ç a i s e , t h e I n s t i t u t C a t h o l i q u e (Catholic Institute), the C o u r s de C i v i l i s a t i o n F r a n ç a i s e ( F r e n c h Civilization P r o g r a m ) , and o t h e r p r i v a t e and p a rochial organizations. Many e f f o r t s a r e being m a d e to e a s e f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s ' e n t r y i n t o F r e n c h l i f e b o t h on t h e a c a d e m i c l e v e l a n d on s o c i a l a n d c u l t u r a l l e v e l s . In P a r i s , O C A U , C I E S a n d A C T I M t a k e t h i s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , w h e r e a s o n l y C R O U S m a y be r e l i e d u p o n i n the provinces. T h e m a i n e f f o r t on t h e a c a d e m i c l e v e l i s a i m e d a t f a m i l i a r i z i n g the foreign student with F r e n c h educational methods and helping him with the v a r i o u s r e q u i r e d f o r m a l i t i e s . On t h e s o c i a l a n d c u l t u r a l l e v e l s , g r e a t e f f o r t h a s b e e n m a d e t o e n a b l e s t u d e n t s t o u s e v a c a t i o n t i m e t o g e t to k n o w F r a n c e , h e r m u s e u m s , e t c . T h e r e i s a l s o a c o n t i n u i n g p r o g r a m of e x c u r s i o n s , group travel, l e c t u r e s , and r e d u c e d - r a t e theater ticke t s . T h e r e a l s o l u t i o n t o p r o b l e m s on t h i s l e v e l , h o w e v e r , r e m a i n s to be d i s c o v e r e d , e v e n though t h e r e is a growing s e n s i t i v i t y to t h e m . M a n y s t u d e n t s c o m p l a i n a b o u t t h e i n d i f f e r e n c e of t h e i r F r e n c h a c q u a i n t a n c e s a n d t h e f a i l u r e w i t h w h i c h t h e i r a t t e m p t s to p e n e t r a t e f a m i l y c i r c l e s , which u s u ally a r e quite r e s e r v e d , a r e often m e t . 6. 3. 2

Administration

of

scholarships

French government scholarship recipients comprise approxim a t e l y 7 5 % of t h e t o t a l n u m b e r of a l l s c h o l a r s h i p r e c i p i e n t s i n F r a n c e , a n d 2 0 - 2 5 % of a l l s t u d e n t s e n g a g e d i n h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n . 65 % of s t a g i a i r e s a n d 5 - 1 0 % of a u d i t o r s i n F r e n c h l a n g u a g e c o u r s e s a l s o f i g u r e i n t o t h e n u m b e r of t h o s e r e c e i v i n g

86

The seven national

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F r e n c h government scholarships. On the l e v e l at which the F r e n c h m i n i s t r y of f o r e i g n a f f a i r s is involved, there are two m a j o r divisions of f o r e i g n students: those f r o m e x - c o l o n i e s of F r a n c e and those f r o m other f o r e i g n countries. The f o r m e r hold a p r i v i l e g e d position o v e r s e e n by the S e c r e t a r i a t d'Etat aux A f f a i r e s E t r a n g è r e s , and the latter a r e dealt with by the General D i r e c t o r a t e f o r cultural, s c i e n t i f i c , and technical relations of the m i n i s t r y of F o r e i g n A f f a i r s . Under this General D i r e c t o r a t e , F r a n c e has established a g r e e ments of b i l a t e r a l cooperation with nearly seventy countries and is in the p r o c e s s of doing so with twenty m o r e . Each y e a r the General D i r e c t o r a t e publishes a report of its a c t i v i t i e s . F o r 1968-1969, its activities have been s u m m a r i z e d In Table 6 (see at the end of chapter). It should be noted in passing that the budget of the General D i r e c t o r a t e f o r 1972 was 400 m i l l i o n f r a n c s . The S e c r e t a r i a t aux A f f a i r e s E t r a n g è r e s , which o v e r s e e s exchange with f o r m e r F r e n c h colonies, has a managing body: the Fonds d ' A i d e et de Coopération ( F A C ) (Help and Cooperation F u n d ) which was c r e ated in 1959 and which took o v e r funds e a r m a r k e d f o r social and economic investment in the colonies when these gained their independence f r o m France. F o r 1968-1969, the F A C gave 1, 170 scholarships to which f i g u r e should be added the s e v e r a l hundred scholarships given annually by the S e c r e t a r i a t aux A f f a i r e s E t r a n g è r e s . In 1970, F A C also gave 1,786 " s p e c i a l p r o g r a m " scholarships. The handling of government scholarships takes place l a r g e l y at the l e v e l of the cultural attaché in F r e n c h e m b a s s i e s and consulates w o r l d w i d e ; it is the responsibility of the cultural attaché to p r e p a r e the d o s s i e r s of scholarship candidates. Minimum p r o f i c i e n c y in F r e n c h must be demonstrated. The amount of the stipends v a r i e s according to the a g r e e m e n t under which they are awarded, the l e v e l of study being undertaken, and the financial need of the individual. In 1971-1972, the amount of the monthly stipends v a r i e d f r o m 500F to 900F f o r recipients of Foreign m i n i s t r y scholarships; in special c a ses involving h i g h - l e v e l r e s e a r c h , stipends went as high as 1, 200F per month. Canadian students enjoy a p r i v i l e g e d p o s i tion, thanks to agreements passed by the O f f i c e of F r a n c o - C a nadian relations, which gives them stipends of 1, 500F per month. F A C stipends w e r e on the o r d e r of 550 to 850F monthly. Special c a t e g o r i e s of scholarships also e x i s t , and a r e disbursed by various organizations (mostly by the m i n i s t r y of F o r e i g n A f f a i r s . ) In 1970, f o r instance, 1,739 s u m m e r scholarships w e r e a w a r d e d . Each y e a r , s e v e r a l hundred s o - c a l l e d " r e l i g i o u s s t i p e n d s " a r e given to priests or other Catholic c l e r g y ; travel

France

87

vouchers negotiated by the Catholic C o m m i t t e e f o r W o r l d w i d e French Friendship are also available. Similar possibilities e x i s t in other denominational c i r c l e s . Scholarships a r e a v a i l a b l e to f o r e i g n t e a c h e r s of F r e n c h who wish to p e r f e c t t h e i r c o m m a n d of the language; 1, 200 of these w e r e awarded in 1968. Still other c a t e g o r i e s include s c h o l a r s h i p s f o r d o c t o r a l or p o s t d o c t o r a l r e s e a r c h e r s d i s b u r s e d by the G e n e r a l D i r e c t o r a t e m e n tioned e a r l i e r ; these number f r o m 150 to 200 annually. T h e F r e n c h g o v e r n m e n t , then, all in all, awards s o m e 20,000 scholarships of v a r i o u s kinds to f o r e i g n students on many d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s . This s t i l l does not c o m p l e t e the picture, h o w e v e r . T h e r e are also scholarships f r o m non-French government sources a v a i l a b l e f o r study in F r a n c e . One c a t e g o r y c o m p r i s e s s c h o l a r ships a w a r d e d by the other countries party to b i l a t e r a l exchange a g r e e m e n t s ; 8 , 0 0 0 - 1 0 , 0 0 0 such a w a r d s have been g i v e n f o r study in F r a n c e . (Of these, 2, 813 went to A f r i c a n or M a d a g a s c a r students in 1968-1969, and 4 , 0 4 6 in 1971 -1972. ) A n o t h e r c a t e g o r y includes awards g i v e n by the United Nations (1,000 annuall y ) , the Common M a r k e t , the Council of E u r o p e , etc. A third c a t e g o r y concerns i t s e l f with r e f u g e e s ( n o n - p o l i t i c a l ) and is best r e p r e s e n t e d by the E m i g r a n t ' s S o c i a l A i d S e r v i c e and F r e n c h U n i v e r s i t y Mutual A i d . A last c a t e g o r y c o m p r i s e s s c h o l a r s h i p s f r o m the p r i v a t e s e c t o r : c o m m e r c i a l , p r e s s , s o c i a l and d e n o minational o r g a n i z a t i o n s . The final distribution of s c h o l a r s h i p s , in s u m m a r y , would be as f o l l o w s : - 30-35 % of f o r e i g n students in r e g u l a r c o u r s e s of F r e n c h h i g h e r education have s c h o l a r s h i p s , 20 % to 25 % of which a r e a w a r d e d by the F r e n c h g o v e r n m e n t . - 85-90 % of students on s p e c i a l p r o g r a m s ( " s t a g e s " ) have s c h o l a r s h i p s , 60 -70 % of which a r e a w a r d e d by the F r e n c h g o v e r n ment. - 10-15 % of students e n r o l l e d in language and c i v i l i z a t i o n c o u r s e s have s c h o l a r s h i p s , 5-10 % of which a r e a w a r d e d by the F r e n c h government. H o w a r e all these s c h o l a r s h i p s a d m i n i s t e r e d ? T h e r e a r e b a s i c a l l y four o r g a n i z a t i o n s which s h a r e this r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ; two a r e g o v e r n m e n t - o p e r a t e d : the C e n t r e National des O e u v r e s U n i v e r s i t a i r e s et S c o l a i r e s ( C N O U S ) (National C e n t e r f o r U n i v e r s i t y and School S e r v i c e s ) , and the O C A U ; and two a r e p r i v a t e : the CIES, and the A C T I M . 1)

The CNOUS was c r e a t e d by the l a w of A p r i l 16, 1955, and has its head o f f i c e s in P a r i s . The r e g i o n a l branches of CNOUS a r e the CROUS o f f i c e s throughout F r a n c e . Its function is to a d m i n i s t e r s c h o l a r s h i p s given by the D i r e c t o r a t e

88

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national

studies

for cultural, scientific, and technical relations. 2) T h e O C A U i s the s u c c e s s o r , s i n c e 1 9 5 9 , of the o l d O f f i c e of O v e r s e a s S t u d e n t s . It i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h s c h o l a r s h i p s t u d e n t s f r o m c o u n t r i e s u n d e r the j u r i s d i c t i o n of the S e c r é t a r i a t d ' E t a t aux A f f a i r e s E t r a n g è r e s and f r o m F r a n c e ' s o v e r s e a s t e r r i t o r i e s . 3) T h e C I E S h a s a p r i m e f u n c t i o n o f r e c e i v i n g s t a g i a i r e s f r o m A f r i c a a n d M a d a g a s c a r c o m i n g t o s t u d y u n d e r the a u s p i c e s of the F A C . A s s u c c e s s o r t o the A s s o c i a t i o n f o r S p e c i a l S t u d i e s a n d f o r the R e c e p t i o n of F o r e i g n S t u d e n t s , C I E S h a s the r e s ponsibility for s c h o l a r s h i p students f r o m South Vietnam, Tun i s i a , a n d M o r o c c o , a s w e l l a s f o r s t a g i a i r e s of the F r e n c h m i n i s t r y of F o r e i g n A f f a i r s of the F A C m e n t i o n e d a b o v e . C I E S a l s o h a s h e a d q u a r t e r s in P a r i s . 4) T h e A C T I M w a s f o u n d e d in 1 9 5 8 b y f o r t y l a r g e c o m p a n i e s . Its f u n c t i o n i s to o p e r a t e two t y p e s of s p e c i a l s t u d y p r o g r a m s , o n e f i n a n c e d b y t h e m i n i s t r y of E c o n o m y a n d F i n a n c e , a n d the o t h e r f i n a n c e d d i r e c t l y by the c o m p a n i e s c o n c e r n e d . It i s o b v i o u s f r o m the e v o l u t i o n of t h e s e d i v e r s e s e r v i c e o r g a n i z a t i o n s o v e r the l a s t f e w y e a r s t h a t o t h e r e f f o r t s a r e b e i n g m a d e e l s e w h e r e a s w e l l t o w a r d a b e t t e r c o o r d i n a t i o n of s e r v i c e s . M o n t h l y d i s b u r s e m e n t of s c h o l a r s h i p f u n d s i s a c c o m p l i s h e d t h r o u g h the l o c a l o f f i c e s of C N O U S a n d O C A U , a n d t h r o u g h l o c a l b a n k b r a n c h e s i n the c a s e of C I E S a n d A C T I M . One o t h e r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of t h e s e o r g a n i z a t i o n s i s to p e t i t i o n t h e a p p r o p r i a t e m i n i s t e r i a l s o u r c e s f o r a n n u a l r e n e w a l of s c h o l a r s h i p f u n d s , a n d to r e n e w the s c h o l a r s h i p s of r e c i p i e n t s a l r e a d y in F r a n c e .

6.3.3

Degree

equivalency

T h e r e a r e two s y s t e m s of d e t e r m i n i n g d e g r e e e q u i v a l e n c y . T h e " r e g i m e g e n e r a l " i s g e a r e d to the o p e n i n g of i n t e r n a t i o n a l e x c h a n g e p o s s i b i l i t i e s by d i s p e n s i n g w i t h t h e b a c c a l a u r é a t e n t r a n c e r e q u i r e m e n t for f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s who h a v e r e a c h e d an e q u i v a l e n t l e v e l in t h e i r h o m e u n i v e r s i t y s t r u c t u r e . T h e o l d e s t of the d o c u m e n t s which l e g a l l y define the r é g i m e g é n é r a l d a t e s f r o m 1915 a n d i s a l i s t i n g o f the f o r e i g n d e g r e e s o r d i p l o m a s a c c e p t e d in l i e u o f the b a c c a l a u r é a t . In i r r e g u l a r c a s e s , a n i n d i v i d u a l m i n i s t e r i a l r e v i e w c a n d e c i d e w h e t h e r to a c c e p t a s t u d e n t ' s p r e p a r a t i o n o r d e c l a r e it i n a d e q u a t e . On t h i s l e v e l , it m i g h t w e l l b e b e s t to t a l k of " c o r r e s p o n d e n c e of d e g r e e s " r a t h e r t h a n e q u i v a l e n c y . T h e i d e a of e q u i v a l e n c y s h o u l d be r e s e r v e d f o r t h e s e c o n d s e t of s y s t e m s , the " r é g i m e s s p é c i a u x " o r s p e c i a l s y s t e m s , which r e s u l t f r o m n u m e r o u s a c c o r d s s i g n e d with other F r e n c h s p e a k i n g countries, Common M a r k e t c o u n t r i e s , and s o m e o t h e r s . The four that we h a v e b e e n a b l e to d i s t i n g u i s h a r e a s f o l l o w s :

France

89

- h o m o l o g a t i o n of d e g r e e s w h i c h p e r m i t s a f o r e i g n d e g r e e to be e x c h a n g e d f o r an equivalent F r e n c h d e g r e e ( e s t a b l i s h e d A u g u s t 2, I 9 6 0 . ) - f u l l - r i g h t r e c o g n i t i o n of d e g r e e s w h i c h d o e s n o t i n v o l v e a n e x c h a n g e of f o r e i g n f o r F r e n c h d e g r e e s , b u t w h i c h d o e s g r a n t f u l l r i g h t s t o h o l d e r s of f o r e i g n d e g r e e s a s d e t e r m i n e d a n n u a l l y b y m i n i s t e r i a l d e c r e e . ( T h i s s y s t e m i s u s e d a c c o r d i n g to cultural exchange a g r e e m e n t s concluded with s e v e r a l A f r i c a n states.) - joint F r e n c h - G e r m a n b a c c a l a u r é a t examinations which have b e e n d e c i d e d on b y t h e r e s p e c t i v e m i n i s t r i e s of F o r e i g n A f f a i r s ( F e b r u a r y 10, 1972) a n d w h i c h w i l l o p e n t h e u n i v e r s i t i e s of t h e t w o c o u n t r i e s t o s t u d e n t s of b o t h n a t i o n a l i t i e s . - t h e s y s t e m of c o r r e s p o n d i n g " d i p l ô m e s s u p é r i e u r s " w h i c h i s g e a r e d to e q u a t i n g w o r k done in f o r e i g n i n s t i t u t i o n s with w o r k d o n e in t h e g r a n d e s é c o l e s of F r a n c e . T h e b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s to be o b s e r v e d f o r e a c h c o u n t r y a r e l a i d down by m i n i s t e r i a l d e c r e e , but each student application m u s t be r e v i e w e d individuall y . S i n c e 1969, in a n e f f o r t t o s i m p l i f y t h i s s y s t e m f o r a l l s t u d e n t s e x c e p t t h o s e in s c h o o l s of m e d i c i n e , p h a r m a c y , a n d o r a l s u r g e r y , t h e d e a n s of t h e v a r i o u s s c h o o l s h a v e b e e n g i v e n t h e a u t h o r i t y to d e c i d e e q u i v a l e n c y o n t h i s l e v e l . It s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t e q u i v a l e n c y i s g r a n t e d o n l y i n r e l a t i o n to t h e s p e c i f i c s t u dy a f o r e i g n s t u d e n t w i s h e s to do in F r a n c e .

6. k

THE PILOT

STUDY

A q u e s t i o n n a i r e w a s a d m i n i s t e r e d to a p p r o x i m a t e l y fifty f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s a t e a c h of t h r e e u n i v e r s i t i e s , N i c e , M o n t p e l l i e r a n d P a r i s . T h e q u e s t i o n s d e a l t w i t h t h e p u r p o s e of t h e f o r e i g n s o j o u r n , the m a n n e r in w h i c h the s t u d e n t p r e p a r e d for it, l a n g u a g e f a c i l i t y , a c c e s s to l i b r a r i e s and r e s e a r c h f a c i l i t i e s , a c a d e m i c s u c c e s s or f a i l u r e , m a t e r i a l a s p e c t s s u c h a s f i n a n c e s and lodging, r e l a t i o n s with p r o f e s s o r s and o t h e r s t u d e n t s , f r i e n d s h i p s e s t a b l i s h e d , e x p e r i e n c e with p r e j u d i c e and d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , c h a n g e s in a t t i t u d e t o w a r d t h e F r e n c h , g e n e r a l e v a l u a t i o n of t h e foreign e x p e r i e n c e , and s u g g e s t i o n s f o r i m p r o v i n g the s o j o u r n i n F r a n c e . It i s h o p e d t h a t t h i s p i l o t s t u d y m a y p r e p a r e t h e w a y f o r t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of a s i m i l a r q u e s t i o n n a i r e to f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s i n a n u m b e r of d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s .

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PART III

Conclusions and Implications

CHAPTER 13

International Educational Exchanges, Present and Future A s h a s a l r e a d y b e e n i n d i c a t e d , i t i s not e a s y to d r a w d e f i n i t e c o n c l u s i o n s f r o m what we h a v e i d e n t i f i e d a s a p r e l i m i n a r y , d e s c r i p t i v e s u r v e y . A t the s a m e t i m e it i s p o s s i b l e to l i s t a s e r i e s of p r o p o s i t i o n s which do a p p e a r to be j u s t i f i e d by the m a t e r i a l a t our d i s p o s a l , and which would in a l l p r o b a b i l i t y be a c c e p t e d u n a n i m o u s l y by those who h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d to this i n v e s t i g a t i o n ; we s h a l l p r e s e n t them now, with s o m e a d d i t i o n a l , e x p l a n a t o r y comments.

1. International exchanges education. They should extended

represent a definite contribution to be maintained and wherever possible

How m u c h e x t e n s i o n should t h e r e b e ? In the G e r m a n F e d e r a l R e p u b l i c , f o r e x a m p l e , it i s p r o p o s e d that a t o t a l of 8 % f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s s h o u l d be a d m i t t e d . The C a l i f o r n i a s e l f - s t u d y p r o p o s e s that c a r e s h o u l d b e t a k e n to a s s u r e a b e t t e r d i s t r i b u t i o n b y r e gion and d i s c i p l i n e , but u r g e s that f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s s h o u l d b e a c c e p t e d in the p r o p o r t i o n of 4 to 6 % at the u n d e r g r a d u a t e , a n d 14 to 20 % a t the g r a d u a t e l e v e l . At the p r e s e n t t i m e , s o m e univ e r s i t i e s (Geneva, f o r e x a m p l e ) a c c e p t a g r e a t m a n y m o r e , but o t h e r s v e r y m u c h l e s s . The e x a c t p r o p o r t i o n will h a v e to b e l e f t to the d e c i s i o n of the u n i v e r s i t y i n e a c h s p e c i f i c c a s e . Our F r e n c h r e p o r t r a i s e s doubts a s to the d e s i r a b i l i t y of e s t a b l i s h i n g a f i x e d " t h r e s h o l d " f o r s u c h a d m i s s i o n s . It would, h o w e v e r , b e a s t e p in the r i g h t d i r e c t i o n if u n i v e r s i t i e s in g e n e r a l a c c e p t e d in p r i n c i p l e the g o a l of e n c o u r a g i n g the a d m i s s i o n of f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s . A s f o r s t u d y a b r o a d , it i s p r o p o s e d b y the U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a that a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 % of u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s s h o u l d p a r t i c i p a t e in s u c h p r o g r a m s e a c h y e a r . It s h o u l d be k e p t in m i n d , h o w e v e r , that a n o r g a n i z e d u n d e r g r a d u a t e y e a r a b r o a d i s a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y a n A m e r i c a n phenomenon; the only e x c e p t i o n which h a s c o m e to our attention i s the I n s t i t u t e of E u r o p e a n A f f a i r s of the U n i v e r s i t y of S u s s e x . The c o n s e n s u s in m o s t c o u n t r i e s i s to the e f f e c t that f o r e i g n s t u d y s h o u l d b e p o s t p o n e d to a l a t e r m o r e m a t u r e ( g r a d u a t e o r p o s t - g r a d u a t e ) l e v e l . The f a c t r e m a i n s that the A m e r i c a n J u n i o r Y e a r A b r o a d p r o g r a m i s w i d e l y c o n s i d e r e d to

258

Conclusions

and

implications

be a s u c c e s s , and should t h e r e f o r e be e n c o u r a g e d w h e n e v e r f a c i l i t i e s a r e available for its e f f e c t i v e organization and s u p e r vision. W i t h r e g a r d t o f a c u l t y p a r t i c i p a t i o n in i n t e r n a t i o n a l e x c h a n g e s , we have found g r e a t variations a m o n g the c o u n t r i e s studied. Although visits f r o m foreign s c h o l a r s a r e encouraged, they a r e o f t e n d r a s t i c a l l y l i m i t e d b y t h e l a c k of f i n a n c i a l r e s o u r c e s , a n d in s o m e c a s e s (Yugoslavia, J a p a n and India) they a r e r e l a t i v e l y i n f r e q u e n t and u s u a l l y r e s t r i c t e d to a s h o r t p e r i o d . As f o r p e r m a n e n t a p p o i n t m e n t s of f o r e i g n e r s , r e f e r e n c e h a s a l r e a d y b e e n m a d e to the f a c t that this is i m p o s s i b l e u n d e r p r e s e n t conditions in a n u m b e r of c o u n t r i e s , a n d t h e s u g g e s t i o n w a s o f f e r e d t h a t t h i s s i t u a t i o n b e r e c o n s i d e r e d i n t e r m s of t h e " u n i v e r s a l " r o l e of u n i v e r s i t i e s a n d of s c i e n c e . The C a l i f o r n i a Study s u g g e s t s that e x c h a n g e s a t the f a c u l t y l e v e l s h o u l d b e e n c o u r a g e d n o t o n l y i n t e r m s of t h e g a i n s o b t a i n e d b y i n d i v i d u a l s b u t a l s o b y u n i v e r s i t i e s . A s a m a t t e r of f a c t o n e of t h e m a j o r r e a s o n s f o r u n d e r t a k i n g t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y w a s t o t h r o w l i g h t o n t h e i m p a c t of i n t e r n a t i o n a l e d u c a t i o n a l e x c h a n g e o n t h e u n i v e r s i t i e s i n v o l v e d . A n u m b e r of o u r r e p o r t s ( p a r t i c u l a r ly the G e r m a n , B r i t i s h and A m e r i c a n ) d e s c r i b e s u c h an i m p a c t , b u t at the s a m e t i m e i n s i s t that not enough a d v a n t a g e is t a k e n of t h e p r e s e n c e of f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s a n d f a c u l t y on a p a r t i c u l a r c a m p u s , a n d that t h e i r p o t e n t i a l c o n t r i b u t i o n is not a d e q u a t e l y e x p l o i t e d . P e r h a p s the m a j o r r e a s o n f o r this is that the i m p a c t i s o f t e n s u b t l e , d i f f i c u l t to i d e n t i f y a n d e v e n m o r e d i f f i c u l t to m e a s u r e . U n i v e r s i t y a d m i n i s t r a t o r s m a y o f t e n b e u n a w a r e of t h e c h a n g e s t h a t e n s u e in t h e s c h o l a r l y a t m o s p h e r e o r i n t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t e a c h i n g a n d r e s e a r c h , o r h o w a u n i v e r s i t y w i t h a f o r e i g n c o m p o n e n t d i f f e r s f r o m one without it in t h e s e r e s p e c t s . A s a c o n s e q u e n c e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e d e c i s i o n s in this connection m a y b e b a s e d o n i n a d e q u a t e k n o w l e d g e of t h e e x p e r i e n c e of n a t i o n a l s w h o h a v e b e e n a b r o a d , a n d of l o c a l s t u d e n t s a n d f a c u l t y w h o h a v e h a d c o n t a c t with the f o r e i g n v i s i t o r s . Such a " f e e d b a c k " m e c h a n i s m should not only m a k e the i m p a c t c l e a r e r but a l s o r e n d e r it m o r e e f f e c t i v e . A l l o u r r e p o r t s do, h o w e v e r , i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e r e i s i n d e e d a n i m p a c t on the u n i v e r s i t y , a n d t h a t t h i s s h o u l d b e r e g a r d e d as a p o s i t i v e gain r e s u l t i n g f r o m e x c h a n g e s . O u r r e p o r t s a g r e e a l s o i n e m p h a s i z i n g t h e r o l e of e x c h a n g e s a t the n a t i o n a l l e v e l , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h r o u g h the c o n t r i b u t i o n m a d e to t e c h n i c a l c o o p e r a t i o n with the d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s ; it is p r o p o s e d that E d u c a t i o n a l A s s i s t a n c e P r o g r a m s should be c o n s i d e r e d a s a r e g u l a r university s e r v i c e , with provision m a d e f o r longt e r m c o m m i t m e n t s of f a c u l t y a b r o a d . In t h i s r e s p e c t t h e B r i t i s h , a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y the F r e n c h , have t a k e n the m o s t l i b e r a l p o s i t i o n a m o n g the c o u n t r i e s included in o u r s u r v e y . The United S t a t e s ,

Exchanges,

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259

on the other hand, sends a p a r t i c u l a r l y l a r g e number of s c h o l a r s to other countries f o r s h o r t e r p e r i o d s . A s f a r as students a r e c o n c e r n e d , one would e x p e c t the m o r e i n d u s t r i a l l y advanced countries to do m o s t of the r e c e i v i n g , and the d e v e l o p i n g count r i e s to do c o m p a r a t i v e l y m o r e sending. This is l a r g e l y true , e x c e p t that Japan has a v e r y s m a l l p r o p o r t i o n of f o r e i g n students, f o r r e a s o n s discussed a b o v e , and that f o r i n d u s t r i a l l y developing countries like India and Y u g o s l a v i a the m o v e m e n t does occur in both d i r e c t i o n s . One s t r i k i n g f i n d i n g in our r e p o r t s in t e r m s of s t a t i s t i c a l trends is the fact that in s o m e countries ( G e r m a n y f o r e x a m p l e ) the postwar s u r g e in the number of f o r e i g n students has now r e a c h e d a plateau, p a r t i c u l a r l y m a r k e d in the case of students f r o m the d e v e l o p i n g countries, which show a r e l a t i v e d e c r e a s e in c o m p a r i s o n with o t h e r s . This m a y in part r e f l e c t the c r e a t i o n of n e w u n i v e r s i t i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y in A f r i c a , which m e a n s that at l e a s t undergraduate training is now m o r e r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e at h o m e , and that students f r o m these countries m a y t h e r e f o r e be e x p e c t e d to go a b r o a d m a i n l y f o r advanced o r postgraduate t r a i n ing i n r e s e a r c h or the p r o f e s s i o n s . It r e m a i n s true that the r e l a t i v e drop in the total number of f o r e i g n students f r o m d e v e l o p ing countries r a i s e s s e r i o u s questions as to whether u n i v e r s i t i e s a r e m a k i n g an adequate contribution to technical c o o p e r a t i o n (or a s s i s t a n c e ) , and what a d m i n i s t r a t i v e adaptations a r e needed to deal with exchanges of this kind. E x c h a n g e s a r e t h e r e f o r e s e e n as making a contribution to the individuals who p a r t i c i p a t e , to the u n i v e r s i t i e s and countries i n v o l v e d (in part through Educational A s s i s t a n c e P r o g r a m s ) and a l s o , as much p r e v i o u s r e s e a r c h and our own pilot studies d e m o n s t r a t e , to b e t t e r international understanding. A t the s a m e t i m e , it is g e n e r a l l y admitted that the exchange p r o g r a m s could be i m p r o v e d , and a number of suggestions have been m a d e as to h o w this m i g h t b e s t be brought about.

2.

The need for closer integration of programs, within a university, within individual private and public institutions, within a particular country, between countries, and at the national level

T h i s is a c o m p l e x i s s u e , to which those c o n c e r n e d w i l l have to g i v e c o n s i d e r a b l e thought r e g a r d i n g the kind and d e g r e e of i n t e g r a t i o n d e s i r e d , and the a p p r o p r i a t e methods to be a p p l i e d . T h e r e w i l l have to be a d e l i c a t e balance, as indicated above, between the value of individual i n i t i a t i v e on the one hand, and the value of coordination on the o t h e r . This p r o b l e m w i l l b e c o m e e v e n m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d in the future because of the p r o l i f e r a t i o n of exchange

260

Conclusions

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p r o g r a m s , with the consequence that even information about what is going on e l s e w h e r e w i l l b e c o m e e x c e e d i n g l y d i f f i c u l t to obtain, and coordination even m o r e d i f f i c u l t to r e a l i z e . The issue i s , h o w e v e r , one that will have to be f a c e d . The F r e n c h r e p o r t is p a r t i c u l a r l y emphatic r e g a r d i n g the p r o b l e m s that this c o m p l e x i t y c r e a t e s f o r f o r e i g n students, but the B r i t i s h and A m e r ican reports a r e also in general a g r e e m e n t with this position. One kind of example m a y be used to i l l u s t r a t e the p r o b l e m . Graduates of universities in a developing country ( A ) a r r i v e to do advanced w o r k in a l a r g e u n i v e r s i t y in a highly industrialized country (B). The educational p r o g r a m in Β is geared to the i n t e r e s t s and occupational opportunities of its own nationals ; the v i s i t o r s m a y (and often do) f e e l that what they a r e taught is i r r e l e v a n t to their own needs and to their country's future. Some of the u n i v e r s i t i e s in Β m a y actually o f f e r the courses f o r which A ' s students a r e looking, but i t m a y be d i f f i c u l t to d i s c o v e r w h e r e they a r e and exactly what they c o v e r . This situation could in l a r g e m e a s u r e be c o r r e c t e d by a b e t t e r exchange of i n f o r m a t i o n ; t h e r e a r e , h o w e v e r , cases in which m o r e might be done. If a g r e a t many students f r o m A attend one particular u n i v e r s i t y in B , it m a y be possible for the l a t t e r to s e t up the kind of educational p r o g r a m which is most appropriate. T h i s , of c o u r s e , cannot and should not m e a n that all of A ' s students must f o l l o w the same p r o g r a m , but even though s u f f i c i e n t l e e w a y must be l e f t f o r individual p r e f e r e n c e , attention might still be paid to the wishes and needs of the m a j o r i t y . Such integration between what i s o f f e r e d and what is wanted does occur, but r a r e l y ; it can h a r d l y be doubted that this procedure is now f o l l o w e d in only a tiny m i n o r i t y of c a s e s . This coordination between needs and o f f e r i n g s would in the f i r s t place be facilitated if the r e q u i r e d information w e r e m o r e r e a d i l y available ; h e r e the o f f i c e of the cultural attaché of count r y Β who is l o c a t e d in country A could play a c r u c i a l r o l e . In s o m e cases this might r e q u i r e m o r e money and personnel, but once the m a c h i n e r y for the t r a n s m i s s i o n of i n f o r m a t i o n has been s e t up, it should be possible to keep it up to date without an e x c e s s i v e expenditure of e f f o r t . The second d e g r e e of integration r e p r e s e n t e d by the adaptation of p r o g r a m s to needs would r e q u i r e b i l a t e r a l a g r e e m e n t s between u n i v e r s i t i e s o r , m o r e usually, g o v e r n m e n t s ; if there is a m e e t i n g of minds on this issue, i t s ' r e a l i z a t i o n should not r e p r e s e n t too g r e a t a d i f f i c u l t y . Students f r o m A would then be able to make their choice of a university in Β with a much better chance of finding what they need. This example is only one of many that could be given r e g a r d i n g the potential f o r i m p r o v e d integration. Once again we would point out that it does occasionally o c c u r . With r e g a r d to the Junior

Exchanges,

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Y e a r A b r o a d p r o g r a m , s o m e u n i v e r s i t i e s in the United S t a t e s h a v e a s p e c i a l s t a f f r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a l l t h e i r p r o g r a m s in o t h e r c o u n t r i e s . In s o m e c a s e s s t u d e n t s f r o m a n u m b e r of i n s t i t u t i o n s a r e c o m b i n e d into a s i n g l e c o o r d i n a t e d p r o g r a m d u r i n g t h e i r s t a y in the s a m e f o r e i g n u n i v e r s i t y . Our r e p o r t s a r e , h o w e v e r , a g r e e d that m o r e c o o r d i n a t i o n i s n e e d e d at a l l l e v e l s of i n t e r n a t i o n a l e x c h a n g e p r o g r a m s . T h e m u l t i p l i c a t i o n of p r o g r a m s l i s t e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y in o u r F r e n c h , B r i t i s h , G e r m a n and A m e r i c a n r e p o r t s , a s well a s the d e v e l o p m e n t of new b i l a t e r a l a r r a n g e m e n t s b e t w e e n u n i v e r s i t i e s , t e s t i f y to the u r g e n t d e s i r a b i l i t y of b e t t e r c o o r d i n a t i o n . T h e r e i s a s p e c i a l n e e d f o r u n i v e r s i t y a d m i n i s t r a t o r s to b e c o m e m o r e f u l l y a w a r e of the p o s s i b i l i t i e s a n d r e a l i t i e s of e x c h a n g e s . A s p e c i f i c point r a i s e d r e l a t e s to the r o l e of f o r e i g n student a d v i s e r s , who f r e q u e n t l y f u n c t i o n in r e l a t i v e i s o l a t i o n , without s u f f i c i e n t c o n t a c t with p r o f e s s o r s and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p e r s o n n e l a t the u n i v e r s i t y . S e v e r a l of our c o l l e a g u e s u r g e d c l o s e r c o o p e r a t i o n in this r e s p e c t , a n d a l s o s u g g e s t e d m o r e e x c h a n g e of i n f o r m a t i o n b e t w e e n s t u d e n t a d v i s e r s in d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s .

J.

More care must be exercised at all stages of the exchange

in providing process

optimum

conditions

If we l o o k a t the f o r e i g n s o j o u r n a s a c a s e h i s t o r y e x t e n d i n g f r o m the d e c i s i o n to go a b r o a d until the f i n a l r e t u r n (or o c c a s i o n a l n o n - r e t u r n ) h o m e , we a r e s t r u c k b y the n u m b e r of things that c a n go w r o n g , a n d by the f a c t that s o m u c h i s l e f t to c h a n c e . Our c o l l e a g u e s in the s e v e n c o u n t r i e s d i f f e r with r e g a r d to the p a r t i c u l a r s t a g e s which they r e g a r d a s e s p e c i a l l y r e l e v a n t - and v u l n e r a b l e , but they a g r e e on the n e e d to g i v e the f o r e i g n student m o r e g u i d a n c e a n d h e l p . S i n c e this i s s u e h a s a l r e a d y b e e n r a i s e d a b o v e ( e s p e c i a l l y in C h a p t e r II and III) we s h a l l content o u r s e l v e s a t this point with m e r e l y l i s t i n g the p r i n c i p a l s u g g e s t i o n s that e m e r g e f r o m our s t u d y . a) B e f o r e m a k i n g h i s c h o i c e of a f o r e i g n u n i v e r s i t y , the p r o s p e c t i v e s t u d e n t r e q u i r e s r e a d y a c c e s s to a l l a v a i l a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g s t u d y a b r o a d ; s p e c i a l s t r e s s h a s b e e n l a i d on the p o t e n t i a l r o l e of c u l t u r a l a f f a i r s o f f i c e r s and other e m b a s s y p e r s o n n e l , l i b r a r i e s , a l u m n i a s s o c i a t i o n s , and p r o f e s s o r s with f o r eign experience. b) The s e l e c t i o n p r o c e s s i s f a r too h a p h a z a r d . M o r e c a r e m u s t b e t a k e n in the s e n d i n g c o u n t r y to g i v e g u i d a n c e to s t u d e n t s a s to w h e r e they s h o u l d go to o b t a i n the t r a i n i n g they s e e k , a n d to

262

Conclusions

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implications

e n s u r e t h a t t h e y a r e a d e q u a t e l y p r e p a r e d a c a d e m i c a l l y to f u l f i l l the n e c e s s a r y r e q u i r e m e n t s . A t t e n t i o n should a l s o be p a i d to t h o s e a s p e c t s of t h e s t u d e n t ' s p e r s o n a l i t y w h i c h a r e r e l e v a n t , a s w e l l as to his a c a d e m i c b a c k g r o u n d . T h e s e r e q u i r e m e n t s should b e k e p t in m i n d i n t h e g r a n t i n g of f e l l o w s h i p s ; i n t h e c a s e of s t u d e n t s who a r e s e l f - s e l e c t e d this m a y not be p o s s i b l e , but a t the v e r y l e a s t t h e y s h o u l d h a v e a c c e s s to t h e r e l e v a n t i n f o r m a t i o n , a n d e n c o u r a g e d to m a k e u s e of it. I t w a s a l s o s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e s c r e e n i n g p r o c e d u r e s used in admitting applicants might need t o b e a d a p t e d to t h e c a s e of f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s w h o h a v e r e c e i v e d i n f e r i o r t r a i n i n g b u t s h o w c o n s i d e r a b l e p r o m i s e . T h i s m e a n s in p r a c t i c e a c e r t a i n f l e x i b i l i t y in a d m i s s i o n s p o l i c y r a t h e r t h a n t h e u s e of r i g i d t e c h n i q u e s a p p l i e d u n i v e r s a l l y . c) T h e s t u d e n t m u s t be a d e q u a t e l y p r e p a r e d f o r h i s f o r e i g n s o j o u r n , as f a r as possible, b e f o r e he l e a v e s . This involves not only knowledge about the new u n i v e r s i t y , b u t a l s o about the new c o m m u n i t y . S p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n s h o u l d b e g i v e n to p r o f i c i e n c y i n t h e f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e . H e r e t o o the n e e d w a s e x p r e s s e d f o r m o r e e x c h a n g e of i n f o r m a t i o n i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y a b o u t t h e k i n d s of p r e p a r a t i o n a v a i l a b l e to - a n d d e s i r e d b y - p r o s p e c t i v e s t u d e n t s . One s u g g e s t i o n (by t h e F r e n c h ) s t r e s s e s t h e n e e d f o r b e t t e r p r e p a r a tion before departure through l e c t u r e s , conferences, and so forth. d) R e c e p t i o n u p o n a r r i v a l m u s t b e o r g a n i z e d i n s u c h a m a n n e r a s to b e e a s i l y a c c e s s i b l e to a l l f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s . T h e p r e s e n t p r a c t i c e in s o m e c a s e s is to h a v e s u c h r e c e p t i o n a v a i l a b l e f o r s c h o l a r s h i p s t u d e n t s but not f o r those who a r e s e l f - s e l e c t e d . e) O r i e n t a t i o n m u s t b e g i v e n t o f a c i l i t a t e i n t e g r a t i o n w i t h i n t h e university, including information regarding s t u d e n t - p r o f e s s o r r e l a t i o n s h i p s , r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r a d m i s s i o n to s p e c i f i c c o u r s e s , t h e n a t u r e of e x a m i n a t i o n s , t h e c r i t e r i a f o r o b t a i n i n g a d i p l o m a or degree, and so forth. f) S i m i l a r g u i d a n c e is n e e d e d f o r i n t e g r a t i o n w i t h i n t h e c o m m u n i t y , i n c l u d i n g a w i d e r a n g e of p o s s i b l e s o u r c e s of c o n f l i c t f r o m " s i m p l e " ones like food h a b i t s at one e x t r e m e , to " c o m p l i c a t e d " b o y - g i r l r e l a t i o n s a t t h e o t h e r . T h e q u e s t i o n of h o u s i n g m a y b e c r u c i a l in this connection, e s p e c i a l l y when it is a s s o c i a t e d with t h e p r e s e n c e of " r a c i s t " a t t i t u d e s a n d b e h a v i o r . M o r e s h o u l d b e k n o w n a b o u t t h e k i n d s of h o u s i n g p r e f e r r e d b y f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s . g) H e l p s h o u l d b e a v a i l a b l e i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h v a r i o u s p r o b l e m s t h a t m a y a r i s e d u r i n g t h e c o u r s e of t h e s o j o u r n . H e r e t h e r o l e of t h e f o r e i g n s t u d e n t a d v i s e r ( o r h i s s u r r o g a t e ) i s c r u c i a l , b u t

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not all u n i v e r s i t i e s have as yet m a d e p r o v i s i o n f o r his s e r v i c e s . H i s t a s k i s a d i f f i c u l t o n e , a n d t h e s e l e c t i o n a n d t r a i n i n g of s u c h a d v i s e r s o f t e n l e a v e a g r e a t d e a l t o b e d e s i r e d . One s u g g e s t i o n that h a s b e e n m a d e is that p r o f e s s o r s m i g h t be a s s i g n e d this t a s k ( t h i s i s t h e c a s e i n a n u m b e r of B r i t i s h u n i v e r s i t i e s ) , a n d r e l i e v e d , i n w h o l e o r in p a r t , of o t h e r u n i v e r s i t y d u t i e s w h i l e they a r e p e r f o r m i n g such an a d v i s o r y function. h) T h e f i n a n c i a l s i t u a t i o n of f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s i s o f t e n v e r y d i f ficult. Fellowships are relatively r a r e , and often inadequate . O n c e t h e v a l u e of e x c h a n g e s h a s b e e n r e c o g n i z e d , a t t e n t i o n s h o u l d b e d i r e c t e d t o t h e q u e s t i o n of o b t a i n i n g t h e f u n d s n e c e s s a r y for an effective p r o g r a m . i) T h e u n h a p p i n e s s of m a n y f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s m i g h t b e c o n s i d e r a b l y r e d u c e d if t h e r e w e r e a c l e a r e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of " e q u i v a l e n c e s " of d e g r e e s o r in g e n e r a l of u n i v e r s i t y w o r k a c c o m p l i s h e d . T h i s p r o b l e m i s of e q u a l c o n c e r n t o l o c a l s t u d e n t s w i s h i n g to o b t a i n p a r t of t h e i r t r a i n i n g a b r o a d . M o r e e f f o r t n e e d s to be d i r e c t e d t o w a r d e s t a b l i s h i n g s u c h e q u i v a l e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e u n i v e r s i t y s y s t e m s of d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s . j) E x c h a n g e s a t t h e f a c u l t y l e v e l a l s o r e q u i r e a t t e n t i o n to m a n y of t h e s a m e i s s u e s ; a d v a n c e k n o w l e d g e of t h e n e w u n i v e r s i t y a n d t h e n e w s o c i e t y ; a d e q u a t e o r i e n t a t i o n on a r r i v a l ; i n t e g r a t i o n i n t o the u n i v e r s i t y ; f i n a n c i a l p r o b l e m s , a n d so f o r t h . The B r i t i s h r e p o r t i s p a r t i c u l a r l y e m p h a t i c i n i n s i s t i n g on t h e s e a s p e c t s of faculty exchange. k) E x c h a n g e p r o g r a m s s h o u l d i n c l u d e p r o v i s i o n f o r p e r s o n a l c o n t a c t b e t w e e n v i s i t o r s and n a t i o n a l s a t all l e v e l s . T h i s , too, h a s u s u a l l y b e e n l e f t to c h a n c e o r individual initiative, o f t e n w i t h u n s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s u l t s . It r e p r e s e n t s a n e s s e n t i a l p r e r e q u i s i t e if e x c h a n g e s a r e t o m a k e a c o n t r i b u t i o n t o w a r d b e t t e r international understanding. 1) If e x c h a n g e s a r e to b e t r u l y m e a n i n g f u l , p r o f e s s o r s s h o u l d b e u r g e d t o a p p l y t h e s a m e s t a n d a r d s in t h e i r e v a l u a t i o n of e v e r y s t u d e n t ' s p e r f o r m a n c e . T h i s m a y c a u s e s o m e h a r d s h i p in i n d i v i d u a l c a s e s , b u t m u c h d a m a g e m a y b e d o n e if a s t u d e n t r e c e i v e s a d e g r e e (in m e d i c i n e , l a w , e n g i n e e r i n g , e d u c a t i o n , e t c . ) Which h e h a s n o t r e a l l y e a r n e d . T h e s i t u a t i o n i n t h e c a s e of s o m e f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s i s i n m a n y w a y s s i m i l a r to t h a t of t h e s t u d e n t f r o m a m i n o r i t y group or f r o m a poor, u n d e r p r i v i l e g e d family. As a l r e a d y indicated, a c a s e could be m a d e for letting such a stud e n t i n t o a u n i v e r s i t y o n t h e b a s i s of o t h e r c r i t e r i a w h i c h i n d i c a t e

26k

Conclusions

and

implications

good p o t e n t i a l a b i l i t y , but t h e r e can b e no j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r l o w e r ing s t a n d a r d s in o r d e r to p e r m i t h i s g r a d u a t i o n . T h e s a m e o r s i m i l a r p r o c e d u r e s m i g h t be f o l l o w e d in the c a s e of t h o s e f o r eign s t u d e n t s w h o s e p r e v i o u s e d u c a t i o n a l t r a i n i n g m a y m a k e it d i f f i c u l t f o r t h e m f u l l y to s a t i s f y the e n t r a n c e r e q u i r e m e n t s , but a c e r t a i n l e n i e n c y on a d m i s s i o n s h o u l d not e n t a i l a c h e a p e n i n g of the d e g r e e . The c o n c l u s i o n s to which o u r s t u d y h a s l e d a r e f a r f r o m c o m p l e t e , b u t we b e l i e v e t h a t if t h e y r e c e i v e a d e q u a t e a t t e n t i o n the e x c h a n g e p r o c e s s would d e f i n i t e l y be i m p r o v e d , a n d the p r o p o r t i o n of f a i l u r e s r e d u c e d . We r e a l i z e t h a t t h e p r o b l e m s h e r e p r e s e n t e d a r e not e a s y of s o l u t i o n ; i t is o u r h o p e t h a t a r e a l i z a t i o n of w h a t i s n e e d e d m a y b e a f i r s t s t e p t o w a r d the i m p r o v e m e n t of w h a t i s universally regarded as a valuable undertaking. T h e r e is s t i l l , of c o u r s e , m u c h i n f o r m a t i o n which s h o u l d b e c o l l e c t e d , a n d a g r e a t deal of r e s e a r c h w h i c h in o u r j u d g m e n t s h o u l d be u n d e r t a k e n . The f o l l o w i n g l i s t is f a r f r o m c o m p l e t e , b u t d o e s i n d i c a t e s o m e of the f u t u r e a c t i v i t i e s which h a v e b e e n r e c o m m e n d e d in the c o u r s e of the p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n . 1) We n e e d b e t t e r , m o r e c o m p l e t e a n d m o r e u n i f o r m r e c o r d s of e x c h a n g e s , at both the s t u d e n t and f a c u l t y l e v e l . The C a l i f o r n i a S e l f - S t u d y u s e s the p h r a s e " w e do not know enough a b o u t w h a t we a r e d o i n g " . This need i s e c h o e d in a n u m b e r of the o t h e r r e p o r t s , o u r F r e n c h c o l l e a g u e s in p a r t i c u l a r u r g i n g t h a t t h e i n f o r m a t i o n be k e p t up to d a t e on a y e a r by y e a r b a s i s , so that t r e n d s through time m a y m o r e easily be studied. A l m o s t all o u r c o l l e a g u e s in a l l c o u n t r i e s c o m p l a i n e d a b o u t the d i f f i c u l t y in o b t a i n i n g r e l e v a n t data. S o m e t i m e s l i t t l e is known a b o u t the m o v e m e n t i n j a n d s t i l l l e s s a b o u t the m o v e m e n t out. 2) In s p i t e of the r i c h l i t e r a t u r e on e v a l u a t i o n of e x c h a n g e s , m u c h m o r e is n e e d e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y a t the i n t e r n a t i o n a l , c r o s s - c u l t u r a l l e v e l . Much could b e l e a r n e d by a s k i n g the s a m e o r s i m i l a r q u e s t i o n s in a n u m b e r of d i f f e r e n t e x c h a n g e s i t u a t i o n s . Such questions should e m p h a s i z e what suggestions a r e o f f e r e d by e x c h a n g e s t u d e n t s a n d s c h o l a r s t h e m s e l v e s r e g a r d i n g the w a y s in which t h e i r f o r e i g n s o j o u r n m i g h t b e i m p r o v e d . 3) P r e v i o u s r e s e a r c h h a s on the w h o l e c o n c e n t r a t e d on s t u d e n t s ; m o r e r e s e a r c h i s r e c o m m e n d e d a t the f a c u l t y l e v e l , in t e r m s b o t h of the i m m e d i a t e and the l o n g - t e r m c o n s e q u e n c e s of a f o r e i g n s o j o u r n . The study of the l o n g - t e r m i m p a c t , a n d t h e r e l a t i o n of the s o j o u r n a b r o a d to t h e whole c a r e e r - p a t t e r n s of the p a r t i c i p a n t s , a p p e a r to b e p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t . S p e c i a l

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i n t e r e s t h a s b e e n e x p r e s s e d in the i m p a c t of the f o r e i g n e x p e r i e n c e on r e s e a r c h training and l a t e r r e s e a r c h productivity. 4) A c o m p a r a t i v e study of those i n d i v i d u a l s , whether students o r faculty, who a r e e a g e r to go a b r o a d and those who a r e indiff e r e n t o r even h o s t i l e to the i d e a . 5) A c o m p a r i s o n of the e x p e r i e n c e of those who go a b r o a d with f e l l o w s h i p s of v a r i o u s kinds ( f r o m their own g o v e r n m e n t , that of the h o s t country, u n i v e r s i t i e s , p r i v a t e foundations, e t c . ) , and those who go "on their own" or a r e s e l f - s e l e c t e d . What d i f f e r e n c e s (or s i m i l a r i t i e s ) a r e t h e r e in m o t i v a t i o n s , the n a t u r e and extent of d i f f i c u l t i e s e n c o u n t e r e d , s u c c e s s or f a i l u r e in u n i v e r s i t y work, amount of contact with the h o s t population, etc. ? 6) A study of the mental health i m p l i c a t i o n s of the f o r e i g n s o j o u r n . This would include an a n a l y s i s of p e r s o n a l i t y p r o b l e m s , with p a r t i c u l a r e m p h a s i s on the " d e p r e s s i o n " in the U - c u r v e , a s well a s the o c c u r r e n c e of r e a c t i o n s s e v e r e enough to r e q u i r e outside help. The F r e n c h r e p o r t i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i n s i s t e n t on this point, and r e f e r s to i m p o r t a n t s t u d i e s in p r o g r e s s on p s y chological p r o b l e m s found a m o n g f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s . On the p o s i t i v e s i d e , attention s h o u l d be paid to p a r t i c u l a r l y s u c e s s f u l c a s e s of adaptation to the new environment, leading to a " d i f f e r e n t i a l d i a g n o s i s " of the f a c t o r s r e l a t e d to good or poor adaptation, r e s p e c t i v e l y . 7) A study of a c a d e m i c s u c c e s s and f a i l u r e a m o n g f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s . Is f a i l u r e in f a c t m o r e c o m m o n than a m o n g the g e n e r a l population of s t u d e n t s ? If it i s , c a n the c a u s e s be i d e n t i f i e d ? 8) A d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the i m p a c t on a u n i v e r s i t y of the p r e s e n c e of f o r e i g n students and faculty. 9) A c o m p a r a t i v e study of d i f f e r e n t kinds of exchange p r o g r a m s . Do they work better, under p r i v a t e a u s p i c e s than through g o v e r n ment a g e n c i e s ; when they a r e b i l a t e r a l , m u l t i l a t e r a l or " o m n i l a t e r a l " ; when a u n i v e r s i t y c r e a t e s its own e n c l a v e a b r o a d or i m m e r s e s i t s students in the l o c a l u n i v e r s i t y s y s t e m ? 10) A qualitative study of those students and s c h o l a r s who do not r e t u r n home a f t e r their f o r e i g n s o j o u r n . Much h a s b e e n s a i d and written about the " b r a i n - d r a i n " ; it i s often f o r g o t t e n that what i s l o s t by one country m a y r e p r e s e n t a gain f o r another, and in s o m e c a s e s even f o r humanity in g e n e r a l . Is t h e r e any

266

Conclusions

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i n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e flow of s c h o l a r s f r o m the d e v e l o p e d to the d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s to b a l a n c e the m o v e m e n t in t h e o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n ? Can we a r r i v e a t a n y a s s e s s m e n t of t h e g a i n s r e s u l t i n g f r o m the f r e e m i g r a t i o n of s c h o l a r s ? 1 1 ) A s t u d y of o p i n i o n s and a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s , a l s o c a r r i e d out i n t e r m s of i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o m p a r i s o n s . W h a t j u d g m e n t s r e g a r d i n g e x c h a n g e s a r e f o u n d a m o n g a) p r o f e s s o r s a n d o t h e r " k n o w l e d g e a b l e p e o p l e " , b) the l o c a l s t u d e n t s a n d c) t h e l o c a l p o p u l a t i o n i n the u n i v e r s i t y c i t y ? D o e s " r a c i s m " play a s i g n i f i c a n t role in such j u d g m e n t s ? We h a v e a l w a y s r e g a r d e d the p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n a s a f i r s t s t e p ; we c a n o n l y e x p r e s s t h e h o p e t h a t i t w i l l s o o n b e f o l l o w e d b y o t h e r s . T r u l y c r o s s - n a t i o n a l s t u d i e s of the i m p a c t of e x c h a n g e s h a v e b e e n a l l too r a r e . We a r e c o n v i n c e d t h a t t h e y c a n make a definite contribution.

A NOTE

ON

BIBLIOGRAPHY

This study is based p r i m a r i l y on the seven country reports, and as a consequence citations of specific previous publications have been kept to a minimum. The individual reports usually indicates the m a j o r sources of the data which they present. The text does, however, r e f e r occasionally to what the literature in general indicates with regard to the nature and consequences of international educational exchanges. Such literature is reviewed critically in the following publications, which also contain a representative bibliography. 1) Eide, I . , ( e d . ) , Students as links between cultures, Oslo, Universitetsforlaget, 1970. In particular, chapters by T. Marshall, "The strategy of international exchange", D. Breitenbach, "The evaluation of study abroad", and "Bibliography of studies on f o r e i g n students". 2) De Sola Pool, I. " E f f e c t s of cross-national contact on national and international i m a g e s " . In : Kelman, H. C. , ( e d . ) , Inte r national behavior, New York, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1965. 3) Klineberg, O. "International exchanges in education, science and culture", Social Sciences Information 4 (4), 1966, pp. 91-143. Publications mentioned in the text, as distinct f r o m those used only in the individual reports, include the following: A i c h , P . Farbige unter Weissen, Köln, Kiepenheuer and Witsch, 1962. — "The problems of coloured students in Germany", Social Sciences Information 1 (4), 1962, pp. 37-49. Du Bois, C . , " R e s e a r c h in cross-cultural education", News Bulletin of the Institute of International Education 28 (9), 1953 , pp. 5-8, 60-64. Glaser, W . A . ,tThe migration and return of professionals, Report by the Bureau of Applied Social Research, Columbia University, f o r U N I T A R , 1973 (unpublished). Kapur, R . L . , "Student wastage at Edinburgh university: factors related to failure and dropout", University Quarterly, Edinburgh, summer 1972, pp. 353-377. Klineberg, Ο. , and Ben Brika, J. , Etudiants du T i e r s - M o n d e en Europe, P a r i s , Mouton, 1972.

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K o t o b i , M . , P r o b l è m e s et a t t i t u d e s d e s é t u d i a n t s e n t r a n t à l ' u n i v e r s i t é dans un p a y s en voie de " d é v e l o p p e m e n t " : l e c a s de l ' I r a n , U n p u b l i s h e d d i s s e r t a t i o n , P a r i s , 1974. L y s g a a r d , S . , " A d j u s t m e n t in a f o r e i g n s o c i e t y : N o r w e g i a n F u l b r i g h t g r a n t e e s v i s i t i n g the United S t a t e s " , Int. S o c . S c i . B u l l e t i n 7 (1), 1955, pp. 4 5 - 5 1 . S t a t i s t i s c h e s J a h r b u c h f ü r die B u n d e s r e p u b l i k , U n e s c o , S t a t i s t i c s of students a b r o a d . 1971.

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APPENDIX Since the national reports included in this volume consist only of summaries, the full addresses of all the participating i n v e s tigators are listed below. Interested readers are invited to write to them if they wish m o r e detailed information, as w e l l as bibliographical sources of the data.

GERMAN FEDERAL REPUBLIC M r . Heine von Alemann Institute f o r Applied Social R e s e a r c h University of Cologne 5 Köln 41 Greinstrasse 2 FRANCE P r o f e s s o r J. P o i r i e r Université de Nice I.D.E.R.I.C. 31 et 34 rue Verdi 06000 N i c e INDIA P r o f e s s o r H. C. Ganguli Department of Psychology University of Delhi Delhi-7 JAPAN P r o f e s s o r K . Someya D i r e c t o r of A c a d e m i c A f f a i r s Waseda University 1-647 Totsuka-mach 1-Chôme Shinjuku-ku Tokyo 160 UNITED KINGDOM M r . J. Piatt The Central Bureau f o r Educational Visits and Exchanges 43 Dorset Street London W1H SFN

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UNITED STATES D r . W. H. A l l a w a y Education A b r o a d P r o g r a m U n i v e r s i t y of California Santa B a r b a r a C a l i f o r n i a 93106 YUGOSLAVIA P r o f e s s o r V. Serdar D i r e c t o r , Institute f o r Social R e s e a r c h U n i v e r s i t y of Z a g r e b Jezuitski t r g 4 Zagreb