Intercultural Competence for College and University Students: A Global Guide for Employability and Social Change [1 ed.] 9783030574451, 9783030574468

Table of contents :
Preface
Contents
About the Authors
Abbreviations
List of Figures
List of Tables
List of Boxes
List of Thought Boxes
1 What Is Intercultural Competence and Why Do We Need It?
Diversity: Why Is It so Important?
Diversity: How Is It Valuable?
Inequalities: Why Worry About Them?
Cultural Conflicts: How Are They Related to Intercultural Competence?
Intercultural Competence: What if I Think I Already Am Interculturally Competent?
“I’ve Lived Abroad”
“I’ve Travelled Extensively”
“I’ve Studied Foreign Languages”
“I am From a Bi- or Multicultural Background”
“I am a Minority Group Member”
“I’m Already Open Minded and Don’t Hold Stereotypes and Prejudices”
“I Have Friends From Other Cultures”
Contents: What Is in This Book?
Uses: How Might This Book Be Helpful?
References
2 What Is Culture?
Culture: How Is It Defined?
Levels of Culture: How Do I Know if It Is Deep or Shallow?
Deep Culture: What Are the Common Values?
Context: High Versus Low
Identity: Individualism Versus Collectivism
Holding Power: Small Versus Large Distance
Uncertainty Avoidance: Risk Taker Versus Risk Avoider
Gender Roles: Masculinity Versus Femininity
Time Orientation: Long-Term Versus Short-Term
Freedom: Indulgence Versus Restraint
Can These Broad Categories Really Help Us to Understand Cultural Values?
Identity: What Are My Cultural Values?
Identity: How Is It Personal Versus Social?
References
3 How Do We React to Cultural Difference?
Prejudice: What Is It?
Stereotypes: How Do We Group Individuals?
Why Do We Stereotype?
Can Stereotypes Ever Be Useful?
Emotions: How Do We Feel About People?
Behaviors: How Do We Discriminate by Treating Others Differently?
Sexism
Racism
Other “-isms”
Prejudices: Why Do We Develop Them?
Conformity to Norms
Social Identity Theory
Power and Privilege
Blaming the Victim
Realistic Group Conflict Theory and Other Explanations
Reducing Prejudice: How Do We Do It?
References
4 How Do We Define Intercultural Competence?
Terminology: What’s in a Term?
Building Blocks: How Do We Define and Explain Intercultural Competence?
Equality, Diversity, and Inclusion: How Are They Incorporated into Intercultural Competence?
Interactions: How Is Intercultural Understanding Achieved?
Development: What Are the Important Milestones in Developing Intercultural Competence?
Denial
Defense
Minimization
Acceptance
Adaptation
Integration
How Is the Developmental Process Relevant to Attitudes, Knowledge, and Skills?
Context: How Will Those Around Me Influence My Development?
Exceptions to the Rule: What Are My Limits?
Intercultural Recognition: How Do I Know if It Is an Intercultural Interaction?
Prioritization: Which Competencies Are Most Important?
Evaluation: How Do I Know How Interculturally Competent I Am?
Action Planning: How Can I Identify Steps to Enhance My Intercultural Competence?
Culturally Distinct Models of Intercultural Competence: Are There Other Ways to Look at This?
References
5 How Can We Develop Intercultural Competence While at College or University?
Developing Intercultural Competence at College/University: Where Do I Begin?
Initiatives Fostering the Development of Intercultural Competence: What Are They?
Internationalization: How Are Colleges and Universities Internationalizing?
Study or Work Abroad
Domestic and International Student Integration
Culture-Related Clubs and Societies
Intercultural Courses/Training for Students
Training for Staff/Intercultural Courses
Equality, Diversity, and Inclusion: How Are Universities Ensuring Equality and Inclusion and Promoting Diversity?
The Same or Different: What Are the Synergies Between Equality, Diversity, and Inclusion and Internationalization?
Off Campus: What Are the Opportunities?
Other Possibilities: How Else Might Intercultural Competence Be Developed?
Learning a Foreign Language: How Can It Help?
Intercultural (Global) Citizenship and Education for Democratic Citizenship: How Are They Related to Intercultural Competence?
References
6 What Are Critical Incidents and How Can We Get the Most Out of Them?
Critical Incidents: How Do I Identify Them?
Critical Incidents: How Can I Learn from Them?
Sample Analysis of a Critical Incident
Making Lemonade Out of Lemons: How Do I Turn Negatives into Positives?
Mediating Misunderstandings: What Are Common Misunderstandings and How Can I be an Intercultural Mediator?
Competencies for Critical Incidents: Which Are the Most Important?
Critical Cultural Self-awareness
Critical Thinking
Empathy
References
7 What Are the Links Between Intercultural Competence and Career Development?
Intercultural Competence and Careers: Do Cultural Differences Really Matter?
Equality, Diversity, Inclusion: What Changes are Organizations Making?
Intercultural Competence and Employability: How Can I Use IC to Enhance My Career Prospects?
Adjusting Your Job Search
Researching Organizations
Identifying Competencies
Resume Considerations
Preparing for Interviews
Getting Career Advice
References
8 How Can We All Be Intercultural Leaders?
Using Intercultural Competence to Create Change: How Do I Go About Doing It?
Intercultural Leadership: What Does It Mean?
Intercultural Leaders: How Do I Become One?
Debunking Myths: Aren’t Leaders just Born?
Towards Social Change in Organizations and the Wider World: What Is Organizational Cultural Competence?
Towards Social Change in Organizations and the Wider World: What Is Corporate Social Responsibility?
No Conclusion: Instead, What Is Your Plan for the Intercultural Adventure?
References
Appendix A Intercultural Competence Self-assessment
Appendix B Intercultural Action Plan
Appendix C Intercultural Citizenship Self-assessment
Appendix D Critical Incident Analysis
Index

Citation preview

Caprice Lantz-Deaton Irina Golubeva

Intercultural Competence for College and University Students A Global Guide for Employability and Social Change

Intercultural Competence for College and University Students

Caprice Lantz-Deaton Irina Golubeva •

Intercultural Competence for College and University Students A Global Guide for Employability and Social Change

123

Caprice Lantz-Deaton Asheville, NC, USA

Irina Golubeva Department of Modern Languages, Linguistics, and Intercultural Communication University of Maryland, Baltimore County Baltimore, MD, USA

ISBN 978-3-030-57445-1 ISBN 978-3-030-57446-8 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57446-8

(eBook)

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Cover illustration: © Caprice Lantz-Deaton This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

For our main supporters and motivating forces: Caprice’s family: husband Rob; children Julian, Jade, and Drake, and mother, Bridget. Irina’s family: parents Ludmila and Valentin, husband Norbert, children Petra and Daniel, and brother Vladimir. And from both authors: all of our students (past and future).

Preface

This book is a practical guide focusing upon the topic of intercultural competence which is a collection of values, knowledge, skills, and attitudes sorely needed in our increasingly globalized world. It is aimed at college and university students as we see them as instruments through which the world might be changed for the better. This book addresses and links together three topics that we believe to be extremely important yet treated relatively separately in the current literature: first, the topic of increasing the potential for peace and positive relationships between people from different cultures; second, that of helping students to see how intercultural competence can not only help them to facilitate positive change in the world but how it can support them in terms of employability and career success; and third, how intercultural competence links not just to communicating effectively across cultures but to addressing issues of equality, diversity, and inclusion worldwide. This book begins by arguing why intercultural competence is needed. Next, it defines culture and helps readers to understand that culture is far more complex than race or ethnicity. It then moves on to discuss the major blocks to developing intercultural competence, as we see them. Next it explores the term intercultural competence suggesting its developmental nature and dependence on context and motivation. The following chapters explore how students can develop intercultural competence at college or university, how intercultural competence can support job search and career success, and how all students have the capability to become intercultural leaders in large or small ways. A chapter on critical incidents helps students to learn to analyze their intercultural experiences to make the most of their learning. The publication of this book is taking place while we are experiencing a global pandemic, COVID-19. While we have included some discussion and examples related to this health crisis, the story of how it is being handled in the context of culture is still unfolding. Our hope is that it reflects positively on humanity. In addition, the murder of George Floyd by a Minneapolis police officer in May of 2020 has sparked protests across the USA and around the world. It is now being said that “a pandemic of racism” has led to not only his death but the ongoing persecution of black citizens nationwide. Although this book has a more academic vii

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approach and addresses topics such as employability, make no mistake, it is intimately linked to fighting racism around the world. Being aimed at college and university students, this book can be used by them independently (for self-development) or can be adopted as a textbook for courses or online modules. Although it is based on a solid theoretical framework and informed by research findings, it can also serve as an introduction to the topic of intercultural competence for a layperson. This book is not discipline specific and may be of interest to anyone with the goal of learning more about the topic, and thus, it is our hope that it will be used more widely to support learning across various disciplines and by audiences beyond further and higher education. Furthermore, it is designed to be a global guide—which is a lofty goal and to some extent impossible. We would like to make it clear to our readers that this book reflects the authors’ Westernized bias, although we have done what we can to mitigate this by using examples from cultures around the world where possible. The process of collaborative writing which drew on the authors’ combined backgrounds living and working in the USA, UK, Japan, Hungary, Russia, and Spain has been an exciting intercultural learning experience for both. We would like to thank our students for feedback, Kirsty Lee for her contribution of references and feedback, Deborah Gilbert for editorial support, and Ivett Guntersdorfer for her valuable feedback. Asheville, USA Baltimore, USA

Caprice Lantz-Deaton Irina Golubeva

Contents

1 What Is Intercultural Competence and Why Do We Need It? . . . Diversity: Why Is It so Important? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Diversity: How Is It Valuable? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Inequalities: Why Worry About Them? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cultural Conflicts: How Are They Related to Intercultural Competence? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Intercultural Competence: What if I Think I Already Am Interculturally Competent? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “I’ve Lived Abroad” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “I’ve Travelled Extensively” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “I’ve Studied Foreign Languages” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “I am From a Bi- or Multicultural Background” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “I am a Minority Group Member” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “I’m Already Open Minded and Don’t Hold Stereotypes and Prejudices” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “I Have Friends From Other Cultures” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Contents: What Is in This Book? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Uses: How Might This Book Be Helpful? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 What Is Culture? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Culture: How Is It Defined? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Levels of Culture: How Do I Know if It Is Deep or Shallow? . Deep Culture: What Are the Common Values? . . . . . . . . . . . . Context: High Versus Low . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Identity: Individualism Versus Collectivism . . . . . . . . . . . . Holding Power: Small Versus Large Distance . . . . . . . . . . . Uncertainty Avoidance: Risk Taker Versus Risk Avoider . . Gender Roles: Masculinity Versus Femininity . . . . . . . . . . . Time Orientation: Long-Term Versus Short-Term . . . . . . . .

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Freedom: Indulgence Versus Restraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Can These Broad Categories Really Help Us to Understand Cultural Values? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Identity: What Are My Cultural Values? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Identity: How Is It Personal Versus Social? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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3 How Do We React to Cultural Difference? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Prejudice: What Is It? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Stereotypes: How Do We Group Individuals? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Why Do We Stereotype? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Can Stereotypes Ever Be Useful? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Emotions: How Do We Feel About People? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Behaviors: How Do We Discriminate by Treating Others Differently? . . . 75 Sexism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 Racism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Other “-isms” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Prejudices: Why Do We Develop Them? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Conformity to Norms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Social Identity Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Power and Privilege . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Blaming the Victim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 Realistic Group Conflict Theory and Other Explanations . . . . . . . . . . 96 Reducing Prejudice: How Do We Do It? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 4 How Do We Define Intercultural Competence? . . . . . . . . . . . . Terminology: What’s in a Term? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Building Blocks: How Do We Define and Explain Intercultural Competence? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Equality, Diversity, and Inclusion: How Are They Incorporated into Intercultural Competence? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Interactions: How Is Intercultural Understanding Achieved? . . . . . Development: What Are the Important Milestones in Developing Intercultural Competence? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Denial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Defense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Minimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Acceptance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Adaptation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . How Is the Developmental Process Relevant to Attitudes, Knowledge, and Skills? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Context: How Will Those Around Me Influence My Development?

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Contents

Exceptions to the Rule: What Are My Limits? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Intercultural Recognition: How Do I Know if It Is an Intercultural Interaction? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Prioritization: Which Competencies Are Most Important? . . . . . . . . Evaluation: How Do I Know How Interculturally Competent I Am? Action Planning: How Can I Identify Steps to Enhance My Intercultural Competence? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Culturally Distinct Models of Intercultural Competence: Are There Other Ways to Look at This? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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5 How Can We Develop Intercultural Competence While at College or University? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Developing Intercultural Competence at College/University: Where Do I Begin? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Initiatives Fostering the Development of Intercultural Competence: What Are They? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Internationalization: How Are Colleges and Universities Internationalizing? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Study or Work Abroad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Domestic and International Student Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Culture-Related Clubs and Societies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Intercultural Courses/Training for Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Training for Staff/Intercultural Courses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Equality, Diversity, and Inclusion: How Are Universities Ensuring Equality and Inclusion and Promoting Diversity? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Same or Different: What Are the Synergies Between Equality, Diversity, and Inclusion and Internationalization? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Off Campus: What Are the Opportunities? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Other Possibilities: How Else Might Intercultural Competence Be Developed? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Learning a Foreign Language: How Can It Help? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Intercultural (Global) Citizenship and Education for Democratic Citizenship: How Are They Related to Intercultural Competence? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 What Are Critical Incidents and How Can We Get the Most Out of Them? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Critical Incidents: How Do I Identify Them? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Critical Incidents: How Can I Learn from Them? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sample Analysis of a Critical Incident . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Making Lemonade Out of Lemons: How Do I Turn Negatives into Positives? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Mediating Misunderstandings: What Are Common Misunderstandings and How Can I be an Intercultural Mediator? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Competencies for Critical Incidents: Which Are the Most Important? . Critical Cultural Self-awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Critical Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Empathy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 What Are the Links Between Intercultural Competence and Career Development? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Intercultural Competence and Careers: Do Cultural Differences Really Matter? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Equality, Diversity, Inclusion: What Changes are Organizations Making? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Intercultural Competence and Employability: How Can I Use IC to Enhance My Career Prospects? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Adjusting Your Job Search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Researching Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Identifying Competencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Resume Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Preparing for Interviews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Getting Career Advice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 How Can We All Be Intercultural Leaders? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Using Intercultural Competence to Create Change: How Do I Go About Doing It? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Intercultural Leadership: What Does It Mean? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Intercultural Leaders: How Do I Become One? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Debunking Myths: Aren’t Leaders just Born? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Towards Social Change in Organizations and the Wider World: What Is Organizational Cultural Competence? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Towards Social Change in Organizations and the Wider World: What Is Corporate Social Responsibility? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . No Conclusion: Instead, What Is Your Plan for the Intercultural Adventure? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Appendix A: Intercultural Competence Self-assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 Appendix B: Intercultural Action Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 Appendix C: Intercultural Citizenship Self-assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 Appendix D: Critical Incident Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291

About the Authors

Caprice Lantz-Deaton, Ph.D., is former Lecturer in psychology and equality, diversity, and inclusion at the University of Bradford, UK. She specializes in the development of intercultural competence in university students in relation to equality, diversity, and inclusion and the cultivation of skills for employability and intercultural citizenship. Irina Golubeva, Ph.D., is Associate Professor of intercultural communication at the University of Maryland Baltimore County, USA, and Co-Director of the Intercultural Leadership Certificate Program. She specializes in the development of multilingual awareness and intercultural competence, internationalization of higher education, and intercultural citizenship education.

xiii

Abbreviations

BBBS CDC CEO CI CIT CSR CV DMIM DMIS EDI EU FGM GCSE GLOBE HEIs HRD IaH IC IDI IDV IEREST IES Abroad IL INCA IND INZ LGBTQ LTO/STO

Big Brothers and Big Sisters (USA) Competences for Democratic Culture Chief Executive Officer Critical Incident Critical Incident Technique Corporate Social Responsibility Curriculum Vitae (Resume) Developmental Model of Intercultural Maturity Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity Equality, Diversity and Inclusion European Union Female Genital Mutilation General Certificate of Secondary Education Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness (Project) Higher Education Institutions Human Resources Director Internationalization at Home Intercultural Competence Intercultural Development Inventory® Individualism Versus Collectivism (Cultural Dimension) Intercultural Education Resources for Erasmus Students and their Teachers (Project) International Education of Students Abroad Intercultural Leadership Intercultural Competence Assessment (Project) Indulgence versus Restraint (Cultural Dimension) Internationalization Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer/Questioning Long-Term Versus Short-Term Orientation (Cultural Dimension)

xv

xvi

MAS NGO NSS OCC OHE ORB PDA PDI RFCDC UAI UMBC UN UNESCO

Abbreviations

Masculinity Versus Femininity (Cultural Dimension) Non-governmental Organization National Student Survey Organizational Cultural Competence Outgroup Homogeneity Effect Own-Race Bias Pregnancy Discrimination Act Power Distance Index (Cultural Dimension) Reference Framework of Competences for Democratic Culture Uncertainty Avoidance Index (Cultural Dimension) University of Maryland Baltimore County United Nations United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation

List of Figures

Fig. 4.1 Fig. 4.2 Fig. 5.1

Fig. 6.1

Byram’s model of intercultural competence (Adapted from Byram 1997, p. 34 with permission). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Developmental model of intercultural sensitivity (Adapted from Bennett 1986a, p. 182 with permission) . . . . . . Competences for Democratic Culture. Source Council of Europe (2018): Volume 1, p. 38. Reproduced with permission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gibbs’ reflective cycle. (Adapted from Gibbs (1988) with permission. The Gibbs eBook is available to download from the Oxford Centre for Staff and Learning Development, Oxford Brookes University at http://www.brookes.ac.uk/ocsld/ publications/) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . 119 . . 121

. . 188

. . 203

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List of Tables

Table Table Table Table Table

4.1 4.2 4.3 6.1 6.2

Table 6.3

Table 6.4

Example competencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stages and forms of the DMIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Example Intercultural Action Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Learning from critical incidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Critical incident example # 1: A teacher self-identified as a first-generation Latino-immigrant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Critical incident example # 2: A graduate student born in the US and raised in France with experience of living and working in the US and other countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Critical incident example # 3: A US American undergraduate student during her study abroad in Uruguay . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . .

. . . .

118 124 150 204

. . 206

. . 207 . . 208

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List of Boxes

Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box

1.1 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 3.1 3.2 4.1 5.1 5.2 5.3

Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box

5.4 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8

Travelling abroad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Individualism versus collectivism orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Power distance orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Uncertainty avoidance orientation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ruth’s story . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Identity salience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “I can’t breathe” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Power and privilege inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Thoughts from international and domestic students . . . . . . . . . A student work experience abroad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Getting the most from your study abroad experiences . . . . . . . Recommendations for enhancing faculty, staff, university leadership engagement in internationalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soft skills in foreign language speaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A critical incident in student accommodation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A critical incident comparing life experiences . . . . . . . . . . . . . Critical incidents dividing students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . First day on campus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . What I learned from my Muslim student . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Caprice’s recipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Irina’s recipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A selection of equality legislation from around the world . . . . Charta der Vielfalt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Job search in the UK versus US . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Applying for a job in Hungary versus the US . . . . . . . . . . . . . Culturally competent resume (CV) checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Possible culture related interview questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Comparing interviewing in the US, UK and Japan. . . . . . . . . . Culturally competent interview checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .

. 12 . 39 . 41 . 42 . 54 . 55 . 83 . 93 . 136 . 163 . 166

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

177 185 200 200 201 209 210 211 212 230 232 234 235 240 243 247 247

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List of Thought Boxes

Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought

Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box

2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14 2.15 2.16 2.17 2.18 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13

Defining culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Objective and subjective culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Comparing and contrasting definitions of culture . . . Implicit and explicit norms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cultural differences in nonverbal behavior . . . . . . . . Cultural identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . High versus low context scenario I . . . . . . . . . . . . . High versus low context scenario II . . . . . . . . . . . . . Individualism and group work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Power distance scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Uncertainty avoidance scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Masculine versus feminine scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . Long-term versus short-term orientation . . . . . . . . . . Indulgence versus restraint scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . Understanding your values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Your personal identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Your social identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Analyzing your social identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Identifying discrimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reflections on stereotypes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Family and surgery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Positive stereotypes of women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Why do we stereotype? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Is there a positive side of stereotypes? . . . . . . . . . . . The strength of prejudice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Your prejudices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Implicit prejudices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Implicit or explicit prejudice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Horizontal segregation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vertical segregation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gender roles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

26 28 29 30 32 34 36 37 40 41 43 45 46 47 50 51 52 55 64 65 66 66 67 69 71 72 74 75 77 78 80 xxiii

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Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought

List of Thought Boxes

Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box

3.14 3.15 3.16 3.17 3.18 3.19 3.20 3.21 3.22 3.23 3.24 3.25 3.26 3.27 3.28 3.29 3.30 3.31 3.32 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 4.17 4.18 4.19 4.20 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5

Shared parental leave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Declining racism? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Black lives matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Weight discrimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Can we stop discriminating? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Social norms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Changing the norm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ingroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Outgroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Outgroup acceptance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Power and privilege reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Blaming the victim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Group conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Other explanations of prejudice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Making contact. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Segregation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Student equality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Support from authority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Group work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Intercultural competence and other terms . . . . . . . . . Knowledge, skills, and attitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Critical cultural (self-)awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ethnocentrism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Intercultural sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Denial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Defense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Minimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Acceptance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Adaptation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Adapting to cultural differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Contextual challenges to adaptation . . . . . . . . . . . . . Facing discomfort. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . When ethnorelativism is inappropriate . . . . . . . . . . . Unacceptable cultural practices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Unacceptable political views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Defining an intercultural interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cultural distance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Recognizing cultural distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Diversity at my institution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Internationalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Equality, diversity, and inclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Internationalization initiatives in your institution . . . Study or work abroad experiences . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

81 82 84 85 87 88 88 90 91 92 94 95 96 97 98 99 101 102 103 113 115 120 122 123 125 126 127 129 130 131 133 135 137 138 138 139 142 143 144 159 160 160 162 169

List of Thought Boxes

Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought

Box Box Box Box Box Box Box

5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12

Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought

Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box

5.13 5.14 5.15 5.16 5.17 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6

Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought Thought

Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box

7.7 7.8 7.9 7.10 7.11 7.12 7.13 7.14 8.1 8.2

Thought Box 8.3 Thought Box 8.4 Thought Box 8.5 Thought Box 8.6 Thought Box 8.7

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Integration of domestic and international students . . Clubs and societies supporting or hindering IC . . . . Expanding monocultural clubs and societies . . . . . . International student societies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IC training and courses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cultural sensitivity of staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Equality, diversity, and inclusion at your institution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Breaking down stereotypes through the media . . . . . Speaking foreign languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Using other languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Seeing yourself as a citizen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Competencies for intercultural citizenship . . . . . . . . My critical incident . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reinforcing the negative. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The power of intercultural mediation . . . . . . . . . . . . Feelings during critical incidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Questioning yourself . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Thinking critically . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Putting yourself in another person’s shoes . . . . . . . . Culture and your job search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Diversity in your country . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Diversity issues for local organizations . . . . . . . . . . Segregation in local organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Comparing equality legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reflecting on the corporate charter of diversity for germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Job search in other countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Researching organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Are organizations recruiting for diversity? . . . . . . . . Intercultural competence on your resume . . . . . . . . . Making your resume or CV culturally appropriate . . Answering interview questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Answering an intercultural interview question . . . . . Your experience with cultural difference . . . . . . . . . How do I perceive myself in leadership terms? . . . . Stereotypical characteristics of leaders in your culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Characteristics of a ‘good leader’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Becoming an intercultural leader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Analyzing your intercultural leadership capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Defining intercultural leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Distinguishing between IC and IL . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

171 172 172 173 175 176

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

180 183 184 186 187 189 199 202 214 216 217 218 220 224 225 227 228 231

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

233 236 236 237 238 243 245 245 246 254

. . 256 . . 258 . . 260 . . 261 . . 264 . . 265

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Thought Box 8.8 Thought Box 8.9 Thought Box 8.10 Thought Box 8.11 Thought Box 8.12

List of Thought Boxes

Envisioning yourself as an intercultural leader . . . . . Envisioning your career trajectory as an intercultural leader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Culturally competent organizational practices . . . . . . Improving organizational cultural competence . . . . . Planning your intercultural journey . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . 267 . . . .

. . . .

268 272 273 276

Chapter 1

What Is Intercultural Competence and Why Do We Need It?

‘Our very survival has never required greater co-operation and understanding among all people from all places than at this moment in history … when we open our hearts and our minds to those who may not think like we do or believe what we do—that’s when we discover at least the possibility of common ground.’—Barack Obama, former President of the USA.

This chapter introduces you to the concept of intercultural competence and provides a rationale for why it is important to you personally and professionally as a future graduate. It addresses why intercultural competence is important for employability as well as why it is important for more humanistic goals such as the reduction of inequalities and the promotion of peace. This chapter invites you to consider the extent to which you believe yourself to be interculturally competent already. Further, it outlines why even if you are highly educated, have friends from other cultures, have lived abroad, have travelled extensively, are from a bi/multicultural or minority background, speak foreign languages, or simply believe yourself to be open and accepting of others, you may not be as interculturally competent as you think. Learning outcomes: By reading this chapter and completing the tasks you will be able to: • • • •

Recognize the basic components of intercultural competence; Describe why intercultural competence is an important graduate attribute; Contrast the ways in which diversity is both valuable and challenging; Explain how stereotyping, prejudice and discrimination are fundamentally related to intercultural competence; • Describe the relationship between intercultural competence and equality, diversity, and inclusion initiatives; • Identify the ways in which intercultural competence is relevant to resolving conflicts that we see in the workplace and around the world; • Recognize the ways in which individuals might overestimate their intercultural competence; © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 C. Lantz-Deaton and I. Golubeva, Intercultural Competence for College and University Students, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57446-8_1

1

2

1 What Is Intercultural Competence and Why Do We Need It?

• List the topics addressed within this book; • Describe how to use this book in college and university settings. Ask employers today what skills they look for in college and university graduates and they typically mention skills such as software proficiency, problem solving, the ability to learn independently and the ability to get along and communicate with others. According to the World Economic Forum Report: The Future of Jobs, social skills, or the ability to work with others effectively, is set to become the most in demand employee skill in the world (World Economic Forum 2018). Part of the reason for this is that the ability to get along and communicate with others has become more complex in recent years because societies today are increasingly diverse both domestically and internationally. Today, employers seek not just graduates with good interpersonal skills but with skills which allow them to interact positively with those from highly diverse backgrounds (see British Council 2013; Messelink et al. 2015; Smith 2018). Broadly known as intercultural competence (IC), this attribute involves not only awareness of cultural differences and certain values but a vast collection of attitudes, knowledge and skills that support individuals in interacting in positive ways with those who are different from themselves (Barrett 2013). You might think this is simple and straight forward. Or maybe you are not sure what it means. To help you think about IC more deeply, let’s consider a few scenarios: 1. Andres, a student attending university in his home country of Cyprus, is in a conversation with some of his Cypriot friends. One of them begins talking about how international students are strange because they always stick together and don’t socialize with the local students. Andres, who is friends with a few international students, laughs and agrees although in truth he likes international students and thinks Cypriot students might be part of the problem. 2. A Jewish colleague is offended when a fellow employee wishes him a “Merry Christmas” before breaking up for the December holidays. She wonders why her colleague doesn’t realize that being an openly religious person of the Jewish faith, she doesn’t celebrate Christmas. 3. University students are assigned a group project. The group includes four domestic students and one international student. As the group works together, the international student often finds himself left out of group discussions with his suggestions ignored. As he feels more and more excluded, he stops participating and eventually stops coming. 4. A British business executive is visiting Italy to make a deal with Italian colleagues. Every meeting seems to start 15–30 min late with everyone arriving at different times. He becomes annoyed and terminates negotiations believing that these colleagues cannot be relied upon to work with in the long term. 5. Although not aware of it, a white interviewer uses more negative verbal and nonverbal signals with a black interviewee and ends the interview much sooner than interviews with white interviewees. She discounts the black candidate as a viable choice because she views the candidate’s interview performance as far inferior to that of white candidates.

1 What Is Intercultural Competence and Why Do We Need It?

3

6. A manager at work is organizing a group of people to take some new client’s out for drinks, she does not ask one employee on the grounds he would not want to attend as he does not drink and would not feel comfortable in a pub environment. However, this means that he does not have the same opportunities as other employees to meet the new clients and build up contacts. While perhaps not evident to you now, the situations listed above all relate to IC in different ways. These examples raise issues in relation to cultural insensitivity, stereotyping, overt and covert prejudice, unconscious bias, and discrimination. You may view some of these examples as issues of political correctness. In some of the examples, you may think that people are being overly sensitive. But issues such as these impact people’s relationships and must be considered in order to develop positive and constructive relationships in the workplace and beyond. These scenarios raise questions to which there are not always clear and concise answers. For example: • What should you do when you feel you or your culture has been insulted? • How can you avoid insulting others’ cultures? • Why do some groups exclude certain individuals? How might group members be more inclusive? • Why do we have difficulties when the norms of other cultures are different from our own? • How can we more effectively recognize and address cultural differences in constructive ways? • How might your unconscious mind be influencing your interactions with others? • How might your treatment of others be violating laws and ethical codes? • What stereotypes do you have about those around you? • How can you avoid the pitfalls of stereotyping and treat people as individuals? • What prejudices (overt or covert) might you hold against others? • How can you overcome your biases and create positive relationships with others who are different from yourself? • In what ways might you be (overtly or covertly; consciously or unconsciously) discriminating against others? How can you overcome discriminatory behavior and treat people equally and with dignity and respect? • What can you do when you see others being treated unfairly? How can you encourage others to behave in more interculturally competent ways? If the answers to these questions are not evident to you, you are in good company because most people will probably not have thought deeply about such issues. However, becoming interculturally competent means becoming better able to address such questions. This guide will help you to do that, so you can develop your own intercultural competence and support the development of IC in others as well. IC is something that has been noted as highly valuable in the workplace but also valuable across societies for at least four main reasons. • First, our increasing contact with people from highly diverse backgrounds makes IC a high priority in order for us to live and work with people peacefully and productively.

4

1 What Is Intercultural Competence and Why Do We Need It?

• Second, IC is needed to help us to gain a true understanding of the value of diversity to our personal and professional lives. • Third, with the passage of laws focusing on the reduction of inequalities, IC is needed to recognize unfair practices and ensure the equal treatment of people from diverse backgrounds. • Finally, IC is needed to reduce the cultural conflicts that continue to impact us worldwide and result in outbursts of violence and abuse, or even terrorism and war. The following sections explore each of these topics and help to illustrate the importance of IC in today’s societies.

Diversity: Why Is It so Important? One of the world’s worst natural disasters occurred in 1994 when a tsunami swept across fifteen countries killing more than one million people and leaving another two million homeless. Fifteen nations and international agencies including the World Bank, Asian Development Bank and the European Commission were involved in efforts to help the countries impacted to recover (Shaw 2015). This is just one example of an effort involving thousands of people from a variety of different countries and cultures who came together to address an international disaster; but it is not unique. Working across national borders has become commonplace due in part to globalization. Globalization is commonly thought to be defined by the advances in transportation and technology which have led to the regular flow of information, products, services and people across borders (for an overview see Scholte 2005). Today we see more political connections than ever before with entities such as the European Union and the United Nations, which were formed specifically to address international concerns such as natural disasters, terrorism and climate change which impact citizens worldwide (Baylis et al. 2017; Hill et al. 2017; Shaw 2015). Beyond governmental connections and interactions, however, we also see an increase in international businesses, partnerships, and trade (Cramer 2006; Praet 2015). Coca-Cola corporation, for example, is a worldwide operation which runs facilities on six continents. Although primarily locals may be hired for facilities in different countries, the success of such companies depends upon the cooperation of individuals and teams working across national borders. Working across borders can be difficult with misunderstandings between people from different countries leading to substantial losses in business profits. For example, eBay launched online auctioning in China in 2004 spending $100 million on advertising. However, by 2006 eBay had withdrawn from this market. Part of the reason for this was due to eBay’s lack of cultural understanding. In particular, they employed senior managers from outside of China who could not speak Mandarin or understand the local market and customs, preferring to stick with their “global platform” rather than adapting it to the preferences of Chinese customers (Wang 2010).

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While globalization has increased the need to work effectively with people across national borders, it has also brought about increases in domestic diversity. Although people have immigrated throughout history leading to greater diversity in many countries, more people are immigrating today than in previous years with the number of people classed as immigrants worldwide growing from 173 million in 2000 to 258 million in 2017 (United Nations 2019). Because of trends in immigration, in many countries today, encountering people from different cultures is no longer exotic but an everyday occurrence (Dikec 2004; Fominaya 2014). Immigration has advanced for a variety of reasons (see Massey et al. 1993). Worldwide communication technologies make it easier for people to learn about the quality of life in other societies. If opportunities are viewed as better elsewhere, they may serve as factors which “pull” individuals to immigrate to enhance work, educational, or other opportunities. However, individuals may also be “pushed” to immigrate to escape war, persecution, or poverty. Advances in transportation, making travel quicker, easier and more affordable (Hovhannisyan and Keller 2014; Zander et al. 2014), have also facilitated this movement which is evident in business as well as education. For example, the number of students studying at college or university outside their home countries has more than doubled from 2 million in 2000 to 4.8 million in 2018 (Migration Data Portal 2018). While some may return to their home countries, others remain in countries where companies are interested in hiring highly skilled graduates (Migration Data Portal 2018). These trends, described by Massey and others (1993), have led many countries to become highly diverse, multiethnic societies (Massey et al. 1993). For example, the number of usual UK residents who were born in other countries grew from 9 to 13% of the total population in England and Wales between 2001 and 2011 (Office for National Statistics 2012), while between 1991 and 2011 the proportion of the population in England and Wales identified as having an ethnic background doubled from 7 to 14% (Jivraj 2012). Some countries have even more diversity. In Cyprus, for example, more than 30% of the workforce are EU or third country nationals (Trimikliniotis and Demetriou 2011). Some have written about the implications of super-diversity, that is “the notion intended to highlight a level and kind of complexity surpassing anything countries have previously experienced” (Vertovec 2007, p. 1024). Without question, a globalized world made up of increasingly diverse cities and communities requires graduates with intercultural competence; that is, graduates who can live alongside and work effectively and appropriately with colleagues, clients, neighbors and community members from highly diverse national and international backgrounds, whether in their home countries or whilst living and working abroad.

Diversity: How Is It Valuable? As diversity has increased across many countries, there is an increasing recognition of both the value of diversity as well as the difficulties that it can bring. In terms of how it can be valuable, meeting those from different backgrounds can be personally

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enriching. Learning other practices or cultural perspectives can broaden our understanding of the world and appreciation of doing things differently and can enhance our critical thinking skills. It may be something as simple as trying a new food or learning about a different cultural practice, or it could be more complex such as appreciating that what one person values might be quite different from another but that both perspectives are equally valid and can co-exist peacefully. Some people, for instance, tend to be more individualistic; that is, they tend to define themselves in terms of their unique attributes and value independence and promoting their own welfare. Alternatively, some people tend to be more collectivist; that is, they define themselves in terms of their group memberships and value social interdependence and relational obligation (Hofstede 1984, 2010). Neither individualism nor collectivism (terms we will explore in later chapters) is right or wrong—they are just different approaches for how people live in the world. While individually valuing diversity can be enriching, it is also important in the workplace. One of the most influential media sources in the world of business, Forbes magazine has run many articles recently regarding workplace diversity (e.g., Agarwal 2018; Gaudiano and Hunt 2016; Forbes Technology Council 2018; Vedder 2018) suggesting its rise in importance. Moreover, research suggests that diversity enhances workplace productivity. While people often think of diversity in terms of ethnicity, race, or nationality, diversity also relates to characteristics such as gender, sexual orientation, religion, age and disability. For example, Herring (2009) found that organizations that have more gender diversity benefit from increased sales revenues, more customers, and increased profits while more racially diverse companies experience similar benefits. Another large study of 1000 companies across 12 countries found financial benefits linked to gender and ethnic diversity (Hunt et al. 2018). This study found that companies with the most ethnically/culturally diverse executive teams were 33% more likely to financially outperform similar companies. Companies in the top quartile for gender diversity were 21% more likely to financially outperform their fourth-quartile industry peers. If you have studied statistics, you may know that correlational studies—like those mentioned above—suggest that diversity helps company performance, but they do not show causation; that is, they do not explain why diversity might increase productivity in businesses. However, a variety of experimental studies do show causation and help to explain why diversity enhances performance. Studies have compared the work of diverse “heterogeneous” teams with teams made up of individuals of similar or “homogeneous” backgrounds. Findings from a variety of experimental studies suggest that diverse teams make better decisions compared to teams where individuals are from similar backgrounds because they share more information, engage in more flexible problem solving, and generate more creative solutions (De Dreu and Weingart 2003; McLeod et al. 1996; Phillips et al. 2004; Sommers 2006). With the benefits of diversity gaining recognition world-wide, organizations today increasingly incorporate inclusion and diversity management in their strategic planning. As discussed by Mor Barak (2014), surveys of multinational organizations suggest that companies implement a variety of initiatives. Their surveys suggest that most organizations have diversity mentioned in their mission statements and

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communicate with employees regularly regarding diversity initiatives which can include topics such as diversity management, education, training, performance, and accountability. Given the increased focus on diversity in the workplace, interculturally competent graduates will be those that recognize and capitalize on diversity to benefit themselves as well as knowing how to leverage diversity to benefit their organizations. They will be able to answer questions such as: • How can a company best recruit and retain individuals from diverse backgrounds? • How can organizations overcome the barriers that prevent more people from diverse backgrounds from attaining senior level positions? • What should an organization do to ensure that their workplace can accommodate a diverse workforce? • How can diverse teams be facilitated in working together more effectively? These are all questions that graduates with higher levels of IC will know are important and will be better able to address than those who are less interculturally competent.

Inequalities: Why Worry About Them? While there are many reasons to value diversity within and outside of the workplace, diversity also has a more challenging side. It is widely recognized that when individuals from different groups come into contact, there can be conflict. While this will be explored in more detail in Chap. 3, let us just briefly consider the topic of immigration which is currently a touchy subject in many countries. Part of the reason that immigration is contentious is because some citizens hold stereotypes about and prejudices against immigrants. They may believe that immigrants do not try to find work, will take advantage of benefits programs, and increase poverty and crime. Such negative stereotypes, or beliefs, that everyone that is part of a particular group has similar characteristics, can lead to the development of prejudices, or negative attitudes about people in certain groups, in this case about immigrants. Prejudices often lead to discrimination which occurs when people behave differently towards people from particular groups leading them to treat them not just differently but often unfairly. Those who hold prejudices against immigrants may refuse to hire them or rent a home to them or avoid speaking to them on the street or otherwise be more likely to exclude them from social life, making it difficult for them to become contributing members of society. Around the world negative stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination impact not only the lives of immigrants but individuals from virtually any racial, ethnic, religious or other minority group. While there are many ways that this plays out within society, within the workplace, for example, those from minority groups are discriminated against by being hired less often than individuals from majority groups. Discrimination in the hiring process occurs at many levels beginning with the initial screening of

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resumes/CVs. While you may think that the screening out process has mainly to do with individuals being less qualified rather than being discriminated against, a variety of research demonstrates unfairness that has nothing to do with differing qualifications. For example, a recent article in Forbes (Gerdeman 2017) entitled “Minorities who ‘whiten’ resumes get more job interviews” describes studies in the US in which identical resumes/CVs were sent to employers in response to job openings. The resumes were identical with the exception that some had ethnic sounding names and affiliations, for example, Feng Chang who is a member of the Asian Society, while others had white sounding names and no ethnic affiliations. The results? Those with content that reflected a white applicant were called in for interviews significantly more often even though their qualifications were the same as resumes containing markers for ethnicity. Similar studies have revealed that other markers of diversity such as gender, sexual orientation, and age similarly result in discrimination in the selection process (e.g., Moss-Racusin et al. 2012). The above studies provide an indication of the kind of discrimination that can occur against employees from minority groups within the workplace. In addition, however, individuals from minority groups who are seeking services are also discriminated against in a variety of ways. In the UK and US, national level studies have indicated clear inequalities in relation to health outcomes (e.g., Public Health England 2017). For example, British Pakistani infants are nearly twice as likely to die in infancy compared to white British infants (Office for National Statistics 2016). To some extent such inequalities may be explained by access to adequate health care and lifestyle choices. However, archival and experimental research demonstrates that patients are treated differently by medical staff depending upon characteristics such as age and ethnicity. For example, research in the US (e.g., Burgess et al. 2007) indicates that physicians hold stereotypes of Black patients which include increased likelihood of drug abuse, non-compliance with medical advice, low intelligence and low levels of education. These stereotypes lead physicians to recommend bypass surgery significantly less often for Black patients than for White patients thus leading to the unequal treatment of patients which contributes to different mortality rates. Addressing inequality in the workplace is important to try to achieve more equitable treatment of clients, customers, and employees. However, it is also important because governments are developing policies that promote diversity and laws that protect individuals from discrimination. In the UK for example, the Equality Act of 2010 (Equality and Human Rights Commission 2010) protects individuals with certain characteristics from discrimination as both workers and clients. Protected characteristics include race; however, they also include a variety of other characteristics on which discrimination may be based including age, disability, gender reassignment, marriage and civil partnership, pregnancy and maternity, religion or belief, sex, and sexual orientation. To provide another example, in the United States, employees’ rights are protected under national policies which state that an employer cannot discriminate based on race, color, religion, sex or national origin (Equal Employment Opportunity Commission n.d.). Pregnant women are also protected by The Pregnancy Discrimination Act (PDA) of 1978 under which any pregnancy-related question is considered unlawful.

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Such laws require companies to comply; however, many companies struggle with compliance as demonstrated by the thousands of discrimination cases that are filed each year costing employers millions of dollars. For example, in 2017 in the US 84,254 workplace discrimination charges were filed resulting in companies having to pay in excess of $398 million US dollars to plaintiffs (Equal Opportunities Commission 2018). While certain characteristics are protected in certain countries, there are many other characteristics on which discrimination is based, which are not covered by national policies or reported in any statistics, such as accent, attractiveness, and weight. Other affiliations that might not immediately come to mind play a role in hiring and promotion decisions too, for example, university attended. Some people are invited to interview because they graduated from the same university as one of the interviewers. This may sound perfectly fine, especially if you are the one being called in for an interview because you attended a university favored by the interviewer, but what if you are an applicant who is overlooked because you did not? This is also unfair discrimination. Although not in existence presently, we believe that policies protecting people based on such characteristics are likely to develop in the future. With the problems associated with diversity more widely recognized today, organizations increasingly include diversity management in their strategic planning not only to make use of the benefits of diverse talents but to adhere to national level policies that address diversity issues in relation to the unfair treatment of both employees and clients. You may find it a stretch to understand the relationship between IC and workplace inequalities; however, the two are highly related. IC involves more than just the ability to interact effectively and appropriately in intercultural situations. It includes a set of values, attitudes, understandings, skills, and behaviors which involve the acceptance of cultural differences, recognition of the value of diversity, and the ability to recognize and challenge attitudes and behaviors which devalue those from different cultures (Barrett 2013). A key knowledge area of someone who exhibits high levels of IC is knowledge of diversity and inclusion—specifically, being willing and able to avoid unfair discrimination, to identify it where it does exist and to address it effectively. This not only ensures that people are treated fairly and according to their rights but helps to ensure that individuals and organizations are protected from bad press, lawsuits and dismissals. Although this might seem to fall under the responsibility of human resources and managers, all employees should ultimately be aware of these issues in order to avoid discriminating themselves and to help ameliorate the problem of discrimination more generally. Thus, developing your IC can help you as an employee to uphold policies and practices designed to promote equality, diversity, and inclusion initiatives in countries with more progressive laws. However, in countries where such policies are not the norm, increasing your IC can support you in advocating for the development of such policies and practices to create fairer and more just organizational and societal practices.

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Cultural Conflicts: How Are They Related to Intercultural Competence? While stereotypes, prejudices and discrimination can lead to unfair workplace practices and the ill treatment of clients and customers, they can also impact the way that people treat one another in the wider community. Prejudice and discrimination can be expressed in subtle ways. Consider the following scenarios. • An immigrant family moves into a small British village and is ignored or treated with suspicion by neighbors. • A straight parent avoids sitting next to a gay parent at their child’s football game. • Church members make derogatory remarks about single parents in earshot of a single mother who has just joined the congregation. Such examples demonstrate how people can be treated less favorably in their personal lives by neighbors and community members just as they can be by coworkers, supervisors, and medical staff. However, prejudices can also result in outright hostility, abuse and violence. Statistics suggest that the number of cases of abuse, crime and terrorism based on minority group membership has been increasing worldwide (Chan et al. 2016; Meier et al. 2016). However, instances of abuse, crime and terrorism against majority groups are also a problem. Evidence of both is continually provided by news reports. For example: • In Italy, the Vice-president of the Senate Roberto Calderoli compared the first black government minister, Cècile Kyenge, a Congolese-born Italian immigrant, to an orangutan (Mezzofiore 2014). During a speech by Kyenge, locals threw clumps of bananas at her. • In Gothenburg, Sweden, in protest against the movement of the Israeli embassy to Jerusalem, a group of men threw firebombs at a synagogue while Jewish teenagers cowered inside. Surveys suggest that 60% of Swedish Jews, 51% of French Jews and 45% of Belgian Jews are afraid to admit their religion for fear of persecution (Dysch 2017). • In Sri Lanka, a group of young Sinhalese men videotaped a Muslim restaurant owner being accused of serving food containing sterilization pills. The owner, who was not guilty, confessed anyway because he felt threatened and did not fully understand their accusations, as he did not speak very good Sinhalese. Rioters beat him, destroyed his restaurant and set fire to a local mosque (Taub and Fisher 2018). • In Charleston, South Carolina, US, a white supremacist killed nine black Americans including a pastor when he opened fire on a church. He later said this was an attempt to start a race war (BBC News 2016). • In the UK an Islamist extremist detonated a suicide bomb killing 22 British citizens during a pop concert in Manchester Arena (Dodd et al. 2017). Worldwide there are a variety of examples like these in which prejudicial attitudes lead to abuse, violence and murder at times on a mass scale. At any given time, there

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are thought to be about 42 armed conflicts taking place around the world (Inkster 2015). Many, if not most of these conflicts, are the result of cultural clashes. That is, people from one cultural group believing that people from another cultural group are bad, evil or otherwise deserving of punishment. Is it possible that promoting intercultural competence amongst college and university students can reduce this kind of widespread abuse and violence? We believe that it can. Today’s students are tomorrow’s leaders, politicians, businessmen and women, schoolteachers, health workers, and so on. By helping students to understand aspects of IC, including not only what constitutes effective and appropriate communication across cultures but understanding and accepting cultural differences, it can help to reduce stereotyping, prejudice, discrimination, and violence and to promote positive and constructive relationships between people from different cultures around the world.

Intercultural Competence: What if I Think I Already Am Interculturally Competent? After reading the above text, you might think that learning about intercultural competence isn’t relevant to you because you believe that you do not stereotype or hold prejudices or treat people differently because of their cultural group. Unfortunately, most people hold stereotypes and have prejudices as a function of growing up in societies. Societies around the world foster stereotypes and prejudices to varying degrees which can impact how we treat others even if we do not realize it. This will be discussed briefly below, and in more detail in Chap. 3. In addition to thinking that you do not hold stereotypes and prejudices, you may believe that because you have certain experiences you are interculturally competent already. For instance, you may have lived abroad or travelled extensively and feel you are experienced with culture and open to cultural difference. You might speak more than one language, have friends from different ethnic or national groups, be from a minority group yourself or be bicultural or of mixed heritage. While these experiences can support the development of IC, they do not automatically confer IC.

“I’ve Lived Abroad” Living abroad or in different places around your own country can help you to learn about and experience cultural differences first-hand. Although you must ask yourself who you associate with and what you are learning from those experiences. A Polish person may move to England and live there for many years. However, are most of their friends Polish rather than English? It is often easy to live abroad but to operate in a social microcosm populated with people who are not from that country. If you

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do that, your experience may not foster as much intercultural growth as you might think. It is often thought that international students are more interculturally competent than domestic students because they study in another country. However, research suggests that this is not necessarily the case (Lantz-Deaton 2017). An international environment and a residence in a foreign country do not automatically break down international students’ stereotypical perceptions of other individuals (Cebron et al. 2015; Starkey and Osler 2009; Starosta 2014). Further, a variety of literature suggests that there are often limited interactions between domestic and international students in many countries and thus cultural learning may not be taking place as much as we would like to think (Williams and Johnson 2011; Thom 2000; Volet and Ang 1998; Vande Berg et al. 2012; Williams and Sovic 2008).

“I’ve Travelled Extensively” You may travel a lot to other countries, but some important questions to ask yourself are: Who are you travelling with? Who are you interacting with while you are there? What are you learning from these interactions? Consider Box 1.1. Box 1.1 Travelling abroad I recently went to Norway with my husband. Staying at a Norwegian hotel, we spent time chatting with the hotel staff and other guests (some from Norway and some from elsewhere) and talking about Norwegian culture as well as eating out in the local community and undertaking outside activities such as concerts and hiking excursions where meeting and talking to people from Norway happened frequently. Sometime after we arrived, two tour buses full of Japanese tourists—probably 150 or so—arrived at the hotel. Because there were so many, they essentially comprised about 85% of the hotel guests with very few guests staying from Norway or other countries. What was evident was that they not only arrived together but stayed together for breakfast, lunch, dinner and leisure time with Japanese music being played on the back lawn of the hotel. We never saw them on our hikes mingling with others. They were always in large groups. When they left a couple of days later, we wondered what they had gleaned about the local culture as they seemed to have limited interactions with those outside of their cultural group.

The example described in Box 1.1 is NOT included to negatively portray the Japanese culture by any means. You might find that tourists from the US, UK, Mexico, or other countries that travel together in large groups interact little outside of their groups. The example of Japanese tourists is only offered here to highlight the fact that travelling

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may not facilitate cultural learning as much as you might think if you don’t try to spend time with those from the local community getting to know the local culture. Again, when travelling, you must ask yourself what you do, who you interact with, and what you have learned about other cultures from the experience.

“I’ve Studied Foreign Languages” In terms of language learning, you may have learned to speak more than one language. This is helpful in conversing with people from particular language cultures to be sure. However, while learning another language can facilitate dialogue, it does not necessarily mean that you understand the culture of the other language. Thinking that it does, has been referred to by some as being a “fluent fool”; that is someone who speaks a foreign language well but doesn’t understand the cultural context surrounding that language (Bennett 1997). This can get you into trouble when using the language with first language speakers but more than that, it may lead you to overestimate your abilities with those from cultures beyond that of your second language. Questions to ask yourself are: How often do you use that other language(s) and for what purpose? Is your use of that language solely to develop your skills or is it also to more deeply understand another culture? How has studying another language helped to make you more understanding of other cultures in general rather than just one other specific culture? How is speaking one or two other languages helpful in yet others cultures where you do not speak the language?

“I am From a Bi- or Multicultural Background” Being bicultural or multicultural may make you think that you are more interculturally competent than others, but it cannot guarantee higher levels of IC. Let’s say you were born and grew up mostly in Brazil and then moved to Italy where you finished school, went to university and began working and where you started a family. Obviously, you would be familiar with these two cultures and to an extent would be bicultural. Having to adapt to living in another culture and absorbing cultural values from different countries and cultures can be helpful in navigating cultural differences between particular cultures. It can also be helpful in terms of learning how to be adaptable and flexible. However, what if you then moved to an entirely different country such as Finland or Egypt? How adept would you be at navigating the cultural differences since there would likely be a somewhat different set of cultural norms? You may be more flexible and adaptable which can support your adjustment; however, still you would need to learn the subtle aspects of your new culture. In short, there will always be more to learn even if you are bicultural or multicultural.

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“I am a Minority Group Member” Because someone is in a minority group themselves and may have been the target of prejudice and discrimination does not mean that person does not hold stereotypes and prejudices themselves. Being the target of abuse at the hands of majority group members can easily foster prejudices against majority group members. It is also possible for members of one minority groups, say for example, LGBTQ (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer) group members, to hold stereotypes and have prejudices about other minority groups, say for example, Afro-Caribbean group members. Minority group members can demonstrate as much ingroup bias, i.e., favoring ingroup members while excluding or discriminating against outgroup members, as majority group members. A student of one of the authors (Lantz-Deaton) raised concerns about working on a group project in class. He noted that most students in his group were from a Muslim background and that they regularly excluded him (a white male) from conversations. Although such ingroup bias may not represent hostility against people from another group (Greenwald and Pettigrew 2014), indifference or exclusion constitute discrimination and unfair treatment. More importantly, this provides an example of how minority group members are not simply higher in IC because they are from a minority group.

“I’m Already Open Minded and Don’t Hold Stereotypes and Prejudices” Reading about IC and concerns about prejudice and discrimination you may be thinking that this book does not apply to you because you do not stereotype others, do not hold prejudices, and do not discriminate against others yourself. You may believe that you treat all people the same regardless of ethnicity, sex, disability and so on. You are not alone. Many people think that they are already open-minded and tolerant individuals who are interculturally competent. There are two points to make in this regard. The first point is that while you might like to think that you do not stereotype, hold prejudices or discriminate against others, research strongly suggests that all people hold stereotypes and prejudices which can lead them to discriminate against others without being aware of it. Known as implicit prejudice (Nosek et al. 2012), it is a well-researched phenomenon within the psychological literature. These prejudices develop in part because many of us live in environments where we are constantly bombarded by media images of people from certain backgrounds shown in particular roles. For instance, it is common to see people from Muslim backgrounds portrayed as terrorists and black Americans portrayed as criminals on television and in films. Such repeated imagery has a long-term impact, conditioning individuals to stereotype groups of people in particular ways—especially when they have little contact with people from those groups. We discuss this in some depth in Chap. 3. Everyone engages in stereotyping, holds prejudices, and discriminates in some way

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even if they are not aware of it. An important part of becoming more interculturally competent is becoming aware of and working towards reducing these tendencies. The second point to make involves the idea that all people should be treated the same. Some might say this is a universalist or colorblind approach, but some researchers refer to this as minimization and suggest that it is problematic because it naively assumes that despite differences, everyone is the same. Such views are often held by those in the dominant culture who cannot comprehend what is like to be part of an oppressed group (Bennett 1993). It is a problem because people are not all treated the same. As we have already seen in the above examples, people are treated differently because of characteristics such as race, ethnicity, and gender. To assume that all people are treated similarly is insensitive because it denies differences found across societies. Is a Muslim woman who wears a headscarf in a predominately white Christian area going to be treated differently when she goes for a job interview compared to a Caucasian Christian woman? The answer is likely to be “yes”, and those differences need to be considered when meeting and interacting with people from different cultures.

“I Have Friends From Other Cultures” Developing friendships with people from other cultures is one of the best ways to breakdown stereotypes and prejudices and is one that we highly recommend in your quest to develop IC. However, again you must ask yourself what you are learning from your friend(s). In terms of breaking down prejudices and stereotypes, it is not helpful if you merely classify the friend as an exception to the stereotype. For instance, you may be from Bali and make friends with an American who does not fit your stereotype of what an American is like. However, your stereotype of Americans might not change because in actuality you consider the person to be an exception. Research suggests that having a friend from another culture that you consider an exception can even strengthen your stereotypes. For example, in one experiment, participants were presented with cases of people who defied stereotypes. Findings were that this served only to strengthen their stereotypes because the evidence provided to the contrary challenged them to defend their stereotypes and come up with more reasons to hold prejudices (Kunda and Oleson 1997). Thus, some very racist people can be heard to say things like “some of my best friends are …”. Thus, often one friendship will not help to breakdown stereotypes. That said several friendships with people who do not conform to your stereotype can make more of a difference since they cannot all be exceptions. Knowing multiple people from another culture also allows you to begin to see the cultural variability that exists within particular cultures so that you realize not all people from “X” culture are alike. Along the same lines, if you have a friend from another culture you may think that the person is just like you—supporting your notion that people should all be treated the same. If so, this friendship may have helped you to grow somewhat—especially

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if it has taken you from having a negative attitude towards another group to one that minimizes difference (Bennett 1993), as discussed above. However, you still have a way to go in learning to accept and adapt to cultural difference and develop your IC. Despite the above arguments, you may still think that you are more interculturally competent than the average person. This is common and an example of a wellestablished phenomenon in social-psychology, the better than average effect (Brown 1986). If you ask someone whether s/he is better than the average person when it comes to driving a car, bouncing a ball, or virtually any skill, s/he will typically report better than average performance. To provide an example from the literature, in a study by Sedikides et al. (2013) participants serving a prison sentence rated themselves, compared to other prisoners, as above average on traits of honesty, trustworthiness, self-control and lawabidingness. When asked to rate themselves against people without a criminal conviction, they still rated themselves as above average on all traits, except for being lawabiding where interestingly they still rated themselves as average! People, as a rule, overestimate their abilities no matter who they are. Whilst you may be better than average on some skills, but we can’t all be better than average! At least half of people are below average. Thus, we tend to overestimate our skills and abilities, and, in this case, you are likely to be overestimating your IC. The final point to make in relation to whether you think that you are already interculturally competent is that it is impossible for anyone to completely achieve IC. IC is largely thought to be a developmental process with people being at different stages of development on a continuum. On this continuum, everyone can be considered a work in progress. Even professionals in the field of intercultural education like your authors are not completely interculturally competent. While you can make great efforts to meet and get to know people from different cultures and improve aspects of your IC such as self-awareness, knowledge, flexibility, adaptability and openness to others which will undoubtedly enhance your IC; there will always be people you meet that are from cultures with which you are unfamiliar and may have difficulty with. Also, you are likely to be exposed to media which reinforces the very stereotypes and prejudices that you are trying like mad to overcome. Thus, there is always more to learn even for those who are highly educated and experienced in this area and we always need to be wary of being indoctrinated into stereotypical and prejudiced thinking.

Contents: What Is in This Book? This chapter has introduced you to the concept of intercultural competence and provided a rationale for why it is important to you personally and professionally as a future graduate. It addressed why intercultural competence is important for employability as well as why it is important for more humanistic goals such as the reduction of inequalities and the promotion of peace. This chapter invited you to consider the extent to which you believe yourself to be interculturally competent already. Further,

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it outlined why even if you are highly educated, have friends from other cultures, have lived abroad, have travelled extensively, are from a bi-/multicultural or minority background, or simply believe yourself to be open and accepting of others, you may still not be as interculturally competent as you might think. The subsequent chapters will build upon this introduction by exploring related theories, concepts, and contexts in more detail. Each chapter begins with learning objectives which will help you to think about what you should be taking away from that chapter. Each chapter also includes activities in the form of ‘Thought Boxes’ through which you can reflect upon the material to enhance your understanding and cultural awareness and self-reflection. Deep understanding does not come through reading alone but interacting with material, so we strongly encourage you to make use of the Thought Boxes. In addition to Thought Boxes, at the back of the guide there are activities through which you can further reflect on aspects of your IC and allow you to record your experiences, thoughts, and questions. These can be used in conjunction with the chapters as they are referred to in the text or as stand-alone activities. Chapter 2 explores the concept of culture. While you may think that you know what culture means, it is actually a highly complex and not well understood term. Getting to grips with culture, the different types of culture and how cultural variation has been studied will help you to better understand ‘culture’ as it relates to intercultural competence. This chapter will also help you to consider your own cultural identity which is key to developing intercultural competence. Chapter 3 focuses on exploring the barriers to intercultural competence. While the positive aspects of culture are discussed throughout this book, theories which explain the development of stereotypes, prejudices, and discrimination will be explored along with concepts such as power, privilege, conscious and unconscious bias, racism, and sexism. Social inequalities are considered along with text which links the development of IC to overcoming the challenges of cultural difference. This chapter encourages you to consider your own experiences with these topics and concludes by considering methods for reducing prejudice and discrimination and enhancing relationships between people from different cultures. Chapter 4 helps you to gain a more detailed understanding of IC by considering different terms and definitions used to refer to it. Theories to explain IC from different schools of thought are discussed to help more clearly define IC and discuss how it develops and how factors such as context are also influential. Key concepts related to IC are addressed such as ethnocentrism, ethnorelativism, and cultural distance. This chapter helps you to learn to identify when an interaction becomes intercultural and highlights the main components of IC as understood by your authors. Finally, this chapter encourages you to critically evaluate your own IC and to consider ways that you might develop it further. Chapter 5 explores the variety of cultural contexts at colleges and universities related to IC. It reviews the extent to which colleges and universities address IC as part of internationalization and equality, diversity, and inclusion initiatives. It describes opportunities for you to develop your IC based on what is available on your campus and in your community. This chapter includes topics such as study

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abroad, student clubs and societies, and IC in college and university curriculum. It also introduces you to intercultural (global) citizenship and education for democratic citizenship. Finally, this chapter encourages you to critically think about what is on offer at your institution and to look for ways not only to enhance your IC but to support your institution in enhancing IC related opportunities for students. Chapter 6 introduces you to the concept of critical incidents and describes the ways in which they can be useful to your IC development. It provides a variety of example incidents and asks you to analyze these to identify how they are relevant to intercultural learning. Further, this chapter asks you to recall one of your own critical incidents and to reflect upon it to see what you have learned. Finally, this chapter shows you how to exercise reflective and critical thinking skills in order to be able to analyze critical incidents going forward to facilitate you in getting more out of your interactions with those from other cultures. Chapter 7 helps you to understand how IC can help you to improve your employment prospects. This chapter facilitates you in thinking through how culture might impact your job search. It also considers ways for you to advertise IC to prospective employers through your resume and during interviews. Further it discusses how you might be perceived in applying for jobs in different countries and cultural contexts and understanding how employee rights and employer expectations differ in different countries and the potential biases you may encounter. Chapter 8 addresses intercultural leadership and helps you to understand that leadership can be accomplished in both large and small ways to facilitate social change in organizations and the wider world. This chapter explores the concept of leadership and what it means to be not just a leader but an intercultural leader. Myths about leadership are debunked in this chapter. Further, it defines what it meant by the term organizational cultural competence and corporate social responsibility and describes the ways in which they can be promoted within organizations. At the end of the book you will find appendices that you will be encouraged to read and/or complete including: a self-reflective activity in which you can assess your IC (Appendix A), an action plan template that you can use to plan how you will develop you IC further (Appendix B), a self-assessment of your intercultural citizenship (Appendix C), and an activity that helps you to learn from critical incidents (Appendix D).

Uses: How Might This Book Be Helpful? The development of IC can enable individuals to interface positively with those from diverse cultural backgrounds. This rationale encompasses fostering career success in working with diverse colleagues and clients internationally, nationally, and locally; addressing inequalities within society by, for example, challenging those who discriminate against others unfairly; and fostering peace and understanding in neighborhoods, communities, and the wider world. Even for students who plan never to leave their hometown or home country, interfacing with those from other cultures

Uses: How Might This Book Be Helpful?

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will be commonplace for an increasing number of individuals around the world. Learning how to do that effectively and appropriately is the crux of this guide. It is envisioned that this guide will be used by students, administrators, faculty, lecturers and other staff members in a variety of countries and in a variety of ways: either autonomously for intercultural self-development, or as a course or resource book for a variety of modules and courses. The following provides some suggestions. If you are a student, there are many ways that you can use this book: • Read this book and complete the activities independently to develop your IC throughout your studies. • Suggest the use of this book to other students or student clubs or societies. For instance, the Culture Society, a group of students at one of the co-authors previous universities exists to promote positive relationships between students of different cultures. This book could be used by such a club or society to enhance students’ IC as students review material and complete activities together. • Suggest this guide to your module or course leader to be used in conjunction with existing curriculum in intercultural or cross-cultural communication, international business, anthropology, psychology, diversity management, cultural studies, study abroad or language studies or for general preparation of students studying in any degree program. IC is relevant to all students, not only those studying particular subjects. • Suggest that this book be used as part of an intercultural certificate program at your college or university. Some institutions offer such programs now such as the Intercultural Leadership Certificate Program, launched jointly by two higher education institutions of the University of Maryland system (University of Maryland Graduate School n.d.), the Intercultural Communication Certificate Program at Ludwig Maximilians University in Munich (Ludwig-Maximilians Universitat Munchen, n.d.) and others in the UK (e.g., Stout et al. 2011). If your university or college does not offer such a program, you could suggest that one be started. Certificates from such programs can be added to your CV or resume to demonstrate your pursuit of IC to employers. If you are an academic or an administrator there are many ways that you can use this book. • Use this guide to learn more about your own IC and how you might develop it. Just because you are a lecturer, or other higher or further education professional, does not mean that you are automatically interculturally competent. You may have as much to learn, if not more, as the students with whom you work. • Use this guide, or parts of this guide, with students as part of a structured class or module or as part of an extracurricular activity. • Use this guide with study abroad students to help them prepare for their stay abroad, reflect upon their activities during their stay or when they return. • Use this guide as a resource book for hybrid or online intercultural modules or courses.

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References Agarwal, P. (2018). How do we design workplaces for inclusivity and diversity. (https://www. forbes.com/sites/pragyaagarwaleurope/2018/07/19/how-inclusive-is-your-organisation-here-ishow-to-use-inclusive-design/#7cf99d094d18. Accessed December 18, 2018. Barrett, M. (2013). Intercultural competence: A distinctive hallmark of interculturalism? In M. Barrett (Ed.), Interculturalism and multiculturalism: Similarities and differences (pp. 147–168). Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing. Baylis, J., Smith, S., & Owens, P. (2017). The Globalization of World Politics (7th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. BBC News. (2016). Dylann Roof guilty of South Carolina church killings. https://www.bbc.co.uk/ news/world-us-canada-38336701. Accessed January 3, 2019. Bennett, M. J. (1993). Towards ethnorelativism: A developmental model of intercultural sensitivity. In M. R. Paige (Ed.), Education for the intercultural experience (pp. 21–71). Yarmouth, Maine: Intercultural Press. Bennett, M. J. (1997). How not to be a fluent fool: Understanding the cultural dimension of language. New Ways of Teaching Culture, 16–21. British Council. (2013). Culture at work: The value of intercultural skills in the workplace. https://www.britishcouncil.org/sites/default/files/culture-at-work-report-v2.pdf. Accessed November 12, 2019. Brown, J. D. (1986). Evaluations of self and others: Self-enhancement biases in social judgments. Social Cognition, 4, 353–376. Burgess, D., van Ryn, M., Dovidio, J., & Saha, S. (2007). Reducing racial bias among health care providers: Lessons from social-cognitive psychology. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 22(6), 882–887. Cebron, N., Golubeva, I., & Osborne, J. (2015). Intercultural activities through the eyes of students: Feedback from the IEREST project. Journal of Linguistic and Intercultural Education, 8, 59–72. Chan, J., Gose, A., & Seamans, R. (2016). The internet and racial hate crime: Offline spillovers from online access. MIS Quarterly, 40(2), 381–403. Cramer, J. (2006). Corporate social responsibility and globalisation: An action plan for business. London Routledge. De Dreu, C. K. W., & Weingart, L. R. (2003). Task versus relationship conflict, team performance and team member satisfaction: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 741–749. Dikec, M. (2004). Social movements and globalization. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 28(3), 713–716. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0309-1317.2004.00546.x. Dodd, V., Pidd, H., Rawlinson, K., Siddique, H., & MacAskill, E. (2017). At least 22 killed, 59 injured in suicide attack at Manchester Arena https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2017/ may/22/manchester-arena-police-explosion-ariana-grande-concert-england. Accessed January 3, 2019. Dysch, M. (2017). Firebomb attack on Gothenburg synagogue follows anti-Trump Jerusalem protest. https://www.thejc.com/news/world/firebomb-attack-on-gothenburg-synagogue-followsanti-trump-jerusalem-protest-1.450086. Accessed January 3, 2019. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. (n.d.). Discrimination by type. https://www.eeoc. gov/laws/types/. Accessed October 25, 2019. Equal Opportunities Commission. (2018). EEOC releases fiscal year 2017 enforcement and litigation data. https://www.eeoc.gov/eeoc/newsroom/release/1-25-18.cfm. Accessed January 6, 2018. Equality and Human Rights Commission. (2010). Equality act 2010. https://www.equalityhumanri ghts.com/en/equality-act/equality-act-2010. Accessed April 28, 2020. Fominaya, C. F. (2014). Social movements and globalization: How protests, occupations and uprisings are changing the world. (Sociology for Globalizing Societies): Palgrave.

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Forbes Technology Council. (2018). 12 ways diversity makes a difference in tech. https://www. forbes.com/sites/forbestechcouncil/2018/07/12/12-ways-diversity-makes-a-difference-in-tech/# 15fe99352bc6. Gaudiano, P., & Hunt, E. (2016). Six simple things you can do to support workplace diversity and inclusion. https://www.forbes.com/sites/gaudianohunt/2016/08/15/six-simple-thingsyou-can-do-to-support-workplace-diversity-inclusion/#2434ee25372c. Gerdeman, D. (2017). Minorities who ‘whiten’ job resumes get more interviews. https://hbswk.hbs. edu/item/minorities-who-whiten-job-resumes-get-more-interviews. Accessed March 21, 2019. Greenwald, A., & Pettigrew, T. F. (2014). With malice toward none and charity for some: Ingroup favoritism enables discrimination. American Psychologist. Herring, C. (2009). Does diversity pay? Race, gender, and the business case for diversity. American Sociological Review, 74(2), 208–224. https://doi.org/10.2307/27736058. Hill, C., Smith, M., & Vanhoonacker, S. (2017). International relations and the European Union (3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Hofstede, G. (1984). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind. London: McGraw-Hill. Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G. J., & Minkov, M. (2010). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind. London: McGraw-Hill. Hovhannisyan, N., & Keller, W. (2014). International business travel: An engine of innovation? Journal of Economic Growth, 20(1), 75–104. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10887-014-9107-7. Hunt, V., Prince, S., Dixon-Fyle, S., & Yee, L. (2018). Delivering through diversity (p. 42). London. Inkster, N. (2015). Armed conflict survey 2015 press statement. Arundel House, London: The IIS. Jivraj, S. (2012). The dynamics of diversity: Evidence from the 2011 census (p. 4). Manchester: Centre on Dynamics of Ethnicity: University of Manchester. Kunda, Z., & Oleson, K. C. (1997). When exceptions prove the rule: How extremity of deviance determines the impact of deviant examples on stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 763–771. Lantz-Deaton, C. (2017). Internationalisation and the development of students’ intercultural competence. Teaching in Higher Education, 1–19. http://doi.org/10.1080/13562517.2016.127 3209. Ludwig-Maximilians Universitat Munchen. (n.d.). Intercultural Communication Certificate Program. https://www.ikk.uni-muenchen.de/interculturalcertificate/index.html. Accessed March 10, 2020. Massey, D. A., Arango, J., Hugo, G., Kouaouci, A., Pellegrino, A., & Taylor, J. E. (1993). Theories of international migration: A review and appraisal. Population and Development Review, 19(3), 431–466. https://doi.org/10.2307/2938462. McLeod, P. L., Lobel, S. A., & Cox, T. H. (1996). Ethnic diversity and creativity in small groups. Small Group Research, 27, 248–264. Meier, S., Pierce, L., Vaccaro, A., & La Cara, B. (2016). Trust and in-group favoritism in a culture of crime. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization, 132(Part A), 78–92. Messelink, H. E., Van Maele, J., & Spencer-Oatey, H. (2015). Intercultural competencies: What students in study and placement mobility should be learning. Intercultural Education, 26(1), 62–72. https://doi.org/10.1080/14675986.2015.993555. Mezzofiore, G. (2014). Italian Court Opens Investigation into Roberto Calderoli’s Orangutan Slur. https://www.ibtimes.co.uk/italy-opens-investigation-calderoli-s-racist-orangutan-491340. Migration Data Portal. (2018). Migration data portal: International students. https://migrationdat aportal.org/about. Accessed January 6, 2019. Mor Barak, M. E. (2014). Managing diversity: Toward a globally inclusive workplace (3rd ed.). London: Sage. Moss-Racusin, C. A., Dovidio, J. F., Brescoll, V. L., Graham, M. J., & Handelsman, J. (2012). Science faculty’s subtle gender biases favor males students. PNAS, 109(41), 16474–16479. Nosek, B. A., Hawkins, C. B., & Frazier, R. S. (2012). Implicit Social Cognition. Handbook of Social Cognition (pp. 31–53). New York: Sage. Office for National Statistics. (2012). International migrants in England and Wales 2011. http:// www.ons.gov.uk. Accessed December 31, 2013.

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Office for National Statistics. (2016). Child and infant mortality in England and Wales. https:// www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/birthsdeathsandmarriages/deaths/bulletins/ childhoodinfantandperinatalmortalityinenglandandwales/2016#most-deprived-areas-have-thehighest-infant-mortality-rates-in-both-england-and-wales-in-2016. Accessed October 25, 2019. Phillips, A. G., Mannix, E. A., Neale, M. A., & Greuenfeld, D. H. (2004). Diverse groups and information sharing: The effects of congruent ties. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40, 495–510. Praet, E. V. (2015). Intercultural communication: Globalization and social justice (2 ed.) Sage Publications. Public Health England. (2017). Public health outcomes framework: Health equity report: focus on ethnicity (p. 103). London. Scholte, J. A. (2005). Globalization: A critical introduction. Macmillan International Higher Education. Sedikides, C., Meek, R., Alicke, A. D., & Taylor, S. (2013). Behind bars but above the bar: Prisoners consider themselves more prosocial than non-prisoners. British Journal of Social Psychology, 53(2), 396–403. Shaw, R. (2015). Recovery from the Indian Ocean Tsunami (1st ed., Disaster Risk Reduction). Japan: Springer. Smith, H. W. A. R. (2018). Thinking globally, working locally: employability and internationalization at home. Journal of Studies in International Education. http://doi.org/0.1177/102831531 7751686. Sommers, S. R. (2006). On racial diversity and group decision-making: Identifying multiple effects of racial composition on jury deliberations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90, 597–612. Sovic, S. (2008). Lost in translation? The international students’ experience project. London: Institute of Education. Starkey, H., & Osler, A. (2009). Antiracism, citizenship, and education: European ideals and political complacency. In J. A. Banks (Ed.), Routledge international companion to multicultural education (pp. 348–359). New York, New York: Routledge. Starosta, W. J. (2014). Sojourning through intercultural communication: A retrospective. In M. K. Asante, Y. Miike, & J. Yin (Eds.), The global communication reader (pp. 92–100). London and New York: Routledge Taylor and Francis Group. Stout, H., Warwick, P., Roberts, P., & Ritter, S. (2011). Internationalising at home: Some ideas to internationalise the University of York student experience (p. 14). York: University of York. Taub, A., & Fisher, M. (2018). Where countries are tinderboxes and Facebook is a match. http://www.sundayobserver.lk/2018/03/04/news/tension-ampara-after-fake-‘steriliza tion-pills’-controversy. Accessed January 3, 2019. Thom, V. (2000). Promoting intercultural learning and social inclusion for international students’. In B. Hudson & M. J. Todd (Eds.), Internationalising the curriculum in higher education: Reflecting on practice (pp. 50–57). Sheffield: Sheffield Hallam University Press. Trimikliniotis, N., & Demetriou, C. (2011). Tolerance and Cultural Diversity Discourses in Cyprus (p. 45). Cyprus: European University Institute: Robert Schuman Centre for Advance Studies. United Nations. (2019). International Migration Report 2019. New York: Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/ migration/publications/migrationreport/docs/InternationalMigration2019_Report.pdf. Accessed April 20, 2020. University of Maryland Graduate School. (n.d.). Intercultural Leadership. https://graduate.umaryl and.edu/Intercultural/. Accessed March 10, 2020. Vedder, R. (2018). Diversity and other administrative monstrosities: The case of the University of Michigan. https://www.forbes.com/sites/richardvedder/2018/07/23/diversity-and-other-adm inistrative-monstrousities-the-case-of-the-university-of-michigan/#56375cf168ec. Accessed December 18, 2018.

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Vertovec, S. (2007). Super-diversity and its implications. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 30(6), 1024– 1054. Volet, S. E., & Ang, G. (1998). Culturally mixed groups on international campuses: An opportunity for inter-cultural learning. Higher Education Research and Development, 17(1), 5–23. Vande Berg, M., Paige, R. M., Lou, K. H. (2012). Student learning abroad: What our students are learning, what they’re not, and what we can do about it. Stylus Publishing LLC. Wang, H. (2010). How EBaby failed in China. https://www.forbes.com/sites/china/2010/09/12/ how-ebay-failed-in-china/#6af4abbb5d57. Accessed October 25, 2019. Williams, C. T., & Johnson, L. R. (2011). Why can’t we be friends? Multicultural attitudes and friendships with international students. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 35(1), 41–48. World Economic Forum. (2018). The future of jobs report 2018. In Centre for the New Economy and Society (Ed.) (p. 47). Geneva: World Economic Forum. Zander, A., Rissel, C., Rogers, K., & Bauman, A. (2014). Active travel to work in NSW: Trends over time and the effect of social advantage. Health Promotion Journal of Australia, 25(3), 167–173.

Chapter 2

What Is Culture?

‘There are many roads to truth and no culture has a corner in the path or is better equipped than others to search for it.’—Edward Hall, anthropologist and cultural researcher

This chapter explores the concept of culture. While you may think that you know what the word culture means, it is actually a highly complex and debated term. Getting to grips with culture, the different types of culture (e.g., objective and subjective) and how cultural variation has been studied at the macro level, will help you to better understand ‘culture’ as it relates to intercultural competence. This chapter will also help you to consider your own cultural identity which is key to developing intercultural competence. Learning outcomes: By reading this chapter and completing the tasks, you will be able to: • • • • • • •

Describe what we mean by the term culture; Compare and contrast objective and subjective culture; Describe the ways in which symbols might impact intercultural interactions; Identify some major cultural dimensions proposed by mainstream theorists; Distinguish between personal and social identity; Describe how personal and social identity relate to intercultural competence; Analyze aspects of your own cultural background.

As alluded to in Chap. 1, intercultural competence (IC) is a complex and not well understood concept. One primary reason is that the word culture itself is not well defined. Studied by scholars in such fields as sociology, psychology, and anthropology, at least 160 different definitions of culture had developed by the 1950s (Kroeber and Kluckhohn 1952) but today there are even more. Today, there is disagreement not just about the definition of culture but on the extent to which cultural differences should be highlighted when explaining IC. Some argue that focusing too much upon cultural differences creates an essentialist view or in essence stereotypes © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 C. Lantz-Deaton and I. Golubeva, Intercultural Competence for College and University Students, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57446-8_2

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people from different cultures. This means that it encourages seeing all people from particular cultures as the same. Our aim is not to essentialize or stereotype, and we clearly recognize that within any culture there will be variation between individuals. However, we believe that understanding general differences between cultures as they have been historically studied and identified by comparative (cross-cultural) research (Hall 1966, 1983; Hofstede 1984; Hofstede et al. 2010) can help us to understand the variation we see in human behavior and ultimately support the development of IC. We will explain more specifically why we believe this to be later in the chapter. The purpose of this chapter is to explore culture in some detail since understanding this complex concept is key to understanding the development of IC. As well as proposing a definition of culture for the purposes of our book, this chapter will consider different aspects of culture, both those that are readily apparent and those that are not. It will consider what primary aspects of culture, as identified by research, impact relationships between those from different cultures particularly broad cultural differences that are found between national borders (Hall 1966, 1983; Hofstede 1984; Hofstede et al. 2010). Finally, it will examine more closely the development of personal and social identities and how these relate to intercultural competence. Before you read any further, however, please take a moment to reflect upon what you believe culture to be in Thought Box 2.1. Do not worry about getting the right answer; just write down the first things that come to mind. Thought Box 2.1 Defining culture How would you define the word culture? What in your view are the most important aspects of culture?

Culture: How Is It Defined? Culture is a term that baffles not only scholars but the general public. Some people have rather a narrow view of culture and think that it pertains simply to the arts and involves the theatre, music, and museums. Some have referred to this as high culture (Williams 1983). Thus, if there is a town or village that lacks theatres or art museums, some may say that the local community is lacking in culture. However, nothing could be further from the truth. While theatre and the arts can be expressions of culture, culture exists in every community whether there are art museums or theatres.

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Some people think that culture mainly relates to popular culture. Popular culture refers to products, music, fashion, books, films and television shows that are well liked by large numbers of people within a population (McGaha 2015). For instance, Britain’s Got Talent is a very popular television show in the UK being watched by millions annually while Hidden Worlds is similarly popular in Egypt. Some popular culture takes on a global appeal representing what people buy, listen to, watch or read throughout the world. For example, Starbucks coffee can be found on six continents in at least 75 countries (Starbucks 2019). Popular culture reflects the more obvious aspects of culture—aspects that are readily visible. It can reflect global tastes for products like coffee or soft drinks from global companies, but it can also reflect national or regional tastes in relation to food preferences, styles of dress, and so on. For example, rice and fish tend to be more prevalent on dinner tables in Japan, while pasta and pizza are more common in Italy. While these are indicators of culture, they make up the more superficial aspects of culture. Some theorists (e.g., Berger and Luckmann 1966) identify these as aspects of objective culture, that is, parts of culture that are readily identifiable, that can be seen and defined. In addition to music, cuisine and art, these more superficial aspects of culture can also include political and economic systems (Berger and Luckmann 1966). However, there are other aspects of culture which sometimes are less apparent but are more important to IC development. These aspects, which are referred to as subjective culture, include factors such as beliefs, values and behaviors which evolve within societies over time based upon shared experiences (Berger and Luckmann 1966). They are considered subjective because members of cultural communities subjectively interpret behaviors, beliefs and values and emphasize and support them to greater or lesser degrees. One example useful in illustrating objective and subjective culture is the wearing of a headscarf. In certain communities, Muslim women commonly wear headscarves. We might blithely classify this as objective culture since we can see it and certainly in some ways it is objective. But could it also be subjective? Is there an implicit or hidden meaning behind headscarves? If we look further, we find that there is. Headscarves involve a belief system that relates to modesty, family orientation, and spirituality and it is these cultural beliefs and values associated with the wearing of the headscarf that have an impact on the way people think, react, and behave. Understanding the meaning behind the headscarf then is far more important in developing intercultural competence than simply the recognition of a headscarf as a marker of participating in the Muslim community. The same is true more generally in considering subjective culture—it is the subjective aspects of culture that are more important in relation to developing IC. Before reading on, take a moment to reflect on objective and subject culture in Thought Box 2.2.

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Thought Box 2.2 Objective and subjective culture Can you explain the way that a national flag can be considered both an objective and subjective aspect of culture?

The iceberg (Hall 1977) has been a popular metaphor to help us to understand the layers of culture. When looking at an iceberg, you see a large formation of ice above the surface of a body of water just as we imagine that culture is about the objective aspects of culture, or those that are readily visible or identifiable (e.g., headscarves, food preferences, flags). However, when you look beneath the surface of the water, you see that the iceberg’s mass under the water is much larger than what is above the water, so it forms a much larger portion of the iceberg. Similarly, we often do not see the subjective aspects of culture (e.g., meanings, beliefs, values) which make up the larger and more important aspects of cultural difference. Just as the iceberg is larger beneath the surface, so too are the subjective aspects of culture which are largely what impact relationships with people from different cultures. Therefore, to understand intercultural competence, you need to recognize that important cultural differences are what lie beneath the surface. This involves not only meanings, but a complex constellation of social norms, symbols, traditions, beliefs, and values held to greater and lesser degrees by different cultural groups. Unfortunately, very often people do not bother to go below the surface to truly understand what makes a person from another culture different. However, this is precisely what is needed to develop higher levels of intercultural competence. The above text reviewed the difference between objective and subjective aspects of culture and how subjective culture is less apparent but more important in your quest to improve your IC. However, the question remains regarding how we define culture. Before we move on with defining the concept of culture, please complete the task in Thought Box 2.3.

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Thought Box 2.3 Comparing and contrasting definitions of culture Please do an internet search or check the literature in your library for various definitions of culture. Collect at least five different examples and record them below. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. What do these definitions have in common? How are they different? Consider: communication, symbols, group identity, value and beliefs, power, social norms, etc.

With so many definitions of culture suggested in the literature, it is difficult to pinpoint a singular definition. However, one definition that embodies elements found in many scholarly definitions is that culture is “the set of attitudes, values, beliefs, and behaviors shared by a group of people, but different for each individual, communicated from one generation to the next” (Matsumoto 1996, p.16). Reading this definition, it should be apparent that essentially individuals become members of cultural communities by interacting with those in their communities. Through these interactions they can develop an understanding of both explicit (obvious) and implicit (hidden) rules for what is acceptable in terms of behaviors, values, and beliefs. These rules are what psychologists refer to as social norms (Sherif 1936). Social norms can be categorized as subjective cultural differences. While we have made the distinction between objective and subjective culture, some researchers make further distinctions; that is between two layers of subjective culture including intermediate and deep culture. We now turn to distinguishing between these layers of culture by reconsidering the layers of the metaphorical iceberg. Referring to the iceberg model, while objective or superficial culture lies above the surface, Ting-Toomey (1999) suggests that intermediate culture lies below the surface and is made up of symbols, meanings, and norms. Within any cultural community, there are shared sets of social norms or rules that a group has for defining what is and is not acceptable in terms of behaviors, values, and beliefs. For example, in Christian churches, when you come to worship, you typically walk in and take your seat in a pew. However, in Buddhist temples, it is more typical to take off your shoes

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when you are entering and then to sit on the floor. Such behaviors are examples of social norms. Norms such as these develop over time and may be explicit, so they are written down and children are instructed as to what to do, or they may be implicit, so that everyone understands them without discussion. Norms around levels of eye contact, for instance, are an example of an implicit norm. In Western countries like the US, using a lot of eye contact is expected when in conversation with others. Not using eye contact is typically construed as negative and suspicious. However, in Eastern countries like Japan, a lot of direct eye contact, particularly with those who are senior to oneself can be considered disrespectful. Thus, in whatever culture you participate in you will have acquired—at least to some degree—explicit and implicit understandings in relation to social norms. Consider social norms a little more carefully in Thought Box 2.4. Thought Box 2.4 Implicit and explicit norms Reflecting upon your own cultural background, can you think of an example of implicit and explicit norms that you have learned from your culture?

Cultural norms are learned, usually, from our family members or others in your community. If, for example, you were born in China or Ukraine and were adopted by a US-American couple as a new-born baby, you will perceive as a norm the USAmerican culture, in which you grew up and were socialized. This is a process of symbolic transmission. Symbols are defined by Hofstede and colleagues (2010, p. 8) as “words, gestures, pictures, or objects that carry a particular meaning that is recognized as such only by those who share the culture”. For example, verbal communication is symbolic. Languages serve as symbols with the use of different languages between people from different cultures sometimes facilitating understanding, or sometimes leading to misunderstanding, each other. However, even when cultures share the same language, the same words can have different meanings. UK and US English, for instance, have many differences. A student from the UK who has just arrived in the US and orders fish and chips at a café may be surprised to be given potato chips with her fish rather than what she expects which is what is known in the US as french fries! Many other such differences exist. For instance, in the US, athletic shoes are sneakers while in the UK they are trainers. The phone that you carry around with you everywhere in the US is a cell while in the UK it is a mobile. In the UK students put full stops at the end of a sentence whereas in the US they put periods.

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Linguistic differences aside, symbols also relate to nonverbal communication. More than half a century ago, anthropologist Edward T. Hall published The Silent Language (1959) which became highly influential in the field of Intercultural Communication (Rogers and Hart 2002). Hall was one of the first scholars to carry out systematic empirical studies and classification of nonverbal communication. Hall defined nonverbal communication as communication that does not involve the exchange of words. The example relating to eye contact mentioned earlier in this chapter is an example of both nonverbal communication and symbolic culture but there are a wide variety of other nonverbal symbols that can be interpreted in different ways depending upon culture. Symbols conveyed through nonverbal communication typically include communication through facial expressions such as smiles and frowns; tone of voice, pitch, and loudness; gestures such as hand movements, winking and nodding; body position such as arm and leg crossing, and how one is seated; touch, as well as eye gaze, movement and blinking (Knapp et al. 2014). Differences in the meaning of gestures are quite common. For example, in many countries (including the US, UK, Hungary, Russia, etc.) when people say “yes” they nod their head up and down, and when they say “no”, they shake their head from side to side. In Bulgaria, the nonverbal signals are the exact opposite: when Bulgarians say “yes”, they shake their head from side to side, and when they say “no”, they nod their head up and down. Moreover, in India, for instance, people have a special head moving gesture for “yes-no-maybe”, a kind of a loose shake which can leave people outside of the Indian culture somewhat confused. Hand gestures are another often misunderstood nonverbal symbol. For instance, there is a hand-purse gesture formed by holding the fingers strait up and the thumb of the hand also held up so that the finger-tips touch. This has different meanings in different cultures. While it means nothing in the US, in Italy it means, “What are you trying to say?”. In Tunisia it means “slow down” while in Spain it means “good” and in Malta it means “you may seem as if you are good, but actually you are bad” (Aronson et al. 2018, p. 111). Other nonverbal behaviors that can cause misunderstanding vary but include things such as eye contact and gaze, personal space and touching, the thumbs-up gesture, and other hand and head gestures. Misinterpretation of meaning between some symbols can be confusing and result in stress and misunderstanding or can be humorous depending upon how they are interpreted by the participants. Others can be considered downright offensive such as when former US President George Bush made the hand gesture which is known as peace in the United States (two fingers pointed upwards in a V) to an Australian crowd (Apanews 1992). This hand gesture in Australia is understood as a rather insulting “up yours”. Reflect a little further on your experiences with nonverbal behavior in Thought Box 2.5.

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Thought Box 2.5 Cultural differences in nonverbal behavior Can you think of a time or give an example of when you encountered a difference in nonverbal behavior that you believe was related to culture? What happened? How did you explain the difference at the time? Does what you know now influence how you interpret behaviors you do not understand?

Something to keep in mind in relation to cultural differences is that symbols can be interpreted differently or given different meanings by people from the very same culture. Thus, interpretation—as we mentioned earlier—is subjective. For instance, a country’s flag, an artefact of objective culture explored in Thought Box 2.5, may arouse different reactions in different people and may therefore, also be seen as representing subjective culture (Ting-Toomey 1999). Some might feel patriotic while others might view it with shame or believe that it symbolizes oppression or excessive nationalism. Thus, it cannot be assumed that all aspects of culture are interpreted the same way by all members of a particular cultural group.

Levels of Culture: How Do I Know if It Is Deep or Shallow? Beyond social norms, symbols, and meanings is what some describe as deep culture which has more to do with cultural traditions, beliefs, and values (Ting-Toomey 1999). Again, deep culture holds the potential to influence relationships more so than superficial aspects of culture. Beliefs are attitudes that we have towards something that we take to be true (Schwitzgebel 2016). Cultural beliefs then are fundamental assumptions that we make about the world according to our cultural communities. They could include beliefs related to spirituality and religion or the meaning of life and death among other things. Cultural beliefs are often related to cultural traditions which are ceremonies, rituals and myths that pass down through societal members (Ting-Toomey 1999). Both the celebration of Hanukkah for many from a Jewish background and Ramadan for many of those from a Muslim background are cultural traditions that are founded upon cultural beliefs. However, the celebration of the Chinese New Year for many Chinese, and Thanksgiving for many Americans are also cultural traditions. Again, in some ways these can be more superficial or objective

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aspects of culture, but it is the meaning behind these traditions and beliefs that is important. Values are what we tend to think of as those things that we hold close to our hearts or are very important to us. Theories regarding values (Schwartz et al. 2006; Schwartz 1994) suggest that values can be thought of as beliefs that are related to strong feelings. For instance, if you place a high value on independence, you may feel despair when your independence is compromised. Values also relate to goals that motivate our actions. For instance, if you value helping others, you will be motivated to pursue goals which allow you to help others. Values also serve as standards by which to judge your own and others’ behavior. Cultural values tell you what is right and wrong in a given situation. Values operate at the individual level; that is, we each hold values that are perhaps slightly different from the next person even within the same culture. However, values are found to vary at the societal level, with greater numbers of people in one culture valuing for instance, self-direction while greater numbers of people from another culture value tradition. Understanding broader cultural values can help to explain people’s behavior and priorities. For instance, Asian Americans are sometimes seen as more achievement oriented (Thompson and Kiang 2010). That is, pursuit of higher education and professional careers may be more often prioritized and valued within this cultural group so that children are expected to move away from home to pursue better educational and career opportunities. For those who value achievement, this seems like the obvious choice. However, what if achievement is not a high value? What if family cohesiveness is a higher value? Hispanic Americans are often thought of as placing a higher value on family (Kane 1998). Thus, spending time with and supporting family may be seen as more important, so that staying near family is prioritized over moving away to pursue better educational and job opportunities. And, thus staying close to home seems the obvious choice because of the prioritization in values. The differences in values between people are a key to explaining the behavior of others as well as our own behavior. While values exist on an individual level, they also exist to varying degrees on a cultural level because we are all influenced to some extent by the culture(s) in which we participate. To be sure, in any cultural group there exists wide variation in cultural values as we have discussed, and it is never acceptable to assume that all people from a given cultural group hold the same values. Again, some would object to looking at broad cultural patterns and suggest that they essentialize or stereotype people. However, statistically speaking, there is still some truth to these broad cultural patterns. As a group, citizens of the US tend to value independence more so than people from Asian countries, although there is variation in both. Thus, being aware of broad cultural patterns can help us to understand behavior that is different from our own and to enhance intercultural competence if used carefully, keeping in mind variation in values between members of cultural communities. Following Hofstede (2001, p.10), cultural identity can be identified through answering the question “Where do I belong?” and involves emotions of being linked to (a) particular group(s). Part of the variation that we observe in cultural identity reflects individual differences as well as differences in our life circumstances. For

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example, while all people who grow up in England will have a feeling of what it is to be English, this feeling may be very different based upon such factors as being male, female, or other; white, black, or other; heterosexual, homosexual, or other; from a two parent, a single parent household, or other. Personality may also play a role in influencing our cultural identity as will the extent to which you have lived in one country. From a national perspective, ultimately, your own cultural identity may be tied closely to your home country or may be quite different or be somewhere in between. But it will very much depend on the context in which you find yourself and how much you perceive your cultural identity through the country of your origin. Hofstede (2001, p. 10) illustrates this with his personal example: “At home, I feel Dutch and very different from other Europeans, such as Belgians and Germans; in Asia or the United States, we all feel like Europeans” (Hofstede 2001, p.10). Furthermore, if you have lived in multiple countries, your cultural identity may be diffused or aligned with different countries. Reflect for a moment on your experience of your national cultural identity in Thought Box 2.6. Thought Box 2.6 Cultural identity How closely do you identify with the culture that you view as your national culture(s) of origin? Do you feel patriotic and happy to be from this (these) country (countries)? Or do you feel as if you do not have (a) strong affiliation? How do you explain the strength of your affiliation(s)?

The exercise in Thought Box 2.6 helped you to reflect on your cultural identity and how closely you affiliate yourself with the cultural values typical in the country or countries that you would call home. The topic of values and value differences could be a chapter in its own right. However, we limit ourselves here to discussing several values that have been identified by large scale research as influencing interactions between people from different cultures. They are not the only values which influence interactions, but they are very well known and will give you a clearer sense of how values might impact behavior and in turn your view of other people. However, do keep in mind that there is always variation that exists within cultural communities.

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Deep Culture: What Are the Common Values? There are many values associated with deep culture. Various scholars have made attempts to describe these values through cultural dimensions (Hall 1966; Hofstede 1984; Hofstede et al. 2010; House et al. 2004; Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck 1961; Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner 1997). Although the concept of cultural dimensions is often criticized for its dichotomous “either/or” nature, if you recognize them as clearly not dichotomous but as a continuum, and you use them not as “prescriptions”, they can help you to understand the complexity of your own and other cultures. It is important to note that these value orientations, or cultural dimensions, particularly Hofstede’s (Hofstede 1984; Hofstede et al. 2010) and those developed by the GLOBE (House et al. 2004), were identified through research involving thousands of employees working in companies around the world, and therefore, are more relevant to business and organizational communication in different nations. Nevertheless, these dimensions represent some of the first studies which systematically compared a wide range of cultural groups that have applicability in understanding interactions that occur across cultures within and outside the workplace as well as developing intercultural competence. For example, Hofstede’s theories have been applied to cultural differences in schools and universities (e.g., Cortina et al. 2017). Some of the earliest work on understanding cultural values was carried out by Edward T. Hall. His book The Silent Language (1959) sparked a raft of research on context in relation to intercultural communication which has to do with the value that people place on direct versus indirect communication. In addition to the work of Hofstede, we will also discuss the work of Hall in some depth. Hofstede (Hofstede 1984; Hofstede et al. 2010) developed his theory of cultural dimensions based on data collected at IBM, one of the largest multinational companies in the world. Hofstede’s initial analysis (Hofstede 1984) suggested that there are four primary dimensions to cultural values including: individualism (IDV), power distance (PDI), uncertainty avoidance (UAI), and masculinity (MAS) with the latter ones developed including long-term and short-term orientation (LTO/STO), and Indulgence (IND) (Hofstede et al. 2010). Further studies across sixty-two nations provided further evidence to support his theory (see House et al. 2004). These cultural dimensions will also be examined. The GLOBE study (House et al. 2004) looked at the cultural dimensions of leadership and organizations of 62 different societies spanning 10 regions of the world. The study examined nine dimensions of culture (six of which originated from Hofstede’s cultural dimensions): (1) assertiveness, (2) future orientation, (3) gender egalitarianism, (4) humane orientation, (5) institutional collectivism, (6) ingroup collectivism, (7) performance orientation, (8) power distance, and (9) uncertainty avoidance. Although we will not discuss this work in depth, we recommend that you consult Chhokar, Brodbeck, and House (2007, p. 3–4) for more details.

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Context: High Versus Low Edward Hall’s research suggests that cultures can be thought of in terms of the extent to which messages are conveyed in direct versus indirect ways. As with other value dimensions, high and low context culture should be viewed as a continuum, not as a dichotomy. However, before we explain this dimension, to help you get an idea of high and low context in relation to culture, please consider the scenario in Thought Box 2.7. Thought Box 2.7 High versus low context scenario I At a small university in South America, students are given a somewhat vague verbal assignment by a lecturer to write a 10-page paper on symphonic poetry which will be due sometime before the end of the term. After class, an exchange student from the United States who has recently arrived approaches the lecturer and begins asking a lot of detailed questions such as what size the font should be, if there is a word count, how many references to include, when the exact deadline is, which symphonies can be addressed by the paper and so on. The lecturer becomes tired of all the questions and excuses himself. How might this scenario be related to high and low context cultural values? Do you prefer to have a lot of details or are you okay with reading between the lines?

Hall (1977) described cultures as falling into two domains, high and low context. In high context cultures, people tend to communicate in ways that convey messages implicitly so that much of the message is implied. In high-context cultures, messages cannot be understood clearly without background knowledge. In such cultures, relationships can take a while to develop and depend upon trust. In high-context cultures, there are a variety of contextual elements that facilitate people in understanding the rules. As a result, there is a lot taken for granted or assumed. This can be very confusing for a person who does not understand the ‘unwritten rules’ of the culture. Metaphors may often be used and reading between the lines is essential. Much communication in high-context cultures tends to be nonverbal and people tend to be process- rather than product-oriented. In other words, relationships are important, and time is open and flexible. Middle East, Asia, Africa, South America, and American Indian have been thought to be more high-context cultures although some have speculated that high-context cultures make up most of the world (70%) (Tung 1995). Alternatively, in low-context cultures, people communicate in ways that convey messages explicitly so that the message is laid out in detail. In a low-context culture,

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very little is taken for granted. Whilst this means that more explanation is needed, it also means there is less chance of misunderstanding particularly when visitors are present. The focus tends to be on verbal communication more so than body language and people tend to focus upon the outcome as opposed to the process with time being highly organized. North America and much of Western Europe tend to be more low-context cultures. Differences in values around this dimension can cause a variety of problems. There are many stories in the intercultural community that relate to this dimension. One, for instance, describes how Japanese business executives (high-context) sat down with executives from the US (low-context) to come to a business agreement. Early in the meeting US executives presented their Japanese colleagues with a 50-page document detailing a possible agreement. The US executives were bewildered when the Japanese terminated the meeting and all future negotiations because to them relationship building was more important, and they found the early presentation of such a detailed contract inappropriate. Before moving to the next topic, consider the scenario in Thought Box 2.8 and see if you can decide how high and low context relates to the situation presented CNBC (2014). Thought Box 2.8 High versus low context scenario II Former President of the United States, Jimmy Carter, will be remembered in part for his contribution to Middle East peace, and the work he did on a Treaty between Egypt and Israel. In an interview (CNBC 2014), he said that after almost two weeks of negotiations at Camp David, the peace agreement was not looking promising because the Prime Minister of Israel, Begin, was “so adamant about not removing his Israeli settlements from Egyptian territory”. Begin had already planned to leave Camp David but asked before he left if Jimmy Carter would sign some photographs for his eight grandchildren. Jimmy Carter could have just put his autograph, but instead he asked his secretary to get the names of all Begin’s eight grandchildren and signed each of the photos: “with love and best wishes to” adding the names of each. Carter clearly remembered that moment: “He was quite angry with me at the time. He just said, ‘Thank you Mr. President.’ But he called out the name of his first grandchild, and then he called out the name of his second grandchild and he had tears running down his cheeks and so did I. Then he said in effect why don’t we try one more time, and so we tried one more time...” The Egypt–Israel Peace Treaty was signed that day in 1979.

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Do you think this incident played a positive role in changing Begin’s position? Can you explain through the perspective of high versus low context culture, why Carter’s behavior was perceived in a positive way by Begin?

Identity: Individualism Versus Collectivism According to (Hofstede 1984; Hofstede et al. 2010), IDV is the most salient dimension of his theory and is influential in shaping our sense of self. Broadly, people who are more individualistic tend to hold values that emphasize one’s individual identity. Individualism is self-promotional and endorses values such as freedom, honesty, social recognition, comfort, competition, and personal responsibility. Links between people in individualistic societies tend to be weak with people tending to look out for themselves and their immediate family. Cultures that Hofstede’s studies have found to lean towards individualism include the US, Australia, the UK, Canada, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Italy, Belgium, Denmark, and Sweden (Hofstede et al. 2010). Of course, marking countries as being of this or that cultural value, as we know, is not entirely accurate. Especially, in the era of global migration when most of the countries (including those listed above) have undergone major demographic changes and are not monocultural anymore. Alternatively, some cultures tend to be more collectivist in nature holding values that emphasize the group rather than the individual. Collectivism promotes group connection, harmony, face saving, filial piety or honoring parent’s wishes, equally distributing rewards, cooperation, and attending to the needs of others (Triandis 1995). Links between people outside of one’s family in collectivist societies tend to be closer with group members viewing themselves as interdependent with one another. Cultures that are found to be more collectivist include those found across Asia, Africa, the Middle East, Central and South America and the Pacific Islands, for example, Guatemala, Ecuador, Panama, Venezuela, Colombia, Indonesia, Pakistan, Costa Rica, and Peru (Hofstede et al. 2010). To help you think about your orientation to IDV, complete the brief assessment in Box 2.1 before reading on.

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Box 2.1 Individualism versus collectivism orientation Consider each of the following statements and answer ‘yes’ or ‘no’. 1. I like being independent and tend to rely on myself. 2. When fellow students or co-workers are recognized for good work, I feel proud of them. 3. I excel when I work on my own. 4. Taking care of family members is important even if I must sacrifice what I want. 5. I prefer it when my work stands out as better than others. 6. I think it is important to honor the decision made by my group. 7. There is nothing wrong with a little competition between people. 8. I like working with others as part of a team. Adapted from Triandis and Gelfland (1998).

Box 2.1 is a brief and very basic assessment of your orientation towards IDV. If you answered mostly ‘yes’ to odd numbered questions and mostly ‘no’ to the even numbered questions, you are likely to be more oriented towards individualism. If the reverse is true, then you are likely to be more oriented towards collectivism. Keep in mind that this is a basic assessment and is not definitive. As well, it is likely that you fall somewhere on a continuum and are not one or the other. There are many examples that can illustrate differences between individualistic and collectivist cultures. One having roots in the African Ubuntu philosophy and told as part of a story by Calm (www.calm.com) describes an anthropologist studying a tribe in Africa. Working with a group of children from the tribe, one day he asked the children to line up for a race. About 20 meters away he placed a basket full of candy. He told the children that when he shouted “Go!”, they should race to the basket and the first one there would be the winner of the candy. The children lined up and eagerly bounced up and down waiting to begin. When the anthropologist yelled “go” the children began running but quickly reached from side to side and joined hands as they ran. Arriving at the same time they claimed the basket together laughing and sharing the candy. Surprised by the turn of events, the anthropologist asked the children why they had run together instead of one of them trying to win the basket themselves as would be the common approach in his more individualistic culture. They replied, “How can one of us be happy when the rest are sad?” Simply put, their approach to the game was more collectivist than what the more individualistic anthropologist anticipated. Differences in individualistic versus collectivist approaches can cause a variety of difficulties in interactions in different areas of life. For instance, consider a group of students, some from England and some from China, who are asked by a lecturer to work together on a presentation. The Chinese students may view the task as more collectivist and recognize the need to work together whereas, the British students might prefer to work on their own. This could understandably cause frustration for the Chinese students who want to work as a group and do well on the presentation.

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Equally, British students might feel frustrated having to depend upon other people to complete the work. A meta-analytic study by Karau and Williams (1993) indeed found cultural differences in students’ approach to group work across many studies. Before leaving the topic of individualism and collectivism, reflect on your own views in relation to group work by considering the scenario in Thought Box 2.9. Thought Box 2.9 Individualism and group work If you are asked at college or university to work in a group, is this something you look forward to or do you prefer to work on your own? Do you think your cultural background can help to explain your preference? Why or why not?

Holding Power: Small Versus Large Distance The power distance dimension (PDI) of Hofstede’s (1984) Hofstede et al. (2010) theory relates to the extent to which people view power as something to be held by a select few versus power being equally distributed. Those who are in favor of small power distance prefer equality not just in power but in rights, relationships, rewards, and punishments. Low power-distance equates to pursuit of equality of personal rights. Essentially, people should be judged on their performance rather than their position. Alternatively, those who favor a large power distance tend to be accepting of unequal power distributions, hierarchies and rewards and punishments administered in relation to factors such as seniority, status, title, and age. Essentially, they believe that people should be judged mainly on their position. High powerdistance equates to the pursuit of hierarchical systems as paramount. According to Hofstede, Australia, Israel, Denmark, New Zealand, Ireland, Sweden and Norway are examples of countries that have smaller power distance scores while Malaysia, Guatemala, Panama, the Philippines, Mexico, Venezuela, and Arab countries have larger power distance scores (Hofstede 2001; Hofstede and McCrae 2004). To help you think about your orientation to PDI, complete the brief assessment in Box 2.2 before reading on.

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Box 2.2 Power distance orientation Consider each of the following statements and answer ‘yes’ or ‘no’. 1. Children should always obey their parents. 2. It is good for lecturers to ask for feedback from students. 3. People with seniority in the workplace should be respected even if their views and actions are at times wrong. 4. All people are equal and should be asked to contribute to decisions, even if some are lower in status. 5. It is okay for the leaders of nations to be above the law due to their senior level roles. 6. Everyone should be judged and rewarded by the same standards. 7. It is not okay to call a lecturer by their first name. 8. Students can learn from each other not just from lecturers. Box 2.2 is again a very brief and basic assessment of your orientation towards PDI. If you answered mostly ‘yes’ to odd numbered questions and mostly ‘no’ to the even numbered questions, you are likely to favor a large power distance. If the reverse is true, then you are likely to favor a small power distance. Again, keep in mind that this is a basic assessment and is not definitive. As with IDV, it is likely that you fall somewhere on a continuum and are not one or the other. Power distance can create difficulties in interactions and has been highlighted as a factor in contributing to, for example, unsatisfactory collaborations between physicians and pharmacists. A study by Rieck (2014) found that a large power distance served as a barrier in these relationships because physicians perceived pharmacists as not having the required knowledge and experience to improve physicians’ decisions regarding patient treatment. Before moving to the discussion of the next cultural dimension, consider the scenario in Thought Box 2.10 and see if you can decide how PDI relates to the situation presented. Thought Box 2.10 Power distance scenario At some colleges and universities, lecturers are expected to lecture and not be questioned or ask students to contribute their views to lectures. Further, they may not be subject to student evaluations of their performance. In other places, lecturers are viewed as facilitating learning by getting students to ask questions, participate and learn from each other not just from the lecturer. Further, they are subject to regular evaluations by students. What are the practices at your university? Do you agree or disagree with them? How do these practices reflect PDI at your institution?

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Uncertainty Avoidance: Risk Taker Versus Risk Avoider The Uncertainty Avoidance (UAI) dimension of Hofstede’s theory (Hofstede 1984; Hofstede et al. 2010) relates to the way in which cultures take risks and approach conflict. Before we explain UAI, please complete Box 2.3 to get an idea of your orientation on this value dimension. Box 2.3 Uncertainty avoidance orientation Consider each of the following statements and answer ‘yes’ or ‘no’. 1. It would be better if there were no conflicts at school or work. 2. Dealing with unexpected situations can be quite energizing at times. 3. I prefer to do tasks that are familiar rather than trying something new. 4. It’s okay if my lecturer says they don’t know something. 5. In class, I like to have tasks clearly set and to know what to expect. 6. If I have a disagreement with someone, I prefer to just get it out in the open and discuss it.

Like the earlier exercises, Box 2.3 will give you an idea of your orientation towards UAI. If you answered mostly ‘yes’ to odd numbered questions and mostly ‘no’ to the even numbered questions, you are likely to be higher on uncertainty avoidance meaning that you like things to be stable and predictable. If the reverse is true, then you are likely to be lower on uncertainty avoidance meaning that you tend to enjoy change and flexibility. Those low in UAI are more likely to take risks and to approach conflict directly. If co-workers do not agree on a work matter, for instance, and they are low on UAI, their tendency will be to get the disagreement out in the open and discuss it directly. Similarly, people low on UAI tend to embrace change and may even find it stimulating. Research suggests that low uncertainty avoidance cultures include for example Singapore, Jamaica, Denmark, Sweden, and Hong Kong (Hofstede et al. 2010). Alternatively, those strong or high in UAI are rather the opposite. They are less likely to address situations directly. If a disagreement arises, it may be ignored or addressed indirectly with nonverbal gestures or metaphors or addressed by using more distant measures such as formal policies and procedures. They are less open to change and prefer structure and clear rules and guidelines. Research suggests that cultures strong or high in uncertainty avoidance include (but are not limited to) Greece, Portugal, Guatemala, Uruguay, Belgium, and Japan (Hofstede et al. 2010). The tendencies to directly versus indirectly address conflict can cause problems. A person whose score is low on uncertainty avoidance is likely to want to discuss the problem and resolve it, whereas the person whose score is high on uncertainty avoidance will prefer evoking formal policies and procedures to deal with the problem rather than confront it directly as conflict is unpalatable. Another way that differences in UAI can cause difficulties in interactions relates to risk taking. For example, often

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organizations hire new employees to provide fresh perspectives. A new hire who is low on uncertainty avoidance is more likely to want to be innovative and take risks perhaps trying a new management style or reorganizing existing systems. This might be met with resistance, however, from other employees if they are strong on UAI and would prefer to avoid taking risks and stick with what has traditionally been done. The adage “if it ain’t broke, don’t fix it” comes to mind. Before leaving the topic of uncertainty avoidance, consider the scenario in Thought Box 2.11 and see if you can decide how it relates to the situation presented. Thought Box 2.11 Uncertainty avoidance scenario Congratulations! You have just graduated, and you have not one but two job offers! Company X is large and has been around for 30 years. It has clear policies and procedures. Employees get a good benefits package and you met many employees during your interview that have been there for a decade or more. The salary is not high but is enough to cover your expenses. Company Y is a start-up that has only been around for two years. The company’s president broke away from a company she worked for 10 years to start it. So far, it’s looking good with the number of employees growing every six months. There is no HR department, although employees are well paid because overheads are low, but benefits should be introduced in the coming months. Given these offers, which job do you choose and why? How, if at all, does your decision relate to UAI?

If Company X would be your choice, this means that you are more likely an “uncertainty avoider”, or—as an ancient Greek proverb borrowed by the English language says—“A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush” (compare to “A bird in the hand is worth a hundred in the sky” in Spanish; or to “A tomtit in the hands is better than a crane in the sky” in Russian, etc.). However, if you would choose Company Y, this means your tendency may be towards risk taking.

Gender Roles: Masculinity Versus Femininity The MAS dimension of Hofstede’s theory relates to male and female emotional rules (Hofstede 2011) assigned to these two genders. According to Hofstede, “Masculinity stands for a society in which social gender roles are clearly distinct: Men are supposed to be assertive, tough, and focused on material success; women are supposed to be more modest, tender, and concerned with the quality of life. Femininity stands for a society in which social gender roles overlap: Both men and women are supposed to be modest, tender, and concerned with the quality of life.” (2001, p. 297). Hofstede suggests that in the workplace, masculine cultures favor directness, efficiency, competition, and goal orientation. Conversely, feminine cultures favor

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service, cooperation, modesty, and looking after others. Feminine cultures also favor less differentiation of tasks based on gender so that men and women both take on similar tasks. However, in more masculine cultures, men and women have less overlap in tasks. Based upon Hofstede’s original dimensions, House et al. (2004) created a subdivision producing two concepts which include gender egalitarianism and assertiveness. Feminine cultures, House writes, are characterized by higher levels of egalitarianism with men and women perceived as being able to do the same things. Expectations regarding the behavior of men and women are also similar with both expected to be modest, observant, and tender and to be concerned about the world around them. Sweden, Norway, the Netherlands, Denmark, Costa Rica, Yugoslavia, and Finland are classified as being more feminine cultures (Hofstede 2001). Alternatively, House identifies cultures leaning towards masculinity in two ways. First, gender roles tend to be clearly delineated with less overlap. Men may for example, be the income earners while women stay at home and care for the family. Second, expectations are different with men expected to be assertive, masculine, tough and focused on carrying out tasks and gaining material success. Alternatively, women are expected to be modest, feminine, tender and focused more upon the quality of life. Japan, Venezuela, Italy, Switzerland, Mexico and Ireland are found to have more masculine cultures (Hofstede 2001). There are many ways in which masculine and feminine cultural tendencies play out. In cultures that are more masculine, there is more of a problem with discrimination against women in the workplace. For example, in Italy, a more masculine culture, just over 50% of women participate in the labour market while the rate is more than 70% for men showing more than a 20% participation gap. Other more femininely inclined countries, however, show much smaller differences between men and women. For instance, in Sweden about 82% of men are employed compared to about 79% of women (European Commission 2018). Another common feature of more feminine cultures is the tendency to emphasize equality and work-life balance for both men and women. This can be seen, for instance, in the UK where the government introduced optional paid paternity leave for fathers in 2003 (Gov.uk, n.d.). Sweden, being a highly feminine culture, according to Hofstede’s classification, is also a very feminist country as they have had paternity leave since 1974 and in 2002 they furthered the law so that parental leave had to be split between both parents or it would be lost. This change in the law was made to encourage more men to take paternity leave (Kelly 2016). While this dimension can be seen to have influence on a societal scale, on an individual level it can also cause difficulties. For instance, a man from a society that values masculinity may prefer his wife not to work and instead focus on taking care of home and family. If the wife is from a more feminine background, she may feel that working outside the home is more to her liking and that both parents can be responsible for child rearing. Thus, a conflict in values can erupt. Before leaving the topic of MAS, consider the scenario in Thought Box 2.12 and see if you can decide how MAS relates to the situation presented.

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Thought Box 2.12 Masculine versus feminine scenario Renata and Drake have just announced the birth of their twins, a boy, Jeremy, and a girl, Jemma. A friend brings the new infants some pajamas. Jemma’s are printed with pink flowers while Jeremy’s are printed with blue trucks. Renata is not happy with the pajamas and decides she wants to exchange them for two sets of identically stripped pajamas. Drake is rather baffled by her choice and thinks there is nothing wrong with pink for girls and blue for boys. How might this scenario relate to the MAS dimension? What do you think about dressing girls in pink flowers and boys in blue trucks? How would you characterize your upbringing in relation to the MAS dimension?

The solution to Thought Box 2.12 may or may not be evident to you but the situation suggests that Renata has more of a feminine orientation because she is concerned about dressing her children in a way that more feminist individuals would consider sexist (e.g., delicate, sweet girls should be dressed in flowers while rough and tumble boys should be decked out in trucks). She is clearly in favor of a more genderneutral approach. Alternatively, Drake who perhaps views roles as more gender specific leans the other way as he does not understand why dressing the babies in accordance with historic gender norms is a problem. There are two additional dimensions identified by Hofstede and others, which were added much later than those previously discussed and are based on significantly less data (Hofstede et al. 2010): Long-Term versus Short-Term Orientation (Hofstede and Bond 1988), and Indulgence versus Restrain (Hofstede et al. 2010) which we shall now review.

Time Orientation: Long-Term Versus Short-Term The long-term versus short-term time orientation (LTO) dimension of Hofstede’s theory relates to the extent to which societies value the past versus focusing upon the future (Hofstede and Bond 1988). Before we explain LTO, please take a moment to answer a few questions in Thought Box 2.13 to learn more about your orientation on this dimension.

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Thought Box 2.13 Long-term versus short-term orientation Let’s say you have an amount of money in your bank account equivalent to the price of a new car. You are a student and live in a rented apartment. You plan to buy your own property after you graduate from college and get a good job. How would you spend this money? Would you buy a new car or a used one? Would you save this money towards the down payment for your future mortgage, or you would spend it on travels, parties and holidays?

Do you think that your answers to these questions identify yourself as long-term or shortterm oriented person or someone in between? Why?

Hofstede and Bond (1988) connect this cultural dimension to Confucian values and suggest that it relates to preservation of face and fulfilling social obligation. If you have a more short-term orientation (STO), that suggests that you place a high value on traditions and reliability, as well as past and/or present experiences. Alternatively, if you have more of a long-term orientation (LTO) you will tend to be more orientated towards the future, adaptation and focusing upon long-term efforts rather than immediate gratification. In STO cultures, norms tend to be more fixed and stability is more appreciated, while in LTO cultures norms depend on the situation and circumstances. LTO cultures are willing to learn from other countries. Alternatively, STO cultures tend to be proud of their own countries and don’t view change as required or particularly good. In LTO countries to resolve a conflict people tend to seek common sense solutions and are more willing to compromise, while in STO countries, when two opinions oppose each other, often there cannot be a “middle way”. LTO views have been found in East Asian countries such as China, Hong Kong and Japan, whereas English speaking countries, Africa and Latin America tend towards STO views In STO countries, as in the United States, people are more likely to spend than to save, which may explain why the world financial crisis had such a disastrous impact on US-American families. In LTO countries people tend to invest in real estate which

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represent more long-term gains, whereas in STO countries people tend to invest in mutual funds which can provide more short-term gains (see Hofstede et al. 2010, p. 266). The United States is a typical example of STO culture. According to Hofstede, many Americans make a very clear difference between “good” and “evil” and feel strongly about it. A good illustration of this in the US context are the debates around abortion, use of guns and drugs, etc. In STO cultures we also find more fundamentalism: religious, ideological, and/or political (Hofstede et al. 2010). Many Islamic countries are identified as having a more short-term orientation, as well (see Hofstede et al. 2010, p. 257–258).

Freedom: Indulgence Versus Restraint The Indulgence-Restraint dimension (IND) of Hofstede’s theory (Hofstede et al. 2010) relates to the extent to which societies view themselves as having the freedom to fulfill their desires versus the need to control themselves within society. Before we explain this dimension more fully, please take a moment to answer a few questions in Thought Box 2.14 to learn more about your orientation on this dimension. Thought Box 2.14 Indulgence versus restraint scenario An assignment is due next week, and you were planning to spend the entire weekend working on it. However, friends invite you out for an evening. Do you stay in and work on the assignment or go out with your friends? Do you believe your answer reflects the IND dimension? Why or why not?

Societies that are more indulgent tend to allow people to enjoy life and have fun. Alternatively, societies that are more restrained have stricter social norms requiring people to conduct themselves in a more controlled manner with less of a priority placed on leisure and enjoyment. There is more emphasis on getting down to the business of life rather than having fun (Hofstede et al. 2010). For instance, in some Eastern European countries such as Russia where restraint is important, there is less emphasis placed upon leisure time whereas in some other countries, leisure time is highly valued and encouraged. Countries high in IND are reportedly located in Latin America, English speaking countries, and parts of Africa and Europe with more restraint found in East Asia, Eastern Europe and predominantly Muslim countries, although Hofstede notes that data is lacking for this dimension to some degree.

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Can These Broad Categories Really Help Us to Understand Cultural Values? An understanding of the dimensions described above will be useful to your learning in relation to IC. However, we would like to note five points in relation to these broad classifications. The first is that discussion of the dimensions above suggests that people or cultures belong in one camp (e.g., high context) or the other (e.g., low context). However, these dimensions should be viewed not as dichotomies as alluded to earlier but as continuums with individuals and societies falling somewhere in between. Countries which scored particularly high or low in one dimension or another are mentioned in the text. However, most countries were not mentioned at all because they fall somewhere in between suggesting that most are not extreme either way. The same point is relevant to individuals with some, for example, more individualistic, some more collectivist, and some in between. The second point to note is that culture is always evolving and changing. It is likely that the classifications of countries described above are already out of date. Additionally, with the forces of globalization this evolution may speed up so that these broad societal differences will eventually dissolve as the migration of people from different cultures to other cultures has an impact on national cultures. That said, these categorizations can still facilitate us in understanding values and navigating relationships across cultures although eventually they may be more relevant to individual differences rather than societal level differences. The third point to mention is that while we have been discussing dimensions of culture according to national boundaries, these dimensions of culture are relevant to groups other than those defined by nationality. Hofstede suggests that a variety of factors such as social class, social structure, gender, religion and ethnicity all influence value patterns across cultures. For example, in the US, findings suggest that males tend to be more individualistic and that females tend to be more community oriented (Wood 2009). The fourth point of note is that, while the dimensions of culture discussed above provide an indication of cultural values that are important in relation to IC, there are other dimensions related to cultural values which also have relevance. For example, Hall (1966, 1983) studied cultural perceptions of time and space in relation to understanding issues to do with communicating with people from different cultures. Why for instance, are some people so oriented to clocks and arriving places at particular times when others are more relaxed in terms of schedules? Such differences in time orientations can also cause difficulties when interacting across cultures. However, not all such dimensions of culture are included here because this guide is designed to be an introduction to topics relevant to IC, not a comprehensive text. However, we strongly encourage you to read beyond this guide to learn more about cultural variation in values. The last point of note is that we would like to reemphasize that these are broad cultural patterns but that they will not describe everyone from a particular culture. Just because someone comes from a particular country does not mean that they

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will exhibit dimensions associated with that country. For example, although Japan is found to be a more masculine culture, you may meet many Japanese people who are inclined towards feminism. Similarly, although Sweden has been identified as a more feminine culture, you may meet many Swedish people who are inclined towards masculinity. Thus, these theories are not presented to encourage you to stereotype or take an essentialist view by assuming that all people from all cultures act in a particular way, but to help you to understand the issues that may arise as a result of broad cultural value differences. In order to understand and interact with someone who is culturally different from you, it is important to try to understand their unique cultural background including the norms, symbols, meanings, and values that are important to them. In this way you will have an idea of what you might expect, you can more easily avoid causing offense, and you can better understand possible motivations behind behavior. This may seem impossible especially when people can belong to so many different cultures and it is relatively impossible to understand the vast array of cultural differences in the world. However, what is important here is being aware of why differences exist, getting an idea of what differences there might be and then being flexible and adaptable when confronted with differences. Flexibility and adaptability are key concepts in relation to IC and will be discussed in more detail later in the book.

Identity: What Are My Cultural Values? Your cultural values are unique to you and will be based upon the cultures that you have participated in throughout your life as suggested above. The exercises that you completed above under each of the value dimensions will help you to assess the extent to which those values are important to you. However, there are also many other values that will impact upon your interactions with other people. For example, (Schwartz 1994) identified ten value clusters including: self-direction, stimulation, hedonism, security, tradition, conformity, power, benevolence, achievement, and universalism. Thus, for a clearer understanding of your particular values and how they impact your behavior and interactions with others, we recommend that you spend some time considering what other values you hold dear and how they impact your behavior and interactions with others. To begin this process complete the self-reflective activity in Thought Box 2.15.

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Thought Box 2.15 Understanding your values 1. Can you recall a time when you decided to end a relationship with a friend? What was the reason? Were there values that you held that s/he did not respect?

or 2. Can you remember a time when you had to say “no” to a close friend? Why did you do so? Can you think of values that you held that influenced that decision?

If the values you mentioned in Thought Box 2.15 are so important to you that a conflict developed between you and your friend, this is likely to mean that they reflect your core values (your fundamental beliefs, and the principles you would not easily change). It is important to keep in mind that although these values are important to you, they may not be important to others and thus may cause disagreement or conflict.

Identity: How Is It Personal Versus Social? Up to this point, we have been discussing culture with an emphasis on highlighting the differences in national cultural values. However, culture is a much broader concept especially when it is thought of in relation to IC. It relates to the development of both personal and social identity. The following section defines and discusses both terms and relates them to how you interact with others. When you were born, you learned about yourself by observing your behavior, considering other people’s reactions to you and comparing yourself to others. Through this process you developed a personal identity or a set of beliefs about who you are which essentially forms your self-concept (see Gees 1982 for an overview). As children we begin by describing ourselves by physical characteristics such as having brown hair or brown eyes or having black, brown, white or another color skin. As we get older our self-descriptions become more sophisticated and begin to reflect our personalities, our memberships in social groups and what others think about us (Hart and Damon 1986). Personal characteristics include self-descriptions such as moody, creative, introverted, extroverted, curious, thoughtful, intelligent, self-conscious, cheerful, confident, sarcastic, ambitious, dreamy, rash, headstrong, independent, cooperative and so on (Anderson 1968). Knowledge about ourselves develops through a complex interaction between your genetic make-up and your

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interactions with the world outside. This is part of the eternal nature-nurture debate, which is beyond the scope of this book, but you may wish to read about it on your own (see Rutter 2006 for example). These characteristics that you develop influence your interactions with people. For example, let’s say you are at a party meeting a variety of people and you meet a person from a country that you have never visited before and know nothing about. What would you do? If you are more of a curious person, are more extroverted, meaning you like meeting and talking to new people, you are probably more likely to stop and chat with the person—find out more about who they are and where they are from. Thus, the personal characteristics of curiosity and extroversion can support your quest to develop higher levels of IC because chatting to an unknown person from an unknown place will develop both your cultural knowledge and you are likely to enjoy the experience of interacting with someone different—as people who are more extroverted tend to do. Before going any further, take a minute to reflect in Thought Box 2.16 on how aspects of your personal identity can both support and hinder you in your quest to develop your IC. Thought Box 2.16 Your personal identity Choose one aspect of your personal identity and describe how it can support you in developing your IC. Then, choose another aspect of your personal identity and describe how it might not support you so well in developing your IC.

While you are developing a sense of who you are as a person according to your traits and life experiences, you are also developing a social identity. Social identity forms part of your self-concept and is based upon your identification with various groups (e.g., national, religious, ethnic, political, occupational groups) (Dovidio and Gaertner 2010; Tajfel and Turner 1986). Our social identities develop as part of a process of self-categorization which is a theory that describes the process by which people define themselves as part of a group or not part of a group (Turner et al. 1987). So, when you were young you most likely categorized yourself early on as a boy or girl. Other categorizations followed so that eventually you categorized yourself as Christian, Muslim, Buddhist, atheist or according to some other belief; as part of a particular ethnic group or not; as homosexual, heterosexual, asexual or other; as part of a political party or not; as liking or participating in football, tennis, badminton, squash, long distance running or maybe as not liking any sports. Based on your

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interactions with the world, there are many groups that you categorized yourself into or out of either because of your biological characteristics (e.g., male, female, black, white), your upbringing (e.g., Jewish, Hindu, liberal, conservative, upper class, working class), your particular role (e.g., brother, sister, mother, father, aunt, uncle, cousin) or because you decided you wanted to belong to particular groups. Maybe you are in a rock-climbing group or you hike or read crime novels. Maybe you do volunteer work at a local community center every week. Maybe you are in a chess club, cooking club, or a medieval re-enactment society. Maybe you play an instrument and/or sing with a local band. Maybe you are from a family that lacks the means to support leisure activities and you have been so busy working to help support your family or yourself that you don’t have time for leisure interests so work and family are your primary groups. Whatever group(s) that you feel that you are a part of, these groups memberships form part of your social identity. There are a lot of benefits to group membership. Categorizing yourself as part of groups that you belong to not only helps you to define who you are, it also provides you with (a) set(s) of norms, as discussed earlier in the chapter, regarding how to act and in some cases what to believe. Groups can also provide you with a sense of shared identity or belonging. Knowing you are like and share interests with other group members can foster a sense of security and safety—you know what to expect from others and you know what is expected of you. While there are a lot of benefits to group membership, there is also a darker side to group membership which will be discussed in Chap. 3. However, suffice to say for the moment that the development of our social identity through identification with various groups is a well-established phenomenon and is a normal part of the development of a self-concept and feeds into how you interact with other people. Before moving on, take a minute to reflect on your social identity in Thought Box 2.17. Thought Box 2.17 Your social identity Considering the above description of social identities, can you list a few of the social identities that you have that you believe are most important to you? Why are they so important? Would the same factors be important to others? Why or why not?

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You may be asking yourself what is the point here with describing in detail the development of social identity? As mentioned earlier, culture develops through interactions with others (Spencer-Oatey and Franklin 2009) and these others may be members of very diverse social groups, sharing various values, beliefs, norms, and symbols. While you may have developed the impression that culture as discussed earlier is mainly related to national groups; culture is much broader and includes a variety of cross-cutting criteria such as family, social class, political, and occupational affiliations (Avruch 1998). Thus, all the groups that you have categorized yourself as part of can be considered containers for culture. Therefore, your cultural identity has been formed from your participation in many cultural groups, not just your national group. This is important because it suggests that you need to consider the multiple groups that you belong to in order to understand how they have influenced your beliefs and values. To give a more specific example, consider social class. People from different social classes can have very different life contexts and therefore very different cultures. Children from families in the US who are well off tend to live in comfortable neighborhoods and go to bed with full stomachs feeling warm and safe. Further, they attend schools that are safe and well-funded, and their parents may hire tutors to help them if they struggle with their studies. They often participate in a variety of extracurricular activities after school to help prepare them for university admissions and may have been given a car by parents to get where they need to go—maybe even in style. They are likely to have the support from family to apply for colleges and universities and help getting jobs when they graduate. The metaphor airbags (Schulzke 2015) has been used to suggest the way in which children of wealthier families are at times protected from the hard knocks of life. This broad generalization of course will not apply to all children from upper class families—but to many. Alternatively, children from families who are not so well off may experience very different contexts. They may live in neighborhoods that are not always safe and sometimes go to bed cold or hungry. They may attend schools that are underfunded and sometimes dangerous. They may have to struggle through on their own if they have difficulties with schoolwork and may have to work after school to help support the family or stay home to watch younger siblings while parents are working. They may need to work hard to avoid the influences of local gangs or may fall in with local gangs and use drugs or alcohol to cope with life’s difficulties. They may not have had a car. They may have less support from family to apply for university. These young people in comparison to those from wealthier families do not have metaphorical “airbags” and often must rely on themselves if they are to change their life situations. While there is a continuum of difference with people experiencing all variations of wealth and poverty around the world, it is the influence of such cultural contexts that help people to make sense of their daily lives. Culture is acquired or constructed through our interactions with others (Spencer-Oatey and Franklin 2009). The above example discussing social class can help us to think about aspects of culture that might not be readily apparent to everyone. Individuals are born into various cultures, but they only develop an understanding of what is normal or typical

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in those cultures through shared experiences with other people. These shared experiences have common influences and impact people’s interests, values, beliefs and goals. Whether or not people are interested in, pursue and are successful in higher education, for example, has much to do with the extent to which higher education is valued and supported within their culture. If you grew up in a neighborhood where everyone went to university, you would think that was normal. If you grew up in a neighborhood where a lot of young people used drugs, joined gangs, dropped out of school and didn’t contemplate going to college or university, then you might think that is normal. Thus, people’s aspirations and long-term prospects can be very different and partially depend upon the social class in which they grew up. It does not mean that people cannot leave behind the cultures in which they grew up, but it can mean that there is a struggle to overcome norms and values that we have experienced in order to leave one culture behind and join another as illustrated in the story in Box 2.4. Box 2.4 Ruth’s story I grew up in the UK on the wrong side of Bristol. Neither of my parents worked and were both alcoholics, chain smokers, and mostly on the dole. We never had central heating so when my jumpers got washed and hung, they would not dry right because it was so damp. I used to have to go to school in jumpers that smelled musty. Other children would make fun of me and tell me that I smelled bad. I remember from the time I was about 9 years old, on Sundays while my parents were sleeping, I would get my younger brother and sister up, get them dressed and take them to church. We wouldn’t go for Sunday worship but because I found out you could get food there. We were hungry a lot because my parents chose not to spend what money they had to buy food—instead it was often cigarettes and alcohol. As I got older, I knew I didn’t want to live like that, so I studied hard in school and when I finished, I packed a bag and got myself to Leeds on the train and enrolled in college. Back then college was free, and I managed to get a grant to pay for my living expenses. I got my teaching degree and have been a teacher now for more than 20 years. Most of the kids I knew from home didn’t go to university, don’t have professional careers, and don’t have a lot of money. I teach in a good school and live in a nice place now so I don’t see many children who were like me, but when I do, I do what I can to help them because I know from my own experience that life can be really hard for some children.

While the above discussions regarding social class help us to define culture, they also help us to think about the relationship between IC and issues of equality, diversity, and inclusion. Before we move on, take a minute to complete Thought Box 2.18 to consider what groups you have participated in and how they might have impacted your view of the world.

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Thought Box 2.18 Analyzing your social identity Think of a social group or aspect of your social identity that you believe has been influential in your life. This might relate to social class, nationality, age, race, ethnicity, religion, sexual orientation, weight, accent, or any other aspect of your social identity that you believe has had an important influence on you. Can you describe how it has been influential?

What are the cultural norms associated with it?

Do you still subscribe to these norms? Why or why not?

Does your experience with this cultural group cause any difficulties for you in interactions with others? If so, what?

Did you have any difficulty with the Thought Box 2.18? It can be a challenge to identify which parts of your social identity are important—particularly when you are in majority groups. For example, often heterosexual people don’t think in terms of their sexual orientation because they are in the majority—meaning that being heterosexual doesn’t cause them difficulties so they tend not to think about it. However, individuals who have alternative sexual orientations may choose sexual orientation as one of their primary group affiliations because they are constantly aware of being different from the majority and because it may cause them difficulty. Another challenge with defining your identity is that sometimes different parts of our identities are salient in some interactions but completely irrelevant in others. Consider the example in Box 2.5. Box 2.5 Identity salience I come from more of a lower or working-class background although now I would categorize myself, after working hard over many years, as being uppermiddle class. Generally, this part of my identity does not cause me difficulty in getting on with others but at other times it makes me feel quite uncomfortable and impacts my relationships with others. For instance, I have friends who are upper and upper-middle class and always have been. At times, I find they really take for granted their privileges like attending fee paying schools, parents paying for top universities, wearing Rolex watches and driving Porches, living in big houses, getting too many baby gifts when children are born, inheriting parent’s money. I didn’t have a lot growing up and as a young adult struggled to pay the bills and raise children in safe neighborhoods with no big inheritance

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or help from my parents. There were few shower gifts for my kids when they were born, and I had to shop in charity shops for their clothes because we were so short on money. Now our lives are much easier but I’m thankful for what the struggle has taught me. Specifically, I recognize that I am privileged now and that even back then my struggle was not hard compared to many people. But my experience of being from a background that was somewhat disadvantaged becomes very salient when I am around those who have been very privileged and just don’t recognize it. They take a lot for granted and I have trouble being around them. The purpose of this chapter was to explore the word ‘culture’ as it is relevant to IC. It aimed to help you to understand objective and subjective culture and some of their more subtle nuances. As well, we have explored various societal level values and discussed how these are relevant to interacting across cultures as well as the relevance of personal and social identity in relation to cultural norms. In our final discussion on culture we would like to make four points. The first point to make, as has been mentioned earlier, is that while culture comes from interacting with our social groups, no two individuals within a particular group will have precisely the same cultural characteristics (Avruch 1998). For example, two boys may play cricket together on a national team. Both will be influenced by their group membership in the cricket community to some extent. While each boy is part of this culture of cricket, each boy will be part of a variety of other cultures as well. One may be from a rural area, while the other is from a city. One may be from an atheist background, while the other is a Christian. One may be the only child in single parent household, while the other is one of three children with two parents at home. One may be from Belize, while the other is from Canada. Thus, whilst these boys share the culture of cricket, these other aspects of the boys’ lives are also containers for culture, and each brings with it different cultural influences. So, we are all made up of unique constellations of culture based upon our unique backgrounds and we cannot assume too much about people based upon someone’s social group membership even if there are broad categorizations associated with those cultural groups such as those developed by Hofstede et al. (2010). Second, it is important to recognize that one’s cultural groups are not fixed but always changing and evolving. As suggested above, any group, however small, has an associated culture and the cultures that people participate in contribute to an individual’s cultural identity. Throughout your life you will enter and exit cultures. You may have, for instance, been brought up as part of a religious community, however, when you became an adult, you decided you no longer wanted to participate in that community. Ruth’s experience in Box 2.5 which describes her movement between social classes provides an example of moving from one culture to another. Complicating cultural change further is the notion that culture itself is always changing. For example, the television shows that influence many cultures today will likely be completely different than what people are watching 10, 20, 30 or more years into

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the future. In many cultures the use of mobile or cell phones is routine, but 40 years ago it was completely unheard of. Culture is always evolving and changing, and we evolve and change with it. The third point centers around communication technology. We have mostly been discussing culture as it pertains to groups that you are a part of in person. However, groups now exist virtually and have an influence upon culture (Baltezarevic et al. 2019). Applications like Facebook, Twitter and Instagram have created new influences on our experience of culture. In some ways, they might help to widen our cultural experiences by providing access to more diverse individuals who are part of a global community. In other ways, they might simply facilitate the development of new cultures formed around an interest or activity such as a particular online game. Alternatively, they may change cultures over time. Thus, cultures formed within technological environments also exist and may influence us to greater or lesser degrees. Finally, we would like to point out that learning about culture and social groups is not a spectator sport so to speak. Your job in developing your IC is not just to learn about other people’s cultures but to learn about your own, which is part of the reason we have included a lot of self-reflective activities in this book. Culture impacts both how people behave and how they interpret the behavior of others (SpencerOatey and Franklin 2009). The process of developing intercultural competence is largely a reflective one which involves you developing some knowledge about the concept of culture and some knowledge about broad cultural differences and, of course, intercultural competence, but mostly, it is about developing critical cultural self-awareness. What is your cultural background and how does it color your view of the world? Your cultural background will influence what you think is normal; however, what you think is normal is likely to be different than what others think is normal. What biases do you hold that might influence how you interact with people who are different from yourself? What attitudes and behaviors are characteristic of you and how might these be helping or hindering you in interacting with those who are different? These are the questions that serve as the crux of discussion for the remainder of the book.

References Anderson, N. H. (1968). Likableness ratings of 555 personality-trait words. Journal of Social Psychology, 9(3), 272–279. Apanews. (1992). Bush’s v-sign has different meaning for Australians with PM-Bush https://www. apnews.com/42939a95e2b694ec6262ff5949d910c9. Accessed October 27, 2019. Aronson, E., Wilson, T., Akert, R., & Sommers, S. (2018). Social psychology (9th ed.). London: Pearson. Avruch, K. (1998). Culture and conflict resolution. Washington DC: United States: Institute of Peace Press. Baltezarevic, R., Kwiatek, P., Blatezarevic, B., & Baltezarevic, V. (2019). The impact of virtual communities on cultural identity. Symposium, 6(1), 7–22.

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Berger, P., & Luckmann, T. (1966). The social construction of reality. Garden City, New York: Doubleday. Chhokar, J. S., Brodbeck, F. C., & House, R. J. (2007). Introduction. In J. S. Chhokar, F. C. Brodbeck, & R. J. House (Eds.), Culture and leadership across the world: The GLOBE book of in-depth studies of 25 societies (pp. 1–15). Mahwah, New Jersey-London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. CNBC. (2014). How photographs saved the Israel-Egypt peace talks. https://www.cnbc.com/2014/ 10/02/how-photographs-saved-the-israel-egypt-peace-talks.html. Accessed November 7, 2019. Cortina, K.S., Arel, S., & Smith-Deaden, J.P. (2017). School belonging in different cultures: The effects of individualism and power distance. Frontiers in Education (1 Nov). Dovidio, J.F., & Gaertner, S.L. (2010). Intergroup bias. In S.T.G. Fiske, D. T., & G. Lindzey (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley & Sons. European Commission. (2018). Report on equality between men and women in the EU. (pp. 72). Luxembourg. Gees, V. (1982). The self-concept. Annual Review of Sociology, 8, 1–33. Gov.uk (n.d.). Paternity pay and leave. https://www.gov.uk/paternity-pay-leave. Accessed October 28, 2019. Hall, E. T. (1959). The silent language. New York: Doubleday. Hall, E. T. (1966). The hidden dimension. Garden City, NY: Doubleday. Hall, E. T. (1977). Beyond culture. New York: Anchor Books. Hall, E. T. (1983). The dance of life: The other dimension of time. Garden City, NY: Doubleday. Hart, D., & Damon, W. (1986). Developmental trends in self-understanding. Social Cognition, 4(4), 388–407. Hofstede, G. (1984). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind. London: McGraw-Hill. Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture’s consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions and organizations across nations (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, California: Sage. Hofstede, G. (2011). Dimensionalizing cultures: The Hofstede model in context. Online Readings in Psychology and Culture, 2(1), Hofstede, G., & Bond, M. (1988). The Confucius connection: From cultural roots to economic growth. Organizational Dynamics, 16(4), 4–21. Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G. J., & Minkov, M. (2010). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind. London: McGraw-Hill. Hofstede, G., & McCrae, R. R. (2004). Personality and culture revisited: Linking traits and dimensions of culture. Cross-Cultural Research, 38(1), 52–88. House, R. J., Hanges, P. J., Javidan, M., Dorfman, P. J., Gupta, V., & Associates, G. (Eds.). (2004). Culture, leadership, and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications Inc. Kane, C. M. (1998). Differences in family of origin perceptions among African American, Asian American, and Hispanic American college students. Journal of Black Studies, 29(1), 93–105. Karau, S.J., & Williams, K.D. (1993). Social loafing: A meta-analytic review and theoretical integration. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology(65), 4. Kelly, G. (2016). Paternity leave: How Britain compares to the rest of the world. https://www.telegr aph.co.uk/men/fatherhood/paternity-leave-how-britain-compares-with-the-rest-of-the-world/. Accessed October 21, 2019. Kluckhohn, C., & Strodtbeck, K. (1961). Variations of value orientations. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Knapp, M. L., Hall, J. A., & Horgan, T. G. (2014). Nonverbal communication in human interaction. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Kroeber, A.L., & Kluckhohn, C. (1952). Culture: A critical review of concepts and definitions. Papers Peabody Museum of Archaeology & Ethnology, 47(1). Matsumoto, D. (1996). Culture and Psychology. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole. McGaha, J. (2015). Popular culture & globalization: Teacher candidates’ attitudes & perceptions of cultural & ethnic stereotypes. Multicultural Education, 23(1), 32–37.

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Rieck, A. M. (2014). Ecploring the nature of power distance on general practitioner and community pharmacist relations in a chronic disease management context. Journal of Interprofessional Care, 28(5), 440–446. Rogers, E.M., & Hart, W.B. (2002). Edward T. Hall and the history of intercultural communication: The United States and Japan. Keio Communication Review, 24(3), 3026. Rutter, M. (2006). Genes and behavior: Nature-nurture interplay explained. Malden: Blackwell Publishing. Schulzke, E. (2015). Poor American kids grow up without ‘airbags,’ Harvard professor says. Descret News National. http://national.deseretnews.com/article/3929/poor-american-kids-growup-without-airbags-harvard-professor-says.html. Schwartz, S. (1994). Are there universal aspects in the structure and contents of human values. Journal of Social Issues, 50(4), 19–45. Schwartz, S. J., Montogomery, M. J., & Briones, E. (2006). The role of identity in acculturation among immigrant people: Theoretical propositions, empirical questions, and applied recommendations. Human Development, 49, 1–30. Schwitzgebel, E. (2016). Belief. https://stanford.library.sydney.edu.au/entries/belief/. Accessed October 28, 2019. Sherif, M. (1936). The psychology of social norms. Oxford, England: Harper. Spencer-Oatey, H., & Franklin, P. (2009). Intercultural interaction: A multidisciplinary approach to intercultural communication. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Starbucks. (2019). Starbucks coffee international. https://www.starbucks.com/business/internati onal-stores. Accessed October 27, 2019. Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In S. Worchel & W. Austin (Eds.), Psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 7–24). Chicago Illinois: Nelson-Hall. Thompson, T. L., & Kiang, L. (2010). The model minority stereotype: Adolescent experiences and links with adjustment. Asian American Journal of Psychology, 1(2), 119–128. Ting-Toomey, S. (1999). Communicating across cultures. New York, NY: Guilford Press. Triandis, H. (1995). Individualism and collectivism. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Triandis, H. C., & Gelfland, M. J. (1998). Converging measurement of horizontal and vertical individualism and collectivism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(1), 118–128. Trompenaars, F., & Hampden-Turner, C. (1997). Riding the waves of culture: Understanding cultural diversity in business. London: Nicholas Brealey. Tung, R. (1995). International organizational behaviour: Luthans Virtual OB McGraw-Hill. Turner, J. C., Hogg, M. A., Oakes, P. J., Reicher, S. D., & Wetherell, M. S. (1987). Rediscovering the social group: A self-categorization theory. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Williams, R. (1983). Culture & society: 1780–1950 (2nd ed.). New York: Columbia University Press. Wood, J. (2009). Gender lives: Communication, gender, and culture (8th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Chapter 3

How Do We React to Cultural Difference?

‘In a world of cultural differences… there’s no such thing as ‘common’ sense.’ – Carla Vankoughnett – author, poet, musician, artist, teacher

This chapter focuses on exploring the barriers to intercultural competence. While the positive aspects of culture are discussed throughout this book, theories which explain the development of stereotypes, prejudices, and discrimination will be explored along with concepts such as power, privilege, conscious and unconscious bias, racism and sexism. Social inequalities are more carefully considered along with text which links the development of IC to overcoming the challenges of cultural difference. This chapter encourages you to consider your own experiences with these topics and concludes by considering methods for reducing prejudice and discrimination and enhancing relationships between people from different cultures. Learning outcomes: By reading this chapter and completing the tasks you will be able to: • • • • • •

Describe the way in which prejudices form; Distinguish between prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination; Identify the problem with positive stereotypes; Distinguish between implicit and explicit prejudice; Explain racism and sexism and other societal ‘isms; Identify the ways in which social norms, social identity, and group conflict theory can explain the development of prejudice; • Recognize the ways in which power and privilege contribute to perpetuating discrimination; • Analyze your own experiences in relation to concepts within this chapter; • Identify the ways in which contact theory can be instructive in breaking down prejudices and enhancing intercultural competence.

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 C. Lantz-Deaton and I. Golubeva, Intercultural Competence for College and University Students, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57446-8_3

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Maria, who is from a Roma background, had recently moved to England and began experiencing health problems. She went to an urgent care clinic and was diagnosed with a medical condition that needed ongoing monitoring. The clinic told her she needed to find a primary care doctor that she could visit regularly to obtain prescriptions for her condition. She began visiting local doctors’ offices to find a doctor, however, each time she visited a practice, she was told they had no space available for new patients. Having exhausted her options, she returned to the urgent care clinic and told them her problem. The nurse rang the first local practice that Maria had visited, told the practice they had a patient to refer and asked if they were taking any new patients. The practice said that “yes, they had space available for new patients”. So did the next practice that the nurse called; and the next one. It appeared that Maria was being discriminated against by being turned away because of prejudices held by the staff members about people from Roma backgrounds. The above example of discrimination, or treating someone differently based upon their group membership, is based on a true story and is not unique. People from Roma backgrounds have been highlighted as suffering from health care discrimination in the UK (Noor 2019) and across Europe (e.g., Watson and Downe 2017). People around the world from a variety of backgrounds are similarly discriminated against on a regular basis. Why do people discriminate against others? Are people always conscious that they are discriminating? How might we address the problem of discrimination in our society? It is these and other questions to which this chapter now turns. Discrimination and its associated concepts: stereotyping and prejudice, are crucial topics in the study of intercultural competence because they block our efforts to become more interculturally competent. In order to develop IC, we believe, it is necessary not only to understand these terms, but to self-reflect on the extent to which your own beliefs about, and attitudes towards, other people impact your behavior towards them. While you may think that you do not stereotype others, do not hold prejudices and do not discriminate, most people do—to greater and lesser extents— as a by-product of living within our societies. Few people can get through life without holding stereotypes or without being the subject of stereotypes themselves. Holding such stereotypes and prejudices and being unaware of them is often referred to as unconscious bias and is widely discussed in the literature (e.g., Lee 2005; Ross 2008; Teal et al. 2012). The key is commonly thought to be enhancing awareness of our own biases and taking steps to reduce their impact. As discussed in previous chapters, the experience of meeting and working with people from different cultures can be a hugely positive experience. Differences can be personally enriching but also financially beneficial for organizations. While we do not wish to underestimate the benefits that cultural differences can bring, the focus of this chapter is to help you to understand the flip side; that is, what it is about cultural differences that can cause difficulties. For decades, social psychologists—alongside

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those in other academic fields—have been studying what happens when people are in the presence of cultural difference. Although we may like to think positively about cultural difference, there are some normal human processes that take over and make most of us less interested in and comfortable with cultural difference than we might like to be.

Prejudice: What Is It? In its most basic form, prejudice means to prejudge someone (based on the Latin prae and judicium). Pick up any introductory Social Psychology textbook and you will find very similar definitions of prejudice based upon this idea of prejudgement (e.g., Aronson et al. 2018; Crisp and Turner 2014). Prejudice is a negative or hostile attitude towards an individual based upon their group membership. The attitudes that form prejudice have often been theorized as having three components including: cognitions (beliefs or thoughts), emotions (e.g., anger, anxiety) along with the relative intensity of those emotions (e.g., mild discomfort, raging hostility), and behaviors which are acted out by people (Allport 1954). It is unusual for people to have attitudes about something and not act them out. For instance, if you have a negative attitude towards people who are homeless, you are likely to avoid homeless people or treat them in other negative ways. It is important to emphasize that prejudice is an attitude about someone based exclusively on the group to which they belong. So, in our example above, if we say someone is prejudiced against the homeless, we mean that the person is inclined to behave in ways that are hostile or unfriendly towards any homeless person they encounter because they view all homeless people as possessing the same characteristics. The characteristics that the person will attribute to homeless people are most often negative and are assumed to apply to the entire group. This assumption about people who are in certain groups is known as a stereotype, which is the cognitive component of prejudice meaning that it reflects our thoughts. The emotional component of prejudice, in this case hostility, combines with the cognitive component of prejudice (stereotype) and can influence our behavior and result in us discriminating which is the behavioral component of prejudice. We are all at times victims of prejudice and discrimination based upon our group membership even if we do not know it. Prejudices can be based upon any characteristic such as age, race, sex, ethnicity, religion, national origin, sexual orientation, body size, disability, accent, hair style and color and so on. Take a moment to reflect more carefully on the discriminatory results of prejudice by having a look at Thought Box 3.1.

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Thought Box 3.1 Identifying discrimination Consider the following scenarios and mark those that you think are examples of discrimination.

•

•

•

•

You recently relocated to Chile and apply for an apartment to rent. The landlord informs you that he will not rent to you if you do not have credit references or a history of tenancy in Chile. You are Muslim and you wear traditional clothing. You arrange an appointment to view an apartment for rent. When you arrive in your traditional Muslim headscarf and clothing to look at the property, you are told the apartment is rented, but the advertisement saying that the apartment is still “For Rent”, continues to run in the newspaper and the sign continues to be displayed on the property. You are a well-dressed Black man and are hailing a taxi on a street in London. Five unoccupied taxis pass you by without stopping. A well-dressed white man comes out of a building and hails a taxi a little down the street from you. The first taxi that comes along stops. You are a white British man and you have just completed an interview for a job. It went well and the interviewer suggests that you can expect a positive outcome. The following day you run into the interviewer while out with your wife who is of Middle Eastern descent. The interviewer acts coolly when you introduce him to your wife and is cagey about the results of your interview. You don’t get the job and wonder if has anything to do with your wife.

If you have not already worked it out, all the situations in Thought Box 3.1 could be instances of discrimination. Sometimes you will not know for sure. For instance, maybe the five taxis that passed you already had jobs they were going to, while the guy who just came out of the building next to you just happened to get one that didn’t. It is worth noting that, although discrimination is typically thought to occur when a minority group member is treated negatively by a majority group member, discrimination is also possible the other way around, when a person from a minority group discriminates against someone from a majority group or discriminates against someone from another minority group. For example, Dr Vivienne Lyfar-Cissé was dismissed from her role as Associate Director of a race equality program at a UK National Health Service Trust for bullying and harassing a white colleague, telling him that he was “everything she despised in a white manager” (Baska 2019). She was fired by Brighton and Sussex University Hospitals in 2017 after a one-year investigation into claims of discrimination, bullying and victimization of a white manager as well as three other cases filed against her for bullying and victimizing a female colleague in relation to her sexual orientation (Baska 2019; Gov.uk 2019a). Cases in which members of societies that considered privileged are the targets of discrimination, are fewer and further between, however, they are still examples of discrimination. That said, they do not represent the kind of widespread systemic discrimination seen across societies and institutions against people with certain characteristics (e.g., racism, sexism).

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Around the world we have seen great strides being made in terms of reducing prejudice. The number of people who report that they think black people are inferior to white, women are inferior to men, and gay people are inferior to straight people has been declining over the years (Weaver 2008). We can see it ourselves in the election of a black president in the US, the hiring of women into executive level positions, and the increasing acceptance of gay and lesbian people with the passage of same-sex marriage in various places. However, issues of prejudice persist with some believing that reduction in negative feelings against minority groups has led to the rise in negativity towards majority groups, so that while there might be a decline in anti-black bias, there may be a rise in anti-white bias (Norton and Sommers 2011; Wilkins and Kaiser 2014).

Stereotypes: How Do We Group Individuals? A stereotype is commonly defined as a generalization about people who belong to a particular group in which it is believed that certain traits describe all the members of the group, with individual variation ignored (Stangor 2009). In other words, people in that group are expected to be pretty much the same. We all hold stereotypes although, depending upon the society in which you grew up, they may be somewhat different with some being more accessible than others, depending upon your personal experiences and exposure to the media. Take a moment to reflect on a few group categories in Thought Box 3.2. Thought Box 3.2 Reflections on stereotypes Think for a moment about the groups of people listed below. How do they look? What are their typical characteristics? Be sure to get a picture in your mind of each before reading on. • Terrorists • Corporate executives • Ballet dancers • Construction workers • Football players • Car mechanics

Although there may be some variation in what you imagined for each of the people mentioned in Thought Box 3.2, it is unlikely that your idea of a ballet dancer would be anything other than a young slim athletic looking woman and a football player would be anything other than a young athletic man. It would also be unusual if you described the car mechanic as a young woman or the terrorist as an older white Jewish man. Further, you would not tend to think of a construction worker as driven, astute, and wealthy, but you are likely to associate those characteristics with a corporate executive. These are stereotypes. Our stereotypes influence our perceptions of and/or behavior towards others, even if we are not aware of it. Have a look at Thought Box 3.3 to consider another common stereotype.

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Thought Box 3.3 Family and surgery Consider the following scenario (Oakhill et al. 2005) and try to determine what the relationship is between the boy and the doctor. A boy and his father are driving home one day when they get into a major car accident. The father dies but the boy is rushed into the hospital in need of emergency surgery. Just as he is about to go into surgery, the surgeon walks in, stops and says, “I can’t operate – this boy is my son!”

If you struggled with the answer to Thought Box 3.3, you are in good company. That scenario was presented to participants in a study of gender stereotypes. Overwhelmingly, people who were presented with this scenario were stumped because the father had died in the car accident. Most could not imagine that the surgeon was the boy’s mother (Oakhill et al. 2005). This example demonstrates the extreme power of stereotypes in influencing our thinking about what people in particular groups are like. While rationally we know that any kind of person can fall into any kind of category, we categorize based on what we see as the norm. As discussed in Chap. 2, norms are what is typical or common among a group of people. Stereotypes tend to be negative. For example, Americans are often viewed by the British as loud and insincere, while the British are often seen by Americans as stuffy and reserved. An interesting point to consider is exactly why we tend to stereotype people negatively? For example, why can’t Americans be stereotyped as being friendly instead of loud and insincere and why can’t the British be stereotyped as respectful instead of stuffy and reserved? We shall come to this a little later. We have been discussing stereotypes more in negative connotations; however, we do find that there are some positive stereotypes. Let’s reflect on one in Thought Box 3.4. Thought Box 3.4 Positive stereotypes of women Stereotypes are usually, though not always, negative. One stereotype of women that is more positive is that they tend to be kind, nurturing and family focused. Is there any reason why such a positive stereotype could be problematic for women? Please reflect.

In Thought Box 3.4, you may have struggled to come up with some ideas regarding why the positive stereotype of women can be problematic. It relates to sexism which is looking at someone as inferior based on sex. Usually sexism is thought of as hostile in nature (hostile sexism) with men thinking of women as irrational and weak and usurping the power of men (a negative stereotype of women) which can manifest itself in the form of abuse and harassment (Glick and Fiske 2001). However, the

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positive stereotype of women as warm, nurturing, gentle, and family-oriented can also have negative consequences. Such positive stereotypes can be patronizing and restrict women to specific roles (e.g., wife, mother, teacher) and justify the social dominance of males (Jim Sidanius et al. 1995). These positive stereotypes of women are thought of as benevolent sexism (Glick and Fiske 2001). Although this might be attractive to women in some ways, many do not realize the way in which it can also be limiting. To provide another example, a common positive stereotype found among certain segments of the population in the United States has to do with Asian Americans who are often thought of as being hardworking, ambitious, and intelligent. They are sometimes, in fact, called a “model minority” (Kiang et al. 2017). While this may sound flattering, many Asian Americans are unhappy with this stereotype since it sets up expectations about academic achievement to which many do not aspire. Further, it can be insulting because it groups them all into one category: Asian (Thompson and Kiang 2010), ignoring the fact that some have roots in Thailand, while others are Chinese, Korean, Japanese and so on. It is bit like saying that the French, the Germans, the Spanish and the Portuguese are all the same because they are European—rather ridiculous. Another example is when immigrants from Africa are perceived as one group completely overlooking the fact that the continent of Africa is made up of many different countries. To provide another example of a positive stereotype which could be insulting, let’s talk about stereotypes of basketball players. Let’s say, you are visiting the US and, if you don’t know, basketball is an incredibly popular sport in the US and is often played by tall, black men. So, if you meet a tall black man in the US and assume, he is a basketball player, he may be quite insulted. But why? Wouldn’t it be a good thing to assume that someone is good at a major sport like basketball? Consider that not only may this man not like basketball or even play it, he may be a doctor or a lawyer or a teacher or have some other profession, but this may be overlooked due to the stereotype!

Why Do We Stereotype? Stereotyping is a well-established concept in Social Psychology. Before we discuss where stereotypes come from, take a moment to ponder that question yourself in Thought Box 3.5. Thought Box 3.5 Why do we stereotype? Think through what you know about stereotyping so far. Why do you think we stereotype people?

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If you have learned something about stereotyping in school, college or university, you might have heard that stereotyping is sometimes described as the “law of least effort”. The world is a complicated place and it is impossible for us to have differentiated attitudes about everything and everyone that we come across (Allport 1954). Categorizing people according to stereotypes benefits us in two ways. First, it allows us to expend less mental energy. Some have described our tendency to stereotype as being “cognitive misers” (Pennington 2000). Stereotyping allows us to quickly assess a new person, attributing to them a host of characteristics associated with the stereotype which then allows us to free our minds to concentrate on other things (Macrae et al. 1994). Second, stereotyping allows us to make assumptions about new people so that we think we know something about them (Turner et al. 1987), which reduces uncertainty so we believe we know what to expect and how people will behave and we understand how to relate to the person (Hogg 2000). These categories that we generate for groups of people relate back to Chap. 2 where we discussed the way in which we develop our identities. We develop our social identities by figuring out what groups we belong to and what groups we do not belong to. The groups that we belong to are our ingroups, while the groups that we do not belong to are our outgroups. Interestingly, we tend to view people in outgroups as more similar to one another than they actually are which is known in psychology as outgroup homogeneity effect (OHE) (Jones et al. 1981).The phenomena, own-racebias (ORB), suggests that we can more easily tell apart members of our own race than other races (Meissner and Brigham 2001). So, for example, white people generally have a hard time telling Asian people apart, while Asian people have a hard time telling white people apart. There are different explanations for this, one being that we simply have more experience with those from our own group compared to those from other groups (Linville et al. 1989). However, what it tells us is that there are psychological mechanisms in place which serve to make our stereotypes stronger! Stereotypes can also be reinforced when we meet people that we categorize as being members of particular groups, even if they exhibit behaviors that are different from what we expect. This is because the information about them that is consistent with our stereotypes is given more attention and recalled more often and more easily than information about the person that contradicts our stereotypes. A study by Cohen (1981), for example, showed participants the exact same film of a woman’s birthday dinner. In one group participants were told the woman was a waitress and in the other they were told the woman was a librarian. In the first group participants more often remembered seeing the woman drinking (which is associated more with waitressing), while in the latter participants remembered the woman wearing glasses (which is more often associated with librarians) (Cohen 1981). Such studies provide evidence suggesting that characteristics or behaviors that are inconsistent with our stereotypes are classified as an exception or simply ignored. Stereotyping, the cognitive component of prejudice, is a normal part of the human condition. Our minds are programmed to put people into categories based on certain characteristics (Brewer 2007; Dovidio and Gaertner 2010). Social neuroscience research tells us that we begin categorizing people from infancy (Cikara and Van Bavel 2014). For example, research finds that while newborn babies (0-3 months)

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do not have a preference for faces of one race or another, they will begin to show a preference for faces of their own race by as young as three months old (Anzures et al. 2013). If they often see faces of other races, however, then they do not show a preference for faces of people of their own race. This suggests that from the beginning of our lives, we have the ability to categorize people, but that our experience with people influences the formation of these categories. While categorizing or stereotyping individuals is a normal part of the human condition, it is further reinforced by society. This may come in the form of stereotypes passed onto you from your parents or friends who may have certain views of people who belong to particular groups. Within different cultures, what people regard as stereotypes for different groups (Buddhists, cheerleaders, homeless people, terrorists, etc.) may differ somewhat depending upon those around them; however, they tend to be somewhat similar because of the global media (e.g., television, movies, and the internet), which perpetuates stereotypes of particular groups. Think of how many films with world-wide popularity have been made that portray Muslim men as terrorists. Now think of how many similar films have been made which portray Muslim men as caring husbands and fathers, artists, philanthropists, football players, ballet dancers or police officers. The media serves to perpetuate our stereotypes of many different groups.

Can Stereotypes Ever Be Useful? Because there are a myriad of problems with stereotypes, it would seem as if they should be completely condemned. Indeed, stereotyping is dangerous because it leads us to make incorrect assumptions about people we meet and stops us from getting to know people as individuals. Stereotyping can also lead to prejudice and discrimination as we categorize people into outgroups, and then treat them differently based upon their group membership. So while stereotypes are dangerous, let’s put our critical thinking caps on and consider whether or not they can ever be useful by looking at Thought Box 3.6. Thought Box 3.6 Is there a positive side of stereotypes? While we have discussed many negative things about stereotypes, can you think of how they might be at all accurate or useful? If so, how?

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Were you successful at coming up with ideas in Thought box 3.6 about how stereotypes could be useful? Although not always obvious, the categories, or stereotypes, we generate about groups of people can indeed be useful in some ways. First, there is a grain of truth in stereotyping because many (but not all) people in particular groups will be accurately described by some characteristics. We have seen evidence of this in some studies such as those by Hofstede (2001), in which he found that people in some countries tend to be more individualistic, while in others, people tend to be more collectivistic. In reference to the stereotype above about black basketball players, about three-quarters of US basketball players are actually black (Spears 2016). There is some truth to stereotypes, which is part of the reason why we have them. Because there is some truth to them, we believe that they have the potential to be useful, if used with caution and with the knowledge that not all people from particular groups conform to stereotypes about them. For example, if you know that often Orthodox Jewish men do not shake hands with women for religious reasons, you may avoid an awkward situation by not offering to shake the hand of an Orthodox Jewish man that you have just met. In this way, you have adapted to the person in front of you and, in fact, acted in a more interculturally competent way. Adaptation, as you will see later, is a key component of intercultural competence. Thus, if you know that people from a particular group often behave in a certain way, then it could help you to understand their behavior and adapt your own behavior accordingly. But of course, you should not be surprised if they do not act in the way that you anticipate!

Emotions: How Do We Feel About People? Some people may hold prejudices but not feel particularly strongly about them so they can be easily swayed. Seline, a student of one of your co-authors (LantzDeaton) recently relayed a conversation she had with her friend, Ariel, in which they were talking about religion. When the topic of Buddhism came up, Ariel said that Buddhists were just a bunch of vegans who were obsessive about not stepping on bugs. Containing her annoyance at the stereotype, Seline told her friend that she often attends Buddhist meditation sessions and has found their teachings useful. Although Ariel was surprised, she was also interested and asked if she could join Seline the next time she went to meditation. In the above case, it didn’t take much to help Ariel to reconsider her prejudiced attitude and to get her to explore something different. But, of course, this is often not so easy, especially with people who hold very deep-seated prejudices. When people hold strong attitudes, it can be quite difficult to have a conversation with them because logic goes out the window. This is thought to be caused by the emotional component of their attitude or how strongly they feel about a topic. This is very well illustrated through an example given by Allport (1954, pp. 13–14) more than half a century ago (see Thought Box 3.7).

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Thought Box 3.7 The strength of prejudice Consider the following conversation between Mr X and Mr Y and then answer the questions to follow. Mr X: The trouble with Jews is that they only take care of their own group. Mr Y: But the record of the Community Chest campaign shows that they gave more generously, in proportion to their numbers, to the general charities of the community than did non-Jews. Mr X: That shows they are always trying to buy favour and intrude into Christian affairs. They think of nothing but money; that is why there are so many Jewish bankers. Mr Y: But a recent study shows that the percentage of Jews in the banking business is negligible, far smaller than the percentage of non-Jews. Mr X: That’s just it; they don’t go in for respectable business; they are only in the movie business or run nightclubs. (Adapted from Allport, 1954, p. 13-14)

Do you think Mr X’s prejudice is strong or weak? How can you tell? How does Mr X evaluate Mr Y’s evidence? Is there anything that you think Mr Y can do to strengthen his argument? What might that be?

In the scenario above, it may or may not have been clear to you that Mr X holds strong prejudices about Jews and that his emotions are clouding his judgement. Either he ignores facts presented by Mr Y, he distorts facts or changes the focus of the argument. While Mr Y might offer additional evidence about Jews, it is likely that this would continue to have no impact upon Mr X because his prejudice is very strong and he would continue to use emotional reasoning, which does not truly involve considering the evidence and rethinking his position. Emotional reasoning only serves to reinforce his views. Research suggests that it is very common for people to be highly subjective in their interpretation of information with emotions, needs, and self-concepts clouding the perception of facts (Fine 2008; Westen et al. 2006). If we run into information that does not support a view on which we feel very strongly, we feel threatened and our tendency is to ignore or distort the information so that we can maintain our position. This is essentially why prejudices are so difficult to change. We tend to only pay attention to information that supports our own views and ignore or distort information that does not. Take a moment to think more deeply about your own prejudices in the Thought Box 3.8.

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Thought Box 3.8 Your prejudices Think about a group of people that you hold strong views about. This can be a group based on any characteristic (e.g., ethnicity, sexual orientation, age, weight, accent, nationality). Consider the following questions: How did your prejudice originate?

What might be contributing to you maintaining this prejudice?

To what extent do you recognize that this prejudice may not be based on logic or may be subjective?

What might you do to reduce or eliminate this prejudice?

Prejudices can be difficult to recognize and hard to change. As Allport described back in 1954, even if we recognize logically at some point that our prejudices are wrong because they conflict with actual evidence, they are so deeply ingrained in us that they are likely to persist even when we know they are wrong. While surveys suggest that prejudice has declined in many ways, this may demonstrate more of a decline in explicit prejudice, that is attitudes that we are aware of and freely express (Gawronski and Bodenhausen 2012; Greenwald and Banaji 1995; Hahn and Gawronski 2014). However, we may be moving towards societies with more implicit prejudice, that is; that even when we know a prejudice is wrong, we still discriminate against people because our attitudes are automatic and at times unintentional, and so we keep discriminating even when we may not realize it (Dovidio and Gaertner 2008). Let’s take a hypothetical example of Cloe, a white Australian student attending university in Australia. Cloe expresses an explicit attitude that people from different races are equal. She even exhibits behaviors that are consistent with this attitude. For instance, in Australia where there are problems with racism against Aborigines,

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she signs petitions in support of Aboriginal causes and talks to people about ways to address racism against Aborigines. However, within Cloe’s culture, there is a lot of negativity about Aboriginal people which may have influenced her in ways that she does not realize (Xu et al. 2014). Despite her explicitly positive attitude and accompanying behaviors, she may, for instance, feel uncomfortable around people from Aboriginal backgrounds and make less eye contact and interact with them less than people from her own culture. Another, very recent example of implicit prejudice can be seen in politicians and news presenters who insist on referring to the COVID-19 virus as “the Chinese virus”. Some people point to the fact that the flu of 1918 is often referred to as the Spanish flu (although, in actuality it did not even originate in Spain) and use it as an argument that COVID-19 can be called the Chinese virus. Our understanding of equality, diversity, and inclusion has advanced over the past 100 years. Even if it is a proven fact that the virus originated in China, this does not justify the use of ethnicity to refer to it and can incite racist attitudes in others making the Chinese targets of blame, suspicion, and abuse. Evidence of this can be found in the increase in hate crimes against the Chinese after this label was applied. Beyond inciting racism, however, consider how you would feel if a worldwide pandemic was named after your country. Would it make you feel proud or ashamed to be from that country? Likely, it would be the latter. Labelling COVID-19 “the Chinese virus” is a form of implicit prejudice, meaning that it is more subtle and indirect (see Fazio et al. 1995; McConnell and Leibold 2001), which may be why some people cannot easily find a problem with it. While implicit prejudice may be subtle, it can be just as damaging as prejudice that is out in the open for all to see. It is worth mentioning that you may sometimes hear implicit prejudice referred to as unconscious bias (e.g., Teal et al. 2012). This more clearly defines it as beyond our awareness. Part of the task in learning about implicit prejudice or unconscious bias and developing our IC is becoming aware of our biases and working toward controlling them. Consider your own experience with implicit prejudices in the Thought Box 3.9.

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Thought Box 3.9 Implicit prejudices Can you give an example of a time when you may have demonstrated an implicit prejudice? What happened? Why do you think you did it? How did you feel? Do you think the other person was aware of how they were being treated differently? What might you do to bring implicit prejudices like that into your awareness in future?

Can you give an example of a time when you think that you may have been the target of an implicit prejudice. What happened? How did you feel? Do you think the other person was aware that they were treating you differently? How do you know?

While implicit prejudice is generally thought to be unconscious, people can still be prejudiced and be aware of it but express it in more subtle ways because it has become less socially acceptable to express overt prejudice. The question is really one of awareness. Are you completely unaware that you hold prejudices and inadvertently treat people differently because of them, or do you know you hold prejudices and discriminate against others anyway in subtle ways? We hope it is the former, and up to this point you have been unaware of your implicit prejudices and are reading this because you want to learn and improve. For the purpose of IC development, it is important for you to recognize how your prejudices might be operating outside of your awareness so that you can learn to recognize and control them. Before leaving this topic, consider the scenario in Thought Box 3.10.

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Thought Box 3.10 Implicit or explicit prejudice During the COVID-19 pandemic, Chinese people became the target of prejudice and discrimination when government officials intentionally labeled COVID-19 as the Chinese virus. On the social media site Facebook, a US citizen posted a film clip of an Asian person eating live sea creatures with the caption “Can you believe this?” It was posted without context or any other commentary. Comments made on the film by this person’s friends included “What’s wrong with those people?” and “It’s their fault we are in this mess!” and “Disgusting, who would do that?”. What kind of message do you think this film was sending? What do you think these people were thinking who made these comments? Do you think the person who posted this film intentionally wanted to encourage prejudice, discrimination, or racism?”? Why or why not?

The scenario in Thought Box 3.10 is tricky, especially in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, as the person who posted the film did not overtly make negative statements about people from Chinese backgrounds. However, the film portrays an Asian person, who people might think is Chinese, engaging in an act that people in the US would generally tend to view negatively because they do not have live food as part of their national cuisine. The statements made by so-called Facebook friends, did not directly mention the Chinese. However, both the film and the comments can be viewed as implicitly encouraging prejudice, discrimination, and racism though it may or may not have been obvious to the participants.

Behaviors: How Do We Discriminate by Treating Others Differently? As mentioned earlier, the behavioral component of prejudice is discrimination, that is treating someone differently because of their group membership. Discrimination can be based on explicit or implicit attitudes and may therefore be overt or obvious, or it may be covert or hidden, or it may occur unconsciously. With the passage of laws in many countries protecting people from unfair discrimination, overt discrimination is on the decline in many places. However, even in countries with more advanced legislation, there is still overwhelming evidence to demonstrate that discrimination continues. Discrimination is most discussed and researched in relation to ethnicity/race and gender in part because they are visible characteristics. In other words, it is easy to look and readily identify someone’s gender and race. Therefore, we will focus

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on these two types of discrimination. Of course, as we have discussed, there are other characteristics that are also visible and can lead to discrimination like weight and physical disability, but historically they have not impacted as many people or been as widely researched as gender and race. Invisible characteristics, or those that are not always visibly apparent (e.g., religion, education, hidden disability, sexual orientation), also lead to discrimination but tend to require more information (with some exceptions) (Van Knippenberg and Schippers 2007) and so are not as often discussed in the literature.

Sexism Sexism is prejudice and discrimination based upon a person’s gender. Most of the research on sexism has focused upon women as the targets of prejudice and discrimination (Deaux and LaFrance 1998). This is partially because historically women have been more often the victims of unfair treatment owing to their lower positions in most societies in comparison to men. That is not to say that men cannot or do not suffer sexism! As discussed above, women and men are subject to stereotypes. Research into the stereotypes has shown that women are generally thought to be nice but incompetent while men are thought to be competent but perhaps not so nice. Such beliefs are found in a variety of different cultures across Europe, North and South America, Australia and parts of the Middle East (Deaux 1985). Stereotypes and their accompanying prejudices lead women to be treated in inferior ways compared to men which—as discussed—can involve both hostile sexism with a view of women as irrational and weak and deserving of being dominated as well as benevolent sexism with the view of women as warm, nurturing, gentle and family oriented and in need of protection (Glick and Fiske 2001). Whether sexism is benevolent or hostile, it has profound implications for women, because women are thought of in stereotypical terms which are associated with particular types of roles (to greater and lesser degrees) across societies. Historically, women were thought of as wives, mothers, and caregivers and, accordingly, most focused on the task of taking care of home and family while men went out to work to obtain resources to support the family. However, times are changing, and, in many countries, women today are working, but often in roles that are viewed as more feminine and are typically not as lucrative as roles dominated by men. For instance, across Europe, men dominate in construction (91% male), transport (80% male), industry (69% male), and agriculture (65% male), while women are found more often in the health industry (77% female) or education (67% female) (Eurofound 2013). Women are found overwhelmingly in lower-paid, part-time positions in service sector jobs, while men are predominantly found in full-time and more highly paid positions in manual and professional roles (Acker 2006; Hakim 1995; Office of National Statistics 2013; Reskin 1993). This division of men and women in particular types of jobs is known as horizontal

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segregation (Blackburn et al. 2002; Reskin 1993) and is largely, although not exclusively, based upon the discriminatory behavior of hiring managers who view men and women in stereotypical terms and hold prejudices about what they should and shouldn’t do in terms of work roles. There are many studies that demonstrate the discrimination suffered by women in the hiring process. For instance, one study looked at science professors at top US universities who were reviewing applications for laboratory manager roles. The applications submitted for these positions were the same except that one-half had women’s names at the top and one-half had men’s names at the top. The professors rated what they thought were male applicants as significantly more competent then female candidates and were more likely to hire them and offer them higher starting salaries even though their resumes were identical. While you might think that all the hiring professors were men, guess what; some were women and they were just as likely to be biased toward male candidates (Moss-Racusin et al. 2012). This suggests that it is not just men who stereotype and discriminate against women but women too. Please reflect on horizontal segregation in Thought Box 3.11. Thought Box 3.11 Horizontal segregation Think for a moment about the messages that you received about the kinds of careers you could pursue. What do you believe you can or can’t do because of what you learned in relation to your gender? What about your parents or caregivers – did they pursue life goals that were consistent with their genders? Why or why not?

In addition to horizontal segregation, which finds men and women in particular industries, vertical segregation can be said to occur when higher concentrations of men are found in more highly-paid, high-level positions while higher concentrations of women are found in lower-paid, lower-level positions (Johns 2013; Reskin 1993). Vertical segregation is metaphorically referred to as “the glass ceiling”, which is considered an invisible barrier standing between women and higher levels positions (Reskin 1993; Johns 2013). Often people think that we have overcome the glass ceiling because we now have women in high political offices and as the CEO’s of large companies. We also have female judges, lawyers and doctors, so what is the problem? The problem is that women are not represented in percentages that represent their make-up of the general population (50%). So anytime there is representation of women at less than 50%, this would suggest evidence of discrimination occurring. For example, a study by the European Commission (2013) found that women make up only about 20% of board members of the largest publicly listed EU companies and only 3.3% of these companies have a woman as Chief Executive Officer (CEO).

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In politics, some countries have a very low representation of women. For example, just 10% of senior ministers in Hungary are women (European Commission 2013). In the United States while women earn approximately 60% of all master’s degrees, they make up “only 25% of executive– and senior-level officials and managers, hold only 19% of board seats, and make up only 4.6% of CEOs” (Warner 2015). Even in academia—where unbiased merit-based promotion decisions are expected—there is evidence of women being discriminated against with female colleagues constituting “only 30% of full professors and 26% of college presidents” (ibid.). Reflect for a moment on the problem of vertical segregation in Thought Box 3.12. Thought Box 3.12 Vertical segregation Vertical segregation is a persistent problem even in female dominated fields. A study by Janzen and colleagues (2013), for instance, found that in the pharmacy sector where 59.2% of licensed pharmacists are women, the majority tend to work in lower-level, lower-paid pharmacy positions whereas male pharmacists tend to be in senior roles or own their own pharmacies. Why do you think that is? Is it solely based on discrimination? Do you aspire to higher level positions? Why or why not? How do your views relate to your gender?

Thought Box 3.12 on vertical segregation, asked you to reflect upon how the differences in employment statistics might be based on more than just discrimination in the hiring process. What about women’s choices, for example? Women choose not to study subjects like engineering and so do not pursue careers in that area, right? Don’t most women like to work part-time to allow them the flexibility to be at home more? These are valid questions and—while there are no easy answers,—part of the reason for these “choices” are because of the ways in which men and women are socialized into gender roles as well as the ways in which they are treated at work. It is true to an extent that women choose different kinds of careers to pursue and they pursue them in different ways (e.g. part-time, full-time). The development of individual identity and our socialization into gender roles has a lot to do with these decisions. As discussed in Chap. 2, early on children distinguish between boys and girls and begin associating themselves with particular gender roles (Martin et al. 1990). While there has been a reduction in the gendered nature of childrearing with more gender-neutral parenting practices gaining popularity in some countries (e.g., Martin 2005), studies suggest that parents still treat boys and girls differently based upon their gender (Leaper 2000). Additionally, parents serve as role models and display certain gender specific values, attitudes and behaviors which are what children learn are appropriate for their gender (Leaper 2000). Gender roles are then reinforced through societal influences (Martin et al. 1990). For instance, a study of

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award-winning children’s books found that there were nearly two times as many male as female main characters (Hamilton et al. 2006). Further, female main characters were more nurturing than male main characters and occupations were stereotyped based upon gender with women more than men appearing not to be in paid employment (Hamilton et al. 2006)! The influence of society on gender roles has a major influence on women’s career choices and trajectories. First, women tend to develop individual characteristics such as attitudes towards employment and values that differ from those of men (Corcoran and Courant 1987). A study by the Institute of Leadership and Management found that female managers have lower ambitions and expectations in regard to their careers (Institute of Leadership and Management 2011). Women were also found to possess lower levels of self-confidence and self-belief and consequently made more cautious career choices. They were also found to be less sure of themselves in terms on their career paths in comparison to men. Other studies show similar findings. For example, a 2006 report on the careers of health care executives found that just 40% of women compared to 70% of men aspired to CEO positions (American College of Healthcare Executives 2006). While socialization into particular gender roles impacts the characteristics of women, it can also impact their aspirations. If girls are routinely encouraged by parents to be gentle and kind, told by their teachers they are not good at math and science, and encouraged by society in general to look pretty and be docile than they will begin to see themselves in those terms and will strive to live up to those expectations. Demonstrated by a classic study decades ago (Rosenthal and Jacobson 1968) and by many subsequent studies, these phenomena are well-known in social psychology as the self -fulfilling prophecy. What we know through such studies is that society impacts the aspirations of children by giving them ideas about what they can and cannot do—and so girls tend to follow what are considered to be more feminine pursuits and careers, a phenomena referred to by some as the “glass slipper” (Rudman and Heppen 2003), while boys often follow what are considered to be more masculine pursuits and careers. For a recent examination of the gendered nature of society and the methods that are employed to help women to overcome the challenges outlined above, see Lantz-Deaton et al. (2018). Although we have focused upon sexism directed at women, as we have alluded to, sexism can also impact men. While girls are often encouraged to pursue more feminine activities and to develop feminine qualities, boys are often encouraged to pursue more masculine activities and to “act like a man”. “Boys don’t cry”, “manup”, and other phrases come to mind. The way in which boys are raised in societies is consistent with general stereotypes of men. A 16-nation survey found that people believe men are aggressive and predatory and not as warm and kind as women (Glick et al. 2004). Not only do such stereotypes depict men as hostile and dominant, which is certainly not true of many men, but stereotypes like these suggest that men must play certain roles within societies. They must be leaders and bread winners and cannot show feelings. This is unfortunate for men many of whom may wish to pursue careers that are historically thought to be for women such as teacher or nurse. Further, it can stigmatize fathers who for whatever reason decide they wish to stay

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home and raise children while their wives work! Men should be able to have the same choices available to women, but societal norms typically frown upon this. Reflect on your experience with these ideas before moving on in Thought Box 3.13. Thought Box 3.13 Gender roles What did you learn about gender roles from your parents, teachers, friends, and the wider society? Do you think it has influenced your academic, career and family choices? Why or why not?

While socialization into gender roles has an impact on career choices, so do the work environments and home lives in which men and women find themselves. Although more women are taking up higher level positions and jobs in fields that have been traditionally dominated by men, research has found that often women leave their jobs before attaining higher level positions. This is referred to as the metaphorical leaky pipeline in science, technology, engineering, and mathematical fields (Blickenstaff 2005). Research has explored the reasons why this happens. One study of 2500 people in science, engineering, and technology found that women who decided to leave their jobs reported that they did so because they felt isolated (often being the only woman in their work group) or because they had experienced sexual harassment (Hewlitt et al. 2008), while other studies found that women reported leaving because they were paid less than men for the same work or had working conditions that did not allow them to balance home and personal obligations (Hewlitt et al. 2008). This last bit of evidence points us to research which suggests that, although traditional gender roles are evolving in many countries, women even in more advanced countries still take on the bulk of responsibility when it comes to home and family. For instance, a study of Harvard graduates (Ely et al. 2014) found that about 60% of men surveyed expected that they would not be primary caregivers of their children. Those expectations were exceeded with 86% not taking the role of primary caregiver. The exact opposite was true for women. About 50% of women expected to be the primary caregivers of their children but in reality, about 70% did so.

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For men, socialization into male gender roles can also be limiting. Studies suggest that the way men and women define success and their core values in their lives and careers are similar even for highly educated and ambitious people (a happy family, achieving work-life balance, and having positive relationships) (Ely et al., 2014). Thus, men want what women want, but their desires conflict with societal norms suggesting that they must go out and work long hours to support their families. That said, this is beginning to change. For instance, while the number of dads that stay home with the children are still in a minority, the number is slowly increasing (Connell and Messerschmidt 2005; Smith 2008). As well, legislation is beginning to change. Sweden is one of the most progressive countries having introduced the first gender-indifferent parental leave in 1974 (Kelly 2016). Shared leave is designed to encourage fathers as well as same sex parents to share leave after a child is born. The rates at which such leave is used varies across different countries where it has been introduced, due, in part, to societal gender norms and organizational pressures for men to show commitment to work. In the UK, for example, it has been suggested that just 2% of fathers make use of paternity leave (Rice-Oxley 2018). However, some counties like Sweden have introduced regulations that require leave to be shared by both parents or forfeited (Kelly 2016). Take a moment to reflect further on shared parental leave in the Thought Box 3.14. Thought Box 3.14 Shared parental leave If you have a few minutes, find out what the laws are on shared parental leave in your country. Whatever they are, do you think that society supports fathers taking time off when their children are born? Why or why not? How are same-sex parents protected by parental leave laws?

The introduction of paternity leave is just one of many important steps in trying to address the inequalities seen in workplaces around the world. However, as we see, it is not a panacea. While regulations may be put in place to change practice, social engineering only goes so far and cannot change the gendered nature of societies overnight. Stereotyping, prejudice and discrimination related to men and women in the workforce continues. However, being aware of, and willing to address, such issues, is important and highly related to the development of IC because they relate to overcoming prejudice and discrimination in the workplace and the promotion of fairness—topics which we will be explored to a greater extent in later chapters.

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Racism Racism is prejudice and discrimination based upon a person’s race or ethnicity. It refers to the widespread use of individual and institutional power to control groups of people by either granting or withholding rights, respect, representation, and resources (Syed and Ozbilgin 2015). It is again one of the most frequently researched and discussed areas in relation to discrimination. Race is viewed as relating to the visible appearance of someone (Sue et al. 1992), while ethnicity refers to a shared culture potentially involving spirituality, values, languages and beliefs (Balcazar et al. 2010). As alluded to earlier, some places in the world have shown a massive decline in racist attitudes. For example, one study (Dovidio et al. 1996) showed a significant decline in white participants’ views of black Americans as lazy, dropping from nearly 80% in 1933 to less than 20% in 1993. While some studies show a decline of such stereotypes, others suggest less positive evidence. For instance, a study by Devine and Elliot (1995) found that 45% of white participants believed black Americans to be lazy. While there is some conflicting data from different studies, overall, we have seen stereotypes changing and declining although they have not been completely eliminated. As discussed above, explicit prejudice (derogatory stereotypes, calling people names, abuse, persecution, discrimination) is not as accepted in many societies today as it once was, and is in fact illegal in many places. While we have seen a decline in explicit prejudice, overall, and racism, in particular, researchers suggest that racism exists, but is just more implicit or hidden. New terms such as aversive racism (Gaertner and Dovidio 1986), symbolic racism (Kinder and Sears 1981) and modern racism (McConahay 1986) have cropped up to try to describe the current state of racism. Although there are differences between these terms, they all highlight a conflict between modern egalitarian values (common in some though not all countries). These suggest that we are all equal and should be treated with respect and in non-discriminatory ways; however they exist alongside the emotional aversion towards racial groups that many people still harbor (for overviews see Brewer and Miller 1996; Brown 1995). These more subtle forms of racism reflect how people deal with this conflict between egalitarian values and their underlying negativity towards race. This can manifest itself in the denial that there is a problem, denial of racial privilege and disadvantage and the leading of separate lives. Before looking at the evidence, take a minute to reflect on racism in the next Thought Box 3.15. Thought Box 3.15 Declining racism? Do you think racism is declining in your city or country? Why or why not? Do you think it can ever be eliminated?

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Evidence for the continuation of racial discrimination is plentiful. Sometimes, it is overt, for example, the existence of right-wing groups which openly condemn other groups. Sometimes, it is more subtle. Unemployment rates are often cited as evidence of racial discrimination. As research has demonstrated, minorities can be screened out of the hiring process early on, when hiring managers notice indicators of race on resumes (e.g., Gerdeman 2017). In terms of unemployment statistics, for example, while 4% of UK white people are unemployed,7% of other ethnic minorities are unemployed, and 9% of black people are unemployed (Gov.uk 2019b). Disparities are also seen through lower rates of pay for ethnic minority group members. In South Africa where close to 80% of the population is black, in 2011, the average monthly earnings for white people was four times more than for black people. Moreover, black people make up only 17% of business owners (Moloi 2013). Other statistics often cited in relation to racism have to do with criminal activity. For example, studies show that a disproportionately large percentage of black Americans are arrested and convicted on drug charges each year (Blow 2011). A study in Seattle in the state of Washington provides a case in point. Although the population of Seattle is 70% white and comprises the majority of people who use or sell drugs in Seattle, nearly 66% of individuals arrested are black. Statistically this makes no sense. If only 30% of people who sell drugs are black, then they should make up only 30% of people who are arrested for selling drugs. So, what is wrong here? Researchers suggest that white drug crime is over-looked and that the work of the police department in terms of drug enforcement reflects racial discrimination (Beckett et al. 2006). Such racial discrimination in the US criminal justice system occurs at all levels. For example, innocent black people are convicted of murder charges seven times more often than innocent white people, and about 50% of black American prisoners convicted of murder are 50% more likely to be innocent than other convicted murderers (Gross et al. 2017). While such statistics indicate the continuation of prejudice, the scores of deaths of black American citizens at the hands of US police officers are also widely thought to be indicators of racism. For example, a recent case drawing world-wide attention relates to the tragic death of 46-year-old George Floyd, a black American killed by police in May 2020 in Minneapolis (Minnesota) (BBC 2020a, McBride 2020, D’Amore 2020, Madani et al. 2020) (see Box 3.1). Box 3.1 “I can’t breathe” In May of 2020, four Minnesota police officers apprehended George Floyd for allegedly using counterfeit money to make a purchase in a shop (BBC 2020a). A film taken by one of the witnesses shows arresting officer, Derek Chauvin, pushing the unarmed Floyd to the ground and kneeling on his neck for close to nine minutes as he struggled to breath and pleaded for help (McBride 2020; D’Amore 2020). He was later pronounced dead at a local hospital with the cause of death listed as homicide. Despite the turn of events, the officers responsible for Floyd’s death were not immediately arrested. After protests

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erupted across the country demanding justice for Floyd, Chauvin was finally arrested and charged five days later (Madani et al. 2020). A lawyer for the case has suggested that a “pandemic of racism” led to his death (BBC 2020a).

While the Floyd case has drawn outrage and protests have erupted across the world, cases such as these are not new (BBC 2020b) but are symptomatic of systemic racism that occurs across societies. Such cases led to the creation of an organization known as the Black Lives Matter movement (BBC 2020b). The protests and this movement have created controversy. Please take a minute to reflect on this controversy in Thought Box 3.16. Thought Box 3.16 Black lives matter Unarmed 17-year-old Trayvon Martin was shot by a self-appointed neighborhood watchman in 2012 in a gated community in Florida (US) where he was visiting his father (Ramaswamy 2017). The Black Lives Matter movement (https://blacklivesmatter.com/about/) began in 2013 after Trayvon’s killer was acquitted as an attempt to address racism against black people. Some people object to the name of the organization which focuses only upon black people suggesting that rather than “Black Lives Matter” it should be “All Lives Matter”. Why might people advocate for this change of phrase? Do you agree? Why or why not?

If you struggled with how to answer Thought Box 3.16, you are not alone. Of course, all lives matter; and many people think this is the phrase that should be used instead of “Black lives matter” so that everyone is included. However, the problem is that focusing upon all lives diminishes the message—which is the fact that racism is embedded within societies and that because of it, black people are discriminated against and often killed just because they are black. “Black Lives Matter” highlights racism against black people. It does not suggest that the lives of non-black people do not matter, only that black lives are negatively impacted or in some cases ended because of prejudiced and racist attitudes. It is a call to end racism and violence against the black community. In addition to movements such as Black lives matter, murder cases such as the ones mentioned above have spurred further research exploring racial prejudice and discrimination. For example, exploring how racial prejudice impacts the performance of police in stressful situations, Correll et al. (2002) re-created situations in the lab, in which white participants saw videos of young men (half black and half white) in realistic settings. One-half of each were holding a gun while the others were holding mobile phones, wallets, or cameras. Participants were asked to press a button “to

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shoot” if the man had a gun and a button “not to shoot” if he did not. They had one second to make up their minds. The findings of their study revealed that white participants were especially likely to shoot a black man whether he was holding a gun or a phone, camera or wallet. Such evidence suggests that people act on their prejudices and discriminate in only a matter of split seconds which can have grave consequences. Not only does this help to explain police brutality towards citizens with particular characteristics, it helps to suggest what might be done to prevent it.

Other “-isms” Thus far, we have focused upon racism and sexism, however, prejudice impacts people with a wide variety of other characteristics. Take religion, for example. One study found that employers were much more likely to call in Christian applicants for an interview (17%) in comparison to Muslim applicants (2.3%) (Acquisti and Fong 2014). Discrimination against gay, lesbian, and transgender people is still a massive issue around the world. One study conducted by the Swedish Ministry of Labour found that 28% of gay, lesbian and bisexual people felt they had suffered discrimination at work related to their sexual orientation (Kirton and Greene 2010). There are many types of “-isms” which are sometimes specific to certain societies. For instance, in the United States there is significant distrust of atheists. A Gallup poll found that US voters were more likely to vote for a presidential candidate who is black (96%), a woman (95%), a Catholic (94%), Hispanic (92%), Jewish (91%), Mormon (80%) gay or lesbian (68%) than for an atheist (64%) (J. Jones 2012). Reflect on your views around another type of discrimination in the next Thought Box 3.17. Thought Box 3.17 Weight discrimination Although not as widely discussed or researched as other characteristics, discrimination based upon body weight is also a problem. Stereotypes regarding people who are overweight include characteristics such as lazy, socially inept and unintelligent (Puhl and Brownnell 2001). Children who are overweight are routinely verbally and physically abused and bullied while adults who are overweight are often denied employment, given lower wages, refused job promotions and deprived of health care (Puhl et al. 2008). What is your experience of weight discrimination? Have you or has someone you know been the target of weight discrimination? Or have you thought about or treated other people differently because of their weight?

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It is worth pointing out that often people think that workplace discrimination is onedimensional. In other words that someone is discriminated against based only upon gender or only upon ethnicity, or only upon sexual orientation. However, discrimination can be multidimensional for those that have multiple characteristics which put them at risk of being discriminated against. For example, black women can suffer discrimination both from being female and being black. An older homosexual man can be discriminated against because of his sexual orientation and his age. Thus, certain groups of people can have even lower representation in the workforce because of multiple characteristics. This is known as intersectionality, or multiple discrimination (Crenshaw 1989). For example, in the UK—despite the presence of thousands of black women in the UK—there are only a total of twenty-five female black professors (Rollock 2019). We have been discussing stereotyping, prejudice and discrimination and the ways in which they impact upon people in different groups. Studies such as those outlined above suggest that these phenomena can be present and influence people’s actions even if they do not realize it and can have serious consequences for those involved. We are all subject to stereotypes, prejudices and discrimination and, likewise, we are all potential perpetrators. Of course, stereotyping, prejudice and discrimination impact the career prospects of those from different groups, but they also impact the ways in which people carry out their public service jobs like health care and policing and the ways in which they live and interact with others in the world. Thus, they are critical to consider in our quest to become more interculturally competent. We have tried to carefully outline stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination for you. Further we have addressed why we all have a tendency to stereotype people. As we discussed, stereotyping saves mental energy and it allows us to make assumptions about people (although they are often inaccurate). Stereotypes are perpetuated by society in various ways so that we cannot help but hold stereotypes to some extent. However, what about prejudice? How do prejudices form? And what about discrimination? Why do we discriminate against people who are not like us? More importantly, is there something we can do to avoid prejudice and discrimination? If so what? We now turn to consider these questions.

Prejudices: Why Do We Develop Them? As we hope you have gleaned from the above text, prejudice is a major topic of concern in the quest for intercultural competence because it comprises a major block to understanding others and developing relationships with people who are different from ourselves. Why is it that we often seem to feel negative towards people who are different? While there is no single explanation, this section highlights two theories widely accepted in the field of social psychology which help to provide some explanations. But, before we discuss them, we would like to encourage you to take a minute to ponder this question yourself in the next Thought Box 3.18.

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Thought Box 3.18 Can we stop discriminating? Why do you think that people hold prejudices and discriminate against others? Is it inevitable or is it something that can be changed?

Conformity to Norms Prior to the 1950s legalized racial segregation was the norm in the United States. White people were thought to be better than black people and racial separation was the order of the day. Children went to separate schools according to whether they were black or white. Water fountains were labelled for whites or blacks. Black people had to sit at the back of city buses or stand and make room if a white person got on a bus. Segregation was standard operating procedure. Seventy years later, we find that not only has segregation been illegal for decades, but the US successfully elected a black president. The changes that have evolved in American society in relation to race relations demonstrate the power of norms, or beliefs held by a society regarding what is correct, acceptable, and permitted (Lapinski and Rimal 2006). As discussed in Chap. 2, every society or group that we belong to has norms or ways that people are typically expected to behave. If you grew up in an area where stereotypes were perpetuated, then you would tend to think that your stereotypes were true and a normal part of daily life. For example, if you grew up in an area where most women stayed at home to look after children and most Hispanic immigrants had menial jobs, then you would tend to think that those things were normal everywhere. Similarly, if you grew up in an area where exhibiting prejudices and discriminating against others, was normal then again you would think that was normal. Taking these stereotypical views of what is considered normal with you to a job later in life, can influence you leading you to hold prejudices and discriminate according to the social norms (Sherif 1936) you have learned. For instance, you might discriminate against women and Hispanic people who apply for jobs at your organization because in the back of your mind you think women should stay home and Hispanic people should work in menial jobs. These norms will simply be absorbed by you and do not have to be explicitly taught. As we have seen, norms can evolve, and they are evolving at different rates and in different ways around the world. For example, from 1996 the Defense of Marriage Act defined marriage in the US as being lawful only between men and women. In 2013, this Act was ruled as unconstitutional and as of 2014 more than half of US citizens were in favor of same-sex marriage. Looking at the age ranges of those who

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support gay marriage, as you might expect, 70% of younger people in the US support it while only 39% of those over 55 support it (Newport 2011), suggesting that older people grew up with different norms compared to younger people. While in the case of the US there has been a huge shift in social norms around gay and lesbian relationships, the same is not true in all countries. For instance, while same sex marriage was legalized in Great Britain five years ago, Brunei has recently enacted laws condoning the stoning of gay and lesbian people (Tan 2019). Thus, in Brunei it appears that social norms dictate not only looking down upon homosexuality but treating people in ways that in many countries in the world would be considered completely unacceptable. Take a moment to reflect on the social norms you are familiar with in Thought Box 3.19. Thought Box 3.19 Social norms Thinking back on your childhood, to what extent were prejudice and discrimination in relation to particular groups considered normal? To what extent did you internalize these social norms? Or is what you believe different from those people you grew up with?

Societal norms are important in understanding the perpetuation of stereotypes, prejudice and discrimination, however, they can be overcome. At times, people decide not to conform to social norms which is, of course, how societal norms change. Women in many countries used to be the property of men and could not hold jobs, vote or own property. Fortunately, some non-conformists decided that this was unacceptable and through many years of protests and campaigns slowly this has changed with women being increasingly equal to men in many countries. Deciding not to conform to social norms is a challenge since friends, family, and society might ostracize you. It is certainly easier to go along with what others are saying and doing rather than stand up for change. Standing up to those who make racist or sexist comments or who discriminate against others might make you unpopular, but it can also make you an agent of change. Contemplate this idea in Thought Box 3.20. Thought Box 3.20 Changing the norm Have you ever heard a racist or sexist remark or seen someone being treated unfairly because of their group membership? If so, what did you do? What would it take for you to challenge such a behavior?

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While social norms can influence our ways of thinking about and behaving towards people from other groups, it does not mean that they must be accepted. Recognizing where our stereotypes and prejudices come from can help us to control them, but it can also help us to lead to social change.

Social Identity Theory Social norms are powerful forces and provide part of the explanation for why stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination still occur today. However, norms provide only a partial explanation. We must dig deeper into understanding intergroup relationships in order to understand why there is a tendency to treat people who differ from us less favorably. Social identity theory outlines the way in which all people develop this sense of themselves, called a self -concept, in part from their membership in social groups (Tajfel and Turner 1986). As we grow, we categorize people into groups: girls and boys, blacks and whites, jocks and nerds, etc. The separation of individuals into groups as we have discussed is a normal part of the human experience with classifications ranging from the micro level (e.g., family, friends) to the macro level (e.g., religion, nationality) (Brewer 2003). The groups that you identify yourself as a part of are called ingroups. These are groups with which you share similarities. We like sharing similarities with people because it allows us to develop a sense of identity, self-esteem, belonging and security. We tend to like ingroup members because we share with them certain values, beliefs and behaviors and we know what to expect from them (Brewer 2003). Let’s say, for example, you like competitive swimming and you are on a swim team. When you meet up with your team members at practice, you’re likely to talk about topics such as your latest breaststroke record, maybe the Olympic swimming competition on television the other night, or an injury that you had recently that has been slowing you down. Belonging to this group gives you a sense of identity: “I am a swimmer.” Being part of this group gives you a sense of self-esteem and belonging; “I feel good about myself because I am a swimmer and swimming is great; I’ve made lots of good friends on the team and I like being part of the group!” Belonging to this group gives you a sense of security: “I like going to swim team. I know what to expect. It’s easy and fun to be around fellow swimmers”. Of course, there are a multitude of such groups we can belong to. Instead of swim team you might be involved in groups related to football, running, choir, band, book club, kite flying, a religious community or a community service group. It is worth noting that ingroups, whilst they serve a variety of purposes in terms of identity, do not always form around positive themes. Criminal gangs, illegal drug users and terrorist groups can also be considered ingroups, to be sure, but ingroups that have formed around more negative activities that people continue to participate in because they are ingroups. Reflect on one of your ingroups in Thought Box 3.21.

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Thought Box 3.21 Ingroups Think about one of your ingroups. How do you feel when you are around your ingroup members? Would you be more apt to help someone from your ingroup as opposed to a stranger you have just met? If so, why do you think that is?

While we have ingroups, we also have outgroups. Outgroups are groups of people to which we do not belong. Putting people into ingroups and outgroups is inevitable (Brewer 2007). As we discussed before, babies begin to form ingroups at just three months old by preferring faces of their own race (Cikara and Van Bavel 2014). Thus, even children raised by parents who value equality and diversity, if they are exposed primarily to people from their own group, they will tend to prefer people from their own group. This is called ingroup preference and has been demonstrated by a variety of studies. Research has found, for instance that hearing ingroup members with similar accents speak generates positive feelings as opposed to listening to outgroup members and that this is linked to our brain chemistry (Bestelmeyer et al. 2014). Individuals have also been shown to act more cooperatively towards those in their ingroups. This ingroup preference or liking for our ingroups extends beyond the ethnic and national groups with, for example, individuals in arbitrarily created laboratory groups having shown group preferences (Tajfel and Turner 1986). Experiments have also found that we have unconscious positive reactions when we hear terms such as ‘we’ and ‘us’ (Perdue et al. 1990). While ingroups make us feel good, the problem with them is that they often lead to an “us” and “them” mentality. That is having an ingroup makes us feel not so positive about people who are in outgroups. Often, we find outgroup members difficult to interact with especially as the cultural distance (see Chap. 4) grows and we are more unfamiliar with the norms of that group and unsure how to react to them. Language differences as well as cultural differences can also impact interactions. When people do not share the same first language, this can compound difficulty in interacting, when not only are cultural norms different, but individuals have trouble understanding the spoken language of one another. The linguistic and cultural differences outlined above can easily leave us feeling confused, uncomfortable, and/or tired. Interacting with outgroup members places additional demands on our cognitive resources which can lead us to feel tired and irritable and cause us to direct attention to negative rather than positive aspects of the interactions thus leading us to evaluate the interactions more negatively (Stephan and Stephan, 1985). Further, negative mood states can cause reliance on superficial information like stereotypes, so that individuals are categorized according to

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stereotypes instead of viewed and understood as individuals. Stereotyping, as we have discussed, is a problem because it prevents us from understanding people as individuals and leads to making mistakes in understanding them (F¨orsterling 2001). It can also lead to the formation of prejudices (Stangor 2009), which can be the foundation for discrimination. Please take a moment to reflect on one of your outgroups in Thought Box 3.22. Thought Box 3.22 Outgroups Think about one of your outgroups. How do you feel when you are around members of this outgroup? Is it more of an effort or more uncomfortable than when you are around ingroup members? Why or why not?

The tendency to be more uncomfortable when around outgroup members can lead us to treat outgroup members less favorably than ingroup members—we may even try to avoid them. However, we also tend to treat outgroup members less favorably because it helps us to build our own self-esteem. According to social identity theory, ingroups aim to achieve positive distinctiveness (Turner 1975), and in doing so, are prone to making comparisons between the ingroup and the outgroup with the view to seeing themselves as better than the outgroup on things they particularly value. This is one reason why there is a tendency to denigrate outgroups, in order to see the ingroup as superior. A key psychological term ethnocentrism was coined by the work of Sumner back in 1906 and is defined as the belief that one’s own group is superior to all others. This view that our own group is best leads us to feel superior in order to enhance our self-esteem and belonging. Thus, not only do we prefer ingroup members because we feel more comfortable around them, but because they bolster our sense of self. When our sports team wins against another, we celebrate. When we see our country’s flag, we often feel a sense of pride. When we wear our school colors along with everyone else, we feel a sense of belonging. Unfortunately, this tendency to think that our ingroup is best leads to the view of outgroups as being “less than” in various ways and fosters that “us” and “them” mentality. Take a moment to think about what it would take for you to breakdown a division with one of your outgroups (see Thought Box 3.23).

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Thought Box 3.23 Outgroup acceptance Think of one of your outgroups. How likely would you be to sit down next to someone from this outgroup in class? How likely would you be to become friends with an outgroup member? Would you consider marrying someone from this outgroup? Why or why not?

Power and Privilege Ethnocentrism can lead you to feel that your ingroup is better than any outgroup. Thus, you may develop prejudices regarding outgroups. Once prejudices form, it is easy to think that your ingroup is superior and perhaps deserves wealth, status, and power. Power, a concept widely found in social justice literature (e.g., Adams et al. 2016), is defined as having access to resources that enhance your chances of getting what you need to lead a happy, safe, productive life. Take for example, getting a job after university. Let’s say, for instance, that you are in your last year of university and you are trying to prepare for a career in finance. Your mom works at a finance company and she helps you to get a paid internship at her company. It is a highly sought after and competitive internship but because she has connections, she can get you the internship. You take up the internship and complete it. When you graduate, you are then offered a job by her company which you happily accept. Power in this case is defined by your ability to use your social connections to reach your career goal. It’s good for you, of course, but what about all those students who wanted that finance internship but didn’t have good connections and didn’t really stand a chance? Power tends to be held by those who closely approximate the majority within societies (Johnson 2017). In countries such as the US, this tends to be people who are white, male, heterosexual, well off, adult, non-disabled and Christian. Depending upon the country you live in, the race/ethnicity and religion of the dominant majority may vary, but the other characteristics are likely to be consistent across societies. Often, we assume that hiring and promotion decisions are based on merit or how hard someone works, but this masks power relationships. This is not to say that everyone gets jobs because of their connections; only that power certainly makes it easier for some people to be successful compared to others. Power results in the unequal distribution of rewards such as starting salary, travel funds, time off and training. Women and people from ethnic minority groups are underrepresented in

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many segments of employment as previously discussed in part because of power imbalances. Power facilitates privilege, which is considered to be unearned access to resources which are only available to some people due to their advantaged social group membership or an invisible collection of unearned assets (Twine and Gardener 2013). The privileges you receive because of your connections can have a direct impact on your career prospects and life chances (McGee 2015). So if you are born into a family who can pay for you to have books and a computer at home, who support you in your career goals, send you to fee paying schools, pay for you to go to university and facilitate connections for you to make the transition to a career, you can be said to have some privileges that others do not have. Take a moment to complete the inventory in Box 3.2 and then reflect upon it in Thought Box 3.24. Box 3.2 Power and privilege inventory Read over the statements below. Put a check mark next to those statements that apply to you. • I have been made fun of or have been made to feel uncomfortable because of my weight. • My family has taken holidays outside of my home country. • I do not often see people of my race or ethnicity as characters on television or in films. • I have always been able to live somewhere where I felt safe. • I have sometimes felt hungry because my family did not have enough money for food. • My family owned the house I grew up in. • When police are around, I typically feel safe and protected. • I have never been harassed because of my race, religion, ethnicity, disability, or sexual orientation. • At times the religious holidays I observe are not observed by universities or local businesses. • I can hold hands with or express physical affection with an intimate partner in public without people staring at us or making negative comments. • I have been told by some people that I cannot pursue certain careers because of my gender or disability. • My ancestors were forced to come to the country I live in against their will or because they were trying to escape oppression in their home country. • My parents are paying for my education. • I have never had to wonder if I did not get a job because of my race or ethnicity. • I have never been made fun of because of my accent or misunderstood because I can’t speak the dominant language as well as everyone else. • English is my first language. Adapted from Teaching for Diversity and Social Justice (Adams et al. 2016)

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Thought Box 3.24 Power and privilege reflection Reflect on the statements from Box 3.2 above by considering the following questions.

• • • • •

What were your reactions to the process of doing the above inventory? To what extent did you find yourself to be privileged or disadvantaged? Were there any surprizes? If so, what were they? To what extent does your experience with privilege and disadvantage differ from the experience of people you know? Is there a particular characteristic in relation to power and privilege that bothers you? If so, what it is? Why are you sensitive about it?

Adapted from Teaching for Diversity and Social Justice (Adams et al. 2016)

The activities above aimed to facilitate you in thinking more deeply about power and privilege and how it relates to ingroups and outgroups. Often, we do not recognize our own privilege especially if we have little experience with outgroups who have experienced disadvantage. Sometimes we believe that people get what they deserve and if they can’t find a job or if they lose a job it’s because of a lack of individual motivation rather than circumstances—a phenomenon known as blaming the victim.

Blaming the Victim Those who have not experienced discrimination for themselves often have difficulty in understanding what it is like to be treated unfairly by others because of group membership. Members of majority ingroups may feel sorry for people in outgroups who suffer discrimination, but it is hard to really get to grips with what it is like to be judged not on your own merit but based upon your race, ethnicity, religion, sexual orientation, gender or other group membership. Often empathy is in short supply and those from the majority tend to see it as the fault of the outgroup member if they are in a bad situation. Blaming the victim is a social-psychological concept which suggests that people tend to blame other people or assume that their attributes have led to their victimization in order to see the world as a fair place. In other words, we tend to think

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that it is the fault of the victim if they can’t find a job, are overweight, have been raped, or are fleeing from their home country. We blame them rather than considering situational causes. A study by Janoff-Bulman et al. (1985) demonstrates this phenomenon. Researchers gave a group of participants a description of a woman’s behavior towards a man. The group of participants rated her behavior as friendly and appropriate. Then they gave the same description to another group of participants, but additionally they told the participants that the woman was later raped by the man. The participants in the second group rated her behavior as overly flirtatious and suggested that she brought the rape on herself. How could the two groups possibly rate the exact same behavior differently? The tendency to blame the victim has to do with our need to feel that the world is safe. When bad things happen to others, we might feel sorry for them, but we also feel a sense of relief that it was not us. But we can also feel somewhat worried that the same thing could happen to us. To counteract this fear, we decide that it must have been something the victim did and that the same could not happen to us. Thus, we feel that although something bad happened to them, we’re actually safe (Jones and Aronson 1973). Blaming the victim is a problem because it can perpetuate prejudice by allowing us to point the finger at others and assume that they brought their difficulties on themselves. We might think in terms of blaming entire groups for their characteristics. Jewish people, for example, have been victimized all over the world—applying blaming the victim to this phenomenon would lead us to think that they must have done something to deserve it. Please reflect on the concept of blaming the victim in Thought Box 3.25. Thought Box 3.25 Blaming the victim Can you think of an example where an individual was blamed for something that was not his or her fault? Perhaps it might be an entire outgroup that was blamed? Are there people who think that people who are unemployed are just lazy or don’t try hard enough? Might there be other explanations for why they are unemployed?

Blaming the victim is highlighted here not just to facilitate understanding of how we perceive people individually but how we perceive outgroups. Outgroups are often blamed for their difficulties; consider immigrants, homeless people and the unemployed. Understanding the dynamics of intergroup relationships and the role of power and privilege in influencing people’s lives is key to facilitate understanding of the ways in which we perceive others for several reasons. First, we can develop more critical cultural self -awareness and can begin to understand why it is that we favor people from our ingroup and often discriminate against people from our outgroups.

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By becoming more self-aware, we have the potential to change. Second, it can help us to develop mindfulness. Part of the problem with prejudice is that it is a mindless, some say knee-jerk, reaction to stereotypes that we hold of others. By becoming more mindful, again we can take more control and have more of an ability to change. Third, it can help us to develop true empathy, so that we can begin to put ourselves in another person’s shoes and better understand where they are coming from. Fourth, it can help us to develop a sense of cultural humility with the recognition that perhaps we do not know it all, there are many experiences that people have that we will never fully understand, and that our ingroups are not so important or so much better than outgroups. Self -awareness, mindfulness, empathy and humility—as you will see in the subsequent chapters—are key components in intercultural competence.

Realistic Group Conflict Theory and Other Explanations The formation of ingroups and outgroups are a core explanation for prejudice from a social psychological standpoint and are particularly relevant to our topic here of developing intercultural competence. However, there are other theories that attempt to explain prejudice and discrimination. A leading theory suggests that prejudices can be caused by limited resources which can lead to conflict between groups. A classic study demonstrating group conflict theory was conducted in 1938 by Dollard. In this study, researchers documented the relationships between the local white community and new German immigrants. When the immigrants first arrived, relations were very cordial. Then, a shortage of jobs created tension leading local people to begin showing hostility towards the immigrants and conflict erupted. When resources are plentiful, it is easier to be generous towards outgroups, but when resources are in short supply, majority groups will often look for a “scape goat”, someone or a group of people to blame for the shortages, which tends to be a minority outgroup even if they have nothing to do with the problem. Take a minute to ponder on your experience with conflict in Thought Box 3.26. Thought Box 3.26 Group conflict Can you think of a group in your area that is blamed for taking jobs, housing, medical care or other resources? Or maybe it is a group of students who you believe have taken particular resources? Do you think the blame is deserved? Why or why not?

One of the most influential theorists in relation to group conflict theory is Muzafer Sherif. Sherif and colleagues (Sherif and Sherif 1953; Sherif et al. 1955; Sherif 1966)

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carried out the now-famous summer camp studies in which twelve-year old boys were invited to participate in alleged summer holiday camps. Boys were randomly assigned to different summer camp groups and then placed in situations designed to create ingroup cohesiveness like hiking and building projects. They were then given a series of tasks that foster competition between the groups like football and tug-of-war where prizes were given. This aroused conflict and tension between the two groups. Boys began to express verbal prejudice towards outgroup members and demonstrated aggressiveness towards them by, for instance, burning their group flag and stealing their property. Boys became so aggressive against one another, that they had to be physically separated by the researchers. While group conflict theory is important in helping us to understand prejudices, other theories and concepts exist, which also attempt to explain prejudice such as the Authoritarian Personality (Adorno et al. 1950), Right-wing Authoritarianism (Duckitt et al. 2002), Social Dominance Theory (Sidanius and Pratto 1999; Sidanius et al. 2001) and Dogmatism and Close-mindedness (Rokeach 1948, 1960). While it is beyond the scope of this book to address all of them, we encourage you to widen your reading to better understand the origins of prejudice, which may help you to recognize and reduce your own prejudices and to enhance the development of intercultural competence. Before we move on to the next topic, please take a moment to reflect on other explanations for prejudice in Thought Box 3.27. Thought Box 3.27 Other explanations of prejudice As discussed above, there are other theories and concepts which attempt to explain prejudice. Choose one of the terms mentioned above (Authoritarian Personality, Right-wing Authoritarianism, Social Dominance Theory, Dogmatism and Close-mindedness) and reflect on how you think it might help to explain prejudice. If you are feeling curious, we suggest that you look it up to see what more you can learn.

Reducing Prejudice: How Do We Do It? In this chapter, we have presented more of the negative side of human nature discussing a variety of our foibles in relation to cultural difference. However, as we have highlighted, it is crucial to understand how and why we react as we do in the

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presence of cultural difference, so that we can learn to overcome these tendencies and reduce our prejudices. The good news is that there is much we can do to overcome these tendencies and to become more interculturally competent, and it is this topic to which we now turn. Looking down upon outgroups is a key feature of stereotyping, prejudice, discrimination and conflict. Such attitudes can be found across societies and remain entrenched, when there is a shortage of information which might transform negative attitudes into more positive attitudes. Stereotypes and prejudices are often continued because people are socially or physically isolated from one another. For instance, in Northern Ireland, Protestants and Catholics often live and interact separately, which does not help in alleviating the tensions between them (Hewstone et al. 2005). To put it in simple terms, often there is an ongoing shortage of contact with people from different groups. Groups may remain separate because of educational, occupational, cultural and material differences in addition to the worry of what it might be like to be in closer contact (Stephan and Stephan 1985). Stephan and Stephan (2000) outlined reasons why people feel threatened and anxious around outgroup members. We might feel that our ingroup is threatened and will not survive. We might worry about how the outgroup might influence or change the values, beliefs, morals and norms of our ingroup. We might worry about feeling embarrassed, being rejected, or making mistakes and acting inappropriately. These factors can converge to cause us to avoid interacting with outgroup members and lead us to keep our distance. Reflect upon your own comfort levels with cultural difference in Thought Box 3.28. Thought Box 3.28 Making contact What if anything, bothers you most about making contact with people from other cultures? How do you deal with this?

While we can see people avoiding one another on an individual basis, we can also observe it on more of a mass scale. Societally, we may see segregation; sometimes voluntary and sometimes involuntary and regulated by the government or organizations, although less often today. There is no shortage of cultural enclaves exemplified, for instance, by China towns, little Italys and other cultural enclaves within countries and cities in which people with a shared background live and sometimes work primarily together. Reflect upon the segregation you see around you in Thought Box 3.29.

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Thought Box 3.29 Segregation Do you see segregationbetween cultural groupsoccurring around you? If so, in what ways? What might be some ways to overcome it?

Using the previous thought box, you may have noted segregation that you see at your college or university, when students from particular cultures might stick together in lecture theatres and around campus. Although segregation may feel more comfortable, it only serves to perpetuate suspicion and stereotypes and therefore prejudice and discrimination. As previously noted, US schools used to be segregated, but were desegregated in 1954 with the view that increased contact between white and black children would improve relationships and help to end prejudice. This view has become known as the contact hypothesis and it has become one of the most influential theories in Social Psychology (Brown 1995), and one of the most widely used psychological interventions for reducing prejudice and improving relationships between people from different cultures (Oskamp and Jones 2000). Contact theory, typically credited to Allport (1954), generally suggests that contact with those from different cultures tends to reduce prejudice and lead group members to interact in more favorable ways. For example, in 1951, researchers (Deutsch and Collins) studied the attitudes of white Americans towards black Americans in three public housing projects (apartment buildings). One group of white families were randomly assigned to apartments in a building with black families so that black and white families were living alongside one another in the same building. Another group of white and black families were assigned to live in separate buildings. Several months into the study, white families in the integrated building reported a greater positive change in their attitudes towards black families than white families who were in a separate building. Studies like this have multiplied with contact being shown to reduce prejudices for younger people’s attitudes toward the elderly, healthy people’s attitudes toward the mentally ill, nondisabled children’s attitudes toward disabled children, and heterosexual people’s attitudes towards gay men and lesbians among others (Pettigrew and Tropp 2006). A recent metanalysis, which evaluated the effectiveness of contact in hundreds of studies over time, found that, overall, contact does work in reducing prejudices (Pettigrew et al. 2011). However, not all contact is successful, and some studies find that contact does not work in reducing prejudice and in some cases can exacerbate it. For example, research into US school desegregation found mixed results. Some studies found that prejudices were reduced, and individuals went on to live and work in situations that were more integrated (Braddock 1985) while others found that individuals re-segregated themselves by mainly interacting with those from their own

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ethnic group (Schofield and Sagar 1977). Brewer’s (2003) review of the literature led her to conclude that “the effectiveness of intergroup contact experiences as a method of reducing intergroup prejudice depends on a complex interaction of the structure and quality of the contact experience, the context in which it takes place, and the frequency and extensiveness of contact relationships” (p. 108). This suggests that the process is not exactly simple. Many college and university campuses today are highly diverse; however, results vary in the extent to which studying on a diverse campus breaks down prejudices and facilitates the development of IC. Some studies find that students who have friends from different ethnic and racial backgrounds tend to reduce their prejudices and feel they have more in common with those from other groups (Van Laar et al. 2008). However, as alluded to earlier, students often self-segregate. While this can be seen in lecture theatres and in student-accommodation, joining student organizations based upon ethnic, racial or national group membership can also be problematic as it can limit contact with those from different cultures but, further, it can lead to a stronger cultural identity. For example, being a member of a fraternity or sorority may lower IC because such memberships have the potential to limit encounters with people from other cultures. However, monocultural minority student organizations have been found to be problematic as well as they can strengthen a sense of ethnic victimization, so that instead of building bridges, divisions can become enhanced. Students in these groups can see themselves as having less in common with those from other groups (Sidanius et al. 2004). With the controversy of the extent to which contact helps to reduce prejudice, further studies by Allport (1954) and others (Amir 1969) were able to identify conditions under which contact is facilitated and the reduction of prejudice is more likely to occur. Some of the most important conditions include equal status, support from authority figures, intergroup cooperation and pursuit of a subordinate goal (Brown 1995). Intergroup cooperation and focusing on subordinate goals are supported by the summer camp studies by Sherif and colleagues (Sherif and Sherif 1953; Sherif et al. 1955; Sherif 1966). During a later stage of the Sherif’s studies, researchers tried to reduce conflict and improve relationships between the groups of boys participating in the summer camps. To do so, they created a series of situations in which the groups had to cooperate to reach a superordinate goal—a goal that both groups wanted but they could not get without the help of the other group. For instance, one task was to get a broken-down truck started by pushing it—where all boys from both groups were needed to push the truck. The cooperation of the groups in pursuing such goals was found to reduce conflict and prejudice between the groups. The facilitative conditions, as outlined above suggest how contact can be maximized. We now explore each and consider what might hinder each in the context of contact at university and encourage you to think of ways to help. • Equal status. Those from different cultural backgrounds should be afforded equal status and power for contact to be most effective. Equal status seems almost an ideal and, perhaps, not easily achieved when there are students from highly diverse backgrounds that come together on university campuses. Minority students may

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feel they are not treated equally in comparison to majority students. Students whose first language is different from the dominant language on campus may struggle to feel equal when they do not have as good of a command of the language and can struggle with understanding and expression in addition to difficulty with cultural norms. At times, students may notice other differences such as class and nationality that cause tension. For instance, a domestic student who had to work part-time to support himself and get a loan to pay tuition shared the following experience. ‘Like there are a lot of inequalities between students. Some international students I have a really hard time with. Some don’t speak English well enough to be in our program and I have to explain everything to them and end up doing some of their work when we are together in groups because they can’t speak or write English well enough to do it. It’s also annoying cause some have really a lot of money. They take taxis to get to class two blocks away and have servants attached to them who wash their clothes and clean up after them. Meanwhile not only am I doing their work, I have to work to support myself and I’m going into serious debt.’

When status is unequal between groups, it can have an adverse on effect on interactions especially when stereotypes are confirmed instead of disconfirmed (Pettigrew 1969). Reflect on your experience of student equality in Thought Box 3.30. Thought Box 3.30 Student equality To what extent do you feel that students on campus are equal? Unequal? How are some privileged or disadvantaged? Is there anything to be done about inequalities on campus? If so, what?

• Support from authority figures. Social norms are important in facilitating the breakdown of prejudice and the effectiveness of contact (Allport 1954; Amir 1969). If the wider society (governments and organizations) is not supportive of diversity, the effectiveness of contact can be diminished, and tensions exacerbated. In relation to your specific context, colleges and universities vary in their policies in relation to integrating students. They also provide varying levels of support in facilitating relationships between students from different cultures. These things can make the difference, which is why we will ask you in subsequent chapters to consider the extent to which your institution supports internationalization;

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equality, diversity, and inclusion initiatives; and the development of intercultural competence in staff and students. Think about this a little more using Thought Box 3.31. Thought Box 3.31 Support from authority To what extent does your government support equality? How do you know? To what extent are students of different cultural backgrounds treated equally by staff and university management? Can these things be improved? If so, how?

• Common goals and intergroup cooperation. As we saw in the Sherif’s experiments, common goals can help those from different groups to cooperate and work together to pursue a goal. This has filtered down into practice at some universities with university lecturers being encouraged to create mixed cultural groups to carry out group projects (e.g., Leask 2015). While the intention is good, it can backfire for a variety of reasons. First, students are not always equal as outlined above, which can create tension. Second, students do not always know how to interact effectively across cultures because they lack training or experience. An international student shared this experience of being in a working group with all domestic students (Lantz-Deaton 2014): ‘I think everyone else there is British and that is a very permanent group… I think I would prefer if other internationals were in the group because I do feel a little bit left out… It is like when they tell us to gather into or split into pairs or groups of three and discuss, especially if there are groups of three or four, I tend to be on the sides and they don’t actually talk to me. I don’t know why that it is. That’s something I’ve been wondering. Why is it that some people want to talk to you and other people don’t and some people seem to outright ignore you?—international student.’ (Lantz-Deaton 2014)

A third point to make in relation to group work, is that students may also struggle with different norms. For instance, in some countries showing up on time is a given whereas in other countries time is fluid as we discussed in Chap. 2. Fourth, not all students are equally committed to obtaining particular marks. Students who want a high mark can be frustrated when other students in their groups do not take on their share of work to achieve a high mark. Take a moment to reflect on your experiences with group work in Thought Box 3.32.

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Thought Box 3.32 Group work What is your experience (if any) of working in mixed cultural groups? Have you found it has enhanced or diminished your relationship with people from different cultures? What can be done to make working in mixed cultural groups more effective?

We believe that—while the intention to put students in mixed cultural groups makes sense, especially when considered alongside the principles of contact theory,— care needs to be taken on the part of institutions to facilitate students working in mixed cultural groups. Students, of course, also have an important role to play in making mixed cultural group work more effective by understanding the dynamics of interacting across cultures and behaving in interculturally competent ways. Contact theory is not a panacea easily applied on university and college campuses, but it does provide important suggestions on what we need to think about in relation to reducing prejudice and enhancing intercultural competence. Contact between people from different groups facilitates learning about outgroups and may help to reduce prejudice (Allport 1954) by, for instance, disconfirming stereotypes. Contact can reduce the fear and anxiety related to interacting with those from outgroups which in turn can lead to more positive evaluations of outgroup members (Stephan and Stephan 1985). Contact is hypothesized to increase empathy or one’s ability to take the perspective of outgroup members (Stephan et al. 1999), which—as you know— is important in the development of intercultural competence. A key message for this chapter is not just to become familiar with the definition and explanation of stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination but to develop an understanding of the ways in which they might be reduced and the competencies that they suggest as important in developing intercultural competence.

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Spears, M. (2016). Where are all the white American NBA players? https://theundefeated.com/fea tures/white-american-nba-players/. Accessed October 10, 2019. Stangor, C. (2009). The study of stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination within social psychology: A quick history of theory and research. In T. D. Nelson (Ed.), Handbook of prejudice, stereotyping and discrimination (pp. 1–12). Hove: Psychology Press. Stephan, W. G., & Stephan, C. W. (1985). Intergroup anxiety. Journal of Social Issues, 41(3), 157–175. Stephan, W. G., & Stephan, C. W. (2000). An integrated threat theory of prejudice. In S. Oskamp (Ed.), Reducing prejudice (pp. 23–46). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Stephan, W. G., Stephan, C. W., & Gudykunst, W. B. (1999). Anxiety in intergroup relations: a comparison of anxiety/uncertainty management theory and integrated threat theory. doi: https:// doi.org/10.1016/s0147-1767(99)00012-7. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 23(4), 613-628. Sue, D. W., Arredondo, P., & McDavis, R. J. (1992). Multicultural counseling competencies and standards: A call to the profession. Journal of Counseling and Development, 20(2), 64–88. Syed, J., & Ozbilgin, M. (2015). Managing diversity and inclusion. London: Sage. Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In S. Worchel & W. Austin (Eds.), Psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 7–24). Chicago Illinois: Nelson-Hall. Tan, Y. (2019). Brunei implements stoning to death under anti-LGBT laws. https://www.bbc.co.uk/ news/world-asia-47769964. Accessed October 24, 2019. Teal, C. R., Gill, A. C., Green, A. R., & Crandall, S. (2012). Helping medical learners recognise and manage unconscious bias toward certain patient groups. Medical Education, 46, 80–88. Thompson, T. L., & Kiang, L. (2010). The model minority stereotype: Adolescent experiences and links with adjustment. Asian American Journal of Psychology, 1(2), 119–128. Turner, J. C. (1975). Social comparison and social identity: Some prospects for intergroup behaviour. European Journal of Social Psychology, 5(5–34). Turner, J. C., Hogg, M. A., Oakes, P. J., Reicher, S. D., & Wetherell, M. S. (1987). Rediscovering the social group: A self-categorization theory. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Twine, F. W., & Gardener, B. (2013). Geographies of privilege. London: Routledge. Van Knippenberg, D., & Schippers, M. C. (2007). Work group diversity. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 515–541. Van Laar, C., Levin, S., & Sidanius, J. (2008). Ingroup and outgroup contact: a longitudinal study of the effects of cross-ethnic friendships, dates, roomate relationships and participation in segregated organizations. In U. Wagner, L. R. Tropp, G. Finchilescu, & C. Tredoux (Eds.), Improving intergroup relations: Buliding on the legacy of Thomas Pettigrew. Malden, MA: Blackwell. Warner, J. (2015). The women’s leadership gap (Online). Center for American Progress. https:// www.americanprogress.org/issues/women/reports/2015/08/04/118743/the-womens-leadershipgap/. Accessed November 12, 2019. Watson, H. L., & Downe, S. (2017). Discrimination against chlidbearing Romani women in maternity care in Europe: A mixed-methods systematic review. Reproductive Health, 14(1), 1–16. Weaver, C. N. (2008). Social distance as a measure of prejudice among ethnic groups in the United States. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 38, 778–795. Westen, D., Kilts, C., & Blagov, P. (2006). The neural basis of motivated reasoning: an fMRI study of emotional consgtraints on polotical judgement during the U.S. presidential election of 2004. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 18(11), 147–158. Wilkins, C. L., & Kaiser, C. R. (2014). Racial progress as a threat to the status hierarchy: implications for perceptions of anti-White bias. Psychological Science, 25, 439–446. Xu, K., Noesk, B., & Greenwald, A. G. (2014). Psychology data from the race implict association test on project implict demo website. Journal of Open Psychology Data, 2(e3).

Chapter 4

How Do We Define Intercultural Competence?

‘Tolerance, inter-cultural dialogue and respect for diversity are more essential than ever in a world where peoples are becoming more and more closely interconnected.’—Kofi Annan, former Secretary-General of the United Nations.

This chapter helps you to gain a more detailed understanding of intercultural competence by considering different terms and definitions used to refer to it. Theories to explain IC from different schools of thought are discussed to help more clearly define IC and discuss how it develops and how factors such as context are also influential. Key concepts related to IC are addressed such as ethnocentrism, ethnorelativism, and cultural distance. This chapter helps you to learn to identify when an interaction becomes intercultural and highlights the main components of IC as understood by the authors. Finally, this chapter encourages you to critically evaluate your own IC and to consider ways that you might develop it further. Learning outcomes: By reading this chapter and completing the tasks you will be able to: • • • • • • • • • • •

Identify different terms for IC; Describe in some detail the concept of IC related components; Identify keys concepts relevant to IC; Contrast theories that explain IC; Recognize the influence that context has on adaptation; Explain what an intercultural interaction is; Describe the impact of cultural distance; Identify competencies that are most important in IC; Critically evaluate your own IC; Identify methods to enhance your IC; Recognize the limits of cultural relativism.

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 C. Lantz-Deaton and I. Golubeva, Intercultural Competence for College and University Students, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57446-8_4

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After considering culture in Chap. 2 and looking at processes which hinder positive relationships between people from different cultures in Chap. 3, we now turn to dissecting intercultural competence (IC) more carefully by examining the term, definition and theories developed to explain it. Unfortunately, however, there is another major hurdle to overcome: trying to understand the meaning of IC when there is no agreement upon term, definition or theory to explain it. This is in part because it has been studied and written about by scholars from different fields such as sociologists, psychologists, anthropologists, foreign language educators, and management and communication scholars among others. The fact that it is studied by so many disciplines is in one way positive because a lot of research has been produced on the topic. However, it has also hindered and complicated the development of the field because often researchers fail to look outside of their own disciplines to learn from research conducted in other disciplines. Also, because individuals and organizations that have a stake in concepts such as IC, tend to interpret them according to their own agendas and philosophical values (Gallie in Hunter et al. 2006). Thus, you might see IC defined strictly in terms of developing employability skills, strictly in terms of creating a more peaceful and harmonious world, strictly in terms of attaining business goals and objectives, or defined in other ways. Our approach is different, first, because is it defined with broader ideas in mind. It focuses upon helping you to develop your employability and to learn how you can support organizations in attaining their business goals but from a perspective that takes into account treating people with fairness, dignity and respect. Further, it focuses upon helping you to develop and facilitate positive relationships between people of different cultures to support not only business goals, but peace and prosperity across societies. With competing theories, definitions, and components of IC, you may wonder how you can possibly begin to understand it. That is what we are here for. As intercultural professionals we have reviewed a variety of material from different disciplines relevant to IC and it is our job to distill it for you. Of course, we still have our own biases, but we hope we have minimized them. We have both come from different disciplinary backgrounds; we are from different countries and have lived extensively in countries that are different from where we grew up. We have also consulted a variety of multidisciplinary sources such as Spencer-Oatey and Franklin’s (2009) book which takes a multidisciplinary approach to analyzing IC. By the way, we highly recommend this book for further reading. While this chapter puts forward a definition and some theories and models to explain IC, we will also consider some alternative views of IC to help you to critically think about it so that you can look upon terms, definitions, theories and components offered by others with a reasonable degree of skepticism. We do this not only to facilitate your understanding of IC, but to engage your critical thinking skills, which is a hallmark of many college and university programs around the world and is important too in developing IC.

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Terminology: What’s in a Term? Before we begin to define the term IC, take a moment to complete Thought Box 4.1. Thought Box 4.1 Intercultural competence and other terms There are many terms or expressions that are like intercultural competence. Are there some that you have heard that you think are like IC? If so, what are they? To what extent do you think they mean the same thing or something different?

To properly define IC, it is helpful to break down the term into its component parts. The prefix ‘inter’ is easy to understand. Common dictionaries (e.g., Merriam-Webster 1987) define ‘inter’ as meaning ‘between’. Intercultural therefore means between cultures. The term culture, as we describe in some depth in Chap. 2, is a complex concept. For our purposes, however, it essentially implies that cultures are made up of groups of people from different communities which possess unique traditions, beliefs, values, norms, meanings and symbols (Ting-Toomey 1999). The term ‘competence’—as dictionaries suggest—implies capability, aptitude, know-how or proficiency. Therefore, being interculturally competent would suggest that one is proficient in relation to different cultures or different communities of people. As noted, although we are using the term intercultural competence, there are many other terms that you might find in the literature such as ‘cross-cultural awareness’, ‘global competitive intelligence’, and ‘international communicative competence’ to name a few (Fantini and Tirmizi 2006). Some terms mean essentially the same thing while others mean something completely different. For example, often the term ‘cross-cultural competence’ and ‘cross-cultural communication’ are used synonymously with ‘intercultural competence’ and ‘intercultural communication’. However, there is a significant difference between the two. While ‘intercultural’ focuses more upon interactions between people from different cultures, ‘cross-cultural’ has more to do with comparing and contrasting differences and similarities between cultures (Gudykunst 2003). Another example comes from the field of foreign language learning, which typically follows the use of Byram’s (1997) term ‘intercultural communicative competence’. While again similar, this term implies communication between people who do not speak the same language (Byram and Golubeva 2020). We view its implied meaning as highly relevant and yet too specific as it suggests a focus only upon

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communication between people of different language backgrounds. However, intercultural interactions can still occur between people from the same language background. As well, its emphasis on communication, while integral to IC, does not consider the idea that there might be aspects of IC beyond the scope of communication between two people. For instance, it seems to leave out issues of equality, diversity, and inclusion which we think are important. While some terms such as intercultural communicative competence, we find too specific, others seem too broad. For instance, ‘global intelligence’ is too broad because it draws attention towards issues to do with the wider world rather than focusing upon relationships between people. In this guide, we use the term ‘intercultural competence’ (IC) because we believe it is one of the most widely used and because it is specific enough to focus upon relationships between people. We also prefer the term IC because it is broad enough to encompass the complexity of IC which we believe should include issues of equality, diversity, and inclusion. As suggested earlier, our motivation in writing this guide is to facilitate you in learning to understand the broader meaning of IC not simply as something to be used to communicate effectively with those from other cultures to achieve your goals. While achieving your goals is important, the meaning that we strive to convey is one that also includes creating constructive exchanges with those from other cultures to contribute in positive ways to your future employers and the wider society. This involves applying IC not only to develop positive and constructive relationships with people from different cultures but to recognize the unfair treatment of individuals and groups and to facilitate positive change wherever you find that it is needed.

Building Blocks: How Do We Define and Explain Intercultural Competence? There is substantial overlap in the literature when it comes to IC definitions and theories (see Spencer-Oatey and Franklin 2009; Spitzberg and Changnon 2009). Traditionally, IC has been viewed as a set of cognitive, affective and behavioral factors. This view is based on the well-known Bloom’s taxonomy (1956) which suggests that cognitive stands for knowledge; affective stands for attitudes, emotions and feelings, and behavioral (or, as Bloom called it psychomotor) stands for skills. While these three terms form the core of most definitions of IC, some models also contain other domains, such as motivations, values, and so on (see Spitzberg and Changnon 2009 for a detailed overview). Before we move on, please take a minute to reflect on the possible components of IC using Thought Box 4.2.

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Thought Box 4.2 Knowledge, skills, and attitudes According to mainstream IC definitions, knowledge, skills and attitudes all form important components. Can you list a couple of examples of each that you think might be particularly important in your understanding? Do not worry if you are right or wrong – just list what comes to mind.

Spitzberg and Changnon (2009) provide an overview of existing theories and models of IC which they classify into five groups, according to the model type. These include: (1) compositional models (e.g., Deardorff, 2006), (2) co-orientational models (e.g., Byram, 1997), (3) developmental models (e.g., Bennett 1993), (4) adaptational models (e.g. Berry et al. 1987), and (5) causal path models (e.g. Hammer et al., 1998, Ting-Toomey, 1999). Compositional models basically describe the characteristics without specifying much about their relationship to one another. Co-orientational models focus on how intercultural understanding is achieved through interactions. Developmental models focus upon how intercultural competence develops over time. Adaptational models focus on process and the adjustments that people make when they interact with those from other cultures. Finally, causal path models suggest that IC can be explained through a theoretical linear system whereby variables are successively influenced by moderating or mediating variables. During the past 50 years, many theories and models of IC have been developed, but—as suggested earlier—there is no definitive model. As we have alluded to, we believe that it is valuable to study a variety of approaches and so focus upon a particular collection of models because of the points that they illustrate in relation to understanding intercultural competence. Deardorff (2006) developed a general definition and model of IC based on her survey of intercultural scholars. Her research resulted in the definition of IC as “the ability to communicate effectively and appropriately in intercultural situations based on one’s intercultural knowledge, skills and attitudes” (Deardorff 2006, p. 247). While use of the word ‘effective’—she writes—suggests that one can accomplish the goals of their interaction, ‘appropriate’ suggests that the other person involved in the interaction views the other persons’ behavior as suitable to the situation. Deardorff’s model lists components organized into a pyramid. The main components include attitudes, knowledge, and skills which facilitate effective and appropriate intercultural interactions. She suggests that attitudes form the foundation of IC. Specifically, developing higher levels of IC requires you to be able to recognize the value of cultural difference and believe that it is not just okay but even good for people

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to be different from you. Further, it requires that you be able to suspend judgement when you encounter people who are different. Being able to tolerate the ambiguity and uncertainty that often comes with encountering people who are different is also important. Finally, being curious about those who are different and open to learning about others is also critical. With these attitudes in place, Deardorff (2006) suggests that it will become possible for you to gain knowledge about yourself and your own biases as well as knowledge about those from other cultures. You will also be able to begin to develop skills which will support you in interacting across cultures such as observing, listening, and analyzing. The outcomes for this development eventually lead to an internal shift in which you will be able to develop adaptability, flexibility and the ability to empathize with others. She also suggests that you will experience an external shift in which you will be able to interact more effectively with others. Reiterating our earlier point, while Deardorff’s model is not definitive in explaining IC, it is included here as it provides a good starting point regarding what IC is about. We believe it is a good foundational definition and model because it was developed based upon a survey of intercultural professionals, because it is often referred to in higher education literature so it is contextually relevant, and because it captures the essence of a variety of definitions and models. You will notice that the Deardorff model contains what are referred to as components of IC (e.g., openness, respect, flexibility, listening skills and so on). Components are often included as parts of theories and models and often, although not always, classified as either attitudes, skills, or knowledge. While Deardorff’s model contains around 20 components, approximately 300 different components have been hypothesized as forming part of IC in relation to various theories and models (Spitzberg and Changnon 2009). Being aware of these details we can further see the complexity of IC as not just a singular competence (IC) but one that includes a variety of other underlying competencies. With these realizations, however, other questions begin to emerge such as which models truly define IC and what competencies are most important? The Deardorff model is what is known as a compositional model (Spitzberg and Changnon 2009) that is, it identifies lists of attitudes, knowledge and skills without a lot of specification on how they relate to one another. Another model that might be considered compositional, is one presented by Barrett (2013), which we will discuss in the next section.

Equality, Diversity, and Inclusion: How Are They Incorporated into Intercultural Competence? The ultimate goal in Deardorff’s (2006) model has to do with communicating effectively and appropriately. ‘Effective’ implies that the interactor achieves their goal. ‘Appropriate’ implies that the person being interacted with feels as if the interaction

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is acceptable. As is evident in the above discussion, this model focuses upon the interaction itself, which we view as completely relevant to the definition and yet incomplete because it lacks a focus upon challenging views, attitudes and behaviors that promote discrimination. In our view, this is the crux of intercultural competence because it breaks down barriers and promotes equality and harmony between people and across societies. Thus, we include another definition and compositional model based on the work of Barrett (2013). Barrett defines IC as a collection of “values, attitudes, knowledge, understandings, skills and behaviors which are needed for: understanding and respecting people who are perceived to be culturally different from oneself; interacting and communicating effectively and appropriately with such people; and establishing positive and constructive relationships with such people” (2013, p. 152). There are similarities in the definitions of Barrett and Deardorff although the range of components in Barrett’s model is expanded as is the definition of what they are required for. They are not just required for communication, but for developing understanding and respect for culturally different others, as well as for establishing positive and constructive relationships with them. While this seems to relate more directly to equality, diversity, and inclusion, a look at some of the competencies that Barrett (2013) includes in his list furthers this idea (see Table 4.1). The last component under the heading ‘Knowledge and Understanding’ draws attention to becoming aware of stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination, while the last component under ‘Behaviors’ relates to challenging behaviors of others that undermine dignity and respect. This quite specifically suggests that IC is not just about a two-way communication that is effective and appropriate, but communication that operates by challenging behaviors which do not align with values related to equality, diversity, and inclusion. So, we include this model to highlight these issues as being integral to the meaning of IC. Barrett’s compositional model underscores the need to include equality, diversity, and inclusion as part of our understanding of IC. Another model that might be considered co-orientational, is one presented by Byram (1997), which we will discuss in the next section.

Interactions: How Is Intercultural Understanding Achieved? In addition to equality, diversity, and inclusion, another important aspect of IC is critical cultural awareness which is emphasized in a model by Byram (1997). Classified as co-orientational, Byram’s model of intercultural communicative competence (1997) was developed primarily for the field of foreign language teaching, although it is considered to be widely influential (Spitzberg and Changnon 2009) and is used in other fields, such as intercultural citizenship education (see Byram et al. 2017; Byram and Golubeva 2020; Council of Europe 2018; Porto et al. 2018). Byram developed his model based upon insights from social identity theory (Tajfel 1981), cross-cultural communication (Gudykunst 1994), and the theory of social and cultural

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Table 4.1 Example competencies Component

Examples of components

Values

• Valuing cultural variability and diversity; valuing pluralism of perspectives and practices

Attitudes

• Respecting those with different cultural affiliations from one’s own • Being open to, curious about and willing to learn about and from those from other cultures • Willingness to find opportunities to engage with those who are culturally different • Willingness to question what is “normal” according to one’s previous experiences • Willingness to tolerate ambiguity and uncertainty

Knowledge and understanding

• Understanding internal diversity and heterogeneity of all cultural groups • Understanding the impact of situational, social and historical contexts on people’s cultural behavior • Understanding the impact of language and culture on people’s experiences and perceptions, including the impact of one’s own affiliations on one’s own experiences and perceptions • Awareness and understanding of one’s own and other people’s assumptions, preconceptions, stereotypes, explicit and implicit prejudices, and overt and covert discrimination

Skills (Cognitive and behavioral) • Listening to and paying attention to the behavior of people from other cultures • Empathy—ability to understanding and respond to other people’s thoughts, beliefs, values, etc. • Multi-perceptivity—ability to de-center from one’s perspective and take other perspectives into consideration • Skills of adjusting and adapting one’s behavior to new cultural contexts and environments Behaviors

• Seeking opportunities to engage with people from different cultures • Interacting appropriately, effectively and respectfully with those from different cultures • Challenging attitudes, behaviors and representations of others which undermine the dignity of, and the respect; which should be accorded to people from other cultures

Source Barrett (2013, pp. 153–155)

capital (Bourdieu 1990) (for details see Byram 2009). Byram’s model of intercultural competence consists of five main components including: (1) attitudes of relativizing self and valuing others (or as Byram called them, savoir être), (2) knowledge (les savoirs), (3) skills of interpreting and relating (or savoir comprendre), (4) skills of discovering and interacting (savoir apprendre/faire), and (5) critical cultural awareness (or savoir s’engager) (see Fig. 4.1). These ‘savoirs’, as they are often called, are explained by Byram as follows:

Interactions: How Is Intercultural Understanding Achieved?

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'Savoir comprendre' Skills of interpreng and relang through comparing and contrasng, and through developing a "third perspecve"

'Les savoirs' Knowledge of self and other, of one' own and other's social groups and their products and pracces; Understanding of interacon (both interpersonal and societal)

'Savoir s’engager' Crical cultural awareness and polical educaon, which includes the ability to evaluate crically perspecves, pracces and products in one’s own and other cultures

'Savoir être' Atudes of curiosity and openness; relavising cultural 'self'; appreciang other cultures and valuing diverse views

'Savoir apprendre/faire' Skills of discovering and interacng, which include the ability to acquire new knowledge of a culture and cultural pracces and the ability to operate this knowledge

Fig. 4.1 Byram’s model of intercultural competence (Adapted from Byram 1997, p. 34 with permission)

• Attitudes: of curiosity and openness, readiness to suspend disbelief about other cultures and belief about one’s own (1997, p. 50). • Knowledge: of social groups and their products and practices in one’s own and in one’s interlocutor’s country, and of the general processes of societal and individual interaction (1997, p. 51). • Skills of interpreting and relating: the ability to interpret a document or event from another culture, to explain it and relate it to documents from one’s own (1997, p. 52). • Skills of discovery and interaction: the ability to acquire new knowledge of a culture and cultural practices and the ability to operate knowledge, attitudes and skills under the constraints of real-time communication and interaction (1997, p. 52). • Critical cultural awareness/political education: the ability to evaluate critically and on the basis of explicit criteria perspectives, practices and products in one’s own and other cultures and countries (1997, p. 53). As noted above, Byram’s model is particularly valuable because it emphasizes critical cultural awareness as being the central and the most important element of

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intercultural competence (see Fig. 4.1). One’s development into a more intercultural person is predicated upon constant critical exploration of ourselves as cultural beings. This underscores the importance of analyzing your own cultural background as discussed in Chaps. 2 and 3. It also empahsizes the importance completing the self-reflective activities in this book, as it will facilitate you in developing your critical cultural (self-)awareness. Through them you can explore your understanding of and your reaction to the material thereby helping you gain insight into yourself. Before moving on take a moment and answer the questions in Thought Box 4.3. Thought Box 4.3 Critical cultural (self-)awareness How well do you know your own cultural background? How well do you know yourself as a cultural being? How can this understanding of yourself help you to understand people from a different cultural background? Please provide some examples.

While compositional models and co-orientational models can be useful in facilitating an understanding of the nature and complexity of IC, three elements found in some of these and other models are critical. First, some models suggest that there tends to be an order to development. As already suggested in Deardorff’s model, requisite attitudes are developed before real behavior change occurs. Second, several models point towards the developmental nature of IC, which suggests that IC is not something you are born with or quickly acquire without having to think about it, but something that develops often over a long period of time and typically through concerted effort. Third, some models focus on the process of adaptation; that is, what are peoples’ adaptation strategies; and exactly how open is the surrounding society that one is trying to adapt to? Such models emphasize the necessity of adaptation on the part of individuals, particularly, those residing in other cultures, to enhance their IC. However, they also foreground contextual factors that can influence an individual’s ability to adapt. That is, while you may wish to adapt and develop higher levels of IC, the environment which you are in will influence your ability to do that based on the receptivity of the community. We have already addressed the first point—requisite attitudes, although you will see them resurface again in the text because of their importance. Now, we will more fully explore the second point, IC as a developmental process.

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Development: What Are the Important Milestones in Developing Intercultural Competence? There are several models that focus on IC as developing over time. One that provides a useful view of this process is the Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS) (Bennett 1993, 1986b) (see Fig. 4.2). The first thing you might notice with this model is the term used in the title which specifies ‘intercultural sensitivity’ rather than ‘intercultural competence’. If you spotted that, well done! This is an example of how you will see terms vary. We shall explain how ‘sensitivity’ and ‘competence’ are different shortly. There are a few important assumptions of Bennett’s model. First, Bennett (1993, 1986b) who created the DMIS, suggests that people have a natural tendency towards conflict when confronted with people who are different from themselves. That is, when we interact with people from different cultures, we tend to feel uncomfortable which may result in the activation of stereotypes as well as the development of prejudice attitudes, and ultimately discriminatory behavior as potential results. If you have read Chap. 3, this should come as no surprize to you. To improve our relationships with people from other cultures, Bennett suggests that we need to strive to understand human behavior in the presence of cultural difference to discover how we might help ourselves to respond more positively to cultural difference. A second important assumption of the model is that it is based upon the concept of ethnocentrism. As described in Chap. 3, Sumner (1906) first used the term ethnocentrism to describe the social psychological phenomenon of ingroup preference. He wrote that as we differentiate between our ingroups and outgroups, we begin to hold our ingroup in particularly high regard. Ethnocentrism is the technical name for this view of things in which one’s own group is the center of everything, and all ETHNOCENTRIC STAGES

Denial

Characterized by isolation in monocultural groups and purposeful separation from outgroups

Defense

Characterized by an approach which evaluates some groups more favorably than others

ETHNORELATIVE STAGES

MinimizaƟon

Acceptance

AdaptaƟon

Characterized by emphasizing similarity of all people as human (through universal values)

Characterized by recognition of variations in behavior, values and beliefs

Characterized by frameshifting towards cognitive and intuituve empathy

IntegraƟon

Characterized by becoming committed to relativism

Fig. 4.2 Developmental model of intercultural sensitivity (Adapted from Bennett 1986a, p. 182 with permission)

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others are compared (often unfavorably) to it. “Each group nourishes its own pride and vanity, boasts itself superior, exalts its own divinities, and looks with contempt on outsiders” (Sumner 1906, pp. 12–13). Bennett and Sumner, although not psychologists, were spot on in terms of recognizing the difficulties that people tend to encounter when faced with cultural differences. As described in Chap. 3, social psychologists have been studying this very phenomenon for decades. Ethnocentrism is a concept that is well supported in the literature and addressing it is crucial to the DMIS. Take a minute to reflect on this term in Thought Box 4.4 before reading on. Thought Box 4.4 Ethnocentrism To what extent do you view your country, community, religion, or ethnic group as better than others? If you think that it is better, why do you believe that? Do you see others behaving in ethnocentric ways? If so, what are they? Please provide some examples.

As noted, the DMIS model is based on the notion of ‘intercultural sensitivity’ rather than intercultural competence. Generally, intercultural sensitivity relates to the extent to which you can perceive cultural differences. The model suggests that as your sensitivity or ability to perceive cultural differences increases, your potential to develop intercultural competence also increases. Contemplating varieties of wine is one way to help you to understand intercultural sensitivity. If you ask someone who does not know a lot of about wine, what varieties there are, they might say, red, white and maybe rose. However, if you ask someone who is more experienced with wine varieties, they could say “there are a variety of red, white, and roses that differ by region, grape, and blend. For instance, common white grape varieties include sauvignon blanc, pinot grigio, chardonnay, pinot blanc, Riesling, Chablis….” and so on. Thus, this person obviously has a much firmer grasp of and more experience with wine and appreciates the differences. Similarly, with intercultural sensitivity, someone who is more interculturally sensitive is more aware of the cultural differences that can impact relationships and knows how to address them in increasingly sophisticated ways. How culturally sensitive do you think you might be? Reflect on this briefly in Thought Box 4.5.

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Thought Box 4.5 Intercultural sensitivity As the above example suggests, sensitivity to cultural difference is key to being able to develop IC. To what extent do you believe that you are interculturally sensitive? Can you list one or two cultural differences that can impact relationships? How can you effectively address such differences? Please provide some examples.

Bennett (1986a, 1993) conceptualized the DMIS as a six-stage model which spreads across a spectrum running from more ethnocentric mindsets to more ethnorelative mindsets (see Fig. 4.2). As intercultural sensitivity increases on this spectrum, so too does your ability to move from a monoculture worldview to one that is differentiated, complex and multicultural (1986b). In Fig. 4.2 you will note that Bennett proposed that the first three stages (denial, defense, and minimization) are thought to be ethnocentric in nature in that individual’s experience their own culture as central to their perception of other cultures. In essence, ethnocentric stages involve avoiding cultural difference through denying that it exists, becoming defensive about it, or by making it seem trivial (Bennett and Bennett 2004). The last three stages (acceptance, adaptation, integration), however, represent a move towards ethnorelativism where one’s own culture is put into the context of other cultures so that other cultures are also seen as equally valid (Bennett 1993, 1986b). Ethnorelative stages involve looking for cultural difference by accepting that it is relevant, by adapting to it, or by integrating difference into one’s own identity (Bennett and Bennett 2004). It is worth noting before going any further that not every person will pass through all these stages of development. In fact, some people may never be in ethnocentric stages of development. The stage at which people are depends upon their unique individual characteristics as well as their previous experience with diversity. It is also worth noting at this point that the model is not linear. People can regress due to a variety of factors, for instance, having negative experiences with cultural difference. A recent study of university students, for instance, found that after seven months at university, many students had regressed to an earlier stage of development (LantzDeaton 2017). Bennett (1993) further describes each DMIS stage of development as having two or three forms or strategies which are essentially different expressions of these stages. Table 4.2 describes the stages of development in some detail based on Bennett (2011).

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Table 4.2 Stages and forms of the DMIS Ethnocentric stages and forms Denial—little awareness of difference • Disinterest—isolation in monocultural groups • Avoidance—purposeful separation from those who are different Defense—threatened by difference • Denigration—evaluate outgroups unfavorably • Superiority—evaluate ingroup particularly favorably • Reversal—evaluate ingroup unfavorably, evaluate outgroups favorably Minimization—avoidance of difference through focusing on similarity • Human similarity—emphasize similarity of all people as human • Universal values—emphasize similarity through values for all Ethnorelative stages and forms Acceptance—differences are recognized and accepted as occurring in different cultural contexts • Behavioral relativism—recognition of variations in behavior • Value relativism—recognition of variations in values and beliefs Adaptation—consciously altering perspectives and behavior to accommodate difference • Cognitive frame-shifting—cognitive empathy or understanding from the others’ perspective (empathy) rather than one’s own perspective (sympathy) • Behavioral code-shifting—intuitive empathy or altering behavior according to cultural context Integration—development of multicultural identity • Constructive marginality—identity based in more than one culture • Ethical commitment—becoming committed to relativism Source Bennett (2011)

Denial As described by Bennett (1993), individuals in the denial stage of development often assume that everyone shares their own feelings, attitudes, norms, and values. For some individuals at this stage, cultural difference is meaningless and may be completely overlooked when it is encountered. An individual black person, for instance, at an all-white school may be perceived as just the same as everyone else. If individuals at this stage are aware of cultural difference, they may rely on stereotypes for understanding these differences. For instance, all individuals from Asian cultures may be viewed as the same without distinguishing between, for example, Japanese, Chinese, and Taiwanese people. It may be assumed that all Americans own guns or that all Africans see wild animals every day (Bennett 1993). There are two forms of denial which are disinterest and avoidance. Disinterest suggests that individuals are unable to notice differences perhaps because they have had limited experience with difference, or they may just lack of interest. Alternatively, avoidance, involves an inclination to avoid noticing or addressing cultural difference. Individuals in denial might be heard to make statements such as “live and let live, that’s what I say” or “all big cities are the same—lots of buildings, too many cars, McDonalds” (Bennett 2011, p. 1). Bennett and Bennett (2004) suggest that the main developmental task for individuals in the denial stage is to recognize cultural

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difference by learning about aspects of objective and subjective culture and becoming interested in cultural difference. Before moving on, please reflect on your experience with denial in Thought Box 4.6. Thought Box 4.6 Denial Based on the above description, can you think of someone you know (it could be you) who exhibited denial of cultural difference at some point? If so, how was denial demonstrated? Please provide some examples.

Defense While culture may be overlooked or ignored by those in denial, individuals in the defense stage of development are more adept at recognizing cultural difference. Unfortunately, however, difference is perceived as threatening to people’s reality and their sense of identity. Individuals react to cultural difference by becoming defensive to try to preserve their own worldview as correct (Bennett 1993). Bennett describes three forms of defense including denigration, superiority, and reversal. Bennett suggests that denigration is often manifested through negative stereotyping where negative characteristics are attributed to individuals who are members of certain groups. For example, all people from Arabic countries may be thought to be terrorist threats. In this form, individuals may show overt signs of prejudice, openly denigrating those from other groups. They may also strive to restrict contact with individuals from these groups (Bennett 1993). Although superiority does not necessarily involve denigrating other groups, individuals expressing this form of defense view their own group as superior (e.g., national pride focusing only on the positive). In this way, threatening cultural differences are countered by putting those from other cultures to lower-status positions (Bennett 1993). While still problematic, superiority represents developmental progress since there is less emphasis on negatively evaluating other groups with more emphasis placed on preferring one’s ingroup. The last form of defense, reversal involves the disparaging of one’s own cultural group while at the same time viewing an alternative culture as superior. Expatriates may, for example, denounce their country of origin, while singing the praises of the host country they have moved to. These individuals are sometimes seen by others

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as more sensitive to cultural difference because they can appreciate another culture; however, they are simply changing the focus of their ethnocentrism from their original culture to another (Bennett 1993). Individuals in the defense stage of development might be heard to say things like “why don’t these people speak my language” or “when I go to other cultures, I realize how much better my own culture is” or “I am embarrassed by my compatriots, so I spend all my time with the host country nationals” (Bennett 2011, p. 3). Although each of these forms sound quite negative, advancement through them represents progress since individuals can more clearly recognize cultural differences. Successfully resolving this stage involves individuals being able to recognize similarities between people from different cultures as opposed to focusing mainly upon differences (Bennett 1993). Before moving on, please reflect on your experience with defense in Thought Box 4.7. Thought Box 4.7 Defense Based on the above description, can you think of someone you know (it could be you) who exhibited defense regarding cultural difference? How was defense demonstrated? Please provide some examples.

Minimization Individuals within the minimization stage of development, the last of the ethnocentric stages, attempt to keep their worldviews intact by focusing upon similarities between cultures (Bennett 1993). Cultural difference at this stage is recognized and is not viewed as particularly negative but instead is viewed as insignificant. Bennett notes that minimization is attractive since it is associated with human sensitivity (e.g., the biblical “do unto others as you would have them do unto you” or “one world, one people” meaning we are all really just the same). While many models are based on a focus on similarity, Bennett views it as an ethnocentric stage because it rather naively assumes that regardless of cultural differences, everyone is the same. Often such views are held by those from the dominant culture who do not understand what it is to be a member of a non-dominant cultural group (Bennett 1993).

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The first form of minimization, human similarity, emphasizes physical similarity between humans (e.g., “we all are born, procreate, die”) (Bennett 2011). Although generally accurate, in terms of intercultural interaction, focusing on human similarities is problematic because it ignores the behavioral differences that express different worldviews. Bennett argues that we need to explore our social interactions which are often fraught with difference; we cannot just focus upon how humans are physically similar. Universal values, the second form of minimization, focuses on universal laws or principles that join people such as religion (Bennett 1993). In this form, cultural difference is more accepted but is seen as part of the plan for the universe. Individuals view culture as more complex and may find culture interesting to learn about but still they display a tendency to act in ethnocentric ways by, for instance, maintaining that it is best just to be yourself during intercultural encounters when what is really needed is to pay attention to and be sensitive to cultural differences. Individuals at this stage of development might be heard to make statements such as “I have this intuitive sense of other people, no matter what their culture” or “customs differ…but when you really get to know them they’re pretty much like us” or “if people are really honest, they’ll recognize that some values are universal” (Bennett 2011, p. 5). Research using the Intercultural Development Inventory® , suggests that minimization is a transition stage between denial/defense and acceptance/adaptation (Hammer et al. 2003). However, Bennett maintains that this stage is ethnocentric because one’s own cultural patterns are still viewed as central to reality (Bennett and Bennett 2004). Bennett notes that a developmental block at this stage is that people think that they can get by with minimization behavior in intercultural situations. Individuals can move on from this stage by gaining insight into their own culture and to experience it in the context of other cultures in order to overcome the assumption that people from different cultures are all the same (Bennett 1993). Before moving on, please reflect on your experience with minimization in Thought Box 4.8. Thought Box 4.8 Minimization Based on the above description, can you think of someone you know (it could be you) who exhibited minimization of cultural difference? How was minimization demonstrated? Please provide some examples.

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Acceptance The first of the ethnorelative stages is acceptance, in which individuals recognize and accept cultural difference on a more fundamental level and begin to develop more curiosity about difference. At this stage individuals experience their own culture as just one of many equally valid and complex ways to view the world (Bennett 2004). Individuals progressing to the acceptance stage view variation in behavior as well as values as a regular part of human existence and part of cultural difference. They become, as described by Bennett (2004), able to understand culture-general categories. While they may or may not be experts at interacting with people from more than one culture, they can identify general issues that are common in interactions across cultures. In the first form of acceptance, behavioral relativism, individuals recognize that differences in behaviors are caused by cultural differences and are relative to different cultural contexts. Individuals can more easily recognize cultural differences in both verbal and nonverbal communication. In the second form, value relativism, individuals recognize that different beliefs and values influence the worldviews of individuals (Bennett 2011). It is important to mention here that acceptance is not synonymous with agreement (Bennett 1998). Instead individuals simply recognize that there is more than one way of thinking about things and that their own values and ways of behaving are not the only acceptable ones. For instance, a generalization about Americans is that they tend to place a high value on spending time with their children and so would not consider placing their children in boarding school. Alternatively, a generalization about the English is that they place a high value on boarding school education and so often send their children to boarding school. Whether or not either of these stereotypes is true is debatable, but each represents a different approach to childrearing and is perhaps good and bad in different ways. Individuals at the acceptance stage of development may be heard to say “I always try to study about a new culture before I go there” or “sometimes it’s confusing, knowing that values are different in various cultures and wanting to be respectful, but still wanting to maintain my own core values” or “my homestay family and I have had very different life experiences, and we’re learning from each other” (Bennett 2011, p. 7). The challenge to overcome at this stage as Bennett writes is for individuals to come to terms with conflicting cultural norms (Bennett 1998). Before moving to the next stage of Bennett’s model, please reflect on acceptance in Thought Box 4.9.

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Thought Box 4.9 Acceptance Based on the above description, can you think of someone you know (it could be you) who exhibited acceptance of cultural difference? How was acceptance demonstrated? Please provide some examples.

Adaptation Bennett (1993) describes individuals in the adaptation stage as being able to combine their value and respect of other cultures with skills that facilitate them in effectively and appropriately communicating across cultures rather than relying on unsophisticated ethnocentric views. Within this stage, skills for working with individuals from other cultures can be enhanced as individuals can adapt and behave in ways that are appropriate to another culture without feeling that one’s own culture is threatened or diminished. The two forms of adaptation include cognitive frame-shifting and behavioral codeshifting. Cognitive frame-shifting is considered the phase of development whereby an individual can empathize or shift their frame of reference to imagine what another person’s experience might be like. This is also called cognitive empathy (Bennett 2011). Behavioral code-shifting is considered the phase in which individuals cognitively empathize but can also act in culturally appropriate ways based upon an alternative cultural world view. This ability to behave effectively is enhanced when individuals understand the culture that individuals are from. Bennett notes that behavior is most effective when individuals have a general understanding of the other culture. Individuals at the acceptance stage of development may make statements such as “I greet people from my culture and people from the host culture somewhat differently to account for cultural differences in the way respect is communicated” or “to solve this dispute, I’m going to have to change my approach” (Bennett 2011, p. 9). The main challenges at this developmental stage are to develop skills to empathize and to expand one’s repertoire so that a range of authentic behavior is possible (Bennett 2011). Before moving on to the last stage of Bennett’s model, please reflect on your experience with adaptation in Thought Box 4.10.

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Thought Box 4.10 Adaptation Based on the above description, can you think of someone you know (it could be you) who exhibited adaptation to cultural difference? How was adaptation demonstrated? Please provide some examples.

Individuals at the adaptation stage are likely to be effective in intercultural interactions and may not need to move beyond this stage. However, some may experience an “internal culture shock” if they internalize multiple worldviews (Bennett 1993, p. 59). If this occurs, it can lead to the final stage of integration.

Integration Bennett (1993) writes that individuals in the integration stage of development often view themselves and are viewed by others as multicultural. He further notes that those who are multicultural in the true sense have identities that include life patterns different from their own. Also, they are able to integrate multiple realities both psychologically and socially. The marker of this stage of development is that individuals are always in the process of defining their relationships to different cultural contexts by reconsidering their identities on an ongoing basis. The difference between someone in adaptation and someone in integration is that—while the former sees herself as interacting in different cultural contexts while still holding one primary cultural affiliation—the latter tends to have multiple frames of reference and is constantly challenged with combining them (Bennett 1993). In the first form of integration, constructive marginality, individuals’ identities are not based in a particular culture which allows them to interact across cultures with ease. As well, often these individuals associate themselves with a marginal reference group made up of individuals who also do not have particularly strong cultural affiliations (Bennett 2011). Ethical commitment, the final form of integration, occurs when a person can develop ethics through which he or she commits to cultural relativism (Bennett 2011). Individuals at the integration stage of development might make statements like “everywhere is home, if you know enough about how things work there” or “in an intercultural world, everyone needs to have an intercultural mind-set” or “I truly

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enjoy participating fully in both of my cultures” (Bennett 2011, p. 11). Please reflect on your experience with integration stage in Thought Box 4.11. Thought Box 4.11 Integration Based on the above description, can you think of someone you know (it could be you) who exhibited integration of cultural difference? How was integration demonstrated? Please provide some examples.

As mentioned in relation to the framing of the minimization stage as transitionary versus ethnocentric, some research suggests that the integration stage should not be part of the developmental continuum but should be considered a separate construct, that of cultural identity development (Hammer 2011). While it may be a matter of debate as to whether integration should be a DMIS stage or not, as is pointed out by Bennett, adaptation is likely all that is required for intercultural competence (Bennett 1993) and therefore, integration may be, relatively speaking, not that important when considering the development of intercultural competence. However, it is included here because it will likely have relevance to an increasing number of college and university students. Globalization has led to increased cultural contact and mobility not just for adults but for families. It is not uncommon today for students to have parents from different cultures or to grow up in several different countries before heading off to college or university. Such early exposure to cultural differences can be positive but can also cause a crisis of identity which requires one to contemplate complex identity issues which are raised in the integration stage. Third culture kids (Pollock and Van Reken 2009) and a paper by Fail et al. (2004) provide useful introductions to this topic if you are interested in learning more.

How Is the Developmental Process Relevant to Attitudes, Knowledge, and Skills? You may be asking yourself how the DMIS model is relevant to our classification of components, specifically attitudes, knowledge and skills. Good question. Although these components are not called out specifically in the model, Bennett (1986a) writes about the relationship between cognitive (knowledge), affective (attitudes) and behavioral (skill) components. He notes that they are not always clear

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for each stage of the model because the development of IC is highly complex and multidimensional and cannot be clearly mapped out. That said, he does suggest that initial development is likely to be cognitive because as we perceive cultural differences, we then generate more categories to catalog and distinguish between cultural differences, so that our knowledge expands. The reaction to this expansion of knowledge, he suggests, is affective or having to do with attitudes. Often, although not always, people feel threatened when their worldview or way of life conflicts with others. Getting over these negative attitudes is important to moving further developmentally. Once attitudes are open and more positive, the developmental response, he argues, can be behavioral. Perhaps the person will try to learn about others to overcome feelings of being threatened and, thus, develop skills. Finally, the response to one’s behavioral changes/skill development is perhaps cognitive again in that understanding of differences is consolidated. While the DMIS incorporates cognitive, affective, and behavioral domains, it is described by Bennett and Bennett (2004) as being primarily a model of the development of cognitive structures. In their view, behaviors and attitudes are manifestations of cognitive development or an individual’s underlying worldview. With this focus on cognitive development, the DMIS is like those of other developmental theorists. In addition to early theorists including Piaget (1932) and Kohlberg (1971), Perry’s (1970) Scheme of Cognitive and Ethical Development, as described by Rappoport (2001), suggests that students move from a dualist view of the world (it is one way or another), to a multiplistic view of the world (there are many ways to think about things), to contextual relativism (context is important to making judgements), to relativism (people choose their own actions based upon the context). King and Baxter-Magolda’s (2005) Developmental Model of Intercultural Maturity (DMIM) also bears similarity to the DMIS. The DMIM suggests that individuals move away from ethnocentric views, which are highly simplistic and towards cognitive, intrapersonal, and interpersonal realities that are more sophisticated and nuanced. We would encourage you to read more about these models to further your understanding of IC as a developmental process. There are critics of the DMIS approach. A main criticism is that it is better to focus upon similarity to foster intercultural development because it can serve as a basis for interaction whereas difference can serve as a basis for rejection (e.g., Brislin 1981; Hodges 2005). While Bennett (1993) agrees that similarities can serve as a basis to some extent, he observes that challenges around intercultural learning and skill development tend to be related to denial of cultural difference as opposed to a lack of focus on similarity. As such, cultural difference is essential to conceptualizing development. A variety of authors, even those with alternative theories, concur (e.g., Brewer 2003; De Vita 2005; Levine and Campbell 1972) and have written about the importance of difference in intercultural contact generally suggesting that each individual construes reality through the lens of their own cultural group and that differences in culture are important factors in developing understanding of other cultures. Thus, despite criticism, Bennett’s model is well supported, and, we believe, useful in considering not just how intercultural competence develops but what the challenges are that need to be overcome in developing IC.

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Context: How Will Those Around Me Influence My Development? Thus far, we have been discussing IC in terms of what it is and how it develops. We have also considered some developmental milestones that might need to be reached before you can achieve higher levels of IC. Another type of model that can be helpful in learning about your motivations for developing IC and what obstacles you might face are adaptational models. Adaptational models tend to focus on how we adapt ourselves when faced with cultural difference as a criterion for IC (Spitzberg and Changnon 2009). As described above, if we want to be interculturally competent, we cannot simply be ourselves when faced with people who are different, we must attempt to understand the relevant differences and adapt in some way. Engaging in adaptation suggests evidence of some level of IC because it demonstrates your ability to recognize cultural difference and consider the ways in which to modify your behavior accordingly (Spitzberg and Changnon 2009). This is suggested as necessary in Bennett’s model. Take a moment to complete Thought Box 4.12 and reflect on your experience with adapting to cultural differences. Thought Box 4.12 Adapting to cultural differences Do you know anyone (it could be you) who moved to another country or culture (e.g., going from the city to country or vice versa)? To what extent did that person try to adapt to their new culture? Did the person seem as if s/he wanted to hold on tightly to their home culture? How can you tell if someone is trying to adapt or trying to maintain their home cultural traditions? Please provide some examples.

One of the tensions of adapting to cultural difference has to do with the extent to which you want to maintain your own culture or worldview versus the extent to which you want to adapt to another culture. This is perhaps more relevant to situations in which you find yourself in an unfamiliar culture. Let’s say, for instance, you moved from your home country to another country; how far would you go to adapt to the new culture versus trying to maintain your own cultural beliefs and practices? Your orientation toward adaptation is directly relevant to the development of IC. Will you try to adapt a little, a lot, or not at all, and how far will you go in adapting? In addition to your perspective, however, another important consideration is context. Although you may want to be adaptable, what about those around you from the other

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culture? Do they wish to accept you into their culture? You may want to adapt to your surroundings but the openness of the people within the culture itself can impact your ability to do so. Questions related to receptivity of the surrounding community often arise right on university campuses. Around the world, international students sometimes find it challenging to interact with domestic students (Lantz 2014; Sovic 2008; Williams and Johnson 2011; Volet and Ang 1998). This is a common experience that occurs in a variety of countries and is partially due to the lack of receptivity of the host culture students, and at times staff, which can ultimately impact one’s ability to adapt and to develop IC (more on this in Chap. 5). That said, the lack of interaction is not exclusively the responsibility of domestic students—international students play a role as well if they themselves are not motivated to adapt. However, it is the receptiveness of the surrounding culture that is the topic that we would like to highlight in this particular instance. The questions regarding your motivation for adaptation are considered by a model by Berry et al. (1987). The basic form of this model addresses the questions related to individual adaptation. Is maintaining one’s own cultural identity and characteristics important? Also, is maintaining relationships with other groups important? These questions suggest that there are four potential acculturation strategies including assimilation, separation, integration and marginalization. Within this model by Berry et al. (1987), there are two styles of adaptation possible when you are interested in having relationships with those from the new culture: assimilation and integration. According to Berry and colleagues, the acculturation style that results when you decide that your own culture is not so important to you is assimilation. Those who assimilate may essentially give up their original cultural identity and become wholly part of the host culture. In contrast to assimilation, those who are interested in participating in the new culture but still value their own culture adopt an integration approach so that they can maintain their own cultural worldview but still function together with people from the new group(s). Those who adopt an integration approach, tend to view individuals as having different group memberships but also as being able to function as part of a larger group. This approach, thought to be the most desirable and adaptable in this model, could be compared to Bennett’s acceptance stage of development in which different groups are recognized as being equally valid and are not considered threatening. There are also two styles of adaptation possible when you are not interested in developing relationships with those from the new culture: separation and marginalization (Berry et al. (1987). For those who are not particularly interested in relationships with those from the new culture and want to maintain their own identity and affiliations, a separation approach may be adopted. As separation implies, with this approach people tend to keep themselves distant from members of the other group(s). Separation is a problematic strategy because, as mentioned previously, gaining experience in relating to those from other cultures is crucial in terms of developing IC and because separating yourself from others who are different only enhances the tendency to use stereotypes and develop prejudices (see Chap. 3). Finally, when individuals have little interest in their own culture or that of the host culture, they may become

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marginalized and end up not identifying with or belonging to any culture. People tend not to choose marginalization as an adaptation strategy but are more often forced into it when society favors assimilation (i.e., “be like us”). The above model assumes that you have a choice in your acculturation strategy. However, as the final sentence suggests, the choice is not entirely yours and is partially down to society at large. Berry et al. (1987) suggests that the dominant society can influence the strategy that you choose. Let us ponder on this idea for a minute using Thought Box 4.13. Thought Box 4.13 Contextual challenges to adaptation Do you know anyone (it could be you) who moved to another country or culture? To what extent did the people and society at large support adaptation? Were other people receptive and friendly or not so friendly? What are ways that we can gauge how open people are to people from other places? Please provide some examples.

Society’s influence upon your adaptation strategy is important. For example, you may want to integrate into society, but you can only integrate if the dominant society is open and inclusive towards those from diverse backgrounds. Thus, while you may adapt to basic values within your new society, society itself must also be willing to make adaptations by making modifications to existing systems. For instance, health care establishments might offer foreign language interpreters or schools might offer language classes to immigrants who do not speak the language and people will be more friendly and more open and accepting of those from other cultures. Such societies are considered to take a multicultural approach to adaptation (Berry 2001). When societies are multicultural, this facilitates the integration of individuals into society. Alternatively, if the dominant society expects conformity to all norms and is not interested in tolerating alternative groups then they are essentially requiring assimilation which corresponds to the term melting pot. In this instance, those who are new to the culture are expected to blend in and not maintain their cultural heritage. In cases where society requires assimilation, segregation or exclusion may occur with those from non-dominate cultures becoming the targets of prejudice and discrimination if they fail to give up their cultural practices (Berry 2001). Adaptational models such as Berry’s can be useful in that they can help you to more carefully analyze the way in which you are motivated towards adapting to cultural difference. They are also helpful in understanding adaptation or the lack thereof that you may experience in other individuals and within societies. This can help you to understand how intercultural competence may be facilitated or hindered by your own acculturation strategies as well as the views held by society at large.

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This latter point highlights the two-way nature of the relationship. That is, while you may be interested in relating to others more effectively across cultures, others may not be so inclined. So, then you must ask yourself, what do you do when you meet a person or people who are not particularly interculturally competent and who doesn’t/don’t seem interested in you or treat you with disdain. Some might think the best approach when meeting others who seem uninterested or who react negatively to you is avoiding them. As mentioned previously, for example, studies (e.g., Lantz 2014; Sovic 2008; Volet and Ang 1998;Williams and Johnson 2011) have found that international students can find it difficult to interact with domestic students. However, the reverse can also be true and both might end up avoiding one another. Read over some quotes from a recent study (Lantz 2014) of domestic and international students’ perceptions of one another in Box 4.1. Box 4.1 Thoughts from international and domestic students I thought it would just be easy to come here and like ‘okay get to know the English culture and stuff’… it is quite hard to understand …because … they don’t really share much about themselves. It is very superficial. That’s really how I feel. I was just not expecting that… I get on better with the international students (international student). I thought they would integrate them a bit more. But I find it quite hard at times to communicate with people [international students]. I don’t know what it is ‘cause they seem like, they seem to keep themselves to themselves a lot more. Like hang out in, with people from their own cultures (domestic student). I think it almost becomes frustrating … I do have conversations with people and like England is not the only country, there is so much out there and then they still refuse to accept that. They’re like ‘no but England is so good’ and … they’ll be like ‘yeah the world is big and there’s lots out there but I’m really comfortable here and I like it that way’ and I try to say but it’s so amazing that you need to have a bit of an experience because otherwise you’re cutting yourself off from the rest of the world… but it’s yeah like ‘come on people you have to travel, you have to see the world to be able to judge, you can’t just say other cultures aren’t as good if you haven’t been there (international student). I’d probably say I was more reserved in like making connections with people from other cultures…obviously it’s a lot harder than I anticipated…I would probably be more inclined to spend time with people from the same country…A lot of the time I feel like I’m in England but I’m surrounded by no one else from England…I’m like not prejudice but… (domestic student). (Lantz 2014). The above quotes reflect much of what we have discussed in this book so far in particular discomfort with cultural difference and adaptation to cultural difference. They also reflect the experience of discomfort and difficulty occurring for both domestic and international students. As we know from Chap. 3, our discomfort with difference coupled with processes leading to stereotyping and prejudice are likely

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at work in scenarios where people do not know one another. Remaining separate reinforces our stereotypes and negative attitudes. Thus, remaining separate from those that might not be as approachable is counter-productive and can only serve to exacerbate an already delicate situation. This again is part of intercultural competence, facing the discomfort and working towards developing better relationships with people who are different from us. We will discuss this more in later chapters, however, now take a minute to complete Thought Box 4.14 to reflect on ways in which you may or may not initiate contact with those who may not be as easy to interact with. Thought Box 4.14 Facing discomfort Can you think of a time when you met another person from a different cultural background who seemed unfriendly or acted in some way you found offensive? If so, what happened? What did you do? Did you investigate to try to learn more? Did you decide to avoid that person in future, or did you have some other reaction? Please elaborate.

Exceptions to the Rule: What Are My Limits? We hope that Thought Box 4.14 in the previous section helped you to think about what you might do to face discomfort in intercultural interactions. While cultural differences can be uncomfortable, what about when cultural differences are so extreme that you cannot accept or respect them? Ultimately as the DMIS suggests, we want to move towards cultural relativity, or ethnorelativism, accepting and respecting the fact that there are other cultures, worldviews, and ways of doing things. As outlined in the DMIS model and discussed in the context of IC above, to develop interculturally you need to develop a view of all cultures as equally valuable and deserving of respect. While in most cases this is indeed exactly what you want to do, in others, you may find this notion to be highly questionable if not impossible. Consider Thought Box 4.15 for an example.

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Thought Box 4.15 When ethnorelativism is inappropriate Brunei recently implemented anti LGBT laws which make stoning to death LGBT people legal (Tan 2019). In addition to this practice, there are some countries and cultures that still practice forced marriage, honor-based killings, and female genital mutilation (FMG). Terrorist groups hold sets of beliefs which legitimize the murder of innocent people for ideological reasons. Are we to condone these types of activities in the name of cultural relativity? Why or why not? How might we deal with such cultural beliefs using intercultural competence?

If you live in a democratic society, you will likely know that in such societies people agree that practices outlined in the Thought Box 4.15 are considered unacceptable and are not entitled to respect. Thus, there is a caveat in relation to cultural relativism. Cultural relativism is a doctrine which holds that the variation seen between cultures is exempt from criticism by others (Donnelly 1984). It is to some extent like ethnorelativism as described in the DMIS model. That is, as we have discussed earlier in this chapter, that we recognize that there are alternative views and ways of being in the world and that one is not right or wrong in comparison to another; they are just different. However, human rights (United Nations 1948) are universal in democratic societies because they are deemed as something that everyone should have. Thus, how can we reconcile the notion of cultural relativism or ethnorelativism when there are some cultural beliefs and practices that violate human rights and cannot be condoned in modern democratic societies where respect for freedom and life is paramount? So, the question arises, what are we to do when we meet people who condone or engage in practices that are inconsistent with human rights? Please reflect on this topic in Thought Box 4.16. Thought Box 4.16 Unacceptable cultural practices What should we do when we do not condone cultural practices such as forced marriage or female genital mutilation? Should we stay away from people who would approve of or practice them? Why or why not?

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The issues of cultural relativism and distancing ourselves from others are crucial in relation to individual IC development as well as promoting peace and understanding between people and around the world. The problem with separation—as we know from previous chapters—is that it promotes stereotyping and the development of negative attitudes about others (Stephan and Stephan 1985) and will not help us to overcome our difficulties with other groups. While there is no easy answer to Thought Box 4.16, the suggestion is that it would be more helpful to try to face and positively address differences rather than isolating ourselves. Consider another example in Thought Box 4.17. Thought Box 4.17 Unacceptable political views The international health crisis caused by COVID-19 has been highly divisive, particularly in some societies. At the time of the crisis, the US already had a sharp political division between Republicans who supported the President Trump’s actions and Democrats who did not. The crisis significantly exacerbated divisions between political parties with people using the social media platform, Facebook, regularly deleting ‘friends’ who did not share their political views. To what extent do you think political views are culturally based? What do you think about deleting online friends because of differences such as political views? What are the pros and cons of deleting them versus keeping them?

Again, Thought Box 4.17 provides food for thought on confronting difference. Political beliefs represent another aspect of cultural difference that can generate intense conflict. At times when tempers flare, the only way forward might seem like deleting someone from your friendship group in order to avoid conflict and discomfort. Alternatively, keeping them as friends and attempting to engage in civil discussions could result in the exchange of information possibly facilitating understanding and changing hearts and minds. There is wide literature on topics such as interculturalism and intercultural dialogue (e.g., Beasley and Peters 2012; Council of Europe 2008; Jaggar 2005; Mansouri 2017), understanding radicalization (e.g., Doosje et al. 2016; Norick 2009; Population Reference Bureau 2013) and ways to address practices considered inhuman in democratic societies (e.g., Berg and Denison 2012; Costello et al. 2013; Yurdakul and Korteqeg 2013), as well as citizenship education (e.g., Council of Europe 2018; Byram and Golubeva 2020) (which we shall discuss more in detail in Chap. 5). As some of the terms themselves imply, the way to address practices that are viewed as extremely negative is to take an intercultural approach. Thus, instead of vilifying people, trying to understand their motivations by using competencies

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such as flexibility, openness, empathy, and the ability to suspend judgement which supports us in the process of understanding how it is that someone could commit certain acts that many find unconscionable. In this way, we might be able to influence others, save people pain and suffering, and potentially, have a long-term impact on practices that are inconsistent with democratic societies. Thus, we do not have to approve of these practices. Instead, we try to understand what brings people to engage in them and to try to address them openly and through dialogue. By fostering positive relationships and understanding, we might be able to reduce, for instance, the radicalization of young people or a cultural practice that inflicts bodily harm on individuals. Take for instance female genital mutilation (FMG), the Alternative Rites of Passage approach introduced in Kenya in 1996 has proposed alternative rituals to some communities that practice FMG as part of coming of age ceremonies. The project has been successful in reducing the incidents of FMG by helping communities to find alternative ways to celebrate the coming of age for girls (Population Reference Bureau 2013). Without applying intercultural competence, societies such as these could have simply been dismissed as barbaric with human pain and suffering caused by their practices continuing. Through the use of IC, however, they have been transformed. Another useful example comes from the United States. In the US, the Ku Klux Klan (KKK), a white supremacist hate group that primarily targets black Americans, has existed for more than 150 years. The history of the KKK is terrifying with black Americans being killed by KKK members particularly in its early days of existence. However, black American blues musician Daryl Davis decided it was a good idea to befriend members of the Ku Klux Klan. In doing so, over the last 30 years he has convinced 200 members of the KKK to give up their membership in the group (Brown 2017). His informal work speaks for itself in terms of how it has diminished racist attitudes. Intercultural competence is a complicated topic to be sure. In this chapter thus far, we have tried to give you some insight into its complexities by sharing theories we believe are important in understanding it. These complexities revolve around the multitude of competencies that are involved in IC but also relate to understanding its limits when it comes to cultural relativity. However, it is well worth developing an understanding of it not only to enhance your success in your personal and professional lives but because it can indeed help to save and improve peoples’ lives and promote peace and understanding the world over.

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As we have said before, achieving intercultural competence is never completely possible because you will always come across people who are culturally different than any others you have met before. Even aiming towards developing higher levels of IC may seem quite daunting. If you chart a course for yourself to improve your IC, although you may be off track much of the time, improvements will occur. Even small changes can make a big difference. While sophisticated techniques to deal with tricky issues such as those described above may seem too lofty especially if your experience with cultural difference is limited, simply learning an appropriate greeting according to someone else’s cultural norms can go a long way to help to break down barriers and establish positive relationships. No one is perfect and we all make mistakes. It is in making the mistakes and critically reflecting on them that we have the most potential to learn. We now turn to consider some details that will help you to identify intercultural interactions, to think about what the most important intercultural competencies might be, and how to develop and measure your intercultural competence. We will also explore more non-Westernized models of IC.

Intercultural Recognition: How Do I Know if It Is an Intercultural Interaction? The text above provides a flavor for the complexity of intercultural competence and various factors that facilitate it as well as stand in the way of developing it. One question that may come to mind is how you know when an interaction you are having is intercultural. As discussed in Chap. 2, culture is very complex. So, how do you know when a person comes from a different culture than you? Take a moment to reflect on this question using Thought Box 4.18.

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Thought Box 4.18 Defining an intercultural interaction Consider for a moment what makes an interaction you are having with someone intercultural by answering the following questions. •

Is talking to someone from a country other than your own an intercultural encounter? Why or why not?

•

Is talking to someone who is from a different region of your own country an intercultural encounter? Why or why not?

•

Is talking to someone who uses a wheelchair an intercultural encounter if you do not use a wheelchair? Why or why not?

•

Is talking to someone who has a different sexual orientation to you an intercultural encounter? Why or why not?

•

Is talking to someone you have grown up and gone to school with an intercultural encounter? Why or why not?

We hope that Thought Box 4.18 has made you think about different aspects of culture and what might cause an interaction to be intercultural. As discussed in Chap. 2, culture is not just about nationality, it is about a host of other factors such as age, gender, disability, sexual orientation, marital status, ethnicity, and so on. Chap. 2 further pointed out that no two individuals within a particular group will have precisely the same cultural characteristics (Spencer-Oatey and Franklin 2009) because they inevitably will have some different group memberships. They may be different genders, may have gone to different universities or belong to different clubs. Thus, some suggest that virtually any encounter you have with another individual can be intercultural to some extent. If that is true, then you must always be aware of the need to exert IC in any interaction. However, it is important to note that some interactions require IC much more than others. This variation in the need for IC is largely related to cultural distance, which is the extent to which individuals’ cultures are similar or different to one another (Shenkar 2001). The more similar individuals are or the more they share the same cultural constellations, the shorter the cultural distance and the easier it is to relate to one another, while the more dissimilar cultural constellations are, the longer the cultural distance is and the harder it is to relate to one another. Take a moment to complete Thought Box 4.19 to consider this topic more deeply.

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Thought Box 4.19 Cultural distance Describe the cultural distance that you believe will be between these three pairs of people. In considering cultural distance, think of what these pairs have in common as well as how they are different. Two traditional aged (i.e., 18 to 22-year olds) male university students, one from New Zealand and the other from England happen to meet while studying Spanish in an immersion program in Barcelona.

Two traditional aged female university students, one is an international student from China and the other is an Australian student studying in her home country, they meet while studying at a university in Australia.

An older woman who has been a homemaker all her life in northern Japan and a young male archaeologist from Peru meet on a city bus in Japan.

As you may have worked out for yourself, the first pair from the Thought Box 4.19 have several cultural similarities (similar ages, same sex, both from English speaking countries, both studying Spanish, both international students) and therefore have a shorter cultural distance to bridge. With the second scenario you can still find commonalities (same age, same university, probably both speak English) but there are fewer things in common, so the territory becomes more difficult to navigate. With increasing levels of difficulty, students may retreat and simply do what is easier (e.g., the Chinese student hangs out more with Chinese international students and the domestic student hangs out with other domestic students) rather than try to bridge

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those cultural differences. Of course, the hope is that they will try to find common ground. With the third pair, you probably found it difficult to find similarities, and thus the cultural differences were greater suggesting that they may struggle more to relate to one another. This does not mean they cannot relate to one another, only that it might be more challenging. Exploring the pair further, you might find that they both speak English or maybe the archaeologist speaks Japanese, so they can communicate. Maybe the archaeologist is travelling to see his Japanese fiancé, so he is familiar with Japanese culture. Maybe the woman’s husband is an archaeologist or maybe her daughter is studying archaeology at university. These types of connections will give them common ground and could help to facilitate a positive exchange. In any case, instead of retreating from one another, possibly they will try to interact. With the previous example we illustrated the nature of cultural distance and the need to exercise IC. It is worth pointing out, however, that sometimes the need for IC can be invisible. For example, the social class that people came from is not always obvious but can reflect cultural differences that people sometimes have trouble navigating. Mental health problems are also often invisible. Sexual orientation is often invisible. Some suggest that an interaction becomes intercultural when the cultural distance between the participants is significant enough to influence the interaction so that the communication is noticeable to at least one of the parties (Spencer-Oatey and Franklin 2009, p. 3). While this could be true, what if the parties do not know enough about intercultural interactions to judge? They may have an interaction and may feel uncomfortable but don’t know why and thus they don’t always decide that it is culture. However, the point is that—whilst most interactions you have with people may technically be intercultural—some are much more intercultural than others, and, therefore can be more prone to the challenges brought about by cultural differences. Before reading on, think for a minute about intercultural interactions that you might have had by completing the reflection in Thought Box 4.20. Thought Box 4.20 Recognizing cultural distance Can you think of a relationship you have with someone with whom there is a larger cultural distance? How does that impact the relationship? Can you think of a relationship you have with someone with whom there is a short cultural distance? Are there times when even this short distance can cause difficulty?

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Prioritization: Which Competencies Are Most Important? Reading about theories and models of intercultural competence, you may become overwhelmed at the sheer complexity of the topic especially when considering the vast array of individual competencies (e.g., self-awareness, empathy, active listening skills) that could be part of IC overall. There is no conclusive research either on what competencies go into making up IC or what competencies are most important. However, we attempt to highlight to you the competencies that we believe are more important for you to think about in your quest to raise your levels of IC. Some of these have already been discussed while others will surface later in the book. All of them you will find in the IC self-reflective activity at the back of the book (Appendix A). They are presented here in no particular order except that we have started with knowledge of culture in general, which is key to recognizing cultural difference, as has been discussed, along with attitudes which serve as the foundation to developing future skills and further knowledge. • Knowledge of culture in general—In order to develop IC, it is necessary to understand what we mean by the word culture and what constitutes cultural differences. • Respecting and valuing diversity—Holding an attitude which respects the fact that there is diversity and that diversity can be a positive thing we believe is a key factor in developing IC. If you do not respect cultural differences, then why would you take the time to learn about and explore them? • Openness—Along with respect, being open to learning about cultural difference is key. If you are not open, you will not seek out opportunities which will allow you to explore cultural differences. Likewise, you will not be open exploring your own cultural biases. • Curiosity—Along with openness, developing curiosity about yourself and why you behave as you do and why others behave as they do can foster your IC development. • Empathy—Being able to work towards understanding someone else’s cultural perspectives is very important for IC, but it is a challenge if you have not had similar experiences. While you must accept that you will never truly know what others experience, you can try put yourself in another person’s shoes and imagine what it would be like to be them in order to begin to see the world from their perspective, rather than yours, and begin to empathize with their situation. • Tolerance of ambiguity—Being able to be in situations where you are unsure of what to do, unclear how to interpret another person’s behavior, or are otherwise uncomfortable is key to being able to confront and learn from cultural difference. • Flexibility and adaptability—Being flexible and adaptable comes with the territory of addressing cultural differences. It is critical to observe and acknowledge that there are different ways to do things and that this is okay. Further, it is important be flexible by adapting yourself to new people and situations. You can break down barriers with others by helping them feel more comfortable through adapting to their cultural differences.

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• Seeking out learning opportunities—Seeking out opportunities to learn is the only way you can enhance your IC. If you do not read about cultural differences and IC, if you do not try to interact with those who are different or stand up to prejudice and discrimination when you encounter them in life, you will not be able to develop higher levels of IC. • Suspending judgement—When confronted with a cultural difference, it is critical to be able to withhold judgement (e.g., this is good or bad) and instead explore the difference. This links closely with curiosity. • Critical cultural self-awareness—Gaining cultural self-awareness is very important to the development of IC, because without it you will not be able to recognize and overcome your own biases. It is also important to understand your own cultural identity, what kind of conflicts it may provoke in your view of others and during intercultural interactions. It is also important to analyze how your cultural identity influences your interpersonal communication with others. • Mindfulness—As you will know from reading Chap. 3, when we are tired, overwhelmed or overworked we can interact with the world in a mindless way. For example, we will tend to use stereotypes to respond to others because it is easier than having to get to know people as individuals. Being mindful of your own mental state as well as how you are interacting with others is again key to IC development. While we cannot always be mindful, we are only human after all, when we find ourselves reacting automatically to cultural difference rather than mindfully, we can take a step back and think more carefully about our actions and reactions. • Critical thinking—People who think critically make use of cognitive skills to evaluate and make decisions in a logical and fair way. This includes questioning or debating ideas and beliefs and evaluating the outcomes of our thought processes— e.g., how good of a decision have we made or how well have we solved a problem (Halpern 1998). Thus, in intercultural situations, while the tendency is to immediately pass judgement on others when they do not conform to what we expect, it is important to not only suspend judgement but to (1) question ourselves and our own perceptions of situations in order to look at the situation in a fair and unbiased way, and (2) look for alternative explanations for others behaviors to understand and explain situations. • Cultural humility—People who are humble have an accurate view of themselves, however; they also tend to be other-oriented rather than self-focused by showing respect for others and by not feeling or demonstrating a sense of superiority (Davis et al. 2011). This relates to competencies already mentioned including self-awareness and respect but also highlights the importance of not feeling or acting as if your culture is somehow superior to others. • Challenging instances of prejudice, discrimination, and unfairness—We believe IC is not just about accomplishing your communication goals but making the world a more peaceful and fairer place for all. In this regard, it is key to recognize instances of unfair treatment of individuals and groups and to do something about them.

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It is important for us to point out that the list above reflects our view of the most important aspects of IC. It is based on a comprehensive knowledge of the literature, some of which you will find outlined in this chapter, as well as our personal experiences as professionals in higher education.

Evaluation: How Do I Know How Interculturally Competent I Am? The above text provides a lot of food for thought in terms of what IC is all about. A question coming to your mind may now be, how interculturally competent am I? Did studying abroad for that semester make me more interculturally competent? What about my friendship circle? Is it diverse enough to help me be more interculturally competent? I don’t think I have a problem with cultural differences so I must be interculturally competence already, right? As discussed in Chap. 1, people tend to overestimate their IC for a variety of reasons. Having certain experiences such as studying or living abroad, travelling extensively, being from a minority group, having friends from other cultures, or studying one or more foreign languages might lead us to believe that we have a higher level of IC. While all these experiences can serve to enhance IC, they do not automatically confer it. Please review Chap. 1 for a reminder of why you might be overestimating your IC. The topic of how to assess your IC is a contentious one and there are many measures that can be used to try to gauge someone’s level of IC (Deardorff 2009; Fantini 2009; Spencer-Oatey and Franklin 2009). Some suggest that IC can be measured using objective inventories. The Intercultural Development Inventory® (IDI® ) (Hammer et al. 2003) mentioned above, for example, is one very widely used assessment of IC. Objective inventories such as the IDI® , however, come under criticism (Bennett 2009; Matsumoto and Hwang 2013). Some believe that IC cannot be measured by an objective instrument and must be evaluated in the context of actual intercultural situations or otherwise considered more subjectively. This argument has some validity if for no other reason, then that it is likely that the IDI® is not entirely valid to use across cultures. Although the IDI® is purported by its developers to be culturally neutral and therefore useful with those from any culture, researchers (e.g., Lantz 2014) point out the flaws in this notion finding that terms and phrases used in the assessment are not understood in the same way by people from different cultures leading results from some participants to be questionable. Other possibilities include people evaluating themselves to determine how interculturally competent they are (e.g., INCA project 2004). However, as you will know from our discussions on unconscious bias in Chap. 3, we do not always have insight into our inner most thoughts and feelings about cultural differences. Gaining selfawareness of biases is something that tends to develop over time and some people simply have more insight into their own feelings and motivations than others based on

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personal characteristics and previous experiences. Thus, self-assessment, although having a place in contributing to assessing our own IC, may not work for everyone. Some advocate using the case study method (e.g., Deardorff 2009). In other words, you are provided with an intercultural scenario and asked to describe how you would deal with the scenario. Your answer could be an indicator of how interculturally competent you are. Of course, scenarios can be very useful learning tools and may provide some insight into your levels of IC. However, you may at times answer in ways that do not reflect how you would truly react. This happens either because you deceive yourself into thinking that this how you truly would react or because you want to fake the right answer to conform to what is socially acceptable thereby avoiding criticism and gaining approval (King and Brunner 2000; Huang et al 1998). This well-established phenomenon is known in psychology as social desirability bias (Crowne and Marlow 1960). That said, another weakness of case study method is that it is no substitute for demonstrating your reactions to real life encounters. While the jury is still out on how best to assess IC, researchers suggest, and we concur, that it is useful to use multiple methods of assessment (Deardorff 2009, 2011). Using multiple assessment methods, even those that are somewhat criticized, not only allows you to gain insight into your level of IC, it can help you to learn about the topic in general. For instance, while the use of the IDI® is criticized to some extent, learning about the theory behind the IDI® and finding out what your results suggest about you will be helpful in promoting your understanding of IC and thinking about how you might enhance your IC. Using multiple methods of assessment might include completing a selfassessment instrument and an objective assessment, reviewing and answering case study questions, and finding out what others think about how you interact with people from different cultures. This last measure could be considered hard and fast evidence although human judgement is certainly subjective, and people can have their own motivations for evaluating you positively or negatively regardless of your performance. With the above in mind, we suggest that you begin with the Self -Reflective Activity found in Appendix A. This self-scoring tool while not definitive, will help you to get an idea not only of your level of IC, but what you might do to improve upon it. Keep in mind, however, that there are a variety of other IC type assessments available which might be of interest to you and which you can explore by consulting other resources (e.g., Spencer Oatey and Franklin 2009).

Action Planning: How Can I Identify Steps to Enhance My Intercultural Competence? If you have done the Self -Reflective Activity as suggested above, do not be disappointed if you find that you are not particularly advanced. Remember we all fall on a continuum. IC is not something that you are born with. It involves a developmental

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process with each person’s IC impacted by their unique personalities and experiences with culture. Wherever you find yourself, if you would like to develop further, one way to go about doing that is to think carefully about the ways in which you might improve and to create an action plan outlining what you will do to improve. Action planning involves deciding upon steps that you will take in order to improve your IC. Steps might include a variety of activities based upon the areas in which you would like to develop. Do you want to learn more about people from a particular culture? Do you want to learn more about cultural differences in general? Do you want to break down a particular stereotype or prejudice that you hold? Do you want to stand up to unfair discrimination and prejudice? Do you want to learn to face your discomfort? Do you want to learn more about IC in general? Do you want to focus on IC with a particular cultural group? If there is a large population of immigrants from a particular country in your area, perhaps you would like to focus upon this group. This last point highlights the fact that your action plan will vary based upon your context. You might be attending university on a highly domestically diverse city campus in which case you might be more interested in focusing on aspects of domestic diversity in relation to IC. You might be in a suburban university with mostly international student groups to draw upon for learning. Each person’s action plan is likely to be different based upon what they wish to accomplish and the diversity that is available around them. While there is no right or wrong action plan, Table 4.3 provides an example of what an action plan might look like. You will see that column 1 provides a learning goal, column 2 lists a possible action to take, and column 3 provides a place for reflection. Remember, it is not enough to undertake the activity, you must reflect on it in order to consolidate what you have learned and to figure out what new learning goals you might want to pursue. The following chapters further address the need to reflect and how to reflect in more detail, however, this will get you started. We suggest that you go to Appendix B and complete an action plan to develop your intercultural competence. Remember that this will probably be just the first of many action plans that you will develop to enhance your IC. If you have not already done so, it would also be a good time to complete the Appendix A to self-assess your IC.

Culturally Distinct Models of Intercultural Competence: Are There Other Ways to Look at This? The models that are described earlier in this chapter all emanate from more Westernized countries reflecting a certain amount of bias in our backgrounds and writing. It is important to point out that intercultural competence has also been conceptualized by theorists from countries that are less Westernized (see Henze 2007 for an overview). Revealing the wisdom of the Chinese culture, some models try to incorporate the idea of yin and yang. Yin Yang is an ancient Chinese philosophy which provides

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Table 4.3 Example Intercultural Action Plan Learning goal

Action—Some ideas

Face discomfort

You can get to know someone from another culture. In one lecture this week or when you are at the library, you can sit down next to a person from another country or culture that you have never met before and strike up a conversation and see if you can get to know them a little better

Learn more about IC

You can finish reading this book and complete all the thought boxes and activities over the next month

Learn more about a religious community you know little about

You can read a fictional book set in a religious community that is not your own (e.g., The Reluctant Fundamentalist by Mohsim Hamid; The Dalai Lamas Cat by David Michie)

Champion the cause of IC

You can try to start or join a Culture Club or Society at your college or university. You can ask one of your lecturers about integrating more consideration of culture into the curriculum

Reflection—How was the activity? What did you learn? What were the positives/negatives? What will you do next?

a holistic, dynamic, and dialectical world view (Li 2008). Yin Yang includes three tenants of duality as described by Li (2008, p. 416): “The tenet of ‘holistic duality’ posits that a phenomenon or entity cannot be complete unless it has two opposite elements… The tenet of ‘dynamic duality’ posits that opposite elements will mutually transform into each other in a process of balancing under various conditions… The tenet of ‘dialectical duality’ posits that the holistic and dynamic tenets can stand because two contrary (relatively contradictory) yet interdependent (relatively compatible) elements exist as opposites in unity to mutually affirm (for consistency and equilibrium) and mutually negate (for completeness and punctuated shift).

Yin Yang is described by Peng and Nisbett (1999) as a sophisticated, often called dialectical, way of seeing contradictions and inconsistencies. It is different from the formal logic which tends to dominate in more traditional Western philosophies. Yin Yang attempts to capture the way in which Chinese view paradox, specifically as interdependent opposites in comparison to more Westernized philosophies (Chen 2002). Fang (2011, p. 26) interprets the Yin Yang conceptualization of culture “as

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possessing inherently paradoxical value orientations, thereby enabling it to embrace opposite traits of any given cultural dimension.” He further posits that “paradoxical values coexist in any culture and give rise to, exist within, reinforce, and complement each other to shape the holistic, dynamic, and dialectical nature of culture.” Although it is beyond the scope of this book to delve into this philosophical stance in any depth, generally it would seem to suggest that Yin Yang supports the concept of cultural frame shifting (Hong et al. 2000). In intercultural competence terms, this would mean that individuals can maintain multiple cultural views and switch between them as appropriate depending upon the situation and context. This bears some similarity to description found in the integration stage of the DMIS described earlier. Other approaches mentioned in the literature that are interesting to consider are conceptualizations of intercultural competence originating from the continent of Africa. However, as Nwosu (2009, p. 159) points out, “not much has been done to comprehensively study Africans’ conceptualizations of intercultural competence”. For this it would be necessary to understand the cultural diversity and complexity of the African continent, and to “dig deeper” into such concepts as the meaning of the spiritual/metaphysical world, the Igbo people’s values in regard to work and money, the Swahili peoples’ perception of time, the Ubuntu principles of consensus and common framework-seeking, and so on. On a continent of more than 1000 languages and even more dialects, it is impossible to assume any homogeneity in the conceptualizations of intercultural competence. That said, a paper by Gade (2012) suggests that South Africans define ubuntu according to one’s individual morality but also as a humanistic philosophy which views people as interconnected. Metz and Gaie (2010) translate ubuntu as humanness and suggest that the main aim of ubuntu is to prize communal relationships with others. Based on Nwosu (2009), Gade (2012), Metz and Gaie (2010) it seems reasonable to conclude that concepts such as sociability, communality, patience, tolerance, empathy and mutual acceptance would be prioritized. Though in some other fields of scientific research it is normal to offer a single definitive model of a process or a definition of a concept; in the field of intercultural education, the norm should be “to agree to disagree” on approaches and to see the value of different ways of thinking about culture and intercultural competence. Given that cultures may have very distinct perceptions of the world, may embrace different ways of explaining the same phenomena, and may hold unique logic, it is possible that there will never be just one definition of intercultural competence and only one model accepted around the world. Actually, we would like to believe that it will never happen, because it would mean in some sense, the end of diversity and the end of exploring the complexity of intercultural relationships. In this chapter, we have tried to provide an overview of a very complex concept based on our knowledge and experience. Inevitably there will be people who disagree with our view of IC especially as it is studied by so many disciplines in so many countries. We encourage you to see the theories and models discussed in this chapter not as prescriptive but as a starting point for you to explore more about intercultural competence and to develop your critical understanding of the subject matter. There are

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many models outside of what we have presented here that can help you to develop your knowledge and thinking in relation to this concept. Expanding your reading on books written by authors from South and Central Americas, Africa, Asia, India, Russia and other countries and continents would significantly broaden your worldview and bring in new perspectives. That said, we hope we have encouraged you to think critically and not let anyone tell you that they have all the answers about intercultural competence because no one does. We are all together on a journey of learning about how to navigate cultural difference in positive ways, including the authors to whom we refer in this chapter.

References Barrett, M. (2013). Intercultural competence: A distinctive hallmark of interculturalism? In M. Barrett (Ed.), Interculturalism and multiculturalism: Similarities and differences (pp. 147–168). Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing. Beasley, T., & Peters, M. A. (Eds.). (2012). Interculturalism, education, and dialogue. New York: Peter Lang Publishing. Bennett, M. J. (1986a). A developmental approach to training for intercultural sensitivity. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 10(2), 179–196. Bennett, M. J. (1986b). Towards ethnorelativism: A developmental model of intercultural sensitivity. In R. M. Paige (Ed.), Cross-cultural orientation: New conceptualizations and applications (pp. 27–70). New York: University Press of America. Bennett, M. J. (1993). Towards ethnorelativism: A developmental model of intercultural sensitivity. In M. R. Paige (Ed.), Education for the intercultural experience (pp. 21–71). Yarmouth, Maine: Intercultural Press. Bennett, M. J. (1998). Intercultural communication: A current perspective. In M. J. Bennett (Ed.), Basic concepts of intercultural communication (pp. 1–34). London: Nicholas Brealey Publishing. Bennett, M. J. (2004). Becoming interculturally competent. In J. S. Wurzel (Ed.), Toward multiculturalism: A reader in multicultural education. Newton, Massachusetts: Intercultural Resource Corporation. Bennett, M. J. (2009). Defining, measuring, and facilitating intercultural learning: A conceptual introduction to the Intercultural Education double supplement. Intercultural Education, 20(sup1), S1–S13. Bennett, M. J. (2011). A developmental model of intercultural sensitivity. http://www.idrinstitute. org/allegati/IDRI_t_Pubblicazioni/47/FILE_Documento_Bennett_DMIS_12pp_quotes_rev_ 2011.pdf. Accessed June 16, 2020. Bennett, J. M., & Bennett, M. J. (2004). Developing intercultural sensitivity. In D. Landis, J. M. Bennett, & M. J. Bennett (Eds.), Handbook of intercultural training (3rd ed., pp. 147–165). London: Sage Publications Inc. Berg, R., & Denison, E. (2012). Effectiveness of interventions designed to prevent female genital mutiliation/cutting: A systematic review. Studies in Family Planning, 43(2), 135–146. Berry, J. W. (2001). A psychology of immigration. Journal of Social Issues, 57(3), 615–631. Berry, J. W., Kim, U., Minde, T., & Mok, D. (1987). Comparative studies of acculturative stress. International Migration Review, 21(3), 491–511. Bloom, B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: Handbook I—cognitive domain. New York, NY: David McKay. Bourdieu, P. (1990). In other words. Essays towards a reflexive sociology. Cambridge, UK: Polity. Brewer, M. B. (2003). Intergroup relations. Philadelphia: Open University Press. Brislin, R. W. (1981). Cross-cultural encounters: Face-to-face interaction. New York: Pergamon.

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Chapter 5

How Can We Develop Intercultural Competence While at College or University?

‘As a source of exchange, innovation and creativity, cultural diversity is as necessary for humankind as biodiversity is for nature. In this sense, it is the common heritage of humanity and should be recognized and affirmed for the benefit of present and future generations.’— Article 1., UNESCO Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity, 2001.

This chapter explores the variety of cultural contexts at colleges and universities related to IC. It reviews the extent to which colleges and universities address IC as part of internationalization and equality, diversity, and inclusion initiatives. It describes opportunities for you to develop your IC based on what is available on your campus and in your community. This chapter includes topics such as study abroad, student clubs and societies, and IC in college and university curriculum. It also introduces you to intercultural (global) citizenship and education for democratic citizenship. Finally, this chapter encourages you to critically think about what is on offer at your institution and to look for ways not only to enhance your IC but to support your institution in enhancing IC related learning opportunities for students. Learning outcomes: By reading this chapter and completing the tasks you will be able to: • Recognize the varieties of diversity present on your college or university campus; • Demonstrate an understanding of what is meant by internationalization (INZ) and the strategies and activities that it involves; • Recognize the opportunities provided by experiences studying abroad; • Demonstrate an understanding of equality, diversity, and inclusion (EDI) and the support that individuals or offices provide to staff and students; • Describe the underlying synergy between internationalization and equality, diversity, and inclusion; • Recognize opportunities that are available to develop your IC on campus as related to INZ and EDI initiatives; • Critically evaluate the support your university provides in terms of IC development; © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 C. Lantz-Deaton and I. Golubeva, Intercultural Competence for College and University Students, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57446-8_5

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• Contrast the concept of intercultural (global) citizenship with intercultural competence; • Recognize the ways in which you might influence policies and practice related to IC at your college or university. There are a myriad of activities that you can undertake to develop your IC. Reading this book is, of course, a brilliant activity. Fostering your understanding of IC and reflecting upon your IC are two key things that you can do that we have highlighted throughout this guide. That said, there are some other specific activities that you can undertake that will help you to develop further. Having contact with those from other cultures puts learning about IC into practice. While you may learn a lot about IC by reading books, solely reading will not make you interculturally competent. Think about it. Let’s say you were learning to drive. You can read a book on how to drive, but will that be enough to make you a good driver? Of course, not. You need to practice on the road to become comfortable and gain experience and, eventually, expertise. Only with extensive practical experience will you have the possibility of becoming a good driver. The same is true for IC development. While reading this book is a good start, what you really need to do is strive for contact with those who are culturally different from you in order to help you to break down stereotypes and prejudices, develop an understanding of different cultures, allow you to become more comfortable with cultural difference, and allow you to develop and practice your intercultural skills. This chapter will help you to think more about ways in which you might develop IC during your college or university experience. It begins by discussing diversity available at your institution. This chapter then addresses initiatives within universities that may support IC development including internationalization and equality, diversity, and inclusion. Within each initiative we help you to think about the types of opportunities that might be available to you on campus as well as off campus and through studying abroad. We also invite you to think critically about what is on offer at your institution and the ways in which your institution might improve. In some countries, students have a lot of influence in how institutions operate and can help to facilitate change.

Developing Intercultural Competence at College/University: Where Do I Begin? When people talk about developing intercultural competence, often the first thing that comes to mind is studying abroad. While studying abroad can be useful in developing IC, and we discuss it at length below, it is simply not accessible to all students. You may be a student with family commitments that make it impossible. You may have to work to pay for university or perhaps cannot afford to be away from home for other reasons. This does not mean that you cannot develop your IC. As you know from previous chapters, there is a plethora of domestic diversity in many—if

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not most—countries and many university campuses are extremely diverse as well. At the University of Bradford, one of your co-author’s former institutions, 50% of students are from ethnic minority groups and 20% are from outside of the UK and represent 127 different countries. Additionally, quite a large proportion of students are mature (e.g., beyond the traditional age range of 18–22) which adds another layer of diversity. While Bradford is a campus rich in ethnic, international, and age-related diversity, some other campuses may not be so diverse. Some may have few international students. Some may have less domestic diversity in terms of ethnicity, religion, age, etc. Alternatively, some courses, particularly, postgraduate courses may be dominated by students from other countries (e.g., China), as has been found by some studies (Caruana and Ploner 2010). Such demographic imbalances can make it frustrating for domestic students who find themselves in a minority (Lantz 2014) within their own country as well as frustrating for international students who may find it harder to integrate with domestic students since most people around them are from their own country (Caruana and Ploner 2010). However, recall from previous chapters that diversity involves a whole host of characteristics such as religion, gender identity, sexual orientation, socio-economic status, disability, and so on, so there might be more diversity on campus than you might think. Before moving to the next topic, take a minute to more formally assess the diversity at your university using Thought Box 5.1. Thought Box 5.1 Diversity at my institution Using your university website or other published material, see if you can answer the questions below. What proportion of students at your institution are international students? What proportion of students are from domestic ethnic minority groups? What other aspects of diversity are you aware of on campus (e.g., age, disability, gender identity, sexual orientation, income level, religion)? To what extent has the composition of your course or institution impacted your experience so far? Please provide some examples.

Of course, the more diverse your university campus, the more likely you will be to have opportunities to engage with people who are different from yourself and to develop your IC right on campus. However, what your college or university offers in

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terms of opportunities to engage with those who are different from you or to enhance your knowledge and experience in this area will vary considerably.

Initiatives Fostering the Development of Intercultural Competence: What Are They? In terms of looking for how your institution addresses IC, there are two initiatives or strands of work often, although not always, found within institutions that are related to the development of IC: Internationalization and Equality, Diversity, and Inclusion. These initiatives might be led by particular offices that are similarly named, they may be led by particular individuals with a related job title (e.g., EDI Coordinator, Dean of IZN), or they may simply be integrated as terms which are part of a university-wide or divisional strategic plan which are then implemented to greater or lesser degrees within different institutions. We will explore IZN and EDI below, but before we do, take a moment to reflect on these terms in Thought Boxes 5.2 and 5.3. Thought Box 5.2 Internationalization What do you think that offices of internationalization do? What might be some strategies that relate to their initiatives? Explore your institution’s website if you would like.

Thought Box 5.3 Equality, diversity, and inclusion What do you think that offices of equality, diversity, and inclusion do? What might be some strategies that relate to their initiatives? Explore your institution’s website if you would like.

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Internationalization: How Are Colleges and Universities Internationalizing? Colleges and universities worldwide are now more often prioritizing the development of IC in students (Messelink et al. 2015; Oda˘g et al. 2016; Schartner 2014; Wolff and Borzikowsky 2018). The development of IC falls—in part—under internationalization activities, although it can also be found under EDI activities; and there are definite synergies between the two. Internationalization is considered the process by which universities become international and involves “integrating an international, intercultural, or global dimension into the purpose, function or delivery of postsecondary education” (Knight 2004, p. 11). While INZ can be viewed as a set of activities that universities carry out, activities are also labeled in terms of the context in which they occur, on home campuses, termed “internationalization at home” (IaH), or abroad (Knight 2004). Abroad activities include, for example, creating satellite campuses in other countries, recruiting international students, developing study abroad programs, and developing IC in study abroad students. IaH activities include, for instance, integrating intercultural or global perspectives into curriculum, supporting cross-cultural student associations, encouraging language study, or developing IC in students and staff on campus (Koutsantoni 2006b). Although it is too early to analyze the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on higher education, in general, and on its internationalization, in particular, it is likely that IaH strategies will gain momentum in the near future. Internationalization activities are good in that they help universities and colleges to be more outward facing and to engage with the wider world. They are also good to the extent that they promote interactions with people who are culturally different from one another. However, research suggests that institutions often internationalize for more economic reasons (Bone 2008; Middlehurst and Woodfield 2007; Toyoshima 2007) such as developing their reputations to generate income and improve their rankings. While institutions often use terms such as ‘valuing diversity’ and ‘achieving cross-cultural capability’ in strategy statements; these often are not translated into definitive plans (Koutsantoni 2006a; Middlehurst and Woodfield 2007). The development of students’ IC falls clearly under the umbrella of INZ; however, research suggests that it is often marginalized within institutions with the focus instead on reputation building and income generation. Part of the reason IC is marginalized is that often people assume that IC just develops automatically when students study on diverse campuses (Jones and Killick 2013; Gregersen-Hermans 2015; Lantz-Deaton 2017; Hart et al. 2017). While diverse campuses do provide culturally rich environments in which students can engage with diversity and develop interculturally (Volet and Ang 1998), this does not guarantee student development as some studies have found (e.g., Lantz-Deaton 2017). Of course, as we know from Chap. 3, often contact with those from other cultures can at times be negative and lead people to become more closed to cultural difference

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rather than more open. Thus, it is something that needs to be facilitated with care to encourage more positive outcomes from intercultural contact experiences. Before moving on, take a minute to do a little investigating online or in person. Using Thought Box 5.4, record what your university does to support internationalization and more specifically intercultural development. Thought Box 5.4 Internationalization initiatives in your institution What does your college or university do to support internationalization? Is there evidence to show that IC development is specifically supported? If so, how is it supported?

Perhaps, in your research you have found that your institution does a lot to support IC development in students; perhaps, you have found little evidence, or perhaps your institution is somewhere in between. Wherever your institution falls, the following section provides some background information describing the ways that institutions may support IC development in relation to internationalization and highlighting some good practice.

Study or Work Abroad For domestic students, spending a period abroad can not only be helpful in terms of developing your resume (CV), it can also be helpful in terms of developing your IC. Spending time outside of your home country can help you not just to learn about another culture but to experience it first-hand. As we have discussed in previous chapters, contact with those who are culturally different is one of the best ways of developing IC. You might be interested to know that many employers see study abroad as very valuable. For instance, one study found that 63% of Indonesian employers and 51% of Brazilian employers said that study abroad should be encouraged to improve intercultural skills (British Council 2013, p. 18). A large-scale study of graduates who had studied abroad between 1950 and 1999 found a variety of benefits for study abroad students (Dwyer and Peters n.d.). Ninetyeight percent of respondents thought that studying abroad helped them to gain a better understanding of their own values and biases with 82% indicating that it helped them

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to develop a more sophisticated view of the world. One former student noted (ibid., p. 1): The experience of living and studying in another country was so eye-opening…[it] tested preconceptions and habits I wasn’t even aware were so ingrained in me. —Cynthia Perras

Survey respondents noted that their study abroad experiences were not only impactful but lasting with 94% reporting that their experience continues to impact the way in which they interact with people from different cultures years later; 23% still maintained contact with those they met in other countries; 90% indicated that because of their experiences, they are more interested in people from different cultures and continue to seek out those who are different from themselves in their daily lives (Dwyer and Peters, n.d.). Student feedback suggests that study or work abroad can make a big difference in terms of intercultural and other skills but also long-term career prospects. A 2012 survey of graduates who completed study abroad found that 84% said that it helped them to build career skills and nearly 79% indicated that it was effective or very effective in helping them develop confidence to cope with the demands of their first job (Preston 2012). Two-thirds (62%) of survey respondents indicated that study abroad not only prepared them well for later jobs but influenced their career directions (Dwyer and Peters n.d.). One alumnus noted the following (ibid., p. 1): My semester [abroad] launched me into a personal and professional involvement with Spain that has…lasted 25 years. A political science lecture in Madrid about U.S. and Spanish involvement in an obscure war in Sahara…led to a graduate fellowship to Spain and North Africa, which led to work as a foreign correspondent based in Spain.—Gary Abramson

While the benefits of study or work abroad have been borne out by follow up studies, you might still feel some anxiety about going abroad. Anxiety about undertaking a study or work abroad is a very common experience for students. There are many ways to deal with and overcome it. Preparation is, certainly, a key, as many students who have been abroad will tell you. See Box 5.1 to hear one students’ experience (Raghvani n.d.) of overcoming her worries of studying abroad through Erasmus. Box 5.1 A student work experience abroad Shivani Raghvani, a UK pharmacy student at Cardiff University applied through the Erasmus program to do a placement in a pharmaceutical chemistry lab in Turkey at Ankara University. There she aimed to help make compounds to treat cancer which is what she hopes to specialize in one day. Shivani had this to say about her Erasmus experience: When I found out that I would be spending three months in Ankara, Turkey, my initial reaction of ecstasy changed to one of anxiety when it hit me that I would be flying out that week. I had questions that probably ran through many other Erasmus students’ minds: What will the country be like? Will I have to make any major changes to my life? Three months is a long time,

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will I get homesick? Who do I go to for support?… I was a bit worried that, as Turkey is a Muslim country, their culture would be very different from the UK. I was terrified of offending the locals by doing things which would be normal back home…. Then I remembered that many students have been in the same situation and if I organised everything well and had a general idea of what to expect—then everything would be fine. However, I also came to learn to go with the flow! The result? An Amazing experience! I hadn’t taken language issues into consideration before going to Turkey where the main language is Turkish. However, I found the Turkish people to be the friendliest bunch I’ve ever met in all my travels. When the locals found out I was an English speaker, they used to call me over to join them for tea and backgammon, whilst I told them about myself and they taught me Turkish! I picked up a few words this way and through my trusty dictionary! … Just one month into the programme and my father saw the change in me when he came to visit. He saw that I was more independent, responsible and the first to contribute to any problem that required solving. This was of great importance to me, especially, because I am Indian. My father has always been the traditional kind and worries about my safety. The fact that I was going to a country which had civil unrest terrified him. However, after seeing how the programme benefitted me, he even told my younger sister to apply for an Erasmus programme too!… By the time the three months were up, I was torn between the excitement of seeing my family in London again and unbelievably sad at leaving behind the new family I made in Turkey (Raghvani n.d.).

Experiences abroad are offered by an increasing number of departments and institutions. While study or work abroad may be available to you, the extent to which your institution offers structured programs that help students to study or work in other countries will vary. Some study or work abroad programs are run by career centers or international offices, although they may be found in other parts of colleges or universities. At times they are facilitated by external sources. Erasmus, for instance, is a world-famous initiative funded by the European Union. Students (and staff) can apply for funding to pay for study or work in other countries. The International Education of Students Abroad (IES Abroad) is another such organization, based in the US, that helps students to find opportunities to study and work abroad along with offering finan-

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cial support. While practices of offering study abroad vary, it is worth highlighting practices that help and hinder abroad experiences because, while study abroad can be great for IC development, the way in which it is facilitated can drastically impact upon your learning. Some universities offer “orientation sessions” for students going on study abroad which cover topics such as where to buy a SIM-card, how to greet people in the host language, where to buy medicines, and when banks are open. While helpful, such sessions can at times focus mostly on the short-term survival information and can ignore longer term goals such as how to develop intercultural competence. More effective orientation sessions focus not only upon longer term goals they also address the cultural challenges that can sometimes occur when moving to a different culture. For example, a study by Campbell and Walta (2015) followed a group of Australian students travelling to Malaysia to study. The students had several orientation days, including accommodation information and dress code etc., but the orientation process also buddied up the Australian students with Malaysian students who were able to help with orientation into the local culture. The study found that the main influence on cultural attitude shift was the interaction with their buddies which assisted in immersion into the Malaysian culture. Also, of course, orientation sessions could usefully focus on IC development both in terms of educating students about what it is and how to develop it during their stay abroad. In theory, abroad programs would ideally involve not just a one-off orientation session but a structured IC curriculum that you undertake the entire time you are abroad and even after you return. It goes without saying that the length of time you spend in a foreign culture will have a major influence on the learning that takes place. Adjusting to a new culture takes time. Learning about a new culture takes time. Developing IC takes time and, as you know, it can take quite a long time. Studies (e.g., Dwyer 2004; Heinzmann et al. 2015; Neppel 2005) find that the longer students can spend abroad, the better. Thus, if you can study or work abroad for a period of months or years rather than weeks, we certainly recommend it. Most students will have some practical limitations with limited finances, family obligations or other commitments, however, if your institution does offer options for longer stays abroad, do consider them if possible. You will find a considerable amount of literature on study or work abroad experiences including how international students are perceived by domestic students (e.g., Golubeva under review, etc.; Holmes 2004; Lantz 2014; Zhou and Todman 2008), what the main challenges are of living and studying or working abroad (e.g., Heng 2017; Msengi 2007; Lee 2007; Wu et al. 2015) and also training materials to help you to prepare for a successful study or work abroad experience (e.g., IEREST 2015). You will want to read relevant material about what it is like to study and work abroad in order to get the most out of your experience. A large body of research finds that often students who study or work abroad tend to stay in their own cultural (often co-national) groups rather than immersing themselves in the local culture (see Papatsiba 2006, etc.; Rienties and Nolan 2014; Trice 2007) which can be a major block to intercultural learning. Having read this guide, you will know why many international students tend to socialize with their co-nationals—because it is easier and more comfortable to stay

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with people who are like you (see Chap. 3). Although it may be uncomfortable, especially at first, it is important to take as many opportunities as you can to interact with and get to know people from the local culture. This is important not only to develop language skills (if you are studying a foreign language as a major or a minor and that is one of your goals), but to develop intercultural competence. Studies confirm that developing friendships and other relationships with those outside of your co-national group improve your cultural adjustment (Rienties and Nolan 2014). As we have pointed out in previous chapters, if you travel, live or work in another country, but mostly stay with people from your own culture, you will gain far less from your experience and in some cases your stereotypes about your host culture could be reinforced. In terms of developing your intercultural competence, immersing yourself in the local culture is the most important piece of advice that we can give you about study or work abroad. However, please review the checklist in Box 5.2 to see other suggestions for getting the most out of your experience in IC terms. Box 5.2 Getting the most from your study abroad experiences • Be prepared—Ensure you engage well with the practicalities of study abroad including filling in appropriate forms, getting the right visas, organizing transportation and a place to stay. This will make the experience easier and less stressful. • Set goals for yourself —Decide on a few things that you want to get out of your experience and make a plan for pursuing them. Of course, we would like one of your goals to be to enhance your IC and we recommend that you develop an action plan for that as we have outlined in Chap. 4. An action plan is available at the back of this book in Appendix B. • Suspend judgement & keep your mind open—As you know, cultural variability is to be expected. There are many ways in which people live their lives. If people seem to do things differently, do not automatically assume that it is wrong. Instead just try to learn about this new perspective. • Let go of stereotypes and prejudices—Try not to let whatever preconceived notions you have about the culture you are entering influence your view of the locals. Not all US Americans carry a gun or eat at McDonalds every day. Not all British people drink tea or like the royal family. People from Africa are not all jolly souls who see wild animals every day; in fact, Africa is not a country at all as some people think, but a continent with a collection of countries. Holding such stereotypes and believing that people will conform to them can get you into trouble. Remember to treat people as individuals. • Demonstrate sensitivity—People may do a variety of things different from the way you do them. Some people don’t mind being questioned about these differences, but some do. Be sure to be gentle and respectful when asking about cultural differences.

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• Let local behavior guide you—Demonstrate sensitivity by letting the behavior of local people guide yours. How do people say hello? Do they eat with their hands or a fork? Do people stand in orderly queues at the bus stop or is it more of a crowd approach? Do people typically show up on time for meetings or is lateness the norm? In most instances, doing as the locals do can help you to fit in more easily. • Don’t be afraid to ask—If you do not understand a custom or term, politely ask for clarification to help you to develop your understanding. But as mentioned above, be sure to be polite and gentle with your inquiries. • Learn from your mistakes—No one is perfect. Sometimes, even when you are trying hard not to offend others, you may still offend them. This may be down to your own mistakes or to the other person’s misunderstanding or oversensitivity. In either case, cultural misunderstandings are inevitable. Don’t beat yourself up about them. Instead endeavor to learn from them so that you can better avoid them in future. • Immerse yourself as much as possible—As we have already mentioned, do what you can to expand your social circle to include people from the local culture. This may include widening your circle of friends or making a few close friends from the host culture who you can learn and gain insights from. • Stay with a host family—If the option is available to stay with a host family rather than in student accommodation, give it a try. What better way to learn about your host culture than to live with local people? • Keep an intercultural journal—Reflecting regularly upon cultural experiences, as you already know, is a great way to enhance your learning. Be sure to keep a journal during your time abroad and perhaps beyond. Work towards developing your reflection skills by reviewing Chap. 6 in this book. • Stay connected with your own culture—Being in a new culture can be difficult as things are new and different. It’s good to stay in touch with family and friends at home and to make friends with people from your own culture while abroad. Talking to them about your experiences can help you to process your experiences and learn and can help you feel more secure and connected to your home culture. That said, just be sure not to place too much emphasis on these relationships so that you do not foster relationships with those from your host culture which is what we know will support the development of IC. • Look after yourself —It can be tiring constantly confronting newness, so expect it to be somewhat challenging. Be sure to take time for yourself to rest and recharge. • Ask for help—Some students experience culture shock or homesickness. There are typically professionals or tutors associated with study or work abroad programs that can help you through these difficulties. • Become active in social networking—If you haven’t been an active user of social media, it is, probably, the right time to consider it. There is a

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dazzling array of features offered by various platforms (e.g., Facebook, LinkedIn, WeChat, Vkontakte, etc.), microblogging (e.g., Twitter, Tumblr, etc.), photo sharing (e.g., Instagram, Snapchat, Pinterest, etc.), video sharing (e.g., YouTube, Facebook Live, Periscope, Vimeo, etc.). Social networks provide excellent opportunities to share your intercultural experiences and critical incidents (see Chap. 6 for more about critical incidents), and to learn about the experiences of others. Social networking can help to give you a sense that you are not alone. • Stay as long as you can—If it is only possible for you to go abroad for a week or two, then certainly, do it as some experience is better than none. However, as we mentioned earlier, research suggests that the longer the experience, the more students gain from it. So, if you can stay for an entire semester, a year, or if you can undertake an entire degree program abroad, consider doing it. • Engage in meaningful intercultural interactions—Look for opportunities to practice your favorite sport or hobby with someone from another culture, engage in collaborative projects and group learning, or do some volunteering in the local community. In this way you can develop your IC and increase your level of satisfaction with your stay in another country. • Have a goal—Even if you follow the advice above, it will not save you from having some difficult moments during your stay abroad. However, if you have a clear goal (e.g. “to get a degree”, “to learn the local language”, “to gain experience”, “to do your research”, “to earn some money” etc.), creating a focal point can motivate you and give you energy to continue to strive for your goal and give meaning to your time abroad—even on the days when you feel as if you just want to return home.

If you would like to study abroad, we strongly encourage you to investigate what your institution offers in terms of support. If your institution does not offer study or work abroad opportunities or you believe it could be improved in IC development terms, consider suggesting changes. Before moving on to the next topic, reflect upon abroad experiences in Thought Box 5.5.

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Thought Box 5.5 Study or work abroad experiences If you have never studied or worked abroad during your studies, what do you think might help you to think about undertaking an abroad experience? If you have studied abroad, what is the single most important thing you learned from the experience?

Domestic and International Student Integration When international students are recruited, institutions attempt to integrate them with domestic students to greater and lesser degrees. Of course, there is a balance to be struck because when you arrive in a new country it can be challenging and tiring to participate in a culture where most everything is new. Therefore, staying with people from one’s own country to some extent can be both reassuring and more relaxing than constantly challenging oneself by confronting cultural differences. That said there are practices that can facilitate the integration of domestic and international students. To follow are a few things to consider. • Orientation sessions: Some universities offer some sort of sessions for international students to help them integrate into the university. However, like study abroad orientations discussed above, such sessions are often short term in nature and aim mainly towards providing survival information. They are typically organized by International Offices and contain the same kind of information as for study abroad students: about visa issues, opening bank accounts, housing, academic calendars and so on. To be sure this information is both necessary and useful; however, more effective orientation sessions will be those that are longer AND address the cultural challenges that can sometimes occur when moving to a different culture (Golubeva 2017). Of course, orientation sessions could usefully focus on IC development both in terms of educating students about what it is and how to develop it during university. Although not directly labelled as IC development, the University of South Australia has organized workshops for international students which include the development of friendships with students from Australia (Caruana and Ploner 2010). While orientations are often focused upon international students, we would advocate for orientation sessions for both domestic and international students that address developing IC at university (Golubeva 2017).

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• Student Accommodation: Some institutions provide accommodation where students live on campus with other students while other institutions do not. Of those that do, some have mixed accommodation for domestic and international students so that they live together while others have separate accommodation for international students so that they live separately from domestic students. Probably these latter institutions take the view that putting international students together will help them to feel more comfortable, enhance their experience and prevent conflicts. Some studies suggest that mixed accommodation does not always result in positive experiences with domestic and international students and needs to be handled with care (Bochner et al. 1985). However, other studies have alternative findings. For example, Wilcox et al. (2005), found that living arrangements are the most important way of forging friendships and are important in developing intercultural contacts and communication. In our understanding, although the research findings are contradictory, it is always beneficial for your intercultural development to try to build as much contact as possible with people from other cultural backgrounds. As you know from reading previous chapters, separating ourselves from cultural difference only increases our tendency to stereotype and develop prejudices. If you have the option to live in mixed accommodation, we suggest that you seriously consider it. • Classroom Teaching: In some institutions, international students are unlikely to speak the local language and are therefore taught completely or almost completely separately from domestic students. However, in other institutions, international students are expected to have a command of the local language and are integrated into the regular classes. Of course, you know what our concerns will be around segregation. Specifically, if students are separated, they will be less likely to interact. Thus, universities that search for ways to integrate students in classes are those that are more forward thinking. That said, integrating domestic and international students in classrooms can also be difficult and it is important that universities handle this with care by guiding students in learning how to work effectively together. Much has been written about the internationalized classroom and ways in which students can be facilitated in working together in mixed cultural groups (Harrison and Peacock 2010; Jackson and Huddart 2010; Jones and Killick 2013; Seifert 2009). Contact theory (Allport 1954) as discussed at length in Chap. 3 is an important consideration in helping students to have positive experiences in mixed cultural groups. • Language Acquisition: Thousands of international students are admitted to programs around the world each year. Although a certain standard is typically set for admission, language is frequently cited in research as a barrier for students communicating in the host language (Caruana and Ploner 2010). For example, in a study by Sovic (2009), most international students described anxiety and a lack of confidence in communicating with domestic students, which they found

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to make developing friendships more difficult. Even international students whose first language was the same as domestic students found it difficult to understand local colloquialisms and accents. In terms of using the local language to communicate, language classes can be an obvious benefit; however, conversation type partnering programs can also play a role in facilitating international students’ capacity to communicate with those from the host country. We highly recommend such programs not only to improve your English but to develop friendships. If students from different countries study together on your campus, before leaving the topic of integration, please complete Thought Box 5.6 with your reflections. Thought Box 5.6 Integration of domestic and international students Think about the practices of your institution in terms of integrating domestic and international students. What in your view is your institution doing right? How do you think your institution might improve? Are there ways you might suggest improvements? Please explain.

Culture-Related Clubs and Societies In assessing what is offered on your college or university campus that will support your intercultural development you might come across societies or clubs that are related to culture or you may not come across any societies or clubs of any kind. In some countries like the US and UK student clubs and societies are plentiful whereas in other countries such as Italy, they are virtually non-existent. Student clubs and societies provide forums through which students gather around particular topics or activities. For example, there might be the Asian Student Society or the Music Society, or Dance Group. Such groups are useful because they allow students to meet other students and to socialize around a topic of interest. While such student groups have a lot of positive aspects, they can however, either help or hinder your intercultural development depending upon how you participate in them. While you may remember this discussion from previous chapters, before we say more, complete Thought Box 5.7 to ponder this issue.

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Thought Box 5.7 Clubs and societies supporting or hindering IC How might a university club or society support the development of IC? How might one hinder IC development? Please provide examples if you can.

If you came up with some ideas in Thought Box 5.7 regarding how clubs and societies may help or hinder IC development, well done! If not, do not give up. The following provides some further food for thought. Clubs on Specific Cultures—Sometimes found on university or college campuses are clubs or societies that gather around a particular nationality (Japanese Student Club), ethnicity (Black Student Union), religion (Muslim Society), or gender orientation (LGBTQ). As would be expected, students who join these clubs tend to be from particular cultural groups. Such clubs and societies can be useful for students who are new to university life and want to make friends with like-minded people. As we have noted previously, it is useful and comforting to make friends with people who are like you and you should do it. However, the problem with such student groups, is that if you stay within them too much, you can lose opportunities to get to know students from outside your cultural enclave and thus diminish your chances of developing higher levels of IC. Research indeed suggests that participation in certain types of societies is associated with lower levels of IC. For example, being a member of a fraternity or sorority has been shown to be associated with lower levels of IC because such memberships have the potential to limit encounters with people from other cultures (Pascarella et al. 2009; Whitt et al. 2001). Similarly, student groups focused on particular ethnicities or nationalities may also serve to hinder IC development (Sidanius et al. 2004). Thus, while such student groups can be good for you, you must be aware of how they can limit development and not spend all your time immersed in mono-cultural groups in particular. Reflect on this for a minute using Thought Box 5.8. Thought Box 5.8 Expanding monocultural clubs and societies Think of a club or society that gathers around a particular ethnicity, nationality, religion, or any other cultural identity. How might such a club or society become more inclusive of those from other cultures?

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While there is no single right way to bring culture into the activities of a club or society, at least one way is to invite people from outside your typical group membership profile to join or at least visit the group. For instance, if you participate in the Italian Student Society, why not invite students from any country with an interest in Italy or Italian culture to join? International Student Clubs and Societies—Like groups that gather around specific cultural markers such as nationality or ethnicity, there are some student groups that are designed specifically for international students (e.g. groups for Erasmus exchange program students). These are useful again because participants can meet other international students and share their thoughts and feelings about studying in another country. They can further be useful for intercultural development because participants can meet and get to know international students from countries all over the world. Thus, they can usefully provide forums for intercultural development and may sound ideal in some ways. However, they may also limit IC development in other ways. Please reflect on this in Thought Box 5.9. Thought Box 5.9 International student societies How might international student societies limit the IC development of domestic and international students?

If you have not already worked it out for yourself, the issue with international student groups is that typically they exclude students from the host culture, and this can create international enclaves. For example, in the case of some international students involved in Erasmus, the most popular European student exchange program, research has found that often their contact with domestic students is limited and they become what Rose-Redwood and Rose-Redwood (2013) call “exclusive global mixers”. Exclusive global mixers behave the same way as any students who self-segregate with the difference being that they socialize mainly with other Erasmus students, excluding local students from their social networks (Rose-Redwood and Rose-Redwood 2013). The practice of “mixing” only with other international students in the context of this exchange program is often referred to as the “Erasmus bubble” (e.g., see Papatsiba 2006; Whittaker 2011). That said, this concept of a “cultural bubble” can be applied to any student group: domestic, Erasmus or international student groups. The following provides a quote from an international student. While we cannot assume too much from the quote, it would seem as if this student might think she is very intercultural, yet she probably does not see that she is likely excluding domestic students.

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‘In choosing to live between two groups, one group of just girls from England except for me, and another group with more cultural diversity. I decide to choose the more diverse group. I am more comfortable in a more international environment. I would prefer to interact with people from different countries rather than just one. I am much more comfortable with internationals, being an international student myself’—international student (Lantz 2014)

One way to help bridge the potential gap between domestic and international students and to make international student clubs and societies more diverse is by inviting students from the host culture to join the group and share cultural perspectives from the host culture. Alternatively, a change in focus for the club as discussed in the next bullet point provides another idea. Culture Clubs and Societies—While student clubs and societies are often based around a nationality, ethnicity, or the fact that students are from abroad, occasionally, you find clubs that are based around the concept of culture. The Culture Society, for example, was founded by students at the University of York in the UK as an alternative to the International Student Society. It was formed as an alternative to avoid excluding domestic students and to encourage the sharing of culture regardless of nationality, ethnicity, religion and so on. Such student groups can be incredibly useful for more than simply sharing culture, if they aim also to facilitate the development of intercultural competence. Student clubs and societies can be a useful way to enhance your IC particularly if they are focused around topics related to cultural sharing such as a general culture club or a language conversation group. They can also, potentially, limit your IC development. It depends really on the extent to which you share cultural similarities with those in your club or society. Is everyone within the club or society similar or is there a lot of diversity? Are there particular types of people that your club or society excludes? If so, why? Are there ways they might be included? Thus, you need to think carefully about the clubs that you join because they will partially dictate who you are spending your time with and the extent to which your IC may or may not develop.

Intercultural Courses/Training for Students Internationalization efforts can be reflected in the availability of intercultural training and IC courses. Such training and courses are occasionally offered but are not widely available around the world. Some institutions offer short training courses as a part of optional certifications or other informal training. For example, in the UK there has been some piloting of cultural certification programs offered at a limited number of UK universities (Stout et al. 2011). While outcomes have not been recorded, one problem with such schemes is that they are not always focused upon intercultural activities. For instance, some focus upon rewarding second language acquisition or participation in workshops focusing upon global issues. So, while such programs may be useful, they do not always focus on the topic at hand, specifically, IC development. More formally, some institutions offer actual credit bearing courses or modules related to intercultural competence which we view as a further step in the right

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direction. Unfortunately, these are often limited by the fact that they are only available to students on particular programs of study as opposed to being available to all students. Additionally, they are typically optional or elective so while a few interested students will take them, most students (and, probably, those who would benefit from them the most) do not. There are some examples of courses or modules that are more widely available. For instance, one of your co-authors (Golubeva) developed a general semester-long course entitled “Intercultural Communication for International Mobility” which was offered as a 3–credit course to students from various B.A., M.A. and Ph.D. programs at her former institution, the University of Pannonia in Veszprem (Hungary) (see for details Golubeva 2017). We believe that courses such as this are a step in the right direction. However, we would like to see IC courses that are not only available to all students but are required for all students as part of a core curriculum. In this way, IC would become mainstreamed with every student gaining some understanding of the issues surrounding IC. Before moving on from this topic, please complete Thought Box 5.10. Thought Box 5.10 IC training and courses What training or courses does your institution offer right now related to IC? What might you do to take advantage of what is offered or attempt to influence what is offered?

Training for Staff/Intercultural Courses In university settings, lecturers are typically highly educated people and are often revered by students. Certainly, in some cultures, questioning the knowledge or practices of lecturers is not considered appropriate. In other cultures, however, questioning lecturers is more the norm. The National Student Survey (NSS 2019) in the UK gathers student opinions of their universities and lecturers. Published annually, this survey rates institutions according to various practices such as supporting employability and teaching excellence. Someday we would hope such a survey would evaluate the practices of institutions in relation to promoting intercultural competence. Even though most lecturers are highly educated specialists in their fields, this does not automatically confer intercultural competence. Lecturers are human and come with their own sets of experiences which may or may not include experience with

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domestic or international diversity. Some may be highly interculturally competent; however, others may not be. The following examples came from real student feedback regarding their experiences of how they saw their lecturers at times demonstrating insensitivity to cultural difference. ‘I remember there was this one lecture about how this psychologist says there is no life after now…I felt quite defensive because my belief is that there is life after this life… but it was just the way he put it, it was like as if ‘if you believe there is life after this, you are deluded’—UK university student—(Lantz-Deaton 2014). ‘One lecturer, when getting feedback from group work, always refers to the group as X’s group where X is always a white person, often the only white person in the group. I doubt it’s intentional, but it sends a subconscious message about who is ‘in charge’ in a multi-ethnic group.’—Unpublished data from a UK Student Survey

Intercultural incompetence is not limited to students and lecturing staff; administrative and other staff can, at times, behave in culturally insensitive ways with or without realizing it. Before discussing this further, reflect on your experiences with this in Thought Box 5.11. Thought Box 5.11 Cultural sensitivity of staff Can you think of a time or give an example of when you noticed a university staff member demonstrating intercultural competence? How about a lack of intercultural competence? If so, please explain.

Institutions that are forward thinking recognize that even highly educated staff members can often use more training when it comes to intercultural competence. An interesting initiative that focused more upon staff is described in Golubeva (2020) and involves an intercultural training activity. The activity involved the adoption of a dialogic practice, or intercultural dialogue approach as it is referred to by some (Council of Europe 2008; Lundgren et al. 2020), in order to help faculty, staff, and university administration to engage in internationalization. Intercultural dialogue is an exchange of views between individuals or groups from different ethnic, cultural, religious and linguistic backgrounds that is conducted openly and respectfully (Council of Europe 2008, Section 1.4, 22). This approach advocates for a

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paradigm shift in understanding the purpose of INZ, from instrumental, or profitoriented (e.g., increasing numbers of international students, who pay higher tuition fees than local students, etc.) to more of an educational agenda (e.g., increasing and valuing cultural diversity, developing IC, etc.). Such a paradigm shift would demand a change in mentality of university administration, faculty and staff, and a change in their approach to internationalization. This paper (Golubeva 2020) suggests a list of recommended initiatives, summarized in Box 5.3 which we encourage you to read and reflect upon in relation to your institution. Box 5.3 Recommendations for enhancing faculty, staff, university leadership engagement in internationalization ● Intercultural training or courses are not only for international and study abroad students, ALL members of the university community, including domestic students, faculty and administrative staff, should be provided with intercultural training in a systematic way.

● INZ principles and practices should be explicitly formulated in university mission statements and policy documents.

● INZ should be evaluated not solely through the numbers of international and study abroad students, etc., but through the prism of the intercultural dialogue approach, i.e. (1) does INZ contribute to the integration of culturally diverse students at your institution? (2) does it foster equality, human dignity and a sense of common purpose? (3) does it aim to develop a deeper understanding of diverse worldviews and practices? (4) does it aim to increase co-operation and participation? (5) does it contribute to personal growth and transformation? (6) does it promote tolerance and respect for the other? (adapted from Council of Europe, 2008).

● Institutions should provide not only training, but additional funds and time

allocation for those who are actively involved in the process of internationalization.

● Faculty, staff and university leadership should be involved in constant dialogue, regularly exchange ideas, discuss problems and look for solutions based upon mutual consensus. An atmosphere of support on the part of university leadership should be established.

● Intercultural sensitivity and cultural awareness of faculty and staff should be raised, intercultural dialogue should be fostered and the willingness to embrace an international mindset should be promoted.

● INZ cannot be a goal on its own; its final aim should be creating shared knowledge for common good; it should become an integral part of institutional culture.

Adapted from Golubeva (2020, p. 189)

If you have read Box 5.3 and feel that these recommendations are not followed at your institution, think about how you might make your lecturers, faculty, staff, and leadership aware of them. This section broached some key activity areas under the rubric of internationalization. In the next section we will discuss more specifically developing your IC through

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participating in these and other activities. However, now we turn to look more closely at equality, diversity and inclusion initiatives and how they have common, although often unrecognized, synergies with internationalization.

Equality, Diversity, and Inclusion: How Are Universities Ensuring Equality and Inclusion and Promoting Diversity? Although the terms Equality, Diversity, and Inclusion and its associated acronym EDI are used in some countries, it is important to note that slightly different terminology is used in others. In the United States, for example, Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion or DEI is more commonly used. What is more important, however, is to understand the meaning behind the terms. According to the Equality and Human Rights Commission, equality means that every person should have an equal opportunity to make the most of their lives and talents and that one person should not have an advantage over another “because of the way they were born, where they are from, what they believe, or whether they have a disability” (2018). Chapter 3 discussed extensively the various ways in which the world has not had equality as evidenced by the myriad of examples of people being discriminated against now and in the past. Although, equity is often used synonymously with equality, some suggest a difference in approach, (i.e., equality emphasizes treating people similarly, whereas equity is more about providing people with what they need). Dictionaries commonly define diversity as the state of being diverse (e.g., Merriam-Webster 1987). Diversity can be defined in terms of narrow categorical differences (e.g. age, race, sexual orientation), broader categorical differences (e.g., lifestyle, religious affiliation, occupation) or still broader conceptual rules (e.g., it includes all characteristics and experiences that define each of us as individuals) (Mor Barak 2014). In the context of EDI, however, it suggests that we not simply recognize and tolerate differences, but that we appreciate and even cultivate diversity. This requires us to recognize and accept those that are different from ourselves, to support the development of diverse communities and workplaces, to fight discrimination, and to promote equality. Inclusion is defined as the act of inclusion or the state of being included within a group or structure (Merriam-Webster 1987). As discussed previously, discrimination typically involves exclusion of those who are different from ourselves. Thus, inclusion in the context of EDI would suggest that we actively strive to include those who are different in order to recognize and accept diversity and promote equality. Thus, these key terms are intimately related. Offices of Equality, Diversity, and Inclusion (EDI) typically exist to address issues of unfairness within domestic populations and so have a very different remit from INZ offices. Sometimes there is only a person in charge of diversity initiatives although it should be noted that in some countries such offices are non-existent. Those with

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roles related to EDI typically focus upon addressing inequalities in relation to characteristics of their own citizens such as gender, race, ethnicity, disability, and age. As such, they often focus upon issues related to inequalities such as the gender pay gap and investigating unfair hiring practices. However, they can also address issues raised by students. For instance, one student noted the following on their end of term evaluation. ‘I have been quite shocked throughout the course about the diversity of our lecturing staff, particularly as we are in [a highly diverse area]! All of the staff are white. They are about 50% male which suggests a preference to employing male lecturers, as only about 10% of people who work in this field are male. I appreciate this is a global problem in academia, but I thought at least in [this city] the entire lecturing team wouldn’t be white!’—Unpublished data from a UK Student Survey.

Concerns such as this reflect the disproportionate number of people from particular demographics being hired into certain roles which do not reflect the demographics of the people that they serve. This is a widespread issue in higher education around the world. While we have quoted statistics in the US and UK in other chapters, in Greece, across lecturing roles in social sciences, business and law, women are underrepresented making up just 25.1% of lecturers while men make up 74.9% (Giannoula 2014). When you factor in other characteristics such as ethnic minority status, representation drops even further. For example, in South Africa 14% of the academic staff are black African women (Breetzke and Hedding 2018) although they make up 50.72% of the population (World Population Review 2019). Underrepresentation such as this is a widespread issue and is not only in higher education. Underrepresentation is something an office of EDI would address by exploring ways to get a more diverse pool of applicants and by ensuring that interviewing and selection procedures are fair to those from a variety of backgrounds. EDI initiatives operate in other ways as well. For instance, at the University of Bradford in the UK, the university operates committees such as the Gender Staff Forum, n-Able (a network for promoting Disability Equality), and the Race Equality Staff Forum. These committees examine unfair practices and champion causes related to these groups within the university. They might examine racial complaints within the university, lobby the university to address issues such as the gender pay gap, or advocate to ensure that public areas are more accessible to students and staff with disabilities that impact mobility (University of Bradford 2019). Offices of EDI or individuals with roles related to EDI may also be involved with promoting and celebrating diversity. At the University of Chester in the UK, for example, an annual Diversity Festival offers a variety of events related to EDI (University of Chester 2019). Their 2019 event, for example included a talk by Juliette Burton, an award-winning comedian and writer who suffers from manic depression and other disorders. Burton, an ambassador for Rethink Mental Illness,

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talked about ways to destigmatize mental illness. Often people do not think of having a mental illness as an aspect of diversity that could lead to stereotyping, prejudice and discrimination, but it is. Another mental health related session involved a discussion on overcoming barriers and stereotypes around autism. Other sessions focused more on gender issues with a talk by the internationally renowned feminist Laura Bates, author of the bestselling books Everyday Sexism (2014) and Girl Up (2016). Occasionally, EDI initiatives foster work in relation to the development of IC. These might be found as direct initiatives such as providing staff training on IC or they might be offered elsewhere. For instance, one of your co-authors (Lantz-Deaton) recently offered a two-hour session on IC development during a Diversity Festival event at the University of Bradford. IC related training can also be more indirect. Indirectly, EDI initiatives can help people to understand the unfair treatment of different groups which forms an essential part of intercultural competence. Indirect methods might include, for instance, unconscious bias training aimed at helping individuals to understand the concept and to recognize the ways in which it may impact upon their behavior towards others. While the raising of awareness in relation to inequalities and training which addresses aspects of IC such as unconscious bias is helpful, there is often room for improvement in making more direct links between these activities and IC. Before going on to the next section, take a minute to do a little investigating online or in person to find out more about your college or universities EDI practices in relation to intercultural competence. Use Thought Box 5.12 to record your findings. Thought Box 5.12 Equality, diversity, and inclusion at your institution What does your college or university do to support EDI initiatives? Is there evidence to show that IC development is specifically supported as part of an EDI initiative? If so, how is it supported?

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The Same or Different: What Are the Synergies Between Equality, Diversity, and Inclusion and Internationalization? As alluded to earlier, although EDI and INZ are often considered separate initiatives within institutions, there are definite synergies between the two. They both are highly related to IC because in the presence of diversity, be it domestic or international, the issues are very similar, identifying and breaking down barriers between people who are different from one another, reducing stereotypes and prejudices and building positive and constructive relationships (Eade and Peacock 2009). That said, we do not wish to minimize the differences between the two, because there are indeed differences. EDI tends to focus on addressing inequalities found between mainstream and minority groups where power and privilege is often centered with the majority and there is a long history of problematic relationships and oppression in some cases. Internationalization, while still involving power and privilege, involves a different relationship dynamic. There may not be much, if any history influencing relationships. In addition, power and privilege may at times be centered with international students and at times with domestic students. Despite these differences, we believe that colleges and universities would do well to find the synergies between EDI and IZN and pursue the development of IC under the auspices of both. In 2010, Internationalisation and equality and diversity in higher education: merging identities was published by the Equality Challenge Unit (Caruana and Ploner 2010). In it, the EDI and INZ practices of six universities in Australia and the UK were examined to better understand how these two facets of work might be brought together. Students who participated in this project viewed one of the major challenges to be, as we do, “breaking down barriers to facilitate the free exchange of ideas, different world views, etc., to counter the stereotyped images so frequently portrayed by the global media.” (ibid., p. 96). Overall, the publication suggests that there are no easy answers. Certainly, part of any emerging strategy inevitably must involve consideration of different contextual factors; however, some suggestions they make for good practice for institutions include the following (ibid., p. 92): • EDI awareness and training regarding interacting with people from different cultures for all staff and students, both domestic and international; • Early preparation workshops and bridging courses possibly for all students; • Peer mentoring and orientation programs which involve domestic and international students; • Collaborations between students and university administration to organize social events and celebrations of international as well as domestic religious and cultural festivals; • University-wide schemes to promote broader perspectives and reward achievement in relation to cultural activities (e.g., Global Citizens’ Award); • Promoting research among staff and students in relation to EDI and internationalization.

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Off Campus: What Are the Opportunities? Beyond your university campus, there could well be a wide variety of opportunities to expand your experience with people who are culturally different from you. If you are a domestic student, it could be argued that in some ways it may be more important to engage with diversity in your local community as you can help to enhance intercultural relationships and to address inequalities right where you live. The possibilities in this regard are virtually endless. For example, you might volunteer at a refugee center where you might be able to work directly with refugees from different countries thus increasing your exposure and experience with those from other cultures who have been displaced. Less obvious—but still opportunities to engage with people who are culturally different from you—could include volunteering in a mental health facility, a school for the deaf or hard of hearing, a disability day facility, a nursing or care home for the elderly, a domestic violence service, or a homeless shelter. These establishments all cater to people who represent different aspects of diversity although they may not automatically come to mind when thinking about diversity. With the different kinds of experiences these characteristics represent, cultural distance (as discussed in Chap. 4) may vary with some providing greater distance and more learning opportunities than others; but still all will provide some learning experiences that can support IC development. While the paragraph above gives you some ideas of where you might locate diversity in your local community, there are still other programs that you might volunteer for that could boost your experience with cultural difference. For example, in the US, Big Brothers and Big Sisters (BBBS) of American operate a not for profit organization that matches children and youth from at risk backgrounds with adults who provide mentoring for them (https://www.bbbs.org/). Not only could such a program provide you with invaluable intercultural experience, but research has shown a variety of benefits to young people who have participated in BBBS. A study (Grossman et al. 2000) comparing young people who were participating in mentoring with those who had yet to be matched to a mentor had a variety of significant findings. For instance, 46% were less likely to start using drugs and nearly one-third were less likely to hit someone compared to their peers. Thus, participating in such programs are not just good for your intercultural competence but beneficial to individuals and communities and promote fairer and more just societies.

Other Possibilities: How Else Might Intercultural Competence Be Developed? The very best way to develop IC is to practice it, which is what we have been advocating throughout this book. There are other strategies that can contribute to your IC development. One—if you can afford it—is to travel. In the UK, for example, often students take a gap year before, during or after their university studies to either

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work or travel abroad. If you have read this far in the book, you probably already know what we are going to suggest to you, so that you get the most out of travel experiences in terms of developing intercultural competence: spend time with and get to know local people. Another way to develop your IC is to expose yourself to cultural difference through media. Reading books by foreign authors and seeing foreign films are two ways that you can do this. Recall that you can engage with media in ways that both increase your chances of stereotyping as well as decreasing the tendency. As we mentioned in Chap. 2, for instance, a study of award-winning children’s books found that there were almost twice as many male as female main characters. In addition, female characters were more nurturing than male main characters and their occupations were gender stereotyped, with women more so than men appearing not to be in paid employment (Hamilton et al. 2006). One way to change your stereotypes is to read books that combat stereotypes by focusing on characters that are portrayed in non-stereotypical ways. There is an increasing selection of books today that do just that. For instance, the Pippi Longstocking series (e.g., Lindgren 2008), portrays a confident young girl who does not conform typical societal norms. Movies, like books, provide another means to expose yourself to cultural difference and break down stereotypes. Take a moment to reflect on this in Thought Box 5.13. Thought Box 5.13 Breaking down stereotypes through the media Think of a couple of books you have read lately or a couple of films you have seen. What stereotypes do they promote? What stereotypes do they combat? How do you know? Do the films you watch and the books you read help you to get to know main characters from other cultures as real people?

Learning a Foreign Language: How Can It Help? In this section we would like to briefly discuss the importance of learning to speak foreign languages. Before we move into this discussion, please ponder the questions in Thought Box 5.14.

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Thought Box 5.14 Speaking foreign languages How many languages do you speak? What is your first language (perhaps you have more than one)? Have you ever studied another language? If not, do you have plans to do so? What is your main motivation to study another language?

People study foreign languages for a variety of reasons. One reason is that when you study a foreign language, it can help you to better understand individuals in those cultures. The relationships between culture and language, in general, and cultural learning and language learning, in particular, has been studied by various disciplines (Anthropology, Language Pedagogy, Applied Linguistics, Pragmatics, Sociolinguistics, to name just a few). Language is thought to be a “guide to social reality” (Sapir 1949, p. 68), or as Kramsch (1998) argues, language not only expresses and embodies culture, but also symbolizes cultural reality. People get to know one another and understand another person’s attitudes, behaviors, values, beliefs, worldviews, customs, traditions, lifestyles, arts, music, and achievements mainly through language (Byram et al. 2002). Studies in Psychology, Second Language Acquisition and Foreign Language Teaching show further benefits of learning new languages. For example, achievement in other disciplines, analytical and problem-solving skills, creativity, memory, and even knowledge of your own language all improve (see e.g. Shoghi Jovan and Ghonsooly 2018; Stewart 2005; and so on). Further, extensive research has been conducted in regard to the impact of foreign language learning on delaying such cognitive impairments as dementia and Alzheimer’s disease (see e.g. Klimova et al. 2017; Wong et al. 2019; Woumans et al. 2015). Some of the above-mentioned effects of foreign language learning can considerably improve your employability and your general wellbeing, while others are more directly related to intercultural competence. Speaking foreign languages can increase your success in the job market with some suggesting that speaking foreign languages can add 10–15% more to your earnings (Hazelhurst 2010). While fluency in languages is required in some jobs, even in jobs that do not demand it, having lower level or soft skills in speaking other languages can pay dividends in maintaining relationships with clients and co-workers. Take a moment to read the experience of one US manager in Box 5.4.

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Box 5.4 Soft skills in foreign language speaking Working as a manager at a large grocery chain, I found myself working amidst a lot of diversity. In particular, I worked with a lot of peers from El Salvador. At times communication could be difficult considering the language barrier. Both parties would frequently have small misunderstandings. I felt that I needed to at least achieve a base understanding of the Spanish language. I’d often learn key phrases that allowed me to ask for specific departmental tasks to be completed as well as common conversational Spanish. It helped me find common ground and communicate with greater ease. Most of all, the process was fun, especially while being able to learn directly from my own employees.—Julian Deaton

As the example in Box 5.4 suggests, trying to learn the language of someone you are working with is evidence of intercultural competence as it can help to facilitate positive relationships. Thus, even if you are not leaving your home country, chances are good there are people around you whose first language is different from your own. Learning at least something about these other languages can be helpful to you in multiple ways. In the context of study abroad, foreign language learning can be crucial. Language barriers have a definite impact on students’ academic and personal experiences. When you arrive in a new country, you may be challenged by various stressors, such as new cultural norms and cues, unfamiliar environments, different systems of transportation and infrastructure, new academic systems, loneliness and homesickness, and financial issues (a lack of resources, new currency, unusual prices). From this list, language barriers tend to appear at the top (Mori 2000). Many international students report having issues with oral communication and listening comprehension (and their professors confirm this problem), not to mention the struggles with meeting the requirements of academic writing style (Yan and Berliner 2009; Sawir et al. 2012). For example, Chinese students feel that Americans speak too fast (Ruble and Zhang 2013). Also, students often experience prejudice and discrimination because of their accents or appearance or are otherwise perceived negatively by representatives of the host culture (Golubeva under review).That said, improving your skills in speaking the local language (and of the language of instruction if the two differ), is important not only for ensuring your academic success, but also for gaining a better understanding of the local culture, for improving your well-being and giving you sense of (mental) comfort during your stay abroad. Even if you study in the country where the language of instruction is English, do not neglect studying the local language as others will expect that you try. Illustrating this point is the quotation below which discusses an international student studying in a foreign country where the instruction language is English, but the local language is not. ‘He [an international student] would find it rude that they [domestic students] would just be speaking in the national language all the time whereas we would see it as ‘well you’re in

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South America, you should be learning the language’… And then he would just see it as everyone else not making an effort which is quite bad…’—(Lantz 2014, p. 197)

While making an effort to speak the local language is important because locals will expect it of you, it is also important to be aware that speaking another language within that culture that is not the norm can make people feel uncomfortable. Take a minute to reflect on a quote from a student in the Thought Box 5.15. Thought Box 5.15 Using other languages ‘In a tutorial two Chinese classmates began speaking together in their native language. I found this very uncomfortable because I had no idea if the conversation was about work or people in the room.’ (Lantz 2014, p. 208) The above quote from a domestic student reflects how students might feel awkward when languages they do not understand are being spoken. What do you think might be done here to make the situation more comfortable for everyone?

The example in Thought Box 5.15 presents just one perspective on how a student might feel when others around are speaking another language. If your first language is not the language of the dominant culture, sometimes you may need to speak in your first language and this example is not intended to imply that you must always use the dominant language. However, it does suggest that you be aware of those around you and how your use of language might make them feel. Of course, speaking the dominant language could be helpful, however, if you need to speak in another language, you might for instance tell those around you what you are talking about or that you are going to have to use your first language for a while. This will help to put them at ease.

Intercultural (Global) Citizenship and Education for Democratic Citizenship: How Are They Related to Intercultural Competence? This book is focused upon developing intercultural competence in students. However, another term which we view as important to address in this chapter is intercultural citizenship. The term “intercultural citizenship”, has been discussed in the literature (Byram 2008; Byram and Golubeva 2020; Byram et al. 2017), and you may have heard it used in some university mission statements and in the media. Another term “global citizenship”, is often used interchangeable with “intercultural citizenship” (see for example Golubeva et al. 2017).

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Intercultural citizenship is a broader term which implies not just intercultural competence but also a level of societal engagement. We make the distinction between the concepts here because of the initiatives across Europe (Council of Europe 2018) to develop competencies for democratic citizenship and because it demonstrates how IC fits into the larger picture of what we believe colleges and universities might do in the future to support students. The field of education for democratic citizenship or citizenship education represents yet another disciplinary area which incorporates the study of IC and which advocates for a focus on teaching students of all ages how to become participating members of democratic societies (Council of Europe 2013). Before we move on with discussing intercultural (or global) citizenship, please take a moment to answer a few questions in Thought Box 5.16. If you are not sure how to define this term, do not worry; just do the best you can to answer the questions based on what you do know. Thought Box 5.16 Seeing yourself as a citizen 1. What does the word citizenship mean to you?

2. What does being an intercultural (or global) citizen mean to you?

3. What do you do as a citizen ·

at the local level?

·

at the regional level?

·

at the national level?

·

at the international level?

·

in the digital world (virtual profile, online communities, online gaming, social networking, etc.)?

Adapted from Council of Europe (forthcoming)

Becoming interculturally competent involves developing a variety of skills, knowledge and attitudes as we have described. Being an intercultural citizen involves not

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only developing these competences but taking a step beyond to apply that to taking responsibility for being involved in life locally, nationally, and globally. In other words, intercultural citizenship is viewed as active citizenship which implies (1) a willingness of individuals to engage in a meaningful collaboration with people from diverse backgrounds; (2) a willingness to confront prejudice and intolerance; (3) a willingness to stand up for those who are disempowered, disadvantaged and discriminated against; and (4) a willingness to take a critical civic and/or political action for the greater good (based on Barrett in Foreword to Byram et al. 2017, p. viii). According to Byram (2008), Becoming an intercultural citizen involves change […] in self-perception and understanding of one’s relationships to others in other social groups. Where a particular emphasis is placed on learning to be a democratic citizen, the educational purpose is to enable individuals to recognize the particularity of all groups and their cultures, whilst seeing them in the context of universal human values and aspirations. (2008: 187).

The above quote suggests that intercultural citizenship is not only active but also democratic citizenship. The Council of Europe (2018) has developed a model and reference framework of competences for democratic culture (CDC), which can serve as a model for intercultural citizenship education. It is based upon the consensus of an international group of experts who identified 20 components (or, as they called them,

Fig. 5.1 Competences for Democratic Culture. Source Council of Europe (2018): Volume 1, p. 38. Reproduced with permission

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competences) (see Fig. 5.1) that an interculturally competent democratic citizen works to develop. The CDC model includes four dimensions: values, attitudes, skills, and knowledge and critical understanding (see Fig. 5.1). As you can see, it embraces many elements of intercultural competence and suggests additional competences that are needed within the context of democratic cultures and intercultural dialogue. After reviewing the CDC model (Fig. 5.1) take a few minutes to answer the questions in Thought Box 5.17. Thought Box 5.17 Competencies for intercultural citizenship After reviewing the CDC model (Figure 5.1), what do you see as the main differences between CDC and other models of intercultural competence we have reviewed so far in this book?

Ideally, education for intercultural citizenship combines ‘activity in the here and now’ with ‘criticality’ and ‘internationalism’ (Byram et al. 2017, xxiii). In practice, it would mean, for example, an international collaborative project among students such as described in Porto and Yulita (2017). They engaged their Argentinean learners of English and British learners of Spanish with an international project on a particularly sensitive topic—the Malvinas/Falklands war between Argentina and the United Kingdom. The students who participated in the collaboration managed to move beyond their national perspectives and adopted more of an international perspective and became more interested in taking action within their own communities (Byram et al. 2017, xxii). As a result of this collaboration, students participated in various civic actions, such as sharing video and photo material online and teaching classes on the war at a local language school (see for more details Porto and Yulita 2017). During this joint project students’ intercultural citizenship was fostered through a critical questioning of assumptions about the other country involved in the war and through becoming aware about the other side’s beliefs, values and motivations. Generally, as in the case of developing intercultural leadership, addressed in Chap. 8, in intercultural citizenship education more salience is given to moral principles and to emphasizing morally responsible behavior. Any type of collaboration across national borders—be that formal or informal—that promotes mutual understanding, solidarity, peace, equality, freedom, human rights and democracy (Byram and Golubeva 2020, referring to Byram 2018), will foster the development of intercultural citizenship values, attitudes, skills, knowledge and critical understanding.

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If you are curious about this topic, we encourage you to explore this further by turning to Appendix C at the back of this book to self-assess your competences for intercultural democratic citizenship. One of the objectives of this chapter was to help you think about diversity at your college or university both in international and domestic terms. Although IZN and EDI initiatives often operate in different spheres, they are clearly related at least when we are highlighting the need to develop intercultural competence. Further, we have attempted to give you a general overview of intercultural (global) citizenship education and help you to understand how it relates to intercultural competence. In this chapter, we also aimed to give you an idea of the types of opportunities that might be available to you at your college or university in terms of the makeup of the student body as a means to providing opportunities for you to get to know people from other cultures. We further included ideas for enhancing your IC through such activities as study abroad, training opportunities, diversity festivals, and other activities in which you might become involved. We have also included ideas regarding what might be available in your local community. Whatever is available within or outside of your institution, we recommend that you get involved as much as you can. We have also encouraged you to think critically about how your institution approaches internationalization (including IaH) and equality, diversity, and inclusion by discussing good practices in relation to both. As we have said, what is on offer will vary quite widely based on your institution. Some institutions your co-authors have visited do not have offices of INZ or EDI, so do not be surprized if yours does not either. That said, if you believe that practice in your institution can be improved upon in terms of supporting your IC development, consider ways that you might help to enhance what it offers. As a student, depending upon your institution, you may have greater or lesser levels of influence; but we believe that students everywhere can help to suggest and/or implement good practice. While getting your institution to develop a full-blown IC course or module might be beyond your circle of influence, suggesting it does not hurt. Further, you can suggest a certificate program, start an informal IC group or a culture club yourself, request that international and domestic students have the opportunity to live in mixed accommodation, or simply provide feedback to the university on feedback forms advising them of changes you would like to see. Some of these actions can be useful in terms of helping you to develop your IC but your involvement in them might also be something to add to your resume to enhance your employability. Starting a culture club, for example, shows initiative and leadership ability both of which employers will appreciate. Finally, we have explained intercultural (global) citizenship education as described by the Council of Europe which takes a broader and some might say more interactive approach to intercultural competence. The Competences for Democratic Culture ultimately should not be viewed as a rigid and/or “imposing” model. Instead, according to its authors, the CDC model can be implemented in a flexible way. Do not feel discouraged if after having completed your self-assessment in Appendix C, you realize that you have not mastered all the competences. Moreover, in real-life contexts, these competences are activated not all at one time but in clusters, and the combinations in such clusters will depend on the specific situation (Council of

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Europe forthcoming). For example, being an intercultural citizen in a situation like the COVID-19 pandemic requires a display of tolerance for ambiguity, flexibility and adaptability, cooperative skills, and responsibility. Or should you be in a position of making life-saving decisions during a pandemic like COVID-19 (e.g. who gets facemasks and ventilators, on which population do you test a new vaccine, or which patients get priority in the health care system), you will need competencies related to valuing human rights and dignity; valuing justice, fairness, and equality; and analytical and critical thinking skills, and responsibility. That said, if your goal is to become a truly intercultural citizen, be ready to constantly monitor the situation and adjust accordingly. In other words, the process of becoming an intercultural citizen is an ongoing dialogue with a “better self” about what is right and what is ethical.

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Chapter 6

What Are Critical Incidents and How Can We Get the Most Out of Them?

‘It is only in the eyes of another culture that foreign culture reveals itself fully and profoundly… A meaning only reveals its depths once it has encountered and come into contact with another, foreign meaning…’—M. M. Bakhtin (1986, p. 7)

This chapter introduces you to the concept of critical incidents and describes the ways in which they can be useful to your IC development. It provides a variety of example incidents and asks you to analyze these to identify how they are relevant to intercultural learning. Further, this chapter asks you to recall one of your own critical incidents and to reflect upon it to see what you can learn from it. Included are a variety of activities which will help you to develop reflective and critical thinking skills in order to put you in a better position to be able to analyze critical incidents going forward. Learning outcomes: By reading this chapter and completing the tasks you will be able to: • Identify the nature of critical incidents; • Explain the way in which critical incidents can be useful to you in developing IC; • Compare and contrast the way in which critical incidents can be construed as positive or negative and how both can lead to learning; • Analyze critical incidents to identify relevant learning; • Describe the common origins of intercultural misunderstandings; • Explain how you can use the reflective cycle to develop your IC; • Recognize the way in which intercultural mediators operate to help interpret intercultural situations; • Describe the key intercultural competencies involved in analyzing critical incidents. ‘I got a Summer School Scholarship in Germany. I am Syrian [woman, mother of two], therefore, getting a visa to participate at the summer school was extremely complicated. Organizers of the Summer School were very cooperative. They exerted © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 C. Lantz-Deaton and I. Golubeva, Intercultural Competence for College and University Students, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57446-8_6

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a lot of effort to facilitate my participation. After five months of corresponding with the German Embassy, I could get an appointment to get the visa. When I arrived in Germany, a professor, who organized the Summer School, came to greet me and he wanted to shake my hand, but I did not shake his hand because of my culture and religion. He and I were embarrassed. Before the end of the summer school, he was showing me a video about the venue. Then, he asked me if I shake hands with women. I said “Yes, but not with men” because of religious and cultural reasons. He knew that I got a Ph.D. scholarship in Hungary and he advised me to be careful about this situation because it might leave a bad impression about me.’ The experiences above and in the chapter below are a collection of intercultural encounters described by university and college students from different parts of the world. They represent what we refer to as critical incidents (CIs). Critical incidents have been used in intercultural training contexts for more than half a century, ever since Flanagan (1954) published a paper on the critical incident technique (CIT) in the Psychological Bulletin. Critical incidents can be defined as events which involve an interaction between people from different cultures and in which a misunderstanding or a conflict arises as a result of the cultural differences between the people interacting (Fowler and Blohm 2004, p. 58). The use of critical incidents has been regarded as a highly effective exploratory and investigative tool (see Butterfield et al. 2005), which can help you to increase your intercultural awareness and understanding of attitudes, values, expectations, behaviors, and communication norms of people from different cultural backgrounds. CIs can be either positive or negative. Negative CIs are those that describe occasions where interactions were ineffective and/or inappropriate. In these situations, at least one, but often both (!) parties demonstrate a lack of intercultural awareness, cultural knowledge, intercultural communicative skills and necessary attitudes. Such CIs can result in stress and unpleasantness. While often CIs are negative, alternatively, they can also be positive and describe pleasant experiences. Although a misunderstanding may occur during a positive critical incident, the outcome will be either beneficial for both parties or will at least bring more satisfaction from the encounter than perhaps anticipated. Positive and negative incidents will be discussed more in depth later in this chapter. Critical incidents are widely used in intercultural communication training programs, as well as in training professionals in ambulance, police, firefighting, and other services. However, in the field of intercultural communication, we apply a broader understanding of CIs, which does not necessarily involve highly traumatic emergency situations but simply intercultural learning situations. A critical incident can be as simple as a greeting that has made people feel uncomfortable, but through which we have the potential to learn. Most of us have had critical incidents within or outside of our college and university experiences. Critical incidents can occur whether you study at a university in your own country or abroad; whether you study at an elite university populated by students from affluent families or at an institution that draws from the wider population with students representing diverse backgrounds. Before we move on, please take a moment to reflect on incidents which you might describe as critical in your cultural learning using Thought Box 6.1.

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Thought Box 6.1 My critical incident Describe an intercultural encounter that you might define as a critical incident. Where did it happen? When did it happen? What was the context of the event? Who said what? How did you feel about it? Did you learn anything from the incident? If you feel that you cannot yet identify a CI to write about, keep reading and perhaps one will come to you as you learn more about CIs.

Critical Incidents: How Do I Identify Them? So, what is “critical” in such incidents from the perspective of communicating with people from different cultures? “Critical” should not be associated with a strong traumatic impact as in the case of emergency services, as mentioned earlier; however, the term clearly suggests that something very different from “normal” or something unexpected happens. Usually, the incident itself is not “critical”, but how people react or overreact, and interpret the significance of an incident is what makes it critical (see Tripp 1993). This is why very often CIs are descriptions of “commonplace” events, and according to Tripp, “These incidents appear to be ‘typical’ rather than ‘critical’ at first sight but are rendered critical through analysis.” (1993, pp. 24–25). We share Tripp’s view, who argues that CIs do not happen, but they “are produced by the way we look at a situation […]. To take something as a critical incident is a value judgement we make, and the basis of that judgement is the significance we attach to the meaning of the incident.” (1993, p. 8). Negative critical incidents usually arise when people bring different (cultural) contextual information into a conversation by, for example, following different rules of verbal and nonverbal communication. When peoples’ expectations of the communication differ, they may overreact to the situation or take offence creating a critical incident. For example, in the following scenario (see Box 6.1) a Chinese student may have overreacted when a domestic student asked her about her method of cooking.

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Box 6.1 A critical incident in student accommodation My most significant intercultural experience happened [on campus in student accommodation] during a talk between my housemate and me. He is always surprised by the way that I’m cooking, so he asked me few questions about the reason why I cooked in a different way as his. The differences between Chinese and British culture made me think, and honestly I found it difficult to explain when the person you were interacting with said something rude… (Lantz 2014) While the student above may have been overreacting, alternatively, perhaps the questions were phrased in way that the Chinese student found rude. It is difficult to tell; however, when people are questioned particularly using the word ‘why’ it often elicits a defensive reaction. ‘Why’ is provocative because it puts people on the defensive and requires them to justify themselves (Nevid 2015). Thus, this situation makes us aware of the need to be sensitive in asking questions about cultural differences. Like negative CIs, positive CIs can arise when people bring in different (cultural) contextual information into a conversation. However, rather than eliciting a negative reaction because of cultural differences, they elicit empathy or insight into cultural differences. That is to say, that it is very much up to you to turn a critical incident into a positive experience by interpreting it in helpful ways as the following CI demonstrates (see Box 6.2). Box 6.2 A critical incident comparing life experiences [My most significant experience happened when] talking to a friend from Singapore about their experience when conscripted into the police force. I didn’t realize how brutal and small you can be made to feel and the harsh reality that you are forced to live away from your family and have no contact with them… I often don’t realize how different others’ lives have been from my own.—UK student (Lantz 2014). In the following sections we will provide some insights and advice on how you can use critical incidents to help yourself to develop higher levels of intercultural competence.

Critical Incidents: How Can I Learn from Them? What role can critical incidents play in developing intercultural competence? The effect of using them as a tool very much depends on our attitudes and methods applied. On one hand, critical incidents can be invaluable for providing real-life

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material for analyzing intercultural contact; on the other hand, they may easily lead to creating or supporting generalizations and stereotypes creating barriers between you and others who are culturally different. For example, domestic and international students in one study (Lantz 2014) shared the following thoughts in relation to their experiences with each other on campus (see Box 6.3). Box 6.3 Critical incidents dividing students I’d probably say I was more reserved [now] in like making connections with people from other cultures…obviously it’s a lot harder than I anticipated…I would probably be more inclined to spend time with people from the same country…A lot of the time I feel like I’m in England but I’m surrounded by no one else from England…I’m like not prejudice but…—domestic student …I thought it would just be easy to come here and like ‘okay get to know the English culture and stuff’… it is quite hard to understand…because… they don’t really share much about themselves. It is very superficial. That’s really how I feel. I was just not expecting that… I get on better with the international students.—international student Yeah, but maybe because their lifestyles are different and they don’t go out as much as we do, maybe it is okay to be separate…because if they live differently to us, then maybe putting us together would cause more problems.—domestic student (Lantz 2014) The above examples suggest that students’ critical incidents led them to be more reserved with those from other cultures, to spend more time with people who are like themselves and to justify how maybe it is better to live in separate worlds from those who are culturally different. These are exactly the things we would hope students would not learn from critical incidents. As discussed in Chap. 3, the way to overcome stereotypes and prejudices is to expose yourself to people from those groups. Living separately only serves to reinforce stereotypes and increase the likelihood that prejudices will develop. Critical incidents can sometimes be stressful and even unpleasant, but—if duly reflected upon—they can improve your understanding of your own and other cultures. Before moving on, take a moment to reflect in Thought Box 6.2.

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Thought Box 6.2 Reinforcing the negative Describe a time when you had an intercultural experience which reinforced a stereotype or made you feel more divided from people from another culture. What happened? Who was involved? Can you think of another way to interpret the situation that would help to you improve the situation should it occur again?

It is important to understand, that critical incidents hold a certain danger of oversimplifying other cultures and generalizing our experiences, as discussed in Chap. 2. However, generalizations can be viewed as a beneficial process of learning, as well. When we learn some information from a specific critical incident, it can help us to predict and respond to similar critical incidents in the future. In the following section we will explain, how you can learn from your critical incidents. Below we describe how you can suspend your judgement in valuing an interaction with a person from another culture, and at what stage you can derive some general conclusions about what you have experienced and learned. Critical incidents were first used for developing cross-cultural competence, explained in Chap. 5, in the 1960s by Triandis (1995). Since then, various collections of critical incidents have been developed which are used in intercultural training in different contexts (Tripp 1993—in teaching; Gibson 2002—in intercultural business communication, etc.) So, how can you use CIs for intercultural learning and self-development? The key to making use of critical incidents is reflection, which we have been asking you to do throughout this book using Thought Boxes. Boyd and Fales (1983, p. 99) defined reflective learning as “the process of internally examining and exploring an issue of concern, triggered by an experience, which creates and clarifies meaning in terms of self, and which results in a changed conceptual perspective.” We recommend using Gibbs’ Reflective Cycle (1988) as a methodology for working through your critical incidents. Gibbs’ cycle can help you to understand how to reflect upon critical incidents to develop your intercultural competence. You can use it on your own, without a lecturer’s or instructor’s assistance. Or, you can find a friend or someone close to you with whom you can discuss your “Aha!” moments after you have completed your self-reflection(s). According to Gibbs, in the process of experiential learning, “It is not enough just to do, and neither is it enough just to think. Nor is it enough simply to do and think. Learning from experience must involve links between the doing and the thinking.” (Gibbs 2013, p. 14). The Gibbs cycle consists of seven stages that follow an initial

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IniƟal experience Personal AcƟon Plan

DescripƟon

Specific Conclusions

Feelings/ ReacƟon

General Conclusions

EvaluaƟon

Analysis

Fig. 6.1 Gibbs’ reflective cycle. (Adapted from Gibbs (1988) with permission. The Gibbs eBook is available to download from the Oxford Centre for Staff and Learning Development, Oxford Brookes University at http://www.brookes.ac.uk/ocsld/publications/)

critical incident including: (1) description, (2) feelings/reactions, (3) evaluation, (4) analysis, (5) conclusions (general), (6) conclusions (specific) and (7) action plan (see Fig. 6.1). Gibbs’ stages help to structure the process of understanding and processing critical incidents. According to Gibbs, it is important to follow the sequence of the stages. Table 6.1 outlines the questions to be answered at each stage along with learning outcomes.

Sample Analysis of a Critical Incident Now that you have seen what is required to deeply reflect upon a CI, in this section we illustrate how to reflect by providing a couple of examples using Gibbs’ model. As we mentioned in the previous section, it is important to follow the sequence and the guidelines in order to get the most out of your CI. Please review Tables 6.2, 6.3, and 6.4.

Questions to be answered

What happened in this CI? (Please, do not interpret, evaluate, or make judgements at this stage, just simply describe the incident)

What were your feelings during the CI? What were you thinking? What was your reaction? (Again, please, just simply describe, do not analyze the CI yet)

What was good/bad/disappointing/frustrating/thought-provoking about this experience? (At this stage you are invited to make judgements and evaluate)

Why have you chosen this particular CI for reflection and analysis? What is the broader context of this CI, if any? Is anything going on in the society where you experienced this CI? What would be the outcomes of alternative actions for others/myself? Do you think there are others who experienced a similar CI? Do you think they felt and reacted the same way as you did? Why or why not? How do you feel now about this experience? Why? Has anything changed? What sense can you make of the experience? Try to relate it to your process of intercultural learning

Stage

Description

Feelings/reactions

Evaluation

Analysis

Table 6.1 Learning from critical incidents

(continued)

You will develop your self-reflective skills; You will develop your critical thinking skills; You will learn to recognize the complexity of an intercultural encounter and explain the variety of alternative outcomes of a specific critical incident; This stage will contribute to making a routine for you to analyze an intercultural encounter in an accurate and unbiased way

You will develop your reflective skills

You will develop your ability to accurately perceive and express your feelings; You will learn how your emotions influence your thoughts; You will discover your ability to regulate emotions, cope and react appropriately in an intercultural encounter

You will learn to describe a critical incident, or any other case of intercultural contact in a non-judgmental way; You will develop the ability to see a situation as an outsider, as objectively as possible

What are you learning from this?

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What can you conclude about your specific and unique way of behaving/feeling/reacting in CIs?

If it happened again what (if anything) would you do differently? E.g.: Is there anything you would say differently to the people involved or would you behave differently? Would you feel differently? Why? Would you react differently? In what ways? What would you like to learn about to be prepared for such CIs in the future? What skills do you plan to develop? What attitudes would you like to change?

General conclusions

Specific conclusions

Action plan

Based on Gibbs’ model (1988)

Questions to be answered

What general conclusions can be drawn from this experience that will foster your intercultural learning? (Beware of stereotyping!)

Stage

Table 6.1 (continued)

You will learn how to sum-up your experience in order to increase the likelihood that you will have positive experiences in the future; You will learn how to build a realistic plan for your intercultural (self-)development

You will develop the ability to understand, organize and interpret information about yourself to make changes in your attitudes or behaviors and reactions to similar critical incidents

You will develop the ability of understanding, organizing and interpreting data from your CIs which can help you to predict similar critical incidents and increase the chances of achieving positive outcomes

What are you learning from this?

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Table 6.2 Critical incident example # 1: A teacher self-identified as a first-generation Latinoimmigrant Description

Immediately after class, one of the students asked me if he could talk to me after class. I was like “Sure!” After everyone was gone, he said: “I have kind of a weird question?” I said: “ok?” Then he asked: “I was just wondering if you were documented.” I responded: “What?” in a louder-than-usual tone of voice. He then repeated the question. I responded less loudly: “What do you think?”, but still angry. He then proceeded to leave the room

Feelings/reactions

At the moment of the critical incident I was feeling really angry. I remember thinking that the person who was asking the question was racist. I also remember feeling shocked and appalled by the question

Evaluation

There are many bad and frustrating aspects about his experience for me. One bad aspect is the racism and xenophobia behind that specific question. Also, if I’m being honest, I never thought I would be asked that question, which is in itself not a good thing. It was also frustrating that I was in the position of authority and felt that I would have reacted very differently if the questions were asked to me in a different context not to mention the fact that I was so taken aback by the incident that I couldn’t word properly what I would have liked to express

Analysis

I chose this particular critical incident because it had never happened to me. I have heard of such incidents happening to other people in different parts of the US, but I had never associated this type of incident with (at least this part of) Maryland. I believe this speaks to the current social and political climate exacerbated by the current president, which has emboldened people to express different views, and opinions that I believe wouldn’t have been accepted before. I know that in some counties and some states you have the right not to answer that type of question in case somebody asks including law enforcement. To be frank, I still feel the same about the incident and I’m working on how to relate it to my process of intercultural training

General conclusions This type of incident still happens and can happen to any Latinx There are still people who are unaware of the implication and connotation of this type of question Specific conclusions Regardless of how much I believe myself to be interculturally tolerant and flexible, I still need to react more appropriately to such situations I have to be ready to face this type of situations Action plan

If this situation happened again, I would definitely try not to raise the tone of my voice. I don’t know if I would feel differently because of the connotation that type of incident has for me, but I would certainly try to, as much as possible, educate and share with the person who is asking that question the reasons why that question is not appropriate. Additionally, I would try to convey the irrelevance of that question for the task being performed as assertively as possible I would like to learn how to control certain impulses or anger reactions one may have to such incidents in order to create a learning experience for the different parties instead of an infuriating one

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Table 6.3 Critical incident example # 2: A graduate student born in the US and raised in France with experience of living and working in the US and other countries Description

Several guy friends in college hugged or tried to hug me. One particular incident, I was walking back from class with a male friend and as we were parting ways, he hugged me

Feelings/reactions

I felt very uncomfortable, not to the point of feeling assaulted, but I felt that it was very forward and inappropriate and I remember thinking that it was very confusing behavior. I did not hug him back and rather awkwardly stood there

Evaluation

I did not understand why he was hugging me given our rather superficial level of friendship. I thought it was a confusing and surprising situation

Analysis

I chose this as I have vivid memories of how it felt, even though 15 years later I now understand the norms and values of greetings in the United States that lead to this behavior The broader context was that I was raised in France and had recently moved to the United States for college. As such I was not familiar with US greeting customs. Alternative outcomes would be expecting hugs. I am not bothered by hugging a non-family opposite gender person, I simply did not think it was appropriate given the social norms I had been raised with up until that point There are most definitely people that have been hugged by acquaintances in the United States that have felt uncomfortable or been surprised by it. I have witnessed it when friends visit and even discussed it with them. I have warned some of my French friends that have come to visit. They have confirmed this is definitely not what they would expect and have even shared their discomfort at the hugs from people they meet for the first time Looking back, I can smile and see how awkward I must have made the situation. Yet I am comforted to know that it was simply a mismatch of cultural expectations. I now know what the meaning and expectations were with those hugs and am therefore not bothered by them. To the boy, they were simply a sign of greeting or departing, to a surface level friend, with no ulterior motive or implication. In that sense, I have changed as I have grown in my understanding of US norms and better understand greeting culture in the United States

General conclusions Learning what greetings are culturally appropriate when going to a new culture is very important. Not all places have the same greetings for differing levels of friendship Specific conclusions Even though I was raised by American parents, I did not learn all US norms, in particular relating to greetings as I was rarely greeting other Americans. As such, even though I thought I understood US culture, there were many aspects, in particular greeting norms, that I had to learn a new (continued)

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Table 6.3 (continued) Action plan

I now know when a person of the opposite gender offers a hug that it most likely has a different meaning than what I grew up with. As I know the greeting norms of the United States, I feel very differently when a person of surface level friendship hugs me. I do not feel offended or that they are doing something inappropriate. As mentioned above, I have learned the importance of looking into greeting norms before going to a new place. I also came to realize that there were many parts of American culture that I was unfamiliar with, even though I had been raised by American parents. I am much less surprised when I now encounter something “different” in the US than what I may normally expect. For skills and attitudes, I do my best to not see my greeting type as “normal” and rather just one of the ways people greet. I also go into all greeting situations with an open mind

Table 6.4 Critical incident example # 3: A US American undergraduate student during her study abroad in Uruguay Description

A negative CI occurred when I was working on a group project with a few other Uruguayan students: We had planned to meet to work on it at a certain time, and everyone else showed up somewhere between 30 min and an hour late (without notifying me they would be late). When they did show up, I learned they had not done the work they had agreed to do prior to our meeting

Feelings/reactions

I was quite annoyed and frustrated. I thought they were being inconsiderate and unprofessional. I thought they were not taking the project as seriously as they should, and that the meeting was a waste of my time

Evaluation

The incident was frustrating because the other students in my group were not following the norms for punctuality and academic culture that I was accustomed to

Analysis

This CI is a good illustration of a mismatch in expectations for behavior. In Uruguay, time is not viewed as rigidly as it is in the U.S. I would go on to have professors frequently show up late for class, and my boss even show up late for a meeting, all calmly and without explanation or apology. There is not the expectation to respond to emails quickly and work deadlines are seen as being more flexible. The academic culture is very different, and the workload is much lighter than it is at UMBC. Through conversations with other exchange students, I know many experienced similar frustrations. Now that I am more aware of these differences, I would not get as frustrated by a similar situation in the future and would shift my expectations for my group mates’ behavior

General conclusions Other cultures have different behavioral norms in relation to time and professionalism. Individuals’ actions should be viewed within the context of their own culture and one should reserve judgement based on his/her/their cultural norms (continued)

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Table 6.4 (continued) Specific conclusions Certain norms and expectations are very ingrained in me, especially related to what I see as being considerate and professional, and I am quick to get annoyed at others who do not act in accordance to those norms Action Plan

I would not say anything differently, as I did not voice my frustrations to my group mates, but I would definitely feel differently, as I would not hold my classmates to the same expectations. Going forward, I would like to get better at remembering my norms are not universal, and not getting frustrated easily when others’ behavior does not match my norms. I would also like to improve my communication and proactiveness to ensure all individuals in a group are on the same page about expectations, and thus hopefully minimize frustrations

Making Lemonade Out of Lemons: How Do I Turn Negatives into Positives? The examples thus far suggest that critical incidents are negative occurrences, however, as we mentioned in the beginning of this chapter, critical incidents can also be positive! Positive critical incidents are those that lead to learning, both intentions and outcomes of the interaction are perceived as positive, and participants experience positive feelings. The following provides some examples of positive critical incidents shared by students (see Box 6.4). Box 6.4 First day on campus A positive CI happened on one of my first days at the university. I wasn’t sure where a certain office was on campus, so stopped an Uruguayan student to ask. She offered to walk me there, and on the way, she introduced herself, offered me some of the mate she was drinking, and asked me some questions about myself. Her friendliness caught me a little off guard, as someone here would likely offer directions, but nothing more. However, I appreciated her openness and it made me feel welcome at a new university. It also prepared me a bit for the friendliness with which other people received me, and for being offered mate by people I just met. In Box 6.5 you are going to read a critical incident written by a teacher which is similar to the story at the beginning of the chapter about a Muslim female Ph.D.student who did not wish to shake hands with her professor. Let’s see how a very similar incident can be perceived through a different cultural lens and have a more positive tone and outcome:

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Box 6.5 What I learned from my Muslim student I was teaching an English course. All of the sudden, I saw this very good student I had from another course the previous semester. When I saw her, I was excited to see her because I remembered she had big plans for her life and was curious to hear about how things were going. When we were face to face, I extended my hand to greet her, but when I did that, she kept talking without extending her hand. This continued for (what I believe was) about ten seconds. However, it felt like an eternity! That had never happened to me. However, she very kindly explained to me that she couldn’t shake my hand because in her religion women are not allowed any form of non-essential touching and physical contact with a person of the opposite gender unless they’re married (please correct me if I’m wrong). That included shaking hands. I believe this incident to be positive because of the kind and very clear way she explained to me why she couldn’t shake my hand. Additionally, it was very positive for me because it allowed me to understand another culture’s perspective on physical contact and it became a lifelong lesson I will never forget. Actually, I have run into people who practice the same religion and it immediately reminds me of that incident which I remember very fondly. With this previous example, you can see how a very similar situation can be perceived by one person as negative but by another person as positive. In Box 6.5, the teacher not only perceived this critical incident as a positive experience, but also instantly learned new information that he could apply in the future. This includes, both culture-specific information (i.e., individuals not shaking hands for religious reasons) and more generalized learning (i.e., be flexible and do not assume that all people will greet you in a certain way). That said, the actions and reactions of the person that you are interacting with can influence how you feel about a critical incident. While the other person may make you feel negative in some way, it is an aspect of critical incidents that is beyond your control. What is in your control, if you can get beyond any negativity conveyed by the other person, is that even a negative experience can be viewed in positive ways. Thus, either kind of CI, positive or negative can generate positive results and feelings when misunderstandings are analyzed and interpreted as useful and enlightening rather than simply stressful and confusing. As we have suggested throughout this book, we are all still learning. Your authors also have experienced a variety of critical incidents over the years that have helped them to learn to deal with difficult intercultural situations. Boxes 6.6 and 6.7 recount their experiences along with the personal traits or strategies that help them to manage these situations.

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Box 6.6 Caprice’s recipe When I first moved to the UK, I sometimes had what I would call annoying experiences with UK citizens. For example, I remember one of my new British neighbors asking me if we left our guns in storage in the US since guns are illegal in the UK. When I replied that we didn’t own any guns and were supportive of strict gun control laws in the US, they were surprized and said they thought all Americans owned guns. While previously I would have become irritated at these kinds of remarks, now I know that people say these things because they don’t know many Americans and so rely on their stereotypes of what they think Americans are like. Specifically, in this case the person assumed that all Americans like to own guns! These types of incidents don’t bother me anymore. Now, I think they provide good opportunities to help break stereotypes that some people hold about Americans. In fact, sometimes when people make comments like this, I use them as opportunities to discuss the problem with stereotyping. If someone says something that you find insulting, consider taking the following steps: • Take a deep breath. • Suspend judgement. • Consider explanations for what they have said or done. Remember, for instance, that stereotyping is a normal human reaction to a complex world. Often people do not recognize that what they say may be considered offensive. • Use it as a teachable moment even if you are just helping the person to see that not all people from your culture believe or behave in the same way. This will help break down their stereotypes and support them in becoming more interculturally competent.

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Box 6.7 Irina’s recipe

Mediating Misunderstandings: What Are Common Misunderstandings and How Can I be an Intercultural Mediator? Critical incidents are very much about misunderstanding contexts, situations, values, beliefs, attitudes, intentions and/or drivers of someone’s behavior. Also, expectations may have a quite negative effect on the outcome of an intercultural encounter because they can lead to false assumptions. Misunderstandings happen when we bring in our contextual information, which differs from the contextual information brought in by a person from another culture. When we fail to make sense of what is going on during a critical incident, we may

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feel disappointed or become angry about the way in which we were treated. We may feel the person has not shown respect for us or has been rude. We, therefore, may “overreact” and view the situation quite negatively rather than seeing it as an opportunity learn and grow. Zhu (2014, pp. 115–129) summarizes the main sources of misunderstanding as follows: • inadequate linguistic proficiency (when intercultural communication participants speak the shared language with a different level of proficiency); • pragmatic mismatch (when one participant does not understand the intended meaning behind the other person’s words); • clash of styles (when participants apply different styles of conversation, e.g. in some cultures people start a conversation with what is often called ‘small talk’, meanwhile in other cultures people tend to get straight to the point); • mismatch in schemas and cultural stereotypes (when people have different understandings of what the typical behavior should be in familiar situations, like ordering a meal in a restaurant, visiting a friend, etc.); • mismatch in contextualization cues and framing (when participants miss the frame and fail to understand verbal, nonverbal or prosodic signals sent by others). She also points out that misunderstandings often happen to people who share the same culture and language. For example, when one of your co-authors (LantzDeaton) moved from her home in California to rural Missouri (both in the US), she was initially catch off guard by a variety of words such as “you’ens” and “goobers” as in “You’ens wantin’ some goobers?”, which translates into “Would any of you care to have some peanuts?”. Sometimes such misunderstandings are humorous. At other times, however, when misunderstandings occur between native/non-native speakers, or between a member of a majority and a member of any kind of minority group, usually those with a subordinate status will be blamed for the breakdown in communication (Zhu 2014). For example, if a working-class Lithuanian woman visits as White male physician in the UK, the tendency will be to blame the woman for any difficulty in understanding rather than to hold the physician accountable. While often we can work out misunderstandings on our own, at other times a third person can be useful in helping us to make sense of an incident. Before exploring this further, take a few minutes to reflect on a few situations using Thought Box 6.3.

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Thought Box 6.3 The power of intercultural mediation Please read two examples below and then answer the questions at the bottom. What is a dinner invitation about? During university in the United States, a male student asked me out to dinner. I refused as we were just friends and to me going to dinner meant jumping to boyfriend/girlfriend status, and we barely knew each other. The boy asked me again a few days later, and I declined again for the same reasons. After mentioning this to my roommate, who had grown up in the United States, she explained that this was common in the US. Going on a date did not mean anything but an opportunity to get to know the person more. The boy was not asking me to be his girlfriend by accepting the dinner invitation but was rather just expressing interest in getting to know me better. She said I should be flattered and consider it if I wanted to get to know him. Although I still did not accept this dinner invitation, this was important information for me to learn. A few months later, I was asked to go to dinner by someone else. Again, I declined right away as I also hardly knew the person. However, I later recalled what my roommate had shared. When the guy asked again a few weeks later, I accepted. Fast forward several years and that gentleman is my now husband, so to me this is a very positive critical incident! Had I not learned this important part of American culture, and without my cultural interpreter that was my roommate, I may not have gotten to know my now husband. Can offering a coffee be an issue? A very close friend of mine (from Turkey) had a girlfriend in D.C. (they are married now). She is from Utah and she was working at Bank of America at that time. In my whole life until that moment, I never thought that drinking coffee can be an issue for some certain belief systems. In the society I am coming from drinking alcohol is a big issue for the belief system, but drinking coffee is not. In a nice spring day after a phone conversation, my friend told me that he and his girlfriend were at the park (at that time we both were living in DC), I just got 3 coffees and walked to the park and I gave a coffee to my friend and the other coffee to his girlfriend, but his girlfriend refused to take coffee. My first thought that she did not pay for the coffee, that might be a reason she refused to take it, I knew she is Mormon, but I did not know some Mormons don’t drink coffee for their belief system...and my friend told me in Turkish “don’t insist too much, she does not drink coffee ….. After that incident, I started to learn more about Mormons and the Mormon Health code: “The Word of Wisdom”.

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What were the expectations and assumptions on one side of each incident? What were the expectations and assumptions on the other side of each incident? What cultural knowledge did the parties lack? Who acted as intercultural mediator in these stories? What would be the outcome of the critical incident if the misunderstanding was not mediated/explained?

Fortunately, the above-described cases had positive outcomes and in both cases there was someone who served as an intercultural mediator and explained the misunderstanding. An intercultural mediator is someone who is able to facilitate understanding between people from different cultural backgrounds (see Byram 2009 referring to Zarate 2003). The ability to mediate presupposes some level of intercultural competence described by Byram (1997) as a combination of five components (which as you will know from reading Chap. 4 includes a variety of attitudes, skills, and knowledge, i.e. skills of interpreting and relating; skills of discovering and interacting; attitudes of curiosity and openness, readiness to suspend disbelief about other cultures and belief about one’s own; and, critical cultural awareness), in which skills of discovering and interacting are crucial for one who acts as a mediator. Some suggest (e.g., Byram 2008, p. 68) that ‘mediating’ involves taking an ‘external’ perspective on yourself as you are interacting with others in order to analyze situations and adapt your behavior accordingly. Some describe this as taking a “third place” (Kramsch 1993), i.e. positioning yourself both inside and outside the discourse of a specific critical incident. This is the greatest art, if you learn how to mediate your own intercultural interactions. For this, you will have to learn how to adapt your behavior when you perceive differences in culture and/or linguistic abilities; how to negotiate understanding in a collaborative manner; what strategies to apply for managing misunderstandings, e.g. asking questions, explicitly stating that you find it difficult to understand the other, checking confirmations, etc. (see Zhu 2014, pp. 137–149). It is important to point out here that you can become a successful mediator without native speaker language competence (Byram and Golubeva 2020). What’s more important is intercultural competence! Our analysis of critical incidents emphasizes the need for students to develop the competencies of empathy, critical cultural self -awareness, and critical thinking. While we covered these competencies to some degree in Chap. 4, we provide a more detailed explanation of each here, highlighting why they are important.

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Competencies for Critical Incidents: Which Are the Most Important? There is no definitive answer as to which competencies are most important in navigating critical incidents and it could be argued that all are important. That said, we have highlighted three (self-awareness, critical thinking, empathy), that—we believe—are particularly helpful in navigating critical incidents more successfully. When collecting examples of critical incidents, we found that students more frequently recalled negative experiences as opposed to positive ones. Before we delve a little deeper into this observation, please take a moment to check your experience in Thought Box 6.4. Thought Box 6.4 Feelings during critical incidents Review the analysis of the critical incident you described in Thought Box 6.1 and list the negative feelings and emotions related to it.

Now list the positive feelings and emotions related to the same CI.

Which list is longer? Why do you think you might have experienced the incident as more positive or negative?

As discussed in earlier chapters, the fact that we tend to focus more upon the negative in critical incidents is not surprizing from a psychological perspective. Situations involving anxiety, disconfirmed expectancies, ambiguity and/or confrontation with one’s prejudices (see Brislin 1986) can cause us to focus more on the negative rather than the positive. This leads us to the first key component for working through critical incidents, self -awareness.

Critical Cultural Self-awareness Our tendency to focus upon the negative in intercultural situations underscores the need for critical cultural self -awareness. Self-awareness in general, is a learnable skill, and helps us to recognize our emotions and how our feelings affect our

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reasoning, thinking and ways of interacting with other people (Goleman 1995, 1998). People who are self-aware are more able to recognize their strengths and limitations and to identify their own biases. When critical incidents occur, it is important to be able to recognize what you are feeling and thinking, and to try to prevent negativity from clouding what might be a chance to learn from that intercultural situation. Further, being aware of and regulating your own reactions and emotions is crucial in order to navigate interactions more effectively and appropriately. Take a minute to reflect on your own self-awareness using Thought Box 6.5. Thought Box 6.5 Questioning yourself Think about the critical incident you described in Thought Box 6.1 and answer these questions as honestly as possible: During the incident, to what extent were you aware of your thoughts and feelings?

Did you react without thinking through the situation?

How might you become more aware of your thoughts and feelings the next time you experience a critical incident?

Part of the reason self-awareness is so important is, as we suggest further along, that it is difficult to develop empathy for other people’s feelings unless you can understand your own. Also, as you develop self-awareness, you will experience positive changes in your thoughts and interactions with other people. Some (e.g., Cope and Watts 2000, p. 113) suggest that experiencing critical incidents can accelerate the development of self-awareness. If you would like to explore self-awareness further, consider consulting the Autobiography of Intercultural Encounters (Byram et al. 2009).

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Critical Thinking Our tendency to focus upon the negative in intercultural situations also underscores the need for critical thinking. Critical thinking is the ability to reflect and think in a focused and logical way in order to decide what to believe or do (Ennis 1985). In the context of developing intercultural competence, critical thinking is of great importance, because we tend to believe that our own perceptions or ways of viewing the world are correct: “It‘s true because I believe it” (Paul and Elder 2008, p. 21). But just because you believe a certain thing, this does not make it so. As we discussed in Chap. 4 when we considered the Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (Bennett 1993), this type of thinking suggests that one is taking an ethnocentric or simplistic view of culture by believing their way is the only way. To move away from ethnocentric thinking, it is important to gain a more sophisticated understanding of other cultural perspectives and to view your perspective critically and as just one of many valid perspectives. What is your goal in developing your critical thinking? At the highest skill level, critical thinking can become a routine and you can become explicitly (self-)reflective in analyzing events, situations, etc. You can view situations dispassionately using logic in a fair and unbiased way (Paul and Elder 2008, p. 7). Critical thinking involves recognizing that you must be critical of yourself and your own perspectives and not just those of others. Ultimately, the quality of your life depends on the quality of your thoughts (paraphrased words of Marcus Aurelius), and the quality of your intercultural encounters very much depends on your critical thinking skills. In Thought Box 6.6 you will find a few questions that will help you to analyze the extent to which you may or may not be making use of your critical thinking skills. Thought Box 6.6 Thinking critically Think about the critical incident you described in Thought Box 6.1 and answer the following questions: Was there anything in this critical incident that you took for granted?

What were your assumptions? Were they right or wrong?

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Is your viewpoint the only reasonable perspective that makes sense, are there some others (different from your own) that are valid to consider?

What should you study to understand other positions, beliefs and perspectives related to this critical incident?

Adapted from Colby (2018, p. 71)

Empathy Having discussed critical cultural self-awareness and critical thinking, we now address our final key component relevant to dealing with critical incidents, empathy. Guntersdorfer and Golubeva (2018) argue that the role of empathy is very important in successfully managing intercultural situations. Empathy is “the act of coming to experience the world as you think someone else does” (Bloom 1956, p. 16) and can be seen as both: a crucial element of intercultural competence and as an outcome of intercultural competence (e.g., Deardorff 2006; Ting-Toomey and Kurogi 1998). If we are more empathetic towards people from other cultures, we are able to demonstrate deeper intercultural and emotional understanding of a critical incident and take an ethnorelative view of what happened. This can also be viewed as decentering or taking a third perspective (Byram 1997). Take a minute to reflect on your ability to empathize using Thought Box 6.7.

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Thought Box 6.7 Putting yourself in another person’s shoes Think about the critical incident you described in Thought Box 6.1 and answer these questions as honestly as possible: During the incident, to what extent did you think about how the other person might be feeling or what they might be thinking?

Were you able to view the situation from their perspective? Why or why not?

How might you become more aware of the other persons thoughts and feelings the next time you experience a critical incident?

You may be aware that while these competencies are important to how you deal with critical incidents, other competencies that we have discussed in previous chapters still have a role to play. In a way some competencies cannot really be separated from others because they are intimately related. For instance, there are several competencies important to developing empathy such as the ability to suspend judgement, skills to listen and carefully observe others, to understand what others are saying and to recognize emotions. That said, we have highlighted a few here in hopes of making it easier for you to focus upon what is initially important in your critical incidents. Thinking about three competencies, at least in the beginning of your journey towards higher levels of intercultural competence will surely be easier than thinking about the 14 outlined in Chap. 4. In this chapter we have attempted to help you to develop an understanding of critical incidents by providing example critical incidents and by encouraging you to explore your own critical incident. Further, we have discussed some individual competencies within IC that we view as particularly important in navigating critical incidents. It is important to remember, that critical incidents happen to everyone, and more often than one would expect. Often, however, they go unrecognized and unexamined unless you know what to look for and are adept at critically evaluating them. While critical incidents can be both positive and negative, it is up to you to make these experiences meaningful and learn as much as possible from them.

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Lantz, C. (2014). Exploring the intercultural development of first year UK and non-UK psychology students (Doctoral thesis). University of York, York. Nevid, J. S. (2015). Asking the what and how questions, not the why questions. https://www.psy chologytoday.com/gb/blog/the-minute-therapist/201512/asking-the-what-and-how-questionsnot-the-why-questions. Accessed November 10, 2019. Paul, R. W., & Elder, L. (2008). The miniature guide to critical thinking: Concepts and tools. Foundation for Critical Thinking Press. Ting-Toomey, S., & Kurogi, A. (1998). Facework competence in intercultural conflict: An updated face-negotiation theory. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 22, 187–225. Triandis, H. (1995). Individualism and collectivism. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Tripp, D. (1993). Critical incidents in teaching. Developing professional judgement. London: Routledge. Zarate, G. (2003). Identities and plurilingualism: Predonditions for the recognition of intercultural competence. In M. Byram (Ed.), Intercultural competence (pp. 85–118). Strasbourg, France: Council of Europe. Zhu, H. (2014). Exploring intercultural communication: Language in action. London: Routledge.

Chapter 7

What Are the Links Between Intercultural Competence and Career Development?

‘When we listen and celebrate what is both common and different, we become wiser, more inclusive, and better as an organization’—Pat Wadors, Head of HR and diversity spokesperson, LinkedIn

This chapter explores the relationship between your IC development and your employment prospects. This chapter facilitates you in thinking through how culture might impact your job search and interviewing experiences. It considers the ways that you can advertise IC to prospective employers through your resume and during interviews. Further it discusses how you might be perceived in applying for jobs in different countries and cultural contexts as well as understanding how employee rights and employer expectations differ in different countries and the potential biases you may encounter. Learning outcomes: By reading this chapter and completing the tasks, you will be able to: • Explain how culture is relevant to your job search; • Describe the reasons why IC is important to employers; • Explain the variation in employer practices regarding equality, diversity, and inclusion; • Describe how IC can inform your methods of searching for a job; • Evaluate the ways in which you might need to alter your resume based upon cultural differences; • Describe how IC can be demonstrated on resumes and in job interviews; • Recognize how culture impacts interviewing in both foreign and domestic settings; • Explain where to find career help and advice. As suggested in Chap. 1, there are many good reasons for you to enhance your IC. Helping to foster more positive relationships between people and creating fairer and more just societies are certainly good reasons. Improving your job prospects and © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 C. Lantz-Deaton and I. Golubeva, Intercultural Competence for College and University Students, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57446-8_7

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long-term career success are other good reasons and are the major focus of this chapter. We will begin by considering the importance of IC to employers and how employees with higher levels of IC can benefit employers. Such benefits include enhancing organizational effectiveness, increasing profits, minimizing losses, developing employer reputations, making the most of diversity, and reducing the risk of lawsuits and turnover by ensuring that people are treated with dignity and respect. Following on from this, we will help you to understand how the development of IC can be used in finding a job and developing a career by discussing the ways in which you might consider cultural differences in applying for jobs as well as discussing how to demonstrate IC on your resume and during job interviews. As we have argued, IC can be beneficial to you in any job role anywhere in the world, although some countries, cities or organizations may be more focused on issues related to IC than others. Part of your job as an applicant is to figure out how IC is related to your job search. Before we begin, please take a moment to answer the questions in Thought Box 7.1. Thought Box 7.1 Culture and your job search Based upon what you have learned so far about culture and intercultural competence, how do you think IC is relevant to your job search? Do you think it is important whether you are looking for a job inside or outside of your home country? Please explain.

Intercultural Competence and Careers: Do Cultural Differences Really Matter? Some argue that in our constantly globalizing world, as people become more connected, cultures become more homogenized. That is that people across different cultures are becoming more similar (Spring 2001). If this was the case then it could be argued that IC is less relevant than it was at the end of the last century. While there is evidence for homogenization and the rise of global culture, as described in Chap. 2, evidence suggests that global culture does not replace existing culture but operates alongside of it. While this will undoubtedly change in future, there is still ample evidence to support the existence of different cultures. If all countries were homogenized and equally so, then cultural differences would no longer be visible. As we have argued throughout this book, diversity is increasing throughout the world in people’s personal and working lives. Data from the United Nations

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(2015), for instance, notes that the population of the earth will total 9.7 billion in 2050 (2015, p. 8); half of the world’s population growth will occur in just nine countries including India, Nigeria, Pakistan, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, United Republic of Tanzania, United States of America (USA), Indonesia and Uganda, with the USA being the only high-income country in this list (2015, p. 4). This suggests a change in the world demographic which will no doubt have repercussions in countries around the world, as people from these countries migrate and play a larger role in societies around the globe. Taking the impact of diversity to an even higher level, the World Bank (2019) suggests that global economic power itself will begin to shift from countries that we tend to think of as more advanced to be dominated by those with emerging economies. Price Waterhouse Coopers (2017, p. 17) suggests that six of the largest seven economies by 2050 will be in emerging markets including: China (ranked as number 1), India (2), Indonesia (4), Brazil (5), Russia (6), and Mexico (7), with the USA (3) as the only more advanced economy in the group. Both—the abovementioned demographic growth and this change in global economic order—will further diversify the workforce and bring new challenges in living and working with people from different cultures. This increased diversity adds to the evidence base already presented and highlights the need for an increased focus on how diversity impacts us generally. However, in this chapter we focus specifically upon diversity in the workplace and what can be done to mitigate potential risks as well as make the most of diversity. Reflect on the diversity that you see around you in Thought Box 7.2. Thought Box 7.2 Diversity in your country As we have discussed, diversity is increasing worldwide but will be different in different countries and regions. Think about where you might like to work someday. How diverse is the population in that area? Is there a lot of international diversity or domestic diversity? Are there particular cultural groups of people there that might be helpful for you to learn about? If so, what are they?

We have been discussing the increase in diversity around the world. Diversity, of course, impacts communication—both internal and external—within businesses and organizations. Workplace diversity (and not only in terms of culture, race, religion or ethnicity, but also gender, sexual orientation, disability, age, political affiliation, and so on) cannot be ignored, and in this sense each workplace is a scene where intercultural interactions have the potential to take place daily. Such diversity brings challenges for people when values clash, behaviors are misunderstood, and communication fails. Because of issues around diversity, businesses lose money at alarming rates.

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Organizations suffer partially because the level of IC of their employees is insufficient to support them in establishing appropriate business relationships. For example, according to a survey published in Psychology Today (2009),70% of German companies reported that they had international co-operations fail because partners were not able to communicate effectively. Another German source reported that the number of international projects which are declining due to a lack of intercultural competence may range from between 40 and 70% (Kinast and Thomas 2005). Beyond financial losses due to poor intercultural relationships, businesses also lose money because they break laws in relation to diversity and inclusion which result in lawsuits being filed by employees and clients. For example, in Australia, the owner of Scamander Beach Resort was fined $211,104 Australian dollars in the Federal Circuit Court when it was found that he underpaid his Malaysian employees $28,000 compared to his white Australian employees. The court found that racial discrimination provisions of the Fair Work Act were breached when the hotel manager exploited the Malaysian workers poor language skills, requiring them to work extra hours without pay, and did not accurately record their working hours (HRD 2018). Cases such as the one described above are not unusual, although different countries offer different levels of protection to citizens, lawsuits like this one are more common in some countries compared to others. In the US, for example, where equality legislation is advanced, organizations must be careful to comply with anti-discrimination laws as the threat of lawsuits is quite high. In 2018, for instance, the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, which deals with legal cases from citizens claiming some sort of discrimination, handled cases for some 67,860 victims of workplace discrimination, securing for them approximately $505 million US dollars in damages (EEOC 2018). Such data and accounts of individual cases illustrate not only the ill treatment that employees from diverse backgrounds sometimes receive at the hands of employers, but the huge losses that employers can suffer as a result of their intercultural incompetence. While businesses lose money because they discriminate unfairly against people, they also lose money because they fail to capitalize on the positives of diversity. Studies suggest that organizations with more diverse teams produce better results. As discussed in Chap. 1, for example, Herring (2009) found that organizations that have more gender diversity benefit from increased sales revenues, more customers, and increased profits with more racially diverse companies experiencing similar benefits. Another large study of 1000 companies across 12 countries found financial benefits linked to gender and ethnic diversity (Hunt et al. 2018). This study found that companies with the most ethnically/culturally diverse executive teams were 33% more likely to financially outperform similar companies. However, because of issues such as discrimination and ingroup preference, people within businesses and organizations still tend to hire those who are like themselves leading them to have more homogeneous workforces. Thus, many are failing to capitalize on diversity. Before reading on, take some time to explore this issue a little more in Thought Box 7.3.

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Thought Box 7.3 Diversity issues for local organizations As we have discussed, diversity often gets organizations into trouble in terms of how they treat employees and clients and customers but also in terms of how they lose money and diminish their reputations. What news stories have you seen that describe issues of diversity in the workplace? If you have time, do a quick Google search or pick up a local newspaper and see if you can find any related stories. Please briefly describe what particular issues you have found and how they have impacted those involved.

Failing to hire for diversity is evidenced by employment statistics which suggest that a variety of minority groups are underrepresented in the workforce. Vertical and horizontal segregation are ongoing problems. As discussed in Chap. 3, horizontal segregation is the underrepresentation of people in particular types of jobs (e.g., few black American university professors), while vertical segregation is the underrepresentation of particular groups of people in higher level positions (e.g., few women in top executive positions) (Anker 1997; Blackburn et al. 2002; Reskin 1993). For instance, across Europe the construction industry is 91% male while the education industry is 67% female (Eurofound 2013). This is problematic since women are mainly found in lower-paid, part-time positions in service sector jobs, while men are mainly found in full-time and more highly paid positions in manual and professional roles (Hakim 1995; Office of National Statistics 2013; Reskin 1993). Similarly, vertical segregation finds more men in more highly paid, high-level positions while more women are found in lower-paid, lower-level positions (Johns 2013; Reskin 1993). This metaphorical ‘glass ceiling’ (Johns 2013; Reskin 1993) as we discussed in Chap. 3 is a persistent problem in many fields. You may be wondering after our discussions here and in Chap. 3, what an equitable distribution of jobs is in the workforce. In other words, how can statistics tell us when we are not discriminating? We can be more confident that we are not discriminating when we have appropriate representation in different career fields, jobs and sectors. For instance, since women make up about half the world population, they should in theory have representation approaching half in all career fields and sectors. In relation to vertical segregation, the literature suggests that the presence of men and women in senior level positions (i.e., a ‘gender balance’) is thought to be representation at 40% of women or over (European Commission 2015). This is a balance that many employers fail to achieve. Take a few minutes now to reflect on this topic in Thought Box 7.4.

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Thought Box 7.4 Segregation in local organizations As we have discussed, diversity, vertical and horizontal segregation in the workforce provide evidence of discrimination. What is the evidence for vertical and horizontal discrimination in your country or region? Are women fairly represented in different industries and in higher level positions? Are people from minority groups fairly represented in different industries and higher level positions? How do you know?

As well as underpaying and discriminating against workers, businesses and organizations around the world have been known to provide poor services to people with certain characteristics. This, of course, results in negative outcomes for the people they are intended to serve but also for businesses and organizations. Like employee lawsuits, customers also sue companies for cases of discrimination which result in the losses of millions every year. From a more humanistic perspective, it is also important to point out that organizational discrimination serves to enhance the inequalities that persist around the world and across societies. Health care systems are certainly of concern in this regard. As mentioned in Chap. 1, British Pakistani infants are more than twice as likely to die in childbirth as White British infants (Office for National Statistics 2016) and this is blamed to an extent on receiving substandard treatment in health care facilities. Thus, employers must ask themselves if they help all of those that they are designed to serve equally, along with considering the extent to which they may be doing harm. Another good example of this outside of health care can be found in US criminal justice systems. The rate at which US police shoot crime suspects varies based upon group membership. While black men comprise only 6% of the US population, they account for 40% of unarmed men shot to death by police. Black people are shot more often and at higher rates than people from any other race in the US (see Fryer 2018 for an overview). While you may think this has to do with the rates at which black men commit crimes, much of it has to do with bias. Only 6% of crime suspects are black men but 40% are shot to death by police. Ninety-four percent of people who commit crimes are white or from other races, but they are shot to death significantly less often. A study by Correll and colleagues (2002), highlighted in Chap. 3, provides evidence for why this happens, specifically that bias can be activated in seconds leading officers to shoot black people more often simply because of their skin color. In summary, cultural differences absolutely matter in the workplace. Issues around cultural differences lead companies to lose money because they fail to effectively

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navigate business relationships. Ignorance around cultural differences lead companies to discriminate against employees and customers diminishing their reputations and forcing them to pay out millions to cover lawsuits. Ignorance around cultural differences lead companies to fail to capitalize on diversity resulting in lost revenues and promoting the continuation of inequalities. Finally, and more seriously, however, ignorance regarding cultural differences can lead to the loss of lives.

Equality, Diversity, Inclusion: What Changes are Organizations Making? Awareness regarding intercultural issues in the workplace really began in the late 1970s when Grumperz and his colleagues (Grumperz et al. 1979) pioneered research in this area. In 1980s and 1990s a variety of further studies were published on the complexity of workplace cultures and communication, mainly in Australia, but also in UK and US. For instance, in Australia, Clyne (1994) conducted a study in which he observed some of the main instances of miscommunication including instances when breakdowns occurred because of misunderstandings of the context or differences in cultural background. At the time, these findings had a real ‘break-through’ effect in the field of communication between those from different cultures, so that today employers increasingly see the benefits of intercultural training for staff. In recent years there has been growing recognition of the issues surrounding diversity. Organizations are now more aware of concerns in regard to treating employees and customers fairly because of the need to address unfairness across societies, aware of the increase in legislation designed to protect employees and customers and aware of the need for organizations to protect themselves from lawsuits and bad press. Box 7.1 outlines legislation in a selection of countries around the world. Please review Box 7.1 and then reflect upon it in Thought Box 7.5.

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Box 7.1 A selection of equality legislation from around the world Australia – Affirmative Action (Equal Employment Opportunity for Women in the Workplace) Act (1986, No. 91). Private employers with 1000 or more employees and higher-education institutions are required to create affirmative action programs. (women) Austria – Federal Act on the Employment of Disabled Persons (1970/22). Requires organizations employing 25 or more employees to have at least one disabled person employed per every 25 employees. Canada – Employment Equity Act (1995). Employers required to find and eliminate employment barriers that impact people in particular groups. Employers must institute policies ensuring that designated groups are represented in the workforce. Colombia – Law of Quotas No. 581 (2000). The law promotes the participation of women in the public sector within decision making positions in the Colombian government. A minimum of 30% of the highest decision-making positions in the public sector should be filled by women. Costa Rica – Electoral Code Law No 7653 (1996). Guarantees representation of women in politics to eliminate discrimination in political life. Requires women to be allowed to participate in any organization that is subject to public elections and to partake in the formulation and implementation of governmental policies. Requires that 40% of all political positions are filled by women. France – Law in Favour of Disabled Workers (Act 87-517) (1987). Public and private establishments with 20+ employees must have 6% of their staff made up of workers with disabilities. Ireland – Northern Ireland’s Fair Employment Act (1989). Requires employers to have representation of Protestants and Roman Catholics in equal proportions to their representation in the population at large. Namibia – Affirmative Action (Employment) Act (1998). Employers must create affirmative action programs to promote employment and give preferential treatment (providing employment and removing employment barriers) for women, disabled people and those in ethnic groups. Vietnam – Circular providing guidelines for implementation of Decree 72-CP of the government with respect to recruitment of labour (No. 16-LDTBXH). Employers must consider designated groups (disabled people, women, those unemployed more than one year) in the recruitment process as well as to give group members priority in employment. Source: Mor Barak 2014, p. 61

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Thought Box 7.5 Comparing equality legislation Carefully review examples of EDI legislation in Box 7.1. What are the differences you see between countries? Are there any similarities? What do you think is missing from the laws enacted by different countries? How does your current country of residence compare with the examples above? Favorably or unfavorably?

Thought Box 7.5 invited you to compare differences in EDI legislation between countries. Through that exercise, you likely noted that there is wide variation in the way in which different countries focus upon different groups (e.g., some might focus upon women while others focus on people with disabilities). We believe that legislation will continue to develop and eventually a broader range of characteristics will be protected. In the interim, however, while practice and legislation varies by country and region, increasingly organizations do seem to be including equality, diversity, and inclusion management in their strategic planning (Mor Barak 2014, p. 242). Like some universities described in Chap. 5, some companies now have strategic plans related to equality, diversity, and inclusion and even offices that handle related issues. In addition to the increase in organizational policy and practice related to equality, diversity, and inclusion, large surveys conducted within a variety of countries suggests the importance of intercultural competence to your job search and longterm employability. For instance, a survey conducted by the British Council, IPSOS and Booz Allen Hamilton reported interesting IC related statistics from countries around the world. In Jordan, for instance, 95% of HR managers or other professionals responsible for employment decisions in the public, private and NGO sectors considered intercultural skills as “very important” and 5%—as “fairly important”. For Indonesian respondents this distribution was 70/30%; in the UK—70/23%; in South Africa—63/25%; in India—60/33%; in US—58/30%; in UAE—57/34%; in Brazil—42/47%, and in China—25/45% (British Council 2013, p. 9). The fact that many employers around the world view intercultural skills as important can be explained by the fact that more than two thirds of companies and organizations are in frequent contact with colleagues, partners and customers from outside of their own countries (British Council 2013: 7). In Indonesia, 100% of participating companies and organizations communicate with colleagues from other countries and 83% of them communicate with international partners and customers. In Jordan, these numbers reach 100 and 80% respectively, and in India—82 and 78%, with other countries reporting similar proportions (British Council 2013, p. 7). These respondents further highlighted the business benefits of having employees with intercultural

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skills as improving organizational reputations, attracting new clients, building trust with clients, facilitating communication with overseas partners, the ability to work with diversity, and keeping teams running efficiently (British Council 2013, p. 12). Alternatively, when asked what the main business risks were associated with intercultural incompetence, they identified global reputational damage, loss of clients and business due to cultural insensitivity towards colleagues, partners and customers overseas, and conflicts within teams (British Council 2013, p. 13). A good example of the ways in which companies are now focusing upon EDI and intercultural competence comes from Germany’s Diversity Charter. The main idea of what Germans call Charta der Vielfalt (Box 7.2) is to promote “the recognition, appreciation and integration of diversity in business culture. When organizations make use of their employees’ diversity, they boost their success and are attractive employers.” Box 7.2 provides an outline of the Charter. Box 7.2 Charta der Vielfalt In the framework of this Charter we are committed to: Fostering a corporate culture characterised by mutual respect and appreciation of every single individual. We seek to create conditions such that everyone (superiors and co-workers) respects, practices and acknowledges these values. This will require explicit support from leaders and superiors. Validating and ensuring that our human resource processes are compatible with the diverse competencies, abilities and talents of our employees, as well as with our own performance standards. Recognising the diversity of society inside and outside our organisation, appreciating the intrinsic potential residing in it, and endeavouring to utilise it profitably for our business or organisation. Ensuring that the implementation of the Charter will be a subject of internal and external communication. Publicizing on an annual basis our own activities and progress in promoting diversity. Keeping our own employees and colleagues informed about diversity and actively involved in implementing the Charter. Source: https://www.charta-der-vielfalt.de/en/

More than 3000 companies and organizations with a total of more than 12 million employees have already signed the Charter with the list including many world famous businesses such as Adidas, Allianz Deutschland AG, BASf, BAYER, BMW, BP, Deutsche Bank AG, Deutsche Post DHL Group, Ernst & Young GmbH, Siemens, T-Com, and Volkswagen to name but a few (as of May 12, 2019). The Charta has been translated from German into 12 languages including Danish, Dutch, English, Estonian, Finish, French, Greek, Italian, Russian, Spanish, Swedish, and Turkish (as of May 12, 2019) suggesting that its adoption will be quite broad. Those who have become members of the Charta der Vielfalt association, have signed the document which certifies their voluntary commitment to promote diversity and appreciation in business culture. They aim to create a work environment free of

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biases and prejudice. They commit to respecting and valuing colleagues irrespective of gender, nationality, ethnic background, religion or worldview, disability, age, sexual orientation and identity. They also strongly believe that “promotion of these diverse potentials produce economic benefits for [their] organisations” (https://www. charta-der-vielfalt.de/en/). Take a moment to review the charter in Box 7.2 and reflect on it in Thought Box 7.6. Thought Box 7.6 Reflecting on the corporate charter of diversity for germany After reading the Charter, think what particular kind of commitment from the list you might be missing at your present university or workplace. How do you know they are missing? Do you think that signing this Charter would change the atmosphere of your university or workplace? Why or why not?

While policies such as the Charta der Vielfalt sound valuable, the question is the extent to which organizations introduce them in practice. As already discussed in Chap. 5, while strategic plans may be present in organizations, the extent to which they filter down into practice varies substantially. Some organizations simply create policies as more of a tick box exercise, but do not take formal steps to implement them. However, others go beyond the formalities and make organizational changes that can be seen at different levels. For example, many university campuses in the US have installed foot-washing facilities for Muslim students and staff, and introduced all-gender restrooms making their campuses more welcoming and respectful towards religious and gender diversity (see for example Lewin 2007; Petter 2019; Traynor 2019). As discussed previously, some organizations provide some sort of diversity training which also provides evidence of action taken based upon policy. IC can be used to improve the problems described above, saving organizations’ money by enhancing relationships among employees and between employees and customers and reducing the likelihood of lawsuits. IC can also be used to reduce inequalities and to enhance corporate social responsibility (addressed more fully in Chap. 8) by deploying it to protect those with particular markers of diversity. Finally, it can be used to enhance the success of businesses by deploying the understanding of diversity to create diverse teams. Although practices vary substantially between countries, you would do well to familiarize yourself with the ways in which developing intercultural competence can make you a valuable employee, as it is an attribute that employers the world over will seek more frequently in the coming years. Beyond that, it will serve you well not just in work but in enhancing your personal life.

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Intercultural Competence and Employability: How Can I Use IC to Enhance My Career Prospects? From reading the section above, you probably have an idea of how increasing your intercultural competence can enhance your employability potential. Interculturally competent graduates will be able to recognize and capitalize on diversity to benefit themselves as well as knowing how to leverage diversity to benefit their organizations. They will also recognize the importance of diversity and inclusion in the context of the law and will know the importance of protecting themselves and their employers, as well as ensuring that other staff and clients and customers are treated fairly and with dignity and respect. These are all key take away messages of this book. However, now we turn to look more specifically at how you can use your IC to inform your job search.

Adjusting Your Job Search As we know, norms in different cultures can vary considerably. What is common in one culture in terms of looking for a job may be completely alien in another. Thus, as you might guess, your ability to be adaptable is important not just for intercultural competence but also in your job search. If you are searching for a job in a culture other than your own, a key activity is to do some research to find out what is expected in that culture. Where are jobs advertised? How do people apply for them? Are there differences related to language or spelling, interview protocols, or politeness? Take a moment to read about the cultural differences experienced by your co-authors when they applied for jobs in different countries in Boxes 7.3 and 7.4. Box 7.3 Job search in the UK versus US When I moved to the UK from the US, at first, I wasn’t worried about adjusting culturally since English was used in both countries. Later, I realized that I underestimated the differences in many ways, including when I searched for a job. For one thing, spellings are different for some words. For instance, often where we would have a ‘z’ in words in the US, like ‘organization’ in the UK words are often spelled with an ‘s’ as in ‘organisation’. So, I had to adjust my resume and other application materials. Also, resumes are not called resumes here, they are called CV’s. Other terms were different in the UK. In the US what we call a ‘course’, is called a ‘module’ in the UK. In the US what we call a ‘degree program’, is a ‘course’, so I had to change my terminology to avoid misunderstandings. While you can make yourself understood, since English is the common language, when using alternative terms, I found it makes the

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application smoother when you adapt to the cultural differences even if they are relatively minor.—Caprice Lantz-Deaton

Box 7.4 Applying for a job in Hungary versus the US When applying for a job, I always paid attention to the local culture. You would not believe how many differences there are. For example, in Hungary I was expected to add my photo to my CV, which you are absolutely not advised to do in the US. In a Hungarian CV you also add the date and place of your birth, and sometimes even your marital status and number of children you have. In the US nobody expects you to share your private information, and in fact, it would make your application seem very out of date and old fashioned. In the US you normally have to provide three references, and they may be contacted. In Hungary, you also provide references, but your application is more likely to be successful if you personally know someone in that organization. According to my personal experience, in such a small country as Hungary it is expected that you will be “screened” through your network.—Irina Golubeva

As suggested in the above examples, it is important to be ready to make adjustments to searching for a job based on the culture in which you are applying for that job. If you are looking for a job in a country that you are not familiar with or in an industry that has different hiring practices than you are accustomed to, it is up to you to find out what the cultural norms are for looking for a job in that culture. Of course, if the language spoken in the other country is different, you will be doubly challenged in looking for a job. Take a little time to find some differences in the application processes between your home country and another country by completing Thought Box 7.7.

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Thought Box 7.7 Job search in other countries Choose a country other than your own where you think you might enjoy working. Look through some job advertisements. Are there any differences you see? Are positions advertised as you would expect? Is the language used different or the application methods? How might you need to adapt?

Researching Organizations As we alluded to, practices in relation to IC vary, and so it behooves you to get to know what practices are like in the particular geographic area and the particular organization(s) where you will be applying for jobs. One basic piece of advice in looking for jobs is to research the organization that you plan to apply to. Before we discuss this further, please reflect upon why this might be important using Thought Box 7.8. Thought Box 7.8 Researching organizations Why do you think it might be important to research organizations in which you plan to apply for a job?

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If you have not already worked it out for yourself, familiarizing yourself with an organization is beneficial for several reasons. First, it allows you to see if it is a place you would like to work. Second, it allows you to customize your cover letter and resume so that you are more likely to use the language used within that organization which will increase your chances of getting an interview. Third, during interviews it can help you to demonstrate interest and enthusiasm by showing you are knowledgeable about the organization. Fourth, it puts you in a better position to ask appropriate questions during interviews. Fifth, it might help you to gain an advantage particularly, if you are in a minority group that has been targeted for additional support. Mechanisms which support minority group members vary considerably across organizations and countries and, in some countries, may not even exist. However, there are several countries that provide additional support to members of minority groups in the job search. For example, statistics suggest that people with disabilities in the UK are four times more likely to be unemployed as people who do not have disabilities (Phoenix 2016). To help more people with disabilities become employed, the UK government initiated a Disability Confident scheme. Employers who sign up for this scheme demonstrate their commitment to recruit and employ disabled people. They do this by offering interviews to all disabled people who meet the minimum criteria for the role they have applied for, as well as making reasonable adjustments for disabled people who are hired (Phoenix 2016). Thus, knowing an employer’s EDI policy might help you to determine if it is an employer you want to work for, and if the employer is particularly interested in hiring you. In Chap. 5, we encouraged you to find out whether your college or university had an EDI office. In Thought Box 7.9, we ask that you take some time to explore what is happening in an organization outside of your university or college. Thought Box 7.9 Are organizations recruiting for diversity? Choose an employer that you might be interested in working for and see if you can answer the following questions about them by reviewing their website or published literature: Does the employer demonstrate concern for equality, diversity, and inclusion? How can you tell? Do they mention it in job announcements? Do they have an office of EDI? Do they support diversity related schemes (e.g., Diversity Confident)? Can you tell if the organization provides intercultural training for staff?

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Identifying Competencies Once you identify organizations where you would like to work, you might begin thinking about how you can demonstrate intercultural competence to employers. While we cannot provide ready-made answers, we can make suggestions for what competencies you might highlight and how you might demonstrate them on CV’s and in interviews. Before offering suggestions, however, please complete Thought Box 7.10 and reflect upon one or two of the components we discussed above. Thought Box 7.10 Intercultural competence on your resume Pick one or two attitudes, skills, pieces of knowledge or experiences you have in relation to IC. Describe how you could include them on your CV or talk about them during a job interview. If you need a reminder of what competencies are most important, look back a Chapter 4 for a refresher.

When deciding which competencies to highlight on resumes and during interviews, you need to consider three things. First, what are the competencies that employers are looking for? While this can vary, large scale surveys can help to identify these competencies. The 367 individuals who responded to a British Council survey listed the following as the main competencies they were looking for in relation to IC (British Council 2013, p. 11): • • • • • • • • •

being able to demonstrate respect for others; being able to work effectively in diverse teams; being open to new ideas/ways of thinking; being flexible; being able to adapt easily to other cultures; being able to understand different cultural contexts and viewpoints; being able to communicate in other languages; being aware of one’s own cultural influence; being able to tolerate ambiguity.

When reading this list, these competencies should seem familiar because most of them are reflected in the models of IC that we discussed in Chap. 4. The second way to identify what competencies that are important to highlight to employers, is to look at the models of IC we discussed in Chap. 4. These will

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provide ideas of what competencies you need in order to become more interculturally competent. The third way to identify what competencies that are important to highlight to employers, is to consider which of the competencies outlined in the models of intercultural competence you are good at—because it is better to focus upon your strengths rather than your weaknesses. By considering these three factors, you should be able to come up with some IC related competencies that you can highlight on your resume and discuss during interviews.

Resume Considerations A resume, or curriculum vitae (CV)—as it is called in some countries and industries—is a marketing tool that you can use to help you to find a job. It is literally a document that advertises your skills, abilities, experience and background to employers. Although there are terms other than resume and CV that are used to refer to this document (‘currículo’ in Portugal, ‘relua’ in Romania, ‘jarraitu’ in Basque, ‘återuppta’ in Swedish, ‘életrajz’ in Hungarian, and so on), we will use both in this section interchangeably. In some countries, resumes are extremely important in helping you to get an interview for a job. In other countries, other strategies such as ‘word of mouth’ and networking are more important in finding a job. Many organizations are also moving towards online applications, making resumes not so important. Online applications may require you to upload a resume, while others require you to fill in boxes in relation to your education and experience. So, while you need a resume to apply for some jobs, for others you may use a resume as more of a source document to fill in an application. However, generally, resumes or CVs are still typically required to apply for jobs to greater and lesser extents in many if not most countries. If you will be applying for jobs where you think a resume may be important, then it is worth it for you to read through this section to find out more about writing good resumes and integrating your intercultural competencies into them. While to you a resume is a marketing tool used to advertise yourself, to employers a resume is a screening tool that is used to weed out people they do not wish to interview. This is important for you to know, because when employers advertise jobs, they are often inundated with resumes and so look for ways to reduce the number of possible applicants. While a well written resume can help you make it through the screening process and get an interview for a job you really want, a poorly written resume can land in the garbage ruining your chances completely. There are good resumes and there are not so good resumes, and the quality of your resume depends entirely upon the time and effort that you spend developing it and customizing it for different jobs. There are many resources at your disposal to help you to create an effective resume. It is beyond the scope of this book to provide detailed information about how to create an effective resume and indeed what is acceptable in one country may not be in another.

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However, to follow there are some general considerations which we hope you will find useful. While we list additional resources at the end of the chapter, you will need to use your judgement on the extent to which they apply to the culture in which you are searching for a job. One of the most important pieces of advice regarding resumes is to customize your resume to the employer: Some people create a resume and then send it out to any employer that they would like a job with. This is known in the US as a ‘shotgun’ approach since with a shotgun the bullet breaks into a spray. While a shotgun approach may be easy for you because you send out the same resume to every employer, it is not a particularly effective way to get an interview. Employers can easily tell that you have not really read about their job and have not tried to tailor your resume to them. What is more effective is to study carefully all the information available about each employer you apply to (as suggested above) and then customize your resume to each employer. Customizing might include changing your job objective to match what the employer is looking for. It might include reordering your resume so that skills that the employer is seeking come first in the resume. It might include adding skills or information that the employer has asked for to your resume if they are not already there. Consulting an employer’s website is usually very helpful for a variety of reasons but can also help you to customize your resume. For instance, if you are applying for a position in academia (university or college) very often you will find resumes/CVs of people working there on institutional websites. This is an important source of information as it will help you to adjust your CV to specific job announcements. If you find CVs of others working in the organization of interest to you, it will help you to understand what is appreciated and valued, how to make your application fit the announced position, and what format to follow. It might also help you to identify the ways in which you might contribute to the particular workplace by identifying, for example, how your background might fit in with others in the organization or ‘gaps’ your knowledge and experience might fill. If it is a well-established company or an organization with strong traditions, it could be that you will have to primarily adjust to the organizational culture of the workplace rather than to the culture of the country in which the company, organization or institution is placed. In Box 7.5, we have compiled a checklist of things to think about in the context of culture when writing or editing your resume. Box 7.5 Culturally competent resume (CV) checklist The following are things to consider when creating a resume for use in different cultures. • Contact details: Do you use the format of your name, address, and contact details in a way that is accepted in the culture in which you are applying for a job? (e.g., in some cultures, your family name goes first, in others your first name; in some cultures, the address starts with the house number, in others with the name of the town, etc.)

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• Email address: Does your contact email address look professional? (e.g., when you are seeking a serious position, any email address which may appear funny, sexy, or cool to your friends like [email protected] or [email protected], may lead your future employer not to take you seriously, or even not to consider your application.) • Photos: While including your photo as part of an application was common practice in previous years, in many countries today it is frowned upon, as it can be used by employers to discriminate. Employers may, for instance, invite a person that they find more attractive to come in for an interview while ignoring the application of a candidate they find less attractive. However, in some cultures photos may still be used. Be sure to find out what the convention is where you are applying for jobs. • Voicemail: The message that you have attached to your phone is personal, however, if it is on your resume when you are applying for a job it becomes professional. Is your voicemail message set in a way that will make employers think you are serious about your employment prospects? • Social media page references: Many people are on social media these days and sometimes it is difficult to keep personal lives separate from professional lives. However, it is an important consideration when applying for jobs. If you provide social media page addresses on your resume, consider the extent to which they are appropriate. Do they contain any photos in revealing clothing, or show any other private situations like drinking alcoholic beverages with friends? If they do, consider removing them or making them accessible only to friends rather than to potential employers. Make sure that whatever information is out there about you in the public domain is professional, especially, if it is noted on your resume. • Nationality: If you are applying for jobs abroad, putting your nationality on your CV is a good idea. However, what’s better is to explain the extent to which you have permission to work in the country in which you are applying to work. Employers may not be familiar with visa requirements so the more you can demonstrate that you are familiar with eligibility requirements, the better (Lantz 2011). • Intercultural competencies: Looking back at the definition and competencies associated with IC, you can get an idea of those that you might wish to highlight on your CV. This will to an extent have to reflect the needs of the employer, however, being open, flexible, adaptable, and effective at communicating across cultures are more general competencies related to IC that you may wish to highlight. • Education: If you are applying for a job outside of your home country, you might wonder how to describe your education on your resume. Employers might not be familiar with qualifications obtained elsewhere. You can help employers to understand your qualifications by providing a rough equivalency and including information about what you studied. For instance, in

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the UK students study GCSE’s and A-levels while in the US students go to high school. If you completed high school in the US but are applying for a job in the UK, you could mention that a high school diploma involves four years of study that is roughly equivalent to GCSEs and A-Levels combined (Lantz 2011). While translating qualifications can be helpful, also consider the customs around including education on a resume which can vary. In some countries, once you have a university degree it is no longer necessary or in most cases desirable to include schools or marks received in those schools. Foreign languages: While speaking or having studied foreign languages does not automatically confer intercultural competence, they are an indicator of your interest in other cultures as well as your skills in using another language. Thus, we strongly recommend that you include this information in your CV with the level of proficiency for each of them. If you are experienced in sign language, include that too. The deaf and hard of hearing constitute not just another language but another culture. Abroad experiences: Again, while living, studying, working, or travelling abroad, do not automatically confer intercultural competence, they are indicators of interest in and experience with other cultures. For this reason, you would do well to highlight them especially if employers mention that they are seeking these kinds of experiences. International projects: If you have ever worked on an international project, or did some service work overseas, again, remember to highlight it in your CV. Any information which shows your engagement in a local or global community, participation in volunteering and service, international experience, etc. can be an added value which will make your application unique. Domestic diversity: Even if you have not worked or studied abroad, experience of domestic diversity can be highlighted on your resume. Have you worked with children or the elderly? Have you volunteered at a homeless shelter? Have you worked at a mental health facility? Were clients, customers, or fellow employees that you worked with from diverse backgrounds? If so, mention it as it provides evidence that you have experience with diversity. Modules and workshops: If you have taken any modules or undertaken any training related to intercultural competence, globalization or internationalization, these could also be highlighted on your CV.

Note: You may want to highlight skills and specific international experiences in your Cover Letter as well. Remember that they should be relevant and match the requirements of the job advertisement. The two documents, your resume and your cover letter in many countries complement one another and ideally will be as compelling and culturally appropriate as possible.

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Before reading on, take some time to reflect upon the culturally competent resume checklist in Thought Box 7.11. Thought Box 7.11 Making your resume or CV culturally appropriate Think about how your most recent resume compares to the checklist in Box 7.5 . Write down two or three things you need to consider the next time you update it to make it a little more culturally appropriate.

Preparing for Interviews While resumes are important in the screening process, interviews provide a direct face-to-face opportunity to convince an employer that you are the person for a particular job. During a job interview you have the task of demonstrating your intercultural competence through your learning and life experiences and in the real-life situation of the job interview itself. The first seems to be an easier task so we will look at that first. It is important to note that we do not wish to suggest that you have to highlight your intercultural competence in all interviews by any means. What you highlight during the interview will depend upon what questions you are asked and what job you are applying for. However, in case you are asked questions related to your experience abroad or with diversity it is helpful to think in advance how you will answer them. Consider, for instance, potential interview questions in Box 7.6. Box 7.6 Possible culture related interview questions • Tell me about a time or give me an example of when you worked with a person from a different culture? What went well? What didn’t go so well? What did you learn from the experience? • What do you think cultural diversity means? • How comfortable are you in working with people from different cultures? • To what extent have you worked with people from diverse backgrounds? • Have you ever had a conflict or a difficult experience with a person that you thought was related to culture? If so, what was it? How did you resolve it? • Why did you decide to study/work abroad? • A lot of new people that we hire have studied abroad. Why did you choose not to study abroad?

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• Your resume notes that you are interested in working abroad. Why is it that you want to work abroad? • Can you describe your international experiences? • What are the major things you learned from your time abroad? • What skills and background do you have that would support you in working with diverse groups/abroad? • Would you consider working or travelling abroad again? Why or why not? • How would you feel about travelling around the country for this position? What about international travel? How do you feel about that? • What do you know about equality legislation? • Do you think discrimination in the workplace is a problem? Why or why not? • If you met someone from another culture for the first time, how would you greet them (handshake, bow, nod, other)? • How good are you at working across cultures? How do you know? • We serve a lot of customers/we have a lot of employees here from _______. What do you know about working with people from that particular demographic? • What did you learn from studying another language? • Your resume suggests that you do not speak another language. Why did you not pursue language studies?

There is no one correct way to answer interview questions and your answers will largely depend upon your knowledge and experience. If you do not have relevant knowledge or experience, keep in mind that you can always speak hypothetically. The best way to prepare for an interview is to anticipate questions you will be asked and to practice answering them in advance of job interviews. The best way to organize your thoughts is to write out your answers in advance for each question and then to practice answering them aloud to ensure your answers sound natural and you are comfortable with them. When answering questions, try to be open, do not generalize, and avoid stereotypical answers. The internet is useful for finding interview questions that you might be asked. However, in an internet search you may also find answers to common interview questions which can be quite prescriptive. A hiring manager may have a dozen of interviews in a row and will not be impressed if several times she hears the same answer “borrowed” from an internet source, so be careful. One of the best ways to prepare for an interview is to practice questions that you might be asked. Thought Box 7.12 gives you the opportunity to reflect upon how to answer a culturally related interview question. We suggest you use Thought Boxes 7.12, 7.13, and 7.14 now to write practice answers, but that you consider at some point doing it with all of the questions we have listed in Box 7.6.

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Thought Box 7.12 Answering interview questions Practice makes perfect. Choose one of the interview questions from Box 7.6. Write down a script for how you would you answer the question in a real interview.

As you now know from reading the previous chapters, intercultural competence is complex. During an interview, if the employer asks you how good you are at working across cultures, you cannot simply answer “Oh, I’m very good.” You must provide evidence for this goodness. Take a moment to address this very question in Thought Box 7.13. Thought Box 7.13 Answering an intercultural interview question Script your answer to the following question that you might be asked during an interview. “Intercultural competence is kind of new graduate attribute that we are recruiting for. Can you tell me a little about what it is and how you believe you would demonstrate it on the job?”

Did you have any trouble in scripting an answer in Thought Box 7.12 or 7.13? Reread your answers and consider the extent to which they include evidence. There is a variety of material that you could include that would constitute evidence. Evidence can include the fact that you have read this guide, you have taken a class on IC or EDI, you have successfully worked with people from other cultures, you know what your biases are or that you are working towards overcoming them, you are learning to be more open and curious about cultural difference and so on. You could also explain the ways in which you are working on developing your IC or you could talk about a particular instance in which culture factored into your work (see Thought Box 7.14).

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Thought Box 7.14 Your experience with cultural difference Can you recall when cultural differences between people made a project you were working on challenging? Or can you give an example of a misunderstanding you had when interacting with someone from a different culture? If so, what did you learn from it or how did you resolve it?

If you are interviewing for a job in a country or culture that is not familiar to you, the questions that you can be asked may be very different from what is accepted or appropriate in your culture. For instance, if you come from a culture where modesty is valued, you will most probably find it difficult to answer questions such as ‘Why should we hire you? Are you the best candidate for the job?’ Or, if you come from a culture where private issues are not discussed at work or there are strict guidelines in place about what can and cannot be asked in interviews, you may be unpleasantly surprised by questions like ‘When do you plan to have a baby?’ Or, ‘Are you in a relationship?’ Or ‘What is your religion or political affiliation?’ Such questions, while illegal to ask in some countries, are legal and are asked in other countries. Thus, again it is important for you to read up on equality legislation and to know what is considered acceptable and unacceptable in terms of job interviews in order to be prepared and avoid surprises. Having discussed the specific questions that might be asked during an interview, you may find yourself in a culturally unfamiliar situation in which protocols for interviewing might be very different from what you are accustomed to. Greetings, of course, can be a source of tension if you are unsure whether or not to shake hands, bow or give some other greeting. However, what is expected in terms of the demeanor of a candidate can also be important. Read more about the experiences of one of your co-authors in her interviews abroad in Box 7.7.

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Box 7.7 Comparing interviewing in the US, UK and Japan I have experienced cultural differences in job interviews in Japan and then later in the UK. When I was interviewing for a job as an English teacher in Northern Japan years ago, I was interviewed by the head of school, Mr. Swada. After I was introduced to him, during our conversation we started talking about names, and just out of interest, I asked him what his first name was. He told me, but looked rather insulted, and then he immediately told me I was not to call him by his first name. While in the US culture it is quite common to call a senior person by first name, in Japan deference is expected and, generally, it is not okay to call a senior person by their first name (or at least it wasn’t 20+ years ago when this situation took place). A slight cultural difference to say the least. In England I found other differences. Typically, in the US when you are selected for an interview, you are asked when a mutually convenient time is to come in for the interview. However, in the UK, I found that when I was selected for an interview, I was simply given an interview day and time without discussion of when I might be available. I found this to be and quite difficult given that I had caring and other responsibilities. However, it was, just a difference in protocol that I had to adapt to. During one of my interviews, I tried to put my best foot forward by being confident and sharing my accomplishments which are common strategies in the US when you are interviewing for a job. I was an Assistant Director of university careers office when I moved from the US, so I thought I knew quite a lot about applying for jobs. However, the feedback I received after not getting that job was that I was overly confident and needed to have more experience in the UK to be qualified for the job; difficult if you can’t get a job in the first place. In the end, while I didn’t get that job, I did end up getting a very good job in the UK; and more than one over my last 16 years here. But the lesson was to show more humility in my style of interviewing.—Caprice Lantz-Deaton

As you will know, cultural differences in interviews are not restricted to different countries. There can be vast differences in interviews based upon the cultures of particular institutions, where they are located and the people who work there. Some organizations can be extremely formal in their interview protocols and expectations while others can be very relaxed. There is no single recipe that will help you to be successful in an interview outside of your culture, however, the cultural checklist in Box 7.8 will help you to think about how you might prepare. Box 7.8 Culturally competent interview checklist • Familiarize yourself with what cultural differences there might be in interviewing. If there are articles related to interviewing in the country or area

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where you are being interviewed; read them. Try to talk to people who have been interviewed for similar types of jobs to get their suggestions. There may be subtle differences that can help or hurt you in an interview. For instance, while some cultures expect a lot of direct eye contact, others do not appreciate a lot of eye contact. Familiarize yourself with what the organizational culture is like. Talk to people working in that organization if possible. To prepare for any interview, it is important to know something about the organization where you will have an interview. By knowing something about the organization, you can demonstrate that you have done some background research to prepare for the interview and you can ask more appropriate questions. Do some background research if possible, to find out how people dress in the place where you will be interviewed and dress appropriately. Generally, it is better to err on the side of caution and be somewhat overdressed rather than underdressed. Being overly prepared shows that you care about making a good impression whereas being underdressed tends to demonstrate that you don’t really care. Remain adaptable and flexible and allow the interviewer to lead the way. For example, let the employer take the initiative to shake hands if she wants to, rather than you taking the initiative. If you come from a culture in which you do not shake hands, then politely explain why you do not shake hands. (By the way, it would be a good opportunity for you to check how much this employer appreciates diversity!) During any interview, we recommend that if you do not understand a question or a phrase used, you always ask. Misunderstandings are much more likely when the cultural distance is greater so take additional care in such circumstances. Try to use the words and phrases of the employer’s culture if possible. It is a small thing to say ‘resume’ which is common in the US instead of ‘CV’ which is common in England; or to alter your greeting from your first language to that of the local culture (e.g., ‘Bonjour. Ça va?’ if you are in France instead of ‘Hello. How are you?’ if you are in the US). However, such alterations smooth interactions, show employers you are interested in them and reduce the likelihood that employers will feel uncomfortable. If you try to converse in a language that is not your first, be sure to be humble in your claim to know the language or you could put people off. For example, if your first language is Italian, but you are being interviewed in China, you may be asked how well you can speak Chinese. If you say “Oh, I have studied Chinese for years” you could be viewed as overconfident, especially if it turns out that your Chinese is not as good as you might think. A slightly more humble and possibly accurate approach would be to answer

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the question by saying something like “Well, I have been studying it for a few years now and I am always interested in getting more practice”. • In countries like the US and UK, it is common for the interviewee to be given time to ask the interviewer questions. If this is the case, be prepared with good questions. Take note that these are not typically about salary, how much holiday time you will get, or what the benefits are, which all demonstrate that you are more concerned with yourself than what you can do for the organization. The questions you want to ask (if questions are culturally acceptable) are questions that show that you know something about the organization and/or that you are thinking about how you might fit in (e.g., What are the main challenges for the person who takes this position? What are the typical characteristics of people who are successful in your department? How would you describe the work culture here?). • Learn about what is culturally acceptable in terms of talking about salary and benefits. Often this is best left for after you have been offered the position, but cultural practices do vary.

Getting Career Advice While practices vary around the world, many colleges and universities have a Career Center which is staffed by professionals who are experienced in helping to support students in realizing their career goals. They may provide job listings, help finding work experiences, have job referral services, review and give feedback on resumes, conduct mock job interviews, hold job fairs, run career workshops and mentoring programs, and help students (and sometimes alumni) to make career decisions. Career Center staff members can help you to learn about the customs within the culture in which you are applying for work. For instance, if you are an international student applying for a job in your host country, career professionals can be an invaluable source in helping you to understand application standards and customs in relation to job searching. Career Center staff might even be able to help you to organize a work experience abroad which will help you to enhance your intercultural experiences. Studies show that students that make use of university and college career centers find jobs faster and easier than those that do not. At your co-authors’ (Golubeva) university, it was found that 82% of graduating students engaged with the Career Center (UMBC n.d.). According to a survey of the class of 2018, “86% of employed undergraduate degree recipients are in positions directly related to their career goals” (ibid.). And, “83% of undergraduates had engaged in applied learning, such as internships, research, service-learning, study abroad, student teaching and leadership positions while at the University of Maryland Baltimore County (UMBC)” (ibid.). This suggests how helpful Career Center advising can be. While statistics on graduate mobility vary between colleges and universities, some excel at producing graduates

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who ultimately end up working abroad. For instance, at the time of this writing, the University of Bradford in the UK had graduates working in 175 different countries. Because of your cultural background, you might be inclined to think that asking for help is a sign a weakness and that making use of a career office would suggest that you cannot find a job on your own. However, career offices are there as a benefit for students. When students use them, they are not showing signs of weakness but signs that they are knowledgeable, organized and resourceful and are making use of services that are at their disposal. Just as lecturers are there to help students to understand subject matter, career professionals are there to help students to understand and be successful in their career development pursuits. While we believe that it is important to use university career services, one thing to keep in mind is that while careers staff are there to support students in the job search and career development process, they do not simply hand out jobs. In most cases it is your responsibility to find your own job; career professionals are simply there to provide support and guidance. Thus, although you may make use of a university career center, keep in mind they have no real control over whether you get a job or not. What will impact your ability to get a job is how well you have prepared yourself and how well you conduct your job search. However, the competitiveness of your career field also has an impact as well as the economic state of the country and region in which you are applying for jobs. In some countries or regions there might be many jobs available with unemployment quite low. In others, however, there are not. There may be few jobs available and unemployment might be quite high. After reading this chapter you should have an idea of why you as a job seeker, familiar with IC and EDI would be valuable to employers. As discussed, some employers in some countries are quite advanced in their practices in regard to IC and EDI and in those contexts you would do very well to integrate what you have learned into the way that you market yourself to get a job. That said, even in places where IC and EDI are not prioritized, you have the potential to make a difference by influencing employer practices and the behavior of those around you, so either way knowledge of these areas is extremely valuable. This chapter also enabled you to think about cultural issues relevant to your job search. This involves understanding how culture might influence where and how you look for jobs, what you put on your CV, what you might talk about during interviews and how culture might impact your behavior overall. Further, it outlined how IC might be highlighted both on your resume and during job interviews. Again, we cannot be prescriptive with the way in which you do this because of the variation in context and culture. What works in one country or city, may not work in another. Thus, you must put your understanding of intercultural competence to work by seeking knowledge about relevant cultures and contexts and being flexible by adapting your approach accordingly.

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Office for National Statistics. (2016). Child and infant mortality in England and Wales [Online]. London: Office for National Statistics. Available: https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationan dcommunity/birthsdeathsandmarriages/deaths/bulletins/childhoodinfantandperinatalmortality inenglandandwales/2016#most-deprived-areas-have-the-highest-infant-mortality-rates-in-bothengland-and-wales-in-2016. Accessed October 25, 2019. Petter, O. (2019). Australian university launches ‘all-gender’ bathrooms to support diversity [Online]. UK: The Independent. https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/all-gender-bathroomsydney-university-technology-restroom-unisex-a8767286.html. Phoenix, L. (2016). Two ticks scheme is now disability confident [Online]. Wimbledon, UK: United Response. Available: https://www.unitedresponse.org.uk/blog/two-ticks-disability-con fident. Accessed November 12, 2019. Psychology Today (2009). German company survey. Psychology Today. December ed. PWC. (2017). The long view: How will the global economic order change by 2050? [Online]. Price Waterhouse Coopers. Available: https://www.pwc.com/gx/en/world-2050/assets/pwc-the-worldin-2050-full-report-feb-2017.pdf#page=68. Accessed November 12, 2018. Reskin, B. (1993). Sex segregation in the workplace. Annual Review of Sociology, 19, 241–270. Spring, J. (2001). Globalization and education rights: An intercivilizational analysis. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Traynor, K. (2019). USU to install foot-washing stations to aid in religious observance [Online]. Daily Forty-niner. Available: https://daily49er.com/news/2019/04/29/usu-to-installfoot-washing-stations-to-aid-in-religious-observance. Accessed November 15, 2019. UMBC. (n.d.). What we do [Online]. Baltimore, MD: University of Maryland Baltimore Campus. Available: https://careers.umbc.edu/aboutus/what-we-do/. Accessed November 12, 2019. United Nations. (2015). World population prospects—the 2015 revision: Key findings and advanced tables [Online]. New York: United Nations. Available: https://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/Publications/ Files/Key_Findings_WPP_2015.pdf. Accessed November 11, 2019. World Bank. (2019). World bank open data [Online]. World Bank. https://data.worldbank.org. Accessed November 12, 2019.

Chapter 8

How Can We All Be Intercultural Leaders?

‘[T]here are good reasons for suggesting that the modern age has ended. Today, many things indicate that we are going through a transitional period, when it seems that something is on the way out and something else is painfully being born. It is as if something were crumbling, decaying, and exhausting itself, while something else, still indistinct, were arising from the rubble—Václav Havel, former President of Czechoslovakia, The Need for Transcendence…’ 1994.

Chapter 8 addresses intercultural leadership and helps you to understand that leadership can be accomplished in both large and small ways to facilitate social change in organizations and the wider world. This chapter explores the concept of leadership and what it means to be not just a leader but an intercultural leader. Myths about leadership are debunked in this chapter. Further, it defines what it meant by the term organizational cultural competence (OCC) and corporate social responsibility (CSR) and describes the ways in which they can both be promoted within organizations. Learning outcomes: By reading this chapter and completing the tasks, you will be able to: • Recognize how IC can be used in different ways to facilitate social change in organizations and the wider world; • Extend the concept of leadership beyond traditional ideas of power and redefine what it means to be an intercultural leader; • Distinguish between intercultural competence and intercultural leadership; • Define organizational cultural competence and corporate social responsibility; • Explain the ways in which organizational cultural competence and corporate social responsibility can be promoted in the workplace.

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 C. Lantz-Deaton and I. Golubeva, Intercultural Competence for College and University Students, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57446-8_8

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Our underlying purpose in writing this book has been to help you to understand what intercultural competence is, why it is important in your personal and professional lives and how you can use it to develop your employability and to facilitate change in organizations and society at large. This chapter will emphasize this last point by helping you to think through how you can use your IC to influence those around you. In particular, we will be discussing intercultural leadership, organizational cultural competence and corporate social responsibility.

Using Intercultural Competence to Create Change: How Do I Go About Doing It? To a greater or less degree we all want to make a difference. To effect change and make an impact on the world you do not necessarily need to be in a managerial position. If you are a student, an intern, an educator, a nurse, or have any other role, you still have the potential to influence others and to bring about positive change in your community, for your employer or in the wider world. For this, you need, first, a willingness to act, and, second, a willingness to take responsibility for your actions. Let us consider how this might be achieved; but before we do, take a minute to answer the two questions in Thought Box 8.1. Thought Box 8.1 How do I perceive myself in leadership terms? Can you think of a time or give an example of when you influenced another person or group of people in some way? If so, how? To what extent do you think you possess leadership qualities? How do you know?

If you struggled with your answers in Thought Box 8.1, do not despair. You may not see yourself as a leader and think maybe this chapter does not apply to you. However, we believe that it would be useful for you to take the time to read it for at least two reasons. First, although you may not see yourself as a leader in the traditional sense, there are many ways to lead, for instance, by example. Thus, you will inevitably learn how you can be an intercultural leader, no matter who you are. Second, we are all impacted by leaders who influence our lives in various ways whether they are managers, company presidents, ministers, or elected officials. There are great leaders, leaders that are mediocre and those that are highly destructive. We believe that this chapter will help you to think critically about what it means to be a

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good leader, so that you are in a better position to detect sophistry and identify those leaders that are worth following.

Intercultural Leadership: What Does It Mean? Two competences that most employers in the public sector, corporate world and nongovernmental organizations (NGO) continue to stress as important are the ability to communicate effectively, which of course involves intercultural competence, and leadership abilities. Despite the fact that numerous surveys and reports support these claims (British Council 2013; Rand Corporation 2003)—courses related to intercultural competence are typically not included as core courses in most undergraduate and graduate programs, with the exception of those closely related to IC such as Intercultural Communication, Global Studies or Business Communication. Further, it is likely that they will continue not be widely offered in the immediate future. Just as intercultural competence as a subject area does not receive enough attention in Higher Education, intercultural leadership (IL) also does not receive enough attention and is typically only addressed within executive education programs for top managers and CEOs. The Post-baccalaureate Certificate Program in Intercultural Leadership (graduate.umaryland.edu/intercultural) jointly taught by the University of Maryland, Baltimore and the University of Maryland, Baltimore County (USA), provides a good example of teaching IL. However, we believe that this topic is important for students at all levels because everyone has the potential to be an intercultural leader. For this reason, we dedicate this section to helping you to understand the concept of intercultural leadership (IL) and how—no matter who you are—you can be an intercultural leader. But before we delve into the discussion of the main issues related to intercultural leadership, we first must clarify what leadership means. In his recent book, Miller (2018, p. 7) mentions that there are more than 200 definitions and 70 classifications of the term “leadership”. Among others, Miller refers to approaches that define leadership “as the focus of group processes, where the leader is regarded as central to the overall function of what a group is trying to achieve”; “as a skill”; “as an individual activity that is heavily influenced by a leader’s personal traits or characteristics”; “as an act or behavior– that is, what leaders do to bring about change”; “in terms of power relation”; or “as a transformational process that inspires followers to achieve more than is required or even expected of them” (ibid.). As you can see, defining the term “leadership” and the principles, according to which a leader should act, is a challenging task. Before we introduce you to some approaches to leadership, please take a moment and address the question in Thought Box 8.2.

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Thought Box 8.2 Stereotypical characteristics of leaders in your culture Think about what you know about leaders. What are the stereotypical characteristics associated with leaders in your culture?

Traditionally, many societies have viewed leaders stereotypically as middle-aged or elderly males (often wearing glasses, a suit and a tie as their status attributes and depending upon cultural norms). They were thought of as being achievementfocused, decisive and, sometimes, even aggressive and domineering (see Bass and Bass 2008 for the discussion of the so-called “Great Man theory”, the “Trait Theory”, and the “Charismatic Leadership Theory”). Although leaders were routinely thought to be men, throughout history there are notable examples of women taking up leadership roles: Amelia Earhart, for example, was the first woman to fly solo across the Atlantic and fought for the equality for women all her life. Mother Teresa led people by example and inspired many through her devotion to helping those affected by poverty, hunger, and illness. Rosa Parks stood up for the rights of black Americans by refusing to give up her seat on a city bus which led to a massive societal change and to her becoming “the First Lady of Civil Rights”. There are countless women who have had and continue to have a positive impact on individuals and societies, making the world a better and more equal place. Although we are well into the second decade of the new millennium, with the gender gap narrowing to a greater or lesser degree in different countries, as discussed in the previous chapters, statistics show that we still live in societies that are largely male dominated. In some countries women received the right to vote less than 50 years ago (Angola—1975; Bahrain—1973; Jordan— 1974; Kuwait—2005, etc., see for more World Economic Forum 2017); and in other countries women still do not have such rights. Even a country like the United States, ranked on the Global Gender Gap Index (World Economic Forum 2017, p. 334) as number one in women’s educational attainment, it is 96th out of 144 in women’s political empowerment (following Pakistan (95th) and falling well below Iceland (1st), page 13 of the same report. One would suppose that higher education institutions are among the most progressive regarding gender equality, but the numbers are quite disillusioning and even worrisome. In US academia, for example, despite the fact that women earned the majority of doctorates over the past ten years, the proportion of female full professors is only 32% (Johnson 2017; McCarthy 2018). And, such underrepresentation in leadership roles can be observed for all types of minorities, and across countries which consider themselves to be democratic societies.

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Today, in an increasingly globalized world the requirements for a ‘good leader’ are changing. Increasing diversity in terms of gender and ethnicity in the workforce brings new demands and expectations for leading in the twenty-first century. Leading people from different (cultural, ethnic, language, etc.) backgrounds is challenging; therefore, companies and organizations are looking for professionals who are creative, empathetic, and can effectively mediate between cultures. Individuals who display competencies such as flexibility and tolerance of ambiguity (which as you know are important in IC) are highly sought after. According to a recent report (Deloitte 2019), 81% of 2173 business and human resource leaders surveyed ranked the ability to lead through more complexity and ambiguity as important. The importance of diversity was addressed in another study presented by Chin and Trimble (2015) which attempted to identify the main characteristics of leaders and expand existing models of leadership. First, a list of 63 characteristics was collected from 100 US-leaders from different ethnic backgrounds. Then, researchers identified the most and the least important ones. As the most important descriptors respondents selected: adaptability, integrity, authenticity, honesty, and communication (Chin and Trimble 2015) while the least important descriptors included aggressive, conflict-inducer, dominant, self -centered, and status conscious (ibid.). In other words, the characteristics that were least appreciated by the respondents were those that are typically associated with the leadership style described in the beginning of this section, which is sometimes referred to in everyday language as the “alpha male”-style (see e.g. Kets de Vries 2016; Ludeman and Erlandson 2004). The results of this study can serve as evidence that traditional (rather Westernized) models of leadership are becoming “less relevant for societies that are increasingly diverse and global” (Vasquez in Foreword to Chin et al. 2018a). Before we move on with discussion of what being an intercultural leader is about, please take a moment and answer the questions in Thought Box 8.3.

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Thought Box 8.3 Characteristics of a ‘good leader’ Think about what type of leader you would like to follow (or to be yourself) and list five characteristics you would like that leader to possess. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. In what ways do you think an ‘intercultural leader’ is different from a ‘good leader’ in its traditional understanding?

Human history has witnessed both: the failure of great leaders and the success of leaders with rather ordinary capabilities. The interdisciplinary field of leadership studies tries to understand the phenomenon of leadership and, among others, to identify the characteristics, styles, functions, and competences of successful leaders. The transformational leadership style has been highlighted in the diversity literature as having the potential to enhance the performance of culturally diverse teams (e.g., Kearney and Gebert 2009). It has also been highlighted because of the potential for transformational leaders to bring about social change (e.g., Antrobus 2000). The concept originated with Burns in 1978 who introduced the transactional leader and the transforming (or, as it is commonly called now, transformational) leader. In his view, transforming, or transformational leaders are thought to be more powerful or “potent” (Burns 1978). The opposite of transactional leaders, who exchange one thing for another, for instance, “jobs for votes, or subsidies for campaign contributions”, transformational leaders are “moral agents” who are able to produce social change and “take responsibility for their commitments” (Burns 1978, p. 4). Burns defined transformational leadership as a process in which “leaders and followers help each other to advance to a higher level of morale and motivation” (Burns 1978, p. 20). Bass (1985) further elaborated upon Burns’ concept of “transformational leader” by explaining the underlying psychological mechanisms of this type of leadership. Among others, transformational leadership emphasizes intrinsic motivation of the followers; encourages creativity; builds on followers’ self-identification with the collective identity of the organization, and a leader being an inspiring role model for

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followers; and raises followers’ interest by letting them take greater ownership for their work. History demonstrates that transformational leaders can influence a positive change not only in their workplace or closer communities but in the wider world. Think about such iconic leaders as Martin Luther King Jr., who passionately struggled against racism in the United States, or about Mahatma Gandhi, who promoted nonviolence, or Steve Jobs, who had an exceptional ability to inspire his employees and others beyond Apple’s community. Many consider transformational leadership as leadership in its highest form. In practice, this theoretical approach was adapted, for example, by the Finnish Defence Forces (see details in Valli 2013). Although Valli (2013) points out that it is quite challenging to apply this approach in the context of the military which is characterized by a strict chain of command and clear relationships in both the vertical and horizontal sense, she suggests that this style of leadership has a huge potential, especially, among peacekeepers. Transformational leadership does have the potential to bring about positive change and is an important style to incorporate in our discussion of intercultural leadership. However, it is also important to recognize the problems with transformational leadership. As some authors suggest (e.g., Bass and Riggio 2006; Tourish 2013), transformational leadership may have negative “side-effects” and warn that it should not be taken for granted that transformational leaders bring only positive change. Tourish warns that transformational leaders may use their capabilities in a negative way. He provides some examples such as the malignant narcissist Jim Jones, who led 909 of his followers (including 304 children) to their deaths in Jonestown in 1978. While transformational leadership can be used negatively, the same dangers can be said to relate to intercultural competence in general. Sercu (2010) highlights the fact that some IC models are problematic because they subscribe to principles that have very little to do with concepts associated with intercultural competence. She describes, for example, Kim’s (1996) model of global intelligence which includes statements such as “‘be aggressively curious about other cultures’, ‘shift their paradigms as necessary’ (global mentality) and ‘challenge the negative cultural influence on the status quo’ (global competency)” (as quoted in Sercu 2010, p. 22). Such statements are far removed from the more humanistic goals outlined in this guide, but further are unnecessary to adopt even if you are strictly concerned with how to enhance your employability. Knowledge and power can corrupt; which is why we stress here that it is important to take responsibly for applying your knowledge of IC and IL in positive ways acting as “moral agents”, which is how Burns (1978) originally envisioned transformational leaders. This willingness to take responsibility, to act as a moral agent, and to change the world for the better is what makes transformational leadership so close to intercultural leadership, as we understand it. Before discussing what ‘intercultural leader’ means, take a moment to reflect in Thought Box 8.4.

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Thought Box 8.4 Becoming an intercultural leader We have been discussing leadership and more specifically transformational leadership and how it can be used effectively to facilitate positive changes in communities and societies. Based upon what you have learned so far, what elements of transformational leadership do you think relate to intercultural leadership?

As we have mentioned earlier in this chapter, globalization and increasing diversity brings new demands and expectations for the twenty-first century leader. Although the concept of intercultural leadership has not been crystallized yet, there are some valuable attempts in the research literature to develop it as a concept. For example, Pusch (2009) refers to the capabilities created by Gudykunst (1991) to describe an ‘interculturally competent global leader’, which include the following (Pusch 2009, pp. 69–70): • Mindfulness, defined as the cognitive awareness “of our own communication and the process of interaction with others”; • Cognitive flexibility, defined as the ability “to create new categories” and “avoid the tendency to stuff new information into old, present categories”, which implies “being open to new information” and “being aware of more than one perspective”; • Tolerance for ambiguity, defined as “the ability to be in a situation that is unclear and not become overly anxious but to determine patiently what is appropriate as the dimensions of situations and conditions become apparent”; • Behavioral flexibility, defined as “the ability to adapt and accommodate one’s own behavior to people from other groups”; • Cross-cultural empathy, defined as the ability “to participate in another person’s experience in your imagination; thinking it intellectually and feeling it emotionally. The ability to connect emotionally with people and showing compassion for others, being able to listen actively and mindfully, and viewing situations from more than one perspective is an important set of skills that demonstrate empathy.” As you will know from reading the previous chapters, intercultural leadership as defined above bears striking similarities to intercultural competence. Further, like our own views of IC and IL, Pusch also shares the view that these abilities can be learned and developed (Pusch 2009, p. 67). Take a minute to reflect on your own capabilities in Thought Box 8.5.

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Thought Box 8.5 Analyzing your intercultural leadership capabilities Of Pusch’s five capabilities relevant to interculturally competent leaders, choose one that you think you are better at than the others. In what ways do you exhibit that capability? Now choose one that you are not as good at. How do you think you might improve?

Echoing some of what we have seen in Pusch’s model of an intercultural leader, another researcher, Milton Bennett (2018) stresses the importance of adaptability, in both mindset and skillset in relation to IL. Intercultural mindset in Bennett’s understanding helps us to recognize “deep differences in cultural worldviews and the potential value of those differences for organizations”. Further he recognizes an intercultural skillset or “the ability to use learning-to-learn frameworks to identify potential areas of misunderstanding and to increase one’s repertoire of behavior appropriately” (Bennett 2018, p. 1). Bennett also discusses “the ability to experience cultural difference in sophisticated ways”, referred to as intercultural sensitivity in the Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS) (see Bennett 1993) described in Chap. 4. We would like to reiterate here that just as intercultural competence can be developed, so can intercultural leadership. An interesting attempt to understand organizational leadership was made by the GLOBE (Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness) research project, in which data were collected from approximately 17,300 middle managers from 950 organizations in 62 countries (for details see Chhokar et al. 2007b). They adopted the following definition which says that organizational leadership is “the ability of an individual to influence, motivate, and enable others to contribute toward the effectiveness and success of the organizations of which they are members” (House et al. 2004, p. 56). Originally, the purpose of the project was “to develop societal and organizational measures of culture and leader attributes that would be appropriate for employers across all cultures” (Chhokar et al. 2007b, p. 6). They identified 9 independent attributes of culture (6 of which originated from Hofstede’s cultural dimensions, see Chap. 2 in this book): (1) assertiveness, (2) future orientation, (3) gender egalitarianism, (4) humane orientation, (5) institutional collectivism, (6) ingroup collectivism, (7) performance orientation, (8) power distance, and (9) uncertainty avoidance (for detailed description see Chhokar et al. 2007b, pp. 3–4). Among other specific questions the GLOBE researchers wanted to find answers to include the following: • Are there leader behaviors, attributes, and organizational practices that are universally accepted and effective across cultures?

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• Are there leader behaviors, attributes, and organizational practices that are accepted and effective in only some cultures? (Chhokar et al. 2007b, p. 8) The GLOBE project also revealed what attributes in leaders are perceived in different cultures either as desirable (valued) or undesirable (viewed as obstacles). As positive attributes they listed characteristics of a leader who builds confidence, is trustworthy, encouraging, dependable, dynamic, honest, intelligent, just, motivational, positive, forward planning, has foresight, and is a communicator and team builder. As negative characteristics they listed leaders who are asocial, dictatorial, egocentric, irritable, loner, noncooperative, nonexplicit, and ruthless. These findings may serve as guidelines for which characteristics should be adopted and prioritized, and which characteristics should be eliminated and replaced by more favorable ones. From the perspective of our discussion on intercultural leadership, one of the most important findings of the GLOBE group was that leader’s effectiveness is contextual, and depends on the norms, beliefs, and values of a given culture (be that societal or organizational culture). They identified six leadership styles including: charismatic/value-based, team-oriented, participative style, humane style, autonomous style, and self - or group-protective (for details see Chhokar et al. 2007a; House et al. 2004). Based on statistical analysis they created clusters of countries based on the leadership styles that were preferred in those countries. For example, in the so-called Anglo cluster, in which they placed Australia, England, Ireland, New Zealand, the white population of South Africa, and the United States, the performance-oriented (charismatic/value-based) leadership style was the most highly ranked. In the Southeast Asian cluster (Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia, India, Thailand, Iran) and the Confucian Asia cluster (China, Hong-Kong, Singapore), according to the GLOBE, people endorse four of the styles: the team-oriented, the humane, the autonomous, and the self- or group-protective styles. In the so-called Eastern Europe cluster (Greece, Hungary, Albania, Slovenia, Poland, Russia, Georgia, Kazakhstan), for example, the team-oriented, the autonomous, and the self- or group-protective styles were highly valued, but the participative leadership style, which is by the way the highest in rank for the Germanic, Anglo and Nordic cluster, was the lowest ranked. For more details on country clusters and their preferred leadership styles see House et al. (2004) . It is important to mention here, that even if you operate in your industry within a certain cultural cluster, you should be aware that the acceptability of certain behaviors of a leader differs from country to country (see Keating and Martin 2007). On the other hand, there are some universally endorsed attributes of an outstanding leader which are viewed as positive in any culture such as a charismatic and transformational style of leadership (see den Hartog et al. 1999). While the perspectives above are useful, we believe that being an intercultural leader is not just about the leadership style but about the moral principles the leader subscribes to. In this regard, to date, Hollander’s (2009) approach to leadership seems to be very close to what we understand an intercultural leader to be. The inclusive approach to leadership advocates a movement away from traditional domineering leadership styles and towards adopting an approach which is respectful of diversity

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and flexible in its approach to leading others. In this sense, truly intercultural leadership is always inclusive. Voices of others are listened to and heard. Hollander (2009, p. 38) suggests that inclusive leadership practices include: • Respecting members of the team and their individuality; • Showing awareness of their contributions and giving recognition of those, with attention to fairness; • Having group discussions about goals, and listening to what is said; • Deciding what performance is needed to achieve those goals, and giving feedback on progress toward their achievement; • Facilitating a forward-looking approach, rather than just reviewing the past; • Living up to the responsibilities of fulfilling one’s role, as it is depended upon by others; • Being open as much as possible, with honest communication that fosters trust and loyalty. One of the basic principles and main distinctive features of inclusive leadership is “doing things with people rather than to people” (Hollander 2009, p. 9, emphasis as in the original source). Hollander—like Burns (1978)—sees leaders as “moral agents” who make value judgements and are concerned with taking ethical and responsible actions. In this way, leaders are accountable to those they lead rather than being aloof, distant power figures (Hollander 2009, p. 158). Other researchers have highlighted other characteristics that can be adopted for intercultural leadership. One suggested by Greenleaf (1998), which we consider indispensable and which has been mentioned in the previous chapters, is humility. Greenleaf suggests that leadership can be moral, or ethical, only when it is a “servant leadership” (Greenleaf 1998). Servant leaders demonstrate empathetic concern and try to help those who are most in need; they perceive their success through empowering others; they build trust; share leadership, listen to others when making decisions and equalize power imbalances. This means that an ideal intercultural leader is humble and accessible, and not overconfident or domineering, as is the stereotypical view of a leader. As examples of leaders who appear to demonstrate humility, consider Mother Teresa (mentioned above) and the Dalai Lama, who serves humanity by promoting peace, wisdom, and dialogue. Other important principles that can be adopted for intercultural leadership, are those discussed by Nahavandi and Krishnan (2018), who combined the ideas from Indian and Iranian philosophy to propose a distinct and divergent style compared to Westernized approaches to leadership. In their understanding, “Leaders and followers are part of an integral whole rather than separate parts” (Nahavandi and Krishnan 2018, p. 113). In addition to humility they list five other principles of leadership: integrity, action-orientation, moderation, accountability, and kindness (ibid.: 111– 113), which according to Nahavandi and Krishnan (2018, p. 113) are, “all are essential and must be integrated and balanced to lead effectively”. As an exemplar of modern leadership they highlight Mahatma Gandhi who embodied “integrity, kindness and compassion, humility, fairness and justice, moderation, seeking knowledge

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and accountability” (Nahavandi and Krishnan 2018, p. 109 referring to Mahatma Gandhi 2002). The approaches discussed above are not only useful for crystallizing what intercultural leadership should be like, but they reflect the need for moving beyond a more traditional, heavily Westernized understanding of leadership. As discussed in Chap. 3, it is instructive to consider approaches that look at IC and IL through other cultural lenses. For example, interesting insights can be gained from learning about Ubuntu, a leadership practice originating from Southern Africa, whose greatest exemplar was Nelson Mandela. The Ubuntu leadership approach suggests striving to serve others (like Greenleaf above). It is “a leadership that cares for the many and serves them in community whilst also allowing individual expression” (an Ubuntu artist quoted in Elkington and Tuleja (2018, p. 67). It comprises six core components including: (1) collective identity, (2) mutuality or interdependence, (3) morality, (4) unity, (5) humility, and (6) generosity (Mukuka 2013 as quoted in Elkington and Tuleja 2018, p. 68). Elkington and Tuleja (2018) show how the communal philosophy of Ubuntu (“I am because you are”) and Confucius thought in China (cf. Hofstede’s culture dimension of collectivism in Chap. 2 of this book) may enrich and enhance Westernized notions of leadership. Today’s globalized world is marked by interconnectedness and interdependence of people and countries that may be overlooked by leaders sharing individualistic values. Before we go any further, take a moment to reflect on what you know about intercultural leaders in Thought Box 8.6. Thought Box 8.6 Defining intercultural leadership Based on what you have learned thus far, what do you think are the most important characteristics of an intercultural leader? What do you think the difference is between simply having intercultural competence and being an intercultural leader?

Comparing different cultural and scientific views on modern leadership, we can conclude that they have a lot in common. In our view, it is essential for a modern leader to be interculturally competent and that involves displaying intercultural leadership. While not to be prescriptive, the most salient competencies of intercultural leadership in our view include competencies that are very similar to and based around those that we highlighted as important for intercultural competence in Chap. 4. We suggest that an intercultural leader is:

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A good communicator—able to act as an intercultural mediator; Inclusive and collaborative—willing to elicit input from others to formulate plans; Respectful of diversity and the value that it can bring to making effective decisions; Moral, that is leading in a way that considers how plans impact others; Tolerant of ambiguity and willing and able to explore possibilities fully; Mindful of their own biases and of the need to attend to the perspectives of those around them; Adaptable, flexible, and open to new ideas and approaches; Empathetic towards those around them; Critical in applying logic to understand situations and develop solutions; Humble in their approach to leading others by recognizing their own limitations and avoiding an approach which assumes superiority; Being action oriented and taking responsibility for their actions.

As you will note, many of these competencies emphasize the moral principles discussed above and suggest how a true intercultural leader acts and behaves. By incorporating the above-mentioned insights, we suggest that an intercultural leader is someone who has a transformative power controlled by strong ethical values and critical cultural (self-)awareness, understands the variation in values and beliefs between cultures and is not only able but willing to communicate and collaborate with people across multiple cultures to empower diversity, and encourage others to facilitate positive social change.

Intercultural Leaders: How Do I Become One? We have been discussing intercultural leadership and its associated competencies. As you have probably gleaned, the competencies associated with IL are very similar to those associated with IC. Before we go further, take a minute to contrast IL and IC in Thought Box 8.7. Thought Box 8.7 Distinguishing between IC and IL Based upon what you have learned about IC and IL do you think that strategies to develop IL are any different from those to develop your IC? If so, how?

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If you have not already worked it out for yourself, the main difference in your approach to developing your IC and IL will relate to how you intend to use it to facilitate change and pursue employment. Of course, it goes without saying that first and foremost your goal is to pursue the development of your IC. We discuss this in some depth in Chap. 4, which might be good for you to review now. But, essentially, it involves you analyzing our list of competencies (see Appendix A) identifying those that you need to work on and developing and deploying an action plan (see Appendix B) to pursue your development. Of course, you know now that this is a process that will repeat again and again since no one is ever fully interculturally competent. The prospect of trying to become an intercultural leader might sound daunting, and as we have said, you might not think of yourself as a “leader” exactly. However, it is not a “mission impossible”, especially, because intercultural leadership for one person will look very different from intercultural leadership for another. Although the competencies that we look for in an intercultural leader are largely the same, different people will choose different ways to exercise their intercultural influence depending upon their personal and professional roles. Some of you will take on roles that are considered “de facto” leadership roles such as politician, manager, or company president. However, intercultural leadership can become part of most any role, regardless of whether or not you are in charge of leading groups of people. For instance, you might become a journalist and write influential articles about racism, sexism, homophobia or other related topics that we have discussed in this guide. You might become a lawyer and defend clients from unfair dismissals or prosecute businesses who treat employees unfairly. You might become a counselor working with refugees or people from low socio-economic backgrounds helping them to access education and better their life chances. You might become a police officer and suggest training be implemented on unconscious bias which could prevent inadvertent shootings and save lives. You might become a nurse who demonstrates to your colleagues how to provide your patients with the ultimate in-patient care through showing respect and understanding of their cultural and religious diversity. You might become a hiring manager and call attention to hiring procedures which fail to bring in diverse staff because of biases about such characteristics as race, ethnicity, or accent. You might become a writer of children’s books and write about strong female characters, children who are homosexual or children who live in poverty in order to be inclusive and illustrate the lives of diverse individuals. You might become a teacher—and while you may or may not have the opportunity to teach about IC related topics, whatever your discipline, you can lead by example by treating diverse students fairly and in non-discriminatory ways. You might become a taxi driver and because of your knowledge of unconscious bias, you ensure that you stop equally for black customers as well as white. Even if you work in fields that seem far removed from IC, culture will always be involved; you will have an opportunity to make a difference. If you become a software engineer, you could help your organization to consider ways to increase the representation of women in your field or you could mentor a young woman engineer so she does not fall victim to the leaky pipeline discussed in Chap. 3. Alternatively, you might champion the use of parental leave among male staff members to help create a more egalitarian workforce.

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Beyond work there are countless small and large opportunities to exercise your IL. You can start or simply join an intercultural club or society and encourage others to join as well. You can introduce yourself to a person from another country or culture and build cultural bridges through friendship. You can help those that you know are struggling with cultural issues as an intercultural mediator as we discussed in Chap. 6. You can challenge instances of stereotyping, prejudice or discrimination that you see around you. For example, if someone makes a racist remark, you can help them to understand the problem with making such remarks. If someone is racist towards a particular group, you could help that person get to know someone from that race to help break down those prejudices. Although a strict definition of intercultural leader implies overseeing groups, hopefully you can see by our discussion above that you do not have to be in charge of people to influence others. However, part of what you do with your intercultural competence and intercultural leadership depends upon your personal characteristics and level of comfort with other people. Are you an outspoken sort of person who doesn’t mind causing controversy? For example, would you like to present an argument in front of a group about the merits of discrimination law? Or do you see yourself working more behind the scenes influencing people on an individual level or working towards changing policy? Your preferences and personality will undoubtedly influence what you do with your intercultural competence and intercultural leadership. Reflect on this for a minute in Thought Box 8.8. Thought Box 8.8 Envisioning yourself as an intercultural leader Knowing what you know now about intercultural leadership, and your own personal qualities and preferences, how do you envision yourself being an intercultural leader going forward?

While developing your IC is paramount in developing your IL, more specifically you will want to consider your potential career path, read up on issues to do with intercultural competence, intercultural communication, and equality, diversity, and inclusion in the industry in which you plan to work. Throughout this guide we have discussed several problems that plague various industries which cost employers time and money, contribute to human suffrage, and can even lead to the loss of life. While reading up on these issues within your own country or the country in which you plan to work will be useful, consider reading about practice in other countries as well which will give you some ideas about the types of things to consider for your future career. If you have time to do this now, use Thought Box 8.9 to reflect on your findings.

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Thought Box 8.9 Envisioning your career trajectory as an intercultural leader What are the particular problems that impact employees, clients or customers in the career field in which you hope to work? What might your role be in influencing positive change?

The thought boxes above have encouraged you to generate some ideas about what you might do with IL going forward. One of the best ways to prepare yourself for life after graduation is to gain practical experience. The extent to which you are able to gain such experience and have it relate to intercultural leadership, so much the better. You should now be in a better position to integrate intercultural leadership into an action plan that coincides with your action plan for intercultural competence. Before we leave the topic of leadership, we address some widespread myths about leadership in the next section which will round out your understanding of this topic.

Debunking Myths: Aren’t Leaders just Born? There are a lot of myths regarding who can be considered a ‘good leader’, which we would like to briefly discuss. Such myths, or beliefs—although not supported by research findings—were perpetuated, on one hand, by the fact that historically we have lived in male dominated societies and, on the other hand, by the mass media, films, literature, etc. Here we will debunk those myths that are closely associated with our traditional understanding of leadership. The first myth—considered by a well-known American leadership studies scholar Warren G. Bennis as “the most dangerous leadership myth” (Bennis 2003, p. 163)— is that good leaders are simply born. This is an erroneous assumption. Similar to any other competence, leadership, including intercultural leadership, can be developed. Studies show that only “32% of the variance in leadership role occupancy was associated with heritability”, while the rest has to do with learning (Arvey et al. 2007). The second myth is that you can become a good leader if you learn some readymade recipes on how to operate in a specific culture. Today a lot of consultants offer cross-cultural (not intercultural!) training for leaders. This kind of training is problematic because—as you will know from the previous chapters—it is often based upon stereotyping or essentializing, i.e. attributing of essential characteristics to members of a specific group defined by age, country of origin, ethnicity, gender,

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language, race, religion, socio-economic status, etc., and assuming that they share the same characteristics as the other members of their (sub-)culture. As we have said, stereotypes can be useful to a point, however, overall they do more harm than good and must be used with extreme caution (see Chap. 3 in this book). The third myth is that a good leader is always a strong leader. As our discussion in this chapter will illuminate, there are particular qualities associated with good leadership and specifically intercultural leadership. Also, there are many ways to lead and some leading is done by example. However, many others suggest that a good leader is not necessarily a strong leader. For instance, the Daoist Model encourages a soft (but strong) approach to practicing leadership (sometimes referred to as a “bamboo mindset”). It is characterized by ‘non-action’-ness, participative collaboration, adaptability, flexibility, and transparency (see Chin et al. 2018b). Flexibility is much appreciated among other important characteristics of a leader. In a study reported by Giles (2016) published in the Harvard Business Review, flexibility was ranked as the 4th most important quality (among 74) by 195 global leaders who participated in the survey. The fourth myth is that leaders must ‘push’ success forward. As we will discuss in this chapter, leadership is about understanding rather than pushing, thus patience is more of a virtue. The ability to observe and critically understand a situation is considered to be important in today’s highly complex world. Nahavandi and Krishnan (2018) refer to this as moderation: Anything that is carried to its extreme, even courage, kindness, religiosity, and generosity, can have adverse consequences. The path to success is moderation, balance, patience, and careful slow actions that avoid extremes at all costs. (ibid., p. 112)

The fifth myth is that a good leader should be extremely rational and focus only on work-related issues. Being emotionless does not mean being rational. To make good decisions some suggest that emotional intelligence plays an important role (see e.g. Lerner et al. 2015 on how emotions influence and shape decision making). Factoring emotions into work related issues is not a sign of weakness but is the empathetic component of intercultural competence. Moreover, empathy or understanding people’s feelings can help to motivate people: Leadership is a supremely human activity where an emotional connection is created, trust is fostered, and loyalty is strong. Leaders understand and resonate with the emotional needs and wants of people who follow them. (Kotter 1999, p. 11)

The sixth myth is that there is a single style of being a good leader. Again, as we have discussed, there are many ways to lead others. However, your leadership style will depend upon a complex combination of your cultural context, personality, and preferences. For example, in the United States a good leader is seen as being sensitive, meanwhile in Russia sensitivity is perceived as a negative attribute for a leader (Hollander 2009, p. 7).

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The seventh myth is that if you are a good leader you will be good forever. Absolutely not! Being a good leader requires being a lifelong learner. In the same study reported by Giles (2016), the respondents rated the 5th most appreciated quality of a leader as—being committed to ongoing learning, and as the 7th—openness to new ideas and approaches.

Towards Social Change in Organizations and the Wider World: What Is Organizational Cultural Competence? We advocate a movement towards leadership models that are more inclusive and intercultural. Someone who advocates for an inclusive and intercultural approach should clearly understand that there is more diversity around us than many people realize. As you will know from reading this book, diversity is not solely about ethnicity, race, or nationality but is related to characteristics such as gender, sexual orientation, age, disability, body size, and accent, among others. Valuing diversity in the workplace is key, but it needs to be properly leveraged. An inclusive and intercultural leadership style is designed to embrace different perspectives and approaches. The presence of diversity in the workplace is not enough on its own as we have learned from our review of social identity (Tajfel 1974) and contact theory (Allport 1954). Leaders must ensure that everyone is heard, people feel that their uniqueness is valued and that they belong to that workplace. The aspiration for inclusive leadership calls for collaborativeness, appreciation of diversity, and engagement of every single worker, which is what makes it so applicable from an intercultural perspective. We could almost use the two terms as interchangeable because intercultural leadership is always inclusive and inclusive leadership is always intercultural in its approach. Having intercultural leadership in place can facilitate what some refer to as organizational cultural competence—that is that organizations operate in a way that demonstrates inclusivity and sensitivity. Researchers describe organizational cultural competence (OCC) as acknowledging and incorporating across the organization “the importance of culture, assessment of cross-cultural relations, vigilance toward the dynamics that result from cultural differences, expansion of cultural knowledge, and adaptation of services to meet culturally unique needs” (Lavizzo-Mourey and Mackenzie as cited in Betancourt et al. 2003, p. 249). We would not refer to this as intercultural which suggests that individuals are involved. Instead it is referred to as cultural since it involves the extent to which an entire organization can be viewed as culturally competent. Researchers suggest that culturally competent organizations are mindful of, value and protect their diverse communities, aim to improve services, address social, cultural and language differences of diverse communities and address inequalities in the provision of services. Further, they aim to reduce inequalities among employees

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and they establish standards, policies, and practices that support the cultural competence of the organization as a whole (see for example Aspinall and Jackson 2004, Audit Commission 2004; Mir 2007). There are many ways that organizational cultural competence may be seen in organizations. To follow are a few suggestions, some of which originate from the Department of Health (2000). • Redesigning restrooms to be “all-gender” facilities to demonstrate inclusiveness to employees, clients and customers. • Establishing a non-denominational prayer or meditation room allowing staff and clients to exercise their religious beliefs in a private space. • Training senior staff members on providing culturally sensitive supervision to staff (e.g., respecting religious holidays that are not typically observed by the customary holiday schedule). • Circulating leaflets to staff outlining practical ways of providing culturally appropriate treatment of clients and customers. • Factoring into business practices certain dates and times that individuals are not available for a variety of reasons such as religious observances and work schedules. • Making interpreters available and/or offering documentation in the languages spoken in the communities served. • Having food on offer that takes into account diverse needs of clients and staff (e.g., Halal, Kosher, vegan). • Encouraging the development of staff networks focused upon characteristics such as age, race, ethnicity, gender or disability which can inform the organization of issues specific to these groups and which can provide support for members. • Developing outreach programs focused upon helping underserved communities. For example, a local health service may have identified that Muslims in the local area have a high mortality rate in relation to bowel cancer because they do not often come in for screenings. The local health service may decide to work with a local mosque to bring in staff to give public presentations at the mosque on the importance of bowel cancer screening. • Offering training to staff members to increase intercultural competence. There are many ways that organizations can demonstrate OCC. Take a moment to ponder a culturally competent organizational practice in Thought Box 8.10.

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Thought Box 8.10 Culturally competent organizational practices Thinking about your college or university or another organization that you have worked with; are there practices you have observed that you think demonstrate OCC? If so, what are they?

While there are certainly some organizations around the world that demonstrate OCC, they are likely far outnumbered by those that are less aware of such issues. Practice will vary significantly by country with those with more advanced legislation having more examples of good practice. But even countries with more advanced legislation have plenty of examples of cultural incompetence. At times, however, such demonstrations are what can spur organizational change. For instance, Holdaway and O’Neill (2007) describe the overt racial prejudice and discrimination occurring within the UK police workforce over many years with people regularly experiencing racist jokes, expletives, and the marginalization of ethnic minority staff by majority staff members. The police force, however, eventually underwent major change because of the 1993 murder of an 18-year black youth, Stephen Lawrence in South London. Lawrence was stabbed to death in an unprovoked attack by a gang of white youth while he waited for a bus. It was suggested that Lawrence was killed because he was black and that the racist attitudes within the police force led to the failure of the police to properly investigate the crime. Although five suspects were initially arrested, no one was charged. It was because of the persistence of the Lawrence family’s public pleas that the investigation continued and that two suspects were eventually convicted—but this did not happen until 2012 nearly 20 years after his death. Investigations into how the Lawrence case was itself investigated found that the police force was rife with institutional racism and that there were numerous instances of the obstruction of justice during the investigation. For instance, a report from one investigating officer indicated that he was pressured to discredit the Lawrence family in order to prevent their public campaigns from gaining credence. Institutional racism is thought to be “the collective failure of an organisation to provide an appropriate and professional service to people because of their colour, culture, or ethnic origin. It can be seen or detected in processes, attitudes or behaviours which amount to discrimination through unwitting prejudice, ignorance, thoughtlessness, and racist stereotyping which disadvantage minority ethnic people” (Cluny 1999, pp. 49). The Lawrence case and the MacPherson report which uncovered the flaws in the investigation brought institutional racism to the forefront in the UK and led to sweeping changes in the UK police force. Black Police Officer Associations formed within each constabulary, and over time they improved race relations and

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modified practices leading to substantial improvements in the police forces across the country (Holdaway and O’Neill 2007). You may be somewhere in the world where the right to fair and equal treatment of individuals is not particularly advanced, but as the example above suggests, the efforts of a few people responding to a diversity related issue, in this case a race related tragedy, can cause sweeping changes that can impact the lives of thousands. Before leaving this topic, take a moment reflect on changes you would like to see around you in Thought Box 8.11. Thought Box 8.11 Improving organizational cultural competence Think of an organization that you have experience with in which you have observed organizational cultural incompetence. What did they do or not do that you believe is wrong or needs to be changed? What kind of change would you make if you were in charge?

Towards Social Change in Organizations and the Wider World: What Is Corporate Social Responsibility? As suggested in the previous section, organizations can have a significant impact on the lives of both employees and the citizens that they serve. This goes well beyond providing a paycheck at the end of a work week or a service to a customer. It also relates to working conditions, human rights, health, environmental issues, and education. Corporate social responsibility (CSR) relates to the responsible and ethical treatment of employees and customers by employers but also the way in which employers support and engage with the local community. It is a term related to organizational cultural competence but perhaps more widely used in corporate sectors and includes a somewhat wider remit. Various reports and papers link CSR to EDI issues discussed in previous chapters, such as work-life balance, (Pitt-Catsouphes and Googins 2006), disability practices (Dibben et al 2002), and support for older workers (Line 2007 as discussed in Kumra and Manfredi 2012). As an example, the EDI perspective of CSR can be seen in a case study of Enterprise Mouchel (Kumra and Manfredi 2012, p. 23). The company received an CSR award in 2010 because of their comprehensive implementation of new EDI practices within the company that included an

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employee education program. Further, their roll out of education and modified practices required sub-contractors to become knowledgeable and compliant with new EDI policies and protocols affecting an even wider change. As you know from previous chapters, the way in which employers address EDI within their policy and practice can have an important impact terms of minimizing losses, maximizing profits, creating fair and equitable workplaces, and providing fair and equitable services to the community. However, with CSR there is an increased emphasis on what companies do outside of their remit which includes the pursuit of philanthropic activities to address social issues. Research reveals a variety of benefits for companies who engage with community outreach as a facet of CSR. Evidence suggests that CSR is linked to increased financial performance, often termed in the literature as doing well by doing good (see, for example, Batruch 2011). However, studies also find that organizations engaging with CSR prevent lawsuits, increase the loyalty of employees, generate goodwill among customers, and improve corporate images (e.g., Werther and Chandler 2011; Heal 2008; McElhaney 2008; Valiente et al. 2012). In terms of generating goodwill, one case that stands out relates to the University of Southern California (USC). During the Los Angeles, California riots of 1992, many businesses were burned down and otherwise vandalized. Meanwhile USC, which was located in the center of the devastation, was left untouched with the exception of a single broken window (Gordon 1992). Some suggest that USC’s reputation protected it from the potentially devastating losses suffered by other local businesses (Mo Barak 2014). At the time of the riots, USC had long ago implemented a strategic plan which included a variety of community outreach programs. For instance, they established a program that provided special education, cultural, and developmental opportunities for 8000 local school children. It involved 1200 mentors and other volunteers who were deployed at local schools and community organizations. Another part of their community work involved providing support for minority entrepreneurs to set up local businesses (Mo Barak 2014). Thus, they were well liked in the community at least in part because of their extensive philanthropic work which, metaphorically speaking, may have served as a protective shield. For more on the extensive community programs operated by USC today, visit their website (https://communities.usc. edu/programs/#21). Corporate social responsibility is part of the changing social context for businesses in many countries and evidence suggests that it is likely to become even more important. Governments are increasingly playing a role in supporting organizations to operate in a socially responsible manner. For example, in 2011 the European Union renewed its strategy to promote CSR among organizations across the EU (European Commission n.d.). Initiatives in other countries provide similar encouragement. For example, in the US, a non-profit organization, JUST Capital, established in 2013, now ranks the largest publicly traded US companies on issues such as fair pay, employee education, and support for local communities (JUST Capital 2020). Findings of their annual surveys suggest that these factors are of increasing importance in a society (JUST Capital 2020) where according to a Harvard University study, more than half of 18–29-year old’s do not even support capitalism (Ehrenfreund 2016). The interest

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of the younger generations, at least in the US, focuses upon supporting companies that support the greater good. Understanding OCC and CSR are integral parts of the ‘knowledge’ required for intercultural competence. With an understanding of these concepts and how they can be integrated into the practice of organizations, you can boost not only your value as a potential employee and leader but your potential to contribute in positive ways to your employer and the community at large. The previous sections encouraged you to think about practical ways that you might deploy intercultural leadership in influencing organizational practice. We asked you to reflect upon intercultural leadership for several reasons. First, we hoped to convey that while often we have good intentions, we can at times fail to act on them. Developing intercultural competence is a laudable goal, but the question is: How will you use it exactly not just to improve your employment prospects but to bring about change? How will you influence others? Intentions are not enough; it is action that brings intentions to life. Second, we would like to stress that any change you plan to make should be moral, or ethical in its nature. This means that we advocate an approach that considers protecting those who might be the targets of prejudice and discrimination and promoting fairness and human rights. Third, we believe that change begins with you. Nelson Mandela once said, “You can never have an impact on society if you have not changed yourself.” Remember that intercultural leadership does not mean you must take charge of a group; you need only to work towards influencing others.

No Conclusion: Instead, What Is Your Plan for the Intercultural Adventure? There are a myriad of activities that you can undertake to develop your IC. Reading this book and completing the activities are, of course, brilliant! Fostering your understanding of IC and reflecting upon your IC are two very key activities that we have been highlighting throughout this book. That said, there are some other specific activities that you can undertake that will help you to develop your IC. Having contact with those from other cultures puts learning about IC into practice. While you may learn a lot about IC by reading books, reading alone will not make you interculturally competent. Just like learning to drive, as we mentioned several chapters ago, you have to get out and practice to become comfortable and gain experience and eventually expertise. While reading this book is great, what you really need to do is strive for contact with those who are culturally different from you in order to help you to break down stereotypes and prejudices, and develop an understanding of different cultures. In this way you will become more comfortable with cultural difference and be able to develop and practice your intercultural skills. As the purpose of this book is to provide a brief introduction to IC, we cannot highlight every possible experience that would be useful for your development, but

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we tried our best to highlight some that may be particularly relevant to you as a college or university student. Some material that we discussed was probably familiar and some was new or presented in a new light. By the time you read this book, our social, political, and media discourses will have changed and other events will gain public attention, but we hope that you have found this guide a useful complement to your intercultural learning. We wrote this book because we want to change the world–a lofty goal to be sure. Our view is that students are well placed to lead change and so we have aimed our book at you in hopes that you will become instruments of change both for yourselves and the wider world. Before we say ‘good-bye’, we invite you to complete one more task reflecting upon what you believe you have learned from using this guide, and, if you feel so inclined, we would ask that you email us your final thoughts from this activity (Thought Box 8.12). We wish you buena suerte, bonne chance, viel glück, in bocca al lupo, boa sorte, sok szerencsét, ydaqi, lykke til, powodzenia, bol sans, good luck on your intercultural journey! Thought Box 8.12 Planning your intercultural journey Please add a short paragraph describing what you learned about yourself through the process of working through this book.

Please write here a couple of questions that you are still trying to find answers to about developing intercultural competence.

Now, please identify at least 2 or 3 ways you can find the answers to the questions you have just written down? (e.g., by searching in Internet / in libraries, by consulting with others, by getting into contact with other cultures, by studying / working abroad?) Try to be as specific as you can.

Well done! We wish you all the best on your intercultural journey!

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Appendix A

Intercultural Competence Self-assessment

The items listed below are important in evaluating where you might be in terms of your intercultural competenceand what areas you might need to develop further. Please think about each statement and rate yourself as best as you can. Please try to be honest. It does not help to rate yourself according to the way in which you think you should respond. Rating scale 5

4

3

2

1

0

Very high

High

Average

Below average

Poor

Unsure

Rating Competence ____

1. To what extent do you understand the meaning behind the word culture? (Culture general knowledge)

____

2. To what extent do you believe that those who hold cultural values other than your own should be respected? (Respect and valuing other cultures)

____

3. To what extent are you open to learning from people who are from culturally differentbackgrounds? (Openness to others)

____

4. To what extent do you find yourself feeling curious about people who do things differently from you and wanting to explore this further? (Curiosity and discovery)

____

5. To what extent are you able to put yourself in another person’s shoes to imagine how you might see the world if you were them? (Empathy)

____

6. How well do you cope when you do not understand someone else’s accent or behavior or are unsure how to behave yourself? (Tolerance for ambiguity)

____

7. To what extent are you comfortable changing your behavior or communicating to make an intercultural interaction more positive, effective, and appropriate? (Flexibility and adaptability)

____

8. To what extent do you try to get to know others who are different from you or to learn about other cultures more generally? (Seeking out learning opportunities)

____

9. If someone behaves in a way you find unpleasant or strange, to what extent are you willing to suspend judgement and not pronounce the person as strange or weird? (Suspend judgement) (continued)

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 C. Lantz-Deaton and I. Golubeva, Intercultural Competence for College and University Students, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57446-8

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(continued) Rating Competence ____

10. How well do you know your own cultural background and understand the most salient parts of your identity, and to what extent are you aware of the biases that you hold towards others? (Critical self-awareness)

____

11. To what extent do you feel aware of your thoughts and feelings, in control of your actions, and mindful of the thoughts and feelings of others? (Mindfulness)

____

12. To what extent are you able to look at intercultural situations in a dispassionate, fair and objective way? Do you look for multiple explanations for situations and weigh alternatives before drawing conclusions? (Critical thinking)

____

13. How humble do you believe that you are? In other words, do you view your culture as superior to others or do you believe your own culture also has its flaws? (Cultural humility)

____

14. To what extent are you willing to challenge attitudes, behaviors, and representations of others which undermine their dignityand respect? (Challenging discrimination; promoting inclusion)

Scoring and Planning The higher your score on this inventory overall, the more it would suggest that you possess a higher level of IC. That said, even if your score was quite high, you can still use this inventory to reflect on how you can further develop your IC. We suggest that you consider the inventory item by item—identifying the items on which you may have scored lower which will suggest to you a developmental action plan. For example, if you scored high overall but particularly low on number 8 (making an effort to get to know people who are different from you), consider making an action plan for how you could improve upon that. An action plan can be found in Appendix B. If your scores included a lot of “0”s, it could be that you are just unsure of yourself at this time. What you may need to do in this instance is spend more time reading and/or undertaking activities in relation to developingintercultural competence. In this way you can gain knowledge and experience and perhaps come back to this activity later. Challenge: If you are feeling brave, ask a trusted family member or friend to answer these questions about you so you can get some external feedback! Adapted from Deardorff models of intercultural competence (Deardorff 2006), an activity from Berardo and Deardorff (2012). References Berardo, K., & Deardorff, D. K. (2012). Building cultural competence: Innovative activities and models. Sterling, Virginia: Stylus. Deardorff, D. K. (2006). Identification and assessment of intercultural competence as a student outcome of internationalization. Journal of Studies in International Education, 10(3), 241–266. 10.1177/1028315306287002.

Appendix B

Intercultural Action Plan

As suggested in Chap. 4, please use this page to create an action plan to enhance yourintercultural competence. Note: you may wish to photocopy this page so that you are able to create additional action plans as you progress. Please see Chap. 4 for an example action plan. Learning goal

Action

Reflection – How was the activity? What did you learn? What were the positives/negatives? What will you do next?

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 C. Lantz-Deaton and I. Golubeva, Intercultural Competence for College and University Students, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57446-8

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Appendix C

Intercultural Citizenship Self-assessment

Please complete the following by checking ‘yes’ if you think you demonstrate particular values, attitudes, skills, and knowledge and critical understanding in your activity as a citizen. Alternatively, check ‘no’ if you do not or ‘I need to work on it’ if you still feel that you need further development. You may wish to refer to Chap. 5, Fig. 5.1 to review the description of Competencies for Democratic Citizenship (Council of Europe 2018, Volume 1). Dimension

Component of CDC model Yes

Values

Valuing human dignity and human rights

No

I need to work on it

Valuing cultural diversity Valuing justice, fairness, and equality Attitudes

Openness to cultural otherness and to other beliefs, world views and practices Respect Civic mindedness Responsibility Self-efficacy Toleranceofambiguity

Skills

Autonomous learning skills Analytical and critical thinkingskills Skills of listening and observing Empathy (continued)

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 C. Lantz-Deaton and I. Golubeva, Intercultural Competence for College and University Students, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57446-8

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(continued) Dimension

Component of CDC model Yes

No

I need to work on it

Flexibility and adaptability Linguistic, communicative and plurilingualskills Cooperation skills Conflict-resolutionskills Knowledge and critical understanding

Knowledge and critical understanding of self Knowledge and critical understanding of language and communication Knowledge and critical understanding of the world TOTAL

You can total your answers in each of the three columns to get a picture of your overall competence as an interculturally competent democratic citizen. If you are not fully satisfied with the results of your self-assessment, you may wish to develop an action plan (see Appendix B). Reference Council of Europe. (2018). Reference framework of competences for democratic culture (RFCDC). https://www.coe.int/en/web/education/competences-fordemocratic-culture. Accessed May 25, 2018.

Appendix D

Critical Incident Analysis

Answer the following questions about your critical incident (please follow the instructions). Note that you may wish to photocopy these pages so that you can analyze more than one critical incident 1. Please describe what happened in this critical incident(Please, do not interpret, do not evaluate, and do not make judgements at this stage yet, just simply describe the incident):

2. Please describe your feelings and reactions during a CI. (Again, please, just simply describe, do not analyze the CI yet. Follow the prompt questions). What were your feelings during the CI?

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 C. Lantz-Deaton and I. Golubeva, Intercultural Competence for College and University Students, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57446-8

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What were you thinking?

What was your reaction?

3. Please evaluate what happened (At this stage you are invited to make judgements and evaluate). What was good/bad/disappointing/frustrating/thought-provoking about this experience?

4. Please analyze what happened by answering the prompt questions: Why have you chosen this particular CI for reflection and analysis?

What is the broader context of this CI, if any? Is anything going on in the society where you experienced this CI?

Appendix D: Critical Incident Analysis

289

What would be the outcomes of alternative actions for others/myself?

Do you think there are others who experienced a similar CI? Do you think they felt and reacted the same way as you did?

How do you feel now about this experience? Why? Has anything changed?

What sense can you make of the experience? Try to relate it to your process of intercultural learning?

5. Please provide your insights on the following question: What general conclusions can be drawn from this experience to foster your intercultural learning?

6. Please provide your insights on the following question: What can be concluded about your specific and unique way of behaving/ feeling/ reacting in CIs?

290

Appendix D: Critical Incident Analysis

Share your thoughts regarding your “action plan”: If it happened again what would you do differently? For example: Is there anything you would say differently to the people involved?

Would you feel differently? Why?

Would you react differently? In what way?

What would you like to learn about to be prepared for such CIs?

What skills do you plan to develop?

What attitudes would you like to change?

Index

A Ability, 2, 9, 69, 92, 96, 103, 115, 118–120, 122, 123, 129, 133, 134, 140, 190, 204, 205, 215, 218–220, 232, 234, 250, 255, 257, 259–261, 269 Abuse, 4, 8, 10, 11, 14, 66, 73, 82 Accent, 9, 54, 63, 72, 93, 266, 270, 281 Acceptance, 9, 65, 123, 124, 127–129, 134, 151. See also DMIS Accommodation, 165, 170, 190, 200 Acculturation, 134, 135 Across cultures, 11, 35, 48, 56, 102, 103, 116, 128–130, 136, 147, 241, 244, 245, 261 Action plan, 18, 149, 166, 203, 205, 206, 208, 209, 266, 268, 282, 283, 286 Adaptability, 16, 49, 116, 145, 191, 257, 261, 269, 281, 286 Adaptation, 46, 70, 111, 115, 120, 123, 124, 127, 129–131, 133–136, 270. See also DMIS adaptational Adjustment (cultural adjustment), 13, 166, 235 Affective, 114, 131, 132 Affiliation, 8, 9, 34, 53, 55, 118, 130, 134, 178, 225, 246 Age, 8, 40, 54, 63, 72, 86, 87, 140, 142, 143, 159, 178, 179, 225, 233, 253, 268, 270, 271. See also discrimination All-gender, 233, 271 Allport, G. W., 63, 68, 70, 71, 99–101, 103, 170, 270 Ambiguity, 116, 118, 145, 191, 216, 238, 257, 260, 265, 281, 285 Anthropology, anthropologist(s), 19, 25, 31, 39, 112, 184

Anti-white bias, 65 Anxiety, 63, 103, 163, 170, 216 Asexual.. See also sexual orientation Assertiveness., 44, 261. See also GLOBE, assertive Assessment, 38–41, 147, 148, 270 Assimilation, 134, 135 Assumption, 32, 63, 68, 69, 86, 118, 121, 127, 189, 212, 213, 268 Atheist, 51, 56, 85 Attitude, 2, 7, 9, 10, 16, 29, 32, 57, 62, 63, 68, 70, 72, 73, 75, 78, 79, 82, 84, 98, 99, 114–121, 124, 131, 132, 137, 139, 140, 145, 165, 184, 187, 189, 198, 200, 205, 208, 212, 215, 238, 272, 282, 285, 290. See also Intercultural competence Attribute, 2, 6, 63, 94, 125, 233, 245, 256, 261, 262, 269 Autobiography of Intercultural Encounters, 217 Avoidance, 124 avoidance orientation, 42. See also uncertainty avoidance avoidance scenario, 43 Awareness, 2, 17, 62, 73, 74, 113, 117–119, 124, 180, 181, 198, 215, 229, 260, 263

B Background (background knowledge, cultural background), 1–7, 14, 17, 18, 25, 30, 32, 36, 40, 44, 49, 55–57, 62, 73, 75, 98, 100, 102, 112, 114, 120, 135, 137, 149, 162, 170, 176,

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 C. Lantz-Deaton and I. Golubeva, Intercultural Competence for College and University Students, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57446-8

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292 179, 182, 188, 198, 215, 226, 229, 233, 239, 240, 242–244, 248, 250, 257, 266, 281, 282 Bakhtin, M. M., 197 Barrett, M., 2, 9, 116, 117 Bass, B. M., 256, 258, 259 Behavioral behavioral code-shifting, 124, 129 behavioral component, 63, 75 behavioral differences, 127 behavioral domains, 132 behavioral factors, 114 behavioral flexibility, 260 behavioral norms, 208 behavioral relativism, 124, 128 Behavior, behaviors (cultural behavior), 9, 31, 33, 68, 118 Beliefs, belief fundamental beliefs, 50 Belonging. See identity Bennett, J. M., 123, 124, 127, 128, 132 Bennett, M. J., 13, 15, 16, 115, 121, 123–132, 147, 218, 261 Bennis, W. G., 268 Berry, J. W., 115, 134, 135 Bias, biases, 3, 14, 17, 18, 57, 61, 62, 65, 73, 112, 116, 145–149, 162, 180, 217, 223, 228, 233, 245, 265, 266, 282 Bicultural, 11, 13 Bisexual. See also sexual orientation Black Lives Matter, 84 Bloom B, S. Bloom‘s taxonomy, 114 Bourdieu, P., 118 Brewer, M. B., 68, 82, 89, 90, 100, 132 British Council, 2, 162, 231, 232, 238, 255 Byram, M., 113, 115, 117–119, 139, 184, 186, 188, 189, 215, 217, 219 Byram’s model, 117, 119 Burns, J. M., 258, 259, 263

C Campus, 17, 99–101, 103, 134, 149, 157– 159, 161, 170–172, 182, 200, 201, 209, 233 Career, careers, 33, 54, 77–79, 81, 93, 247, 250 Changnon, G., 114–117, 133 Charta der Vielfalt (German, meaning Diversity Charter), 232, 233 Checklist, 166, 240, 243, 247 Chhokar, J. S., 261, 262

Index Chin, J. L., 257, 269 Citizen, 33, 75, 83, 85, 87, 179, 187, 188, 191, 285, 286. See also Democratic citizen, Citizenship Citizenship education, 117, 139, 187–190 Civic (civic mindedness), 285 Class, 53, 55, 92, 101, 135, 170, 171, 189, 206–208, 245, 249. See also social class(-es) Club, Clubs. See student societies, student organisation, 18 Cognitive (e.g., cognitive awareness, cognitive biases, cognitive domain, cognitive empathy, cognitive flexibility, cognitive frame-shifting), 131, 132 Collaborative, collaborativeness, 168, 189, 215, 265, 270 Collective (collective identity), 258, 264 Collectivism, collectivist cultures ingroup collectivism, 35, 261 institutional collectivism, 35, 261. See also GLOBE Colorblind, 15 Communication nonverbal, 31, 128, 199 verbal, 30, 37 Community, communities, 5, 10, 12, 13, 17, 26, 27, 29, 30, 37, 48, 52, 56, 57, 84, 89, 96, 120, 122, 134, 150, 157, 168, 182, 190, 242, 254, 259, 264, 273–275 Compassion, 260, 263 Competence, competences, 1–3, 5, 11, 16– 18, 25–28, 33, 35, 57, 61, 62, 70, 86, 96, 97, 102, 103, 111, 113–118, 120– 122, 131, 132, 135, 137, 138, 140, 141, 145, 147–149, 151, 152, 158, 160, 165, 166, 174–176, 180, 182– 190, 200, 202, 215, 218–220, 224, 226, 231–234, 238, 239, 242, 243, 245, 250, 253–255, 258–261, 264, 267–273, 275, 276, 281–283, 286 Competences for Democratic Culture (CDC), 188–190 CDC model, 190 Competent, 1, 3, 7, 11–17, 19, 62, 70, 76, 77, 86, 98, 103, 113, 133, 136, 147, 148, 158, 176, 187, 189, 211, 234, 239, 260, 261, 264, 266, 270, 271, 275 Conflict(s) (cultural conflicts) conflict-resolution, 286 Confucius, 264 Constructive marginality, 124, 130

Index Contact Hypothesis/Contact Theory, 99 Context, 13, 17, 18, 34–37, 47, 48, 53, 75, 100, 101, 111, 118, 123, 124, 127, 128, 130, 132, 133, 137, 147, 149, 151, 157, 161, 173, 178, 185, 188– 190, 198–200, 202, 204, 206–208, 212, 218, 223, 229, 234, 238, 250, 259, 262, 269, 274, 288 Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), 18, 233, 253, 254, 273, 274 Council of Europe, 117, 139, 176, 187, 188, 190, 191 Creativity, creative, 157, 184, 258 Critical Incident (CI), 18, 168, 197–206, 208–210, 212, 213, 215–217, 219, 220, 287 Critical thinking, critical understanding, 6, 18, 69, 112, 146, 191, 197, 204, 215, 216, 218, 219, 282, 285 Cross-cultural, 19, 26, 113, 117, 161, 202, 268, 270 Cultural awareness (critical cultural awareness, critical cultural self-awareness), 17, 118, 119, 215 Cultural beliefs, 27, 32, 133, 138 Cultural community. See cultural groups, 29 Cultural competence, 18, 253, 254, 270, 271, 273 Cultural contexts, 17, 18, 53, 118, 124, 128, 130, 157, 223, 238 Cultural difference cultural (culture) dimension(-s), 2. See also GLOBE, Hall, Hofstede, House et al., Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck, Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner, etc. Cultural distance, 17, 90, 111, 142–144, 182, 248 Cultural diversity, 151, 157, 174, 177, 243, 285 Cultural groups, 28, 35, 53, 56, 99, 102, 103, 118, 170, 172, 225 Cultural identity, 17, 25, 33, 34, 53, 56, 100, 131, 134, 146, 172 Culturally appropriate, 129, 207, 242, 243, 271 Culturally competent, 270, 271 Culturally different, culturally distinct, 49, 117, 118, 141, 158, 161, 162, 182, 201, 275, 281 Culturally diverse, 6, 226, 258 Culturally mixed, 102, 103, 170 Culturally neutral, 147

293 Culturally sensitive/culturally insensitive, 122, 271 Culturally unfamiliar, 246 Cultural norms, 13, 30, 54, 56, 90, 101, 128, 141, 185, 208, 235, 256 Cultural patterns, 33, 48, 127 Cultural perspectives, lens(-es), 5, 145, 174, 218 Cultural practices, 119, 135, 138, 249 Cultural relativism, 111, 130, 138, 139 Cultural traditions, 32, 133 Cultural value, 13, 33–36, 38, 48–50, 281 Culture objective, 27, 32 subjective, 25, 27–29, 56, 125 Culture general (knowledge), 281 Culture shock, 130, 167 Culture specific (knowledge), 13, 172, 268 Curiosity, 51, 119, 128, 145, 146, 215, 281 Curriculum Vitae (CV), 239–242, 248, 250 D Dalai Lama, 150, 263 Deardorff, D, 115–117, 120, 147, 148, 219 Defense, 87, 123–127. See also DMIS Democratic citizen, democratic citizenship, 18, 157, 186–190, 285. See also citizen, citizenship Democratic culture, democratic cultures, democratic society, democratic societies, 138–140, 187–190, 256 Denial, 82, 123–125, 127, 132. See also DMIS Developmental Model of Intercultural Maturity (DMIM), 132 Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS), 121–124, 131, 132, 137, 138, 151, 218, 261 De Vita, G., 132 Dialogue (intercultural dialogue), 13, 111, 139, 140, 176, 189, 191, 263 Difference, 3, 9, 11, 13, 15–17, 25, 26, 28– 35, 37, 39, 40, 44, 47–50, 53, 57, 61– 63, 78, 82, 90, 97, 98, 101, 113, 115, 121–133, 135–137, 139, 141, 144– 147, 149, 152, 158, 161, 163, 166, 169, 170, 173, 176, 178, 181–183, 189, 198, 200, 208, 215, 223, 224, 228, 229, 231, 234, 235, 245, 247, 248, 250, 254, 261, 264, 266, 270, 275. See also cultural difference Dignity, 3, 112, 117, 118, 191, 224, 234, 282, 285

294 Disability, 6, 8, 14, 63, 76, 93, 142, 159, 178, 179, 182, 225, 229, 231, 233, 237, 270, 271, 273 Disagreement, 25, 42, 50 Discomfort, 63, 136, 137, 139, 149, 150, 207 Discrimination, discriminate, discriminatory behavior, 1, 3, 7–11, 14, 17, 18, 44, 61–64, 69, 72, 74–78, 81– 89, 91, 94–96, 98, 99, 103, 117, 118, 121, 135, 146, 149, 178, 180, 185, 226–229, 241, 244, 267, 272, 275, 282 Diversity, 1, 3–9, 17, 19, 54, 73, 90, 101, 102, 111, 114, 116–118, 123, 145, 149, 151, 157–161, 174, 176, 178– 182, 185, 190, 223–227, 229, 231– 234, 237, 242, 243, 248, 257, 258, 260, 262, 265–267, 270, 273 Domestic student, 2, 12, 101, 102, 134, 136, 143, 159, 162, 165, 169–171, 173, 174, 181, 182, 185, 186, 190, 199, 201 E Education, 5, 7, 8, 16, 18, 19, 76, 93, 119, 128, 151, 157, 161, 164, 186, 189, 227, 229, 241, 242, 255, 266, 273, 274 Egalitarianism (gender egalitarianism), 35, 44, 261. See also GLOBE Emotion, emotional, 33, 43, 63, 70, 71, 82, 114, 204, 216, 217, 219, 269 Empathy, 94, 96, 103, 118, 124, 129, 140, 145, 151, 200, 215–217, 219, 220, 260, 269, 281, 285 Employability, 1, 16, 112, 175, 184, 190, 231, 234, 254, 259 Equality Act, 8 Equality, Diversity, and Inclusion (EDI), 116, 157, 160, 161, 178–181, 190, 229, 231, 232, 237, 245, 250, 273, 274 Equality, equal, 1, 4, 8, 9, 17, 40, 41, 44, 54, 64, 72, 73, 82, 88, 90, 100–102, 114, 116, 117, 157, 158, 160, 178, 179, 181, 189–191, 223, 226, 229, 231, 237, 244, 246, 256, 273, 285 Equality legislation, 226, 230, 231, 244, 246 Equity, 178, 229 Erasmus (mobility, program, students), 163, 164, 173 Essentialist, essentialize, essentializing, 25, 26, 49, 268

Index Ethical, 3, 124, 130, 132, 191, 263, 265, 273, 275 Ethnicity, ethnic, 5–8, 11, 14, 15, 48, 51, 54, 63, 72, 73, 75, 82, 83, 86, 90, 92– 94, 100, 122, 142, 159, 172–174, 176, 179, 225, 226, 229, 233, 257, 266, 268, 270–272 Ethnocentrism, ethnocentric, 17, 91, 92, 111, 121–124, 126, 127, 129, 131, 132, 218 Ethnorelativism, ethnorelative, 17, 111, 123, 124, 128, 137, 138, 219 Explicit (attitude, norms, prejudice), 30, 61, 72, 75, 82, 118, 119 Extroversion, extroverted, 50, 51 F Facilitate, 13, 18, 36, 48, 57, 93–95, 100, 103, 112, 114, 115, 120, 129, 135, 141, 144, 169, 174, 181, 185, 197, 215, 223, 253, 254, 260, 265, 266, 270 Factor, factors (affective, behavioral, cognitive), 114 Fantini, A. E., 113, 147 Female, 34, 43, 48, 52, 64, 76–79, 86, 138, 140, 143, 183, 209, 227, 256, 266 Femininity, feminine, 43. See also culture dimensions Feminism, feminist, 44, 49, 180 Flexibility, flexible, 16, 42, 49, 78, 116, 140, 145, 191, 257, 260, 269, 281, 286 Followers, 255, 258, 259, 263 Franklin, P., 53, 57, 112, 114, 142, 147, 148 Fraternity (as associated with lower IC), 100, 172 Future orientation., 261. See also GLOBE G Gaie, J. B. R., 151 Gay, 10, 14, 65, 85, 88, 99. See also sexual orientation Gender (bias, discrimination, diversity, egalitarianism, (in)equality, gap, identity, reassignment, roles, segregation, stereotypes, etc.), 6, 8, 15, 35, 43–45, 48, 66, 75–81, 86, 93, 94, 142, 159, 172, 179, 180, 183, 207, 208, 210, 225, 226, 233, 256, 257, 261, 268, 270, 271 Generalization(-s), 53, 65, 128, 201, 202 Gibbs, G., 202, 203, 205

Index Gibson, R., 202 Global global citizens, global citizenship, 181, 186. See also citizens/citizenship; intercultural; intercultural citizen/intercultural citizenship global community, 57, 242 global culture, 224 global leader(-s), global leadership, 260, 261, 269 Globalization, 4, 48, 131, 242, 260 GLOBE (project), 262 Goleman, D., 217 Golubeva, I., 113, 117, 139, 165, 169, 175– 177, 185, 186, 189, 215, 219, 235, 249 Group membership, 6, 10, 52, 56, 62, 63, 69, 75, 88, 93, 94, 100, 134, 142, 173, 228. See also membership(-s) Gudykunst, W. B., 113, 117, 260 H Hall, E. T., 25, 26, 28, 31, 35, 36, 48 Hamilton, M. C., 79, 183 Hammer, M. R., 115, 127, 131, 147 Hampden-Turner, C., 35 Harassment (sexual harassment), harass, 66, 80 Headscarf, 15, 27, 64 Health care, health equity, 8, 62, 79, 85, 86, 135, 191, 228 Heritage. See, cultural - background Heterosexual, 34, 51, 55, 92, 99. See also sexual orientation High-context culture(s), 36. See also cultural dimensions, Hall Higher education, 19, 33, 54, 116, 147, 161, 179, 181, 255, 256 Hofstede, G., 6, 26, 30, 33, 34, 35, 38, 40, 42–47, 56, 70. See also cultural dimensions Hollander, E. P., 262, 263, 269 Holmes, P., 165 Homeless, 4, 63, 69, 95, 182, 242 Homesick, homesickness, 164, 167, 185 Homophobia, 266 Homosexuality, homosexual, 34, 51, 88, 266. See also sexual orientation House, R. J., 35, 44, 261, 262 Human dignity, 285 Humane orientation, 35, 261. See also GLOBE

295 Humanistic, 1, 16, 151, 228, 259 Human rights, 138, 189, 191, 273, 275, 285 Humility (cultural humility), 96, 146, 282 I Iceberg model, 29 Identity, 28, 34, 38, 50–52, 55, 78, 89, 123–125, 130, 131, 134, 141, 146, 159, 233, 270, 282. See also cultural identity IEREST (project), 165 Immigrant(-s), immigration, 5, 7, 10, 67, 87, 95, 96, 135, 149 INCA (project), 147 Inclusion, 1, 6, 9, 17, 54, 73, 102, 114, 117, 157, 158, 160, 178, 190, 223, 226, 231, 234, 267, 282 Incompetence, incompetent, 76, 176, 226, 232, 272, 273 Individualism, individualistic, 6, 35, 38, 39, 40, 48, 70, 264. See also culture dimensions Indulgence, 35, 45, 47. See also culture dimensions Inequality, 8 Ingroup, 14, 35, 68, 89–92, 94–98, 121, 124, 125, 226, 261 Ingroup bias, ingroup favouritism = treat outgroup members less favorably, 91. See also positive distinctiveness, superiority, ingroup preference Institutional (culture, policy, power, racism, strategy), 158, 272 Integration, 123, 124, 130, 131, 134, 135, 151, 169, 171, 232. See also DMIS Intercultural course, 174, 175 interactions, 25, 111, 114, 115, 127, 130, 137, 141, 142, 144, 146, 168, 215, 225, 281 training, 174, 176, 198, 202, 206, 229, 237 Intercultural citizen, intercultural citizenship, intercultural (global) citizenship, 18, 117, 186–189, 191, 286. See also CDC model Intercultural citizenship education, 117 Intercultural communication, 19, 31, 35, 113, 175, 198, 213, 255, 267 Intercultural communicative competence, 113, 114, 117 Intercultural competence, 1–3, 5, 10, 11, 16, 17, 25–28, 33, 35, 57, 61, 62,

296 70, 86, 96, 97, 102, 103, 111–115, 117–119, 121, 122, 131, 132, 135, 137, 138, 140, 141, 145, 148, 149, 151, 152, 158, 160, 165, 166, 174– 176, 180, 182–187, 189, 190, 200, 202, 215, 218–220, 224, 226, 231– 234, 238, 239, 242, 243, 245, 250, 253–255, 259–261, 264, 267–269, 271, 275, 276, 281–283. See also attitudes, knowledge, skills, critical cultural awareness, models components of, 1 intercultural competence assessment, 147. See also assessment Intercultural contact(-s), 132, 162, 170, 201, 204 Intercultural development, intercultural selfdevelopment, 19, 127, 132, 162, 170, 171, 173 Intercultural Development Inventory (IDI), 127, 147, 148 Intercultural dialogue, intercultural dialogue approach, 139, 176, 189 Intercultural education, 16, 151 Intercultural encounter(-s), 127, 142, 198, 204, 212, 218 Intercultural experience(-s), 168, 182, 200, 201, 249 Intercultural interaction(-s), 25, 111, 114, 115, 127, 130, 137, 141, 142, 144, 146, 168, 215, 225, 281 Intercultural journey, 276 Intercultural leader(s), Intercultural leadership (IL) Intercultural Leadership certificate program, 19 Intercultural learning, 18, 132, 165, 197, 198, 202, 204, 205, 276 Interculturally competent, 1, 3, 7, 11–17, 19, 62, 86, 98, 103, 113, 133, 136, 147, 148, 158, 176, 187, 189, 211, 234, 239, 260, 261, 264, 266, 275 Intercultural mediator(-s), intercultural mediation, 197, 212, 213, 215, 265, 267. See also mediate Intercultural relations, intercultural relationships, 151, 182, 226 Intercultural sensitivity, 121–123, 261 Intercultural situation(-s), 9, 115, 127, 146, 147, 197, 210, 216–219, 282 Intercultural skills, intercultural skillset, 158, 162, 231, 232, 261, 275. See also intercultural competence

Index Intercultural speaker, 215 Interdependence. See, mutuality Intergroup (bias, contact, cooperation, interaction, prejudice, relations, relationships, theory), 89, 95, 100 International education, 164 Internationalization at Home (IaH), 161, 190 Internationalization (IZN) educational agenda, 177 instrumental, or profit-oriented, 177. See also intercultural dialogue approach International student, 2, 12, 101, 102, 134, 136, 143, 149, 159, 161, 165, 169– 171, 173, 174, 177, 181, 185, 201, 249 Interview. See, job interview(s)

J Jackson, J. R., 170 Javidan, M., 35, 44, 261, 262 Job interview. See, interview, job interviews, 8 Job (job advertisement(s), job announcements, job fairs), 2, 8, 15, 18, 33, 43, 45, 53, 57, 64, 76, 80, 85–88, 92–96, 112, 160, 163, 184, 223, 224, 227, 234–247, 249, 250 Job search, 223, 224, 231, 234, 237, 249, 250 Justice, 83, 84, 191, 228, 263, 272, 285

K Kets de Vries, M. F. R., 257 Kim, U., 259 Kluckhohn, C., 25, 35 Knowledge (cultural), 51, 198, 213, 270. See also Intercultural competance Kohlberg, L., 132 Kramsch, C., 184, 215 Krishnan, H. A., 263, 264, 269 Kroeber, A. L., 25 Ku Klux Klan (KKK), 140

L Language language acquisition, 170, 174, 184 language barrier(-s), 185 language learning, 13, 113, 184, 185 Language education, 112, 113 Lantz-Deaton, C., 12, 14, 70, 102, 123, 161, 176, 180, 213, 235, 247

Index Leadership (skills, styles), 257, 258, 262, 269, 270 Leader(-s) (qualities), 254 Lesbian, 14, 65, 85, 88, 99. See also sexual orientation Levine, R. A., 132 LGBTQ, 14, 172. See also sexual orientation Linguistics (applied linguistics, pragmatics, sociolinguistics, 184 Local local community, local communities, 274 local culture, 12, 13, 165–167, 185, 235, 248 local language, 168, 170, 171, 185, 186, 189 Long term (orientation), 45. See also culture dimensions Low-context culture(s), 35–37. See also cultural dimensions, Hall

M Majority, majority groups, 7, 10, 55, 65, 96 Male, 14, 34, 43, 48, 52, 67, 76–79, 81, 92, 143, 179, 183, 207, 213, 227, 256, 257, 266, 268 Mandela, Nelson, 264, 275 Marginalization, marginalized, 134, 135, 272. See also Berry, J.W. Masculinity, masculine, 35, 43, 44, 49. See also cultural dimensions Mediate (mediated, mediating, mediation), 215, 257 Membership (-s), 10, 50, 52, 89, 100, 140, 172. See also group membership Mentality, mindset(-s), 90, 91, 177, 259 Metz, T., 151 Migration, 5, 38, 48 Miller, P. W., 82, 255 Mindfulness, 96, 260, 282 Minimization., 123, 124, 126, 127, 131. See also DMIS Minkov, M., 26, 35, 42, 45, 47 Minority, minority groups, 7, 8, 14, 65, 92, 159, 181, 227, 237 Misunderstanding(-s), 4, 30, 31, 37, 167, 185, 197, 198, 210, 212, 213, 215, 229, 234, 245, 248, 261 Model(-s) adaptational models, 115, 133, 135 causal path models, 115 compositional models, 115, 120 co-orientational models, 115, 120

297 developmental models, 115 Modesty, 27, 44, 246 Monoculture, monocultural, 123 Moral, 98, 189, 258, 259, 262, 263, 265, 275 Moral agent(-s), 258, 259, 263 Morality, 151, 264 Motivation, motivational, 49, 94, 114, 133, 134, 139, 147, 148, 183, 189, 258, 262 Multiculturalism, multicultural, 13, 17, 123, 124, 130, 135 Multidicsiplinary, 112 Multidimensional, 86, 132 Multiethnic, 5 Myth(-s), 18, 32, 253, 268, 269

N Nahavandi, A., 269 National national borders, 4, 26, 189 national boundaries, 48 National group, national groups, 11, 53, 90, 100 Nationalism, nationalist, nationalistic, 32 Nationality(-ies), 6, 48, 54, 72, 89, 101, 142, 172–174, 233, 241, 270 Nations, 4, 35, 41 Native/non-native (language, speaker), 183, 186, 213, 215 Nature, 35, 38, 66, 78, 81, 97, 120, 123, 136, 144, 151, 157, 169, 197, 275 Negative negative attitude(-s), 7, 16, 63, 98, 132, 137, 139 negative stereotype(-s), negative stereotyping, 7, 66 Network, networking, 167, 179, 235, 239, 271 Norm(s) implicit (hidden), 29 explicit (obvious), 30

O Obama, Barack, 1 Openness, 16, 116, 119, 134, 140, 145, 209, 215, 270, 281, 285 Organizational cultural competence (OCC), 253, 270, 271, 273 Organizational culture, 240, 248, 262 Organizational practices, 261, 262, 275

298 Orientation, 27, 35, 38–43, 45–48, 76, 85, 133, 165, 169, 172, 178, 181, 261. See also value orientation Orientation programs, orientation session(s), 165, 169 Outgroup Homogeneity Effect (OHE), 68 Outgroup(-s) (acceptance, contact, member(-s)), 14, 68, 69, 90–92, 94–98, 103, 121 Own-Race-Bias (ORB), 68 P Paige, M. R., 12 Pedagogy (language pedagogy, pedagogy of foreign language education), 184 Perception(-s), 12, 48, 65, 71, 118, 123, 136, 146, 151, 188, 218. See also self-perception Perry, W., 132 Personality, 34, 50, 97, 100, 149, 267, 269 Piaget, J., 132 Plurilingualism, plurilingual, 286 Porto, M., 117, 189 Positive positive attitude(-s), 73, 98 positive distinctiveness, 91 positive stereotype(-s), 61, 66, 67 Power distance, 35, 40, 41, 261. See also culture dimensions Power (imbalances, relation, relationships), 93, 263 Pregnancy Discrimination Act (PDA), 8 Prejudice(-s) explicit prejudice, 61, 72, 75, 82, 118 implicit prejudice, 14, 61, 73–75, 118 Privilege(-s), 17, 55, 61, 82, 92–95, 181 Psychology (social psychology), psychologist(-s), 16, 19, 25, 29, 62, 63, 67, 68, 79, 86, 99, 112, 122, 148, 176, 184, 226 Pusch, M. D., 260, 261 R Race, races, 6, 8, 10, 15, 39, 54, 64, 68, 69, 72, 75, 76, 82, 83, 87, 90, 92–94, 178, 179, 225, 228, 266, 267, 269–273 Racial (attitudes, bias, crime, discrimination, equality, prejudice, privilege, segregation, stereotypes), 7, 82–84, 87, 100, 226, 272 Racism aversive, 82

Index institutional, 272 modern, 82 overt, 272 subtle, 82 symbolic, 82 systemic, 84 Racist, 15, 73, 82, 84, 88, 140, 206, 267, 272 Reference Framework of Competences for Democratic Culture (RFCDC), 188 Reflection(-s), 65, 94, 144, 149, 150, 167, 171, 202, 204, 288. See also selfreflective activity(-ies) Reflective reflective cycle, 197, 202, 203 reflective skills, 204 Relativism, 124, 128, 132 Religion, 6, 8, 10, 32, 48, 54, 63, 70, 76, 85, 89, 92–94, 122, 127, 159, 172, 174, 198, 210, 225, 233, 246, 269 Religious, religiosity, 2, 7, 47, 51, 56, 70, 89, 93, 150, 176, 178, 181, 198, 210, 233, 266, 269, 271 Respect, respectful(-ly), 49, 66, 82, 111, 112, 116–118, 128, 129, 137, 138, 145, 146, 166, 176, 213, 224, 229, 232– 234, 238, 262, 265, 266, 281, 282, 285 Restraint, 47. See also culture dimensions Risk, 42, 43, 86, 182, 224, 225, 232 Role model(-s), 78, 258 Role(-s), 9, 14, 34, 37, 41, 43–45, 52, 64, 67, 76–81, 95, 103, 134, 171, 179, 200, 219, 220, 224, 225, 227, 237, 254, 256, 263, 266, 268, 269, 274

S Sapir, E., 184 Segregation horizontal (segregation), 77, 227 vertical (segregation), 77, 78, 227 Self-assessment, self-assess, 18, 148, 149, 190, 281, 285, 286 Self-awareness, 16, 57, 95, 96, 145–147, 215–217, 219, 282 Self-categorization, 51 Self-concept(-s) (self-belief, selfidentification, self-perception), 50–52, 71, 79, 89, 188, 258 Self-esteem, 89, 91 Self-reflective activity(-ies), 18, 49, 57, 120, 145, 148 Self-segregation, self-segregate, 100, 173

Index Sensitivity, 121–123, 126, 166, 167, 176, 269, 270 Separation, 87, 89, 124, 134, 139. See also Berry, J. W. Sex, 8, 14, 63, 65, 66, 81, 87, 88, 143 Sexism, sexist benevolent (sexism), 67, 76 hostile (sexism), 66, 76 Sexual orientation(-s), 6, 8, 54, 55, 63, 64, 72, 76, 86, 93, 94, 142, 144, 159, 178, 225, 233, 270. See also asexual, bisexual, gay, heterosexual, homosexual, homosexuality, LGBTQ, lesbian Short term (orientation), 45. See also culture dimensions Skill(-s), 2, 6, 9, 13, 16, 18, 112, 114–119, 129, 131, 132, 145, 146, 163, 166, 167, 184, 185, 187, 189, 191, 197, 198, 205, 208, 215, 216, 218, 220, 226, 238–240, 242, 244, 255, 260, 285, 286, 290. See also intercultural competence, CDC, leadership Social change, 18, 89, 253, 258, 265, 270, 273 Social class(-es), 48, 53, 54, 56, 144. See also class(-es)) Social cognition, 63 Social dominance, social dominance approach, social dominance theory, 67, 97 Social group(-s), 50, 53, 54, 56, 57, 93, 119, 188. See also group membership, Tajfel Social identity, social identities, 25, 26, 50– 54, 56, 61, 68, 89, 91, 117 Social issues, 274 Social justice, 92–94 Social media, 75, 139, 167, 241 Social network(-s), social networking, 168, 173, 187 Social norms, 28–30, 32, 47, 61, 87–89, 101, 207 Social responsibility, 18, 233, 253, 254, 273, 274 Social skills, 2 Society, societies, 2–5, 7, 8, 11, 15, 18, 19, 27, 35, 38, 43–45, 47, 48, 52, 62, 64, 65, 69, 72, 76, 79–82, 84–88, 92, 98, 101, 112, 114, 117, 120, 135, 138– 140, 150, 157, 171–174, 182, 204, 213, 223, 225, 228, 229, 232, 254,

299 256, 257, 260, 267, 268, 274, 275, 288 Socio-economic (background(-s), status), 159, 266, 269. See also class(-es), social class(-es) Sociology, sociologists, 25, 112 Spencer-Oatey, H., 53, 57, 112, 114, 142, 144, 148 Spitzberg, B. H., 114–117, 133 Stereotype(-s), stereotyped, stereotypical(ly), stereotyping, 1, 3, 7, 8, 10–12, 14–17, 25, 26, 33, 49, 61–63, 65–70, 76, 77, 79, 81, 82, 85–91, 96, 98, 99, 101, 103, 117, 118, 121, 124, 125, 128, 136, 137, 139, 146, 149, 158, 166, 170, 180, 181, 183, 201, 205, 211, 213, 244, 256, 263, 267–269, 272, 275 Strodtbeck, K., 35 Student accommodation, student residence, 167, 170, 200 Student organizations. See club, clubs; student society, student societies Student society, student societies. See, club, clubs; student organizations Study abroad, 18, 19, 157, 161–163, 165, 166, 169, 185, 190, 208, 243, 249 Success (academic success, career success), 4, 18, 43, 44, 81, 140, 184, 185, 223, 232, 233, 258, 261, 263, 269 Superiority, 124, 125, 146, 265 T Tajfel, H., 51, 89, 90, 117, 270 Third perspective/third place, 215, 219 Thought box, 17, 26–32, 34, 36, 37, 40, 41, 43–47, 49–52, 54, 55, 63–67, 69–75, 77, 78, 80–82, 84–99, 101–103, 113– 115, 120, 122, 123, 125–131, 133, 135, 137–139, 141–144, 150, 159, 160, 162, 168, 171–173, 175, 176, 180, 183, 186, 187, 189, 198, 201, 202, 213, 216–219, 224–227, 229, 231, 233, 235–238, 243–245, 254– 261, 264, 265, 267, 268, 271–273, 276 Tolerance, 111, 145, 151, 191, 257, 260, 281, 285 Tolerance of ambiguity, 145, 257, 285 Transforming. See, leader—transformational Transgender, 14, 85. See also sexual orientation

300 Trompenaars, F., 35 Turner, J. C., 51, 63, 68, 89–91 U Ubuntu, 39, 151, 264 Uncertainty tolerate uncertainty, 116, 118 uncertainty avoidance, 35. See also culture dimensions, 42, 43, 261. See also tolerance of ambiguity Unconscious (attitudes, bias), 3, 17, 61, 62, 73, 147, 180, 266 Unemployed, unemployment, 83, 95, 229, 237, 250 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), 157 United Nations (UN), 4, 5, 111, 138, 224 Universal, 124, 127, 138, 157, 188, 209 University, universities, 1, 2, 5, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17–19, 35, 36, 40, 41, 49, 53–55, 64, 68, 72, 77, 92, 93, 99–103, 112, 123, 131, 134, 142–144, 149, 150, 157– 165, 169–172, 174–182, 186, 187, 190, 198, 203, 209, 213, 227, 231, 233, 237, 240, 242, 247, 249, 250, 255, 272, 274, 276

Index V Value, values value orientations, 35, 151 Vande Berg, M., 12 Violence, 4, 10, 11, 84, 182

W Western/Westernized, 30, 37, 149, 150, 257, 263, 264 Work abroad, 162–169, 243, 244

X Xenophobia, 206

Y Yan, K., 185 Yin Yang, 149–151

Z Zarate, G., 215 Zhu, H., 213, 215