Integration through Subordination: The politics of Agricultural Modernisation in Industrial Europe (Rural History in Europe) 9782503545295, 2503545297

Starting from the hypothesis that states were crucial as agents of modernisation, this book explores why, how and with w

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Integration through Subordination: The politics of Agricultural Modernisation in Industrial Europe (Rural History in Europe)
 9782503545295, 2503545297

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Rural History in Europe 8

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