Integrating Christian Faith and Work: Individual, Occupational, and Organizational Influences and Strategies [1st ed. 2020] 978-3-030-22913-9, 978-3-030-22914-6

Table of contents :
Front Matter ....Pages i-xviii
Introduction (Sharlene G. Buszka, Timothy Ewest)....Pages 1-7
Historical Perceptions of the Meaning of Work (Sharlene G. Buszka, Timothy Ewest)....Pages 9-26
The Meaning of Work (Sharlene G. Buszka, Timothy Ewest)....Pages 27-47
Christian Views of Work (Sharlene G. Buszka, Timothy Ewest)....Pages 49-61
Definitions and Terminology (Sharlene G. Buszka, Timothy Ewest)....Pages 63-84
Benefits of Faith and Work Integration (Sharlene G. Buszka, Timothy Ewest)....Pages 85-111
The Need for Faith and Work Equipping and Training (Sharlene G. Buszka, Timothy Ewest)....Pages 113-132
The Faith and Work Integration Spheres of Influence Model (FWSI) (Sharlene G. Buszka, Timothy Ewest)....Pages 133-149
Individual Influences and Strategies (Sharlene G. Buszka, Timothy Ewest)....Pages 151-189
Occupational Influences and Strategies (Sharlene G. Buszka, Timothy Ewest)....Pages 191-214
Work Organization Influences and Strategies (Sharlene G. Buszka, Timothy Ewest)....Pages 215-258
Faith Organization Influences (Sharlene G. Buszka, Timothy Ewest)....Pages 259-277
Conclusion (Sharlene G. Buszka, Timothy Ewest)....Pages 279-282
Back Matter ....Pages 283-291

Citation preview

PALGRAVE STUDIES IN WORKPLACE SPIRITUALITY AND FULFILLMENT

Integrating Christian Faith and Work Individual, Occupational, and Organizational Influences and Strategies Sharlene G. Buszka Timothy Ewest

Palgrave Studies in Workplace Spirituality and Fulfillment Series Editors Satinder Dhiman School of Business Woodbury University Burbank, CA, USA Gary E. Roberts Robertson School of Government Regent University Virginia Beach, VA, USA Joanna Crossman University of South Australia Adelaide, SA, Australia

Satinder Dhiman, Editor-in-Chief Gary Roberts and Joanna Crossman, Associate Editors By way of primary go-to-platform, this Series precisely maps the terrain of the twin fields of Workplace Spirituality and Fulfillment in the disciplines of business, psychology, health care, education, and various other allied fields. It reclaims the sacredness of work—work that is mind-­ enriching, heart-fulfilling, soul-satisfying and financially-rewarding. It fills the gap in scholarship in the allied disciplines of Workplace Spirituality and Flourishing. Using a comprehensive schema, it invites contributions from foremost scholars and practitioners that reflect insightful research, practices, and latest trends on the theme of workplace spirituality and fulfillment. The uniqueness of this Series lies in its anchorage in the moral and spiritual dimension of various positive forms of leadership—such as Authentic Leadership, Servant Leadership, Transformational Leadership, and Values-Based Leadership. We welcome research monographs and multi-authored edited volumes representing myriad thought-positions on topics such as: Past, Present and Future Directions in Workplace Spirituality; Workplace Spirituality and World Wisdom/Spiritual Traditions; Culture Studies and Workplace Spirituality; Spiritual, Social and Emotional intelligence; Nature of Work;  Mindfulness at Work; Personal Fulfillment and Workplace Flourishing; Workplace Spirituality and Organizational Performance; Inner Identity, Interconnectedness, Community and Transcendence; Managing Spiritual and Religious Diversity at Work; Spirituality and World  Peace Imperative; Sustainability and Spirituality; Spirituality and Creativity; and Applied Workplace Spirituality in Health Care, Education, Faith-based Organizations, et al. More information about this series at http://www.palgrave.com/gp/series/15746

Sharlene G. Buszka • Timothy Ewest

Integrating Christian Faith and Work Individual, Occupational, and Organizational Influences and Strategies

Sharlene G. Buszka Daemen College Amherst, NY, USA

Timothy Ewest Houston Baptist University Houston, TX, USA

ISSN 2662-3668     ISSN 2662-3676 (electronic) Palgrave Studies in Workplace Spirituality and Fulfillment ISBN 978-3-030-22913-9    ISBN 978-3-030-22914-6 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-22914-6 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2020 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the ­publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and ­institutional affiliations. This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG. The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Preface

The seed for this book was planted more than 15 years ago, before I earned my doctorate or even heard the terms “faith” and “work” linked together. In a Christian ministry development class sponsored by my church, I was asked the question: “What would you do for God if you were guaranteed success?” My response to this question was, “write a book.” The point of this class exercise was to help participants realize that if they limited themselves, they were really limiting God. When I responded in this way, I had no idea how long and hard the journey would be, or how much God would change me through the process. In fact, I am now thinking that God’s purpose in this book was more about building my faith, character, and relationship with Him than about the book itself. Nevertheless, I pray this book will be a resource to promote further scholarship and understanding of this most important topic of faith and work integration. Factors in my personal and professional backgrounds led me to realize the importance of faith and work integration. I was first a first-generation college student and (what I will call) almost a “first generation Christian.” Though I was raised in a stable home with two loving parents, aside from attending church and Sunday school in “fits and starts,” I do not remember receiving much Christian instruction or guidance while a teenager or young adult. Because of this, I gave no thought to honoring God with my talents or abilities when deciding on college major or future career. I changed my major at least four times and considered many diverse career options. My interests ranged from that of being a hair dresser to nursing, dietetics, social-psychology, philosophy, and then, ultimately, business administration. Somehow (so it seemed to me) I fumbled and stumbled v

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into a career that appeared to use my abilities, I enjoyed some of the time, and provided decent compensation and (more importantly) work-­ life balance. Years later, I found myself playing an active role in the lives of my four children when they were making both college and career decisions. I believe I was trying to provide the guidance that was absent in my own early college and career decision-making years. Since then, I had matured as a Christian, and my knowledge of the Bible had grown. Yet, it was not until I was discussing with my oldest about his struggle reconciling career choice with faith that I realized how helpful it would be to have a solid understanding of God’s view of work. This is when I finally saw a possible fit between my faith and career as an academic in the area of Human Resource Management. I wondered if my son’s confusion and my own struggle all those years ago could have been mitigated with some good faith and work training and development. Though I am sure there are many Christians raised in homes and churches in which serving God through work is regularly discussed, I think there may be many like me and my children who might benefit from more emphasis on this topic. Hence, this became the subject of my dissertation study, and now the topic of this book. When I first approached Tim Ewest about writing a book on faith and work, he wisely advised that my first book be academic in nature, since I am a member of the academy. However, I will confess that my ultimate goal is to write another (more practical) book on this topic, with a related small group study curriculum. I envision this second book could be used on college campuses or within churches and faith-based or faith-friendly organizations to help facilitate individual faith and work integration. Therefore, in this book, I tried to strike balance between practical and academic. A term I recently heard at a conference, “pracademic,” is one I believe best describes our intended audience. I hope this book will prove to be useful for my academic colleagues who share interest in the topics of faith and work integration and workplace faith, religion, and spirituality. However, I also hope it will be helpful to non-academics and practitioners, as well as provide a foundation for future curriculum development on the topic of faith and work integration. I do wish to thank my husband and children as well as several other people for their support through this book-writing journey. John, thank you for always encouraging and supporting my every professional and ­academic endeavor. You have also set an example for our family of humil-

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ity, integrity, and excellence in your own work. Nathan, as I mentioned previously, it was your career uncertainty and decision to attend seminary that stimulated my own decision to dig deeper in understanding God’s purpose for my life and work. Rebecca, thank you for the back-and-forth texts sharing daily devotions and encouragement. Of course, I also thank you and Bobby for offering the most delightful distractions during tense and difficult times, our three grandchildren, Penelope, Eloise, and Callum. As for the first of my twins, Chloe, thank you for the amazing neck and shoulder massages so needed after long hours at the computer and especially for your words of encouragement along the way. Finally, Alexander, my youngest (by almost an hour!), I so appreciate the help you provided reviewing references (you are an APA whiz!) and by sharing many Microsoft office tips and shortcuts. I also wish to thank Dr. David Ward (Yoda), my key dissertation advisor, with whom the diagram for the first faith and work integration model was crafted on a flip chart in the OGS library. Thank you to Tim Ewest, my writing mentor and co-author, who saw potential in my dissertation ideas and challenged, encouraged, and assisted me in this process. Tim, without your help, this book would not have been published. There are also many, many family members, friends, and church family members who have been praying for me and my family over the last several years. Thank you all for these prayers and for understanding why I have been less available to you. Finally, I will share a little about my personal journey while writing this book in order to encourage others who find themselves barraged by challenges when they are trying to serve God through their work. The last several years, while developing the proposal for and writing this book, have been the most challenging in my life. Some of these struggles (actually the deepest ones) are too personal or not my story to share, but there are several I can provide. The day I was first supposed to meet Tim Ewest in California to discuss this book project, I received a phone call to return home because my older brother had suddenly and unexpectedly passed away. My brother was the rock upon which others in our family depended, as well as the best and most loyal friend. Months later, a major blockage was found in my carotid artery that required surgery. However, before this surgery could be performed, I became completely blind in my left eye as a result of a freak and incredibly painful accident. Therefore, the year following my brother’s death, I had carotid stent surgery, two eye surgeries, and also fractured my ankle in a car accident. In spite of the physical and emotional pain of these and other life events, I can attest to the strength,

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comfort, and fortitude God provided over the years. While talking with Tim about the life challenges presented both of us while writing this book, I shared the analogy from I Kings 18:30–38 of Elijah pouring water on the altar so that it would be obvious that it was God who lit the fire. In my own life, I see these struggles as water poured on the altar of my work, so that it will be obvious that God is the only reason I was able to write this book. Also, I wish to dedicate this book to my late brother, Phillip Gallson. Because of the way he lived his life and performed his work serving others, there was more than an hour’s wait to pay respects at his wake. During this time, story after story of the people he helped and mentored were shared with us. I was told by one of his colleagues that he performed his work as an accountant more like a social worker. In support of this, another person related how my brother would come to the home of their elderly mother to pick up and deliver her tax documents and would stay and sit at the kitchen table to chat with her. She also shared that her mother cried when she heard of my brother’s death because she felt like she lost a member of her family. How many people would say that of their tax accountant? For reasons such as these, I believe my brother was able to transform his work in a way that was especially pleasing to God. His work as an “accountant-­ social worker” serves as an example of how all work can achieve God’s higher meaning and purpose. Amherst, NY

Sharlene G. Buszka

Praise for Integrating Christian Faith and Work “Buszka and Ewest provide a well-written book and deeper level of insight into faith-work integration in an era when religion and spirituality’s role in the workplace is increasingly challenged.” —Stuart Allen, Professor of Organizational Leadership, Robert Morris University, USA “This book is a rich resource with roots in both management science and Protestant Christian theology. The Spheres of Influence model is particularly relevant given growing workplace religious diversity—useful to academicians and leaders, alike.” —Peter Williams, Professor of Leadership, Abilene Christian University, USA “This book will take you on a fascinating journey through the integration of the Christian faith at work. It provides a refreshing and comprehensive insight into diverse occupational contexts, organisational processes and complex situations where the Christian faith makes a difference. Buszka and Ewest’s book is immensely important for academics and practitioners—a must read!” —Allan Discua Cruz, Professor of Entrepreneurship and Strategy, Lancaster University Management School, UK “As we struggle with increasingly challenging social and environmental issues, embedding positive faith beliefs and values into our organizations may be one solution to ensuring a flourishing future for all. Certainly, plenty has been written about the ‘what’ and the ‘why’ of such integration though little has been offered as to the ‘how’, especially as it pertains to Christian Faith Traditions in modern workplaces. Buszka and Ewest’s important book, Christian Faith and Work: Individual, Occupational and Organizational Influences and Strategies addresses this lacuna. This well-written and engaging book presents a useful and wide-ranging approach to integration, as well as offering constructive practical strategies for embedding Christian faith in organizations, even in the face of identified obstacles. The author covers a broad range of ideas, concepts and theory, making the work academic but at the same practical for everyday readers. From my perspective, this book has the potential to be a standard reference work for both Christians and managers for many years to come.” —Peter McGhee, Associate Professor of Management, Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand

“Buszka and Ewest approach the integration of Christianity and work with fresh and penetrating eyes. Their ‘faith and work integration spheres of influence’ model, a dramatic leap over other contributions in this field, provides a sophisticated tool explicating four primary influences on how an individual can experience faith-work integration.” —Kent W. Seibert, Professor and Chair, Department of Economics and Business, Gordon College, USA “We desperately need to better understand how we can integrate our faith into our work. Buszka and Ewest’s work provides a well-researched, comprehensive resource that provides important insights at many levels, including one’s personal faith stance but also well beyond that to the occupational and organizational influences shaping how we live out our faith at work. In particular, their Faith and Work Integration model will help people think through how they can more effectively integrate their faith with their work, whatever and wherever that may be.” —Elden Wiebe, Associate Professor of Management, The King’s University, Canada

Contents

1 Introduction  1 References   6 2 Historical Perceptions of the Meaning of Work  9 Introduction   9 Meaning vs. Meaningfulness of Work  10 Historical Meanings of Work  14 Conclusion  23 References  24 3 The Meaning of Work 27 Introduction  27 Factors Influencing the Meaning of Work  28 Self as a Source of Meaning for Work  28 Others  34 Work Context  37 Conclusion  42 References  43 4 Christian Views of Work 49 Introduction  49 Special Revelation  50 Meet God the Worker  51 Scriptural References to Work: A Sampling  52 xi

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Historical Themes of Protestant Faith and Work  57 Conclusion  60 References  60 5 Definitions and Terminology 63 Introduction  63 Religion  64 Spirituality  69 Faith  73 Reconciling Religion, Spirituality, and Faith  77 Conclusion  79 References  80 6 Benefits of Faith and Work Integration 85 Introduction  85 The Inter-relationship of Faith-Work Benefits  87 Individual-Level Faith-Work Benefits  88 Organizational-Level Faith-Work Benefits  92 Societal Faith-Work Benefits  94 Potential Problems Associated with Faith-Work Integration  98 Conclusion 104 References 104 7 The Need for Faith and Work Equipping and Training113 Introduction 113 Evidence of Interest in Faith and Work Integration 114 The Need for Faith and Work Integration Equipping and Training 120 Conclusion: The Charge of This Book 127 References 127 8 The Faith and Work Integration Spheres of Influence Model (FWSI)133 Introduction to the FWSI Model 133 Using the FWSI Model 137 Conclusion 147 References 147

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9 Individual Influences and Strategies151 Introduction 151 Individual Factors Influencing FWI 153 Religiosity 157 Individual Strategies for FWI 169 Individual FWI Manifestation Strategies Related to the TIP 174 Conclusion 181 References 183 10 Occupational Influences and Strategies191 Introduction 191 The TIP and Occupational Influences 192 Job, Career, and Calling 193 Job Characteristics and FWI 197 Occupational Identification 205 Conclusion: The Need for Christian Career Guidance 209 References 211 11 Work Organization Influences and Strategies215 Introduction 215 Organizational Purpose 217 Organizational Purpose and Form 218 Other Organization Sub-categories 229 Organizational Culture 239 Legal Protections 243 Creating a Faith-Friendly Organization 247 Conclusion 250 References 250 12 Faith Organization Influences259 Introduction 259 FWI and the Role of the Church 260 Parachurch Organizations 271 Conclusion 274 References 275 13 Conclusion279 Index283

List of Figures

Fig. 5.1 Fig. 8.1 Fig. 9.1

Faith as the interconnection of religion, faith, and spirituality Faith and work integration spheres of influence model (FWSI) Faith and work integration spheres of influence model (FWSI): individual influences Fig. 10.1 Faith and work integration spheres of influence model (FWSI): occupational influences Fig. 11.1 Faith and work integration spheres of influence model (FWSI): work organization influences Fig. 12.1 Faith and work integration spheres of influence model (FWSI): faith organization influences

78 134 152 192 216 260

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List of Tables

Table 2.1 Table 3.1 Table 4.1 Table 6.1 Table 6.2 Table 7.1 Table 8.1 Table 8.2 Table 9.1 Table 9.2 Table 9.3 Table 9.4 Table 9.5 Table 9.6 Table 9.7 Table 9.8 Table 9.9 Table 9.10 Table 9.11 Table 10.1 Table 10.2 Table 10.3

Historical views of work 21 Sources of meaning for work 42 Five faith and work themes in Protestant theology 59 Categories of faith-work benefits 97 Potential challenges related to faith-work integration (FWI) 103 Examples of faith and work groups 116 Various combinations of faith and work integration (FWI) favorability138 Examples of combinations of FWI favorability 139 Possible relationships between religious identity prominence and salience 156 Key points about identity theory and FWI 158 Stages (or types) of religious development and motivation for FWI 159 Religiosity and religious identity 160 Research findings relating religiosity to FWI 162 Key findings about faith maturity 164 Recommendations based on calling research 168 Individual characteristics associated with FWI 170 The Integration Profile (TIP) 173 Recommendations for using the TIP to engage in FWI 182 Closing reminders about individual FWI 183 Job, career, and calling FWI examples 197 Job Characteristics Model (JCM) and FWI as applied to the job of kitchen worker at an elementary school 199 Job with relational architecture conducive to FWI: firefighter201 xvii

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List of Tables

Table 10.4 Table 10.5 Table 10.6 Table 11.1 Table 11.2 Table 11.3 Table 11.4 Table 11.5 Table 11.6 Table 11.7 Table 11.8 Table 11.9 Table 11.10 Table 12.1 Table 12.2 Table 12.3 Table 13.1

Leadership roles and FWI 203 Dirty work and FWI 205 SHRM code of ethics and Biblical precepts 207 Organizational purpose and FWI 218 Organization purpose and form 220 Organizational category, purpose/vision, and FWI 224 Means of accomplishing purpose and organizational type 226 Small and entrepreneurial businesses and FWI 230 Social entrepreneurship and FWI 232 Family-owned businesses and FWI 233 Faith-based organization categories 234 Strong organizational cultures and FWI 241 Organization size and FWI 242 Beliefs about the Church as they relate to FWI 264 Examples of Church-affiliated ancillary faith and work groups272 Categories and examples of parachurch faith and work groups273 FWI situation favorability self-analysis template 281

CHAPTER 1

Introduction

Jesus of Nazareth had a job; he worked as a Jewish rabbi. As any rabbi of the day, Jesus was a teacher who interpreted Jewish scriptures and provided instruction to his followers on understanding the history and committing to the promises of God. Also, as a rabbi one of his first job responsibilities was to call disciples to himself. Jesus was to teach, train, and charge these disciples with responsibilities of furthering his teachings and God’s mission in the world (Gonzalez, 2010). For Jesus, his work and his life of faith were inseparable. For people who take their faith seriously and include it as central to their personal identity, the connection of religious faith and a person’s work is not a new consideration. But the same consideration is not new for the scholarship in the academy either. The consideration of the connections between the two is as old as the founding of the social sciences. Max Weber (2002), considered by many the father of the social sciences (to which management science belongs), was one of the first to see the connections of the Protestant’s faith beliefs to their behaviors in the workplace. This has come to be referred to as the Protestant Work Ethic. Today, researchers have found that not only do Protestant’s faith beliefs directly affect their workplace behaviors, but other religious traditions (e.g., Buddhism, Islam) also experience the same relationship between their faith and work. The connection between the two, Weber noticed and he labeled “elective affinities,” wherein the connection between faith and work is one © The Author(s) 2020 S. G. Buszka, T. Ewest, Integrating Christian Faith and Work, Palgrave Studies in Workplace Spirituality and Fulfillment, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-22914-6_1

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where the individual’s faith affects their work, and the workplace also impacts a person’s faith, so each affect the other. The idea of the dialectic or interchange is not lost on modern scholarship. Anthony Giddens (1984) from the London School of Economics has offered a modern-day rendition on this, suggesting individuals and organizations have a formative impact on the other and together form and transform each other and larger society. Though religious faith in the broader culture is still very much alive with 60% of the US adult population affiliated with a church, temple, synagogue, or mosque (Neubert & Dougherty, 2013), committed Christians today are often left wondering if faith-inspired actions have any impact against what is perceived as the great monoliths of organizational life and structures. Because Christians are ill-equipped or feel restricted in their expression of faith within work organizations, many Christian workers may be perceived as no different from their secular counterparts (Silvoso, 2014). Also, many Christians mistakenly believe their faith does not belong in the workplace and question if their work really matters to God. Ironically, if Christians feel as if their faith doesn’t belong in the workplace, they ignore decades of writings, theology, and research from the three great Christian faith traditions: Catholicism, Protestantism, and Orthodoxy, which suggest the opposite. For example, Catholics have a robust theology which outlines how the life of faith is to be lived in the workplace, known commonly as Catholic Social Teaching (Melé, 2011). Orthodoxy, while not having the same level of development, also have outlined specific ideals of how Orthodox Christians are to be responsive and inclusive of their faith tradition in the workplace. While this book draws upon research from a wide variety of sources, both Christian and non-Christian, it is largely informed by Protestant teachings, perspectives, research, and tradition, which has specific distinctions. This is not to suggest that this book fully represents all of Protestantism. The Protestant tent is large and has a great diversity of sects, but its specific historical themes or assumptions act as a framework operative throughout the expanse of Protestant faith and life. The framework or perspective Protestants use traces its origins back to the reformation and a few key figures such as Martian Luther and John Calvin. A broad stroke of the framework includes the centrality of the Bible as a source of authority whose interpretation is guided by reason, the central role of an individual’s faith in Christ, God’s salvation through Christ alone and less of an emphasis on the sacramental functions of the

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church (e.g., communion, marriage, baptism). Comparatively, Catholics place more emphasis on papal authority, the nature and purpose of Catholic Sacraments, priestly elevation over laity, papal/priestly interpretation of orthodoxy and orthopraxy, and the ascetic traditions (Pelikan, 1984; Walker, Norris, Lotz, & Handy, 1918/1985). Orthodoxy echoes many of the commitments of Catholicism, but with an emphasis on faith as a mystery, and a different source of papal authority (Desta, 2012). What is vital to understand is that whatever one of these three great traditions a person adheres to, the Christian faith is important for the formation of a personal identity (Emmons, 2003) and also functions as a sense-making device, which individuals use to make sense of the world around them, and specifically within the organizations they work in (Weick, Sutcliffe, & Obstfeld, 2005). What is important to understand is that devoted Protestant Christians use their faith to make sense of themselves, others, and the workplace through the lens of their faith. So, those outside the Christian faith who wish to understand how Christians view life and work must understand the reason and perspective this faith provides. Therefore, this book considers research from a broad scope including how generally held Christian beliefs guide the dynamics and expression of faith and work integration. Consequently, the reader who wants to engage academically may be baffled by the use of scripture, but for the Christian reader, particularly the Protestant Christian, they will find the use of scripture and popular theological perspectives from pastors and theologians as important tools to help make sense of the world. Realistically, not a lot of resources exist to guide Christians (or those who wish to understand them), on this quest for faith and work integration. However, there are more resources available than most people are aware, and many of these will be referenced in this book. Yet, what may be a bigger problem than lack of information is the lack of a general knowledge about how important work should be for the person of faith. Cosden (2006, p. 6) shared that it is often not clear to leaders and ordinary church members “how our Christian beliefs in creation and redemption, resurrection and heaven could relate directly to such real-world issues as our work.” The reality is Christians who take the charge or commission of Christ to go make disciples and teach others to obey Christ’s commands may face bewilderment when considering how this will happen in the workplace. In fact, the reality is that work as an aspect of the life of the Christian is often perceived as having a minor role, unless it pertains to the work of

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discipleship and teaching that is most often performed by professional clergy. Or, alternatively, Christians consider the discipleship-making process to happen while gathered together with other Christians while at church or church-related activities. Though this has historically been perceived as a vital part of the Christian life or the life of Christians as they gather together, this view is limited. But a classic historical theology on the church dating back to Abraham Kuyper may help explain and broaden this perspective (Bacote, 2010; Keller, 2012). Kuyper argued that there is a difference between the gathered church and the scattered church. The gathered church, led by officers and ministers, is intended for corporate worship, instruction, and the sharing of communion. In contrast, the scattered church is made up of all Christians, the body of believers, any time they are not gathered together in the previously described activities— which is most of the time. Keller (2012) explains that “making disciples” includes much more than equipping Christians within the walls of the gathered church through church-related activities led by the clergy. Making disciples also includes preparing Christians to see how their faith can influence business practices, use of money, civic responsibilities, and relationships with those outside the gathered church. Discipleship then should enable Christians to take responsibility and integrate their faith in all areas of life, including the workplace. Thus, though the work of discipleship is performed within the gathered church, since the Christian spends the majority of their time outside the gathered church, there is much more opportunity for discipleship to be performed by the scattered church. Another factor making the role of the scattered church even more important for carrying out the Bible’s disciple-making charge is that church attendance and commitment to formal religion appear to be declining. In 2015, the Pew Research Center indicated that the number of Americans who reported attending church at least weekly declined by 3% from 2007, while the number who indicated they rarely or never attended church increased from 27% to 30% (Wormald, 2015a). In addition, the religiously “unaffiliated” increased from 16% to 23% during this same time period (Wormald, 2015b). Based on these US statistics, those wishing to engage in acts of Christian service may have a smaller pool of people to serve within the gathered church. As noted by Weber (2002) and Giddens (1984), the scattered church is vital, since it is connected to, affecting and also being affected by demographic, socio-cultural, and technological factors impacting the

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workplace. The reality is that the majority of adult waking hours are spent performing either paid or unpaid work (Saad, 2014). Also, more and more families are supported by multiple wage earners (Pew Research Center, 2015) or single parent households (Porter, 2016), leaving less time for domestic work to be accomplished. Additionally, 24-7 technology is blurring the line between home and work, often leaving little distinction between when and where work begins and ends (Burkus, Gallo, Gielan, & Valcour, 2017). Communities too are changing, with our local neighborhoods and communities no longer places we spend much time interacting with each other (Putnam, 2007). Fewer and fewer people know the names of their neighbors, much less talk with them on a regular basis. According to a 2015 report, nearly a third of those surveyed reported “no interactions with neighbors and only about 20 percent say they spend time regularly with neighbors” (Cortwright, 2015, p. 6). All these factors collude to leave even less time for involvement in the formal ministries of the gathered church or for “creating disciples” in our neighborhoods. In fact, it is the position of this book that the workplace is becoming more of a community and neighborhood than the places we reside in (Dahlin, Kelly, & Moen, 2008). Besides with our most intimate family and friends, it is very likely that today’s Christians have more time and opportunity to express their faith at work than in most any other context. Therefore, it is even more essential than ever before that we are preparing Christians to do the work of discipleship in the workplace. It is for this purpose of equipping the scattered church that we add our book to the number of other titles that have been published on the topic of Christian faith and work. Like others, we believe this is a topic worth carefully examining. However, our book is written as both an educational and practical tool to help individuals, occupational groups, business organizations, and the gathered church to carry out Christ’s charge to make disciples and teach people of all nations. The first section of our book will provide a review of the meaning and perception of work from a historical, Biblical, and faith traditions perspective. The next section reviews terminology used in the book, research on the benefits associated with faith-work integration (FWI), and reasons more intentional faith-work equipping and training is needed. The last section will present the author’s four-sphere model of faith and work integration, developed within her dissertation research (Buszka, 2015). This model, referred to as the Faith and Work Integration Spheres of Influence

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(FWSI) model, includes individual, occupational, work organization, and faith organization influences. This model will be used to visually conceptualize how these four factors work together to create conditions more or less favorable for FWI. Each of the four spheres will be discussed within its own chapter, with related research and suggestions for practical application. In addition, this model provides a way of organizing current research on the topic of faith and work integration and will possibly provide stimulus for future research in this area. It is also hoped that, on a practical level, this research and the FWSI model may be used to guide the Christian worker to more fully integrate their faith at work and realize that all work can be God honoring.

References Bacote, V.  E. (2010). The spirit in public theology: Appropriating the legacy of Abraham Kuyper. Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock Publishers. Burkus, D., Gallo, A., Gielan, S. A., & Valcour, M. (2017, April 03). Research: Keeping work and life separate is more trouble than its worth. Harvard Business Review. Retrieved from https://hbr.org/2016/08/research-keeping-workand-life-separate-is-more-trouble-than-its-worth Buszka, S. G. (2015). Factors affecting the integration of faith and spirituality in the college workplace (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Oxford Graduate School, Dayton, TN. Cortwright, J. (2015). City report: Less in common. Portland, OR: City Observatory. Retrieved from http://cityobservatory.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/ CityObservatory_Less_In_Common.pdf Cosden, D. (2006). The heavenly good of earthly work. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson. Dahlin, E., Kelly, E., & Moen, P. (2008). Is Work the new neighborhood? Social ties in the workplace, family, and neighborhood. The Sociological Quarterly, 49(4), 719–736. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1533-8525.2008.00133.x Desta, A. (2012). Introduction to the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo faith. Bloomington, IN: Author House Publishing. Emmons, R. (2003). The psychology of ultimate concerns: Motivation and spirituality in personality. New York, NY: Guilford Press. Giddens, A. (1984). The constitution of society: Outline of the theory of structuration. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Gonzalez, J. L. (2010). The story of Christianity: The reformation to the present day (Vol. 2). New York, NY: HarperCollins. Keller, T. (2012). Center Church: Doing balanced, gospel-centered ministry in your city. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan.

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Melé, D. (2011). Catholic social teaching. In Handbook of spirituality and business (pp. 118–128). London: Palgrave Macmillan. Neubert, M.  J., & Dougherty, K.  D. (2013). Christian perspectives on faith at work: An empirical exploration of faith and work associations across Christian religious traditions. In Handbook of faith and spirituality in the workplace (pp. 47–67). New York, NY: Springer. Pelikan, J. (1984). The Christian tradition: A history of the development of doctrine (Reformation of church and dogma (1300–1700)) (Vol. 4). Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press. Pew Research Center. (2015). The rise in dual income households. Retrieved from http://www.pewresearch.org/ft_dual-income-households-1960-2012-2/ Porter, E. (2016, March 22). Politicians push marriage, but that’s not what would help children. The New  York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes. com/2016/03/23/business/for-the-sake-of-the-children-not-marriagebut-help.html Putnam, R. D. (2007). E Pluribus Unum: Diversity and community in the twentyfirst century. The 2006 Johan Skytte prize lecture. Scandinavian Political Studies, 30(2), 137–174. Saad, L. (2014, August 29). The “40-hour” workweek is actually longer  – By seven hours. Gallup. Retrieved from www.gallup.com/poll/175286/hourworkweek-actually-longer-seven-hours.aspx Silvoso, E. (2014). Anointed for business. Bloomington, MN: Chosen Books. Walker, W., Norris, R. A., Lotz, D. W., & Handy, R. T. (1985). A history of the Christian church (4th ed.). New York, NY: Simon & Schuster, Inc. (Original work published 1918). Weber, M. (2002). The Protestant ethic and the “spirit” of capitalism and other writings. New York, NY: Penguin. Weick, K. E., Sutcliffe, K. M., & Obstfeld, D. (2005). Organizing and the process of sensemaking. Organization Science, 16(4), 409–421. Wormald, B. (2015a, November 03). Religious practices and experiences. Retrieved from https://www.pewforum.org/2015/11/03/chapter-2-religiouspractices-and-experiences/ Wormald, B. (2015b, November 03). U.S. public becoming less religious. Retrieved from https://www.pewforum.org/2015/11/03/u-s-public-becoming-less-religious/

CHAPTER 2

Historical Perceptions of the Meaning of Work

Introduction Studs Terkel was known to many as author, actor, and radio personality. But, the one-time scholar-in-residence for the Chicago History Museum was also a noted historian, recording American History in radio and books (Corley, 2008). Among his many top-selling and Pulitzer prize-winning books is the book Working: People Talk About What They Do All Day and How They Feel About What They Do (2011). Terkel’s book broadly interviews various types of workers as they engage in their work. These voices include: executives, receptionists, stewardesses, financial planners, chiefs, actors, welders, and gas meter readers to name only a few. The indication from these interviews was that work can vary in importance, but work does provide meaning for those performing the work. Besides taking on personal meaning for each person, work takes on varying degrees of meaningfulness. One voice, Bill Talcott, an organizer, thinking on the nature of work said, “history is a lot of people getting together to work deciding they want a better life for themselves and their kids” (Terkel, 2011, p. 355). And, as valid as this simple perspective may be, the collective historical understanding of work can be viewed as evolving based on changes in culture and society, as well as having a formative effect on the same. Joyce (1989) conducted a robust survey of the historical meaning of work, considering the various meanings attributed to work over the centuries; Victorian, Marxist, Industrialist, Post-industrialist, and Capitalist © The Author(s) 2020 S. G. Buszka, T. Ewest, Integrating Christian Faith and Work, Palgrave Studies in Workplace Spirituality and Fulfillment, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-22914-6_2

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meanings were explored. Joyce, like Giddens (1984), and Weber (1930) understood that individuals will make personal attributions concerning the meaning of work, but that these are formed and embedded by the structures and organizations in which individuals participate. The suggestion is that the individual’s personal meaning for the work they are engaged in is interconnected to the organizational and larger philosophical contexts, but it is also limited to some extent by these contexts. And, the individual is formed and correspondingly is transformed by these contexts. In this chapter we will provide a brief historical overview of the evolving meaning of work. This discussion considers how culture or society influenced the way work was perceived, and also how the changing nature of work has impacted culture and society. This section is meant only to provide the major views of work for generally acknowledged time periods of history. However, there were (and remain today) many workers and areas of the world that were not influenced by these views due to intentional non-conformity or lack of exposure to the predominant culture or society of that time. Some examples of such groups include workers in Amish (Kraybill & Olshan, 1994) communities or those in remote African jungle villages (Marah, 1998). Work has meaning for such groups, but this meaning has been impacted much less, if at all, by changes in the outside world culture. This section is meant to show how both the nature of work and the meaning of work have evolved together over time, but not to suggest that any prior meaning associated with work has been completely eradicated.

Meaning vs. Meaningfulness of Work Before discussing the historical meaning of work, it is important to differentiate between the terms meaning and meaningfulness to avoid confusion when exploring how work is defined. For the purposes of this chapter and the next chapter, meaning refers to “what work signifies,” while meaningfulness relates to “the amount of significance attached to the work” (Rosso, Dekas, & Wrzesniewski, 2010, p.  95). This simple, yet important distinction is necessary to understand the ensuing larger discussion. The primary purpose of this chapter is to describe the meaning of work, not the meaningfulness of work. We acknowledge that the discussion regarding what work denotes, or indicates, will correspond in determining what types of work becomes more or less meaningful to an

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individual, or what are the imperatives for individuals regarding work. For example, if work is defined as an activity that happens outside the house with others, work that provides a great deal of time to interact with people would be more meaningful or have more significance than work performed in isolation. Defining Work Researchers who have written about this topic explain the difficulty in defining work because of common familiarity with the word and the ordinariness of its context (Volf, 2001). Webster’s online dictionary (Work, n.d.) lists three intransitive verb definitions that apply to work as we will be discussing it in this book. The first is “to perform work or fulfill duties regularly for wages or salary” (Entry 1a/3). This initial definition includes paid work, but excludes volunteer work or activities such as a hobby or recreation (e.g., woodworking or cycling). Another definition, “to exert oneself physically or mentally especially in sustained effort for a purpose or under compulsion or necessity” (Entry 1c/3), suggests work signifies something one does, but would not freely choose to do if there wasn’t some obligation or need. A final definition, “to perform or carry through a task requiring sustained effort or continuous repeated operations” (Entry 1b/3), could include paid and unpaid work as well as activities performed freely or under compulsion. This third definition is the most inclusive definition as it could include many things people choose to do for no pay, such as golfing, helping at a soup kitchen, or woodworking. Therefore, to understand what work means one cannot do so without also adding value judgments, or apart from considering the situational context in which the work is found. To illustrate this, let’s consider a commonly used antonym for the word work—play. Can an activity that is considered play also be considered work? If a person gets paid for doing this same activity, is it then work and not play? Can something that is play for one person, be work for someone else? Does a person who considers baseball playing, no longer consider it playing when they become professional? Or do children who “play house” consider household duties to be work when they become adults? These examples point out what Mark Twain said years ago, that “work and play are words used to describe the same thing under differing conditions” (Twain & Harnsberger, 2009, p. 71). Twain also expresses a similar idea in Tom Sawyer:

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Tom said to himself that it was not such a hollow world, after all. He had discovered a great law of human action, without knowing it--namely, that in order to make a man or a boy covet a thing, it is only necessary to make the thing difficult to attain. If he had been a great and wise philosopher, like the writer of this book, he would now have comprehended that Work consists of whatever a body is OBLIGED to do, and that Play consists of whatever a body is not obliged to do. (Chapter 2, 1876)

The ancient Israelites, Jews, also had a difficult time defining what constituted work on the Sabbath, since a religious day mandated no work. Determining what constituted work was vital, since if Israelites did work on the Sabbath, the consequence for breaking the Sabbath rest was death (Exodus 31:15–16). Yet, even though it was critical to not violate the Sabbath, the Hebrew scriptures did not specifically define what types of activities constituted work, and this apparently left the Israelites with the need for more specificity. After all, to make a mistake here could mean the difference between life-or-death! In fact, later Jewish scholars did develop a list of at least 39 categories of activities that would be considered work (Nun, 2013). Honoring the Sabbath was also important in the ministry of Jesus as a Jewish Rabbi who admonished the Pharisees for missing the divine intent of the Sabbath law (Matthew 12:11–12; Mark 2:27). Alternatively, instead of creating categories for work, or developing a long list of prohibited activities, Jesus referred to God’s intention for the day. The Sabbath was intended to give people rest from their work and spend time worshipping Him. Christ tells those in the synagogue that if the work on the Sabbath happened to involve meeting immediate and essential needs, this was not wrong to perform. This account suggests that we should not feel frustrated in our inability to come up with a satisfactory and comprehensive definition for work. Even Christ tells us that the context of the activity and the motive for performing it is more important than having a well-defined list of what constitutes work. In fact, Christ’s own example of healing on the Sabbath in Luke 10:13–17, demonstrated that the underlying motivation of doing good and relieving human suffering is another form of love, hence an indirect means for reinforcing that all forms of God-directed work are a form of worship.1 Hence, within such a context, work can mean worship. 1

 Thanks to Gary Roberts for his editorial suggestion.

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Among the numerous definitions of “work,” we believe there are two acceptable working definitions which will be operative for this book. The first definition addresses paid work: “the carrying out of tasks which enable people to make a living within the social and economic context in which they are located” (Watson, 2003, p. 1). The second definition, “human activity that is goal directed, purposive, or instrumental and creates value to society…” (National Research Council, 1999, p. 22) could also include unpaid work, such as volunteering or performing household chores for which one is not paid. We acknowledge that many may be expecting to see an operational definition to align more with Miller’s (2007) definition for work, “any activity that is undertaken in a paid job, occupation, position, function or profession and the place in which one performs the work” (pp.  5–6). However, we seek to include work for which people may not be paid because focusing on those tasks for which we receive payment limits us from viewing many types of unpaid tasks as God-inspired work. There can be much overlap between paid and unpaid work, which leads to the debate of whether something one performs voluntarily, for pleasure and for no pay should be considered work? For example, a volunteer might work in a soup kitchen performing the same task as a paid staff member. Both enjoy their tasks of serving meals and offering words of encouragement. But, is the staff person who receives pay, working, while the non-paid person is only volunteering and not working? To suggest monetary compensation is the sole determinate of work, limits the scope of what can be deemed work. Such a restriction limits personal calling by excluding those who consider their unpaid work to be their true calling and thus the very activity which provides them a sense of personal satisfaction and identity (e.g., Parenthood). In fact, research suggests that a person may derive more intrinsic satisfaction from performing unpaid work, simply because they are not receiving compensation (Gagné, 2014). Others have made the point that work is easy to recognize, but it is not so easy to draw the line between work and non-work activities (Svendsen, 2014; Volf, 2001). For the purposes of this book, we will focus on both paid work and unpaid work, considering how both contribute to one’s ability to integrate faith and work. Moreover, within the broad aforementioned definitions of what work means, we recognize how work is defined or what it means is a function of context.

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Historical Meanings of Work Historically work has carried variant meanings, being perceived as a punishment by God, a necessary evil, as slavery, toil, drudgery, demeaning, and alienating. Alternatively, work has also been described as good, meaningful, as enabling the highest form of God honoring human self-­ expression, dignified, self-actualizing, and a sacred calling. There are also more neutral and concrete meanings offered for work such as employment, occupation, expending energy, and economic activity. Svendsen (2014) states that for humans, generally speaking, work has “no single definition or essence, good or bad—only a history of various and unique experiences” (Introduction, pp. 1–2). A historical review of work demonstrates the reality of this statement that over the centuries work has been perceived in very different ways, and no single definition or essence can capture the nature of work. The Ancient Greeks and the Greco-Roman Era The Greeks sought to escape the necessity of the endless cycle of activity or work made necessary by an “embodied existence” (Hardy, 1990, p. 7). The only worthwhile activities (or work) were those which were thought to bring immortality. These included “great deeds in the political realm or courageous act of military service” (Hardy, 1990, p. 7). To perform the other work necessary for survival, citizens with the means used slaves for manual labor. Slaves were plentiful at this time, outnumbering freemen five to one. Slaves allowed those in the upper classes of society pursue pleasure and attempt to attain “immortality” through other types of work (Schmidt, 2004). The Greeks distinguished between work that was necessary and voluntary activities, foreshadowing Mark Twain’s definition of work being what one is obliged to do. Work in itself was viewed as demeaning only if work was performed out of necessity. Those who worked out of necessity were considered to be inferior (Svendsen, 2014). Activity in itself was considered to be acceptable. Hence, if a person (such as Tom Sawyer) painted for self-expression this would be acceptable according to the Ancient Greek perspective, however if someone painted under obligation, such as a slave, or out of necessity to make a living, this work would be viewed as demeaning. Svendsen (2014) attributed these views of work to Plato and Aristotle, but also noted there is evidence suggesting exceptions to their views. A number of epitaphs have been found that reveal craftsmen boasting about

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their skills, which suggests they took pride in their work. There were also work competitions among craftsmen, in which the winner received a crown. In contrast to the Greek understanding of work, Christians who were Greek contemporaries were counter-cultural in their view of work. Leaders in the early Christian church reflected on work from two perspectives (Volf, 2001). The first examined how the teachings of Jesus should impact daily work. The second considered how work should affect a Christian’s character. The working classes could easily relate to the many lessons and parables Jesus used: fishing, building, baking, cleaning, and farming. Jesus, himself, was a carpenter and a teacher, and he called other working men, including fishermen and a tax collector, to be his followers. Chapter 3 discusses the specifics concerning Christian beliefs and practices, yet during this era, Christians resonated with the Biblical passage from Colossians 3:23, which instructed Christians to work as if working for the Lord and not for human masters. This encouraged Christians to see any task as work done to serve God (Placher, 2005). Their respect for manual labor undermined the premise of slavery and encouraged Christian workers to use their personal means to minister to those who were poor, sick, widows, orphans, and prisoners. This, as compared to the Greek philosophical depreciation of work, meant that the Christians of this time “affirmed that there was nothing disgraceful or demeaning about manual labor” (Volf, 2001, p. 71). The Middle Ages In the Middle Ages, work was divided into the two categories, sacred and secular (Ryken, 1995). Sacred work included religious work such as that of priests, monks, and nuns. Work falling outside of the church  would be considered secular. This categorization minimized secular work in that those performing it were viewed as inferior to those choosing to devote themselves to full time service to the church. Because Christianity was very influential on culture during this period, the idea of duty or obligation became associated with work outside the church. Additionally, in the fourth century, Saint Augustine of Hippo further nuanced the meaning of work by condemning idleness and encouraging monks to engage in manual labor. Saint Benedict of Nursia in the sixth century also regarded idleness as the “enemy of the soul” (Svendsen, 2014, p. 19). The thirteenth-century philosopher and theologian St. Thomas Aquinas stated, “the contemplation of human life…is the goal of the whole human life” (Hardy, 1990, p. 17); believing work should thus be done out of a duty to improve one-

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self, help others and pay respect to God. Aquinas also drew up a hierarchy of trades and professions which granted some a higher position or status in society than others. The Reformation During the Protestant Reformation in the early 1500s, ideas about work began to change (Placher, 2005). The increasing complexity of society and the development of trades outside of farming, such as textiles and shipping, caused people to be drawn to occupations unlike those of their families before them. Martin Luther proclaimed the priesthood of all believers which viewed all work as a calling no matter the occupation— religious or secular. Luther interpreted the word “calling” used in the King James Version of 1 Corinthians 7:20 by translating the Greek word klesis (Κλήση) to the German word beruf which means occupation. Luther maintained that the Apostle Paul was telling believers they should remain in the occupations they held at the time they became Christians. Luther also explained that Paul thought it was not necessary that these occupations be religious in nature. These views emerged as almost polar opposite to the Greek view of work. The Renaissance, with its human-centered views which dignified labor and the work of one’s hands, also supported a more positive view of work (Ryken, 1995). Many Christian thinkers joined other voices during this era and shared their interpretations on God’s intention for work. In Plachard’s (2005) book Callings: Twenty Centuries of Christian Wisdom on Vocation, many of these views were shared. John Calvin (2005) wrote that our gifts were for other’s benefit—not our own. Calvin believed that God created vocation for practical necessity, aesthetic pleasure, and to add purpose to life. Both Ignatius Loyola (2005) and William Perkins (2005) suggested ideas similar to many vocational counselors today. Interestingly, Loyola provided a systematic type of cost-benefit procedure to use when deciding on vocation. Perkins discussed the idea of “affections” and “gifts” which are very similar to the contemporary ideas regarding a person’s interests and aptitudes. Perkins also believed faith and work were to be integrated, that all should labor, work brought happiness, and each person’s calling was unique. John Wesley (2005) wrote that God entrusted people with talents and that they would be judged according to their faithfulness in using these. From this period of history, the overriding message was that all persons were called by God to vocation, and that there were clear responsibilities to use even secular work as a form of praise and service to God.

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The Enlightenment The Enlightenment was the next major shift in thinking and was a time period in which science and human reasoning replaced the authority of the church, specifically church traditions. Instead of stewardship and a duty to God and others, individual buyers and sellers motivated by selfinterest and economic success became the drivers for work (Ryken, 1995). Key thinkers of this time were John Locke who promoted the utility of work for acquiring property, and Adam Smith, who stated that it was not benevolence but self-interest that motivated the worker. In contrast to previous periods, Smith viewed material labor as most important and considered religious, intellectual, or political work as subservient to work that contributed to economic growth. Ryken (1995, pp. 76–77) shared that such “enlightened” thinkers of this period secularized the original reformists’ views by removing work from its Christian context. In America there was also a well-known promoter of this secularized work ethic, Benjamin Franklin. His saying “God helps those who help themselves” (Svendsen, 2014, p. 25) characterizes this shift. A review of Franklin’s (and others’) proverbs found in Poor Richard’s Almanac (Franklin, n.d.), promotes a humanist work ethic. During this time in history, there was a shift in thinking from work as a duty to serve God, to focusing on self-reliance, industry, thrift, and the accumulation of property as the source of material rewards. No longer was work extolled primarily as a form of worship. The direct connection between God and work promoted during the Reformation was replaced with a focus on self-interest and material acquisition that might indirectly serve God through sharing the fruits of one’s labors with the church or the less fortunate. Industrialization The foundation provided by  Adam  Smith and John  Locke’s views that work created wealth, presented a philosophy of work consistent with and supportive of the spread of Industrialization. During the late 1700s and early 1800s, there were also a proliferation of new technological inventions such as the Jacquard loom and the cotton gin. These machines governed the manufacturing process and permitted relatively unskilled workers to produce complex products. Because of new machinery, the workers’ skills were not as important (The Gale Group Inc., 2018). However, it was not

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just the machines that changed work but also the way work was organized. Division of labor (promoted by both Smith and Locke) and the separation of owners and laborers, resulted in many workers performing simple, mindless, repetitive tasks as they worked for impersonal companies focused on wealth creation. Because of this, the term alienation was frequently associated with work in the industrial era. As a result, modern economic theory described work as something to be endured, a necessary evil required so that the masses could purchase goods and services (Volf, 2001). Smith acknowledged that for society to advance, there was a need for the efficiency that resulted from the division of labor. Yet, Smith also lamented that alienated workers were estranged from their true interpersonal motivations by this type of work. Karl Marx viewed this alienation as something that should be remedied by eliminating division of labor, along with the capitalistic market economy (Volf, 2001). Sociologist, Max Weber, also promoted a work ethic, which he attributed to the Protestant faith. Weber’s book, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1930), was consistent with and dependent on some of the Reformists’ views, specifically that those in Protestant Christian sects were motivated by their sense of calling and that this resulted in denying or delaying leisure in order to demonstrate commitment to work. Weber’s “spirit of capitalism” included the idea that working for profit was a morally good activity. Scottish theologian, John Carlyle, may have even taken the Protestant Work Ethic to the extreme when Carlyle condemned idleness and suggested work would lead to truth and distract from such things as despair, sorrow, doubt, and desire. Instead of a work ethic based on religion, Carlyle’s view seemed to make work itself the religion (Svendsen, 2014). Those adhering to such views would have likely been referred to as workaholics today. Also during this time were Romantics, including philosopher John Stuart Mill, who believed that work should have a personal meaning specific to each individual. However, this meaning was separate from God or any type of religious connection. This perspective was consistent with a non-religious view of vocation as it promoted the idea that the person’s true self and potential is found in work. However difficult it was for those employed in the factories of this time to find this meaning in boring, repetitive, mind-numbing work, the Romantic’s view is evident in many of today’s worker’s desire to find meaning in work through self-realization or self-actualization (Maslow, 1971).

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The Information Age With the proliferation of technology (most notably—the computer) in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries, we have entered the information age with a significant amount of dependence on technology: the internet, nanotechnology, and bio-technology. The increasing rate of change within this technology, shifting demographics and globalization are changing the nature and understanding of work in the twenty-first century in many parts of the developed world. We are already seeing the impact of many of these changes, including an increased need for a bi-­modal workforce comprised of an adaptable “techno savvy” skilled workforce on one end, and a lesser skilled service-oriented workforce on the other (Karoly & Panis, 2004). Several other changes to the nature of work include delayed retirement, more self-employed individuals, remote or flexible work arrangements, and short-term relationships with employer organizations and co-workers. According to an analysis of employment trends by the International Labor Organization (ILO, 2015), society appears to be shifting away from the standard employment model in which there is a formal employer-employee relationship whereby employees are provided wages or salaries in exchange for work. Instead, informal or short-term employment relationships offering irregular work hours are becoming more common. Under such changing conditions, to remain marketable, individuals are required to reinvent themselves, manage their own careers, and develop their own work networks and relationships. Where and for whom a person works will mean less than the unique skills and knowledge a person possesses. Work will remain important for the majority in many of the primary areas of meaning such as a means of economic survival, providing a source of identity, and as a means of contributing to society (Rosso, Dekas, & Wrzesniewski, 2010; also, see Chap. 3). However, many people will be required to shift their views of work to include the necessity of developing a viable cadre of skills as well as the ability to present them as such in the marketplace (Karoly & Panis, 2004). A new skill set such as self-branding and self-marketing, along with emotional intelligence to deal with people in changing work settings may take on added importance. Essentially, more people may need to develop entrepreneurial skills to manage their careers in the form of small businesses (Hurst, MacDougall, & Pelham, 2008). This could make work more individually and personally meaningful because the entrepreneurial skill set allows for more freedom and creativity. However, this same skill set requirement may create added stress and uncertainty for others

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which might cause them to seek less meaningful, but more stable or secure forms of work. For the latter group, the stability or security of work may take on a greater meaning than the actual interest in the tasks they perform. The Twenty-First Century and Beyond A recent article on how technology is changing work and organizations identified five technologies that are changing the nature of business: “cloud and mobile computing, big data and machine learning, sensors and intelligent manufacturing, advanced robotics and drones, and clean energy technologies” (Cascio & Montealegre, 2016, p. 349). It was noted that, though technology has always displaced jobs, other jobs were created to replace these such that the total number of jobs has not decreased over time. For example, demand for computer programmers and web designers has grown to replace the declining need for other less technical middle-­level service jobs. Yet, currently there is concern that advances in information and communications technology are eliminating more jobs than they are creating. There are mixed views on the impact such technologies will have on the future of work. There are some who project “the end of work,” or at least the end of work as we know it, is drawing near. Even if you do not totally agree with this projection, many academics and business people predict that, with more dependence on robots and artificial intelligence (AI), there will be fewer opportunities for paid employment and meaningful work (Arthur, 2017; Wolcott, 2018). We have already seen such a decline in service-related fields such as travel agencies, bank tellers, and office typists and clerks (Cascio & Montealegre, 2016). Also, because many of the tasks involved in producing goods and services will be eliminated by technology, it is projected that distribution decisions will become more important than production. This could result in large numbers of people freed from working because of insufficient work and extremely efficient production. Political decision-makers will need to decide how to fairly distribute the needed goods and services to a larger population of people who do not work for them. These shifts could result in more work for those who make decisions about the allocation and distribution of resources. It may also imbue these positions with more status and power than that of current political decision-makers. However, it was noted that despite technology displacing some types of work, machines have not yet been designed to tolerate ambiguity, lead, motivate, or negotiate with people. Synthesizing information to consider the big picture, solve problems, and strategize will be skills in demand

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even with the use of widespread technology. Hence, critical thinking, leadership, innovation, and problem-solving skills will remain in demand and highly valued (Cascio & Montealegre, 2016). In addition, Leisure time activities, especially those encouraging physical fitness, could become more important lest we become a society of sedentary and overweight people moving around on hover chairs as depicted in the animated, futurist film WALL-E (2008). This could create more work in the leisure and recreation industry. Also, consistent with the post-World War II views of Dorothy Sayers (2005), many of those left without the activity and purpose provided by work could seek to fill hours in destructive pursuits such as illegal drug and alcohol use, promiscuous sexual behavior, or criminal activities. This could result in the need for more work related to criminal investigation, law enforcement, and rehabilitation services. More relevant to our current discussion, however, is that such a projected society could change the meaning of work for a large portion of the population. Instead of paid work being an economic necessity and a source of identity and purpose, displaced workers may look to other sources for meaning. Some of this could include volunteer or charitable work, which may be found more intrinsically meaningful than paid employment. Others may become more impassioned about hobbies or recreational activities. As in ancient Greece and Rome, philosophical, artistic, and athletic pursuits could take the central place of work in the lives of many. A summary of how the meaning of work has evolved over time is provided in Table 2.1. Table 2.1  Historical views of work Major time period (see note about dates below)

Predominant meanings and developments

Ancient Greeks and Greco-Roman period 1200 BC to 500 AD

• Distinguished between work that was necessary and voluntary • Necessary work was considered inferior and performed by slaves for those with means • Work undertaken in the political and military realms were thought to bring immortality • Christians of this era were counter-cultural, using Jesus’ teaching as a guide for how to use work as service to God and others •  Work was divided into sacred and secular •  Sacred work was viewed as superior, secular as inferior •  Duty or obligation came to be associated with work

Middle Ages 500 AD to 1500 AD

(continued)

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Table 2.1  (continued) Major time period (see note about dates below)

Predominant meanings and developments

The Reformation Sixteenth century

• Martin Luther proclaimed the “priesthood of all believers” • All work viewed as a calling no matter the occupation— religious or secular • The Renaissance, with its human-centered views, dignified labor and the work of one’s hands The Enlightenment • John Locke promoted the utility of work for acquiring Seventeenth and eighteenth property centuries • Adam Smith stated that it was not benevolence but self-interest that motivated the worker • Benjamin Franklin promoted ideas such as “God helps those who help themselves” Industrialization • Late 1700s and early 1800s new technological inventions Late eighteenth century to such as the Jacquard loom and the cotton gin early twentieth century • Because of division of labor, workers’ skills were not as important • Repetitive tasks and separation from ownership resulted in the term alienation being associated with work • Modern economic theory described work as a necessary evil required so that the masses could purchase goods and services • In the early 1900s, Max Weber promoted the Protestant Work Ethic and that working for profit was a morally good activity Information age • Dependence on technology, the internet, Late twentieth century to nanotechnology and bio-technology present • Bi-modal workforce with “techno savvy” skilled workforce on one end, and a lesser skilled serviceoriented workforce on the other • Where and for whom a person works means less than the unique skills and knowledge a person possesses. • Because of virtual and remote work locations, the meaning derived from work relationships is changing • A new skill set is becoming more valued, including entrepreneurial, self-marketing and emotional intelligence skills (continued)

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Table 2.1  (continued) Major time period (see note about dates below)

Predominant meanings and developments

The twenty-first century and beyond

• More dependence on robots and artificial intelligence (AI) may mean there will be fewer opportunities for paid employment and meaningful work • Those whose work involves making distribution (as opposed production) decisions will have more status and power • Some predict a leisure class in which meaning may be derived from voluntary work activities and hobbies

Note: The authors acknowledge that these time periods are approximate and may overlap in terms of when one period ends and another begins. Information was obtained from https://www.britannica.com. Also, this source uses the new BCE/CE denotation for time, but we use the traditional BC–AD denotation

Conclusion Work is a simple four letter word understood by most people, but with many variations in meaning based on history and context. Work can be performed out of necessity or voluntarily, it can be painful or pleasurable, and be undertaken for spiritual or material gain. Work has been perceived differently over the generations, yet some elements remain constant. Work requires effort and activity, results in tangible and intangible outcomes, and is perceived differently based on context. Though some believe that within the next century there will not be enough work to support the world’s population, others argue that similar, short-term displacement occurred in previous times in history, but the eliminated jobs were replaced by new types of work (Arthur, 2017). Whichever of these predictions are accurate or overstated, there will be changes in the nature of work resulting from advancements in technology which will also impact the meaning of work. However, as discussed in Chap. 1, we believe because God created mankind to work, people will always seek to find some type of activity that will be viewed as work to engage the body and mind in the way work was intended.

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References Arthur, W. (2017, October). Where is technology taking the economy? McKinsey Quarterly. Retrieved from https://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/ mckinsey-analytics/our-insights/where-is-technology-taking-the-economy Calvin, J. (2005). Institutes of the Christian religion. In W.  C. Placher (Ed.), Callings: Twenty centuries of Christian wisdom on vocation (pp.  232–238). Grand Rapids, MI: W.B. Eerdmans Pub. Cascio, W. F., & Montealegre, R. (2016). How technology is changing work and organizations. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 3, 349–375. Corley, C. (2008, October 31). Studs Terkel, oral historian and radio legend, 96. Retrieved from https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story. php?storyId=94573985 Franklin, B. (n.d.). Poor Richard’s almanac. Mount Vernon, NY: Peter Pauper Press. Gagné, M. (2014). Self-determination theory in the work domain: This is just the beginning. In M.  Gagné (Ed.), The oxford handbook of work engagement, motivation, and self-determination theory (pp.  414–432). New  York, NY: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfor dhb/9780199794911.013.026 Giddens, A. (1984). The constitution of society: Outline of the theory of structuration. Berkeley, CA: Univ of California Press. Hardy, L. (1990). The fabric of this world: Inquiries into calling, career choice, and the design of human work. Grand Rapids, MI: W.B. Eerdmans. Hurst, D., MacDougall, S., & Pelham, C. (2008). Aligning personal and entrepreneurial vision for success. Journal of Enterprising Communities, 2(4), 367–386. http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.daemen.edu/10.1108/17506200810913926 ILO. (2015). World employment and social outlook 2015: The changing nature of jobs. Retrieved from https://ebookcentral.proquest.com Joyce, P. (Ed.). (1989). The historical meanings of work. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Karoly, L. A., & Panis, C. W. (2004). The 21st century at work: Forces shaping the future workforce and workplace in the United States. Santa Monica, CA: RAND. Kraybill, D. B., & Olshan, M. A. (Eds.). (1994). The Amish struggle with modernity. Lebanon, NH: UPNE. Loyola, I. (2005). The spiritual exercises. In W. C. Placher (Ed.), Callings: Twenty centuries of Christian wisdom on vocation (pp. 239–243). Grand Rapids, MI: W.B. Eerdmans Pub. Marah, J. K. (1998). African people in the global village: An introduction to Pan African studies. Lanham, MD: University Press of America.

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Maslow, A.  H. (1966). Self-actualization [Audio Cassette]. Big Sur Recordings (1971). Miller, D.  W. (2007). God at work: The history and promise of the faith at work movement. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Morris, J. (Producer), & Stanton, A. (Director). (2008). WALL-E [Motion picture]. United States: Pixar. National Research Council. (1999). The changing nature of work: Implications for occupational analysis. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. Nun, Y. B. (2013, November 20). The textual source for the 39 Melachot of Shabbat. Retrieved from http://thetorah.com/the-textual-source-39-melachotshabbat/part1/ Perkins, W. (2005). A treatise on vocation. In W.  C. Placher (Ed.), Callings: Twenty centuries of Christian wisdom on vocation (pp. 262–272). Grand Rapids, MI: W.B. Eerdmans Pub. Placher, W. C. (2005). Callings: Twenty centuries of Christian wisdom on vocation. Grand Rapids, MI: W.B. Eerdmans Pub. Rosso, B. D., Dekas, K. H., & Wrzesniewski, A. (2010). On the meaning of work: A theoretical integration and review. Research in Organizational Behavior, 30, 91–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.riob.2010.09.001 Ryken, L. (1995). Redeeming the time: A Christian approach to work and leisure. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books. Sayers, D. (2005). Vocation in work. In W. C. Placher (Author), Callings: Twenty centuries of Christian wisdom on vocation. Grand Rapids, MI: W.B. Eerdmans Pub. Schmidt, A.  J. (2004). How Christianity changed the world. Grand Rapids: Zondervan. Svendsen, L. F. (2014). Work. Durham: Taylor and Francis. Terkel, S. (2011). Working: People talk about what they do all day and how they feel about what they do. New York, NY: The New Press. The Gale Group Inc. (2018). Industrial revolution. Retrieved from http://www. encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/ industrial-revolution Twain, M., & Harnsberger, C. T. (2009). Mark Twain at your fingertips: A book of quotations. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications. Volf, M. (2001). Work in the spirit: Toward a theology of work. New York: Oxford University Press. Watson, T. J. (2003). Sociology, work and industry (4th ed.). London: Routledge. Weber, M. (1930). The Protestant ethic and the spirit of Capitalism. New York, NY: Charles Scribner’s Sons.

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Wesley, J. (2005). Sermon 51: The good steward. In W. C. Placher (Ed.), Callings: Twenty centuries of Christian wisdom on vocation (pp. 322–326). Grand Rapids, MI: W.B. Eerdmans Pub. Wolcott, R. (2018, January 11). How automation will change work, purpose, and meaning. Harvard Business Review. Retrieved from https://hbr.org/2018/01/ how-automation-will-change-work-purpose-and-meaning Work. (n.d.). In Merriam-Webster’s online dictionary (11th ed.). Retrieved from http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/work

CHAPTER 3

The Meaning of Work

Introduction As America faces growing ethnic diversity, political division, economic hyper-segregation, isolating technologies and moral plurality, Americans have less in common to connect them (Putnam, 2000). However, regardless of the level of compensation, whether mental or physical effort is required, or if it is aligned with personal strengths, work is ubiquitous, and common to all of us, “as common as mud” (Piercy, 2002). But definitions regarding the essence of work vary widely depending on culture, historic conditions, station in life, or religious perspective. This chapter will explore the meaning of work and consider the various sources from which meaningful work is derived. And, while work is a common experience to all of us, it is actually rather difficult to describe because of the personal, social, value-laden, and contextual elements associated with the meaning of work. At the end of this chapter, it is hoped that readers will possess a broad and correspondingly better understanding of the meanings associated with the word work. Although it is also quite possible that, after reviewing all the possible meanings for work, there might be agreement with the statement: “so work is whatever one thinks work is” (Volf, 2001, p. 7).

© The Author(s) 2020 S. G. Buszka, T. Ewest, Integrating Christian Faith and Work, Palgrave Studies in Workplace Spirituality and Fulfillment, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-22914-6_3

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Factors Influencing the Meaning of Work As we have established, the definition or meaning of work is not universally agreed upon and is a function of who is defining the word and the context in which work is defined. Therefore, it is important to identify from where people obtain a personalized view of what work means or why, specifically, it is meaningful to them in a particular way. A literature review by Rosso, Dekas, and Wrzesniewski (2010) provided a comprehensive examination of the various sources from which meaning for work can be derived. These authors categorized the factors into the four groups of self, others, the work context, and spiritual life. These are similar to the Faith and Work Integration Spheres of Influence model (FWSI) that will be introduced in Chap. 8 of this book. The literature review provided by these researchers supports the need for the integrated model presented later in this book. Using four similar categories, we will provide an expanded view of factors that influence the meaning people attach to work within the context of faith-work integration. Further, Rosso et al. (2010) suggested that the focus has been on studying these factors independently, with the most attention given to the source of self.

Self as a Source of Meaning for Work With respect to self as a factor to derive meaning for work, Rosso et al. (2010) stated that an individual’s values, beliefs, and motivations influence the meaning they ascribe to work. In fact, it has been said that the word meaning is a catchall for the values, beliefs, and motivations held by an individual about any topic (Brief & Nord, 1990). We add to this list the additional categories of personality, gender, age, and generational differences, as these have also been associated with work-related differences. Though this list of factors is neither independent nor exhaustive, we believe they do reflect the major individual influences on a person’s perception of the meaning of work. Work Values Work values can be defined as the end states that individuals desire to achieve through their work (Nord, Brief, Atieh, & Doherty, 1990, p. 21). Common examples of value-related outcomes that influence how work is perceived include material outcomes, achievement, sense of purpose, social relationships, and self-concept enhancement (Rosso et  al., 2010).

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Depending on the value a person places on these outcomes, it influences the meaning they ascribe to their work. For example, people who value achievement will view work as a means to progress in their careers. In contrast, employees who value social relationships may see their work as an opportunity to make connections with other people. In addition, vocational psychology research has consistently demonstrated that occupational values, those things one most wants to be fulfilled within a career, are associated with occupational choice (Subich & Simonson, 2005). This research has also demonstrated that there are differences in how men and women rate career values. Historically, males have indicated a preference for higher salaries, power, or influence over others, opportunities for advancement, risk taking, and high levels of responsibility and prestige. Females have been shown to prefer work allowing them to help others, develop their knowledge or skills, and spend time with family (Weisgram, Bigler, & Liben, 2010). These differences will be further explained within our discussion of gender influences on the meaning of work. Beliefs Beliefs about the meaning or role of work in life is another category of personal factors to consider, particularly in three major areas of research: job or work centrality, work orientation, and calling. The concept of work centrality suggests that the meaningfulness of work is related to how important work is in relation to other aspects of a person’s life (e.g., family, leisure, faith, community). The more important or central work is to a person’s life, the more positive is the meaning ascribed to this work. Also, it will likely be more difficult for a people who hold work as central in their lives to lose a job or retire. One interesting example is demonstrated by a study on lottery winners who preferred to keep working in spite of their new found financial freedom, revealing how central work can be in the lives of people (Highhouse, Zickar, & Yankelevich, 2010). With respect to beliefs about work, there are three possible views: work can be seen as a job, career, or calling (Rosso et al., 2010). Those who are oriented to see their work as a job see it as a means to acquire the financial resources necessary to live their life outside of work. The next category, career orientation, is when work is seen as an opportunity to obtain increased pay, prestige, and status which can result in higher self-esteem, power, and social standing (Bellah, 1985). This second category also includes those who see their work as a means to an end, but the end goal

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includes things that result from career advancement. The third orientation consists of those who see work as calling or as a source of personal fulfillment. This orientation views the right type of work as an end in itself, in contrast to job or career which sees work as a means to another end. Research on calling falls into two general categories: theological and secular. The first category of calling is rooted in Judea-Christian theology and initially focused on a calling to a particular type of vocation. This type of calling will be discussed in much greater detail in later sections of this book and is also included within the Spiritual influences category discussed in this chapter. The secular category of calling views work as allowing for the deepest expression of one’s self. Callings are perceived to be unique to each individual and are said to include what a person believes he or she must do to fulfill his or her purpose in life. Motivation The connection between meaning and work motivation has also been heavily researched. One of the more popular models in motivation literature relating to the meaning of work is the Job Characteristics Model (JCM) (Hackman & Oldham, 1976). The JCM defines experienced meaningfulness of work as one of the critical job traits for high levels of employee motivation. Specifically, this included work that was perceived as significant and challenging, and allowed employees to complete an entire job task from start to finish. This idea of meaningful work led to a focus on intrinsic motivation, or work activities valued because they were interesting and enjoyable. This was in contrast to a more instrumental meaning of work which included extrinsic factors such as pay, fringe benefits, working conditions, and social relationships. This type of motivation literature led to more emphasis on defining work by its meaningfulness. This model will also be explored in future chapters as it relates to the design of work. Personality Though not as much research has specifically examined how personality influences the meaning given to work, many of the previously discussed values, beliefs, and motivations have also been associated with personality traits. For example, early work by McClelland (1961) suggested that employees differ with respect to motivation based on need for ­achievement (NACH), need for power (NPOW), or need for affiliation

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(NAFFL). Yet other studies have referred to the need for achievement as a personality characteristic (Lee-Ross, 2015). There is considerable evidence suggesting that possessing different personality traits can influence how work is perceived, how well it is performed, as well preference for some types of work over others (Brown, 2002; Gottfredson, Jones, & Holland, 1993). For these reasons, it follows that personality traits may influence the meaning of work for the personality holder. A recent study compared the personality characteristics of entrepreneurs to the personality of non-entrepreneurs. A research study found that the traits of locus of control, need for achievement, risk taking, and competitive aggressiveness were stronger in the group of entrepreneurs, as compared to non-entrepreneurs (Lee-Ross, 2015). These entrepreneurial personality characteristics suggest that many entrepreneurs see work as a way to control their environment, achieve personally meaningful goals, and fulfill the desire to take risks and compete. The entrepreneurial personality and the meaning this personality type associates with work will become more important later in this chapter concerning our discussion of the changing nature of work, and in future chapters as we discuss strategies for faith-work integration. The  five factors of extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, and openness to experience identified in the Big Five Model of personality (Digman, 1990) may also impact the meaning associated with work. For example, those considered to be extroverts might view work as a way to interact with others. Those high in conscientiousness may perceive work as a duty which allows them to be responsible and achieve goals. Those who are open to experience may find meaning in work that allows them to express their creativity, imagination, and intellect. Similarly, Holland’s (1997) personality-job fit model suggested certain personality types align better with some types of work than others. This model ranks individuals in six possible categories depending on their preferences for various types of activities. Enterprising types prefer work that allows them to influence others. Conventional types prefer work with order and routine. Artistic types value work that allows them to express creativity. Investigative type people enjoy researching and solving problems, while the Social types prefer work helping others. Realistic types prefer work that allows them to work with their hands. Depending on how strongly a person ranks on each of these will influence the type of work they find most meaningful.

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Socioeconomic Factors A person’s level of affluence also influences the meaning ascribed to work. Contemporary career development theory in the United States has been accused of middle-class bias because of its assumption that individuals have the economic means to pursue meaningful careers (Liu & Ali, 2005; Richardson, 1993). Generally, it is assumed that people have the freedom and resources to select occupations that align with their interests, values, and abilities. Moreover, it is also assumed that people desire higher status jobs (Blustein, 2006; Liu & Ali, 2005). However, only a minority of the world’s population have the financial resources to perceive work or a career in this way. For this reason, many individuals from lower social classes place more emphasis on work as it relates to money and the ability to provide for the basic necessities of life is. For example, poor and working-­class adolescents were reported to view work more as a way to make money instead of a means to personal development or fulfilling their identity (Chaves et al., 2004). This is closely related to the impact one’s race or ethnicity plays on how work is perceived. Because of institutional racism and discrimination, many in disadvantaged groups perceive the workplace as hostile or exploitive. Instead of seeking meaning through institutionalized work, more focus is placed on the meaning provided in other roles such as family, church, or leisure activity (Gysbers, Heppner, & Johnston, 2014). Chapter 12 will support this view with information about the black Protestant church in America and its members’ differential work ethic and propensity toward entrepreneurial and community work related to social change (Ellison & Sherkat, 1990; Neubert & Dougherty, 2013). Gender Research has examined work-related gender differences  (Watt & Eccles, 2008). Stereotypical women’s work focuses on caring for people or building relationships because women are said to value relationships so they select work that provides them opportunities to teach, tend to and care for others. In spite of the encouragement for women to seek occupations in fields that are related to science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM), women still tend to represent the minority in these fields. Alternatively, men exhibit lower interest in healthcare, elementary education, and domestic spheres (HEED) professions. These differences have in part been explained due to

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on socio-relational influences and personal self-efficacy (Tellhed, Bäckström, & Björklund, 2017). In addition, part of this difference in job preference could be due to what aspects of work each gender finds meaningful. One research study asked a group of men and women to define themselves by selecting from a group of pictures (Clancy & Dollinger, 1993). The results found that women were more likely to select pictures showing people or groups interacting in a variety of roles and activities, where men were more apt to choose pictures showing pictures of objects or one person. The research suggests that women are more likely to define themselves in relation to their interactions with other people, while men choose more individualized or non-relational definitions. This can provide at least a partial explanation for why women find socio-relational work more meaningful. Some research has even indicated that within a given profession (such as medicine or law) women and men choose different specialization areas according to such preferences. One study indicated that female medical students were more likely to choose a specialty that was relationship focused such as a family practice. Male medical students preferred treatment focused specialties such as anesthesiology or radiology (Behrend, Thompson, Meade, Grayson, & Newton, 2007; Heiligers, 2012; Jagsi, Griffith, Decastro, & Ubel, 2014). Another example of gender differences in career sub-categories include the greater number of women in family law, while men choose more influential or financially lucrative legal fields such as corporate law or litigation (Galligan et al., 2017). Within the field of business, women predominate in the area of Human Resource Management with the US Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) indicating that in 2016, 72% of Human Resource (HR) managers were women (Sands, 2017). Medical family practice, family law, and HR are all more relationship focused than other medical, legal, and business areas. These findings support the contention that women are more apt to define themselves and their work based on relational factors. Therefore, jobs that allow women to interact with, guide, and help others could be more appealing because these allow them to fulfill their desire for meaningful social relationships. For men who predominate in STEM occupations, it may be they find meaning in these fields because they allow for mastery over the environment (Clancy & Dollinger, 1993), and provide more power, recognition, and status (Diekman, Brown, Johnston, & Clark, 2010). This is not to say that both genders don’t desire meaningful relationships or mastery over the environment, only that one type of meaning may predominate in one gender more than in the other. Very

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simply, research seems to suggest that men might find more meaning in work related to “things” or achievements, while women find more meaning in work related to “people” or relationships (Tellhed et al., 2017). In spite of the fact that women’s labor force participation rate in the United States held relatively steady at 56% between 1990 and 2018 (International Labour Organization, ILOSTAT Database, 2019), it is still women who make most of the accommodation when it comes to adjusting to home and children. Many stifle their desires for meaningful work while their children are young and choose work with less responsibility and advancement, but with more flexibility. They focus more on deriving meaning through children and family. A study of women who made such tradeoffs revealed that women felt they could not be their authentic selves with respect to career because of the competing priorities in their lives (Chalofsky, 2010). This suggests that women may find work has a different meaning for them depending on their family situations.

Others The second broad category identified as influencing how work is perceived is “others” outside self (Rosso et  al., 2010). This includes co-workers, leaders, groups or communities, and families. Research on social identity theory (Tajfel, Turner, Austin, & Worchel, 1979) explains that people categorize themselves in groups to which they belong (in-groups) and acknowledge they are not members of other groups (out-groups). The in-groups have been shown to have a greater influence on members than out-groups, including the meaning associated with work (Katz & Kahn, 1978). Work Groups The relationships formed with co-workers can have the potential to impact many areas of life, including the meaning one makes from work. Research as early as the Hawthorne Studies in the early 1900s suggested the influence one’s work group can have on productivity and performance (Mannevuo, 2018). Since then, research on such topics as social information processing theory (Salancik & Pfeffer, 1978), interpersonal sense-­ making (Wrzesniewski, Dutton, & Debebe, 2003), and meaningful work relationships (Kahn, 2007) have provided significant support for the influence of one’s work group. Co-workers provide cues about the meaning of

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work through direct conversations or indirect observations of their actions or reactions to work-associated situations. For example, a junior faculty member, just out of a doctoral program, might be highly motivated to research and publish. However, after working closely with senior faculty members who make teaching and mentoring students a top priority, this new faculty member may come to seek meaning in relational activities over publishing. The organizational setting also provides a significant opportunity for employees to identify with each other in a variety of informal ways that can potentially impact the meaning people make of their work. For example, a group of workers who eat lunch regularly together might celebrate birthdays each month with a cake and small gifts. Though not directly related to the work performed, this group activity can result in members perceiving work in a positive way. Leaders The role that leaders play in influencing the meaning of work has been researched in a number of contexts. One area is through the development and sharing of the organization mission, goals, or purpose, which influences the way employees perceive their work (Podolny, Khurana, & Hill-­ Popper, 2004). Something as simple as an educator being told that the organization exists to “serve students” as opposed to “provide an education” could influence the different type of meaning faculty members ascribe to their work. A leader’s style has also been shown to influence the way followers perceive their work (Bono & Judge, 2003). But more importantly, leadership theories have been developed which take a special focus on followers by determining how to intrinsically motivate others-directed behavior in followers and thus are touted to align with the interest in human spirituality (Fry, 2003). One means to detect others-directed leadership theories was done by Ewest (2018), who used MacKie’s (2017) three identifiers of positivistic psychology in leadership theories. Positive psychology concerns itself with human flourishing. MacKie’s three identifiers include: (1) focusing on a leader’s strengths, (2) having positive impacts on followers, and (3) having altruistic or self-­ denying, others-directed goals. With this rubric as a guide, numerous leadership theories have the intentionality and focus on care for followers. These leadership theories include: authentic leadership (Bass & Steidlmeier, 1999), ethical leadership (Brown, Treviño, & Harrison, 2005), social

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change model (Brown, 2002; Komives & Wagner, 2009), servant leadership (Walumbwa, Hartnell, & Oke, 2010), spiritual leadership (Fry, 2003), pro-social leadership (Ewest, 2017), and global positive leadership (Youssef & Luthans, 2012). Family Work and family research has become quite popular since women started entering the workforce in greater numbers. Looking back at work through the generations, besides gender, the family into which a person was born played the most significant impact on the type of work one performed. Quite often, no choice was involved or consideration made of whether the work would be meaningful. Children automatically stepped into the same type of work as parents (O’Hara, 2004). In fact, one of the primary purposes for children (particularly males) was to take over the family business, trade, or farm. A significant part of the meaning of work for those following their ancestors might have been to honor the family legacy by keeping the business going. Very likely, from an early age, children may see their identities as tied to the family work or business. In the United States, consider the families of politicians and public servants such as the Roosevelt’s, Kennedy’s, and Bush’s. Aside from this, there could be genetic aptitudes and predispositions making the work of parents and grandparents more naturally interesting and suitable. For example, Nicolaou and Shane’s (2010) study of twins found heredity to influence the desire to be self-­ employed as well as preference for the occupations of teacher, manager, or salesperson. Though many continue in family businesses today, in the United States and other industrialized countries, many children are free to choose career paths different from their parents and presumably seek work that might be more personally meaningful. However, this does not mean that the family no longer influences career choice or the perception of what types of work is viewed as preferable (Brief & Nord, 1990; Jacobsen, 1999). In as much that level of education impacts career aspirations, research suggests that parents’ level of education is related to their children’s (Feinstein, Duckworth, & Sabates, 2008). However, a recent study suggested that the fathers’ influence on educational attainment has not increased since the 1930s. However, the mothers’ educational attainment has an even more significant impact.

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Besides encouraging post-high school education, parents have been shown to have clear ideas about preferred careers based on their own career or education backgrounds and based on the gender of the child (Brief & Nord, 1990; Jacobsen, 1999). Many college students over the years have explained that their choice of major, and aspired field of work, was encouraged by their parents and that they would need to consult with them before changing to a different career field. The family also impacts the meaning of work by increasing the financial need for work, and by competing for a person’s limited time and energy. Research has suggested that when there is a financial need for a person to work, this family responsibility promotes an economic interpretation of work. Family can also provide support, respect, and appreciation for the work performed, resulting in work being perceived in a positive light (Brief & Nord, 1990).

Work Context Clearly, the work context has an important influence on the meaning ascribed to work in that most judgments about the meaning of work occur within an organization or work environment. There are several categories of contextual factors that can impact both the meaning and meaningfulness of work. These include job design, organizational mission, non-work domains, and national culture (Rosso et al., 2010). Job Design We discussed previously the role Hackman and Oldham’s (1976) Job Characteristics Model played in emphasizing how the design of job tasks can influence the perceived meaningfulness of work. Subsequent research has supported that jobs with greater skill variety, task identity, autonomy, and significance allow workers to experience more meaningfulness in their work. This, in turn, can result in higher levels of satisfaction, motivation, and productivity. Job crafting has been identified as another way employees make meaning of their work. Research on this topic suggests that employees often take the initiative to shape the meaning of their work by crafting their jobs and work environment to be more consistent with their personal goals, skills, and values (Berg, Grant, & Johnson, 2010). Both job design influenced by the nature of work or by organizational decision-­ makers, and job crafting in which the employee takes the initiative, can

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impact the meaning and meaningfulness of work. Job design will be discussed further in the latter half of this book with respect to how these ideas can also be used to enhance faith integration. Organizational Mission An organizational mission generally reflects the basic goals, values, and purposes the organization wishes to accomplish. A mission can also serve as a source of work meaning for employees, especially when employees see congruence between their own goals and values and that of the organization (Rosso et al., 2010). Research on this connection has also shown that if employees connect with the organization’s mission, but then see that the organization is not living up to what it “promised,” employees may respond negatively because of this psychological contract violation (Cha & Edmondson, 2006). For example, Body Shop owners were said to have  misrepresented themselves as a paragon of social responsibility to franchise owners. They did this by incorrectly claiming “third world wages to first world suppliers” and “no animal testing” policies, and by encouraging store owners to sell contaminated products. Many franchise owners who invested in this company became sadly disillusioned and unhappy with their work situations (Buszka & Entine, 1997; Hofman, 2001). We will add to this category organizational culture which may work in a similar but expanded way as organizational  mission to influence the meaning of work. Organization culture can be defined as a system of shared meaning held by those who work in an organization (Schein, 1985). This meaning includes such things as how employees should act, what they should believe, and what should be valued. Appropriate organizational cultures have been associated with many positive outcomes such as strong economic performance, ease of change or innovation, and employee retention (Barney, 1986; Denison, 1990). Though this has been an increasingly popular topic for both academics and management practitioners, it has been acknowledged that is difficult to measure clear causal links between organization culture and something else (Alvesson, 2002). However, it is also equally difficult to imagine that such a “meaning-­ making” concept would not also influence the meaning employees associate with their work. For example, based on information available about the organizational cultures of Google and the FBI, it would easy to imagine working for these organizations would be quite different. For example, visible aspects of Google’s culture include the material symbols of adult

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play areas (complete with foosball, video games, and ping pong), “napping pods,” free (organic) food, electric car ports, discounts on electric cars and on-site massages, as well as free hair-cuts. One need only “google” Google’s culture and find that words like fun and employee happiness are associated with their culture (Forbes Technology Council, 2018). In contrast, found on the homepage of the FBI, are the stated core values of: “rigorous obedience to the Constitution of the United States, respect for the dignity of those protected, compassion, accountability, fairness and uncompromising personal integrity.” Also, the motto of the FBI is “Fidelity, Bravery and Integrity” (Mission & Priorities, 2016). Based on these contrasting descriptions, it would not be surprising to find that employees in each organization find different types of meaning in their work. Non-work Domains Non-work domains such as hobbies, interests, and social activities also influence the meaning people ascribe to work (Rosso et al., 2010). Though much research has focused on how people balance their time or other boundaries between work and non-work activities, other research suggests that similar values may make both work and non-work activities meaningful for a given person (Nord & Brief, 1990). Still other research has shown that people who experience meaningful connections in non-work areas of their lives are more apt to integrate these non-work activities into their work domain (D’Abate, 2005). Employees who create sports fantasy leagues, book groups, or walking groups with co-workers and connect with them during the workday can be viewed as making their work more meaningful by making it feel less like “work.” Country Culture The meaning of work can also be impacted by the cultural environment in which the employee is socialized and considerable research has examined this relationship. One of earliest large studies done on this topic was the Meaning of Working (MOW) study which collected data from 15,000 respondents in six countries (Brief & Nord, 1990). One way differences were examined was by comparing the work definition patterns selected by respondents. Within six work definitions developed by the researchers, three were considered positive (e.g., adding value, positive identity,

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­ ringing profits to others), two were viewed as negative (obligated and b directed by others, physically and mentally strenuous), and one was considered neutral (occurs during a specified time period). The Netherlands had the highest level of perceiving work in positive terms. The United States, Israel, and Belgium were moderate in viewing work positively, and Japan and West Germany had the lowest levels of defining work in positive terms. These differences between countries were shown to matter more than demographic status or organizational role. Though large national differences were found in such areas, regardless of culture, there appeared to be similarity in many areas related to meaningful work such as high levels of work centrality, focus on intrinsic factors, desire for self-expression, variety in work, as well as the importance of financial rewards (England & Whitely, 1990). Another notable study examining differences in the meaning of work across cultures included the GLOBE Study of 62 Societies (House, Hanges, Javidan, Dorfman, & Gupta, 2004). Performance orientation, one of the eight cultural dimensions studied, seems most closely related to how work is perceived in a given society. The researchers defined performance orientation as “the extent to which a human community encourages and rewards setting challenging goals, innovation and performance improvement” (House et al., 2004, p. 276). Those high in performance orientation are likely to see their work as a means to express this. House’s research group found little variation across cultures and concluded that the respondents in all societies reported a desire for high standards of performance. However, Hofstede’s most recent large-scale study of culture which included 76 different countries or regions did find country differences in a cultural dimension related to the meaning of work (Hofstede, Hofstede, & Minkov, 2010). This study included the construct of masculinity which is associated with attributes such as desire for challenge, job recognition, advancement, and the importance of money. These elements were similar to many of those examined by researchers in the previously mentioned Globe study. At the opposite end of the pole, femininity included desire for a good relationship with supervisor, working with people who cooperate well, living in an area desirable for your family, and employment security. Masculine societies were said to place a higher value on work and its related outcomes and were described as “living to work” (Hofstede et al., 2010, p.  170). Feminine cultures rated relationships and family related

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concerns most important, thus were said to “work to live” (Hofstede, Hofstede, & Minkov, 2010, p.  170). This research showed differences between the 76 countries studied as well as gender and age (which are self or individual level factors we previously discussed). Examples of countries identified as the high in masculinity were Japan, Slovakia, Hungary, and Austria. Examples of those low in this dimension (or high in femininity) were Sweden, Norway, Latvia, and the Netherlands. Though there are certainly differences within countries, these research findings suggest that a country’s culture can influence the type of meaning associated with work by its inhabitants. Spirituality and Work It has been said that up until just recently, scant attention has been paid by management researchers to the topic of spirituality in the meaning of work literature (Miller & Ewest, 2013; Rosso et al., 2010). This neglect is ironic when the earliest examinations of the meaning of work related to calling and vocation were distinctly religious in nature. It cannot be ignored that spirituality and its related terms of faith and religion do impact the way significant numbers of employees throughout the world view and conduct their work (Giacalone, Jurkiewicz, & Fry, 2005; Grant, O’Neil, & Stephens, 2004). Research has shown that spiritual employees perceive their work differently from non-spiritual employees. It is for precisely this reason that the present book has been written. There are two different types of spirituality that have been said to impact the meaning of work: sacred and secular. Both suggest a calling to vocation, but the source of the calling is what differs. The secular calling can come from within, or from something outside oneself such as the universe. In contrast, a sacred calling is viewed as an invitation from God to uniquely accomplish God’s will or work on this earth. Though both types are associated with purpose and meaning, for the sacred calling, it is not the nature of the work that provides meaning, but God for whom it is performed. However, according to Dik and Duffy (2012), within a more contemporary discussion of calling, the religious meaning has largely been lost. Instead, calling tends to be defined in secular terms as consisting of enjoyable or pleasurable work and in making the world a better place. A summary table including spirituality and the other sources of meaning for work is provided in Table 3.1.

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Table 3.1 Sources of meaning for work

Source category (see bottom of table)

Sources of meaning

Self

• Values • Beliefs • Motivation • Personality • Gender • Socioeconomic factors • Workgroups • Leaders • Family • Outside interest groups • Job design • Organizational mission • Organizational culture • Country culture • Faith-related spirituality (sacred) • General spirituality (secular)

Others

Work context

Spirituality

Note: The authors acknowledge that these categories are from Rosso et  al.’s (2010) literature review. However, additional sources were identified and added to their categories

Conclusion Work can mean many things to different people depending on a wide variety of personal and contextual factors. Rosso et al. (2010) grouped the sources from which people derive meaning for work in the four categories of self, others, the work context, and spiritual life. From our discussion using this framework, since no two people are identical or experience identical circumstances, we should not expect work to mean exactly the same thing to any two workers. This can present a challenge to those wishing to understand how people make meaning of work or influence the outcome of this meaning-making. Yet, as with any social science research, some patterns can be generalized to guide individuals, leaders, and organizations, to enhance the meaning of work for different types of people and in ­different situations. Future chapters of this book will discuss our own four-­category model that will help understand how faith at the individual, occupational, work organization and faith organization levels can also affect or enhance the meaning of work.

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Lee-Ross, D. (2015). Personality characteristics of the self-employed. Journal of Management Development, 34(9), 1094–1112. https://doi.org/10.1108/ jmd-06-2014-0062 Liu, W.  M., & Ali, S.  R. (2005). Addressing social class and classism in vocational theory and practice: Extending the emancipatory communitarian approach. The Counseling Psychologist, 33(2), 189–196. https://doi. org/10.1177/0011000004272269 MacKie, D. (2017). Positive approaches to leadership development. In The Wiley Blackwell handbook of the psychology of positivity and strengths-based approaches at work (pp. 297–316). Mannevuo, M. (2018). The riddle of adaptation: Revisiting the Hawthorne studies. The Sociological Review, 66(6), 1242–1257. https://doi. org/10.1177/0038026118755603 McClelland, D. C. (1961). The achieving society. New York, NY: Van Nostrand. Miller, D. W., & Ewest, T. (2013). The present state of workplace spirituality: A literature review considering context, theory, and measurement/assessment. Journal of Religious & Theological Information, 12(1–2), 29–54. https://doi. org/10.1080/10477845.2013.800776 Mission & Priorities. (2016, May 03). Retrieved May 15, 2019, from https:// www.fbi.gov/about/mission Neubert, M.  J., & Dougherty, K.  D. (2013). Christian perspectives on faith at work: An empirical exploration of faith and work associations across Christian religious traditions. In Handbook of faith and spirituality in the workplace (pp. 47–67). New York, NY: Springer. Nicolaou, N., & Shane, S. (2010). Entrepreneurship and occupational choice: Genetic and environmental influences. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 76(1), 3–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2010.02.009 Nord, W.  R., & Brief, A.  P. (1990). Work and nonwork connections. In W.  R. Nord & A. P. Brief (Eds.), Meanings of occupational work: A collection of essays (pp. 171–199). Lexington, MA: Lexington Books. Nord, W. R., Brief, A. P., Atieh, J. M., & Doherty, E. M. (1990). Studying the meanings of work: The case of work values. In W. R. Nord & A. P. Brief (Eds.), Meanings of occupational work: A collection of essays (pp.  21–64). Lexington, MA: Lexington Books. O’Hara, W. T. (2004). Centuries of success: Lessons from the world’s most enduring family businesses. Avon, MA: Adams Media. Piercy, M. (2002). To be of use. In G.  Keillor (Ed.), Good poems. Minneapolis, MN: Viking Adult. Podolny, J. M., Khurana, R., & Hill-Popper, M. (2004). Revisiting the meaning of leadership. Research in Organizational Behavior, 26, 1–36. https://doi. org/10.1016/s0191-3085(04)26001-4

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CHAPTER 4

Christian Views of Work

Introduction From the outside, the Christian faith may appear to be counterintuitive if one considers the decisions, reactions, and interpretations of common events. For example, while death for Christians is certainly regarded as an end of this present life, Christians also welcome death as a means to enter into a new life, meet loved ones who have previously died, and to be present with the Lord Jesus (Gert, 1988). In addition, the complexities and nuances of the Christians’ interpretation of the world around them, such as in marriage, vocational choice, parenting, and the origins of life, can be challenging for those outside the faith to comprehend. This chapter endeavors to explore a Christian’s reasoning regarding faith and work from the most basic source, the Bible. This review of scripture is provided with the conviction that, for Christians, the Bible depicts God’s will and intent for humans as they engage in work. The first section is devoted to understanding models and themes of work within the Bible. In the second section, we examine historical Protestant theological distinctions regarding faith and work. Together, these two sections intend to explain how the Bible and formal Christian theology form the Church view of the relationship between faith and work. This will also establish a foundation for subsequent chapters that explore the topic of faith and work in greater breadth and depth.

© The Author(s) 2020 S. G. Buszka, T. Ewest, Integrating Christian Faith and Work, Palgrave Studies in Workplace Spirituality and Fulfillment, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-22914-6_4

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Special Revelation The uniqueness of religious sense making has not been lost on ethical philosophers. Moral philosophers have long understood that for the religious person, various sources act as divine authority, and are considered as special revelation of a God’s will and intent for His creation (Warburton, 2012). The sources of revelation from God may vary within the major world faiths ranging from history, to inspired writings, established church tradition, or sacred leaders within the faith. Within the Christian faith, Catholics, Eastern Orthodox, and Protestants all emphasize different sources of authority, even though they share a common set of beliefs, agreeing on the Nicene Creed. For Catholics and Eastern Orthodox, tradition or sacred leaders within the faith play a more significant role in determining God’s will and intent for His creation. To say something is written from a Christian perspective, may lead readers to assume that Christianity is a monolith of belief and practice. Yet, Christianity’s three largest sects, Catholicism, Protestantism, and Eastern Orthodoxy have many commonalities, but also important distinctions. And, as one explores each of these three great traditions, further distinction should be noted. Alternatively, Protestants, while understanding the importance of both church leadership and traditions, place an emphasis on the sacred scriptures and individual reason. Take for example, one statement of faith for the Protestant church, the Westminster confession of faith which states, “The whole counsel of God, concerning all things necessary for his own glory, man’s salvation, faith and life, is either expressly set down in the Scripture, or by good and necessary consequence may be deduced from Scripture” (Westminster Assembly, 1994, p. 6). With the emphasis on scriptures, the origins of the scriptures and the reader’s ability to properly understand the intended meaning of these ancient texts may come into question. The modern English Bible is a translation from the Old Testament, which was written in Hebrew and the New Testament which was written in Koine Greek. And, the ancient texts were translated into various languages, resulting in numerous translations.1 When a translation of the Bible is read by a Christian, the reader must interpret the meaning and intent of what is written. Unlike other Christian traditions, Protestantism does not directly draw upon ­established 1  The authors have chosen to use the New International Version (NIV) translation for their Bible references.

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church tradition, but instead the scriptures are self-authenticating and provide their own interpretation within itself (Bloesch, 2005). Thus, for Evangelical Christians, the scriptures are sacred, and in them carry the will and intent of God for His creation. However, the understanding or interpretation of the scriptures is arrived at by guidance of God’s Holy Spirit, experience, tradition of interpretation, and the use of reason (Stanglin, 2018). Christians apply these interpretive methods to narratives, role models, commands, and exportations found within the Bible. Thus, any discussion of beliefs, perspectives, or expectations for Protestant Christians, must include an exploration of relevant Biblical models, narratives, and themes to better determine the will and intent of God as revealed in the scriptures.

Meet God the Worker The primary placement, frequency, and intentional context in which work is presented in the Bible are not accidental. For example, an examination of the Old Testament would lead the reader to conclude the topic of work was very significant. Tim Keller  suggested  the importance of work in God’s plan when he stated “the Bible starts talking about work as soon as it starts talking about anything” (Keller & Alsdorf, 2012, p. 33). In the first chapter of the first book of the Old Testament, Genesis, God is the first role model Christians are given to understand the importance of work. In these first chapters of the book of Genesis, God is engaged in the first and most important work within history—creating the heavens, the earth, vegetation, animals, and humankind. The word work is used three times referencing God’s creative actions; God “worked” when he created (Genesis 2:1–3 NIV). All of creation was declared to be the product of God’s work and was deemed to be good in Chapter 1 of Genesis. The Hebrew word for good used in these verses is tov, which defines good such that it can be characterized as something possessing practical, abstract, quality, moral, and technical characteristics (Harris, Archer, & Waltke, 2004). And, after the work of creation, God rested on the seventh day. This was the first  time scripture suggested that work should fill significantly more time than rest. It is important to note that in Genesis 1:26–28, God gave both man and woman two tasks: to create families and to be stewards or caretakers of God’s creation (Matthews, 2016).

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“Let us make humankind in our image, according to our likeness; and let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the birds of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the wild animals of the earth, and over every creeping thing that creeps upon the earth.” So God created humankind in his image, in the image of God he created them; male and female he created them. God blessed them, and God said to them, “Be fruitful and multiply, and fill the earth and subdue it; and have dominion over the fish of the sea and over the birds of the air and over every living thing that moves upon the earth.”

Humankind was made in God’s image, and in Genesis 1:28, humans were given the work of caring for the earth (Genesis 1:27). Here, the charge given to man is one of regency, that of continuing the co-creative work of God, discussed later in this chapter. Russell commented on this pattern, “God worked; he created humans in his image; then he directs the humans to go to work” (2007, p.  85). God intended for mankind to be involved a rhythm of longer cycles of work, followed by shorter periods of rest (Ryken, 1995). God created things good as he intended, but the good state of things would not last. Shortly after God created man and woman, man and woman rebelled and sin entered the world affecting all areas of creation, including work. Because of sin, work became cursed, painful, and something that caused toil and sweat (Genesis 3:17–19), changing the nature of work from that point in time forward.

Scriptural References to Work: A Sampling There are numerous references which pertain to work in the Bible; to include all those occurrences is beyond the intent of this book. There are existing workplace theologies and commentaries which consider the theology of work existing within the Biblical texts, as well as multiple popular books which apply the scripture to workplace situations with their natural implications for daily work. Therefore, what follows is a sampling of how scripture references work, both as a means for illustrating spiritual realties as well as a means to enact the Christian life. The initial importance placed on work in the opening chapters of the Bible is reinforced by the many references to work made throughout both the Old and New Testaments of the Bible.

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Old Testament In the first book of the Bible, Genesis, Russell (2007) found seven principles of work illustrated. These included tool making, sustaining, producing, appreciating beauty, working in partnership with each other, working in partnership with our creator, and work as a source of joy, which also makes rest enjoyable. In Genesis, we also find God engaged in the act of creation by working to create the world over six days, and who rests on the seventh day. Abraham Heschel (1995) in his book, The Sabbath: Its Meaning for Modern Man, notes that the each of the six days of creation result in a demonstration of God’s good work, but the seventh day, the Sabbath is the first, and only day deemed as being holy. And, since man has been charged to carry on God’s work, resting on the Sabbath then is also for man to imitate. The Sabbath is not a created thing, but a space in time where men ensure that their actions are reflected upon and found to be oriented to God the creator. The second book of the Bible, Exodus, affirms the importance of rest. The Israelites were instructed to follow God’s model for six days of work with one day of rest by commanding them by performing no work on the seventh day and to keep this day holy (Exodus 20:8–11). In Exodus 23:10–11, the 6:1 ratio was also used as a guideline and command to the Israelites as they worked their land, vineyards, and olive orchards for six years; but let them rest for one year. This time of letting the ground lay fallow was so that the poor and wild animals could eat. In Exodus 36–40, Moses revealed God’s very specific plans for building and setting up the Tabernacle which included building the Ark, the Lampstand, the Altar of Incense, the Altar of Burnt Offering, the Basin for Washing, the Courtyard, and making the Priestly Garments. God required the finest of materials and the most skilled workers to perform this work. God states, “I have filled him with the Spirit of God, with skill, ability and knowledge in all kinds of crafts—to make artistic designs for work in gold, silver and bronze, to cut and set stones, to work in wood, and to engage in all kinds of craftsmanship” (Exodus 31:3–4). God also appointed Oholiabas as Bezalel’s helper, and in doing so recognizes a master and apprentice relationship between the two. God also stated that he provided the ability to all the other skilled workers who built the temple. His directives for building the temple in Exodus demonstrates the importance, as well as God’s high standards for these tasks, as well as for them to be performed in an orderly and precise fashion. Such tasks required those in a

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wide variety of trades to perform excellent work and be held to the highest of standards. These scriptures provide evidence that there have been documented situations in which God specifically called craftsman to accomplish His purposes. Numerous verses in Proverbs stress the virtue of hard work. We are told that those who work hard would have abundant food (Proverbs 12:11), would find themselves in positions of power (Proverbs 12:24), and would be satisfied and profitable (Proverbs 14:23). In Proverbs 6:8–11, an industrious ant has an antagonist who is sluggard. The ant’s ability to initiate, to consistently work hard to prepare for the future, was contrasted with the poverty and scarcity that would come if the sluggard did not change. Sustainability of work was suggested in Proverbs 13:22 which commended those who left an inheritance to future generations. Proverbs 3:9–10 stated that the Lord should be honored by giving the first fruits of a person’s wealth and produce. The term first fruits implied that God was the owner of the workers’ wealth and resources, and owed the first portion of the fruits of their labor. This verse can change the way we view our work and the wealth we acquire from performing it. We are caretakers of the resources God has given us; we should acknowledge His ownership by giving a portion back to His work and purposes on earth. The Psalms also included recommendations related to work. Psalm 90:17 twice asked that God establish the work of our hands. Psalm 107 asserted that God had sovereignty over work that occurs on both land and sea. This Psalm also spoke of how God provided for mankind’s livelihood by governing the natural laws and forces (Garret, Wilson, & Fuller, 2017). This Psalm implied that God governs all types of economic activity as well as the natural forces that may impact work. In the prophetic book of Isaiah 65:21–22, work was depicted as a normal and necessary part of life for those who were exiled to foreign lands, and was suggested as something that would help the Israelites more effectively assimilate. Isaiah 65:21–22 shared that work will also be a part of the New Heavens and New Earth, indicating that the inhabitants will build houses, grow food, and enjoy the work of their hands during this future time. From this, we can surmise that work is not just for our time on this earth, but for eternity. Isaiah 28:24–29 described how the work of farming required multiple tasks performed in a particular sequence, for a specific time period, using appropriate equipment in order for optimum outcomes. In these scriptures, we see early forms of work design best practices used to illustrate God’s plans for this world.

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New Testament In the New Testament, work is also an active theme. The New Testament continues the Old Testament narrative, by offering Jesus as the fulfillment of the Old Testament prophecy regarding the promises to Abraham to bless all nations through his offspring. Jesus began his ministry as a Jewish Rabbi whose teaching proclaimed how to identify the kingdom of God, and how people were to be citizens of this kingdom. Jesus’ teaching was recorded in each of the three gospels, Matthew, Mark, and Luke, and in each, he taught using various methods, but primarily in parables, or short illustrative stories. One of the major themes in these parables was the marketplace. “Of the thirty-seven parables in the Synoptic Gospels (Matthew, Mark, and Luke), thirty-two mention some form of work-related activity as part of the storyline” (Issler, 2014, p. 15). Work as a theme is active in numerous ways in the narrative of Jesus found in the gospels. For example, Mark 6:3 tells us of the people who heard Jesus teach in the synagogue where he was referred to as a carpenter, and were surprised at his wisdom and ability to perform miracles. This suggests that people identified, categorized, and even stereotyped Jesus by occupation. In Luke Chapter 19, Zacchaeus was introduced as a wealthy, chief tax collector, a position detested by the general populous because of the unethical and unfair methods used. Yet we learn that Zacchaeus’ faith transformed the way he viewed and performed his work. After meeting Jesus, he declared he would make generous restitutions to the poor and those he had defrauded in the past (Gilbert, Messenger, & McDonough, 2015). Jesus called his disciples from two identified occupational categories. Peter, John, James, and Andrew were fishermen (Matthew 4:18–22), a very common occupation in this part of the world at this time. However, Matthew was a tax collector (Matthew 10:3). These disciples were called from their primary occupations to follow the rabbi Jesus. Yet, throughout their time of discipleship with Jesus, evidence suggests the fishermen continued in this work. Several followers of Jesus used their occupations, or resources gleaned from them, to support his ministry, and later to support the early church. Luke 8:1–3 shared that women, including Mary Magdalene, Joanna, and Susanna, accompanied Jesus and his disciples while they were spreading his message. They went along to care and provide for them out of their resources. In Acts 16, Lydia, a Gentile seeker-turned-Christian and a suc-

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cessful business woman, welcomed the apostles in her home, which was later established as the first church. In Acts 18, Paul spoke of his tentmaker colleagues, Pricilla and Aquila, who traveled with him and used their home to share the good news of Christ’s message (Matthews, 2017). Paul’s writings contained several other references to work. In 1  Thessalonians 4:11, he advised believers to “mind your own business and work with your hands, just as we told you.” He also said in 2 Thessalonians 3:10, “The one who is unwilling to work shall not eat.” In 2 Thessalonians 3:7–9, Paul told those in the church of Thessalonica to imitate him and his companions (possibly including Pricilla and Aquila) in the way they worked to support themselves while performing ministry. It appears Paul also affirmed precedence for bi-vocational ministry. From a truncated review of scripture, we can understand many reasons for why we should work. We should work because God worked, thereby setting the first example for work. We are told God created mankind in His image, suggesting that we are also created to work as He did. Theologians refer to this as the functional image of God, wherein we as humans are to be like God, or reflect his image when they function as he does (Middleton, 1994). God specifically directed Adam and Eve to work in two categories of ways: creating and sustaining. In God’s work of creation, we can surmise that this work is both good, can bring pleasure, and is important. Human’s work is good because God declared it to be so, but also because man functions within his design, as image barriers. In Genesis 2:8, trees were described as both pleasing to the eye and good for food. This suggested God viewed his work, and in turn ours, as both useful and pleasurable. Work is important based on the nature of the work God performed (creation) and the proportion of time God spent at this task. Since we are created in God’s image and directed to work as He did, we can assume that we should work because our work also has the potential to be good, pleasurable, and important. Working as God did, or joining God as he works, is known as stewardship, which is a historical belief of Protestant Christianity. Work in Light of Creation-Fall-Redemption However, as mentioned earlier in this chapter, the Bible also recognizes that man has not followed God’s original intent. Since man has disobeyed, sin has broken our world in all areas relating to humankind and the ecosystem. Hence, sin has broken both the act of work and the system in

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which we work. One does not need to read the Bible to know that our workplace is terribly broken—one can simply reflect on one’s own work experiences. Each day there are challenges, frustrations, boredom, drudgery, mistakes, abuses, and sub-standard work completed. Since the beginning of recorded history to the present time, we find case after case of workers, women, and children being exploited and abused at the hands of the more powerful. We find many using their skills and talents to benefit themselves at the expense of others, with little regard to the economic, physical, or psychological impact their actions and decisions have on the workforce, economy, and environment. However, the Bible does not leave us without hope for work. Just as the Old Testament provides us glimpses of the final redemption of mankind through Christ’s birth, crucifixion, and resurrection, glimpses of work the way God intended it are provided throughout the scriptures. These glimpses indicate that work does not have to remain something cursed, painful, or to be avoided. Katherine Alsdorf (personal communication, February 16, 2015) shared that the chapters of Every Good Endeavor: Connecting Your Work to God’s Work (Keller & Alsdorf, 2012), were sequenced in just this way: to describe God’s intent for work; work corrupted by sin; and, finally, glimpses of redeemed work. We have reviewed many examples of good work and work redeemed from sin in the previous pages. God, himself, sets an example for good work in the form of His creation and work schedule. Other Old Testament figures provide excellent examples of work performed according to God’s high standards. We are also given many other directives in the scriptures about how and why God believes we should work. While these passages present an overview of work as it emerges from the Bible, historically these themes have become part of Protestant life in the workplace, and are recognized as the Protestant Work Ethic (Miller & Ewest, 2015).

Historical Themes of Protestant Faith and Work While there is an abundance of Biblical passages which address the topic of work, historically specific themes have been more widely used, codified, and systematized. Historically, Protestants have observed five beliefs and corresponding workplace practices which inform the integration of faith and work. These five themes are outlined by Miller and Ewest (2015). Personal calling to a type of, or for a special purpose for the work one is doing is the first historical theme for Protestants. The Apostle Paul, claims “For we are his workmanship, created in Christ Jesus for good

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works, which God prepared beforehand, that we should walk in them,” and “I urge you to live a life worthy of the calling you have received. Be completely humble and gentle; be patient, bearing with one another in love” (Ephesians 2:10; 4:1b–2, New International Version). The term vocation has been associated with these verses, suggesting that whatever position or work to which a person is called, should be performed as a means to fulfill God’s purposes (Miller & Ewest, 2015). For many Protestants, this belief in calling to work is understood as a gift and something to be done with excellence as a means to honor God. The second theme is an emphasis on stewardship or what some call co-­ regency. One verse that illustrates this theme goes back to the aforementioned charge to humans. “God blessed them and said to them, “Be fruitful and increase in number; fill the earth and subdue it. Rule over the fish in the sea and the birds in the sky and over every living creature that moves on the ground”” (Genesis 1:28). But the New Testament also carries forward the same theme. Jesus’ teaching reiterates the same concept regarding the charge given to humans to make life flourish. Jesus says “Well done, good and faithful servant! You have been faithful with a few things; I will put you in charge of many things” (Matthew 25:14–30; Luke 19:12–28). This theme is rooted in the belief that all things in creation belong to God and we are simply asked to manage and orchestrate the created order on God’s behalf (Miller & Ewest, 2015). A third theme is justice for the marginalized, which includes correct or just business actions. The Apostle Paul says, “All they asked was that we should continue to remember the poor, the very thing I had been eager to do all along” (Galatians 2:10). This theme is seen in the concern not only for the poor but also for ethical business practices at both the personal level and the corporate level. The concern for ethical business practices is to ensure that not only legal requirements are met, but also those ethical issues not directly covered by existing laws are maintained. One verse that captures this from the Old Testament is, “You must have accurate and honest weights and measures, so that you may live long in the land the LORD your God is giving you” (Deuteronomy 25:15). One would be inaccurate to suggest that ethics and a concern for justice are only invested in organizational practices. Instead, a concern for ethics is also seen in individuals who are concerned about their own personal ethical probity, character development, and personal virtues (Miller & Ewest, 2015). A fourth theme for Protestants concerns itself with a lifestyle of modesty, conjoined with generosity.  Some Christians  believe that their faith

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related practices can enable business success or wealth creation, sometimes even believing that such success is a blessing from God. But, when successful, Christians practice prudence, that is, a modesty regarding the pleasures of life and possessions. A few Biblical passages that are representative of these are from Jesus saying, “Give to everyone who asks you, and if anyone takes what belongs to you, do not demand it back” (Luke 6:30) or John the Baptist telling people, “Anyone who has two shirts should share with the one who has none, and anyone who has food should do the same” (Luke 3:11). Thus, many Protestants have contributed significant amounts of money to charitable causes including  hostels, schools, and churches (Miller & Ewest, 2015). Finally, Protestants believe that it is important to communicate one’s faith, for the purposes of converting others as well as an act of obedience to the commands of Jesus., “Therefore go and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, and teaching them to obey everything I have commanded you. And surely I am with you always, to the very end of the age” (Matthew 28:19–20). For some, expressing verbally one’s faith is important, while others believe their Christian faith is communicated simply by actions in the workplace (Miller & Ewest, 2015). These five themes can be practiced by the other Christian traditions. Catholic Christians, for example, have a robust history and accompanying theology regarding social justice, the third theme we presented here. Moreover, these five themes are generally present within Protestant Christians being historically part of the Protestant faith, but their manifestations or the practices that come from belief are nuanced. For example, the third theme regarding justice and personal ethical probity could be manifest in the workplace by a desire to enhance personal ethical ­leadership and corresponding training. The five faith and work themes found in Protestant theology are summarized in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1  Five faith and work themes in Protestant theology • Personal calling to a special purpose for the work one is doing • Emphasis on stewardship or co-regency • Justice for the marginalized, relating to just or ethical business practices • Lifestyle of modesty, conjoined with generosity • Importance of communicating one’s faith, for the purposes of converting others as well as an act of obedience to the commands of Jesus

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Conclusion This chapter endeavored to explore a Christian’s reasoning regarding faith and work from the most basic source, the Bible. This review of scripture was done with the conviction that, for Christians, the Bible will depict God’s will and intent for humans as they engage in work. The first section was devoted to understanding themes of work within the Bible. In this second section, we examined historical Protestant theological distinctions regarding faith and work. Together, these two sections intended to explain how the Bible and formal Christian theology form the Church view of the relationship between faith and work. This establishes a foundation for subsequent chapters that further explore the topic of faith and work integration. This contextual information is intended to provide not only a broad perspective, but also to help the reader to better locate the tradition of the Protestant Faith within themselves. In the chapters that follow, we take the contextual information presented in Chaps. 1 through 4 and consider how individuals benefit from their faith and work integration, how equipping and training provides an aid for such integration, and then discuss the FWSI model.

References Bloesch, D. G. (2005). A theology of word & spirit: Authority & method in theology. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. Garret, D., Wilson, L., & Fuller, R. (2017, June 6). Psalms and work. Theology of Work Project. Retrieved from https://www.theologyofwork.org/old-testament/psalms-and-work Gert, B. (1988). Morality: A new justification of the moral rules. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Gilbert, C., Messenger, W., & McDonough, S.  M. (2015). Calling and work. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson. Harris, R. L., Archer, G. L., & Waltke, B. K. (2004). Theological wordbook of the Old Testament. Chicago, IL: Moody Press. Heschel, A. J. (1995). The Sabbath. New York, NY: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. Issler, K. D. (2014). Exploring the pervasive references to work in Jesus’ parables. Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society, 57(2), 323. Keller, T. J., & Alsdorf, K. L. (2012). Every good endeavor: Connecting your work to God’s work. New York, NY: Dutton. Matthews, A. (2016). Women and work in the Old Testament. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers.

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Matthews, A. (2017, April 5). Women workers in the New Testament. Theology of Work Project. Retrieved from https://www.theologyofwork.org/key-topics/ women-workers-in-the-new-testament Middleton, J.  R. (1994). The liberating image? Interpreting the Imago Dei in context. Christian Scholars Review, 24(1), 8–25. Miller, D. W., & Ewest, T. (2015). A new framework for analyzing organizational workplace religion and spirituality. Journal of Management, Spirituality Religion, 12(4), 305–328. https://doi.org/10.1080/14766086.2015.1054864 Russell, M. L. (2007). The secret of marketplace leadership success: Constructing a comprehensive framework for the effective integration of leadership, faith and work. Journal of Religious Leadership, No. 1, Spring 2007, 6(1), 71–101. Ryken, L. (1995). Redeeming the time: A Christian approach to work and leisure. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books. Stanglin, K. D. (2018). The letter and spirit of biblical interpretation: From early church to modern practice. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. Warburton, N. (2012). A little history of philosophy. Yale University Press. Westminster Assembly. (1994). The Westminster confession of faith. Loschberg, Germany: Jazzybee Verlag.

CHAPTER 5

Definitions and Terminology

Introduction While belief in God has remained stable in the United States, the religious landscape continues to shift. Among the notable shifts is the change in how Americans are choosing to identify with religious faith. In 2012, 59% of those surveyed considered themselves “Religious and Spiritual,” but only 48% of those surveyed by Pew Research Center in 2017 did so, an 11% decline. What is of more interest is that in 2012 19% identified themselves as “Spiritual but not Religious,” and in 2017, the numbers grew to 27% of those surveyed (Lipka & Gecewicz, 2017). Within the group that identified as spiritual but not religious, 35% of this group also identified as being Protestant. What’s going on? Sociologists and theologians continue to argue through the causations and implications of these two ways people identify themselves and their transcendence, many Christians nuance these terms differently than one would think. However, this group of “nones” represents potential for others who are serious about integrating their faith in the workplace because, for this growing number of unchurched, work may be the only context in which they hear the gospel or see it in action. The title of this book, Integrating Christian Faith and Work: Individual, Occupational and Organizational Influences and Strategies, includes the term faith and also refers to religion in its mention of Christianity. The term spirituality is not stated, but implied as many people would agree that, for them, spirituality is a part of faith and religion (Marler & Hadaway, © The Author(s) 2020 S. G. Buszka, T. Ewest, Integrating Christian Faith and Work, Palgrave Studies in Workplace Spirituality and Fulfillment, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-22914-6_5

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2002). Though each term can also be defined uniquely and separately from the other, they also overlap and are often used interchangeably in conversation. For example, if someone is described as very religious, others may automatically assume that this person also has a strong faith and is very spiritual—which may or may not be the case. When conducting research and writing on these topics within the context of work, findings and thoughts on one are often viewed as applicable to the other two. For those new to studying the topics of religion, spirituality or faith as they integrate with work, similarities, and differences in these terms can be somewhat confusing. For this reason, this chapter will discuss each term separately, while acknowledging that these unique descriptions will contain elements that can also be used to describe the other two. We begin with the term religion because we believe this to be the most concrete of the three terms. For example, there are observable artifacts for the major world religions including places of worship, symbols (e.g., cross, six-pointed star or star and crescent moon), and overt practices such as prayer and religious service attendance. Next, we will describe spirituality, which we believe is considered the broadest or most inclusive term. Spirituality is often used to describe a quality of one’s religion or faith, but a person need not ascribe to a specific faith or religious tradition to be spiritual. In fact, many people claim to be spiritual without believing in God (Marler & Hadaway, 2002). There are also those who adhere to the rituals or philosophy of religion without having true faith in God or a living spirituality. Also within the context of work, the term workplace spirituality is being increasingly used in reference to an organization or its workplace culture. We leave the discussion of the term faith last because it is the term chosen to integrate the three terms for use in this book. Faith best serves our purposes because we believe it allows us to include both the Christian religion and the spirituality of the Christian faith within our discussion. It is hoped that after reading the descriptions of religion, spirituality, and faith, readers will be better able to understand what elements of each term are unique and which elements overlap.

Religion The term religion has been described as a system or structure that includes specific kinds of beliefs or practices that are related to a superhuman being (Smith, Green, & Buckley, 1995). Religion is most commonly associated with a specific faith tradition and manifests itself in prescribed behaviors

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related to that particular faith group’s beliefs about a god or transcendent being or force, holding to a set of values and a worldview (Erickson, 2013). Though our focus is on a monotheistic, Trinitarian religion, there are religions with more than one God. Religion can also be viewed as a set of cultural tools used to guide people through life as they make decisions and accomplish tasks (Swidler, 1986). At the core of most religions is the social need to distinguish between the sacred and the profane (Smith et al., 1995). Religions are generally associated with ritualistic or highly recommended, observable behaviors such as praying, meditating, worshipping, and attending religious services, and also proscribed ethical behaviors (Erickson, 2013). Prior to the twentieth century, the terms spirituality and religion were used interchangeably (particularly within the Catholic Church). However, in current times, the term religion has fallen out of favor by Americans and Baby Boomers because of its association with rigid, legalistic institutionalism (Fuller, 2001). At the end of 2017, The Gallup Poll (Newport, 2017) indicated that the largest religious groups in the United States were: Protestant/Other Christian (48.5%); Catholic (22.7%); Mormon (1.8%); Jewish (2.1%); Muslim (.08%). Those claiming no religious identity reflected 21.3% of the survey respondents. Pew research (Hackett & McClendon, 2017) indicated that, globally, Christianity (Protestants and Catholics combined) also reflected the largest group at 31%. Muslims made up the second largest religious group (24%), followed by religious “nones” (16%), Hindus (15%), and Buddhists (7%). The ongoing presence of religion in the United States is not contestable, but the impact, and to what degree is questionable. Max Weber (2002), Anthony Giddens (2005), and Norris and Inglehart (2011) all suggest iterative ongoing impacts on society, while others suggest that religion has a direct impact on sense making and personal identity (Emmons, 2003). The collective impact of religion on culture creates what Durkheim (1965) refers to as a group mind, wherein disconnected components of society who have never met act with similar values and intent. Religion and Work Religion is often perceived as private and personal, not intended for the public space or organizations in particular. But this was not always the case. Charles Taylor (2007) notes that understanding of what is secular has shifted philosophically from Medieval to Modern, now to post-modern times. There have been changes in worldview regarding what is considered

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secular and what is considered sacred. Taylor’s work suggested that religious expression and its acceptance and integration into culture has gone from inclusive in the Medieval, to more segregated in the modern and post-modern era. Some believe that religion is “one of the most pervasive influences on organizations” (Tracey, Phillips, & Lounsbury, 2014, p. 4), yet scholars have noted that this topic has been given insufficient attention as it relates to the workplace to make such a conclusive statement. Several reasons for this paucity of research have been suggested. For example, the US Constitution requires that the government remains neutral with respect to religion. This has resulted in limited research funding for topics related to religion (Grim & Finke, 2006). There are also legal challenges which have led many to believe that religion is a topic best left outside the workplace (Giacalone & Jurkiewicz, 2010; Hambler, 2016). Since Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act requires employers to accommodate all employees’ religious beliefs, it may be feared that inadvertently failing to accommodate groups equally may result in the appearance of preference for one religious group over another. There is also concern that an employer’s openness to religious expression in the workplace might encourage inappropriate proselytizing or discrimination against those who do not embrace similar norms. To avoid the possibility of such divisiveness, some employers believe it is safest to forbid any religious expression in the workplace as much as it is legally possible (Giacalone & Jurkiewicz, 2010; Hambler, 2016). Some believe that religion’s importance and role in society is decreasing (Berger, 2011), and if one considers the reported growth in religious “nones,” particularly in the Millennial generation (Lipka, 2015), it would be tempting to agree that society is becoming more secular. Based on the previously stated figures, 16% of the world population indicated their religion as “none.” However, an important question related to this figure is whether those who indicate no affiliation to a formal religion are completely devoid of all forms of religiosity. Researchers examining this question note that the religiously unaffiliated do not form one homogeneous group and many still attend religious services regularly and maintain religious beliefs and convictions (Wilkins-Laflamme, 2015). For example, Wilkins-Laflamme’s research on the religiously unaffiliated in Canada reported that “a third consider their religious and/or spiritual beliefs as important in how they live their lives” (p. 495). In addition, it has been reported that, though Millennials may be less religious, a growing number of them are indicating they are spiritual (Lipka & Gecewicz, 2017).

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Therefore, though it appears the numbers associated with a particular religious group may be declining, it cannot be assumed that this same portion is not influenced by religious values and practices. This is particularly true when considering there remains a considerable 84% who are likely to be influenced directly by religious beliefs and practices. Also, since religious values have been shown to influence the formation of culture (Dawson, 2013), even the non-religious may be tacitly impacted by religion. As mentioned in the introduction to this chapter, this group of “unaffiliated” may be positively influenced by others’ faith and work integration. As mentioned previously, in the United States, Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act formally protects workers against religious discrimination. Religion is included with the other important demographic categories of race, color, sex, and national origin. Even though other forms of discrimination are more prevalent, the percentage of claims filed with the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) under religious discrimination doubled between 1997 and 2017 (Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, n.d.). Many of these claims were for violations in areas related to religious practices or observances such as, prayer, religious service attendance, or dress and grooming requirements. Also, it is possible that many cases of racial discrimination include a religious component, such as people of Middle Eastern decent being increasingly discriminated against since the 9-11 terrorist attack in the United States (Awad, 2010). For many, it is difficult to separate Middle Eastern races from their assumed Muslim religious ideology. Discrimination occurs even though the majority of Middle Easterners do not share the radical views of Islamic terrorists. Nevertheless, if religion is a topic left outside the workplace and irrelevant to workplace issues, would workers need their rights protected in this area? Another reason cited for the lack of research in the area of work and religion is its incompatibility with the nature of scientific research. Many believe that to be credible, research must be considered systematic and rational, or more specifically deterministic or Newtonian. But, this is the charge of social scientists multi-dimensional, multicausal ways (Rosenberg, 2015). There is a bias against topics that are difficult to quantify. However, just because religious behavior may seem irrational to some, its impact on work can be significant in providing guidelines, beliefs, and values that influence how work is performed and people are treated in the workplace. Also, consider that even the most rational among us make many intuitive and seemingly irrational decisions every day (Santos & Rosati, 2015). In

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fact, we contend that, to understand human behavior, it is important to study the less systematic topics for the very reason that humans engage in so much sense making (Weick, 1995) and behavior that is anything but systematic. In addition, the topic of religion is an area of research included in many other social science areas such as psychology, sociology, political science, and healthcare. Alternatively, many scholars do believe that religion or topics related to religion are worthy of scientific research. A recent perusal of the Association of Religion Data Archives (n.d.), revealed 164 single-item assessments and 63 multi-assessments used for researching topics related to religion. These assessments included areas intersecting with work directly and indirectly such as how religion impacts emotions, moral behavior, time use, the treatment of others, political behavior, and healthcare decisions. Also, counter to claims that there is less interest researching religion in the workplace, a bibliometric review undertaken by Cullen (2016), using the Social Sciences Citation Index (SSCI) terms of “religion” and “management” between the years 1995 and 2014, revealed 1620 peer-reviewed articles on these topics. In addition, it is commonly accepted that religion is among economics, government, and family as one of the essential spheres of life (Miller, 2007). As such, to ignore the influence religion has in the workplace would be unwise for those seeking a comprehensive understanding of employee behavior in organizations. Therefore, in spite of these objections, there have been attempts to integrate religion and work in a variety of research areas. Research topics range from individual, group, and organizational issues, to those examining societal influences (Ewest, 2018). Individual work-religion research includes topics such as identity theory, job attitudes, ethics, and decision-­ making. At the individual level, a person’s religious beliefs and commitments can influence his or her behavior while working within an organization. For example, it might be assumed that a person who holds strongly to the Ten Commandments, especially those to do with lying and stealing, would be less likely to engage in unethical behaviors at work. Group-level factors include examining the influences of leadership, peer groups, or outside social groups on the integration of work and religion. For example, co-workers or leaders who strongly believe in the Ten Commandments as guiding principles will likely provide support and encouragement for others to act in similar ethical ways. Organizational work-religion research involves studying how religious organization types function as compared to other organizations, and the impact of factors

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such as organizational type and organizational culture on employee ­performance. Societal level research considers how the impacts of these organizations impact and change society as a whole. For example, organizations who believe the Ten Commandments restrict murder (The Sixth Commandment) of unborn children may garner support from their “pro-­ life” stance and gather other organizations to their cause. Also, scholars indicate that much more research is needed because of the complex relationship between religious beliefs and religious behavior. For example, Weaver and Agle’s (2002) research indicated that, though religion can influence ethical behavior in business, the relationship is not as straightforward as many think. Their analysis indicated that religious role expectations and religious self-identity can influence ethical behavior. Yet, religious behavior is also influenced by religious identity salience, religious motivational orientation, as well as organizational context. In addition, there exists diversity of role expectations across religions, even within Christianity. This book discusses some of these differences in future chapters. Therefore, research should include a diversity of religious perspectives when considering the impact of religion on behavior in organizations.

Spirituality Spirituality has been described in many ways to include such terms and concepts as “transcendence, balance, sacredness, altruism, meaning in life, living with a deep connectedness to the universe, and the awareness of something or someone greater than oneself (God, or an energy force) (De Klerk, 2005, p. 1). Other words used to describe spirituality include connection, purpose, harmony, energy, calling, meaning, and knowing (Gysbers, Heppner, & Johnston, 2014; Marques, Dhiman, & King, 2007). It can also be viewed as non-denominational, tolerant, inclusive, and as not being structured around a specific religion (Mitroff & Denton, 1999). Spirituality can include being guided to pray, meditate, or make decisions based on how a person senses their personal inner spirit leads them (Newman, 2004). However, spirituality does not need to include any or all of these in a prescribed manner. For those who are spiritual without belief in a god or transcendence, their spirituality can be interpreted as being more inner or self-focused or self-actualizing. People who follow a specific religion and believe in a god are often also spiritual, and they perceive their inner souls or spirits as responding to a transcendent being. Spirituality has also been viewed as a path or a journey one travels in search

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of how to respond to a god, one’s inner soul, personal destiny, or even the call of the universe. Very broadly speaking, spirituality considers the purpose and meaning of life (Marques et al., 2007). The distinction has also been made between the spirituality of dwelling and the spirituality of seeking. Dwelling spirituality suggests a sacred space where one can dwell which provides security, stability, and order. In contrast, seeking spirituality views this as a quest which provides freedom to experience sacred moments in even the most ordinary circumstances (Hill & Smith, 2010). These various definitions have described spirituality as existing within a person, or as a quest for significance or meaning in life. Clearly, spirituality can mean many different things; it can be useful in its variability and inclusiveness but may also be confusing for the very same reason. Much like the term work described in Chap. 3, with so many ways to perceive this word, we may be left thinking that spirituality is whatever one wishes it to be. Spirituality and Work Unlike religion, the topic of spirituality is becoming more prevalent and accepted in the field of management research (Ashmos & Duchon, 2000). This was not always the case. Aside from Robert Greenleaf’s Servant Leadership (1977), it was not until the 1990s that the role of the spirit was deemed to significantly impact organizations. It has been suggested that a type of “spiritual awakening” for organizational research on the impact of the work-related spiritual issues occurred more than 30 years ago (Neal, 2013). Biberman (2017) shared the review and assessment he and his colleagues undertook to categorize 187 empirical studies on the topic of spirituality and management that were published between 1996 and 2004. Cullen’s (2016) more current bibliometric research using the Social Sciences Citation Index (SSCI) to review research on both the terms “management” and “spirituality” between 1995–2015, revealed 988 peer-­reviewed articles on these topics. Similar to the previously discussed review of the meaning of work by Rosso, Dekas, and Wrzesniewski’s (2010), it was found that the majority of spirituality research was conducted at the individual level, with only a few studies at the organizational level, and even fewer at the work unit level and societal levels of analysis (Tischler, Biberman, & Altman, 2007). This same spiritual awakening was reported in healthcare, and specifically nursing research (Cullen, 2016; Pesut, Fowler, Taylor, Reimer-­ Kirkham, & Sawatzky, 2008), reflecting the acknowledgment that a

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patient’s health outcomes can be significantly impacted by spiritual ­elements. Based on this review of the parallel increase in research on the topics of spirituality, it appears that the importance of the interrelationship between the body, mind, and spirit entered both of these mainstream areas of research at similar times. Since the 1990s, growing interest and respect for the topic of spirituality and work has been demonstrated by special journal issues or sections in the Journal of Managerial Psychology, Journal of Management Inquiry, Journal of Management Education, and Journal of Organizational Change Management (Giacalone & Jurkiewicz, 2010). The Management, Spirituality and Religion group was added within The Academy of Management in the year 2000, with the first edition of its related Journal of Management, Spirituality and Religion published in 2004. This is not to suggest that barriers to research in this area do not remain. Giacalone and Jurkiewicz (2010, p.  5) outlined four factors hindering workplace spirituality from being accepted as a respected area of scientific study. These included: (1) the lack of an accepted conceptual definition; (2) inadequate measurement tools; (3) limited theoretical development; and (4) legal concerns. The first three of these are fairly self-explanatory and researchers are adding to the body of knowledge on spirituality by developing more theory, clearer definitions, and better measurement. David Miller and Tim Ewest (2013) reviewed the state of workplace spirituality research and noted advancements being made to legitimize this topic, establish conceptual definitions, and develop valid scales and instruments. However, they acknowledged that many challenges remain due to the difficulty of identifying a universal, yet precise definition or model of spirituality. This is especially true because it is often grouped with the topics of religion and faith. In addition, though their review grouped existing research instruments into categories of manifestation, development, and adherence, it was noted that no research instrument actually attempted to examine the level of integration of faith, spirituality, or religion in the workplace. Their own TIP (the Integration Profile) was developed to fill this gap and will be discussed further in Chap. 9. Despite many attempts to define this term, challenges remain for those engaged in spirituality research because of its intangible, complex, and multi-faceted qualities. However, as argued in the case of religion, it is important to study areas that are difficult to articulate or quantify. Just as scientists persist in researching mutating super bugs that render traditional antibiotics ineffective, researchers in this field must persist in spite of not

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knowing definitively what is being researched. Because many p ­ hilosophers, including Christians, consider humans to be comprised of a body, mind, and spirit, to attempt to understand and explain work behavior while ignoring one vital piece of this would be imprudent. Legal concerns about spirituality within the context of work include misinterpretation on multiple levels. First, there is the error of viewing spirituality and religion as synonymous. Because religion has been viewed as exclusive, divisive, and dogmatic, there is concern that spirituality may encourage similar outcomes (Giacalone & Jurkiewicz, 2010). Also, as discussed in the previous section, even for religious protection, the law does not require employers to allow all or every open expression of religion in the workplace (Schopf, 1997; Williams, 2004). These concerns aside, the use of spirituality instead of religion is perceived by many as a more appropriate term in today’s diversity-conscious organizations. Research supports that people are more comfortable using this term because it has the potential of including anyone, especially in the context of work (Mitroff & Denton, 1999). Therefore, growing research on spirituality in the workplace may be as much due to the inclusivity and acceptability of the term, as it is that researchers are more interested in this topic. Workplace Spirituality A related concept that becomes more commonplace within business is workplace spirituality. This is not about simply acknowledging that individuals in the workplace are spiritual beings, or that those employees who are more spiritual might produce better outcomes for organizations. Workplace spirituality is a concept that includes the synergistic effects of the individual-, group-, and organizational-level spiritual factors working together within the organizational setting. While an individual’s spirituality can be solitary, personal, and private, workplace spirituality is a collective experience. Workplace spirituality was defined by Ashmos and Duchon (2000) “as the recognition that employees have an inner life that nourishes and is nourished by meaningful work that takes place in the context of community” (p. 137). This succinctly describes the interaction between an individual and collective spirituality that can take place within an organization (Khari & Sinha, 2017). There are a variety of existing and potential areas of workplace spirituality research falling into the individual-, group-, and organizational-level categories presented within our discussion of religion and work (Geigle, 2012). Individual-level factors could

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include examining the impact of employee spirituality on such dependent variables as stress, moods, goals, values, attitudes, ethics, productivity, and emotional resilience (Hill & Dik, 2012). These tend to focus on how the cognitive and emotional aspects of spirituality impact employee behavior and performance on the job. In contrast, group-level factors may examine how spirituality affects leadership and group factors such as roles, norms, status, cohesiveness, and conflict (Burke, 2006). For example, would a high status group member (such as a leader) who is also spiritual, more effectively impact other group members to act in more ethical ways than a low status group member? Spiritual leadership is one of the more popular topics falling under the umbrella term of workplace spirituality (Conger, 1994). Organizational-level factors could examine the relationship between workplace spirituality and such organizational dependent variables as ethical practices and outcomes, recruiting strategies, motivation and reward systems, work and family balance policies and practices, innovation, image or public relations outcomes, nature and frequency of lawsuits, and impact on the separate elements of the triple bottom line1 of people, profits and planet (Elkington, 1994). Within management theory, workplace spirituality is often discussed within the context of organizational culture which is another growing area of research because of its association with many organizational-level processes and outcomes. Organizations with strong organizational cultures have even been referred to as “spirited workplaces” (Garcia-Zamor, 2003, p. 361).

Faith When someone refers to faith, the meaning can range from being described as a general attitude of trust or belief in the existence of a higher being, to being viewed as the acceptance of a specific set of religious beliefs and related behaviors (Newman, 2004). Miller (2007) shared that in the broadest religious context, the term faith refers to belief in the existence of a higher power. Faith has often been used interchangeably with the term religion when used as a noun to refer to a particular faith, such as when asking the question, “to which faith do you belong?” It is also a noun when asking whether or not a person possesses faith in something. For 1  The triple bottom line is an accounting principle which refers to assessing corporate performance based on financial, social, and environmental outcomes.

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example, if you are told to “have faith,” it is implied that you are being encouraged to have faith in something, whether it be oneself, God, or the working of the universe. According to Webster’s dictionary (Faith, n.d.), faith in its verb form (faithing) is archaic, and not commonly used. Therefore, when associated with the act of believing in a set of religious principles or God, the synonym belief is generally used instead of faith. There has been some online theological discussion about whether faith is a noun or verb, with those who post siding in favor of faith being a verb (Lose, 2014; Mitchell, 2008; Washington, 2017). These, however, are not grammatical discussions but a call for faith to be active instead of passive. The Apostle James’ view that “faith without works is dead” (James 2:26 NIV) also supports that faith must be active, actualizing and (thus) be an attestation to beliefs. In fact, one of the primary purposes of this book is to provide encouragement and guidance to readers who wish to make their faith more active in the workplace. It is interesting to note that in ancient Greece and Rome, the word faith was not used in a religious context until it was first introduced in the Hebrew scripture (Hellwig, 1990) and in the Greek New Testament. Thus, the religious use of the word faith has a clear Judeo-Christian heritage. For this reason, looking at the Hebrew and Greek words for faith should provide added insight to our discussion. Strong’s concordance (1980) shares that the word faith is used twice in the Old Testament in Deuteronomy 32:20 (lack of faith) and Habakkuk 2:4. In these verses, the Hebrew word enum (emuwn) is used to mean “trusting” (Strong’s 529). Used more often in the Old Testament is the Hebrew word faithful or emunah (Strong’s 530), which means to be “stable, steady, secure, firm, and trusting.” Both of these are from the root word aman (Strong’s 539) which means firm, steadfast, faithful, trust, believe. These Hebrew words suggest faith that is stable, steady, secure, firm, and trusting. In the New Testament, the Greek word for faith is pistis (Strong’s 4102) which means “conviction of truth or truthfulness.” The Greek word for faithful is pistis (Strong’s 4103) meaning “sure and true.” Hebrews 11 describes and provides helpful and significant examples that illustrate faith. Hebrews 11:1 states: “Now faith is confidence in what we hope for and assurance about what we do not see” (NIV). The verses following this provide an account of many Biblical figures whose faith was displayed through courageous actions in the most challenging circumstances. Their examples demonstrate faith that was confident, steady and sure enough to result in such things as: building an ark larger than a football field on dry land; being

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willing to sacrifice one’s long awaited son; facing hungry lions in a ­crowd-­filled stadium; and accepting horrendous torture and death for proclaiming the truth. The faith examples provided in Hebrews were not nouns but active verbs that resulted in actions and behaviors that could only be performed by people with confidence in and assurance of the God they had not yet seen. Though many will not face such remarkable circumstances under which to demonstrate faith, Hebrews 11 encourages believers to demonstrate active faith in whatever circumstances they face, including in the workplace. Vocation and Calling Within the context of early workplace theology, faith and work were connected by Martin Luther’s concept of vocation (Kolden, 1983). Throughout the centuries, Christians held various views about vocation ranging from this including “any job” or to a clear and almost audible call from God to Christian work. Luther viewed all of life, even secular work, as in a dynamic relationship with faith. This connection of faith to work allowed even the most menial of tasks to be transformed into something sacred by the grace of God. Viewing work through the lens of vocation addresses both the need to work and a human’s need to find purpose or meaning, connecting the practical with the existential. Vocation is the Latin word for calling, or to call. Luther understood a person’s vocation (or calling to work) to be a divine calling to use one’s abilities for God’s glory and purposes. Frederick Buechner has often been quoted as describing calling as “the place God calls you to is where your deep gladness and the world’s deep hunger meet” (1993, p. 119). However, such views of calling can often discourage those who do not believe they have heard God’s call, or those who are not meeting the world’s hunger. Instead, many meet only personal or family immediate needs, and some do so in jobs they detest. The Bible only records about 100 individuals who were called by God to a very specific vocation in the Bible such as Moses and Aaron, Abraham and Sarah, various prophets, David, Paul, and the disciples. Though the fortunate minority presented in scripture may have a strong sense of particular call at some point in their life, for the majority, the process can be much more laborious, diffuse, and ambiguous in nature. Workplace theology explains that the call to work can fall into two categories: to create or to redeem (Cosden, 2006; Keller & Alsdorf, 2012; Messenger, 2010). God provides the clearest example of creative work in

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his first creating act, wherein out of nothing God created the world and all that is within and around it. Creation was also associated with God’s command for Adam and Eve to till the earth. Those who work in such fields as agriculture, art, music, building, writing, decorating, inventing, or entrepreneurship will most clearly identify with the call to create. In contrast, the call to redemptive work is most exemplified by Jesus’ example of restoring mankind to a right relationship with God. Those who work in the fields of medicine, counseling, social work, law enforcement, appliance, or technology repair can be categorized as performing redemptive work. Yet, most work has both creative and redemptive qualities. For example, a college professor who develops a new course is creating. When a professor counsels a student who has been misadvised about what courses to take, they are performing redemptive work. Both types of work will be discussed in future sections when readers are guided to personalize their faith integration. The contemporary use of the word vocation has expanded to be more commonly associated with occupation and career in a non-theological way. It often suggests a systematic process of determining, personality, strengths, and abilities to determine for what job or career path a person is best suited. Today, when vocation is associated with the term calling, there is the suggestion of some higher level purpose or intrinsic need satisfaction associated with the work. However, the terms vocation or vocational calling no longer automatically assume a connection to a person’s faith (Dik & Duffy, 2009; Duffy & Dik, 2013). Chapter 10 of this book will include a broader discussion of how contemporary vocational or occupational assessment tools may be used both within faith and non-­faith contexts. Faith and Work Research Much of management or organizational research associated with religion and spirituality could also be associated with faith and work. Though faith is a distinct concept from the other two, it encompasses them both. As our earlier description of faith stated, faith is in something and often this faith is in something related to religion or spirituality. Also, when faith is connected to work, it is suggested that faith in some aspect of religion or spirituality may be impacting work in such a way that the work or work outcomes are different from if the worker did not make the connection between the two spheres. In David Miller’s book, God at Work: The History and Promise of the Faith and Work Movement (2007), this connection

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between faith and the other two terms was also discussed. Miller shared that, although the term religion has been viewed as restrictive and exclusive by some researchers, the term spirituality has also resulted in the exclusion of those who hold to particular religious’ beliefs. Using the umbrella term “faith” allows freedom for a person to apply faith in a way that is unique and personal within the context of their own religion or spirituality. For these reasons, we also believe that when researching or writing about faith and work, it is appropriate to consider or include religion and spirituality when building an information base. As we have established, though each term has unique aspects, a review of hundreds of research titles on these topics will show the words “religion and spirituality,” “faith and spirituality,” and “faith and religion” are quite often used together. In Lunn’s paper (2009), a case is made for all three terms being used under a similar heading when discussing conceptual development. Furthermore, David Miller’s book (2007) established that faith and work was more than a topic of study, but a bona-fide movement in the workplace that included religion and spirituality.

Reconciling Religion, Spirituality, and Faith There are multifarious definitions that can apply to each of these three terms, some reflect the major differences between the terms, while other definitions are almost synonymous. Yet, as for the key distinctions, religion is viewed as observable codified human action toward a higher being within the context of such traditional action which may or may not be spiritual or faith-related. Spirituality is generally associated with the inner state of a person, but it may involve expression to others. Faith is generally in something, but is not always manifest in actions others can observe. The term religion proves most useful when contrasting differences between various traditions of action or belief or when examining the impact of how specific religious doctrine impacts behavior. Spirituality might be preferred when referring to all religions or belief systems and when considering how a person’s inner state impacts the way they relate to the world. The word faith means that there is belief in something. Faith as a noun is similar to spirituality in that it can be possessed even if not directly observed. Faith as a verb is similar to religion in that it is displayed by actions. Very simply, while religion is external and spirituality is internal, faith includes both internal and external components. Therefore, the term faith is useful when wanting to be inclusive of both religion and spirituality.

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It is also helpful to view these three terms as interconnected, especially within our discussion of Christian faith and work. In particular, it is helpful to view them as different aspects of the same concept. For example, using theological terminology (Frost & Hirsch, 2009; Land, 1994; Woodbridge, 2010), it has been suggested that for a believer to come to a complete engagement with and knowledge of God, three elements must work together. These elements are orthodoxy which is right thought or belief, orthopraxy which is expressed in right practice or actions, and orthopathy which results in right feelings or experience. A balance in all three is suggested as necessary for a healthy and vital relationship with God. Newman (2004) suggests another triad model to illustrate how the terms religion, spirituality, and religion can be connected within the broad construct of faith. He describes religion as the “doing” of faith, faith as the “knowing” of faith, and spirituality is the “being” in faith. Each of these models includes a cognitive, behavioral, and affective component for a balanced relationship with God. Figure 5.1 depicts how this book will use the term

Faith "Knowing" of faith Orthodoxy

Religion "Doing" of faith Orthopraxy

Christian FAITH includes all three elements

Spirituality "Being" in

faith Orthopathy

Fig. 5.1  Faith as the interconnection of religion, faith, and spirituality

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“faith” as comprised of all three elements of religion, faith, and spirituality. Religion can be viewed as the behavioral, doing of faith (orthopraxy), faith as the cognitive, knowing of faith (orthodoxy), and spirituality as the affective, being in faith (orthopathy). We also agree with David Miller that “the term faith recognizes the generalities and openness of spirituality and at the same time includes the particularities of the more codified and institutionalized nature of religion” (2007, p.  18). Therefore, when making reference to research on “faith and work” in future chapters, we will include information on “religion and work” and “spirituality and work” when appropriate.

Conclusion Because we have chosen to focus only on the Christian religion (or faith) within this book, we are also able to use the term faith in a way that includes all three terms. We use faith as a noun when making reference to the Christian religion. We stress that, though Christianity is our religion of focus, this book is much more than adhering to Christian religious doctrine at work. In Acts 17, Paul admonishes people in Athens for being very religious, but ignorant of what they worship. We agree that though religion provides guidelines and principles to apply in our lives, it is more critical to have an active faith in the one God and creator of the universe and his plan of redemption for mankind.2 As Acts 17:28 shares, “For in him we live and move and have our being.” This verse encapsulates the qualities of a vital, living spirituality that should result from the Christian faith and guide believers in how to best carry out their calling to live out their faith in life and work. We also use faith as a verb when attaching it to the word work and illustrating the many ways faith can be translated into action within the workplace. Much of the latter portion of this book will focus on providing many and varied examples of this. Finally, we acknowledge that, for many Christians, it is a growing spirituality that motivates them to seek ways to demonstrate their faith in all realms of life, including work. Like Martin Luther, we believe that true Christian faith based on God’s grace will allow the Holy Spirit to work in and through a Christian to transform any kind of work to something that will honor God and fulfill His purposes on this earth. 2  See verses: John 3:16–17 (NIV); Romans 3:23–25 (NIV); Romans 5:8 (NIV); 1 Peter 3:18 (NIV).

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Khari, C., & Sinha, S. (2017). Impact of workplace spirituality on knowledge sharing intention: A conceptual framework. Journal of Human Values, 23(1), 27–39. Kolden, M. (1983). Luther on vocation. Word and World, 3(4), 382–390. Land, S. J. (1994). Pentecostal spirituality: A passion for the Kingdom. New York: Sheffield Academic Press. Lipka, M. (2015). Millennials increasingly are driving growth of ‘nones’. Pew Research Center, 12. Lipka, M., & Gecewicz, C. (2017, September 6). More Americans now say they’re spiritual but not religious. Pew Research Center. Retrieved from https://www. pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/09/06/more-americans-now-say-theyrespiritual-but-not-religious/ Lose, D. (2014, November 20). Is “Faith” a noun or verb? Retrieved from http:// www.davidlose.net/2014/11/is-faith-a-noun-or-verb/ Lunn, J. (2009). The role of religion, spirituality and faith in development: A critical theory approach. Third World Quarterly, 30(5), 937–951. https://doi. org/10.1080/01436590902959180 Marler, P. L., & Hadaway, C. K. (2002). “Being religious” or “being spiritual” in America: A zero-sum proposition? Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 41(2), 289–300. Marques, J., Dhiman, S., & King, R. (2007). Spirituality in the workplace: What it is, why it matters, how to make it work for you. Fawnskin, CA: Personhood Press. Messenger, W. (2010). Vocation overview. Theology of Work Project, (37). Retrieved from https://digitalcommons.spu.edu/tow_project/37/ Miller, D.  W. (2007). God at work: The history and promise of the faith at work movement. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Miller, D. W., & Ewest, T. (2013). The present state of workplace spirituality: A literature review considering context, theory, and measurement/assessment. Journal of Religious & Theological Information, 12(1–2), 29–54. Mitchell, D. (2008). Faith is a verb. Retrieved from http://pheugo.com/faithmatters/index.php?page=FaithMatters.Faithisaverb Mitroff, I. I., & Denton, E. A. (1999). A spiritual audit of corporate America: A hard look at spirituality, religion, and values in the workplace. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Neal, J. (2013). Faith and spirituality in the workplace: Emerging research and practice. In J. Neal (Ed.), Handbook of faith and spirituality in the workplace: Emerging research and practice (pp. 3–18). New York, NY: Springer. Newman, L. (2004). Faith, spirituality and religion: A model for understanding the differences. The College of Student Affairs Journal, 23(2), 102–110. Newport, F. (2017, December 22). 2017 update on Americans and religion. Gallup. Retrieved from https://news.gallup.com/poll/224642/2017update-americans-religion.aspx

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Norris, P., & Inglehart, R. (2011). Sacred and secular: Religion and politics worldwide. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Pesut, B., Fowler, M., Taylor, E.  J., Reimer-Kirkham, S., & Sawatzky, R. (2008). Conceptualising spirituality and religion for healthcare. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 17(21), 2803–2810. https://doi.org/10.1111/ j.1365-2702.2008.02344.x Rosenberg, A. (2015). Philosophy of social science. Chicago, IL: Westview Press. Rosso, B. D., Dekas, K. H., & Wrzesniewski, A. (2010). On the meaning of work: A theoretical integration and review. Research in Organizational Behavior, 30, 91–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.riob.2010.09.001 Santos, L. R., & Rosati, A. G. (2015). The evolutionary roots of human decision making. Annual Review of Psychology, 66(1), 321–347. https://doi. org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010814-015310 Schopf, J. (1997). Religious activity and proselytization in the workplace: The murky line between healthy expressions and unlawful harassment. Columbia Journal of Law and Social Problems, 31, 39. Smith, J. Z., Green, W. S., & Buckley, J. J. (1995). The HarperCollins dictionary of religion. San Francisco: Harper SanFrancisco. Strong, J. (1980). The exhaustive concordance of the Bible: Showing every word of the text of the common English version of the canonical books…; Together with a key-­ word comparison of selected words and phrases in the King James version … also brief dictionaries of the Hebrew and Greek words of the original…. Nashville: Abingdon. Swidler, A. (1986). Culture in action: Symbols and strategies. American Sociological Review, 273–286. Taylor, C. (2007). A secular age. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. Tischler, L., Biberman, J., & Altman, Y. (2007). A model for researching about spirituality in organizations. Business Renaissance Quarterly, 2(2), 23. Tracey, P., Phillips, N., & Lounsbury, M. (2014). Taking religion seriously in the study of organizations introduction. In P. Tracey, N. Phillips, & M. Lounsbury (Eds.), Religion and organization theory (pp.  3–21). Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing Limited. Washington, J. (2017, March 4). Faith is a verb, not a noun. The Philadelphia Tribune. Retrieved from http://www.phillytrib.com/religion/faith-is-a-verbnot-a-noun/article_5494248b-33d0-5f16-8363-a581bc259610.html Weaver, G., & Agle, B. (2002). Religiosity and ethical behavior in organizations: A symbolic interactionist perspective. The Academy of Management Review, 27(1), 77–97. Weber, M. (2002). The Protestant ethic and the “spirit” of capitalism and other writings. New York, NY: Penguin.

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Weick, K.  E. (1995). Sensemaking in organizations (Vol. 3). London, New Delhi: Sage. Wilkins-Laflamme, S. (2015). How unreligious are the religious “nones?” Religious dynamics of the unaffiliated in Canada. Canadian Journal of Sociology (Online), 40(4), 477. Williams, C. R. (2004). Peterson v. Hewlett-Packard: Exposing Title VII inconsistencies in its protection of employees from workplace harassment. North Carolina Law Review, 83, 776. Woodbridge, N. B. (2010). Living theologically–Towards a theology of Christian practice in terms of the theological triad of orthodoxy, orthopraxy and orthopathy as portrayed in Isaiah 6:1–8: A narrative approach. HTS Teologiese Studies/ Theological Studies, 66(2).

CHAPTER 6

Benefits of Faith and Work Integration

Introduction Previous chapters have established that, in addition to being commanded by God, work is an essential part of life. Devout Christians may choose to perform their work in ways pleasing to God even without any anticipated personal benefits. Yet substantial research shows there are many benefits realized by individuals who see their work as a means of expressing personal faith or spirituality such as more work and life meaning (Dik, Duffy, & Tix, 2012; Frankl, 1984; Maslow, 1968) and improved physical and mental health (Oman & Neuhauser, 2012). Organizations have also been shown to benefit from having a spiritually engaged workforce in areas such as organizational citizenship behavior, affective organizational commitment, and higher work unit performance (Albuquerque, Cunha, Martins, & Sá, 2014; Kazemipour & Mohd Amin, 2012). These positive effects on individuals and organizations can have a spillover effect with improved customer service and client care (Sousa & Coelho, 2013) and improved social responsibility (Chatjuthamard-Kitsabunnarat, Jiraporn, & Tong, 2014; Schouten, Graafland, & Kaptein, 2013). The significant research support reporting the benefits of faith and work integration may even convince organizations and managers not directly motivated by Christian values to create faith-friendly organization policies and cultures because it is a “win-win” for the majority.

© The Author(s) 2020 S. G. Buszka, T. Ewest, Integrating Christian Faith and Work, Palgrave Studies in Workplace Spirituality and Fulfillment, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-22914-6_6

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The Christian view is teleological, believing that God designed the many systems within our universe, so it follows that performing work consistent with God’s grand design will result in better outcomes. When God-­ designed systems operate as they were intended, they fulfill their designed purpose and result in many positive outcomes. However, these same human and social systems often break down and do not function according to divine plan. In the book, Every Good Endeavor, Keller and Alsdorf (2016) described how the refusal to obey God resulted in sin and caused the corruption of all areas of life, including work. Genesis 3:17–19 makes reference to this change in the nature of work that resulted from Adam’s sin. When Adam sinned he was not just disobedient, but he was intentionally acting outside God’s design for his life, that being to live in fellowship with God, and working with God to bring harmony to the created order. In essence, sin is a choice of one’s own way or choice of the self over God and his design (Erickson, 2013). As a result of this, work would always bring forth both fruit and thorns.1 However, the Bible also described an alternative story for work by presenting it within the Christian worldview of “creation (plan), fall (problem), redemption and resolution (solution)” (Keller & Alsdorf, 2016, p. 162). The hope of the work of Christ is a solution that can also be applied to work so that every job, career field, or organization can be viewed through the lens of the gospel. The work of Christ restores humans to the original relationship they were designed to have with God. This chapter will present examples and evidence of the many types of benefits that can result from work that is transformed through the lens of or faith in the gospel. Later chapters of our book will provide suggestions for assisting employees and organizations wishing to transform their own work and workplaces within the context of faith. Because this book is written from the perspective of the Christian faith, it is important to qualify that some of the research we are presenting includes other religious groups as well as general spirituality. Even though much of the research was conducted in the United States and the United States remains a Christian majority country, the findings often apply 1  Genesis 17. To Adam he said, “Because you listened to your wife and ate fruit from the tree about which I commanded you, ‘You must not eat from it,’ “Cursed is the ground because of you; through painful toil you will eat food from it all the days of our life. 18. It will produce thorns and thistles for you, and you will eat the plants of the field. 19. By the sweat of your brow you will eat your food until you return to the ground, since from it you were taken; for dust you are and to dust you will return.”

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f­ aith-­work integration that includes those who do not practice Christianity.2 We use research from the broader spectrum of religion, to indicate the positive benefits illustrative of religion in general, but recognize that multiple nuances can be attributed to religions because of the array of beliefs and practices. For example, the values that drive Protestants in the work place, The Protestant Work Ethic, has found broad synthesis and application among Buddhists (Woodburn, 1985), Confucianism (Redding, 1995), and Catholics (Novak, 1991, 1996). Finally, we acknowledge that the benefits of faith-work integration are not limited to actions, thoughts, and attitudes occurring in the workplace. Many of the reported benefits occur as a result of a faith-focused lifestyle that carries over to impact the workplace, such as praying to relieve stress (Belding, Howard, McGuire, Schwartz, & Wilson, 2010). Such healthy behaviors will benefit the workplace whether or not the organization promotes a Christian lifestyle. Therefore, some of these benefits result from direct faith-work integration such as an employee viewing their work as a calling from God. Other benefits result from indirect faith-work benefits such as employer reduced medical costs associated with faith-related health behaviors.

The Inter-relationship of Faith-Work Benefits There are many benefits shown to be associated with faith and work integration. For purposes of discussion and because these benefits are many and varied, it is helpful to present them in three broad categories established by Ewest (2018): individual level, organizational level, and societal level. Though these benefits are being separated into categories for discussion, it is important to acknowledge that these dimensions are interconnected and impact each other because individuals work in organizations and both of these exist in society (Giddens, 2008). Within this systemic relationship, humans are comprised of an inter-related body, mind, and spirit that interacts with others within the organization. This organization, in turn, is an open system impacting an external society comprised of other social groups in which employees are members. For example, if a person takes advantage of a company-sponsored meditation class at lunch hour, this may lead to work being perceived as more meaningful and have a ­positive 2  Chapter 5 established our view that the term faith can also encompass religion and spirituality.

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effect on this employee’s mental and physical health. This may also improve his or her mood, subsequently resulting in greater patience and kindness toward other workers. The clearer mind and positive attitude resulting from meditation may stimulate more creativity, productivity, and loyalty to the organization. As mentioned in Chap. 1, Anthony Giddens (1984) extended the ideas of Max Weber (1930) who understood that individuals and organizations have a formative impact on each other and together form and transform each other and larger society—combining all three elements.

Individual-Level Faith-Work Benefits In our review of literature, we found the most depth and breadth of research in the area of individual-level faith-work benefits. In order to discuss these in a more coherent fashion, we sub-grouped these into four categories of life meaning; physical and mental health benefits; employee values, traits, attitudes, and behaviors; and work-related attitudes and behaviors. Life Meaning At the broadest philosophical level, humans seek meaning in life. Victor Frankl’s book, Man’s Search for Meaning (1984), explained that the primary motivation in an individual’s life is to find meaning. Frankl also suggested that work was one of the three main routes humans use to find personal meaning. Maslow (1973), whom some dub the originator of the Positive Psychology movement, also supported a similar idea that people are motivated to seek personal meaning through self-actualization or the fulfillment of a person’s potential. Practically, self-actualization can be achieved by performing career or work activity that one finds personally meaningful and fulfilling, especially if the person believes the work allows them to use their unique skills, talents, and abilities. Though more recent research has shown that Maslow’s theory of motivation does not operate in the hierarchical fashion as theorized (Tay & Diener, 2011), his description of self-actualization is consistent with Mitroff and Denton’s finding that “the ability to realize my full potential as a person” was “the most important thing that gives people meaning and purpose in their jobs” (1999, p. 85).

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Research has supported the notion that workplace spirituality, faith, and viewing work as a calling have been associated with work being perceived as more meaningful (Dik et  al., 2012; Ewest, 2018; Meskelis & Whittington, 2018). In fact, employee perception that their work is meaningful is a very important measure of the degree of spirituality present in a workplace (Ashmos & Duchon, 2000). We agree. One of the major premises of this book is that those who are able to integrate faith and work will find their work more meaningful. Furthermore, individuals who find their work more meaningful will also find their lives more meaningful. Physical and Mental Health Benefits Persuasive empirical evidence exists that demonstrates the existence of positive associations between health and religious/spiritual practices. Though it may be debated how clear the causal relationship is, there is evidence indicating that religious factors do produce conditions for better health (Oman & Neuhauser, 2012). Koenig (2012) reviewed hundreds of research studies conducted between 1872 and 2010 on the impact of religion and spirituality (R/S) on both mental and physical health. Majority findings indicated R/S to have a positive impact on such conditions as depression, anxiety, substance abuse, cigarette smoking, coronary heart disease, endocrine function, cancer, and mortality. As a result, Koenig concluded that “a large volume of research shows that people who are more R/S have better mental health and adapt more quickly to health problems compared to those who are less R/S” (2012, p. 15). Specifically, with respect to physical health, those who reported being religious had lower levels of alcoholism, drug abuse, hypertension and higher immune system function and rates of cancer recovery. Even when controlling for the high social support and decreased risky behaviors (also related to high levels of religiosity), studies showed those who were religious had better health outcomes. Factors related to religion and spirituality were also associated with life longevity differentials of up to 14 years depending on the disease (Hummer, Rogers, Nam, & Ellison, 1999). Other studies reported that regular religious service attendance significantly reduced mortality anywhere between 25%–40%, and that religious service attendance was more cost effective for prolonging the life of heart patients than widely used drugs such as statins (Hall, 2006; Oman & Neuhauser, 2012). In addition, HIV patients who reported a spiritual transformation were five times more likely to survive five years (Ironson & Kremer, 2009).

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Regarding mental health, Day (2007) reported that of 100 empirical studies on religiosity and feelings of well-being, 80% reported a positive relationship. Emotionally stable people were also reported to be lower in hostility, higher in optimism, have higher self-esteem, deal with stress better and more effectively cope with challenge and ambiguity. Religious and spiritual employees who felt their faith was supported at work were reported as more emotionally resilient (Davis & Hill, 2012). Another recent study (Daniel, 2015) comparing worker spirituality and stress levels in the United States and Mexico found those who considered their work activities as meaningful perceived less work stress. Research on how people cope with stress indicated that substantial numbers of people coped with stress by using prayer and making sense of their stressors within the context of religious or spiritual beliefs. Research also suggested and that those with high stress levels benefit more from religiousness than those with lower levels of stress (Cummings & Pargament, 2012). Oman and Neuhauser (2012) offer a number of explanations for the improved physical and mental health benefits associated with faith. Many religious or spiritual groups directly or indirectly promote healthy lifestyle behaviors such as the avoidance of tobacco and heavy alcohol consumption and encouraging the care of ones’ body through healthy eating, exercise, and preventive health screening. This research also shared that involvement in faith-related activities can result in increased feelings of joy, hope, peace, and compassion which result in improved psychological states (Oman & Neuhauser, 2012). Those involved in religious communities also receive social support from the friendships, Bible studies, prayer groups, and volunteer activities in which they participate. Such social support has been shown to provide significant physical and mental health benefits (Krause, 2008). Additionally, faith groups and organizations often promote appropriate coping mechanisms and provide convenient free or discounted services such as 12-step programs, counseling, and weight loss classes. The church is also a good resource for those needing mental health counseling. Research has shown some Christians prefer receiving mental health counseling from Christian professionals (Bornsheuer, Henriksen, & Irby, 2012). Meditation is one potential spiritual tool sometimes neglected by the Christian faith because of its association with Eastern religions. Yet, research has shown meditation to improve mental health, minimize stress, and help with pain management. In two different studies, it was shown that God-focused meditation was more effective than secular meditation. In these studies, meditators who used phrases such as “God is good” and

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“God is joy” were able to withstand double the amount of pain than those who used phrases such as “I am good” or “I am joyful” (Wachholtz & Pargament, 2005, 2008). Day (2007) summarized a number of Pargament’s (2002) conclusions on the impact of religion on physical and mental health. The first is that different types of religious beliefs have different impacts on well-being. Religion that is intrinsic (viewed as an end in itself), internalized (freely chosen), and based on a secure relationship with God is associated to more positive physical and mental health outcomes. Religion that is introjected (imposed by others or out of fear), unexamined, and insecure is negatively related to well-being. Additionally, all types of religions and denominations provide health-related benefits. Religion has also been shown to be more beneficial to marginalized groups (i.e., women and minorities) and those whose lives are more integrated with their faith. Finally, those experiencing stress find their faith to be a source of coping and support. Employee Values, Traits, Attitudes, and Behaviors There are many individual faith-related values, traits, attitudes, and behaviors that are valued in the workplace because they are associated with positive work outcomes. When asked, spiritual employees describe their values as including integrity, honesty, building good relationships, keeping one’s word, being trustworthy, being aware of the needs of others, open communication, fairness in competition, having a good work ethic, taking responsibility, and being efficient (Mitroff & Denton, 1999; O’Brien, 2012). Many of these values and associated behaviors can facilitate good interpersonal relationships, leading to cooperation rather than competition and conflict (Benefiel, 2005). Other research has reported workplace spirituality results in higher levels of creativity, honesty, trust, personal fulfillment, peace, and serenity (Bandsuch & Cavanagh, 2005; Krishnakumar & Peck, 2002; Saks, 2011). Spirituality has also been shown to promote altruistic helping, compassion and forgiveness, conscientiousness, and self-career management (Benefiel, Fry, & Geigle, 2014; Greer et al., 2012; Hernandez & Mahoney, 2012). Research on employee calling suggests that employees who view their work as a calling are more likely to exhibit pro-social attitudes and b ­ ehaviors to promote the greater good, report more enthusiasm and are more willing to make sacrifices for their work (Dik et al., 2012). These findings also suggest the desired Human Resources (HR) staffing outcomes of strong person-

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job fit and person–organization fit are more likely to be present when an employee views their work as a calling and perceives their organization setting as a context in which to fulfill this calling. Work-Related Attitudes and Behaviors Job satisfaction (Saari & Judge, 2004), organizational commitment (Michael, ́ ́ 2002), job involvement (Culibrk, Delić, Mitrović, & Culibrk, 2018), employee engagement (Shantz, Alfes, Truss, & Soane, 2013), and organizational citizenship behavior (Organ, Podsakoff, & MacKenzie, 2006) are important work-related attributes that have been studied extensively because of their relationship to desirable organizational outcomes such as higher levels of productivity and lower rates of turnover. These attitudes are also offered as evidence of a healthy workplace and associated with high performing organizations (Macky & Boxall, 2007). Employees reporting high levels of these attitudes and behaviors generally reflect a motivated and productive workforce that is committed both to their work and to their organizations. A review of 15 empirical studies on the topic of spirituality and religion in the workplace showed there to be numerous positive associations between the presence of such factors and individual work-related attitudes and behaviors (Benefiel et  al., 2014). Many positive outcomes were demonstrated, including five with job satisfaction, seven with factors associated to organizational commitment, three with job involvement, and ten  with factors related to work performance and productivity. Other positive relationships were shown to exist with job identification (closely related to job involvement and employee engagement) and organizational citizenship behavior (e.g., Kutcher, Bragger, Rodriguez-Srednicki, & Masco, 2010). It has also been demonstrated that when work is perceived as calling, employees view work as more meaningful and this, in turn, results in higher levels of employee engagement. Furthermore, in addition to creating this meaning at work, employees who view their work as calling often bring this meaning to work with them. In such cases, the organization’s responsibility for orchestrating this meaning is reduced (Meskelis & Whittington, 2018).

Organizational-Level Faith-Work Benefits Generally speaking, many of the benefits derived by individuals translate into related benefits for the organization. In fact, Bandsuch and Cavanagh (2005) argued that the most common reason workplace spirituality was studied was so organizations can obtain the associated resulting benefits.

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Mitroff and Denton (1999) reported that spiritual organizations are associated with higher productivity, stronger organizational performance, and improved organizational culture. Similarly, Spirituality in the Workplace (Marques, Dhiman, & King, 2007) discussed a strong connection between an organization’s spirited culture and performance, including enhanced communication, higher levels of employee work performance, increased productivity and profitability, as well as gains in growth capacity. Others have reported that companies rated as more spirited outperformed others by 400–500% when comparing net earnings, return on investment (ROI), and shareholder value (Garcia-Zamor, 2003; Giacalone & Jurkiewicz, 2010; Thompson, 2000). Superior ethics and improved social responsibility appeared to be common qualities of spiritual executives and the organizations they manage (Schouten et  al., 2013). Other research on the topic of workplace spirituality reported that it was associated with “sustainable competitive advantage” (Porth, McCall, & Bausch, 1999), higher levels of creativity and innovation, and employee problem-solving behaviors (Day, 2007). Such outcomes could positively impact a company’s bottom line through new and better products and services being developed and distributed in a more efficient, socially responsible manner. Faith-friendly3 companies (Hicks, 2003; Miller & Ewest, 2011) that encourage and support faith-work integration and allow employees to bring their spiritual selves to work may also accrue the benefits of increased diversity and inclusion and enhanced employee recruiting. Talented, faith-­ oriented employees will seek companies with reputations for providing workplace cultures that support and promote a pluralistic respect of religious and spiritual traditions. Also, such companies may find reduced discrimination claims because they promote awareness, understanding, respect, and accommodation of the diverse religious belief systems represented in their workplaces. Recent studies in the healthcare setting indicated that higher levels of workplace spirituality were related to higher levels of organizational citizenship behavior, affective organizational commitment, and higher work unit performance (Albuquerque et  al., 2014; Kazemipour & Mohd Amin, 2012). The integration of a spirit at work program at a long-term healthcare facility also resulted in increased organizational commitment and decreased absenteeism and turnover (Kinjerski & Skrypnek, 2008). These studies and others (Bandsuch & Cavanagh, 3  Faith-friendly as opposed to faith-based in which one religious faith is given preference over another

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2005) indicate that organizational spirituality is associated with desired organizational outcomes such as increased employee loyalty and commitment, and reduced absenteeism and turnover. Furthermore, organizations derive benefits from the emotionally stable, less stressed, and healthier workers described in the previous section. These include cost savings related to lower rates of absenteeism, fewer accidents and injuries, and reduced insurance premiums commonly associated with a physically and mentally healthy workforce. The increased levels of loyalty and commitment associated with faith-­ work integration is of considerable importance to organizations as it relates to lower turnover and this benefits the company through the retention of qualified and experienced employees. Improved retention also reduces costs associated with having to recruit, select, and train replacements. Research has suggested that these costs are not insignificant. An analysis of 30 case studies conducted in 11 research papers published between 1992 and 2007, estimated that it cost the employer about one-­ fifth of a workers’ annual salary to replace that worker (Boushey & Glynn, 2012). Moreover, these costs increase as the skill level of the employee increases. Jobs at the senior executive level tended to have disproportionately high turnover costs as a percentage of salary with the highest being 213%. There are also productivity losses and increased error rates associated with new employees as compared to experienced employees. High turnover also impacts employee culture when remaining employees see others leaving and become less engaged or feel unfairly pressured to make up for productivity losses. Therefore, organizations supporting faith-work integration can expect such cost savings related to the higher rates of organizational commitment.

Societal Faith-Work Benefits There is considerable evidence that people of faith take many actions that benefit society at large. Some of these are associated with the aforementioned individual and organizational benefits (e.g., increased life meaning and improved health), while others may be only indirectly related (e.g., charitable giving, supporting marginalized social groups). However, even for those not directly related to work, it can be argued that organizations encouraging faith-work integration and religious service attendance will help facilitate many of these beneficial societal outcomes.

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Superior Customer and Client Care Customers or clients have been shown to benefit when employees are positive about their work and organization (Chawla & Guda, 2013; Gupta, Kumar, & Singh, 2014). It is a major tenet of service marketing literature that when employees are treated well, they will treat customers well (Sousa & Coelho, 2013). Research supports the idea that a positive mood at work results in employees being more helpful and that this helpfulness is extended to customers (George, 1991). Sousa and Coelho (2013) found a positive relationship between job satisfaction and customer orientation. They described customer orientation as employees who “direct their efforts to serving the long-term needs of their customers” (p. 1653). Therefore, those employees who can integrate their faith and experience the positive outcomes described in previous sections will be more likely to serve customers in helpful, need-fulfilling ways. Research in the healthcare industry revealed superior patient care was provided by employees who were spiritually connected to their work and workplace (Puchalski & Ferrell, 2010), especially in the areas of palliative care. A review of research on spirituality and patient outcomes revealed that it can be a powerful factor in helping patients cope with long-term illness, hospitalization, and the depression and anxiety associated with these (McSherry, 2006, Ch. 7). Benefits of Corporate Social Responsibility Society at large can also benefit when employees and organizations act in ways consistent with faith. Literature has suggested that there is a connection between spirituality and religiosity and the propensity to engage in corporate social responsibility (Chatjuthamard-Kitsabunnarat et al., 2014; Schouten et  al., 2013). The growth in corporate social responsibility (CSR) and its related philanthropic endeavors have resulted in benefits to many groups and people in society. Some have suggested that social responsibility is a tool used to enhance company reputation, build goodwill among customers, and improve financial performance (Chernev & Blair, 2015; Saeidi, Sofian, Saeidi, Saeidi, & Saaeidi, 2015). Also, although some criticized these efforts as being disparate and uncoordinated (Rangan, Chase, & Karim, 2015), evidence also showed that societal good has been accomplished by CSR. Philanthropic activities such as donations of money, equipment, and manpower to community and civic organiza-

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tions, or in aid of international disasters (Chen, 2011; O’Donnell, 2010) are examples of benefits resulting to society. Examples which pertain directly to business operations include sustainability initiatives that reduce resource use, waste, or emissions, or improve employee working conditions, healthcare, or education (Rangan et al., 2015). Creating jobs and providing beneficial goods or services to the poor have also been cited as examples of socially responsible actions on the part of business organizations (Clyde & Karnani, 2015). CSR is an important consideration for Christians, who understand the “earth belongs to the Lord” (Psalm 24:1) and may feel compelled to practice co-regency or stewardship as discussed in Chap. 4. Improved Societal Culture Bellah’s book, Habits of the Heart (1985), proposed that a revitalized social ecology was needed in the postmodern, postindustrial age. Bellah’s revitalized society suggested work that would be intrinsically satisfying and contributing to the good of all. It is possible that individuals who are able to integrate faith in the workplace may be a part of the “deep cultural, social and even psychological transformation” (p. 289) needed in contemporary society. This transformation would support other recommendations for improving societal culture promoted in Hunter’s (2010) book, To Change the World: The Irony, Tragedy, and Possibility of Christianity in the Late Modern World. In this book, Hunter described a theology of faithful presence in which those of faith must engage in and with the world to convey an attitude of grace and sacrificial love to believers and non-­ believers alike. Hunter suggested that faithful presence can result in human flourishing in the world. The workplace can be an important context to use faith and spirituality to encourage such flourishing and the results may spillover into society. Other recent books such as Religion as Social Capital: Producing the Common Good (Smidt, 2003), Bowling Alone (Putnam, 2007), and How the West Really Lost God (Eberstadt, 2013) also suggested that our contemporary civil society is declining and needs to be revitalized. In The Conservative Heart: How to Build a Fairer, Happier, and More Prosperous America, Brooks (2017) suggested that American society can be improved within four “institutions of meaning”—family, faith, community, and meaningful work. Therefore, one means of societal revitalization would be for employers to provide employees support for their

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outside religious faith-related involvement because of the potential positive impact on society. It has been suggested that faith communities in which people worship together have the potential to impact social capital more than any other institution in our culture (Putnam, 2007; Smidt, 2003). For example, research revealed that those who attend church regularly have higher levels of civic engagement in terms of volunteering and higher rates of charitable giving (Smidt, 2003). This social capital can also include providing physical care, social support, acts of help or mercy to the less fortunate, and discouraging acts of social harm or disobedience. Other areas that religious organizations have been noted as benefitting society include consistently advocating for human rights, engaging in acts of altruism, promoting economic justice, helping integrate marginalized people into mainstream society, and promoting higher order values such as ethics, commitment to family and community (Smidt, 2003; Wuthnow, 2003). In such ways, religious involvement and commitment can revitalize society by enhancing quality of life, improving health outcomes, increasing happiness, and lowering crime rates (Brooks, 2017). Therefore, companies that encourage and support faith integration at work are also assisting with the process of revitalizing society in these ways. A summary of the three categories of benefits related to faith and integration is provided in Table 6.1. Table 6.1  Categories of faith-work benefits Level of benefit

Type of benefit

Individual level

•  Life meaning •  Physical and mental health benefits •  Employee values, attitudes, traits, and behaviors •  Work-related attitudes and behaviors •  Higher levels of performance, productivity, and profitability •  Improved organizational culture •  Superior ethics and improved social responsibility •  Sustainable competitive advantage • Higher levels of organization citizenship behavior and organizational commitment •  Reduced absenteeism and turnover •  Superior client/customer care •  Benefits of corporate social responsibility •  Improved societal culture

Organizational level

Societal level

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Potential Problems Associated with Faith-Work Integration Our discussion would not be credible without also presenting information about possible problems or challenges that may be arise when organizations promote or support the integration of faith in the workplace. Though there appears to be an abundance of literature discussing the benefits of faith-work integration, it is important to caution readers from naively assuming that the integration process is easy and positive results guaranteed. The potential challenges we have identified fall in three categories: diversity challenges; work-life balance issues; and exploitation of faith-­ related work values. Diversity Challenges In the last two decades, diversity management initiatives (which includes religious and spiritual diversity) have been presented as a HR best practice and touted as promoting positive organizational culture, tapping into diverse employee skill sets, stimulating creativity and innovation, enhanced problem solving, and appealing to a broader cross-section of client and customer needs (Bassett-Jones, 2005). Yet research has shown these benefits are not automatic, and are less likely without adequate planning, training, and support (Davidson, 2012). Poorly implemented diversity initiatives can backfire and result in tension and conflict (Patrick & Kumar, 2012). It has been noted that religious and spiritual forms of diversity can be the most sensitive because of their association with what employees consider sacred and connected to their innermost personal beliefs and ideals (Sandage, Dahl, & Harden, 2012). For Christians, diversity is especially important when one regards the ministry of Christ, a Jewish messiah, who is reconciling all people to himself, making one humanity (Romans 4 NIV; Galatians 3–4; Colossians 3; Ephesians 2). One potential diversity challenge that can result when faith is integrated in the workplace is the emergence of more obvious in-groups and out-­ groups based on employee religious category or non-religious affiliation. Research has established that there is a strong bias toward members of one’s own group (in-group) as compared to those of other groups (out-­ groups) (Hewstone, Rubin, & Willis, 2002; Sandage et al., 2012; Shah, Brazy, & Higgins, 2002). One explanation offered for this is that humans are genetically hardwired to be xenophobic as a form of self and in-group

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protection when competing with other groups for scarce resources (Schlesinger, 1998). Although most people deny being prejudiced toward out-groups, research has shown even if they don’t openly express prejudice, they perceive it (Sandage et al., 2012). Also, it has been established that out-groups members are perceived to be more homogeneous, while in-group members are viewed as more varied and unique. This explains why a negative encounter with one out-group member will more likely result in the formation of a negative stereotype leading to prejudice against the entire group. Yet, the same negative behavior from an in-group member would be passed off as an anomaly. Research has also shown that in-­ group members are perceived as more valued, trustworthy, and cooperative (Sandage et al., 2012). As a result, the majority in-group may be (or be perceived as) favored and the minority out-groups may be or feel excluded or discriminated against. Research confirms that this bias applies to religious sub-categories. The Stereotype Content Model (Caprariello, Cuddy, & Fiske, 2009) offers that stereotypes are based on assessment of whether a group member falls into the two general categories of competence and warmth. Warmth is based on social perceptions of honesty, trustworthiness, friendliness, sincerity, and so on. Competence is based on social perceptions of the group members’ skillfulness, knowledge, intelligence, confidence, and so on. Within religious group categories, Christians were assessed to have both high competence and warmth. Jews were categorized as having high competence but low warmth, and Arabs (often automatically associated with the Muslim religion) were assessed as having both low competence and warmth. This predilection toward religious in-group members has been recently studied within the context of the pro-social helping behaviors promoted by most of the leading world religions (e.g., offering a person with crutches a seat on a train), and the willingness to tolerate deviations from acceptable social behaviors (e.g., cutting in line at a store) (Róz˙ycka-Tran, 2017). Several important conclusions were drawn from this research that are helpful to keep in mind for companies promoting faith and work integration. There appears to be a higher degree of helping behavior extended toward people of one’s religious in-group. Also, when information is ­available (e.g., such as wearing a nun’s habit, hijab, an anti-God t-shirt), people are more quick to offer pro-social helping behavior to those of their in-group than to out-group members. Furthermore, people appear to be more tolerant of norm-breaking behavior from in-group members

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than from out-group members. For example, people were more likely to scold or chasten an out-group member for cutting in line than a member of their own group. Another conclusion from this research was that, when no information to the contrary is present, religiousness is assumed to be the default position. In other words, without knowledge to the contrary, people have the tendency to think people are religious as opposed to non-­ religious. Other research has shown that people appear to actively seek out religious group information to find other in-group members to support and affirm their values (Mccullough, Swartwout, Shaver, Carter, & Sosis, 2016). Therefore, in a social setting where such discussion is not discouraged (e.g., a faith-friendly company), people are likely to try to find out who has similar faith beliefs. Such real or perceived inequities based on out-group status may reduce the positive impact of encouraging open faith-work integration by decreasing the out-group’s sense of belonging because of being excluded or marginalized by in-group members. Unlike gender, color, or race, religion is a group category for which there is no natural visible identifier,4 and it has been considered a mutable characteristic by some. These findings together suggest there may be some advantage when companies discourage information sharing about religion because people may assume similarity over difference in the category of religion. Yet, as companies become more globally diverse, this assumption of similarity may not hold true. Based on these findings, we stress the importance of companies being aware of in-­ group and out-group dynamics that might emerge in the area of religious difference and plan accordingly to circumvent the possible deleterious effects that could result from openness about faith and religion in the workplace. Because this book is written within the context of the Christian faith, it is good to be reminded that Christ’s parable of “The Good Samaritan” has been used over the centuries to remind Christians that they are to help those different from themselves and that out-group members may have similar or superior moral values to their own. Other research suggests that certain types of Christian religiosity could result in discrimination or different expectations based on gender, sexual orientation, or race. For example, those with rigid and conforming religious values were found to be intolerant of gay men and lesbians (Balkin, Schlosser, & Levitt, 2009). Also, a review of multiple studies on religiosity 4  One exception to this may be the assumption that Middle Easterners are Muslim (see Chap. 2).

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and gender suggests that those ascribing to more conservative religious views are more likely to hold traditional or sexist views of gender, such as that women’s primary responsibility is in the home and women need to be protected by men. Such views can limit opportunities for women in the workplace and result in subtle or active forms of discrimination (Sandage et al., 2012). Another study showed gender differences with respect to the willingness to offer help based on gender, sexual orientation, and race. Results showed women more willing than men to help those being treated unfairly on the basis of gender and sexual orientation, while men were more willing than women to intervene when mistreatment occurred based on race. These examples suggest that faith-friendly organizations must be aware of and sensitive to the religious diversity challenges that may emerge and plan accordingly. Appropriate diversity training and related policies should include the topics of religious diversity and appropriate protocol for interacting with those who are of different groups. Work-Life Balance Issues Another potential area of conflict for employees holding strong Christian values falls in the area of work-life balance. This relates to fact that people juggle multiple, often competing, roles in their lives. For Christians, the roles within career, marriage, and parenting may all be viewed as sacred because of the perception that they all have divine character and significance (Hernandez & Mahoney, 2012). Research has suggested that Christian women respond differently than men when attempting to manage these important roles. In particular, religiously conservative women were less likely to work full time or not work at all after children were born. The men in religiously conservative households were responsible for fewer hours of home and child care work than men with more liberal religious views. In addition, there may be men who wish to spend more time on household and parenting roles but, because of conservative religious views,5 do not feel it is appropriate for them to do so. Such views may limit talented career women or family-minded men from finding the work-life balance they truly desire. It may also deprive employers from talented or optimally functioning employees due to tensions between these multiple roles. Therefore, companies wishing to support employees who are highly 5  For example, the father’s primary responsibility to provide for the family financially, while the mother’s primary role is to provide home and child care.

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committed to work and outside sacred roles should be aware of the potential conflicts and find ways to accommodate these with options such as flexible work hours, telecommuting, job-sharing, child care support, and liberal family leave policies for both men and women. Exploitation of Faith-Related Work Values There is also the potential for employers to exploit employees with high levels of faith commitment who view their work as sacred for many of the aforementioned positive qualities such as high levels of organizational commitment, organizational citizenship behavior, and altruistic helping behavior. O’Brien (2012) cautions that employees may be treated solely as factors in production and their spirituality exploited because of their conscientious performance and perseverance to help the company. In addition, with the high levels of employee commitment associated with faith-work integration, employers may be tempted to use guilt and manipulation based upon the need to demonstrate ongoing altruistic or sacrificial effort. In contrast, it has been suggested that employees who strike the right balance of assertiveness may obtain better outcomes (Ames, Lee, & Wazlawek, 2017). Yet, as a result of Christians being charged by Jesus to be “meek” (Matthew 5:5) and “put others first” (Matthew 5:40), they may fail to rightfully stand up for themselves. Meekness under unfair or abusive circumstances may exacerbate mistreatment, especially if a Christian worker belongs to a commonly marginalized minority group. This mistreatment of workers with Christian values was never more evident than before the Civil War when slavery was perceived as an economic necessity by many in the Southern United States (Stout, 2007). Many historical accounts share of slave owners who exposed their slaves to Christianity in order to promote that it was their Godly duty to stay in the station they were in (1 Corinthians 7:20) and to obey their masters (Colossians 3:22; Ephesians 6:5). In this way, owners hoped to benefit from their Christian slaves’ “meek and obedient spirits” and ultimately enhance their own economic prosperity (Stout, 2007). Though slavery has long been abolished in this country, the temptation to capitalize on such Christian values is ever present in organizations that value profits over employee well-being. The reverse situation may also cause problems in faith-based organizations that give priority to worker needs over economic stewardship.

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Though there may be less academic evidence to this effect, others have commented online about the potential for those in Christian organizations to feel conflicted about firing workers (Billups, 2015; Dunks, 2017). Though there may be cases where this is appropriate and laudable (serious illnesses, family crises, etc.), such practices may detract from the long-term effectiveness of the organization. An examination of scripture may help Christian managers strike an appropriate balance in such challenging situations. And we urge you, brothers and sisters, warn those who are idle and disruptive, encourage the disheartened, help the weak, be patient with everyone. See that no one repays another with evil for evil, but always seek after that which is good for one another and for all people. (1 Thessalonians 5:14–15)

Ignoring the impact of the idle, disruptive, or incompetent employees can cause harm to customers or clients and may result in negligent retention lawsuits (Self & Self, 2014). In addition, research has shown that even one incompetent worker can have a significant ripple effect on the morale and productivity of others in the organization. Keeping poor performing employees out of kindness or a sense of Christian charity may cause other Table 6.2  Potential challenges related to faith-work integration (FWI) Nature of challenge

Example

In-group vs. out-group tensions

• Favoritism toward those within similar faith-group may result in members of different religious groups being treated unfairly in job-related situations such as performance reviews and promotions • Women or members of the LGBTQ population may be excluded from activities that would be beneficial to their careers by members of religiously conservative groups • Because women, especially those with more conservative religious values, spend more time on outside work roles, they face more difficulty in navigating career issues which may impede personal advancement • Employer may expect more work for less pay from employees with strong faith-related values and work ethic

Discriminatory attitudes toward minority groups Work-life balance challenges for women

Employer exploitation of faith-related work values Retaining incompetent employees

• Faith-based organizations may retain low performing or incompetent employees out of “kindness” while this hurts overall organization performance

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talented and valued employees to leave, resulting in more long-term harm to the workplace culture and organization (Barsade, 2002). A summary of some of the potential challenges that may occur when faith is integrated in the workplace is summarized in Table 6.2.

Conclusion There are many individual, organizational, and societal benefits associated with faith-work integration. As established at the beginning of this chapter, it should not be surprising to readers that when people and organizations operate according to Christian faith principles and values, the results will be better than the contrary. If we believe that God is the creator of all humanity and world systems, we should also believe that the closer people within these systems operate according to His grand and perfect design, the better the outcomes will be. This chapter has presented considerable evidence suggesting that it is in the best interest of the individual and organization to seriously consider how to apply faith principles and values within the workplace. However, employers wishing to effectively support faith-work integration should be aware that, as with all diversity-related initiatives, potential challenges exist when introducing and managing these. To assist in this process, suggestions for effective implementation will be further described in Chap. 12 within our discussion of organizational influences and strategies.

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CHAPTER 7

The Need for Faith and Work Equipping and Training

Introduction Previous chapters have established that there is an interactive relationship between religious beliefs, organizations, and culture; that the meaning of work is complex and nuanced; and that God created us in His image to be like him and work with him to care for the created order. It has also been shown that, while there may be challenges to integrating faith and work, there are numerous benefits. When Christians engage in work, some of this work is accomplished within the context of the  gathered church, such as spreading the gospel and caring for the less fortunate. Yet, even more of this is work is performed in the scattered church that is in the outside marketplace. However, because of sin and the brokenness of the world, working in a way that serves and honors God does not always come naturally. In some cases, those Christians who wish to integrate their faith in the workplace are not supported or are even stymied by organizations and their leaders. This is in spite of the legal protection provided against religious discrimination in the United States, and the substantial evidence provided in Chap. 6 that it can be very beneficial when faith and spirituality are part of the workplace culture. Others have commented on the existence of a Sunday-Monday gap between what the church provides its followers and what is needed during the rest of the week (Miller, 2007; Nash, 2001). Every Good Endeavor: Connecting Your Work to God’s Work  (Keller & Alsdorf, 2012) shared that “perhaps not since the Protestant Reformation © The Author(s) 2020 S. G. Buszka, T. Ewest, Integrating Christian Faith and Work, Palgrave Studies in Workplace Spirituality and Fulfillment, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-22914-6_7

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has there been this much attention paid to the relationship of Christian faith to work” (p.19). However, it was also stated that Christians seeking practical guidance are often poorly served, despite the number of books, scholarly projects, academic programs, and online discussions on this topic. The diversity of these offerings can be confusing and many of them present only shallow guidance. Despite God’s commands and interest in the topic, it appears that few churches in America are sending the message to their members that faith can be lived out in the workplace. This chapter will provide a review of the evidence suggesting that there is current and substantial interest in topics relating to faith and work. It will also establish that Christians need more intentional equipping in this area if they are to live out their faith while working. The present book has been written as a resource for such equipping.

Evidence of Interest in Faith and Work Integration Miller (2007) reported there has been a recent surge of interest in topics associated with faith as it relates to work. Many academics and theologians appear to believe that interest in the integration of faith in the workplace is more than just a fad (Keller & Alsdorf, 2012; Miller & Ewest, 2013). Some researchers have even stated that we are in the midst of an authentic spirituality revolution (Tacey, 2005; Vasconcelos, 2015). Numerous literature reviews have been conducted over the last 20 years delineating the growth of interest, research, scale development, and publications in the areas of workplace spirituality and faith at work, overshadowing any dissenting opinions (Day, 2007; Lund Dean, Fornaciari, & McGee, 2003; Mohamed, Hassan, & Wisnieski, 2001; Miller & Ewest, 2013). Interest in the integration of faith in the workplace has been associated with a “spiritual awakening” in the workplace that was said to have occurred more than 30 years ago (Neal, 2013). In 2000, the Academy of Management officially recognized Management, Spirituality and Religion as an academic interest group among 24 others. Also, an international scholarly journal, the Journal of Management, Spirituality, and Religion, printed its first issue in 2005 (Biberman & Whitty, 2007). Other academic journals, such as Journal of Management Psychology, Journal of Organization and Change Management, and American Behavioral Scientist, have devoted entire issues to the topic of spirituality in the workplace within this decade. Sheep (2004) reported that workplace spirituality as a topic of study in management and organizational behavior began in the 1990s. Shortly after this, the topic began appearing in college and MBA curriculums.

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Examples such as David Lipscomb University’s “Business Administration Students Imitating Christ (BASIC) Training Camp” or Seattle Pacific’s “Theology of Business” MBA might not be surprising because both of these institutions are faith-based (Lambert, 2009). However, a 2002 survey identified more than 44 universities around the world that had courses or programs related to workplace spirituality (Manz, Marx, Neal, & Manz, 2006). Lambert (2009) also discussed the impact of the Lilly Endowment Program for the Theological Exploration of Vocation on the curricula of 88 participating college and universities. To ascertain the level of popular interest on this topic, one need only search on Google under the phrase “books on faith and work” to reveal the thousands of titles listed under this topic. Examples of the diversity of titles on this topic come from a recent “top ten” list (Whelchel, 2018) to include such titles as: The Call: Finding and Fulfilling God’s Purpose for Your Life (Guinness, 2018); Every Good Endeavor (Keller & Alsdorf, 2012); Kingdom Calling: Vocational Stewardship for the Common Good (Sherman, 2011); Work Matters (Nelson, 2011); God at Work: Your Christian Vocation (Veith, 2011); BAM Global Movement: Business as Mission: Concepts & Stories (Gort & Tunehag, 2018); and Work, Love, Pray: Practical Wisdom for Young Professional Christian Women (Paddison, 2011). In addition to being included in popular books, practitioner-­oriented business journals and online publications such as Fortune, Business Week, Across the Board, HR Magazine, Huffington Post have featured articles on faith and work. A sample of titles from these include “God and Business,” “How the Church Has Failed Business,” and “Religion at Work.” Media sources with significant circulations such as Forbes, Newsweek, Wall Street Journal, and Los Angeles Times have frequently reported on God at work as a legitimate, trackable movement (Sullivan, 2013). There are numerous other organized initiatives substantiating interest in the topic of faith and work. It was noted that as of 2003, there were over 1200 Christian faith and work groups, 67% of which were established in the last 20 years and 47% in the last decade (Walker, 2005). Le Tourneau University Center for Faith and Work recently provided a list of 1000 faith and work ministries sponsored by local churches, seminaries, and groups of professionals or other business people (Center for Faith & Work, n.d.). A small sample of some of these are listed in Table 7.1. Within a wide variety of professional circles, acceptance and recognition of the role faith plays in the lives of employees in the workplace has become more apparent. For example, Walker (2005) reported that an abundance

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Table 7.1  Examples of faith and work groups Faith and work group

Website

Center for Faith and Work, Redeemer Presbyterian Church Yale’s Center for Faith and Culture Princeton’s Faith and Work Initiative Gordon Conwell’s Mockler Center for Faith and Ethics in the Workplace The Denver Institute of Faith and Work Le Tourneau University Center for Faith and Work Theology of Work Project Work Matters

https://faithandwork.com http://faith.yale.edu/ www.princeton.edu/faithandwork www.gordonconwell.edu/mockler https://denverinstitute.org https://centerforfaithandwork.com/ www.theologyofwork.org www.workmatters.org

Note: These reflect only a small sample of the many and varied faith and work groups that exist

of industry or profession-specific groups have formed to help bridge the faith and work gap. Some examples of these include Affiliation of Christian Geologists, Association of Christian Economists, The Christian Nuclear Scientist Fellowship, Cops for Christ, The North American Association for Christians in Social Work, and Christians in Photojournalism (Center for Faith & Work, n.d.). Greenleaf’s (1977) book on servant leadership stimulated interest in the idea of faith and spirituality at work. The Greenleaf Center for Servant Leadership continues to provide guidance and support for those who aspire to lead in ways consistent with Greenleaf’s approach. Similar leadership groups include Salt and Light Leadership Training (www.sallt.com), and Lead Like Jesus (www.leadlikejesus.com). Corporate Chaplaincy is also reported to be a growing profession and a booming enterprise. This group of professionals includes religious ministers trained in pastoral care who are paid by companies to serve the emotional and spiritual needs of workers (Miller & Ngunjiri, 2015; Seales, 2012). In 2007, Tyson Foods employed “120 chaplains in seventy-seven different production facilities” (Lambert, 2009, p.  127). Marketplace Chaplains, a business chaplaincy staffing company, supplied 2482 c­haplains to over 500,000 employees at companies in 850 cities in the United States in 2011 (Seales, 2012). Garcia-Zamor (2003) estimated that there were about 4000 corporate chaplains and more than 10,000 prayer groups that met weekly in US workplaces. Evidence such as this establishes that there is considerable organized interest in topics related to faith and work integration.

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On an individual level, there is evidence suggesting that the population may be growing more interested in being provided the opportunity to integrate their faith-related values while at work. For example, three out of five adults in the United States were reported to think a greater sense of spirituality could improve their workplaces (Pink, 2005). Other research findings indicated that those well established in lucrative careers were leaving these for positions they perceived more personally meaningful and aligned with their values (Moretto & Baldwin, 2011). Because research has established that faith and spirituality are significant sources of values for many (Miller & Ewest, 2011), it follows that employees would seek work that could in some way reflect their Christian values. As for what matters most to Christian workers, the Barna Report (Denzel & Kinnaman, 2018) indicated that 65% of those surveyed wanted a job that provides a sense of purpose. This was second only to 68% reporting a desire for competitive pay and benefits. As for the future workforce, a multi-year survey conducted by the Higher Education Research Institute (HERI) reported that 80% of 112,232 first-year students indicated they were interested in spirituality, and almost half (47%) indicated they actively sought opportunities to help them grow spiritually (Astin, Astin, Lindholm, & Bryant, 2005). Stimulated by these findings, Greenway (2006) surveyed 531 juniors and seniors enrolled at a regional state university. This research supported the HERI findings that college students were very interested in spiritual matters, with 89% of students reporting they were searching for meaning in life, 98% indicating that integrating spirituality into their life was at least somewhat important, and 94% indicating that seeking opportunities to grow spiritually was at least somewhat important. Other researchers (Astin, Astin, & Lindholm, 2011; MontgomeryGoodnough & Gallagher, 2007) have also reported that there appears to be a growing interest and perceived value in spiritual matters within the college-age population. Some even suggest this is a reverse trend from previous years of decline, and that the current generation is spiritually engaged and questing (Dalton, 2006). The Barna Group (Denzel & Kinnaman, 2018, p.  25) also reported that 67% of Christian Millennials agreed with the statement “I want to use my gifts and talents for the good of others,” in contrast to 57% of Baby Boomers. Recent information has indicated this same group is less likely to be affiliated with a religious organization (Hackett, 2018) and is working more hours than ever (Griffith, 2019). These factors suggest the

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younger generation may be more amenable to integrating and seeking meaning through work because they do not have the time or place to find spiritual fulfillment elsewhere. Environmental Influences Stimulating Interest The importance and scope of the responsibilities of the scattered church is becoming more significant because of demographic, sociocultural, and technological factors impacting the workplace. These factors include the reality that most of a person’s waking hours are spent performing either paid or unpaid work (Saad, 2014). Also, more and more families are supported by multiple wage earners (Kent, 2015) or single parent households (Porter, 2016), leaving less time for domestic work to be accomplished. Additionally, 24-7 technology is blurring the line between home and work, often leaving little distinction between when and where work begins and ends (Burkus, Gallo, Gielan, & Valcour, 2017). Communities too are changing; our local neighborhoods are no longer places we spend much time interacting with each other (Putnam, 2007). Fewer and fewer people know the names of their neighbors, much less talk with them on a regular basis (Heimlich, 2010). According to a 2015 report, nearly a third of those surveyed reported “no interactions with neighbors, and only about 20  percent say they spend time regularly with neighbors” (Cortwright, 2015, p. 6). All these factors collude to leave even less time for involvement in the formal ministries of the gathered church or for “creating disciples” in our neighborhoods. In fact, it is the position of this book that the workplace is becoming more of a community and neighborhood than the places we reside (Stancich, 2017). Besides with our most intimate family and friends, it is very likely that today’s Christian has more time and opportunity to express their faith at work than in most any other context. Therefore, it is more essential than ever before that we are preparing Christians to do the work of discipleship in the workplace. During this same time economic, demographic, and sociological changes in North America and other parts of the world have created problems that an increased focus on spirituality and faith may help remedy. Downsizing, corporate scandals, and environmental negligence have resulted in workforce demoralization and distrust of business organizations and their leaders (Lewin & Regine, 2000). Businesses have been criticized for overemphasis on maximizing shareholders’ value and profits

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at the expense of mission and values because of the discouraging effect this has on employee spirituality in the workplace (López, Ramos, & Ramos, 2009; Vasconcelos, 2015). Similarly, self-serving organizational agendas have been  said to undermine the well-being and rights of employees (Caldwell & Canuto-Carranco, 2010). Some have described organizations as cold and impersonal machines that neglect the human element by failing to acknowledge that employees have needs related to body, mind, and spirit (McNight, 2005). Dispirited workplaces have been associated with low morale, high turnover, burnout, frequent stress-related illnesses, and rising absenteeism (Vasconcelos, 2015). Disillusioned workers are increasingly looking elsewhere for satisfaction. Yet, some of these same workers struggle to find time outside of work for meaningful pursuits because of long work hours (Saad, 2014) and the growing prevalence of dual income families (Gaddis & Klasen, 2014). In addition, this new generation of workers expects to change jobs and even entire career fields multiple times during their working years. They also report being willing to take pay cuts to work for a company with values like their own (Zukin & Szeltner, 2012). However, there are some in this younger generation who may be buying into a very different philosophy of work referred to as performative workaholism (Griffith, 2019). The New York Times recently noted the trend of Millennials being encouraged to take pride in and promote their 18-hour workdays (Griffith, 2019). Instead of providing appropriate work-life balance, some employers may be taking advantage of this trend by promoting and rewarding such a mindset, resulting in a shift in thinking about what is an appropriate or reasonable amount of time to spend on work. The related LinkedIn newsfeed entitled “Hustle Culture Worships Workaholism” (January 30, 2019), should be a warning for Christians that a desire or drive toward too much of even good things can become an idol competing for true worship of God. Employees buying in to this the philosophy of admirable workaholism may need some counter-balancing information provided by faith and work integration training for their overall well-being. With diminishing job security, financial rewards not matching increased work demands, and less time for leisure, the ability to integrate faith at work might provide the stability that organizations cannot. Individuals may find increased meaning and enthusiasm if provided guidance in ways to integrate their faith and spirituality through work (Dhiman & Marques, 2011; Pawar, 2009). In addition, recent research suggests that the distinction between work and non-work identities is fading due to ­

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decreased job security, increased demographic diversity, and the increased use of communication technology (Ramarajan & Reid, 2013). Therefore, more individuals may appreciate the opportunity to express their personal spirituality and faith values while at work.

The Need for Faith and Work Integration Equipping and Training With what appears to be a strong and possibly growing interest in faith and work integration, there is a corresponding need for appropriate equipping and training of those interested in this topic. The books, articles, groups, and organizations described previously do not automatically generate faith and work integration. As many teachers know, just because material is included in a curriculum and covered in a textbook and classroom, it does not guarantee that students understand or implement the information. Although many churches and faith and work organizations do provide teaching and training on this topic, many scholars, theologians, and individual Christians have commented that these efforts often fall short. Limitations to Existing Efforts and Programs Despite the many highly visible faith and work academic institutes or programs that have been established, and the large number of churches that have formed their own faith and work ministries, there is still much to be done to encourage faith-work integration. For example, Russell (2007) reported that 74% of the 340 members of the American Society for Training said that there was less or no clear change in the visibility of Christianity in their organizations or in those of their clients. Other research reported workers having low confidence in being able to express their faith at work (Russell, 2007). Sherman (2011) quoted David Miller, the director of the Princeton University Faith and Work Initiative, as ­saying that, when surveyed, “fewer than 10% of regular church attenders can remember the last time their pastor preached on the topic of work” (p. 91). Organizational theory researchers (Tracey, Phillips, & Lounsbury, 2014) shared that relatively little is known about how religious organizations’ values and practices impact other types of organizations. There has been insufficient investigation into whether the values and practices pro-

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moted by religious organizations are making a difference in the way members perform their work. When asked about experiencing God in corporate America, numerous CEOs reported that the local church has been ineffective in equipping its membership. They commented that very few spiritual leaders appeared to understand the important role of the marketplace as it relates to God’s plan since this issue is rarely addressed by the church (Hillman, 2011, p. 191). Sherman (2011) comments on Michael Lindsay’s book Faith in the Halls of Power which reports the lack of Christian faith-­ work influence in the highest levels of corporate leadership. Lindsay’s interviews with 365 evangelical corporate leaders in a variety fields including business, politics, media, entertainment, and the academy revealed they differed little from their peers. Despite exceptions, they were just as susceptible to the temptations of power, materialism, and pride as were their non-Christian counterparts. A quote from Os Hillman’s (2011) book characterizes what many may feel about the support they receive from the church regarding their ability to live out their faith at work. Many church members simply do not feel validated for the work they do five days a week. They often feel like second-class citizens. One school teacher commented, ‘I was called up to the front of the church to commission me as the teacher for school age children for the year. Later I wondered why I had never been recognized for teaching kids five days a week as a ministry. (Hillman, 2011, p. 195)

Cosden shared that it is often not clear to leaders and ordinary church members “how our Christian beliefs in creation and redemption, resurrection and heaven could relate directly to such real-world issues as our work” (2006, p. 6). It appears many Christians are left wondering just how important it is to integrate faith and work. Christians, who take seriously the charge of Christ to go make disciples and teach others to obey Christ’s commands, may face some consternation when considering how this will happen in the workplace. Sherman (2011) states that even though few churches fail to encourage their congregants to serve the world with their “time, talent and treasure” (p. 20), very few are actually facilitating this “in an intentional, sustained, practical and strategic way.” A recent report conducted by the Barna Group (Denzel & Kinnaman, 2018) revealed more encouraging findings from a group of 734 Christians who attended church monthly. The majority in this group reported feeling supported in their

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careers or work by their church, with 45% experiencing this support “definitely,” while 36% reported this “somewhat.” Only 19% selected “not too much” or “not at all.” Even more impressive was a 53% response of “definitely” to the statement: “My church does a good job of helping me to understand how to live out my faith in the workplace” (Denzel & Kinnaman, 2018, p. 78). Though these results are in contrast to our previous comments, it is important to note that only those Christians who reported that their faith was somewhat important in their lives today were included in the study. Therefore, this encouraging information is coming from a rather select group of Christians. Yet, it does appear that some churches and are providing faith and work support for the members who attend on a regular basis and who are somewhat committed to their faith. However, as we will soon discuss, even when churches or religious groups do provide support for faith and work integration, it does not guarantee that a person will actually integrate their faith in the workplace. Misperceptions of the Role of the Church Another factor contributing to the lack of faith and work integration (FWI) is that work, as an aspect of the Christian life, is often perceived as having a minor role, unless it pertains to the work of discipleship and teaching that is most often performed by professional clergy. Also, many lay Christians consider the discipleship-making process something to be performed while gathered together with other Christians at church or church-related activities. Serving in church-related roles is viewed as the primary way to accomplish God’s work. However, a classic historical theology on the church dating back to John Calvin (Bacote, 2010; Keller & Alsdorf, 2012) helps clarify the role of discipleship outside of the church by contending that there is a difference between the gathered church and the scattered church. As explained by Abraham Kuyper (Bacote, 2010; Keller & Alsdorf, 2012), the gathered church, led by officers and ministers, has a different role from the scattered church which includes all activities outside the church in which Christians are engaged. Since more time is spent in the scattered church, there is much more potential for making disciples in this realm. While in the scattered church, people of faith can influence business practices, encourage civic activities, and build relationships with those outside the gathered church. Discipleship then should enable Christians to take responsibility and integrate their faith in all areas of life, including the workplace.

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Another misconception about the role of the church in contemporary society may be characterized by those members who possess a “cruise ship mentality” (Sherman, 2011, p.  101). Doug Spada, Director of WorkLife Inc., challenged that the world would be better served if, instead of a cruise ship, the church was viewed as an aircraft carrier. Expanding on this analogy, Christians who view the church as a cruise ship (a place to be entertained, served, and fed) see it as a place of retreat and distraction from the world, not as a place to become better equipped to work in the world. This is in contrast to viewing the church as an aircraft carrier in which Christians come to be refueled, trained, and recharged in order to “fly off” into the world to do their own Godordained work in the scattered church. Christians with the cruise ship mentality are less likely to see the church as a place to learn how best to spread the Gospel in the workplace. Even for those churches in which FWI is included in preaching and teaching, without appropriate equipping and training, many may be left with faith-work theory, but no realworld application. Research has supported that the development of moral behavior requires deliberate practice for the acquisition of skill competence (Rossano, 2008). Therefore, unless the church is guiding its members in the deliberate practice of FWI, it is likely that any preaching and teaching that does occur will remain at a theoretical level, and the gap between what happens at work on Sunday and work on Monday will remain ever present for many well-meaning Christians. Lack of Faith and Work Role Models Another reason well-meaning Christians may fail to integrate faith in the workplace is because it may be challenging for them to creatively consider how their work situations may be changed to allow for FWI. This challenge was very nicely expressed in an interview with Laura Nash, co-author of the book Church on Sunday, Work on Monday (Nash & McLennan, 2001). When asked what she believed to be the biggest impediment to practicing a life of faith in the workplace, she replied that it would be the “lack of spiritual imagination” coupled with the paucity of role models in the church or business settings to provide specific work-related examples about faith in the workplace (Nash, 2010). This problem is not uncommon with theory of all types. Unfortunately, with FWI, there is no well-­developed on-the-job training and mentoring of which we are aware. Such training would need high levels of creativity

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on the part of the trainer and trainee to see the variety of possibilities that exist for integrating faith and work in a person’s unique and particular situation. Difference Between Knowledge and Wisdom Another reason even those exposed to Christian theology about the topic often do not know how to apply it to their work situations can be explained by discussing the difference between knowledge and wisdom. Knowing about FWI does not mean that a person will actually apply this knowledge (or apply it correctly) in the workplace. Knowledge is described as having accurate or true belief, but wisdom allows a person to use this information correctly (Bierly, Kessler, & Christensen, 2000). Therefore, there are additional factors involved in producing wisdom from knowledge. As Albert Einstein stated in speech at Princeton University: One can have the clearest and most complete knowledge of what is, and yet not be able to deduct from that what should be…Objective knowledge provides us with powerful instruments for the achievement of certain ends, but the ultimate goal itself and the longing to reach it must come from another source…. (Bierly et al., 2000, p. 607)

Therefore, there are additional factors involved in producing wisdom from knowledge. In their discussion of individual wisdom as it relates to organizational learning, Bierly et al. (2000) offer experience, spirituality, and passion as three factors that transform knowledge into wisdom. Experience is the “education, training and ‘seasoning’” (p. 604) of a person along the path to wisdom. This includes experiential learning through trial and error, along with discerning variability in the environment in order to know how to adapt knowledge to the situation. Spirituality includes self- and otherreflection within the context of values such as integrity, truth, and desiring the greater good. While knowledge is values free and explains what is, wisdom reflects right or wrong or what should be. The third ­element, passion, is described as being strongly linked to motivation and the energy devoted to implementing a person’s acquired wisdom. This analogy can also be used to describe how those who possess faith and work integration knowledge may still not implement this. They may lack experience, they may lack spirituality, or they may lack motivation. Faith-work integration training and equipping most directly relates to the experience portion of wisdom.

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Therefore, training should provide more than just the basic knowledge of FWI theology and practices. Opportunities for individuals to discover the variety of options available for FWI and test different methods to see which ones work best within their particular work situation should be provided. We will be presenting a model in Chap. 8 that has been designed to help with this process. The spiritual element involved in converting knowledge to wisdom is not something this book can directly impact. For Christians, this comes from a personal relationship with God through Jesus Christ that is enhanced by the Holy Spirit. For some, this spirituality as it relates to work, may be very strong, and be experienced through a distinct sense of calling to a particular vocation. For others, time in prayer, Bible study, and relationship-building with God may be needed to facilitate this. The passion portion may be stimulated by growth in the spiritual portion, or by a strong, encouraging teacher or role model involved in the experience building process. The Need for Christian Orthodoxy, Orthopraxis, and Orthopathy A three-pronged approach to responding to the Gospel can also be used to understand why those with knowledge of faith and work integration theology may fail to integrate this within their personal work situations. This theological view holds that in order for the complete and total fulfillment of the Gospel by humankind, three types of understanding are required: orthodoxy; orthopraxis; and orthopathy (Butner, 2016). Orthodoxy would include “right understanding” of theology; orthopraxis would involve “right practice” of this theology; and orthopathy would include being in “right relationship” or emotional connection with God in order to carry out these actions with the right spirit or motivation. This approach suggests that gaps in all three of these areas could impede faith and work integration. The first gap could exist if there is no knowledge (or incorrect knowledge) of faith and work integration theology. The second gap could occur if people held this knowledge, but failed to integrate their faith with their work. The third gap is when the faith and work integration occurs, but in a perfunctory manner, without a personal connection or meaning to the work performance. We suggest that most attempts at FWI training would include conveying the “right” faith and work orthodoxy. However, less time would be spent providing guidance and mentoring in the specific ways faith and work theology can be translated into “right” faith and work orthopraxis. Finally, and the most challenging training gap

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to address would be encouraging a person to find the “right” spirit for their personal faith and work integration. This is not something that can be specifically orchestrated but, instead, sought after within the context of a personal relationship with God. Those who feel divinely called and supremely fulfilled through work may have achieved this level of “complete” faith and work integration. Yet, for many who sincerely seek the completeness that orthopathy provides, this type of faith and work integration can be elusive. It may be achieved only occasionally, may be a goal to which they aspire, or may be found in other forms of work that come from family relationships, volunteering, or hobbies. This process of seeking and finding theologically “complete” FWI might be similar to the process of finding authentic vocation described by Parker Palmer (2000): Some journeys are direct and some are circuitous; some are heroic, and some are fearful and muddled. But every journey, honestly undertaken, stands a chance of taking us toward the place where our deep gladness meets the world’s deep need. (p. 36)

There will be a further discussion of the concepts of calling and vocation as these relate to FWI in future chapters. However, our point is that even the best training and equipping cannot provide a substitute for the spiritual and divine element in the process of FWI. Therefore, unless the church is intentionally guiding its members in the deliberate practice of FWI, it is possible that a good portion of the preaching and teaching that does occur will remain at a theoretical or knowledge level. The gap between what happens at work on Sunday and work on Monday may remain unless church members are equipped with mentoring and training that includes clear and personal examples of how faith and work integration may be applied in their own workplaces. As God continues to call individual Christians and His church to labor in the vineyard, there is much that needs be done to prepare the soil, plant the seeds, and cultivate the tender shoots of FWI. By developing training that includes faith and work orthodoxy and orthopraxis, while encouraging the development of a personal orthopathy, churches or other sources of FWI training will more effectively co-labor with God in the process of guiding His followers toward a fitting FWI. The remaining chapters of this book will provide a model and framework that may prove useful in this process.

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Conclusion: The Charge of This Book The two previously discussed analogies of the gathered and scattered church, and a cruise ship versus an aircraft carrier can be combined to present a more appropriate perspective of the role of the church in the discipleship-making process. The gathered church may indeed be viewed as a “floating vessel” where Christians come to worship, learn to be disciples and disciple others. However, this vessel should not be viewed as a cruise ship solely for the entertainment, comfort, and benefit of those on board. Instead, the church should be viewed as an aircraft carrier that encourages, trains, and equips Christians to “fly out” to disciple in the world. As church members carry out their various missions in the world, they are part of the much larger scattered church. A major part of a Christian’s mission in the scattered church should be spreading the Gospel in the workplace. Good aircraft carrier commanding officers would not consider sending their pilots off into the world without a clear mission and adequate training. Similarly, the church cannot hope for its members to be effectively sharing the Gospel in the world as part of the scattered church without intentional and appropriate FWI training. This training should include an equipping process that helps members creatively consider how FWI can occur in their unique work and life context. Faith and work orthodoxy and orthopraxis must be presented within the context of developing a personal and genuine orthopathy. This process should facilitate knowledge becoming wisdom, and faith and work theory becoming real and practical FWI.

References Astin, A. W., Astin, H., Lindholm, J., & Bryant, A. N. (2005). The spiritual life of college students: A national study of college students’ search for meaning and purpose. Los Angeles, CA: Higher Education Research Institute. Retrieved from http://spirituality.ucla.edu/docs/reports/Spiritual_Life_College_Students_ Full_Report.pdf Astin, A. W., Astin, H. S., & Lindholm, J. A. (2011). Cultivating the spirit: How college can enhance students’ inner lives. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Bacote, V.  E. (2010). The spirit in public theology: Appropriating the legacy of Abraham Kuyper. Wipf and Stock Publishers. Biberman, J., & Whitty, M. D. (2007). At work: Spirituality matters. Scranton, PA: University of Scranton Press.

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Bierly, P. E., Kessler, E. H., & Christensen, E. W. (2000). Organizational learning, knowledge and wisdom. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 13(6), 595–618. https://doi.org/10.1108/09534810010378605 Burkus, D., Gallo, A., Gielan, S. A., & Valcour, M. (2017, April 03). Research: Keeping work and life separate is more trouble than its worth. Harvard Business Review. Retrieved from https://hbr.org/2016/08/research-keeping-workand-life-separate-is-more-trouble-than-its-worth Butner Jr., D. G. (2016). Orthodoxy, orthopraxis, and orthopathy: Trajectories for collaborative scholarship between economists and theologians. Faith & Economics, 67, 85–104. Caldwell, C., & Canuto-Carranco, M. (2010). “Organizational terrorism” and moral choices  – Exercising voice when the leader is the problem. Journal of Business Ethics, 97(1), 159–171. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-010-0502-5 Center for Faith & Work. (n.d.). Faith and work ministries list. Retrieved May 08, 2019, from http://centerforfaithandwork.com/article/faith-work-ministries-list City Observatory. (2015). City report: Less in common. Portland, OR: Cortwright, J. Retrieved from http://cityobservatory.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/ CityObservatory_Less_In_Common.pdf Cosden, D. (2006). The heavenly good of earthly work. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson. Dalton, J. C. (2006). The place of spirituality in the mission of work of college student affairs. In A.  W. Chickering, J.  C. Dalton, & L.  Stamm (Eds.), Encouraging authenticity and spirituality in higher education (pp. 145–164). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Day, N.  E. (2007). Religion in the workplace: Correlates and consequences of individual behavior. In J. Biberman & M. D. Whitty (Eds.), At work: Spirituality matters (pp. 115–146). Scranton, PA: University of Scranton Press. Denzel, B., & Kinnaman, D. (2018). Christians at work: Examining the intersection of calling and career. Ventura, CA: Barna. Dhiman, S., & Marques, J. (2011). The role and need of offering workshops and courses on workplace spirituality. Journal of Management Development, 30(9), 816–835. https://doi.org/10.1108/02621711111164312 Gaddis, I., & Klasen, S. (2014, July). Economic development, structural change, and women’s labor force participation. Journal of Population Economics, 27(3), 639–681. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00148-013-0488-2 Garcia-Zamor, J. (2003). Workplace spirituality and organizational performance. Public Administration Review, 63(3), 355–363. https://doi.org/10.1111/ 1540-6210.00295 Gort, G., & Tunehag, M. (2018). BAM global movement: Business as mission: Concepts & stories. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson. Greenleaf, R. K. (1977). Servant leadership: A journey into the nature of legitimate power and greatness. New York, NY: Paulist Press.

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Greenway, K. A. (2006). The role of spirituality in purpose in life and academic engagement. Journal of College and Character, 7(6). https://doi.org/ 10.2202/1940-1639.1212 Griffith, E. (2019, January 26). Why are young people pretending to enjoy work? The New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2019/01/26/ business/against-hustle-culture-rise-and-grind-tgim.html Guinness, O. (2018). The call: Finding and fulfilling God’s purpose for your life. Nashville, TN: W Publishing Group. Hackett, C. (2018, June 13). The age gap in religion around the world. Pew Research Center. Retrieved from http://www.pewforum.org/2018/06/13/ young-adults-around-the-world-are-less-religious-by-several-measures/ Heimlich, R. (2010, June 17). Do you know your neighbors? Pew Research Center. Retrieved from http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2010/06/18/do-youknow-your-neighbors/ Hillman, O. (2011). Change agent: Engaging your passion to be the one who makes a difference. Lake Mary, FL: Charisma House. Hustle Culture Worships Workaholism [Web blog post]. (2019, January 30). Retrieved from https://www.linkedin.com/feed/news/hustle-culture-worships-workaholism-4958186/ Keller, T. J., & Alsdorf, K. L. (2012). Every good endeavor: Connecting your work to God’s work. New York, NY: Dutton. Kent, L. (2015, June 18). The rise in dual income households. Pew Research Center. Retrieved from http://www.pewresearch.org/ft_dual-income-households-1960-2012-2/ Lambert, L. (2009). Spirituality, Inc.: Religion in the American workplace. New York, NY: New York University Press. Lewin, R., & Regine, B. (2000). The soul at work: Listen, respond, let go: Embracing complexity science for business success. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster. López, L. H., Ramos, R. R., & Ramos, S. R. (2009). Spiritual behaviour in the workplace as a topic for research. Journal of Management, Spirituality & Religion, 6(4), 273–285. https://doi.org/10.1080/14766080903290119 Lund Dean, K., Fornaciari, C., & McGee, J. (2003). Research in spirituality, religion, and work: Walking the line between relevance and legitimacy. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 16(4), 378–395. Manz, K. P., Marx, R. D., Neal, J. A., & Manz, C. C. (2006). The language of Virtues: Toward an inclusive approach for integrating spirituality in management education. Journal of Management, Spirituality & Religion, 3(1–2), 104–125. https://doi.org/10.1080/14766080609518613 McNight, R. (2005). Spirituality in the workplace. In J.  D. Adams (Ed.), Transforming work (2nd ed., pp. 160–178). Alexandria, VA: Miles River Press. Miller, D., & Ewest, T. (2011). Rethinking the impact of religion on business values: Understanding its reemergence and measuring its manifestations.

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Princeton University Faith & Work Initiative. Retrieved from https://faithandwork.princeton.edu/research/integration-profile/tip-publications-and-conference-papers Miller, D.  W. (2007). God at work: The history and promise of the faith at work movement. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Miller, D. W., & Ewest, T. (2013). The present state of workplace spirituality: A literature review considering context, theory, and measurement/assessment. Journal of Religious & Theological Information, 12(1–2), 29–54. https://doi. org/10.1080/10477845.2013.800776 Miller, D. W., & Ngunjiri, F. W. (2015). Leadership views on corporate chaplains: Business, sociocultural, and spiritual justifications. Journal of Management, Spirituality & Religion, 12(2), 129–155. Mohamed, A. A., Hassan, A. M., & Wisnieski, J. M. (2001). Spirituality in the workplace: A literature review. Global Competitiveness, 9(1), 644–651. Montgomery-Goodnough, A., & Gallagher, S. J. (2007). Review of research on spiritual and religious formation in higher education. Proceedings of the Sixth Annual College of Education Research Conference: Urban and International Education Section. Moretto, K. N., & Baldwin, R. G. (2011). Spirituality, meaning and work among college students: A multi-case study of collegiate programs for the theological exploration of vocation (Doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, 214. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/889960454?accountid=12084 Nash, L.  L. (2001). How the church has failed business. Across the Board, 38(4), 26–33. Nash, L. L. (2010, July 20). Toward integrating work and faith. Retrieved from https://acton.org/pub/religion-liberty/volume-12-number-6/toward-integrating-work-and-faith Nash, L. L., & McLennan, S. (2001). Church on Sunday, work on Monday: The challenge of fusing Christian values with business life. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Neal, J. (2013). Faith and spirituality in the workplace: Emerging research and practice. In J. Neal (Ed.), Handbook of faith and spirituality in the workplace: Emerging research and practice (pp. 3–18). New York, NY: Springer. Nelson, T. (2011). Work matters: Connecting Sunday worship to Monday work. Wheaton, IL: Crossway. Paddison, D. (2011). Work, love, pray: Practical wisdom for young professional Christian women. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. Palmer, P.  J. (2000). Let your life speak: Listening for the voice of vocation. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Pawar, B. S. (2009). Workplace spirituality facilitation: A comprehensive model. Journal of Business Ethics, 90(3), 375–386. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10551-009-0047-7

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Pink, D. H. (2005). A whole new mind: Moving from the information age to the conceptual age. New York, NY: Riverhead Books. Porter, E. (2016, March 22). Politicians push marriage, but that’s not what would help children. The New  York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes. com/2016/03/23/business/for-the-sake-of-the-children-not-marriagebut-help.html Putnam, R. D. (2007). Bowling alone: The collapse and revival of American community. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster. Ramarajan, L., & Reid, E. (2013). Shattering the myth of separate worlds: Negotiating nonwork identities at work. Academy of Management Review, 38(4), 621–644. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2011.0314 Rossano, M. J. (2008). The moral faculty: Does religion promote “moral expertise”? International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 18(3), 169–194. https://doi.org/10.1080/10508610802115727 Russell, M. L. (2007). The secret of marketplace leadership success: Constructing a comprehensive framework for the effective integration of leadership, faith and work. Journal of Religious Leadership, 6(1), 71–101. Saad, L. (2014, August 29). The “40-hour” workweek Is actually longer  – By seven hours. Gallup. Retrieved from http://www.gallup.com/poll/175286/ hour-workweek-actually-longer-seven-hours.aspx Seales, C. E. (2012). Corporate chaplaincy and the American workplace. Religion Compass, 6(3), 195–203. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-8171.2012.00340.x Sheep, M.  L. (2004). Nailing down gossamer: A valid measure of the person-­ organization fit of workplace spirituality. Academy of Management Proceedings, MSR, B1–B6. Sherman, A. L. (2011). Kingdom calling: Vocational stewardship for the common good. Downers Grove, IL: IVP Books. Stancich, L. (2017, October). Why workplaces are our new communities. Stack. Retrieved May 08, 2019, from http://www.stack.co.nz/news/2017/october/ why-workplaces-are-our-new-communities/ Sullivan, P. M. (2013). EEOC best practices support best practices for spirit and religion at work. In J.  Neal (Ed.), Handbook of faith and spirituality in the workplace: Emerging research and practice (pp. 19–31). New York, NY: Springer Science & Business Media. Tacey, D. J. (2005). The spirituality revolution the emergence of contemporary spirituality. London, UK: Brunner-Routledge. Tracey, P., Phillips, N., & Lounsbury, M. (2014). Introduction. In Religion and organization theory (pp. 3–21). Bingley, UK: Emerald. Vasconcelos, A. F. (2015). The spiritually-based organization: A theoretical review and its potential role in the third millennium. Cadernos Ebape. Br, 13(1), 183–205. Veith, G. E. (2011). God at work: Your Christian vocation in all of life. Wheaton, IL: Crossway Books.

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Walker, M. (2005). A comparison of Protestants in the workplace; What effect does a church workplace ministry program have on Protestant workers’ job satisfaction, organizational citizenship behavior, and organizational commitment within certain faith integration types? (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Regent University, VA.  Retrieved from http://www.princeton.edu/faithandwork/ research/tip/current/ Whelchel, H. (2018, July 9). The top ten books on faith and work: An updated list for 2018. Institute for Faith, Work & Economics. Retrieved from https://tifwe. org/the-top-ten-faith-and-work-books-updated-2018-list/ Zukin, C., & Szeltner, M. (2012). Talent report: What workers want in 2012. Net Impact. Retrieved from https://www.netimpact.org/research-and-publications/ talent-report-what-workers-want-in-2012

CHAPTER 8

The Faith and Work Integration Spheres of Influence Model (FWSI)

Introduction to the FWSI Model As this book has already presented, many authors have discussed various factors impacting faith integration in the workplace. A number have presented frameworks that examine faith integration from a theological perspective (Keller, 2012; Stevens, 2000; Veith Jr, 2011) or provided a theological or doctrinal description of work (Volf, 2001; Whelchel, 2011; Witherington III, 2011), while others have categorized specific ways the individual Christian can integrate their faith in the workplace (Beckett, 2009; Day, 2008; Kinjerski, 2013; Lynn, Naughton, & Vanderveen, 2012; Miller, 2007; Miller & Ewest, 2015). Some authors have included organizational influences (Miller & Ewest, 2013), while others have considered demographic variables such as age and gender, as well as other variables such as professional status, organizational size, and denominational strictness (Lynn, Naughton, & Vanderveen, 2010). Such approaches are helpful, but do not easily depict the comprehensive and overlapping set of factors that contribute to whether or the extent to which people actually integrate faith in the workplace. As mentioned in Chap. 3, research considering how people make meaning of work has focused primarily on individual influences, with less consideration of the context in which that person lives and works. Likewise, we believe it is important to demonstrate the interactive effects of context on individual faith and work integration (FWI), and it was for © The Author(s) 2020 S. G. Buszka, T. Ewest, Integrating Christian Faith and Work, Palgrave Studies in Workplace Spirituality and Fulfillment, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-22914-6_8

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Sphere B: Occupational Influences Sphere A: Individual Influences

12

14

10

4

8

Sphere C: Work Organization Influences Sphere D: Faith Organization Influences

13

2

15

9 1

6

Sweet Spot

5

3 7

11 16

Neither desire nor opportunity to integrate faith and work

Fig. 8.1  Faith and work integration spheres of influence model (FWSI)

this purpose that Buszka (2015) developed the Faith and Work Integration Spheres of Influence model (FWSI). As Fig. 8.1 displays, this contingency model comprises four overlapping spheres: individual influences; occupational influences; work organization influences; and faith organization influences. Much like organization and leadership theories that consider how situational variables can create conditions more or less favorable for effective outcomes (Fiedler, 1964; Luthans & Stewart, 1977; Thompson & Vecchio, 2009), these spheres represent four categories of situational variables that have the potential to create conditions more or less favorable for faith and work integration (FWI). A Venn diagram format (Venn, 1881) conveniently displays these four variables in an overlapping format to visually represent the various ways these variables can be combined. The most favorable conditions exist when all four of the variables overlap and this is reflected by the center “sweet spot” as depicted in Fig. 8.1. Individual faith influences (Sphere A) incorporate issues related to ­religiosity and include such things as how central faith is within a p ­ erson’s

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life, faith maturity, level of vocational calling, and the degree of knowledge and understanding a person has about the role of work in the life of a Christian. Occupational influences (Sphere B) include the profession or job a person holds or work-related professional groups to which they belong. Some types of work more naturally lend themselves to faith integration such as those within the helping occupations of counseling, social work,  teaching and nursing. The specific role of leadership falls within a wide variety of occupations and there has been significant research on the topic of leadership, faith, and spirituality (Ewest, 2017a, 2017b; Fry, 2003; Fry & Matherly, 2006). Such research includes considering how professional or leadership roles impact FWI. Membership in professional occupational groups such as the Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM), American Occupational Therapy Association (AOTA), and American Dental Association, which help maintain standards of practice in their respective fields, would also fall into Sphere B.  Work organization influences (Sphere C) include such things as whether a company is faith based, “faith-friendly,” non-profit, or government run. In addition, the type of company mission and corporate culture, which may or may not encourage workplace spirituality, could also be categorized in this sphere. Faith organization influences (Sphere D) would include church or denominational doctrine about the role of work in God’s kingdom, as well as how often this is presented within church-sponsored preaching and teaching. Also included in this sphere would be the previously mentioned (in Chap. 7) church and university affiliated faith and work groups or organizations such as Redeemer Presbyterian Center for Faith and Work (https://faithandwork.com) or Gordon Conwell’s Mockler Center for Faith and Ethics in the Workplace (www.gordonconwell.edu/mockler). Independent, but faith-based, faith and work organizations such as Theology of Work Project (www. theologyofwork.org), and Work Matters (www.workmatters.org) also fall into this category. The amount of potential for FWI could range from high to low based on the favorability of all four of these factors in a worker’s unique and particular set of circumstances. The stronger the favorability in each of these spheres and the more overlap in the spheres, the more favorable the conditions for FWI, and the more likely a person will be to integrate faith in the workplace. Following Venn diagram logic (Venn, 1881, p. 106) there are 16 different combinations of these four factors that can exist. In Fig. 8.1, these

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16 spheres are labeled with a corresponding number for placeholder reference (these do not perform a numerical function). For example, consider area labeled “1” in Fig. 8.1. A faith and work integration (FWI) example that could fall in this area could be a Christian youth pastor, employed full-time at a large Presbyterian Church, who just completed a six-month Bible study on the topic of vocation sponsored by the Center for Faith and Work of the church they attend (which is the same church in which they are employed). We could assume this individual would have a strong individual faith orientation (Sphere A) in order to be called into youth ministry. The occupation (Sphere B) of the youth pastor would include faith-work integration within its job description. This church, as a faith-­ related work organization and employer (Sphere C) would certainly encourage FWI.  Completing a study on the topic of vocation through their church’s (faith organization) Center for Faith and Work (Sphere D) would have stimulated thought and attention to the topics of calling and work. The person in this situation would have almost ideal conditions for consistent FWI because all four spheres overlap. In fact, this case would fall in the center “sweet spot” of this model. This would be in contrast to an atheist, computer programmer in a public school system that has been categorized as faith “unfriendly” by taking a strict stance on only teaching evolution in the classroom and not allowing sports teams to pray collectively (labeled 16 in this model). Because we are discussing concepts that can exist in a greater to lesser degree, this model is not intended to represent each of the 16 sub-sets proportionately. This would be in contrast to Venn diagrams of elements with fixed properties that can be tallied such as the demographic variables of age, political affiliation, birthplace, and education level. Hence, the provided model is not scaled or area-proportional relative to the favorability of each factor. To accurately reflect a person’s level of FWI favorability, we would have to imagine the existence of valid assessments measuring the favorability of each of the spheres, and then enlarge each sphere in proportion to its level of favorability. This added feature would be able to demonstrate how very favorable levels in one or more spheres could compensate for unfavorable levels in other spheres. However, even without measuring the level of favorability, and simply categorizing each sphere as “favorable” or “unfavorable,” the existing model can help a reader visualize the various combinations that can exist to create conditions more or less favorable for FWI.  As the previous

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example for area 1 of Fig. 8.1 described, a church youth pastor would likely have high levels of religiosity, faith maturity, and vocational calling which would all make for high levels of favorability in the individual level sphere. The job description and relational nature of a youth pastor’s position would include many faith-related responsibilities; therefore, occupational influences would also be favorable. The youth pastor is employed by a religious work organization which would presumably  actively encourage faith-work integration, so favorability in this sphere would also be high. Because this person was said to have completed an intensive church-­sponsored study on vocation, this suggests their church has a commitment to promoting FWI; therefore, this creates favorability in the faith organization sphere. Though we are not currently able to display the level of favorability within each sphere, in later chapters we will be providing information to guide individuals in assessing their perception of favorability for each of these spheres based on their own circumstances. Individual chapters exploring factors that influence favorability in each of the four spheres will be provided as well as related strategies for improving favorability in each area to increase the likelihood of FWI occurring. Table 8.1 demonstrates these various combinations in table format and can be used in conjunction with the FWSI model when providing personal guidance or training on FWI. For further clarification, hypothetical examples of the 16 possible areas within this model have been provided in Table 8.2.

Using the FWSI Model Conceptual and Practical Tool The FWSI can be used both as a conceptual and practical tool for FWI.  Conceptually, the multi-dimensional nature of faith-work integration is visually represented through four broad categories of factors that may impact the degree to which (or whether or not) faith is integrated in the workplace. The Venn diagram format exhibits the interactive effects of situational variables on the individual and displays how the existence of favorable conditions in one or more spheres can overlap to create conditions that are even more favorable for FWI. The greater the overlap, the greater the FWI favorability and likelihood of a person integrating their faith at work.

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Table 8.1  Various combinations of faith and work integration (FWI) favorability Faith and Overlapping work spheres integration favorability (FWI) region  1a  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16b

{A, B, C, D} {A, B, C} {A, B, D} {A, B} {A, C, D} {A, C} {A, D} {A} {B, C, D} {B, C} {B, D} {B} {C, D} {C} {D} {}

Sphere A

Sphere B

Sphere C

Sphere D

Nature of individual faith influences

Nature of occupational influences

Nature of work organization influences

Nature of faith organization influences

Favorable Favorable Favorable Favorable Favorable Favorable Favorable Favorable Unfavorable Unfavorable Unfavorable Unfavorable Unfavorable Unfavorable Unfavorable Unfavorable

Favorable Favorable Favorable Favorable Unfavorable Unfavorable Unfavorable Unfavorable Favorable Favorable Favorable Favorable Unfavorable Unfavorable Unfavorable Unfavorable

Favorable Favorable Unfavorable Unfavorable Favorable Favorable Unfavorable Unfavorable Favorable Favorable Unfavorable Unfavorable Favorable Favorable Unfavorable Unfavorable

Favorable Unfavorable Favorable Unfavorable Favorable Unfavorable Favorable Unfavorable Favorable Unfavorable Favorable Unfavorable Favorable Unfavorable Favorable Unfavorable

Center “Sweet Spot” No favorability

a

b

Practically, the FWSI provides a relatively easy reference for determining how situation favorability may be improved by creating change in the unfavorable regions. This change could occur within the individual worker, within the occupational category, by the work organization, or by the faith organization. For example, an individual may need to be exposed to appropriate faith and work theology through a Bible study or book on FWI. The nurse in area 9 of Table 8.2, who believes that FWI is for professional clergy only, may benefit from one or more of these options. Changes in the occupational category could range from switching jobs, to performing work differently, or even deciding that volunteer work might fulfill the desire for FWI. Consider the security guard described in area 5 of Table 8.2 who does not see this work as serving God because of little human contact in a low crime area. This person could be led to use

3

2

1

Christian Youth Pastor, employed full-time at a large Presbyterian Church, who just completed a six-month Bible study on the topic of vocation that was sponsored by this church’s Center for Faith and Work. A mature and motivated Christian, who works as a social worker arranging adoptions for a religiously affiliated orphanage. This person’s church has never discussed how to integrate faith and work. A mature and motivated Christian HR vocational counselor for a private employment agency who enjoys helping their refugee clients. Their church just ran a faith and work sermon series. However, their employer puts pressure on counselors to place refugees in jobs in which they will be overworked and underpaid in violation of the Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA).

Area Hypothetical examples to assess for number FWI favorability

Sphere B Occupational influences Favorable Position of youth pastor inherently integrates faith into the nature of its work

Favorable This type of social work helps both parents and children

Favorable Vocational counseling helps others find suitable and/or meaningful work

Sphere A Individual faith influences Favorable Individual has a high level of vocational calling to seek employment as a youth pastor Favorable Person has a strong faith and high level of vocational calling to help orphans Favorable Individual is mature in personal faith is strongly motivated to use faith at work

Table 8.2  Examples of combinations of FWI favorability

Unfavorable Employer is engaging in practices that violate the FLSA

Favorable Religiously affiliated employer (orphanage) encourages FWI

Favorable Employer is a faith-based organization and encourages FWI by its nature and practice

Work org. influences

Sphere C

(continued)

Favorable Person’s church ran a faith and work sermon series

Favorable This person completed a six-month study on the topic of vocation at center for faith and work Unfavorable Church has not preached or taught about FWI integration

Faith org. influences

Sphere D

6

5

4

A motivated Christian massage therapist who wishes to integrate faith at work. This person works for an upscale day spa whose owner is not open to accommodating religious beliefs or practices related to spiritual wellness. The church this person attends has not promoted faith and work integration other than through volunteering within the church. A night security officer employed by a suburban church in a safe community who is motivated to integrate faith after hearing a sermon series on the topic. However, this person struggles to see how what they do as a security officer in a low crime area can be serving God. A person who has high levels of faith maturity and works as a purchasing manager for a non-profit organization that provides wells to Africa to provide clean water. This person has not been exposed to FWI theology at their church.

Area Hypothetical examples to assess for number FWI favorability

Table 8.2  (continued) Sphere B Occupational influences Favorable Employed in wellness-­ related, helping occupation

Unfavorable The nature and setting of job (night shift with, little human contact) makes it difficult for person to see how their work serves God Unfavorable Difficult to see how the role of purchasing manager is related to serving God

Sphere A Individual faith influences Favorable Individual is mature in personal faith and motivated to use faith at work, but fears being fired for doing so

Favorable Person is highly motivated to integrate faith at work after being moved by sermon series at church

Favorable Person has high level of faith maturity with a desire to serve God through professional work

Favorable Non-profit employer with a mission to help third world countries by providing clean water

Favorable Employer is a church that encourages FWI

Unfavorable Spa owner employer is not open to faith being integrated into wellness practices

Work org. influences

Sphere C

Unfavorable Church has not presented FWI theology

Favorable Motivational sermon series provided by church

Unfavorable Church leadership believes that God is best served through church-related work

Faith org. influences

Sphere D

9

8

7

A person who feels called to be a substance abuse counselor as a result of an intensive calling and vocation series at a local FWI organization. This person is currently employed as a shipping coordinator for a local delivery company that is on record as having multiple religious discrimination complaints filed against them. A person who feels called into mission work, but is working as a warehouse manager for a large retail chain. Employees at this company frequently complain about the poor company culture and sweatshop-like working conditions. This person attends a small church that has no resources to support or encourage member faith-work development. A nurse working at a Catholic hospital who believes that “God’s work” is performed by professional clergy. This person attends church but has not participated in the FWI Bible study this church sponsors.

Unfavorable Person not employed in the position to which they are called

Unfavorable Currently not in occupation related to vocational call

Favorable Nursing is in a helping occupation and caring for the sick is specifically encouraged in the Bible

Favorable High level of vocational calling to be a substance abuse counselor

Favorable Strong vocational call into mission work

Unfavorable Person believes that FWI is for professional clergy

Favorable Faith-based hospital is open to FWI by employees

Unfavorable Poor workplace culture with sweatshop-­like working conditions

Unfavorable Employer appears to be hostile to employees who are religious

(continued)

Favorable Person has not participated in church-­sponsored FWI Bible study (condition favorable even though person does not participate)

Unfavorable Church has insufficient resources and does not wish to spend money on FWI training

Favorable Participated in a vocation and calling series at local church

11

10

An employee who works in Human Resources at retail store that promotes Christian values and has “faith-­friendly” practices. Though this person is not personally motivated to integrate faith and work, they do try to follow the SHRM code of ethics and think servant leadership is valuable. Church attendance is sporadic and the church does not promote FWI. A person who is employed as a social worker at a government agency. They recently attended a church sermon series on FWI with a friend from work and plan to attend a follow up session because the people were so nice. However, this person does not have a personal faith and their employer promotes that separation of church and state applies to government jobs. The employee is an active member of the National Association for Social Workers (NASW)

Area Hypothetical examples to assess for number FWI favorability

Table 8.2  (continued) Sphere B Occupational influences Favorable Works in a “people” management field and tries to follow SHRM code of ethics. Also believes the best HR managers are servant leaders

Favorable Social work is a helping occupation and this person takes seriously the NASW charge to provide ethical care

Sphere A Individual faith influences Unfavorable No personal interest or motivation to integrate faith at work

Unfavorable No personal faith commitment

Unfavorable Government agency promotes separation of church and state

Favorable Work organization promotes Christian values and is considered “faith-­friendly”

Work org. influences

Sphere C

Favorable Person enjoyed church sermon series on FWI, but primarily viewed it as a nice way to connect with others outside of work

Unfavorable Church does not promote FWI

Faith org. influences

Sphere D

14

13

12

A person who works part-time as an aide in a nursing home that has been sited multiple times for violation of health standards. This person views their work as temporary until something better comes along and does not see their work in line with serving God. Also, this person does not regularly attend church because they found preaching and teaching too theological and not relevant to their life issues. A computer programmer who works for a faith-related children’s relief organization. This person thinks it is necessary to serve God by helping at church. Their church has promoted FWI in sermons and has a FWI mentoring program. But this person teaches children’s church during these sermons and doesn’t have time for a church mentoring program An atheist who believes spirituality is for those who are emotionally weak. They work as long-haul truck driver for a well-known “faith-friendly” organization.

Favorable Nurse’s aide occupation helps care for those unable to care for themselves

Unfavorable It is not easily apparent to this person how the job of computer programmer can be used to serve or glorify God

Unfavorable Long-haul truck drivers spend most of their work hours alone

Unfavorable Person does not see the need to serve God through work, especially in a temporary, part-time position

Unfavorable Person believes FWI occurs primarily at church

Unfavorable No faith in God

Favorable Church is promoting FWI during sermons and a mentoring program but this person chooses not be exposed to FWI ideas

Unfavorable Person does not attend church regularly because they feel it does not relate to their life

(continued)

Favorable Unfavorable Faith-friendly organization Atheist does not seek out exposure to spiritual or faithrelated ideas

Favorable Employer is a faith-based relief organization

Unfavorable Person does not see the need to serve God through work, especially in a temporary, part-time position

16

15

A person sporadically attended an eight-week study on FWI at their local church, but did this to appease their spouse. Therefore, outside readings and personal reflections were not completed. This person is currently employed as a bookkeeper for a construction company that uses undocumented laborers and pays them below the legal minimum wage. An atheist, computer programmer in a public school system that has been categorized as faith “unfriendly” by taking a strict stance on teaching evolution only in the classroom and not allowing sports teams to pray collectively.

Area Hypothetical examples to assess for number FWI favorability

Table 8.2  (continued) Sphere B Occupational influences Unfavorable Bookkeeper who regularly turns their head to unethical practices at work

Unfavorable No desire to see how job of computer programmer enhances the quality of others’ lives

Sphere A Individual faith influences Unfavorable Person not personally invested in their faith

Unfavorable No faith in God

Unfavorable Work organization is faith “unfriendly”

Unfavorable Work organization engages in unethical labor practices

Work org. influences

Sphere C

Unfavorable Atheist does not attend church

Favorable Person completed church-­sponsored faith-work study to please spouse but did not apply it to personal work situation

Faith org. influences

Sphere D

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their security guard CPR training to become qualified to run CPR classes for the community and offer these at their church. Also, those whose work includes leadership may read books about spiritual, pro-social or servant types of leadership to discover ways to become more effective in these roles. Work organization changes could occur by organization leaders becoming aware of the benefits of workplace spirituality and developing a culture and policies that are more “faith-friendly.” This would likely be the most difficult area for change to occur as it might also require a significant change in company mission or new top leadership. However, key leaders or founders of small businesses may be motivated to make changes to create more spiritual or faith-friendly companies when presented with the organizational benefits they may accrue as described in Chap. 6. For organizations that violate labor laws such as those described in areas 3, 8, and 15 of Table  8.2, it might take a high-publicity lawsuit to get them to change their company policies or culture. Changes in the faith organization category could occur by churches taking the Sunday-Monday gap seriously and by those in church leadership developing a strategy for equipping their members to carry out God’s command’s in the workplace. The churches described in areas 2, 6, and 10 of Table  8.2 could begin offering a small-group study on FWI which includes developing FWI mentoring relationships. The church in area 8 of Table  8.2 with insufficient resources could partner with a neighboring mega-church faith and work institute to provide their members FWI training. On the other hand, in some of these regions, change will be highly unlikely. For example, it is doubtful (unless God intervenes) that the atheist, computer programmer in area 16 of Table 8.2 will be putting themselves in a situation to be influenced to change their thoughts or beliefs about FWI. Also, a Christian employer such as that described in area 15 of Table  8.2 might only realistically expect to influence this atheist truck driver to act in accordance with Christian ethical values by creating a strong corporate culture and enforcing a well communicated code of ethics. However, this is not to suggest that those who are not open to faith or spirituality are without hope or redemption. In fact, one of the major purposes of promoting FWI is so that those who do not attend church or are not exposed to faith-related ideas have the opportunity to learn of these things from other Christian or spiritual workers or within faith-based or faith-friendly organizations.

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In other cases, it may not be possible to greatly improve a deficient region, but there may be creative ways to focus on the other areas to improve overall situation favorability. For example, someone who is not in an occupation that readily lends itself to the service of others (Sphere B), may participate in a Bible study about “all work is God’s work” that describes how working ethically in all occupations (Sphere B) is service to God. This person would not have to change occupations, but would become more motivated on an individual level (Sphere A) to perform their current work in a high quality and ethical way to honor God. In contrast, there may be cases in which conditions in one sphere present such a barrier that only a major adjustment would allow the desired FWI. Such an example might include working for an organization (Sphere C) with practices that are in violation of strongly held Christian values and precepts. The Christian vocational counselor described in Region 3 whose company is violating federal labor laws in their employment of refugees might feel they have no option but to “blow the whistle” on their employer and leave this organization. FWI Equipping and Training As presented in Chap. 7, there is a need for FWI equipping and training. This is based both on the interest in this topic, desire for knowledge about ways one’s faith may be integrated at work, as well as the general conclusion that the current church (as a whole) is not equipping its members effectively. The FWSI was developed to serve as a practical tool to facilitate this equipping and training. Training would include an assessment of these four spheres to determine how best a person can be equipped to integrate faith in the workplace. The focus could be on either improving or changing unfavorable spheres, or building favorability into the spheres over which a person has the most control. As mentioned previously, the remaining chapters of this book will provide background information for the equipping and training process by providing research information suggesting the variety of factors that impact FWI in each of the four sphere areas and then providing related recommendations for how FWI favorability can be improved. Ideas for Future Use While not specifically the focus of this book, the FWSI could also serve as a way of categorizing existing faith and work research to identify sources of information and identify gaps in which more research  is needed. As

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­ entioned in our earlier discussion, this model reflects only a binary dispom sition within the individual (whether there is favorability or no favorability in a given sphere), but not levels of adherence favorability (e.g., religiosity scales measure levels of adherence). Motivated researchers might wish to attempt the development of a valid instrument to measure the level of perceived favorability in one or more of the four spheres. Also, since the present FWSI is based on Christian faith and work integration, it could be modified for other faith traditions such as Jewish, Muslim, or Hindu. It could also be generalized to include spirituality not specifically related to a faith tradition, or spirituality as a broad umbrella for all faiths. However, these are ideas for further exploration and beyond the scope of this project.

Conclusion The intention of the FWSI is to provide a logical, visual representation of how an individual’s propensity for FWI can be varied and unique based on four distinct factors that influence faith and work integration: individual influences, occupational influences, work organization influences, and faith organization influences. The four overlapping spheres result in 16 possible combinations of FWI favorability. These areas can be reviewed to help workers determine which of these best reflects their personal faith and work situation. This model, when used with the specific information provided about each respective sphere in the following four chapters, can be used to develop a plan to enhance a worker’s ability or capability to integrate faith at work.

References Beckett, J. D. (2009). Mastering Monday: A guide to integrating faith and work. Downers Grove, IL: Intervarsity Press. Buszka, S. G. (2015). Factors affecting the integration of faith and spirituality in the college workplace (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Oxford Graduate School, Dayton, TN. Day, A. (2008). Religion and the individual: Belief, practice, identity. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate Pub. Ewest, T. (2017a). Leadership and moral behavior. In J. Marques & S. Dhiman (Eds.), Leadership today (pp. 43–57). Cham, Switzerland: Springer International Publishing. Ewest, T. (2017b). Prosocial leadership: Understanding the development of prosocial behavior within leaders and their organizational settings. New  York, NY: Springer Nature.

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Fiedler, F. (1964). A contingency model of leadership effectiveness. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 1, 149–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/ s0065-2601(08)60051-9 Fry, L.  W. (2003). Toward a theory of spiritual leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 14(6), 693–727. Fry, L. W., & Matherly, L. L. (2006, August). Spiritual leadership and organizational performance: An exploratory study. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Academy of Management, Atlanta-Georgia. Keller, T. (2012). Center Church: Doing balanced, gospel-centered ministry in your city. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. Kinjerski, V. (2013). The spirit at work scale: Developing and validating a measure of individual spirituality at work. In J. Neal (Ed.), Handbook of faith and spirituality in the workplace: Emerging research and practice (pp.  383–402). New York, NY: Springer. Luthans, F., & Stewart, T. I. (1977). A general contingency theory of management. The Academy of Management Review, 2(2), 181. https://doi. org/10.2307/257902 Lynn, M. L., Naughton, M. J., & Vanderveen, S. (2010). Connecting religion and work: Patterns and influences of work-faith integration. Human Relations, 64(5), 675–701. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726710386396 Lynn, M. L., Naughton, M. J., & Vanderveen, S. (2012). Faith at work scale. In J. Neal (Ed.), Handbook of faith and spirituality in the workplace (pp. 419–427). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-5233-1_25 Miller, D. W. (2007). God at work: The history and promise of the Faith at Work movement. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Miller, D. W., & Ewest, T. (2013). The present state of workplace spirituality: A literature review considering context, theory, and measurement/assessment. Journal of Religious & Theological Information, 12(1–2), 29–54. Miller, D.  W., & Ewest, T. (2015). A new framework for analyzing organizational workplace religion and spirituality. Journal of Management, Spirituality & Religion, 12(4), 305–328. https://doi.org/10.1080/14766086.2015. 1054864 Stevens, R. P. (2000). The other six days: Vocation, work, and ministry in biblical perspective. Grand Rapids, MI: W.B. Eerdmans Pub. Thompson, G., & Vecchio, R. P. (2009). Situational leadership theory: A test of three versions. The Leadership Quarterly, 20(5), 837–848. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2009.06.014 Veith Jr., G. E. (2011). God at work: Your Christian vocation in all of life. Wheaton, IL: Crossway. Venn, J. (1881). Symbolic logic. London, UK: Macmillan. Retrieved from https:// books.google.com/books?id=nisCAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA108#v=onepa ge&q&f=false

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Volf, M. (2001). Work in the spirit: Toward a theology of work. Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock Publishers. Whelchel, H. (2011). How then should we work? Rediscovering the biblical doctrine of work. McLean, VA: Institute for Faith, Work & Economics. Witherington III, B. (2011). Work: A kingdom perspective on labor. Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing.

CHAPTER 9

Individual Influences and Strategies

Introduction It is this book’s position that individual faith influences have the most significant impact on faith and work integration (FWI). Other researchers have provided research to support this (Davidson & Caddell, 1994; Lynn, Naughton, & Vanderveen, 2010), particularly in the areas of faith maturity and religious commitment. In Chap. 3 it was also noted that most research attention has been paid to self or individual level elements with respect to research on the meaning of work (Rosso, Dekas, & Wrzesniewski, 2010). And, it makes sense that this would be the focus of researchers because it is at the individual level that the numerous contextual influences are integrated to create personal meaning. Similarly, it is ultimately the individual who makes the decision whether or not or how to integrate faith in the workplace, with the other three spheres of influence acting on the individual to encourage or deter FWI. The Faith and Work Integration Spheres of Influence Model (FWSI) presented in Chap. 8 was described as theoretical and not area proportional; therefore, the relative influence of the individual sphere is not reflected in Fig. 9.1. Just as Bell (2008, p. 129) noted about the psychological study of identity, we acknowledge the essential nature of people as biological beings for whom individual aspects of self are developed in a historical and relative cultural context. For example, it has been demonstrated that individuals with higher levels of faith maturity are more likely to seek ways to integrate © The Author(s) 2020 S. G. Buszka, T. Ewest, Integrating Christian Faith and Work, Palgrave Studies in Workplace Spirituality and Fulfillment, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-22914-6_9

151

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Sphere B: Occupational Influences Sphere A: Individual Influences

12

14

10

4

Sphere D: Faith Organization Influences

13

2

8

Sphere C Work Organization Influences

15

9 1

6

Sweet Spot

5

3 7

11 16

Neither desire nor opportunity to integrate faith and work

Fig. 9.1  Faith and work integration spheres of influence model  (FWSI): individual influences

their faith in the workplace (Lynn et al., 2010). Though faith maturity will be categorized as an individual factor, we acknowledge that culture, family, or other early faith mentors could help a person develop the maturity to seek FWI. Just as we cannot say a person’s personality is all a function of the genetics, we cannot say that a person’s faith maturity is developed in isolation from other factors. A myriad of factors may fall within this category, many more than there is time or and space to include. However, this chapter will discuss several key areas of research that most strongly relate to the individual FWI. As organization theorists categorize personality and other attributes such as attitudes, values, and motivation as individual factors, we do the same for factors such as religious identity, religiosity, faith maturity, and calling. Based on research related to FWI and these factors, we will recommend strategies for individual FWI using Miller and Ewest’s (2015) the Integration Profile (TIP) model of faith integration.

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Individual Factors Influencing FWI Religious Identity At the most basic level of the individual is that of identity and includes self-definition which is derived from asking questions as “who am I?” and “who are you?” (Tracey, Phillips, & Lounsbury, 2014, p. 9). Part of the answer to such questions comes from identifying and describing various role categories or identity domains (Bell, 2008) to which a person belongs such as vocation, ethnicity, and gender, spouse, and parent. As Tracey et al. (2014) explain: “Within the fields of psychology and sociology, religion is understood to be one of the key defining categories through which people understand each other and themselves, … Religion is universal (even agnostics and atheists are identifiable groups due to their beliefs about religion) and knowing what faith someone belongs to is intrinsic to knowing who they are in much of the world.” (p. 9). Yet, it was not until 2006 that religious identity was presented as a “separate and measureable cognitive domain” (Bell, 2008, p. 128). Bell (2008) noted that “individuals consistently rank religiosity high in regard to their own sense of purpose and subjective well-being” (p. 128). Since faith is a key component of religion, it follows that the degree to which a person defines their identity by a religious category could potentially impact faith and work integration. However, merely because a person identifies with a religion, even a religion that highly promotes faith and work integration, it does not follow that they will necessarily act consistently with this identity. It has been explained that role performance is probabilistic and does not automatically flow from role identity (Brenner, 2016; Stryker, 1968, 1980). Identity Prominence and Identity Salience Two key concepts within identity theory help explain the propensity for role performance; identity prominence and  identity salience. Identity prominence is described as the hierarchical importance a person places on various aspects of their identity. Those identities rated high in prominence would be considered central to an individual’s conceptions of themselves. Identity salience relates to performance propensity (Stryker, 1980) and also exists in a hierarchy relative to other aspects of a person’s identity. There are two types of behavioral outcomes that have been associated with identity salience. The first is that the greater the salience of a particular

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identity, the more likely a person will engage in actions related to this identity. The second includes what types of situations are viewed as congruent for this role’s related behaviors, with higher or more prominent identity salience resulting in this identity being expressed in a wider variety of settings. A person with high identity salience in one role (tax accountant) would be more apt to use role behaviors (giving tax advice) in other roles (giving tax advice to friends and family members). Identity prominence can be described as an internal aspect of identity when it becomes viewed as an internalized part of self, while identity salience can be viewed as the external aspect of identity in that it manifests in external behaviors (Weaver & Stansbury, 2014). Research supports a causal connection between identity prominence and identity salience, with those identities central to a person’s perceived self-definition more likely to be expressed (Brenner, 2016). For example, those who categorize their religious identity prominence as high would be more likely to say that their faith is central to who they are as a person. This high religious identity prominence would likely result in high religious identity salience, hence, the person would be more apt to engage in religious types of behaviors such as praying, worshipping, and serving others. In addition, with high levels of religious identity salience, it is more probable that religious role behaviors will occur in a variety of settings outside of the church, such as work, home, and leisure. To illustrate, one study showed that faith maturity was stronger among conservative Protestants than liberal Protestants (Benson, Donahue, & Erickson, 1993). Also, as mentioned earlier, those with higher levels of faith maturity were more likely to engage in FWI (Lynn et al., 2010). Therefore, based on both of these findings, we could expect that a person who is a conservative Protestant has a higher degree of identity salience and would be more likely to integrate faith at work than a liberal Protestant. However, the internal and external aspects of identity do not always cohere. It has been discussed that there are those who internalize (identify) but do not externalize (behave), and even those who externalize (behave) without internalizing (identifying) (Weaver & Stansbury, 2014). To merely identify as a member of a particular religious group (or, any group) does not necessarily mean a person will behave consistently with this role. This disconnect between identity prominence and identity salience can be the result of role conflict, multiple role identities competing for limited time, and other resources. Chaves (2010) also discussed a similar disconnect as a religious congruence fallacy (p. 1) in which there is a common, but incorrect, assumption that behaviors of religious people

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will be consistent with their behavior, in general. Other research explained that situational factors can make identity salience in one or more roles increase or decrease (Weaver & Stansbury, 2014). The organizational context of work provides the interface for possible tension between multiple identities that could result in an “outside work” identity becoming less salient than a work identity. Brenner’s (2016) study of time as a constraint to religious role identity behaviors, found that other roles such as work and parenting often competed for time and prevented regular church attendance. This supports other research (Roxburgh, 2002) suggesting that our increasingly harried and time-deprived culture restricts individuals from performing in areas important to their personal identities. A recent study on faith and work undertaken by the Barna Group (Denzel & Kinnaman, 2018) reported that more Christian women than men indicated they were too tired to be involved in church activities and reported making more compromises than men in terms of family and career roles. These results support the common debate about whether women can “have it all” (Slaughter, 2012). With multiple roles competing for finite resources, people (and possibly more often women) are frequently faced with making trade-offs with respect to multiple role identity demands, even when they hold these identities central and important to their self-definition. The other group for which there could be an identity prominence and salience disconnect includes those who behave consistently with identity group norms, even without a cognitive commitment to the identity (Weaver & Stansbury, 2014). These could be individuals who believe the role identity behaviors are good or important, even if they do not personally identify with the group. For example, in the case of religious identity, many of the expected role behaviors relate to ethics that have also been incorporated into occupational or organizational behavior guidelines. This will be discussed further in Chaps. 10 and 11. We suggest that a person who does not internalize religion may externally demonstrate the conscientious, honest, and servant types of work expected of those with strong religious identity because these behaviors are also considered to be appropriate occupational or organizational norms. Therefore, four possibilities can exist between religious identity prominence and religious identity salience: high internal prominence and high external salience; low internal prominence and low external salience; high internal prominence and low external salience; and low internal ­prominence and high external salience. Table 9.1 illustrates these four combinations.

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Table 9.1  Possible relationships between religious identity prominence and salience High prominence

Low prominence

High salience

1. Consistency: high internal self-­ identity and congruent externally demonstrated behaviors

Low salience

3. Inconsistency: little to no internal self-identity, but external behaviors are congruent with identity group norms

2. Inconsistency: high internal self-identity, but incongruent (little to no) external demonstration of role behaviors 4. Consistency: low internal self-identity and congruent (little to no) external demonstration of role behaviors

From an FWI perspective, three of the four of these quadrants represent different kinds of opportunities for FWI equipping and training. Quadrant one represents the best individual faith conditions for FWI, and includes those with both high religious self-identity as well as the commitment, ability, and desire to express religion-related role behaviors in the work setting. These are the people who likely sign up for faith and work Bible studies, participate in faith-related occupational groups, seek to work in faith-based or faith-friendly organizations, or choose to change to careers more conducive to their “calling.” FWI can still be enhanced for this group by encouraging personal religious self-development with a focus on various ways and settings their religious identity can be expressed. Those in quadrant two might fail to act out their high religious self-­ identity because of the role conflicts that can occur between religious identity, work identity, and other competing identities. In fact, within the context of this book’s discussion, we maintain that our FWSI model can also be perceived as a “spheres of identity” that can compete or cohere for a worker’s time and energy. For this reason, FWI could be improved by providing training and mentoring on how faith and work identities do not have to be mutually exclusive. For example, a person might be guided to see that the same work, when performed with a spirit of kindness, would also be fulfilling their religious role identity. Other researchers have discussed job crafting as an effective way to subjectively transform a person’s work through such techniques as reframing, refocusing, or recalibrating (Ashforth & Kreiner, 1999; Hill & Dik, 2012; Wrzesniewski, Mccauley, Rozin, & Schwartz, 1997). Such techniques would be helpful to those feeling unable to fulfill their religious and work role demands. Guidance

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in this area would focus on the idea that “all work” can be performed to the glory of God (1 Corinthians 10:31 NIV). It is our position that this quadrant represents the most potential for FWI growth and we will present more strategies to facilitate this at the end of this chapter. Within quadrant three, behaviors consistent with religious role behavior could be increased within a strong organizational culture or professional code-of ethics because these are often consistent with religious norms. Though people within this category would not refer to their behavior as FWI, organizations, and occupational groups who wish to realize the benefits of FWI discussed in Chap. 6, may wish to align expected role behaviors to be consistent with religious role behaviors. Those in quadrant four will likely only change as a result of a major life identity change, but that is beyond the scope of this present work. This group would be similar to those in area 16 of our Spheres of Influence model, with neither desire nor opportunity to integrate faith at work. Several lessons related to identity theory can apply to FWI.  The first is that those who define their religious beliefs as central to their identity will be more likely to act in ways consistent with this identity. Second, those with high identity salience will also be more apt to engage in these behaviors in multiple settings, including work. Also, some with a high level of religious identity prominence may find it difficult to express rolerelated behaviors because of conflict or competition with competing roles. The four spheres of influence in our FWI model can also be perceived as separate identity spheres that can compete or cohere to impact the amount of FWI that occurs. Finally, there will be some who engage in behaviors related to religious role salience, even without personally identifying as religious. All three of these situations present an opportunity for creative FWI equipping and training and will be discussed at the end of this ­chapter. The key points about identity theory and FWI are summarized in Table 9.2.

Religiosity Religious Development Closely related to religious identity is the term religiosity. Religiosity has been described as a part of the personality that is capable of providing the individual “meaning and peace in the tragedy and confusion of life” (Allport, 1950, p.  159). Religiosity has been used to consider overall

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Table 9.2  Key points about identity theory and FWI • Those who define their religious beliefs as central to their identity will be more likely to act in ways consistent with this identity • Those with high identity salience will also be more apt to engage in these behaviors in multiple settings, including work • Some with high levels of religious identity prominence may find it difficult to express role-related behaviors because of time limitations or other conflicts presented by competing roles • The four spheres in the FWSI model can also be perceived as different sources of identity that can compete or cohere to impact FWI • Appropriate guidance in FWI can guide people with competing role demands to see how faith and work roles are not mutually exclusive

i­ dentity development within the categories of extrinsic, intrinsic, and quest religiosity (Bell, 2008). Allport (1950) initially viewed a person’s religious development as including the first two components. Intrinsic orientation was considered the mature religious form in which religion is considered the overriding source of motivation and guidance for determining life choices and direction. In contrast, extrinsic orientation was viewed as immature faith in which actions are taken consistent with religious views for self-serving purposes. Later, other researchers included a quest dimension which was defined as “the degree to which an individual’s religion involves an open-ended, responsive dialogue with existential questions raised by the contradictions and tragedies of life” (Batson, Schoenrade, & Ventis, 1993, p. 169). Those high in the quest dimension of religiosity are considered to possess the most mature form of religion. This is much like Kohlberg’s (1981) stages of moral development in which a person can mature in their motivations for acting ethically. At the lowest level, moral behaviors are engaged in to avoid punishment or for personal gain, which is similar to extrinsic religiosity. At the highest level, moral behavior occurs because it is part of an internalized personal belief system, which is similar to quest religiosity. However, not all agree with the conceptualization that intrinsic, extrinsic and quest religiosity reflect different stages of religious maturity and suggest that they are, instead, three separate constructs and measure different aspects of religiosity (Donahue & Nielsen, 2005). However, whether religiosity examines how religiously mature a person is or simply what forms this religiosity takes, it can help provide insight for FWI.  Specifically, the motivation for and expression of FWI can differ depending on which of these three types of religiosity a person most

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Table 9.3  Stages (or types) of religious development and motivation for FWI Extrinsic religiosity Intrinsic religiosity Quest religiosity

FWI for personal benefit such (e.g., acting ethically for praise, recognition, or personal advancement) FWI to act consistently with faith belief system (e.g., acting ethically because it is the “right” thing to do as Christian) FWI that might not appear consistent with the norm for others of a similar faith (e.g., looking deeper some systemic issue, in which a surface solution may not effectively solve a larger problem)

strongly identifies. Table  9.3 describes what can either be perceived as stages or types of religiosity. Those extrinsically motivated would be stimulated to engage in FWI by the personal benefits they expect from FWI. An employee might volunteer to head up the company food drive for a local homeless shelter because of the positive attention given the chairperson by top management each year. Someone motivated by intrinsic religiosity, might donate a large sum of money to the same food drive because they know that Christ commands us to give to the needy and not to “let the left hand know what the right hand is doing” (Matthew 6:3). A person at the quest level of religiosity might choose not to participate in the food drive because this shelter has publically stated that members of the LGBTQ community are not welcome to use these services and this goes against this person’s interpretation of scripture. These stages  (or types) of religious development as they relate to FWI are summarized in Table 9.3. Sub-categories of Religiosity Though the term religiosity has been used as a concept that encompasses a broad category of religious beliefs and values, it is important to point out the nature of religiosity can vary between different faiths or denominational sub-groups. Because this variability can be manifest in different ways, it is particularly important to FWI.  For example, research has revealed moral variability between liberal and conservative religious groups. Using Moral Foundations Theory, it was found religious conservatives scored higher on loyalty, authority, and purity, while religious liberals placed more importance on caring and fairness (Graham, Haidt, & Nosek, 2009; Graham et al., 2011). Some even suggest that general religiosity has been conflated with religious conservatism by failing to examine how different religious sub-groups interpret their belief systems (Johnson et al., 2016).

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For example, though it has been suggested that those with high levels of religiosity embrace conservative ideologies (Graham et al., 2009; Piazza & Sousa, 2013), it may be more accurate to explain that conservative Christian groups embrace different ideologies than liberal Christian groups. To address the issue of religious sub-group variability, it is helpful to consider identity theory alongside religiosity. We agree with Bell’s (2008) suggestion that the question of religious identity should be reframed from asking how religiosity influences overall identity, to viewing religious identity as a separate and unique component of identity. Religiosity measures how religious a person is and what forms this religiosity takes, but religious identity can reflect different religious categories, acknowledging that religion is not monolithic. For example, a person might rate high in religiosity, low in Roman Catholic identity, but high in Christian identity. This person may engage in many Christian faith-related behaviors, but stop attending or participating in the Catholic Mass. To simply consider high religiosity (on its own) would lead one to predict that this person, because they were born and raised Catholic, would still be attending Mass. Therefore, based on religious variability, it is important to consider how religious sub-categories (such as faith or denominational groups) may interpret their faiths differently, which may result in different types of FWI. As mentioned previously, denominational strictness is one area suggested as impacting FWI. Another study indicated that Roman Catholics are more apt to use nonverbal symbols of religiosity in the workplace, while Protestants are more likely to talk about their faith at work (Buszka, 2015). The influence of religious sub-groups will be further discussed in Chap. 12, “Faith Organization Influences.” Acknowledging that religious identity can fall in various Christian sub-categories, in addition to existing at different levels of maturity, are both essential to our understanding of FWI. Key points about religiosity and religious identity are summarized in Table 9.4.

Table 9.4  Religiosity and religious identity • Religiosity measures how religious a person is and suggests their motivation for religious behavior •  Religious identity can reflect different religious categories; religion is not monolithic •  FWI can vary based on level of religiosity and religious identity category

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Religiosity and Work Research Most relevant to our topic of FWI is research examining the connection of religiosity to FWI, age, gender, career flexibility, spiritual disciplines, and calling. Research has shown that a high level of religious commitment is strongly associated with the desire to integrate faith at work (Davidson & Caddell, 1994; Lynn et  al., 2010), and that both religiosity and FWI increase with age (Lynn et al., 2010; Mccullough, Enders, Brion, & Jain, 2005; Moberg, 2008). Substantial research suggests that women are more religious than men and because of this may be more likely to exhibit higher levels of FWI (Beit-Hallahmi, 2004; Benson et al., 1993). Though a study by Lynn et al. (2010) did not find gender differences in FWI, there is sufficient evidence to suggest differences between genders may exist, especially in light of related research discussed in Chap. 3 that men and women find different types of work meaningful. A study by Duffy and Blustein (2005) suggested there may be a connection between high levels of intrinsic religiosity and both career decision-­ making efficacy and career flexibility. Both of these factors may relate to identifying a career that aligns with personal, career, and religious goals. Also, those with high levels of intrinsic religiosity, and already feeling intrinsically satisfied with their work, were shown to more likely view their work as ministry (calling) (Davidson & Caddell, 1994). Other research on calling (Davidson & Caddell, 1994; Duffy & Sedlacek, 2010; Steger, Pickering, Shin, & Dik, 2010) found positive correlations between religiosity and calling. In contrast, high levels of religiosity may have a negative impact on hours worked. For example, research has demonstrated those with higher levels of religiosity may spend less time on work-related responsibilities because of external commitments (Schmidt & DeShon, 2007). Yet other research suggested that reduced work hours may not result when it is believed that both identity goals can be satisfied (Schmidt and Dolis 2009). Of particular interest to the topic of FWI, is Horvath’s (2015) study reporting that intrinsic religiosity has a negative impact on the number of hours worked and level of job involvement, but only for those workers who did not perceive their work as calling. In particular, Horvath’s study found that one aspect of calling, transcendent summons, negated the effect of religiosity on work hours. The further impact of calling on FWI will be discussed in greater depth later in this chapter. Together, these research findings propose that high levels of intrinsic religiosity can be directly and indirectly beneficial to FWI. Besides directly

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Table 9.5  Research findings relating religiosity to FWI •  Religious commitment is related to intent (desire) to integrate faith at work •  Both religiosity and FWI increase with age •  Suggest that women are more religious than men and may exhibit more FWI •  Religiosity is related to calling •  High religiosity may reduce hours worked •  Calling can offset the negative impact of religiosity on work hours • The perception that religious goals and work goals can both be met can offset the negative impact of religiosity on work hours • Higher career flexibility associated with religiosity may result in openness to alternative, faith-consonant careers

resulting in high levels of FWI, careers more in alignment with FWI may be chosen in the first place. Also, though high levels of religiosity can compete for a workers’ time and job involvement, the impact of this may be negated when the individual perceives their work as calling or recognizes there may be ways to mutually satisfy work and faith goals. Therefore, appropriate guidance and mentoring in FWI can assist people who perceive tension between faith and work roles to see how they are not necessarily mutually exclusive, but can work in harmony with each other. Also, the higher level of career flexibility that may result from high levels of religiosity can be an advantage to those who are conflicted with work demands. This increased career flexibility may make them more open to ways they can mutually satisfy both faith and work demands by considering alternative career options. A summary of findings on religiosity as it relates to work or FWI is provided in Table 9.5. Faith Maturity Closely related to the idea of religiosity is the concept of faith maturity, which has been described as “the degree to which a person embodies the priorities, commitments and characteristics of vibrant, life-transforming faith” (Benson et al., 1993, p. 3). Though there is overlap in the ideas of religiosity and faith maturity, religiosity is often measured by examining doctrinal orthodoxy as with the Christian Doctrinal Orthodoxy Scale (Batson et al., 1993), while faith maturity is measured by examining values and behaviors such as those within the Faith Maturity Scale (Benson et al., 1993). The authors of the Faith Maturity Scale explain that it was

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designed to measure personal values and behavior instead of adherence to traditional Protestant creeds (Benson et al., 1993). Two types of faith maturity have been identified, vertical faith maturity (relationship to God) and horizontal faith maturity (relationship to others) (Benson et  al., 1993). Examples of vertical faith maturity include: “The things I do reflect a commitment to Jesus Christ” and “I feel my life is filled with meaning and purpose.” Examples of horizontal faith maturity include: “I care a great deal about reducing poverty in my country and throughout the world” and “I feel a sense of responsibility for reducing pain and suffering in the world.” These are in contrast to items from the Short Christian Orthodoxy Scale (Hunsberger, 1989) such as “Jesus Christ was the divine Son of God” and “Through the life, death and resurrection of Jesus, God provided a way for the forgiveness of sins.” By comparing items from both surveys, it is apparent that the Faith Maturity Scale focuses on reported behaviors, while the orthodoxy scale was designed to measure beliefs. One study indicated that vertical faith maturity was more closely tied with doctrinal orthodoxy than horizontal faith maturity and suggested that faith maturity is less associated with Christian doctrinal beliefs and may be more similar to general spirituality (Ji, 2004). Therefore, though religiosity and faith maturity are related, the way they are measured is different and may mean different things with respect to FWI. Research by Lynn et  al. (2010) demonstrated a strong relationship between faith maturity and FWI.  They explained that FWI resulted because of the quantity and quality of personal reflection associated with faith maturity, as well as the desire to act consistently with religious norms and values. Lanfer (2006) suggested that as religious faith matures, workers shift from being focused on personal happiness to become more concerned about the well-being of others and society. It is possible that as workers mature in faith, they will engage in work-related behaviors that can benefit both the organization and society. Expanding this view, it is possible that horizontal faith maturity reflects a higher level of faith maturity because of its other focus. It is also possible that different types of FWI may be more attractive, depending on whether a worker has higher levels of vertical or horizontal faith maturity. For example, someone with high vertical faith maturity might appreciate the availability of a “quiet room” for prayer and reflection, while a person with high horizontal faith maturity might be motivated by their company providing paid days off to provide volunteer professional services (e.g., pro bono legal work) in the community. Key findings about faith maturity are provided in Table 9.6.

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Table 9.6  Key findings about faith maturity •  Faith maturity is more related to values and behavior than adherence to religious creed •  Vertical faith maturity focuses on relationship with God •  Horizontal faith maturity focuses on relationship with others •  Faith maturity is correlated with FWI • Different types of FWI may be more attractive depending on a worker’s level of vertical or horizontal faith maturity

Calling Within faith and work literature, calling is regularly discussed and it is highly relevant to FWI.  The topic of calling has been presented within three different realms; one is related to faith but unrelated to work, the second is related to both faith and work, and the third is related to work, but not necessarily related to faith. The first is has been referred to as a general calling to Christian life and discipleship. The second type is a specific calling to a particular position, task, or office within the church or broader society (Schuurman, 2004). This type of calling may include work, as well as a wide variety of roles outside the church such as marriage and parenting (Hernandez & Mahoney, 2012). In Steven’s (1999) book, he explained that this calling occurs in six dimensions of life and the paid work we perform would fall in the dimension of society. In these work roles, we are perceived as co-creators with God in tasks that include cultural, material, political, aesthetic, artistic, medical, technical, and relational pursuits (Stevens, 1999). The second type of calling as it relates to work has been discussed in previous chapters, and this book is written in agreement with the view that Christians are to partner with Christ in the redemption of all things including work, irrespective of profession. The final category of calling has become popular in secular contexts and is associated with the passion or drive to fulfill some internal or external quest or desire to serve family or society (Dik, Duffy, & Tix, 2012). This latter category can include both a Christian calling by God to work and a secular calling to work. Much research in this third area is found in both faith and work and secular career development literature. Therefore, the discussion of calling as it relates to faith and work can be associated with either or both of these latter two categories of calling. In this book, we choose to subdivide the discussion of calling as it relates to FWI between Chaps. 9 and 10. In this chapter we focus on the more general calling to work and the recognition that faith can transform all work. Chapter 10

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will include the type of calling to a particular profession or occupation that is often included in career development literature. The definition best suited to this chapter’s discussion of calling is that proposed by Dik and Duffy (2009): A transcendent summons, experienced as originating beyond the self, to approach a particular life role in a manner oriented toward demonstrating or deriving a sense of purpose or meaningfulness and that holds other-oriented values and goals as primary sources of motivation. (p. 427)

This definition has been further discussed as comprising three dimensions: (1) a transcendent summons toward something beyond the self, such as God; or social needs; (2) perception that one’s work has meaning and purpose; and (3) motivation attributed to a pro-social orientation to serve others Dik et al. (2012). This description of calling is well suited within the individual sphere of influence category as it can occur for any individual in a wide variety of roles, not only within a specific occupational category. Though, as we will discuss in Chap. 10, there can be many benefits and advantages for those who are able to work in the specific occupation for which they believe they were divinely created and called, calling is not limited to only this type of work. Calling can also represent a general attitude toward work and may be applied in a wide variety of settings. In fact, we propose that with intentional training and guidance, even the most ordinary and mundane of tasks can be infused with a higher meaning or purpose. Calling Research We have already presented that those with high levels of religiosity are more apt to perceive their work as calling, and also those who perceive their work as calling will be less likely to reduce time spent on work due to religious commitments (Horvath, 2015). Other research on calling has focused on a number of employee-level organizational outcomes such as motivation (Lynn et al., 2010), organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) (Xie, Zhou, Huang, & Xia, 2017), job satisfaction (Duffy, Bott, Allan, Torrey, & Dik, 2012), organizational attachment (Cardador, Dane, & Pratt, 2011), career commitment (Duffy, Dik, & Steger, 2011), and turnover (Esteves & Lopes, 2017). The benefits associated with such outcomes include higher levels of goal attainment, employee willingness to go beyond role expectations and lower levels of employee turnover (see Chap. 6).

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Of particular interest to FWI, is recent research on calling and goal facilitation theory that provided insight into why those who feel called at work are more apt to have higher levels of job satisfaction and engage in organizational citizenship behavior (Xie et  al., 2017). Goal facilitation theory explains that people continually pursue meaningful goals, and the goals they choose will influence their actions and behaviors (Fitzsimons & Shah, 2008). Therefore, people seek social situations that are perceived as instrumental to achieving important goals. Individuals who view their workplace as a social setting in which their calling may be fulfilled will view this setting more favorably and will be more motivated to accomplish calling-­related work goals. This aligns with our previous discussion of the benefits of role identity congruence. This research examined the consonant elements between organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) including willingness to engage in altruistic or pro-social behavior and to perform activities beyond the scope of their job descriptions. Therefore, it was not unexpected that employees with high levels of calling were also found to demonstrate higher levels of organizational citizenship behavior (Xie et al., 2017). Similarly, since both calling and job satisfaction have been associated with intrinsic motivation (such as the desire for personal meaning, fulfillment, or making a difference in the world) it is also not surprising that they are related. For Christians (and those of other faiths) the factor that distinguishes calling from OCB or job satisfaction is the religious connection. Hill and Dik (2012) explain that, as opposed to other meaning-making systems, “religion, more than any other human function, satisfies the need for meaning in life” (Clark, 1958, p. 419) because it focuses on elements that are venerated, worthy of devotion, or perceived as sacred (Pargament, 2001). Therefore, for many employees there may be little difference between calling and OCB or calling and intrinsic job satisfaction. However, for the Christian who is called to work, their religious faith is the reason for (or source of) the calling. In addition, we posit that because of the meaning-making capacity of religion, work to which a person may not ordinarily be called in a secular sense, may be imbued with calling qualities because of religious transformation. Other research related to the meaning-making potential of religion considered the connection between calling and job crafting. Job crafting occurs when employees change the boundaries and conditions of their job tasks and job relationships, often resulting in more meaningful work (Wrzesniewski & Dutton, 2001). By changing how and with whom work

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is performed, higher levels of meaning may be derived. It is also possible that job crafting occurs merely by a cognitive adjustment on the part of the employee, without actual change in the nature of the work. Many positive outcomes have been related to job crafting such as motivation, job satisfaction, productivity, work engagement, and productivity (Tims & Bakker, 2010; Wrzesniewski & Dutton, 2001). A study by Esteves and Lopes (2017) also revealed that a sense of calling totally mitigated the effect increased job challenge had on turnover intention. This research also suggested a different view of the relationship between calling and job crafting. Previous research provided unanswered calling as a reason employees engage in the development of job crafting strategies (Berg, Grant, & Johnson, 2010). However, this study proposed that it may be the presence of challenging job conditions that stimulated the need for job crafting and that it was the job crafting that resulted in the perception of calling. Therefore, in addition to calling being the stimulus of job crafting, it may be that individuals can discover calling through their own intentional job crafting behaviors (Esteves & Lopes, 2017). This research provides support for the idea that FWI can occur through an active and intentional process of job crafting in which workers explore work to which they may not naturally be called. This process may result in a perception of calling that did not previously exist, suggesting that a person may stimulate their own sense of calling. This may be a partial answer to the problem Guinness (2003) discussed in his book, The Call, of those who struggle to answer an ordinary call to work because they desire a special call from God presented in a supernatural way. Guinness shared that there was not one instance in the New Testament of a person being called into a paid occupation. To this we add that it is possible that even an occupation for which a person does not feel called may be configured for calling. From this review of research, we can make a number of recommendations regarding FWI (see Table 9.7). First, there are many positive organizational outcomes related to calling, in particular, the altruistic and pro-social behaviors associated with calling are also connected with OCB. Therefore, even companies without religious interest may be interested in hiring and developing employees who perceive work as calling. Similar to our discussion of identity role congruence, goal facilitation theory explains how individuals who view their workplace as a social setting in which their calling may be fulfilled will be more motivated and productive. Therefore, it is beneficial to guide workers to perceive that work is very much a social setting in which calling-related goals may be achieved.

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Table 9.7  Recommendations based on calling research • There are many positive organizational outcomes related to calling, so companies should seek to hire and train employees to perceive work as calling • Individuals who view the workplace as a setting in which to fulfill calling may be more motivated, productive, and committed • Job crafting is a tool that may be used to express or create calling

In addition, job crafting is a potential tool that may be used to help workers express their calling at work or calling may be the result of job crafting in challenging situations. Characteristics of Individuals Who Engage in FWI Besides possessing the faith-related attributes of a strong Christian identity and high levels of religiosity, faith maturity, and calling, there are a variety of specific individual traits and behaviors that have been associated with FWI. For example, though spiritual disciplines are part of religiosity and faith, it helps to specifically identify which of these encourage FWI. Lynn et al. (2010) found that prayer, meditation, religious reading, and regular church attendance had a positive impact on FWI. Yet, sermon content had no significant impact on FWI.  This is consistent with previous research indicating that sermons or a pastor’s influence had no impact on viewing work as calling (Davidson & Caddell, 1994). The Barna Group study also reported similar results that “practicing faith consistently surfaces as important for thriving in one’s vocation” (Denzel & Kinnaman, 2018, p.  20). Lynn et  al. (2010) showed long-term, work-related mentoring relationships had a positive impact on FWI. These findings suggest that intentional, longitudinal, and relational religious activities may have greater influence on eventual FWI. Though some may be called to engage in FWI by a sermon, it is much more likely that the majority will develop a personalized way to integrate faith in the workplace over time as they grow in faith through intentional prayer, study, and reflection with the help of appropriate work-related mentors. The Barna Group study (Denzel & Kinnaman, 2018) of 1459 self-­ identified Christians who agreed that faith was somewhat or strongly important in their lives revealed a number of defining characteristics of those who integrate faith and work most frequently (Barna Group, 2018). One of the primary goals of this research was to identify Christians who

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were intentional about cultivating their calling related to career. Three categories of vocational personalities were identified based on a cluster analysis of responses to four questions related to calling and career such as “I can clearly see how the work I am doing is serving God or a higher purpose” (Denzel & Kinnaman, 2018, p. 49). The 28% who agreed the most strongly with these statements were labeled Integrators. Integrators were “enthusiastic employees deeply connected to their faith and work” (p. 50). The Barna Group study also described this group as wisely investing in skills and resources, taking reasonable risks and looking for ways to improve work for the good of others. The second, Onlooker group reflected 38% of respondents with a moderate response to the same set of questions. This group was described as “passive employees positioned to better connect their faith and work” (p.  50). The remaining 34% were referred to as Compartmentalizers who were “pragmatic employees without strong connections to their faith and work” (p. 50). Not surprisingly, the Integrators were much more likely than the other two groups to “see their work as purposeful and a good fit” (p.  52). They were also more likely to “regard faith as the foundation of their identity,” view all work as spiritual, possess excellent ethical standards, seek lifelong learning and growth, embrace curiosity and risk, and “display open-handedness and selflessness” (Barna Group, 2018, pp. 58–64). In addition, this group varied demographically according to gender, income, and occupation, and the only noticeable differences were a slightly higher education level and lower rates of representation from the baby boomer generation. From these research findings, there appear to be many positive behaviors and characteristics of those who are most apt to engage in FWI. This group identifies strongly with their faith, consistently attends church, is spiritually connected to their work, adheres to strong ethical standards, possesses curiosity and desire for continuous learning, and exhibits a willingness to serve others. A summary of research findings on the individual characteristics associated with FWI is listed in Table 9.8.

Individual Strategies for FWI A variety of research instruments and related theories have been developed to examine workplace religion, faith, and spirituality. These have been classified into three categories: manifestation, development, and adherence by Miller and Ewest (2013). Because this book and chapter will provide

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Table 9.8  Individual characteristics associated with FWI •  Strong identification with faith • Consistent practice of faith including regular church attendance, prayer, and Bible study • Perceive long-term relational faith activities as more beneficial to FWI than Sunday sermons • All work is viewed as spiritual • Positive work qualities are demonstrated including high ethical standards, desire for learning and growth, and willingness to serve

strategies to help encourage and guide individuals to develop their own personalized ways of integrating faith and work, we believe a manifestation theory would be most useful because it considers how religious values and beliefs are experienced and expressed. The Integration Profile (TIP) was developed to provide a framework to present the broad spectrum of ways faith may be expressed in the workplace (Miller, 2007) and it is inclusive of those suggested by previous models (Nash, 2001; Stevens, 1999). Because of the comprehensive nature of the TIP, it provides a convenient structure to categorize and discuss the wide variety of FWI techniques available to those seeking guidance on how to translate FWI theory into action. The Integration Profile (TIP) Miller’s (2007) TIP framework originally included four categories of faith integration; enrichment, ethics, evangelism, and experience. Subsequent research (Miller & Ewest, 2013) expanded each of these four to include two sub-orientations, and the title of evangelism was changed to expression. Therefore, the current model purports that people have a natural propensity to integrate faith at work in one of eight ways: community ethics (CE); self-ethics (SE); verbal expression (VE); nonverbal expression (NVE); outcomes experience (OE); process/activity experience (PAE); group enrichment (GE); and individual enrichment (IE). Miller explained that the TIP framework was theologically legitimate, maintained that none of the four primary categories (or eight sub-orientations) was superior or inferior to each other, and observed that individuals or religious groups may manifest one or more of these (Miller & Ewest, 2013). Though this model was provided within the context of the Christian faith, Miller maintained that the TIP model was equally applicable to those of different faith backgrounds because work is influenced by a variety of belief systems as

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employees apply the values within them to the workplace. As Miller (2007) explained, the TIP “has the capacity to reflect the movement’s diverse range of motivations, member profiles and modes of expression, while still recognizing the common organizing principle of a quest for integration” (p.  128). Therefore, this approach presents opportunities for cross-faith comparison and an application tool for employees with diverse faith and spiritual backgrounds. A worker’s predisposition toward a specific integration type was explained as being the result of one or more of the following: church upbringing, personality type, theological teachings, societal conditioning, gender, geography, and corporate culture (Miller, 2007, p.  128). Many of these have been discussed in previous sections of this book. Miller also suggested that, though a given person might have a tendency to express faith in one integration category more than others, these can overlap and there might be those who integrate faith using most or all of them. In his 2007 book, God at Work: The History and Promise of the Faith at Work Movement, Miller referred to this type of individual as an everywhere integrator. The Ethics Type The ethics type (Miller, 2007; Miller & Ewest, 2013) includes employees primarily interested in integrating faith at work by applying ethical principles to workplace issues and challenges. The two different and independent sub-categories within this group are self-ethics and community ethics. Selfethics (SE) is related to the worker’s own conduct and behavior. It includes character traits such as integrity, honesty and showing respect for others (Miller, 2007; Miller & Ewest, 2013). Community ethics (CE) places high importance on organizational, social or structural issues that concern employees and the company. This could include things such as fair compensation, safe working conditions, product safety or environmental concerns. Research has associated performing work according to ethical standards with FWI (Barna Group (Denzel & Kinnaman, 2018), and ethical values and role expectations have been associated with faith or religious affiliations (Miller & Ewest, 2011, 2015). Dews (2014) reported that millennials, with their pro-social attitudes, concerned about ethical causes and desire for meaningful work, may be more likely to engage in work practices consistent with CE. The Barna Group (Denzel & Kinnaman, 2018) also reported similar desires from millennial integrators.

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The Expression Type Those whose predominant method of integration is expression place a high level of importance on the ability to express their faith/spirituality or worldview to others (Miller, 2007; Miller & Ewest, 2013, 2015). Within the religious traditions of Christianity and Islam, open expression of beliefs and the need to seek converts to their views is part of their theology (Miller & Ewest, 2015). Expression can be exhibited in two different ways, verbally or nonverbally. Verbal expression (VE) types either wish to engage in conversation about beliefs, or desire to persuade others to share similar worldviews. Those preferring nonverbal expression (NVE) use attire, symbols such as religious jewelry, or Bible verses left in public places to express their faith to others. The nonverbal expression may also be accomplished by letting actions speak louder than words (Miller, 2007; Miller & Ewest, 2013, 2015). An example of this could be bringing in a meal for a co-­ worker or offering to help with household chores during time of personal grief or crisis. The Enrichment Type The enrichment type includes those focused on personal improvement through things such as prayer, meditation, and nurturing spiritual growth (Miller, 2007; Miller & Ewest, 2013). The two sub-orientations within this category are individual enrichment (IE) and group enrichment (GE). These practices help workers draw insight, strength, and comfort to deal with work-related issues. The primary difference between the two sub-­ groups is whether practices are engaged in alone or with others. Earlier chapter discussion indicated that workers who pray, meditate, and study the Bible are more likely to engage in FWI (Barna Group (Denzel & Kinnaman, 2018); Lynn et  al., 2010). Other examples and evidence of enrichment in the workplace are the reported 40,000 corporate chaplains who minister to the needs of North Americans and the 10,000 prayer groups which met weekly in US workplaces (Garcia-Zamor, 2003). Therefore, besides being a means of expressing FWI, enrichment activities can facilitate further FWI. The relational activities such as the faith-related workplace mentoring beneficial to FWI (Lynn et al., 2010) can occur in prayer groups and Bible Studies.

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The Experience Type Those with a preference for experience look for ways to experience meaning and purpose in work (Miller, 2007; Miller & Ewest, 2013, 2015). Many with this preference view their work as a calling, vocation, or ministry. Work provides intrinsic satisfaction and may be viewed as spiritually or divinely ordained. The two sub-categories in this group are outcomes experience (OE) and process/activity experience (PAE). For the OE type, work is perceived as a means to an end. The work itself may not be particularly rewarding, but the product or service it produces is what provides meaning and satisfaction. Truck drivers delivering transplant organs may experience meaning by knowing they are delivering vital organs in a timely and safe fashion to keep sick patients alive. The PAE type identifies very closely with the nature of the work itself. Some in this category may describe their work as what they were born to do and as using their natural or God-given talents. PAE integration is often easily identified in artistic and creative fields, ministry occupations or helping professions. However, it can be experienced by those in all forms of work. In the previous example, the doctors performing transplant surgery may see this as PAE integration because it uses their special skills in performing transplant surgery. This is in contrast to the drivers who experience OE by supporting this process with the timely delivery of organs. Descriptions of each of the eight TIP manifestation types are provided in Table 9.9. Table 9.9  The Integration Profile (TIP) Manifestation

Category

Manifestation example

Ethics type

Community (CE)

Supporting company efforts to be socially responsible Performing personal work with high levels of integrity Talking openly about one’s faith while at work Displaying faith-related quotes in private office area Deriving pleasure from seeing how work benefits others Deriving pleasure from performing the work itself Praying with others at work Meditating by oneself to relieve work stress

Self (SE) Expression type

Verbal (VE) Nonverbal (NVE)

Experience type

Outcomes (OE)

Enrichment type

Process/Activity (PAE) Group (GE) Individual (IE)

Based on information from Miller and Ewest (2013)

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Individual FWI Manifestation Strategies Related to the TIP Because of the breadth and specificity of the TIP framework, it can be a useful tool to develop worker awareness and development as well as to understand those who integrate beliefs differently. An awareness of the various integration types may also help employees and management become more aware of potential conflicts and problems that could emerge when different integration types exist within the same work group and organization. Employers wishing to facilitate FWI could provide workplace conditions, policies, and job requirements amenable to these (Miller, 2007; Miller & Ewest, 2013, 2015). We also recommend the TIP be used as a training and development tool in conjunction with the FWSI model to encourage FWI. The remaining section of this chapter will focus on strategies to guide and motivate individual workers to develop their own unique FWI techniques. In subsequent chapters, we will also make reference to the TIP as it pertains to the occupational, work organization, and faith organization spheres. Ethics The growing importance of workplace ethics has been attributed, at least in part, to the various high profile corporate scandals1 that occurred during the first decade of the twenty-first century. Also, numerous advantages of ethical organizational cultures have been cited, including higher levels of employee satisfaction and organizational commitment, and lower levels of turnover (Guerci, Radaelli, Siletti, Cirella, & Rami Shani, 2015). Research also indicates employee misconduct is lower when companies value ethical performance. A 2013 survey reported that only 20% of employees in strong ethical cultures reported observing misconduct, while 88% witnessed wrongdoing in companies with the weakest cultures (Meinert, 2014). Based on this information, it is not surprising that ethics training is one of the most common forms of training provided by organizations. The National Business Ethics Survey found companies who provided ethics training increased from 74% in 2011 to 81% in 2013 (Meinert, 2014). Two-thirds of these companies included ethical conduct as a performance measure in employee evaluations, 1  Some of the most notable of these involved Enron, Worldcom, AIG, Countrywide Financial, Lehman Brothers, and Siemens AG (Arnaud & Schminke, 2012).

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up from 60% in 2011. Also, almost 3 in 4 companies communicated internally about disciplinary actions when wrongdoing occurred. Research supports that religious beliefs and role expectations impact ethical behavior (Miller & Ewest, 2015), Therefore, many companies are already encouraging ethical behavior, even if not for the express purpose of encouraging FWI. Therefore, for Christian employees already working for companies engaged in building ethical cultures and involved in corporate social responsibility, it should not be difficult for them to see that by complying with company standards, they are also fulfilling their faith role responsibilities. Guiding employees to see that they can fulfill both Christian and work responsibilities concurrently can be a way of reducing role conflict and easing pressure for those whose schedules may not allow time for other forms of Christian service. Another way to express and facilitate further ethical forms of FWI would be for individuals to realize they are setting ethical examples for others in the workplace. Others who are aware of an employee’s Christian identity will be noting whether or not their ethical behavior is consistent with their Christian values. Consistent ethical behavior can also be a form of NVE because this person would also be demonstrating their faith through their ethical actions. This is even more important for organization leaders, as significant research has demonstrated the impact leaders have on setting the moral climate in organizations as well as encouraging others to act ethically (Schaubroeck et al., 2012; Tyler, 2017). Those in leadership roles should also encourage ethical training, standards, and ethical work cultures that reward ethical behavior. As a result, they should expect to see positive individual and organizational outcomes (Mayer, Aquino, Greenbaum, & Kuenzi, 2012) in addition to increased levels of ethical FWI. Unfortunately, not all companies embrace high ethical standards and Christians may find themselves in situations they believe are illegal or incompatible with their faith values. Community ethics (CE) might encourage an employee to report suspected wrongdoing within their organizations. For this group, whistleblowing is an option that may present an ethical struggle to do the right thing but avoid the negative consequences that might result. Protections for whistle-blowers to prevent employer retaliation were provided in the 2002 Sarbanes-Oxley Act in response to the Enron scandal. Congress passed numerous other whistle-­blower protection statues in recent years and 20 new state laws have been enacted (Meinert, 2014). These newer laws were passed not only to protect

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­ histle-blowers from retaliation, but also to allow financial rewards for w workers who reveal unethical practices. Though it may still be challenging for Christians to stand up to wrongdoing in unethical workplace cultures, knowledge about legal protections can make the decision to engage in this type of FWI somewhat easier. Again, those in leadership positions should work to develop a culture that supports standing up for wrongdoing and creates confidential reporting systems to both protect and reward employees who take difficult ethical stands. Research has shown that employees are more willing to report unethical practices when the in-group culture supports this behavior (Weaver & Brown, 2017) and leader behavior is consistent with the espoused company values (Schaubroeck et al., 2012). Expression Expression is the category for which laws in the United States both limit and protect what employees may do in the workplace. These will be examined at greater length in Chap. 11 when discussing the work organization. However, for individuals who wish to integrate their faith in the two expression categories, it is essential that they become familiar with their religious rights in the workplace so that they know what they are legally permitted to do, or must refrain from doing. Within the United States Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act provides protection for religious discrimination Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act prohibits employers with 15 or more employees from discriminating against individuals because of their religion in hiring, firing and other terms and conditions of employment. The act also requires the employer to reasonably accommodate the religious practices of an employee or prospective employee unless to do so would create an undue hardship on the employer…A reasonable accommodation is any adjustment to the work environment that will allow the employee to practice his ­religion. (“Facts about Religious Discrimination,” n.d.)

This law also prohibits harassment and negative workplace actions based on nonverbal demonstrations of faith such as religious dress and grooming policies. In reference to VE, this law has been interpreted to allow employees to talk openly about their faith during breaks and lunch periods. However, employees may be restricted from proselytizing during the time they are working. Employees who wish to integrate faith using VE or NVE should become familiar with what types of expressions are legal but

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also most beneficial in their workplace. Company HR departments and organizations such as the Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM) can provide valuable educational resources and helpful tools for employee education. Members of SHRM have access to these resources through their online website (accommodating religion, belief, and spirituality in the workplace, n.d.). Many practical guidelines are also available online (Hopler, 2003; Trujillo, 2017; Webster, 2016) and can be used to develop a personalized strategy for VE and NVE. Some general recommendations based on SHRM guidelines and website sources include the following: • Follow all work rules and policies regarding religious accommodation and expression. • Do not become disruptive of the work environment. • Seek not to offend others. • Use words that are affirming and not critical. • Do not harass and DO take “no” for an answer. • Personal faith stories can be more compelling than quoting scripture. • Invite co-workers to join you in outside work activities which might provide a better environment for verbal expression. • Look for opportunities to spearhead humanitarian work-related activities that show God’s love for all people. • Provide simple gestures of care such as compassionate listening or practical help such as meals or rides for co-workers who are struggling. Experience The experience category of integration is similar to the idea of calling we discussed previously in this chapter. The idea that using one’s skills and talents to bring glory to God has also been widely promoted in popular Christian literature. One of the most notable current books conveying the message that each believer has a higher purpose or calling from God was Rick Warren’s (2012) best-selling book, The Purpose Driven Life: What on Earth Am I Here For? With respect to work, Warren stated that people are more effective when able to use their spiritual gifts and natural abilities, but that a given person may be called into any number of careers. Tim Keller’s and Katherine Alsdorf’s book, Every Good Endeavor: Connecting Your Work to God’s Work (2012), shared that all work performed in response to God’s calling has eternal significance, that work is built into our DNA, and

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is an important part of God’s purpose for human beings. This book recommended people choose work they can perform well and fit with their gifts and capacities—if such work is available. However, it was cautioned that even work that is personally fulfilling may not be consistent with calling. Since the primary purpose of work is to serve the world, people should ask whether what they do helps people and supports the best in their characters. This book provided an example of an interior designer who left a successful position because she could not reconcile encouraging or supporting a customer spending thousands of dollars on frivolous expenses. This illustrated a person who may have been fulfilled through the process/activity of their work, but left her profession because of the inability to reconcile what she did with the common good. Though this chapter spends considerable time discussing the importance of FWI through inherently meaningful work, it is important to note that high PAE can be negated when the outcome of the same work does not support Christian values. Such issues would be helpful to discuss in an FWI Bible study or mentoring program. One strategy helpful to individuals seeking PAE would be to analyze their personality-job fit using an assessment such as the Strong Interest Inventory (Dik, 2006) or the free O∗NET online tool provided by the Department of Labor (O∗NET Interest Profiler, n.d.). Both of these are based on Holland’s Theory of Occupational Choice (Shahnasarian, 2006). Such assessments are designed to help align an individual’s natural skills and interests with suitable occupations. These vocational assessments may be paired with a spiritual gifts inventory to help determine if there is congruence between vocational assessment results and Christian calling. Many of the common spiritual gift inventories identify categories that align with common occupational categories such as teaching, helping and leadership (e.g., see, Spiritual Gifts | FREE Spiritual Gifts Survey | Assessment, Analysis, Test, n.d.). If the results of both the vocational and spiritual gifts assessments are congruent, and if the individual is able to work in a career aligned with their personality and giftedness, there may be a better chance that work will be perceived as calling and they will be able to engage in FWI through PAE or OE. A further explanation of how to choose suitable careers for FWI will be included in Chap. 10 with the recommendation of using a trained career resource person in this process. The strategies suggested in the previous paragraph would be more useful for those early in the career decision-making process, though they can be used for those willing and able to make job or career changes. However, for those unable to change jobs, there are other strategies that can prove useful. One of these is job crafting, which was previously discussed as add-

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ing meaningfulness and significance to existing work by changing the boundaries and conditions of job tasks and relationships (Wrzesniewski, LoBuglio, Dutton, & Berg, 2013). Job crafting has similar attributes to the Job Characteristics Model (JCM) previously developed by Hackman and Oldham (1975) which promotes adding skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy and feedback to job tasks to create more meaning, responsibility, and employee growth. Both of these strategies promote examining job tasks, responsibilities, and relationships to reconfigure them for the purpose of providing more positive meaning and identity for the worker. The predicted increase in employee motivation, engagement, and satisfaction from both strategies may result in higher levels of perceived PAE and OE.  However, one significant difference between job crafting and the JCM is the party deemed responsible for changing the work. With job crafting, the responsible party is the individual job holder and with the JCM, the organization or job designer decides on job changes. Because this chapter focuses on individual influences, job crafting seems the more applicable strategy, though some elements of the JCM may be undertaken by the individual worker without significant organization involvement. We will discuss one example of how the JCM may apply at the individual level and reserve further discussion of this model in Chap. 10. One element of the JCM particularly relevant to OE is task significance. This has been described as the degree to which the work performed affects the lives of others (Hackman & Oldham, 1975). The JCM maintains that those who perceive the significance of what they do will experience the critical psychological state of meaningfulness of work. Based on this, even if workers do not derive pleasure from performing the work itself, they may receive satisfaction if the outcome was perceived as meaningful. Literature suggests that the perception of the spiritual nature of work encourages humans to look beyond organizational tasks, many of which may be perceived as intrinsically meaningless, to see the larger purpose in what they do (Parboteeah & Cullen, 2010). Therefore, Christians seeking FWI through OE should intentionally consider the lives or larger world systems affected by their work. An engineer reviewing hundreds of detailed technical drawings related to playground design may find this task boring and cumbersome. However, meaning and importance can be added to this task by routinely contemplating the importance of safety and physical fitness to the well-being of the young children who will one day be using these playgrounds. The use of scripts and schemas has also been suggested as means to mentally create different meanings for work (Weaver & Stansbury, 2014).

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Scripts and schemas are described as psychological techniques used to add meaning to dirty or undesirable work without changing the actual nature of the work. It has been explained that individuals in unpleasant work situations may use their moral imaginations to develop or use scripts and schemas that associate religious virtue with all forms of work. In particular, religious scripts and schemas that promote humility, service, and generosity have been shown to help people engaged in demeaning work to view it and their work identities more favorably (Weaver & Stansbury, 2014). For example, a person who finds washing pots in a restaurant kitchen as boring and meaningless, might use scripture-based religious schemas such as all work can glorify God (1 Corinthians 10:31) or those who don’t work should not eat (2 Thessalonians 3:10), to reframe their work as important and meaningful. Religious teaching about those who are last shall be first (Matthew 20:16) may influence those in low level positions to value their work by imagining a future that involves an eternal elevated status. In this way the work and the worker are perceived differently. To enhance PAE, job crafting and some elements of JCM may also be useful. As it has been discussed, the proactive changes made to job tasks and boundaries can provide a job more meaningful or imbue it with different meaning (Wrzesniewski & Dutton, 2001). Many believe that all employees, from the lowest to highest levels, have some degree of flexibility in how they perform their work (Berg, Wrzesniewski, & Dutton, 2010). Therefore, in addition to changing how work is perceived, individuals can use job crafting techniques to can change the way they ­perform and derive meaning from their work. For example, the playground engineer mentioned previously might look for ways to interact with the children and teachers who will be most affected by the playground design. This could include personal or technology-facilitated pre-project consultations, site visits during construction, and post-project feedback sessions. These would help the engineer see the significance of the project, thus enhancing outcomes experience. The new relational job tasks including personal interactions may also provide more intrinsic satisfaction than simply reviewing drawings in the office. These new tasks will also add the JCM elements of task variety and feedback which can also enhance job meaning. Though the drawings will still need to be reviewed, these job crafting and JCM-related changes will facilitate OE and add elements of PAE to this position. Employers may allow employees to make such job crafting changes because of the positive benefits to the organization such as higher levels of work engagement and performance (Tims, Bakker, & Derks, 2012).

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Enrichment A possible outcome of this research project is the development of training material that could be used by individuals (IE) or groups (GE) to assist individuals in better understanding, developing, and applying their own FWI. This book could serve as the curriculum to develop Bible study material that could be completed individually at home or in groups at work during break periods. The study would include praying, journaling, and meditating about work situations, including praying for management and co-workers. This study would review the foundational faith and work material presented in earlier chapters and use the FWSI model and the TIP to help workers analyze their current and potential FWI. Christian employees who have the positions or resources to do so could encourage, develop, and offer such studies in their workplaces. These individuals could also use their influence to provide facilities and resources for spiritually affirming activities such as prayer, meditation, yoga, tai chi, and massage therapy that are becoming more commonplace in organizations (Gockel, 2004). Table 9.10 provides a summary of recommendations to enhance individual FWI using the TIP.

Conclusion There are many factors related to an individual’s desire and ability to engage in FWI. This chapter discussed religious identity, religiosity, faith maturity, calling, and a number of personal characteristics. The awareness and understanding of how these factors relate to FWI can help facilitate the process of developing a personalized FWI strategy. Based on this information, those who desire to engage in FWI, should spend regular time in prayer and faith-related studies, attend church regularly, join long-term relational faith groups, and seek a faith-work job mentor. Such practices will help guide and support them in this process. With respect to actually engaging in personalized FWI strategies, the TIP Model can be very useful for demonstrating the wide variety of ways faith may be integrated. With this model, other techniques such as legal protection education, person-job fit assessment, job crafting, examining the Job Characteristics Model, and using scripts and schemas can help personalize this process. However, we acknowledge that even the most diligent efforts to create meaningful FWI experiences in present job situations may far short. In such cases, if life circumstances permit, it might be necessary to make a major organization or career change. Many of the techniques in this

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Table 9.10  Recommendations for using the TIP to engage in FWI Manifestation

Orientation

FWI manifestation examples

Ethics type

Community (CE)

• Support company efforts to be ethical and socially responsible •  Become familiar with whistleblowing laws • Those in leadership should encourage ethics training and an ethical work culture •  Perform personal work with high levels of integrity • View both Christian and work roles as being fulfilled by ethical behavior • Model ethical behavior for others • Become familiar with workplace protection and accommodations for religious attendance, dress, and displays • Develop nonverbal ways of demonstrating faith through actions • Become familiar with company policy regarding time and place for discussing faith • Develop appropriate scripts and messages to share with co-workers • Seek ways to see how work benefits others or the world • Use of JCM and job crafting to see how work benefits others • Reframe work with scripts and schemas that focus on Christian meaning and service • Use vocational and spiritual gifts assessments to identify person-job fit and insights about calling • Use job crafting and JCM techniques to modify current work responsibilities •  Participate in FWSI study with work group members • Pray, meditate, and participate in Bible study with work group members • Employees with influence should encourage policies to support prayer, mentoring, and FWI studies in the workplace •  Engage in FWSI self-study • Independent work-­related prayer, meditation, and Bible study

Self (SE)

Expression type

Nonverbal (NVE)

Verbal (VE)

Experience type

Outcome (OE)

Process/ Activity (PAE) Enrichment type

Group (GE)

Individual (IE)

c­ hapter can be used to find work that will more naturally allow for FWI or lead to an organization in which the culture is more amenable to FWI. A less drastic approach could be to look for volunteer work in which faith may be integrated. Also, those nearing retirement may consider this as a

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Table 9.11  Closing reminders about individual FWI • FWI is related to religious identity, religiosity, faith maturity, calling, and a number of personal characteristics •  Those desiring FWI should:   – Spend regular time in prayer and faith and work-­related studies   – Attend church regularly   – Join long-term relational faith groups   – Seek a faith-work job mentor •  For some, organization or career change may be necessary •  Volunteer opportunities can provide FWI •  Retirement might provide new or different opportunities for FWI

time to explore opportunities for FWI not available to them before. One recent title that might prove helpful to this group is Aging Matters: Finding Your Calling for the Rest of Your Life (Stevens, 2016). Table 9.11 provides a summary of these closing reminders about individual FWI.

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multiple mediator model. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 59(1), 50–59. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026129 Duffy, R. D., Dik, B. J., & Steger, M. F. (2011). Calling and work-related outcomes: Career commitment as a mediator. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 78(2), 210–218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2010.09.013 Duffy, R. D., & Sedlacek, W. E. (2010). The salience of a career calling among college students: Exploring group differences and links to religiousness, life meaning, and life satisfaction. The Career Development Quarterly, 59(1), 27–41. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. (n.d.). Facts about religious discrimination. Retrieved February 25, 2015, from http://www.eeoc.gov/eeoc/ publications/fs-religion.cfm Esteves, T., & Lopes, M.  P. (2017). Crafting a calling. Journal of Career Development, 44(1), 34–48. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894845316633789 Fitzsimons, G. M., & Shah, J. Y. (2008). How goal instrumentality shapes relationship evaluations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95(2), 319–337. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.95.2.319 Garcia-Zamor, J. (2003). Workplace spirituality and organizational performance. Public Administration Review, 63(3), 355–363. https://doi.org/10.1111/ 1540-6210.00295 Gockel, A. (2004). The trend toward spirituality in the workplace: Overview and implications for career counseling. Journal of Employment Counseling, 41(4), 156–167. Retrieved from http://questia.com Graham, J., Haidt, J., & Nosek, B. A. (2009). Liberals and conservatives rely on different sets of moral foundations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96(5), 1029–1046. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015141 Graham, J., Nosek, B. A., Haidt, J., Iyer, R., Koleva, S., & Ditto, P. H. (2011). Mapping the moral domain. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101(2), 366–385. Guerci, M., Radaelli, G., Siletti, E., Cirella, S., & Rami Shani, A. B. (2015). The Impact of human resource management practices and corporate sustainability on organizational ethical climates: An employee perspective. Journal of Business Ethics, 126, 325–342. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-013-1946-1 Guinness, O. (2003). The call: Finding and fulfilling God’s purpose for your life. Nashville, TN: W Publishing Group. Hackman, J.  R., & Oldham, G.  R. (1975). Development of the job diagnostic survey. Journal of Applied Psychology, 60(2), 159–170. https://doi. org/10.1037/h0076546 Hernandez, K., & Mahoney, A. (2012). Balancing sacred callings in career and family life. In P. C. Hill & B. J. Dik (Eds.), Psychology of religion and workplace spirituality (pp. 135–155). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Pub. Hill, P. C., & Dik, B. J. (2012). Toward a science of workplace spirituality. In P. C. Hill & B.  J. Dik (Eds.), Psychology of religion and workplace spirituality (pp. 1–22). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Pub.

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Miller, D. W., & Ewest, T. (2013). The integration box (TIB): An individual, and institutional faith, religion and spirituality at work assessment tool. In J. Neal (Ed.), Handbook of faith and spirituality in the workplace: Emerging research and practice (pp. 403–418). New York, NY: Springer. Miller, D. W., & Ewest, T. (2015). A new framework for analyzing organizational workplace religion and spirituality. Journal of Management, Spirituality & Religion, 12(4), 305–328. https://doi.org/10.1080/14766086.2015.1054864 Moberg, D. O. (2008). Spirituality and aging: Research and implications. Journal of Religion, Spirituality & Aging, 20(1–2), 95–134. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/15528030801922038 Nash, L. L. (2001, July). How the church has failed business. Across the Board, 38(4), 26–33. O∗NET Interest Profiler. (n.d.). My next move. Retrieved from www.mynextmove. org/explore/ip Parboteeah, K.  P., & Cullen, J.  B. (2010). Ethical climates and spirituality: An exploratory examination of theoretical links. In R.  A. Giacalone & C.  L. Jurkiewicz (Eds.), Handbook of workplace spirituality and organizational performance (2nd ed., pp. 99–113). Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe. Pargament, K.  I. (2001). The psychology of religion and coping. New  York, NY: Guilford Publications. Piazza, J., & Sousa, P. (2013). Religiosity, political orientation, and consequentialist moral thinking. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 5(3), 334–342. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550613492826 Rosso, B. D., Dekas, K. H., & Wrzesniewski, A. (2010). On the meaning of work: A theoretical integration and review. Research in Organizational Behavior, 30, 91–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.riob.2010.09.001 Roxburgh, S. (2002). Racing through life: The distribution of time pressures by roles and role resources among full-time workers. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 23, 121–145. Schaubroeck, J. M., Hannah, S. T., Avolio, B. J., Kozlowski, S. W., Lord, R. G., Treviño, L. K., et al. (2012). Embedding ethical leadership within and across organization levels. Academy of Management Journal, 55(5), 1053–1078. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2011.0064 Schmidt, A. M., & Deshon, R. P. (2007). What to do? The effects of discrepancies, incentives, and time on dynamic goal prioritization. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92(4), 928–941. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.92.4.928 Schmidt, A. M., & Dolis, C. M. (2009). Something’s got to give: The effects of dual-goal difficulty, goal progress, and expectancies on resource allocation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94(3), 678–691. https://doi.org/10.1037/ a0014945 Schuurman, D. J. (2004). Vocation: Discerning our callings in life. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans.

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Shahnasarian, M. (2006). Holland’s theory of vocational choice. In J.  H. Greenhaus & G. A. Callanan (Eds.), Encyclopedia of career development (Vol. 1, pp. 352–356). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Slaughter, A. (2012, July/August). Why women still can’t have it all. The Atlantic. Retrieved from https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2012/07/ why-women-still-cant-have-it-all/309020/ Spiritual Gifts | FREE Spiritual Gifts Survey | Assessment, Analysis, Test. (n.d.). Retrieved May 20, 2019, from https://gifts.churchgrowth.org/spiritualgifts-survey/ Steger, M. F., Pickering, N. K., Shin, J. Y., & Dik, B. J. (2010). Calling in work: Secular or sacred? Journal of Career Assessment, 18(1), 82–96. Stevens, R. P. (1999). The other six days: Vocation, work, and ministry in biblical perspective. Grand Rapids, MI: W.B. Eerdmans Pub. Stevens, R. P. (2016). Aging matters: Finding your calling for the rest of your life. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. Stryker, S. (1968). Identity salience and role performance: The relevance of symbolic interaction theory for family research. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 30(4), 558. https://doi.org/10.2307/349494 Stryker, S. (1980). Symbolic interactionism: A social structural version. Caldwell, NJ: Blackburn Press. Tims, M., & Bakker, A. B. (2010). Job crafting: Towards a new model of individual job redesign. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 36(2). https://doi. org/10.4102/sajip.v36i2.841 Tims, M., Bakker, A. B., & Derks, D. (2012). Development and validation of the job crafting scale. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 80(1), 173–186. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.jvb.2011.05.009 Tracey, P., Phillips, N., & Lounsbury, M. (2014). Taking religion seriously in the study of organizations. In P.  Tracey, N.  Phillips, & M.  Lounsbury (Eds.), Religion and organization theory (pp.  3–21). Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing Limited. Trujillo, K. (2017, January 6). 10 non-obnoxious ways to share your faith at work. Christianity Today. Retrieved from https://www.todayschristianwoman.com/ articles/2011/august/10nonobnoxious.html Tyler, T. R. (2017). Defining behavioral business ethics: The role of morality in business organizations. In D. D. Cremer & A. E. Tenbrunsel (Eds.), Behavioral business ethics: Shaping an emerging field (pp.  173–198). New  York, NY: Routledge. Warren, R. (2012). The purpose driven life. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. Weaver, G., & Brown, M. (2017). Moral Foundations at work: New factors to consider in understanding the nature and role of ethics in organizations. In D. D. Cremer & A. E. Tenbrunsel (Eds.), Behavioral business ethics: Shaping an emerging field (pp. 143–172). New York, NY: Routledge.

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CHAPTER 10

Occupational Influences and Strategies

Introduction Though the words job, occupation, and career are often used interchangeably, for the purpose of this chapter, occupation is viewed as a job that pertains to a person’s career or calling. For many individuals, the job they hold may be one of the key areas from which they derive social identity (Becker & Strauss, 2017). For some, there is a greater degree of choice with work identity than many other areas of identity such as race, nationality, and gender. However, not all people have the same freedom or opportunity to choose careers and may find themselves in a particular job based on convenience or necessity. Whether a job is chosen as the result of careful planning and assessment, because of inherent calling, or simply accepted because it pays the bills, some positions more naturally lend themselves to faith and work integration (FWI) than others. Therefore, job characteristics or occupational factors can play a significant role in determining whether and how much an individual integrates faith in the workplace. For this second sphere in our Faith and Work Integration Spheres of Influence model (FWSI), the various occupational factors that can facilitate or present challenges for FWI are discussed. Also included is the particular role of leadership because it cuts across most occupational categories, has been studied in areas related to FWI, and has the capacity to impact others’ FWI. 

© The Author(s) 2020 S. G. Buszka, T. Ewest, Integrating Christian Faith and Work, Palgrave Studies in Workplace Spirituality and Fulfillment, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-22914-6_10

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Sphere B: Occupational Influences Sphere A: Individual Influences

12

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8

Sphere C Work Organization Influences Sphere D: Faith Organization Influences

13

2

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9 1

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Sweet Spot

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Neither desire nor opportunity to integrate faith and work

Fig. 10.1  Faith and work integration spheres of influence model  (FWSI): occupational influences

This chapter also discusses the help Christian career guidance can provide to navigate the FWI challenges and opportunities presented by occupation. The role of occupational factors within the FWSI is depicted in Fig. 10.1.

The TIP and Occupational Influences Chapter 9 presented the Integration Profile (TIP) (Miller & Ewest, 2015) as a framework in which to categorize different types of FWI. The TIP’s eight categories include community ethics (CE), self-ethics (SE), verbal expression (VE), nonverbal expression (NVE), outcomes experience (OE), process/activity experience (PAE), group enrichment (GE), and individual enrichment (IE). When considering the actual nature of specific work tasks and responsibilities, the two integration categories most relevant to occupational type are OE and PAE because these also directly relate to either the nature or outcome of the work performed. However, it is important to emphasize that most other TIP forms of FWI are possible in all occupational categories. For example, even the most

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routine and mundane work can be performed according to high ethical standards (IE). Christians engaged in work that involves human contact can express their faith through actions displaying God’s character by providing caring service and support related to job tasks or outside life circumstances (NVE). Any person so inclined can pray and ask for God’s guidance regarding their work situations, co-workers, clients, management, and organization (IE).

Job, Career, and Calling Within the psychology of work literature, it has been suggested that most people see work as a job (necessity), career (advancement), or calling (fulfillment), and that all occupations may be viewed as falling into any one of these categories depending on the person or context (Bellah, Madsen, Sullivan, Swidler, & Tipton, 2008; Wrzesniewski, Mccauley, Rozin, & Schwartz, 1997). These three views of work also relate to what needs are predominant (Maslow, 1970, 1971) and whether the motivation for work is intrinsic or extrinsic (Amabile, Hill, Hennessey, & Tighe, 1994; Hackman and Oldham, 1974, 1975; Herzberg, 1959). Though Maslow’s theory of motivation has not been supported as working in the sequential and hierarchical fashion suggested, the need categories of physiological, safety-security, social belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization are helpful in categorizing the different types of needs people seek to fulfill through work (Skelsey-Guest, 2014). These needs have been further described as either extrinsic or intrinsic in nature. Extrinsic factors include compensation or other external rewards. Intrinsic factors provide personal challenge and enjoyment (Amabile et al., 1994). While intrinsic factors are derived from the inherent nature of work, extrinsic factors are received from sources outside of actual task performance. The ease and type of FWI are also impacted by whether an occupation is perceived a job, career, or calling and the related extrinsic or intrinsic needs associated with each of these categories. However, it is important to note that whether work is perceived as job, career, or calling is dependent on more than just job characteristics. The same occupation may be perceived as job, career, or calling by different people and at different times in a person’s life. This is consistent with the discussion in Chap. 9 that occupational characteristics are contextualized by the individual. There may be characteristics of some types of work, such as those directly serving people (e.g., teachers and doctors), that lend themselves to more likely be

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perceived as calling. However, any form of work seen by the individual as making the world a better place could potentially be viewed as calling. In much the same way, though some occupations more naturally lend themselves to FWI, all occupations have the potential to be perceived as serving God. Work as a Job Jobs have been defined as collections of tasks to be performed by one employee (Grant, 2007). However, based on the psychological categorization mentioned in the previous paragraph (Wrzesniewski et al., 1997), when work is viewed as a job by the incumbent, the focus is on the necessity and financial rewards rather than on pleasure or fulfillment. This perceives work as a means to an end. Those who view their work as a job would say they “work to live.” To engage in FWI, this group may have to reframe their work to find meaning by focusing on outcomes experience (OE). This could be accomplished by considering what can be accomplished for God with the outcomes of their labor. Such outcomes could include taking care of family or giving money to charity or the church. Forward-thinking parents might consider their work as allowing them to pay to educate their children so they will be able to engage in more meaningful work in the future. Because the major interests or passions are not expressed through paid work, these individuals might view work as a means to support some meaningful hobby or volunteer activity such as earning money to go on short term mission trips. Work as Career A career is an occupation that is undertaken for an extended time period and usually includes some form of progress or advancement. This advancement often results in higher power or status within this occupational category (Bellah et  al., 2008). Those perceiving work as career would also see work as a means to an end, but professional or occupational advancement would be the desired end. The motivation for this desired advancement could come from an inner drive for personal success, goal attainment, or an external drive to be held in high esteem by others. Such motivational drive would  fall in Maslow’s (1970) esteem category and could be either extrinsic (esteem of others) or intrinsic (selfesteem) in nature. When work is viewed as a career, the motivation for FWI

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may come from the desire for personal benefit similar to that ­discussed in Chap. 9 as the underlying motivation for extrinsic religiosity. When work is perceived as career, one might engage in FWI for the praise, recognition, or personal advancement that might result. For example, a person who views their work as career might integrate faith by considering how their career advancement could provide them with power and influence that could be used for God’s purposes. Many successful business people have used power and position to serve and further God’s kingdom using resources uniquely at their disposal. For example, John Ortberg (2001, p. 67) discussed the example of the late television tycoon, Bob Buford, deciding to switch from “success to significance” by using his skills and resources to help the leaders such as Tim Keller and Rick Warren develop the potential of churches and other non-profits. This is an example of reframing a personal drive for career success to serve God, and relates to the FWI category of outcomes experience (OE).1 Work as Calling In contrast, those who identify work as calling focus on the enjoyment of fulfilling socially useful work. In previous chapters we noted that calling has been discussed for centuries by theologians and philosophers. In recent years it has become more important as a topic of empirical study in career development literature (Duffy & Dik, 2013). As a result, it is not uncommon to hear the term calling used to guide people to seek careers or occupational pursuits. There are many definitions and views of what a calling entails and therefore much debate on this topic (Wrzesniewski, 2011), but scholars have agreed on two general categories, “neoclassical” and “modern” (Duffy & Dik, 2013). Within the neoclassical approaches are historical views that emphasize a sense of destiny and pro-social responsibility. The modern category includes the more contemporary approaches that focus on self-fulfillment. Chapter 9 presented three aspects of calling identified by Dik and Duffy (2009), which included (1) an external summons, (2) sense of purpose, and (3) motivation for social good. This chapter’s discussion focuses more specifically on calling as it relates to the latter two elements. This “non-divine” calling has been described by Duffy and Dik (2013) as “a highly meaningful career that is used to help others in some 1  This is not to suggest that Buford did not also experience inherent pleasure (OAE) in doing this or use the other forms of FWI.

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fashion” (p. 429). This definition focuses more on the idea of a career that aligns with internal passions (Dobrow & Tosti-Kharas, 2011) than on an external summons (Dik & Duffy, 2009). However, it is important to note that current research suggests that the source of an individual’s summons does not appear to make a significant difference in the degree to which they perceive they are fulfilling their calling (Duffy & Dik, 2013). Based on Maslow’s theory (1970), the motivation or satisfaction derived from calling would be considered intrinsic in nature and an end in itself. Maslow’s (1970) premise was that the drive to find fulfillment by becoming all one is capable of becoming could serve as a powerful motivator under the right circumstances. Maslow (1971) also recognized the role of spiritual values in the self-actualization process as he described transcendence as something beyond self-actualization. Maslow described those who aspired to this as people who were more likely to be religious or spiritual in either the religious or non-religious sense (Walker, 2005). This motivational drive to self-actualize as well as attain other “higher level” needs identified by Maslow such as personal growth and achievement were described as resulting in intrinsic satisfaction or motivation (Hackman & Oldham, 1974; Herzberg, 1959). Based on this description, those whose work is perceived as calling would more easily see they are engaging in the process/activity experience (PAE) category of FWI. An English language teacher who works with refugees and views this work as ministering to aliens and strangers as commanded in Leviticus 19:34 would likely perceive this work as calling. As mentioned in a preceding paragraph, all occupational types can fall in any one of the job, career, or calling categories depending on the person and situational factors. In addition, the author’s dissertation research applying Miller and Ewest’s (2015) TIP demonstrated that those in staff, administrative, and faculty categories of college employees were equally likely to perceive their jobs as calling (Buszka, 2015; Buszka & Ewest, 2018). This research also indicated that those with the highest levels of calling were more apt to use all eight categories of the TIP. One of the conclusions from this research was that the everywhere integrator proposed in Miller’s (2007) model might be associated with having a high level of calling. The everywhere integrator is described as one who views “several if not all manifestations of integrating faith and work as part of a mature or aspirational state” (Miller, 2007, p. 139). Though high indications of calling and high levels of all eight faith/spirituality integration dimensions

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Table 10.1  Job, career, and calling FWI examples Focus

TIP type

FWI example

Job

Means to extrinsic financial end

Outcomes experience (OE)

Career

Means to extrinsic social end

Outcomes experience (OE)

Calling

Work is an intrinsic end in itself

Process/activity experience (POE) Also, more likely to use all 8 TIP categories

Using money from earnings to participate in a short term mission trip Employee heads up the company food drive for a local homeless shelter both for positive attention and because of the unique connections of their work position English language teacher of refugees who views this work as ministering to aliens and strangers as commanded in Leviticus 19:34

may be related, it could be that something else, such as being spiritually mature, could result both in high vocational calling and in high levels of faith/spirituality integration. However, these findings suggest that Miller’s (2007) everywhere integrator might possess higher levels of calling. Or, those with high vocational calling may be more likely to be an everywhere integrator. Either way, it appears that viewing work as a calling can be a powerful impetus for FWI. Table 10.1 provides examples of job, career, and calling as they can relate to FWI.

Job Characteristics and FWI Job Characteristics Model Significant research has demonstrated that specific job attributes or characteristics impact how meaningful and motivating work can be (Hackman & Oldham, 1974; Herzberg, 1959, 2003; Maslow, 1970, 1971). One model used for decades to explain and make recommendations for improving the motivating potential of a job is Hackman and Oldham’s Job Characteristics Model (JCM) (1974). This model analyzes a job based on its skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback. These characteristics impact the three critical psychological states of expe-

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rienced meaningfulness, experienced responsibility for outcomes, and knowledge of the actual results. According to the JCM, jobs that include many of these elements will have higher levels of motivating potential for job incumbents. In similar ways, jobs that provide workers with meaningfulness, responsibility for outcomes, and knowledge of results can also more easily be connected with FWI. For example, meaningful work has been associated with calling and work perceived as calling is more easily connected to God’s purposes. Using the TIP (Miller & Ewest, 2015) framework, meaningful work could be categorized as either the PAE or OE forms of FWI. With responsibility for outcomes, job holders can see that they are more than just a small cog in a large system because they have control in exercising choices that impact others and the world. This knowledge of responsibility for outcomes experienced by others fits within the TIP OE category of FWI. Similarly, when a job-holder has knowledge of the results of what they do, it allows them to see the bigger picture of how they contribute to others and society. This perception could fall in the TIP category of OE because it allows the worker to more easily connect their work outcomes with God’s people and the world. The individual job characteristics that produce these critical psychological states also relate to the ease with which FWI occurs. To illustrate this, consider the job of a kitchen worker at a local elementary school who was formerly only responsible to fill student meal trays each day from a pre-set menu and clean up the school kitchen. Based on the JCM, it was decided to increase the number of tasks to include occasionally walking around and talking to the children in the cafeteria, while noting what foods they most enjoyed and most often threw away. The worker would be asked to make a summary of findings to the kitchen manager each month and submit a confidential report of any observed health code violations. In addition to having increased skill variety, there is a greater chance that one or more of these new tasks would be perceived as meaningful or even perceived as aligned with a greater purpose. A person who loves children may find it especially enjoyable to talk with them about their likes and dislikes and make suggestions to management based on this information. For a person wishing to engage in FWI, this might fall in the process or experience (PAE). Walking around the cafeteria to note what the children eat or discard, and reporting on this to management also allows task identity because this involves the worker in the entire food-service process. This feedback about whether or not the children actually like and eat the food provided for them is the desired outcome of this process. Therefore, task identity increases the

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Table 10.2  Job Characteristics Model (JCM) and FWI as applied to the job of kitchen worker at an elementary school JCM category

Potential FWI impact

TIP category

Skill variety (more tasks)

Having a caring and engaging manner when talking to children about what they like, and making recommendations based on this may be perceived as meaningful or as including a “God given” skill or talent Making recommendations for improvement based on observing what children eat and what they discard follows this job to a completed outcome Talking to the children and observing what they eat, reminds the worker of their part in the significant process of supporting the nutritional health of young children Freedom to confidentially report health code violations increases the chance that work will be performed according to high ethical standards and ensures the outcome of children being served healthy and uncontaminated food Getting information from children and providing this information to managers provides knowledge that work is helping improve outcomes

Process/activity experience (PAE)

Task identity (completing an entire task) Task significance (knowing the importance of the task) Autonomy (discretion over how task is performed) Feedback (knowledge of results)

Outcomes experience (OE)

Process/activity experience (PAE)

Individual (IE) and community ethics (CE) & outcomes experience (OE) Outcomes experience (OE)

opportunity for feedback and FWI through outcomes experience (OE). Allowing the autonomy to confidentially report health code violations would facilitate performing work according to high ethical standards which relates to individual (IE) or community ethics (CE) and may result in better food quality outcomes (OE). A summary and examples of how the JCM can relate to FWI are provided in Table 10.2. Relational Job Design and FWI Relational job design is a more contemporary approach to modifying job characteristics to impact employee motivation by considering the relational architecture of jobs. Whereas the traditional job design theory focuses on the tasks performed, this approach considers how the context of relationships is built into jobs. Relational job design is based on research supporting that interpersonal relationships play a key role in allowing employees to perceive their work as meaningful and to make a positive difference in the

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lives of others (Grant, 2007). Research noted that employees who see their work as calling and those with altruistic values are more interested in work with a pro-social orientation (Wrzesniewski et al., 1997). It was also noted that relational elements of work are becoming ever more important because of the growth in service sector jobs (Tzortzaki, 2014) and work that includes customer service skills, teamwork and collaboration with co-workers (Grant, 2007; Osterman, 2000). Just as some jobs have a richer relational context (nurses in a hospital) others have depleted relational architectures because they have little contact with the beneficiaries of work actions (a night janitor or assembly line worker). Therefore, relational job design involves making changes in the relational architecture of work by connecting employees to the individuals or groups their work benefits (Grant, 2007). Grant explains that the job outcome benefits can fall in the categories of physical (e.g., healthcare), hedonistic (e.g., entertainment), eudaimonic (e.g., counseling), and material (e.g., financial advice). This theory also stresses that people can carry out meaningful tasks without having meaningful relationships with the beneficiaries of their work (Grant, 2007; Gutek, Bhappu, Liao-Troth, & Cherry, 1999; Stone & Gueutal, 1985). Therefore, attention must be paid to how the job is designed to facilitate relationship building by considering the frequency, duration, proximity, depth, and breadth of contact with beneficiaries of job actions. We propose that jobs rich in relational architecture will lend themselves more naturally to FWI because the job itself is designed to facilitate the building of relationships that enable job holders to see how their work makes a positive difference in the lives of others. Perceiving work as meaningful relates to outcomes experience (OE). The inherent pleasure or enjoyment of interacting with the beneficiaries of one’s work would fall in the PAE category. The relationships with clients, customers, and co-workers would allow for the others forms of TIP integration such as: more opportunity to set an ethical example (SE) or form alliances in the workplace to take a stand on organization or social-ethical issues (CE); pray for (IE) or with (GE) these people; and verbally (VE) or nonverbally (NVE) share the gospel  with them. For example, Grant (2007) provided a quote from a firefighter describing willingness run into a burning building, at risk of harm or death, because of a deep connection to the surrounding community. This job, though extremely dangerous, is clearly perceived as having an important outcome (OE) of saving a life. Feeling energized by endorphins while in the process or activity of rescuing a victim could fall in the category of PAE. The altruism of endangering

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one’s own life to save another’s would qualify as ethical behavior (SE). Working with members of the community to make sure that fire codes are maintained by negligent, absentee landlords would fall in the community ethics (CE) category. Praying for (IE)or with (GE) the victims of a fire could be a natural response for a Christian firefighter. Coordinating a drive to collect household and clothing items for the victims of the fire (NVE) and sharing that you were motivated to do this to display God’s love (VE) would be nonverbal and verbal forms of FWI related to this example. This does not suggest that every job designed to maximize relational architecture will result in all forms of TIP FWI. As discussed in Chap. 9, it is still the individual who responds to these contextual elements. For example, for some firefighters, running into a burning building may never be perceived as a meaningful activity, or all the downtime and uncertainty waiting to be called to a fire could be very boring and stressful. For this person, the PAE type of FWI may be elusive. However, the other forms of FWI are still available to them. The example of a firefighter job with relational architecture conducive to FWI is provided in Table 10.3. Therefore, the relational architecture of a job impacts how easily FWI can occur because those occupying such positions will have more opportunities for FWI. As discussed earlier in this chapter with respect to the job Table 10.3  Job with relational architecture conducive to FWI: firefighter TIP category of FWI

FWI example related to the personal relationships structured into to position of firefighter

Community ethics (CE)

Working with members of the community to make sure that fire codes are maintained by negligent, absentee landlords The altruism of endangering one’s own life to save another’s Sharing with fellow firefighters and rescue victims them that your actions are motivated by God’s love and the hope of the gospel Coordinating a drive to collect household and clothing items for fire victims Saving a human life Feeling energized by endorphins while rescuing a victim Praying with other firefighters for their safety and the safety of the victims of the fire Praying by oneself for the safety of other firefighters and victims of fire

Self-ethics (SE) Verbal expression (VE)

Nonverbal expression (NVE) Outcomes experience (OE) Process/activity experience (PAE) Group enrichment (GE) Individual enrichment (IE)

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characteristic of autonomy and in Chap. 9 (individual influences), it is also possible that job holders may craft work to include more relational ­elements. In Chap. 11, we will also discuss that the Organization’s mission and culture can impact how jobs are designed and the freedom given to employees to adjust or modify their jobs to include more relational elements. Leadership Roles and FWI Jobs that include responsibility for others can present an opportunity for FWI as discussed in the previous section, but may also limit certain types of FWI. Leadership is a broad role category that cuts across all occupational categories and this role does not have to be officially ascribed to have a significant impact on organizational performance (Shaughnessy, Treadway, Breland, & Perrewé, 2017). Those with responsibility for others automatically have some of the relational architecture that could enhance the meaningfulness of this role. In addition, the JCM task elements of skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback are naturally built into a leader’s job responsibilities. Leadership is commonly discussed as associated with managerial positions and is considered one of the key functions of effective managers. Skill variety is a key component of a manager’s job. Early research by Mintzberg (1971) on this topic identified at least ten key categories of managerial roles (Tsui, 1982), each with their own set of various related activities and responsibilities. In addition, the four primary functions of management have been commonly categorized as including planning, organizing, controlling, and leading (Robbins & Coulter, 2018). These various responsibilities of leaders and those who manage others clearly involve many different types of work tasks, and this increases the chance that at least some of them be personally meaningful. As part of the planning and leading process, leaders influence others toward goal attainment. This responsibility includes identifying goals (planning) and monitoring whether goals have been accomplished (controlling). Leaders select goals based on perceived significance and identify expected goal outcomes. Setting goals and monitoring whether they have been achieved provide task identity and feedback. Finally, leaders also often have the autonomy to decide how to accomplish goals. These examples using the JCM model demonstrate that the leadership role includes many tasks that can provide the leader with the potential for more meaningful work. In much this same way, because of the task characteristics

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Table 10.4  Leadership roles and FWI Leadership roles and functions Leaders’ responsibility for followers’ FWI Leaders’ potential limitations for FWI

Increased potential for FWI because of the many tasks involved in leadership Leaders’ example and support can significantly impact followers’ FWI Possible perception of misuse of power may limit verbal (VE) and nonverbal (NVE) forms of FWI

involved in leadership and the built-in relational architecture of this role, there is a significant opportunity for various forms of FWI. In addition to the capability for more personal FWI, leaders also have a significant opportunity to influence others’ FWI. There has been an abundance of research on the topic of leadership focusing on the leader’s ability to impact the follower in all types of organizational behavior and outcomes. The relationship with the immediate supervisor plays one of the most significant roles in employee engagement and loyalty (Cunha, 2002; Rich, Lepine, & Crawford, 2010). To this list, we add that, in similar ways, leaders can impact if and how employees integrate faith in the workplace depending on their own demonstration of FWI.  A description of how leadership roles can encourage FWI is summarized in Table 10.4. However, when a work role includes responsibility for others, particularly when a reporting superior-subordinate reporting relationship exists, challenges may exist because of the power inherent in the leadership position. The author’s dissertation (Buszka, 2015; Buszka & Ewest, 2018) found differences in FWI with respect to the most preferred mode of TIP between those who had formal responsibility for others and those who did not. In this study, individuals falling in the staff category were significantly different from the faculty and administrative groups in the use of verbal (VE) and nonverbal expression (NVE). The results indicated that administrative and faculty employees were significantly less likely than the staff employees to engage in FWI by talking about their faith and by wearing or placing faith-related items in the workplace. Because faculty and administrators have direct authority over students and other employees, they may believe expressing faith and spiritual beliefs and values at work might be a misuse of position power. Therefore, faculty and administrators may refrain from overt faith-related discussion or the use of symbols or dress in their formal roles. Also, faculty and administrators may believe they are being scrutinized in their more public roles and could be accused more

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readily of coercive proselytizing. Research also cited that in recent years the idea that faith is to be kept private and not openly discussed in ­teaching or scholarship has been conveyed in academia (Gross & Simmons, 2007). This could cause those in visible academic leadership roles to be reluctant to openly share their faith/spirituality. Dirty Jobs or Unpleasant Work Jobs that are considered dirty or unpleasant in nature, such as garbage collector or nurses aid may present special challenges with respect to the identity and self-esteem of those performing this work (Weaver & Stansbury, 2014). For such positions, the use of religious scripts and schemas that include service to others, humility and magnanimity might provide tools for reframing their work in ways that can overcome threats to self-esteem and identity (Ashforth & Kreiner, 1999; Ashforth & Vaidyanath, 2002). Scripts and schemas can be used to reframe unpleasant work to be viewed as serving God and others and (as a result) held in higher esteem by God. For example, the scriptural admonition that the first will be last and the last shall be first (Matthew 20:16 NIV; Philippians 2:6–11), could help job incumbents to focus on how God sees their work that God elevates those in low circumstances. Instead of perceiving their work as demeaning through the perspective of worldly status, using the TIP, reframing dirty work to focus on service to others and the benefits it brings them can guide this type of work to be perceived as OE FWI. A religious schema emphasizing that one should and can do all things to the glory of God (Colossians 3:17) could encourage work to be performed according to high ethical standards which is consistent with IE in the TIP model. However, simply because it is possible to reframe dirty work to be viewed in ways consistent with FWI, does not mean that the aforementioned techniques of job redesign or job crafting should not be attempted. Yet, it may never be possible to eliminate all forms of dirty work. As Kreiner, Ashforth, and Sluss (2006) state: “Dirty work represents a type of necessary evil in society: Garbage must be collected, prisoners must be guarded, and fires must be fought” (p.  619). A corresponding view is shared in Genesis 3:17 when God admonishes Adam with these words: “Cursed is the ground because of you; through painful toil you will eat food from it all the days of your life.” This passage has been used by theo-

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Table 10.5  Dirty work and FWI • Religious scripts and schemas can be used to reframe unpleasant work to be viewed as serving God which would relate the OE form of FWI • Unpleasant work can focus on the ethical performance of work which would relate to the SE form of FWI • All jobs contain undesirable elements and the act of reframing unpleasant, dangerous, boring, or stressful tasks as service to God can be considered a form of FWI

logians to explain how sin also affects the realm of work. Yet, as mentioned previously, there are also verses in the Bible that explain how God elevates those in humble positions and desires Christians to treat them with special respect (see 1 Corinthians 12:12–30). Therefore, if dirty work or parts of jobs that are unpleasant are viewed by God and others as having special dignity, it can help the workers see this work as more meaningful and as a form of FWI.  Key points about dirty work and FWI are included in Table 10.5.

Occupational Identification Occupational identification is defined as the degree to which a person defines themselves in terms of the work they do or the profession to which they belong (Ashforth & Mael, 1989). Research has shown that the degree of occupational identification has been related to many individual and organizational outcomes including, pride, emotional effects, and turnover intention (Conroy, Becker, & Menges, 2017). Hirschi (2012) found a positive relationship between calling and occupational identification in a sample of 529 German University alumni. These findings supported the idea that callings are of a predictor of occupational identification and that those with higher calling are more apt to identify with their work and find it more meaningful. Based on our previous discussion of calling, because those with high occupational identification would also be more likely to see their work as something they were created to do, they would more easily integrate work with faith. This could easily tie in with the TIP PAE form of FWI. Social identifications such as occupation also impact the way events are interpreted and guide action (Conroy et al., 2017). Therefore, occupations that stress behaviors and attitudes consistent with FWI would provide a consonant environment for the worker to engage in FWI, par-

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ticularly in the areas related to complying with the individual (IE) and community ethical (CE) behavior. Profession vs. Occupation Specialized knowledge available to members not available to nonmembers, self-regulation, and autonomy are characteristics that distinguish a profession from other types of occupations (Perlis & Shannon, 2012). To ensure that this specialized knowledge is used to benefit and not harm members of the public, it is expected that each profession self-regulates. Some methods for maintaining ethical norms within professions include technical standards, credentialing, accreditation, and codes of ethics. Many professional occupational groups set standards of performance that are often consistent with the TIP self-ethics (SE) and community ethics (CE) forms of FWI as they set performance standards as well as guidelines for appropriate behavior toward colleagues, clients, customers, and the public. The list of such groups is lengthy and each group generally develops and publicizes its own professional code of ethics. One of the oldest is the Hippocratic Oath which has been the standard for medical ethics in the Western Civilization (Kao & Parsi, 2004) and likely a model for other codes of ethics in fields such as law, accounting, and engineering (Backof & Martin, 1991). As the author is a member of the Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM), a comparison was made between this organization’s ethics and Biblical precepts. This assessment revealed great consistency between this group’s ethical principles and God’s standards of behavior. This supports other research suggesting that Christian ethics are the foundation for many other codes of behavioral ethics (Minow, 2001). Though the simple existence of a professional code of ethics does not mean all will act in accordance with established guidelines, such codes do provide official support and guidance for Christian professionals who aspire to integrate faith using self (SE) or community ethics (CE). A review of how the SHRM code of ethics relates to Biblical precepts is provided in Table 10.6. Occupational Categories The previous discussion and other research have established that job characteristics appear to impact FWI, especially jobs perceived as more desirable (Lynn, Naughton, & Vanderveen, 2010). Yet, throughout this book,

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Table 10.6  SHRM code of ethics and Biblical precepts Ethical element

Core principle (as defined by SHRM)

Intent (as defined by Related Biblical truth SHRM) and related type of FWI

Ethical leadership Form of FWI: self (SE) or community ethics (CE)

HR professionals are expected to exhibit individual leadership as a role model for maintaining the highest standards of ethical conduct

To set the standard and be an example for others. To earn individual respect and increase our credibility with those we serve.

Fairness and justice Form of FWI: community ethics (CE), process/activity experience (PAE) or outcomes experience (OE)

As human resource professionals, we are ethically responsible for promoting and fostering fairness and justice for all employees and their organizations

To create and sustain an environment that encourages all individuals and the organization to reach their fullest potential in a positive and productive manner

Proverbs 22:1 “A good name is more desirable than great riches; to be esteemed is better than silver or gold.” 1 Corinthians 3:1–2 Are we beginning to commend ourselves again? Or do we need, like some people, letters of recommendation to you or from you?2 You yourselves are our letter, written on our hearts, known and read by everyone Psalm 103:6 “Blessed are they who observe justice, who do righteousness at all times.” Romans 14:13 “Therefore let us stop passing judgment on one another. Instead, make up your mind not to put any stumbling block or obstacle in the way of a brother or sister.” Galatians 3:28 “There is neither Jew nor Gentile, neither slave nor free, nor is there male and female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus.” (continued)

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Table 10.6  (continued) Ethical element

Core principle (as defined by SHRM)

Intent (as defined by Related Biblical truth SHRM) and related type of FWI

Use of information Form of FWI: community ethics (CE), process/activity experience (PAE) or outcomes experience (OE)

HR professionals consider and protect the rights of individuals, especially in the acquisition and dissemination of information while ensuring truthful communications and facilitating informed decision-making

To build trust among all organization constituents by maximizing the open exchange of information, while eliminating anxieties about inappropriate and/or inaccurate acquisition and sharing of information

Exodus 20:16 “You shall not give false testimony against your neighbor.” Proverbs 11:14 “A gossip betrays a confidence, but a trustworthy person keeps a secret.” Ephesians 4:25 “Therefore, each of you must put off falsehood and speak truthfully to your neighbor, for we are all members of one body.”

Information taken from Society for Human Resource Management by laws (http://www.shrm.org/ about/bylaws_ethics/Pages/CodeofEthics.aspx)

it has been maintained that God can be glorified in all occupational categories. Stevens (1999) shared that in our work roles, we are perceived as co-creators with God in tasks that include a broad range of occupational pursuits falling in cultural, material, political, aesthetic, artistic, medical, technical, and relational categories—which we referred to as stewardship or co-regency in Chap. 4. Yet, it appears that some occupational categories more naturally lend themselves to FWI than others. Those commonly associated with calling tend to fall in this category. According to the Barna Group (Denzel & Kinnaman, 2018), though the majority of Christians surveyed saw the potential for a variety of occupations to be categorized as callings, “there was a subtle perceived hierarchy to this regard, with ministry-­related jobs at the top and more technical jobs at the bottom” (p. 30). Respondents were asked to rate 14 occupations on the degree to which they were associated with calling, ranging from pastor to school janitor. This group of positions also included one unpaid occupation, that of parenting. The top three were pastor, missionary, and worship leader, followed by parent in the fourth position. In contrast, the bottom four

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were plastic surgeon, financial advisor, accountant, and school janitor. However, when this same group was asked whether it was better for Christians to be pastors or missionaries (rather than work in other ­positions), 64% indicated that neither was better. These responses support the discussed divide between sacred and secular work. This dualism is not consistent with the theology shared in this book but does suggest that even when people agree that “all work can be God’s work” (Keller & Alsdorf, 2012), there is a perception that some occupations serve God more than others.

Conclusion: The Need for Christian Career Guidance Though Christians appear more interested than before (Denzel & Kinnaman, 2018, p. 19) in what they are called to do vocationally, only 40% agree strongly that they know how their specific skills and talents should be applied and 34% reported they want to know more about how to serve God through these talents. Beyond the desire to know specifically how to serve God with skills and talents, the current generation may be poorly equipped to make appropriate choices from the myriad of career options available in the current labor market. For example, it has been said that in developed, post-industrial economies the wide variety of choices available to fulfill one’s purpose can be overwhelming and counterproductive. This has been referred to as “terrible freedom” by Guinness, in his book, The Call (2003, p. 21). This is in contrast to other civilizations in history which had more clarity of purpose and fewer available vocational options. In addition, members of Generations X and Y have been raised with the idealistic view that they can become anything they want or dream to be (Twenge, 2009). For this reason, they tend to consider a wider range of potential occupations and expect that they will be able to find one aligned to their specific and unique calling. Another potential problem mentioned by Guinness (2003) regarding the search for calling or purpose was that it could become a selfish pursuit simply to fulfill one’s uniqueness or individual identity. He also shared the misunderstanding by some Christians who discounted an ordinary call to work and serve because they waited for a special call from God presented in a supernatural way. He reminded readers that there was not one instance in the New Testament of a person being called into a specific career.

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For this reason, career guidance for Christians is more important than ever, whether this comes in the form of one-on-one mentoring, small group studies, or professional career coaching. Though it has been ­discussed in Chap. 9 that career guidance for Christians should include a discussion of calling related to their personal faith, it is especially recommended for those unable to perceive a calling. Counselors, mentors, or small group leaders should help both the called and “uncalled” explore the variety of ways they can engage in FWI using information from this chapter and especially the TIP. These conversations should include a discussion of person-job fit using career assessment tools such as the Strong Interest Inventory (Dik, 2006) and established career choice theory such as Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) (Kaminsky & Behrend, 2015). How the task characteristics of different occupations can help or hinder FWI should be explored, as well as similarities and differences between a person’s faith principles and job values and responsibilities (Horvath, 2015). For those already employed and unable to easily integrate faith in their current work situations, they can be guided to use job crafting techniques discussed in Chap. 9 and explore the possibility of changing the relational architecture of their current position to enhance the possibility of FWI. If, for financial, family, or other personal reasons, a person is not able to change jobs, they could be encouraged to engage in meaningful volunteer work or hobbies (Berg, Grant, & Johnson, 2010). Alternatively, there may be cases in which the person is so ill-suited, unhappy or spiritually compromised because of the nature of the work or work situation, that the only option may be to provide guidance to transition to another occupation. Within the career guidance process, it is important to share that, though the personality characteristics considered in the career assessment process are relatively stable over time, religiosity and calling may develop and change (Horvath, 2015). This means that a job for which a person is well or poorly suited with respect to FWI may change over time, requiring periodic reevaluation and possible adjustments. Finally, as mentioned in a previous section of this chapter, Christian career guidance should include a discussion of how there are distasteful and unpleasant elements in all work because of the sinful, fallen nature of the world. It would highly unrealistic for any Christian to expect that, even with the best career planning, resulting in high levels of person-faith-­ job fit, that a person will be fulfilled all or most of the time while working. It is for this reason that the tool of developing faith and work-related scripts and schemas should be included in the career guidance process to

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help Christians see even the most unpleasant work as God-honoring. As stated in, I Corinthians 12:23, “the parts we think are less honorable, we treat with special honor,” reminds us that God’s view of what is honorable work may be quite different from ours.

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Horvath, M. (2015). Predicting work outcomes from religiosity and perceived calling. The Career Development Quarterly, 63(2), 141–155. https://doi. org/10.1002/cdq.12010 Kaminsky, S.  E., & Behrend, T.  S. (2015). Career choice and calling. Journal of Career Assessment, 23(3), 383–398. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 1069072714547167 Kao, A. C., & Parsi, K. P. (2004). Content analyses of oaths administered at U.S. medical schools in 2000. Academic Medicine, 79(9), 882–887. https://doi. org/10.1097/00001888-200409000-00015 Keller, T., & Alsdorf, K. L. (2012). Every good endeavor: Connecting your work to God’s work. New York, NY: Penguin Books. Kreiner, G., Ashforth, B., & Sluss, D. (2006). Identity dynamics in occupational dirty work: Integrating social identity and system justification perspectives. Organization Science, 17(5), 619–636. https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc. 1060.0208 Lynn, M. L., Naughton, M. J., & Vanderveen, S. (2010). Connecting religion and work: Patterns and influences of work-faith integration. Human Relations, 64(5), 675–701. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726710386396 Maslow, A. H. (1970). Motivation and personality. New York, NY: Harper & Row. Maslow, A.  H. (1971). The farther reaches of human nature. New  York, NY: Viking Press. Miller, D.  W. (2007). God at work: The history and promise of the faith at work movement. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Miller, D. W., & Ewest, T. (2015). A new framework for analyzing organizational workplace religion and spirituality. Journal of Management, Spirituality & Religion, 12(4), 305–328. https://doi.org/10.1080/14766086.2015.1054864 Minow, M. (2001). On being a religious professional: The religious turn in professional ethics. University of Pennsylvania Law Review, 150(2), 661. https://doi. org/10.2307/3312974 Mintzberg, H. (1971). Managerial work: Analysis from observation. Management Science, 18(2). https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.18.2.b97 Ortberg, J. (2001). If you want to walk on water, you’ve got to get out of the boat. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Pub. House. Osterman, P. (2000). Work reorganization in an era of restructuring: Trends in diffusion and effects on employee welfare. Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 53(2), 179. https://doi.org/10.2307/2696072 Perlis, C., & Shannon, N. (2012). Role of professional organizations in setting and enforcing ethical norms. Clinics in Dermatology, 30(2), 156–159. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.clindermatol.2011.06.002 Rich, B. L., Lepine, J. A., & Crawford, E. R. (2010). Job engagement: Antecedents and effects on job performance. Academy of Management Journal, 53(3), 617–635. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2010.51468988

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Robbins, S. P., & Coulter, M. K. (2018). Management. New York, NY: Pearson Education. Shaughnessy, B.  A., Treadway, D.  C., Breland, J.  W., & Perrewé, P.  L. (2017). Informal leadership status and individual performance. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 24(1), 83–94. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 1548051816657983 Skelsey-Guest, H. (2014). Maslow’s hierarchy of needs  – The sixth level. Psychologist, 27(12), 982–983. Stevens, R. P. (1999). The other six days: Vocation, work, and ministry in biblical perspective. Grand Rapids, MI: W.B. Eerdmans Pub. Stone, E. F., & Gueutal, H. G. (1985). An empirical derivation of the dimensions along which characteristics of jobs are perceived. Academy of Management Journal, 28(2), 376–396. https://doi.org/10.5465/256207 Tsui, A.  S. (1982). A role set analysis of managerial reputation. Academy of Management Proceedings, 1982(1), 265–269. https://doi.org/10.5465/ ambpp.1982.4976642 Twenge, J. M. (2009). Generation me: Why today’s young Americans are more confident, assertive, entitled—And more miserable than ever before. New York, NY: Free Press. Tzortzaki, M. A. (2014). Knowledge-based strategies for managers in the service sector. Management Research Review, 37(10), 858–879. Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.daemen.edu/docview/1651367978?ac countid=10399 Walker, M. (2005). A comparison of Protestants in the workplace; What effect does a church workplace ministry program have on Protestant workers’ job satisfaction, organizational citizenship behavior, and organizational commitment within certain faith integration types? (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Regent University, Virginia Beach, VA.  Retrieved from http://www.princeton.edu/ faithandwork/research/tip/current/ Weaver, G. R., & Stansbury, J. M. (2014). Religion in organizations: Cognition and behavior. Religion and Organization Theory Research in the Sociology of Organizations, 41, 65–110. https://doi.org/10.1108/s0733-558x_2014_ 0000041011 Wrzesniewski, A. (2011). Callings. Oxford Handbooks Online. https://doi. org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199734610.013.0004 Wrzesniewski, A., Mccauley, C., Rozin, P., & Schwartz, B. (1997). Jobs, careers, and callings: People’s relations to their work. Journal of Research in Personality, 31(1), 21–33. https://doi.org/10.1006/jrpe.1997.2162

CHAPTER 11

Work Organization Influences and Strategies

Introduction The third sphere in our Faith and Work Integration Spheres of Influence model (FWSI) is that of the work organization. This is the arena in which the individual Christian worker applies their personal faith (Chap. 9) within a given occupational role (Chap. 10), using guidance they may or may not have received from outside faith organizations (to be discussed in Chap. 12). It has been recognized that organizational-level factors such mission, culture, and policies can have significant impact on employee behavior, including the likelihood of employees integrating faith in the workplace (Weaver & Stansbury, 2014). Likewise, in addition to person-­job fit, there has been growing emphasis on how the person–organization fit (Memon, Salleh, & Baharom, 2014; Sekiguchi, 2004) impacts the employment relationship. It has also been acknowledged that when individuals choose to become parts of an organization, there will be an interaction between their spiritual being and the nature of the organization (Pawar, 2017). Much like the individual is comprised of personal values, beliefs, and ways of behaving (personality), organizations are comprised of values, beliefs, and norms of behavior and (culture). These individual and organizational factors may be or may not be compatible with each other (Ashforth & Pratt, 2010). Though (as Chap. 9 discussed) the individual plays the major role in determining their personal faith-work path, the organization can prompt, channel, or discourage this journey depending on many of its attributes. This © The Author(s) 2020 S. G. Buszka, T. Ewest, Integrating Christian Faith and Work, Palgrave Studies in Workplace Spirituality and Fulfillment, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-22914-6_11

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is an extremely broad area with much potential for future research and development. This chapter is meant to provide a broad overview of various organizational-level factors that may inhibit or encourage FWI. Organizations can range from being faith-based, in which employees agree to comply with specific religious doctrine, to organizations whose cultures are openly hostile to even subtle expressions of faith. Where an organization falls on this spectrum is a function of a number of factors including the general purpose for which the organization was established, the founders’ values and initial vision and mission for the organization, the resulting organization culture, and the legal environment in which the organization operates. Within the United States, whether the organization is for-profit, not-for-profit, public sector, entrepreneurial, or faith-based in nature also impacts the environment for FWI. Whatever the nature of the organization, with only a few exceptions, the law provides protection for employees against religious discrimination in the workplace. Also, evidence suggests companies that go beyond the law to be faith-friendly may reap many benefits. Therefore, as displayed in Fig. 11.1, the nature of the organization has a significant impact on whether and how easily its employees are able to engage in meaningful FWI.

Sphere B: Occupational Influences Sphere A: Individual Influences

12

14

10

4

Sphere D: Faith Organization Influences

13

2

8

Sphere C Work Organization Influences

15

9 1

6

Sweet Spot

5

3 7

11 16

Neither desire nor opportunity to integrate faith and work

Fig. 11.1  Faith and work integration spheres of influence model (FWSI): work organization influences

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Organizational Purpose While within a capitalist economy it may seem the profit motive drives organizations, there are other important reasons organizations exist. Organizations also produce products for human consumption, provide services to support or enhance society, and attempt to resolve social problems. Based on these different purposes, organizations can be quite distinct from each other in a number of ways. The study of positive psychology purports that an organizations’ nature and purpose affects the well-being of its members by supporting or enhancing qualities like compassion, forgiveness, courage, and resilience (Weaver & Stansbury, 2014). In much the same way, this book contends that organization purpose impacts the nature and type of FWI that may occur within its physical or virtual structure. As Miller and Ewest’s (2015) TIP model was used in previous chapters, it will also be used to discuss organizational influences on FWI. For example, an organization with the primary purpose of profit maximization would most likely align with the outcomes experience (OE) in which profits could be seen as contributing to the greater good of the economy, shareholders, and society at large. In addition, according to Milton Friedman’s (2007) view, profit maximization could also be considered the ultimate form of socially responsible behavior. Those ascribing to this position would see it as consistent with community ethics (CE). Producing products for human consumption or use could also be viewed as OE  if these products benefit customers in positive ways. This can include almost limitless possibilities such as producing healthy food, quality baseball bats, helpful GPS technology, or restorative prosthetic limbs. Providing services could also be viewed as OE if the services (such as healthcare) improve the quality of life in society. Providing a service could also be considered a form of community ethics (CE), if this service helps solve or correct an injustice in society (such as providing language training to refugees). Organizations whose primary purpose is to solve a social problem (such as human trafficking) may provide obvious environments for FWI. In such organizations, work could be viewed as OE as it works toward the outcome of combatting human trafficking. Also, many who work with trafficked individuals may find the process or activity of work inherently meaningful (PAO). Community ethics (CE) would also be facilitated through knowledge that work directly relates to solving a societal ethical issue. As discussed in previous chapters, the potential exists for all forms of FWI to be manifest in various organization types, based on

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Table 11.1  Organizational purpose and FWI Purpose

Most amenable TIP type

Examples that could be perceived as FWI

Profit maximization

Outcomes experience (OE)

Profits are seen as contributing to the greater good of the economy, shareholders and society at large Profit maximization viewed as being socially responsible Manufacturing prosthetic limbs enhances the life of others Manufacturing vaccines that prevent the spread of disease Providing healthcare services improves the quality of life in society Providing language training to refugees and asylum seekers helps support those who experience ethical injustice Organization exists to improve the lives of human trafficking victims Many in human trafficking organizations find working directly with trafficked individuals inherently meaningful Organization performs work that directly relates to solving a societal ethical issue

Community ethics (CE) Produce Outcomes products experience (OE) Community ethics (CE) Provide services Outcomes experience (OE) Community ethics (CE) Solve social problems

Outcomes experience (OE) Process/activity experience (PAE) Community ethics (CE)

individual, occupational, and faith-organizational influences. However, as summarized in Table  11.1, we suggest that the purpose for which the organization exists can make some forms of FWI more obvious and easily expressed than others.

Organizational Purpose and Form Just as organization purpose can impact FWI, the type of organization in which this purpose is achieved also impacts the nature and type of employee FWI. Some of these forms are determined primarily by purpose (such as for-profit vs. not-for-profit organizations), others by decree (government organizations), and still others by their founders (faith-based, small, or entrepreneurial businesses). Each of the four purposes (profit maximization, producing products, providing services,

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and solving social problems), or a combination of these purposes, may be fulfilled within most of these organization forms—with a few obvious exceptions. So, even though for-profit businesses exist to maximize profits by producing products or providing services, they generally don’t exist to solve social problems (though they may). Not-for-profit organizations need to generate revenue to achieve their goals; however, profit maximization would be incompatible with their not-for-profit status. Also, even when organizations exist for the same purpose, strategic choices can be impacted by the form they take. For example, a study by Horwitz (2005) indicated there were differences in the types of services offered in non-profit, for-profit, and government hospitals. These hospital types were compared based on the profitability of service types offered. For-profits were slightly more likely than non-profits to provide relatively profitable medical services, and both were considerably more likely to offer profitable services than government hospitals. Government hospitals were most likely to provide relatively unprofitable services than the other two types. These results may be explained because of the lower level of accountability at government hospital (taxpayer dollars) as compared to private hospital shareholders. This research indicates that even for organizations engaged in the same basic purpose (in this case, the service of providing healthcare), their organizational form can result in different strategic choices. For-profit vs. Not-for-Profit For-profit businesses, as the term suggests, exist to make profits for its owners to be reinvested or distributed as they (or a board of directors) see fit. Though for-profit businesses account for the largest segment of the US economy, organizations that exist for purposes other than profits play a significant societal role. In 2013 the United Nations estimated that not-­ for-­profits accounted for 7.4% of the workforce and 4.5% of the Gross Domestic Product (Strang, 2017). These non-profit and not-for-profit organizations can be religious and non-religious and have been granted tax-exempt status. They have been described as existing to bring about change in individuals and society and focus on creating social value through benevolent or altruistic endeavors including such issues as homelessness, poverty, pollution drug addiction, and disease (Gamble & Beer, 2015; Harding, 2004).

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Non-profit and Not-for-Profit Though the terms non-profit and not-for-profit (NP-NFP) are often used interchangeably, even by academics (Reinhardt, 2000), there are some technical differences (Sisk & Shoenberger, 2018; Wilkinson, 2014). While both can apply for tax exemption, non-profits are more likely to be 501(c) (3) organizations such as religious and charitable or environmental organizations. Not-for-profits are more likely to be membership organizations such as recreational, sports, or pleasure organizations and would apply for exemption under 501(c)(7). However, for this chapter’s purpose of discussing organizations that do not exist to make a profit, we will also use the terms interchangeably by employing a combined acronym for both, NP-NFP. Public Sector Public sector is a third form of organization that may impact FWI differently than either for-profit or NP-NFP organizations. In the United States, public sector organizations must not exist to make a profit because of their association with the government and support with taxpayer dollars. Public sector organizations are run by the government for the purpose of managing or providing services for society. Public organizations have been distinguished from private ones in that many have a citizen-elected leadership, they are multifunctional in nature, and they have to deal with sometimes conflicting constituent groups. Additionally, most do not operate within a free and competitive economic market (Christensen, Lægreid, Roness, & Røvik, 2011). A brief summary of the purposes of these three forms of organization is provided in Table 11.2. Table 11.2  Organization purpose and form Organization form

Purpose

For-profit

Exist to make profits for its owners to be reinvested or distributed as they (or a board of directors) see fit. Largest sector of the economy Exist to bring about change in individuals and society and focus on creating social value through benevolent or altruistic endeavors Exist for the purpose of managing or providing services for society and are run by the government

NP-NFP Public service

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For the first part of this chapter’s discussion, the primary distinctions in organizational forms will consist of comparing for-profit, NP-NFP, and public sector organizations. Later in the chapter, FWI in the other sub-­ categories of for-profit and NP-NFP organizations will be discussed. These will include small and entrepreneurial businesses and faith-based organizations. Purpose and Vision Flowing from the overall purpose of the organization is the organization vision that acts as a guide and reference point to provide focus and direction for the organization (Hull & Lio, 2006). Broadly speaking, the organization’s vision “can be equated to an organization’s ideals and goals” and viewed as “a symbol of what it does” (Hull & Lio, 2006, p. 2). There is also belief that these public statements can impact organizational performance outcomes when related organization decisions and behaviors flow from them (Bart, Bontis, & Taggar, 2001; Weiss & Piderit, 1999). A for-­ profit organization’s vision is generally reflected in its public mission statement and would generally relate to profit maximization or increasing shareholder wealth. In contrast, a NFP-NP’s vision would be most likely communicated in a charter or public mission statement and would describe the social goal for which the organization exists. Though profit maximization is foremost within the mission of for-profit organizations, many will include other goals such as quality service and ethical treatment of employees. FedEx Corporation provides an example of this: FedEx Corporation will produce superior financial returns for its shareowners by providing high value-added logistics, transportation and related business services through focused operating companies. Customer requirements will be met in the highest quality manner appropriate to each market segment served. FedEx will strive to develop mutually rewarding relationships with its team members, partners and suppliers. Safety will be the first consideration in all operations. Corporate activities will be conducted to the highest ethical and professional. (Investor Relations, n.d.)

While for-profit organizations seek to maximize profits, NP-NFPs seek to maximize the service of fulfilling a social goal (Hull & Lio, 2006). More than half of NP-NFP are public charities whose primary purposes are religion related (21%), education (16%), arts and culture (10%), human

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services (9%), recreation and sports (7%), community improvement (5%), health (4%), philanthropy (4%), environmental (3%), housing/shelter (3%), and all others (18%) (Scheitle, 2010, p. 14). The NFP-NP’s vision would most likely describe a goal from among categories such as these. Agape International Missions provides an example of a NP-NFP mission statement and related vision statement. Mission: “To rescue, restore and reintegrate survivors of sex trafficking through Christ’s love and Gospel. To prevent sexual slavery by planting and equipping the Church to do the same in vulnerable and exploited communities worldwide. Eph. 2:8; 2 Cor. 5:17; Ps. 9:9, 74:21, 82:3; Matt. 25:31–36, 28:18–20; John 6:25–40 and Rom. 1:16, 8:37–39” Vision: “The love of Jesus Christ through His followers will defeat the evil of sex trafficking and sexual slavery. Matt. 16:18; Phil. 2:9–11; 1 Peter 4:7–11” (About, n.d.)

Public sector organizations are more similar to NP-NFP organizations in their basic identified purpose to provide service. Since these organizations focus on service to civil society, their employees are often referred to as civil servants. Government organizations, the postal service, fire and police departments, public schools, and libraries are examples of the diverse nature and purpose of the public sector. The New York State Police describes its mission as follows: The New York State Police works to ensure the safety of the state’s roadways, prevent and investigate crime, prepare for and respond to emergencies and disasters and provide support to other law enforcement agencies. (New York State Police, n.d.)

There has been discussion in literature that the strong community and public service missions held by NP-NFP and public sector organizations can serve as motivators for employees to join and perform well in such organization types (Wright, Moynihan, & Pandey, 2012). These differences in vision may impact the possibility for FWI in these three general organization categories. Though all eight TIP manifestation types (Miller & Ewest, 2015) can be found in all three organization forms, the experience and ethics manifestations appear to most directly relate to organizational purpose or vision. For example, a for-profit organization, with the primary purpose of profit maximization, would most likely align with outcomes experience (OE) in that profits could be seen as contributing

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to the greater good of the economy, shareholders, and society at large. In addition, according to Milton Friedman’s (2007) view, profit maximization could also be considered the ultimate form of socially responsible behavior. Those ascribing to this view would see it as consistent with community ethics (CE). Charles Handy (1996) presents a more philosophical view of the purpose of for-profit business, seeing the business organization as a village in which shareholders are not owners but financiers who assume risk and workers are not employees, but instead citizens of this “organization village” (Fisher, 2003). Handy maintains that, as citizens, workers’ rights should include a share in the profits they helped create. Handy’s more worker-focused view would also see profit maximization as ethical if a fair portion of these profits is returned to the workers. In contrast, NP-NFPs whose primary purpose is to solve a social problem (such as human trafficking) may provide a more obvious environment for FWI. In these organizations, work could be viewed as OE as it contributes toward the outcome of combatting a social problem such as human trafficking. Also, many who work in these organizations work directly with clients and may find the process or activity of work inherently meaningful (process/ activity experience [PAE]) because they are able to see the direct impact their work has on those they serve, such as the victims of human trafficking. Community ethics (CE) would also be facilitated through knowledge that work directly relates to solving a societal ethical problem such as rectifying the social injustices of human trafficking. For those in public sector organizations, providing necessary and important services to the public in a high-quality manner (such as providing police protection) could be viewed as a valuable outcome necessary to support a civil society (OE). Those in public service jobs who work directly with community members providing such things as safety and protection may find this inherently meaningful (PAE). In addition, if the provided public service upholds the laws of the land so that society runs according to principles of right and wrong, this could be perceived as work involving CE. These examples of how organization purpose and vision can relate to FWI are described in Table 11.3. For-profits, NP-NFP, and public sector organization types can be sub-­ categorized in ways that may further impact FWI based on how this vision is fulfilled. For-profit businesses maximize profits by producing products, providing services, and even (in some cases) by helping solve a social problem. In contrast, NP-NFPs most often provide a service that works toward solving a social problem. In some cases, a product is made or sold, but as

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Table 11.3  Organizational category, purpose/vision, and FWI Organization type

Purpose/vision

Most amenable FWI type

For-profit

Profit maximization

Outcomes experience (OE)

Non-profit or Societal service not-for-profit maximization (NP-NFP)

Public service Civil service maximization

Examples that could be perceived as FWI

Profits are seen as contributing to the greater good of the economy, shareholders, employees, and society at large Community Profit maximization viewed as being ethics (CE) socially responsible, especially also when employees benefit from profits Outcomes Organization exists for the outcome experience of improving the lives of human (OE) trafficking victims Process/activity Many in human trafficking experience organizations find working directly (PAE) with trafficked individuals inherently meaningful (PAE) Community Organization performs work that ethics (CE) directly relates to social injustices brought about by the societal ethical problem of human trafficking Outcomes Providing police protection is experience necessary to protect members of a (OE) civil community Process/activity The activity or process or working to experience keep community members safe may (PAE) be perceived as meaningful Community Police monitoring and protection ethics (CE) upholds standards of right and wrong in society

a part of solving the social problem. Ten Thousand Villages is an example of a non-profit product producing and distributing products. Its mission is being “passionate about creating economic opportunities which allow the artisans we partner with to build a better life for themselves and their families (through the practice of fair trade)” (Careers, n.d.). Since public service organizations exist to enhance the quality of life for citizens by providing services necessary for a safe, healthy, orderly, and edified society, these primary purposes are fulfilled by providing services or solving social problems. There may be rare occasions in which a product is produced, such as inmates working in state or federal run production industries. In

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these cases, work is perceived as part of the rehabilitation process and the generated revenue goes back into the prison system (Lebaron, 2008; Smith & Hattery, 2006). With respect to FWI, the manufacture of for-profit business products has the potential to be viewed as OE if these products benefit or enhance customers’ lives, or returns good to society in some way (Handy, 1996). Some products can more obviously be viewed as beneficial to society, such as the manufacture of prosthetic limbs, yet even a product as simple as shoe laces could be viewed as servicing society by providing shoes with more support and comfort for the wearer. For-profit organizations that provide services could be viewed as facilitating OE if the services (such as operating a high-quality daycare) improve life in society. If the process of caring and educating children is perceived as meaningful, this could also result in PAE. Pharmaceutical manufacturers that view their drugs as helping to alleviate the social problem of abating the spread of illness and disease could be viewed as engaging in community ethics (CE). NP-NFP organizations are primarily involved providing needed services or alleviating societal problems. Healthcare services, often provided by NP-NFP hospitals, clinics, or agencies, could provide OE because supporting and providing health to society members is easily viewed as a meaningful outcome. Doctors, nurses, therapists, and other healthcare professionals who work closely with patients in these organizations might also find this work process meaningful, and therefore, PAE could also result. Some may even consider it an ethical obligation to ensure that healthcare is provided to all members of society; therefore, this could also support the CE form of FWI. Agencies that provide language training to refugees or asylum seekers to help them adjust to new cultures may view this type of work as solving a social problem, therefore, resulting in a meaningful outcome (OE). This work may also involve meaningful processes and activities with refugees (PAE), and serve the societal ethical purpose of helping rectify an injustice (CE). Occasionally, a NP-NFP will produce a product as a means to supporting a primary goal of solving a social problem such as the Ten Thousand Villages example provided previously. This product would support a meaningful outcome (OE) and ­provide a sense of CE by helping improve the lives of women in third world countries. Public service organizations such as a police department could be viewed as creating conditions for its employees to experience the OE, PAE, and CE forms of FWI.  Protecting citizens from crime could be viewed as a meaningful outcome (OE). Also, working closely with people

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of the community to build relationships of trust and cooperation could be inherently meaningful to police officers (PAE). Also, being able to help prevent the sale and use of drugs by youth could be perceived as helping solve a social problem and supporting community ethics (CE) through this work. Though not as common, some NP-NFPs are engaged in producing and distributing products. As previously mentioned, some prisoners help manufacture products as part of their rehabilitation process and to help defray costly prison operations. Such production could be perceived as providing the valued outcomes of rehabilitation and revenue (OE). In addition, this could be viewed as contributing the ethical improvement (CE) of society as well as reducing the taxpayer’s burden by covering a portion of prison operating expenses. Examples of how FWI can relate to how these organizational types accomplish their purposes are provided in Table 11.4. As discussed in previous chapters, the potential exists for all forms of FWI to be manifest in all organizations, based on individual, occupational, and faith organization influences. However, the purpose for which the Table 11.4  Means of accomplishing purpose and organizational type Organizational type

Purpose: produce product

Purpose: provide service

Purpose: solve social problem

For-profit

Yes

Yes

For-profit FWI example

Manufacturing prosthetic limbs (OE)

Operate a day care center (OE and PAE)

NP-NFP non-profit

Possibly, but secondary Yes to solving a social problem Producing free-trade Provide jewelry (OE and CE) healthcare (OE and PAE) Rare, but secondary Yes to providing public service Prison industries Provide police rehabilitate prisoners protection (OE, (OE and CE) PAE, and CE)

Possibly, but secondary to providing product or service Manufacture pharmaceuticals to prevent the spread of disease (OE and CE) Yes

NP-NFP FWI example Public service

Public service FWI example

Provide language training to refugees and asylum seekers (OE, PAE, and CE) Yes

Help eliminate or reduce the drug sale to youth (OE, PAE, and CE)

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organization exists, and the means by which this is accomplished can make some forms of FWI more obvious and easily expressed than others. The examples provided seem the most obvious forms of FWI to occur in the given organization types described in this chapter. However, this does not mean that all will find work in such settings meaningful in these ways. Also, it may appear we are suggesting that working for companies that produce products is inherently less meaningful than for those which provide services or solve social problems. This is not our intent, and we acknowledge that some forms of production can be extremely meaningful and could result in high levels of PAE. However, this type of intrinsic satisfaction is very difficult to generalize in any meaningful way and is best left for analysis at the individual or occupational levels. Performance, Accountability, and Discretion Besides differences in purpose, mission and vision, for-profit, NP-NFP, and public sector organizations are subject to different performance measures by the various groups to which they are held accountable. Because of this, organizational leaders may have more or less discretion over decision-­ making and how they interpret standards and outcomes. These differences can impact on FWI. With for-profit organizations, there are more explicit criteria on which to measure performance success (such as profitability) and a more direct accountability link (shareholders). In contrast, NP-NFPs must weigh the often conflicting performance outcomes of societal change against revenue generation. In addition, NP-NFPs are often dependent on non-transactional sources of funding such as government grants and private donors, while being constrained by legal restrictions related to tax-­ exempt status. As a result, they must balance accountability to these various groups (Hull & Lio, 2006). Because of these competing accountabilities, NP-NFP managers often experience difficulty in gaining satisfaction from clearly meeting performance goals and balancing the demands of various stakeholder groups. Gamble and Beer (2015) suggested that managers of NP-NFP organizations may, instead, seek satisfaction as a member a “greater community” and look to a higher meaning for the work performed. Both of these may relate to an individual’s FWI. For example, besides focusing specific work performance outcomes, NP-NFP managers may see their role as part of God’s greater community and seek ways to find meaning in their work through community and group ethics (CE and GE). This could also

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include the use of religious scripts and schemas as discussed in Chaps. 9 and 10 and by engaging in individual or group enrichment (IE and GE) activities such as praying for organization work, employees, clients, and other stakeholder groups. Similarly, with competing accountability groups, the conflict over which groups’ needs takes precedence may be addressed by the individual manager applying Christian ethical principles (IE) to this struggle. The manager may decide, with the inability to meet the outcome expectations of all or even most of the parties to whom they are accountable, that God should be considered the ultimate accountability stakeholder (Schwartz, 2006). It has also been suggested that these NP-NFP issues of conflicting stakeholder groups and complicated performance measurement results in more discretion for the NP-NFP managers (Hull & Lio, 2006). Because these managers face performance metrics that are less easy to quantify, there is a greater need and opportunity for individual and personal assessment when deciding which strategic goals to pursue and how to pursue them. This means that, unlike for-profit managers, who must answer to straightforward goals such as profit maximization, NP-NFP managers can more easily make strategic choices influenced by personal, altruistic and society serving goals (Filistrucchi & Prufer, 2013). Such increased discretion can allow more opportunity for NP-NFP managers to make faith influenced choices. For example, non-profit art managers were found to legitimize their careers using a spiritual framework of calling, service, sacrifice, and rewards (Smith, Arendt, Lahman, Settle, & Duff, 2006). One area of discretion related to FWI that is often perceived as quite different for public sector organizations than for-profit and NP-NFP organizations is the freedom to allow religious expression in the workplace. Many believe “separation of church and state” creates a significant difference in how religion may be expressed in the public sector workplace because of government support and oversight. In addition to Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act which applies to all employers of 15 or more employees, two clauses to the First Amendment specifically apply to the presence of religion in the workplace; the Free Exercise Clause and the Establishment Clause. “The Free Exercise Clause protects religious expression against governmental power, while the Establishment Clause bars government from adopting a religion itself” (Ruan, 2008, p. 1). Because these clauses may appear to contradict each other, they can often cause problems for the application of Title VII in the public sector workplace. Although many working in the public sector believe that FWI is less

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acceptable than in other types of organizations, the same guidelines for religious discrimination and accommodation outlined in Title VII apply. Also, many believe that the public sector should set the example for the private sector in modeling religious accommodation best practices (White, 2003). Because this is a complicated matter, and often decided by the courts on a case by case basis, it is probably safe for those in public sector organizations to assume that the Title VII guidelines (discussed later in this chapter) would be appropriate, unless informed otherwise.

Other Organization Sub-categories Small or Entrepreneurial Organizations Other organizational types that can impact FWI include small businesses and entrepreneurial ventures. These can exist either as for-profit organizations or as social non-profit organizations. Though the term small and entrepreneurial businesses are often used interchangeably (“Facts & data on small business and entrepreneurship”, n.d.), they do have a number of distinguishing characteristics. A small business is defined as a business that is independently owned and operated and is not a dominant player in its field of operation. While entrepreneurial businesses are those that create some product or service combination that did not previously exist (Carland, Hoy, Boulton, & Carland, 1984). However, there is significant overlap in the two types because entrepreneurial businesses are also small businesses with features such as smaller size, personal ownership, and autonomy. As such, they both have similar potential to impact FWI. For these reasons, and because these terms are often used interchangeably in research and in reporting, we also group them together. The impact of small and entrepreneurial businesses is significant in the US economy, with a reported 28 million small businesses making up 99.7% of firms in the United States (McIntyre, 2018). Depending on the industry, small businesses can employ the maximum of anywhere between 250 and 1500 employees (McIntyre, 2018). However, based on a 2016 US Census Department survey, 89% of these businesses employed 20 or fewer workers (Facts & Data on Small Business and Entrepreneurship, n.d.). Because of their typically smaller size, we suggest there may be features that relate to FWI in these businesses that may be different from larger businesses. Some of these may include a closer alignment of founder’s personal goals and values with business goals and culture, less legal scrutiny with

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respect to religious accommodation, and the hiring of employees who are more likely to share similar values as owners. Also, with respect to Title VII religious protections, there is an exemption for organizations with fewer than 15 employees. This would allow very small businesses to make decisions about accommodating religion independently of the law. This could allow complete freedom to fully integrate faith, or could create an environment hostile to FWI, depending on the preference of business owners. However, literature suggests that smaller organizations often start out as more spiritual but lose their spirituality as they grow larger and are run by more formal command and control structures. Benefiel’s (2008) book, The Soul of a Leader, provided Tom’s of Maine as an example of a company that lost sight of its spiritual values as it grew larger. It was only through an intentional and difficult process by owners was Tom’s able to regain this. This is also consistent with research indicating that both spiritual and smaller organizations have flatter and more organic organizational structures, allowing for more flexibility and freedom to communicate with various stakeholder groups (Biberman, 2009). This suggests that the relational job design discussed in Chaps. 9 and 10 would more naturally occur in small organizations, allowing for the possibility of more intrinsically meaningful work (PAE). Key motivations for becoming entrepreneurs include the desire to be one’s own boss, to develop one’s own ideas, and to be financially successful (Rindova, Barry, & Ketchen, 2009). In addition, research indicates that in comparison to non-entrepreneurs, American entrepreneurs are more likely to believe in a personal God who is concerned about their personal affairs, and they pray more often. One study reported that almost half of the surveyed entrepreneurs prayed daily, and one-third prayed several times a day (Dougherty, Griebel, Neubert, & Park, 2013). Therefore, it appears entrepreneurs are a comparatively religious group. A summary of key points about small and entrepreneurial organizations and FWI is included in Table 11.5. Table 11.5  Small and entrepreneurial businesses and FWI •  Smaller organizations generally start out as more spiritual than larger organizations • Smaller organizations have flatter and more flexible organizational structures, allowing for more freedom to communicate with stakeholder groups. This creates a more relational job design, often resulting in more intrinsically meaningful work (PAE) •  American entrepreneurs are more religious than non-entrepreneurs

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Social Entrepreneurship Social entrepreneurs differ from other entrepreneurs in a number of ways, including the types of businesses they pursue, the importance of social mission, and expectations of stakeholders (Roundy, Taylor, & Evans, 2017; Short, Moss, & Lumpkin, 2009). They are described as representing a hybrid of two separate governing logics: that of a commercial logic, which is a business orientation, and social welfare logic which is associated with desire to create social value (Battilana & Dorado, 2010; Pache & Santos, 2013). Roundy et al. (2017) explain that this hybrid logic becomes multi-logic for faith-based social entrepreneurs (FBSEs) because they must incorporate a third logic, their religious orientation. The integration of these logic systems occurs in several phases (Roundy et al., 2017). The first phase is the desire to integrate faith and work followed by disenchantment because of dissonance due to current inability to integrate faith and work. Next, an epiphany occurs in which social entrepreneurship is seen as a viable option. A bridging phase follows when the individual sees how social entrepreneurship can relate to religious beliefs. Enlightenment results when the person recognizes FWI can be effectively achieved through social entrepreneurship. Whether or not most religiously motivated entrepreneurs go through these stages in the described fashion and sequence, this suggests that the desire for FWI can be a motivation to consider and pursue social entrepreneurship as a means to “do good, while doing well” (Roundy et al., 2017, p. 29). The social entrepreneur’s focus on identifying underutilized resources and putting them to use serving unmet social needs would fall in the FWI category of CE. Comments from faith-based social entrepreneurs suggest that many of the younger generation desire work to have aspects of social good, and are more interested in ways to link work, personal values, professional development and service to the community together. Social entrepreneurship provides this opportunity (Roundy et  al., 2017). To be able to achieve these outcomes through their business endeavors would fall in the categories of both outcomes and process/ activity experience (OE & PAE) FWI. Research looking at social entrepreneurs’ motivations for social ventures found their religion was a key influence (Roundy et al., 2017); therefore, it is likely that most forms of FWI could occur in social entrepreneurial organizations. Highlights of the relationship between social entrepreneurship and FWI are provided in Table 11.6.

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Table 11.6  Social entrepreneurship and FWI • Faith-based social entrepreneurs are governed by a multi-logic consisting of a business orientation, a desire to create social value and their religious orientation • The social entrepreneur’s desire to use underutilized resources to serve unmet social needs, could fall in the FWI category of community ethics (CE) • “Doing good, while doing well” may result in either outcomes experience (OE) or process/activity (PAE) forms of FWI for the social entrepreneur • Religion is a key influence for social entrepreneurs; therefore, it is highly likely that most forms of FWI could occur in their organizations

Family-Owned Businesses Research on family-owned businesses (FOBs) indicates that founder-­ owned and founder-run FOBs demonstrate more stewardship over the business, the corporate culture, and relationships with clients, than non-­ family founder-owned and founder-run businesses (Miller, Breton-Miller, & Scholnick, 2007). This suggests there may be unique attributes that support FWI from a family running a business. Stewardship over employees appears to be an area of particular strength for FOBs (Madison, Holt, Kellermanns, & Ranft, 2016). Research indicated that FOBs engaged in more employee training and created an informal environment in which people could be used to their full potential. This, in turn, enhanced employee tenure in FOBs. This is similar to Maslow’s self-actualization (Jones & Crandall, 1986) that would provide intrinsic satisfaction through engagement in meaningful work processes or activity (PAE). In addition to more training and development, FOBs were reported to have a work environment more supportive to women and families, with more female employees and more of these employees working from home. Such policies would provide a greater flexibility and enhance employee motivation through the outcome (OE) of work-life balance. FOBs were also shown to develop more enduring and encompassing relationships with clients. To help enable such relationships, family firms provided networking support, conducted more marketing training, and tended to focus on a circumscribed regional market (Miller et al., 2007). Building a network of relationship in such ways was recommended within our discussion of relational job design in Chaps. 9 and 10. The presence of more variety and breadth to human interactions while working can provide FWI through more meaningful work processes (PAE). A summary of key findings about family-­owned businesses that relate to FWI are listed in Table 11.7.

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Table 11.7  Family-owned businesses and FWI • FOBs were shown to engage in more employee training and create an informal environment in which employees can use their full potential and obtain intrinsic satisfaction through engagement in meaningful work processes or activity (PAE) • FOBs were shown to provide more flexibility and support of women which could result in the meaningful outcome (OE) of work-life balance • FOBs more naturally provide a network of relationships that support relational job design and result in more meaningful work processes (PAE)

Faith-Based Organizations The growing role and importance of faith-based organizations in the American workplace was discussed by Chan-Serafin, Brief, and George (2013) who shared that many companies openly promote themselves as faith-based. They provided an example in a Houston website directory, Christian Owned and Operated, which stated that to be included in this directory, a firm must agree to the following: We are a Christian owned and operated business who believes Jesus Christ came into the world as God’s one and only son, to forgive us of our sins and give everlasting life to those who accept him as their Lord and Savior. We operate our business under the same principles taught by Jesus Christ. (p. 1585)

Though this book focuses on the Christian faith, obviously FBOs exist in other religious categories, an example being the Buddhist Business Network (http://buddhistbusiness.com) (Chan-Serafin et al., 2013). Also, United Nations data indicated that religious, humanitarian non-government organizations (NGO’s) were affiliated with Christian (58.4%), Muslim (16.3%), Jewish (6.9%), Hindu (0.9%), spiritual (7.8%), and other (1.9%) religions (Petersen, 2010). While our first and second examples describe faith-based businesses, the third includes a religious breakdown of humanitarian non-profit organizations. These contrasting organization types illustrate the difficulty in defining what it means to be a faith-based organization. A review of how this term is used in a variety of literature types supports Sider and Unruh’s (2004) statement that: “The general term faith-based organizations is inadequate because no clear definition exists of what it means to be faith-based” (p.  109). And, though many have attempted to define and categorize faith-based organizations in a variety

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of ways (Unruh & Sider, 2005), these discussions have primarily focused on the social service non-profit sector (Bielefeld & Cleveland, 2013). Religious schools, parachurch organizations,1 and churches as employers (in particular, megachurches) are described as religious organizations (Tracey, Phillips, & Lounsbury, 2014). Closely held, for-profit businesses run according to Christian values and principles such as Hobby Lobby and Chick-fil-A have been described as Christian businesses (Lambert, 2009). Aren’t these all also faith-based organizations? A review of literature suggests that if the term “faith-based” is used as a general umbrella to describe an organization, it can include all of these organization types. In this book, faith-based organizations are described as falling into three categories. The first is the faith-based organization commonly associated the FBO acronym which includes religiously affiliated social welfare, non-profit organizations. Some parachurch organizations such as homeless shelters or disaster relief agencies might also fit within this group, depending on their purpose. The second category includes religion-affiliated schools, parachurch organizations, and churches (as employers). Though we discuss the significance of the church and parachurch organizations in Chap. 12 as promoting FWI in all groups of people, they are included in this chapter’s discussion pertaining to their specific employer-employee role. The third subgroup includes for-profit businesses that openly acknowledge that their companies are run according to religious values and practices. Therefore, this discussion will consider three sub-groups within the broad category of faith-based organizations: faith-based non-profit organizations (FBOs); religious organizations and Christian (or religious) for-­ profit businesses. These categories are summarized in Table 11.8. Despite their various forms, faith-based organizations (as a group) share missions, cultures, and work policies that reflect their founder’s religious affiliations. In some cases, these founders are religious groups, in Table 11.8  Faith-based organization categories Faith-based non-profits (FBOs) Religious organizations For-profit Christian (or religious) businesses

1

Religiously affiliated non-profit organizations involved in providing healthcare or social services Churches, parachurch organizations and religious schools Private businesses that are run according to Christian (or religious) values, principles and policies

 For a description of parachurch organizations, see Chap. 12.

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other cases they are religious individual owners. Therefore, it can be expected that all three categories will provide more opportunities for FWI than non-faith based organizations. Faith-Based Non-profits (FBOs) Christian non-profits, such as rescue missions or humanitarian aid organizations, educational institutions, and hospitals, are a special category of nonprofits that include both the faith-based and non-profit designation. Within this category it has been noted that there are differences in the values of key leaders depending on the religious affiliation of the organization (Filistrucchi & Prufer, 2013). Just as non-profit managers appear to have increased freedom to strategize based on personal values, research suggests that religious type (e.g., Catholic vs. Protestant) can also have a differential impact on strategy (Filistrucchi & Prufer, 2013). We suggest that an openly religious culture would be found in such organizations, including such things as prayer and the sharing of Bible verses in meetings with employees and clients. However, there are some unique challenges to FWI for Christian non-­ profits with respect to whether or not the organization receives government funding. Research has demonstrated that for Christian non-profits, the acceptance of government funding coincided with a shift away from religious language within the formal organization. Scheitle (2009) examined expressed identity on 990 tax forms for Christian non-profits before and after receiving government funding. For example, prior to receiving government funding, a human-rights advocacy organization described itself as a “Christian ministry” with a “scriptural” mandate. This was removed from its narrative (along with the word “spiritually” in another sentence) the year after receiving government funding. This suggests that faith-based nonprofits may feel there is a trade-off between full faith integration in the workplace and accepting government funding. Also, because language impacts the perception of religious schemas available to apply to FWI, less use of religious language may also impact the level of FWI (Scheitle, 2009) that occurs in publically funded faith-based non-profits. Religious Organizations In the United States, the First Amendment’s “Ministerial Exception” exempts churches from religious discrimination prohibitions, particularly for those in church leadership or ministerial positions (Encarnacion,

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2017). Title VII of the 1964 Civil Right Act contains a much broader exemption for “religious corporations” with respect to the employment of individuals of a particular religion to perform work connected with the carrying on…of [its] activities (Cummings, 2007). Specifically, Section 702 of Title VII, 42 U.S.C. 2000e-1(a), allows employers who are religious organizations be permitted to prefer co-religionists with respect to hiring and certain other employment decisions. This statute applies to organizations such as churches, church associations (such as the American Baptist Association and the Presbyterian Church in America), parachurch organizations, and religious schools. Many within religious organizations accept that hiring employees with similar religious beliefs and values is essential for an authentic and effective performance of job duties. Likewise, significant research has established there are many benefits to organizations when there is congruence between employee and organization values (Amos & Weathington, 2008). Therefore, if employee values are used as a selection criterion in non-religious organizations (Sekiguchi, 2004, 2007), it is not surprising that religious organizations do the same. Under the law, hiring based on religious values is allowed in religious organizations. However, this does not mean that all religious employers refuse to hire those of different faiths or who profess no faith. For jobs  that do not require promoting faith values or interacting regularly with congregants (such as a janitor or security guard), religious employers may decide faith-­ congruence is not a necessary job requirement. Also, consistent with the focus of this book, hiring non-religious employees might provide an opportunity for sharing the religion’s values and beliefs with the non-­ religious employee. It is important to note that in such cases that religious employers decide to hire employees who do not hold to their religious beliefs, employers are prohibited from subsequently discriminating on the basis of religion for other employment-related conditions such as compensation, benefits, and promotions (Encarnacion, 2017). More specifically, Section 703(e)(2) of Title VII, 42 U.S.C. 2000e-2(e) (2) provides that is not unlawful for a school, college, university, educational institution, or institution of learning to hire and employ employees of a particular religion if such institution is, “in whole or substantial part, owned, supported, controlled, or managed by a particular religion or by a particular religious corporation, association, or society, or if the curriculum of such school, college, university, or other educational institution or institution of learning is directed toward the propagation of a particular religion” (Cummings, 2007). Therefore, many faith-based educational

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institutions require employees adhere to a specific religious creed and religious schools may follow and teach according to specific religious beliefs, practices, and guidelines. For these reasons, religious schools have different rules, processes, and outcomes from public schools because of their religious affiliation. Researchers have examined differences between faith-affiliated colleges and those which are public or non-sectarian. Differences were found in areas such as culture (Bradley & Kauanui, 2003), curriculum (Hodge & Derezotes, 2008), views on student character development (Turi, 2012), faculty organizational commitment and work engagement (Bell-Ellis, Jones, Longstreth, & Neal, 2013), and perceived calling (Thompson & Miller-Perrin, 2003). In the author’s dissertation (Buszka, 2015; Buszka & Ewest, 2018), Miller and Ewest’s (2015) eight integration dimensions were examined to assess whether differences existed in Protestant faith-­ based colleges, a Roman Catholic affiliated college and a non-sectarian college. Research results revealed that working at an openly faith-affiliated college was significantly different from working at a Roman Catholic affiliated college or a secular college with respect to FWI. This study indicated that employees at Protestant, faith-based colleges (that required faculty and administrators to sign a statement of faith), were more likely to engage in FWI using all forms of Miller and Ewest’s TIP. When a college is affiliated with a particular faith, requires that employees be in agreement with that faith, and openly encourages the integration of faith values into policies and curriculum, employees will feel they can (or even should) freely integrate their faith/spirituality. Christian (or Religious) For-profit Businesses Lambert (2009) describes Christian businesses as those businesses that make “an explicit effort to align business practices with Christian principles,” and as such they are “guided by the Bible, prayer, and a strict Christian code-of-ethics” (p. 54). Hobby Lobby is an example of a faith-­ based company that has received legal and media attention because of the Christian principles held by its owners. A recent court case determined that Hobby Lobby was not required to relinquish its right to free exercise of religion by being forced to provide “four potentially life-ending contraceptive to drugs and devices in their family business health plan” (Marshall, 2016, p. 1). By refusing to go public and remaining a closely held company, Hobby Lobby is able to operate according to religious principles

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such as remaining closed on Sundays, playing Christian music in the stores, and placing Christian ads in the paper. Another faith-based organization known for Christian principles is the fast-food chain, Chick-fil-A which also remains closed on Sunday, and openly dedicates each new store to God’s glory. Although most Christian companies are small, they join larger organizations such as these in running their businesses with great attention to personal morality and according to religious principles (Lambert, 2009). Research has shown that faith-based employers can have very different types of relationships with their employee, customer, community, and supplier stakeholder groups as compared to non-faith-based organizations (Ibrahim, Rue, McDougall, & Greene, 1991). Researchers examining the practices of Christian businesses found these firms to openly engage in a wide variety of practices that would fall in the category of verbal and nonverbal expression (VE and NVE) forms of FWI.  Some examples of VE included such practices as inviting customers to meetings to hear Christian testimonies, inviting customers to church, conducting “friendly Christian” conversations with customers, and praying and sharing advice from Biblical scriptures. Examples of NVE included displaying Christian principles in prominent areas (such as the company’s reception area); enclosing Biblical quotations in product containers, packaging, invoices, stationery, monthly statements, or customer order forms; using Christian symbols (e.g., a cross or a fish in company logo); and printing Biblical verses on restaurant menus (Ibrahim et al., 1991; Lambert, 2009). Because of such differences, many have raised the question whether it is legal for faith-based companies to force their religious views on ­employees, customers or suppliers, and this question has been the subject of a number of recent court cases (Fleming, 2016; Martorana, 2016). Though Title VII contains an exemption for “religious corporation[s],” allowing them to discriminate on the basis of religion “with respect to the employment of individuals of a particular religion to perform work connected with the carrying on…of [its] activities” (Cummings, 2007, p. 2), this has generally been applied to churches, non-profit employers and educational institutions. However, the right for differential treatment by forprofit faith-based employers was most recently upheld under The Religious Freedom and Restoration Act (RFRA). This act states that “Government shall not substantially burden a person’s exercise of religion even if the burden results from a rule of general applicability…” and “the Supreme Court held that closely held for-profit corporations are considered ‘per-

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sons’ under this act” (Martorana, 2016, p.  1). Though the RFRA was intended to restore a free exercise test to protect the religious rights of non-profits and of individuals operating for-profit business organizations, the court decided that is could also be applied to closely held family businesses whose mission is defined based on Christian governing principles (Marshall, 2016). For the time being, this ruling upheld the right for faith-based organizations, with a limited number of shareholders (who do not trade publically), to run their businesses in a manner openly consistent with Christian principles and values. Therefore, employees working for such organizations would likely find both freedom and encouragement to engage in most TIP (Miller & Ewest, 2015) forms of FWI. Two key points from our research on faith-based organizations and FWI are as follows: • Researchers examining the practices of Christian businesses found these firms to openly engage in a wide variety of practices that would fall in the category of verbal and nonverbal expression forms of FWI. • Employees working for faith-based organizations would likely find both freedom and encouragement to engage in most forms of FWI.

Organizational Culture Organizational culture has been described as “the values and beliefs that characterize organizations as transmitted by the socialization experiences newcomers have, the decisions made by management, and the stories and myths people tell and re-tell about their organizations” (Schneider, Barbera, & Keyton, 2014). Because organizational culture is a system of shared meaning for organizational employees, it can also serve as a schema for meaning that may enhance or replace personal schemas (Weaver & Stansbury, 2014), including those related to faith. Therefore, there are a number of organizational culture elements that may have a significant impact on FWI. Organizational Spirituality Organizational spirituality has been described as organizational culture guided by a socially responsible mission, with leadership and business practices that recognize the contributions employees make to the organization, while also promoting individual spiritual well-being (Kinjerski & Skrypnek, 2006, p. 262). Researchers have noted that organizational spiri-

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tuality is distinct from individual spirituality and workplace spirituality, but has a significant interactive role with these other spiritual concepts (Pawar, 2017; Weitz, Vardi, & Setter, 2012). Individual spirituality is influenced by personal values, beliefs and behaviors, closeness with God, and interconnectedness with the world and living things” (Zinnbauer, Pargament, & Scott, 1999). Workplace spirituality has been described as “employees’ workplace bound experiences such as meaning in work and community at work” (Pawar, 2017, p. 988). Fry (2003) discussed that while workplace spirituality is influenced by calling and membership, organizational spirituality is comprised of such factors as vision and altruistic love. Ashmos and Duchon (2000) suggested that an employee’s experience of workplace spirituality results from the interaction of individual spirituality and organizational spirituality. This views the organization as the setting in which the individual can (potentially) connect with their work and with others to experience workplace spirituality. Pawar (2017) studied how these three related (but distinct) concepts interacted to affect employees in the workplace and found organizational spirituality to have about five times stronger influence on meaning and 200 times stronger influence on community than did individual spirituality. These findings suggest the powerful role organizational spirituality can have on helping the employee experience FWI in the workplace, even for individuals without high levels of individual spirituality. Strong vs. Weak Cultures There has been research indicating that the strength of an organization’s culture (Weaver & Stansbury, 2014) can impact FWI in the workplace. Because organizational culture can serve as schema for interpreting meaning, depending on its nature, a strong organizational culture may displace personal meaning-making schemas. For example, a strong culture that does not support faith expressions may crowd out faith values. In contrast, a weak or fragmented culture might allow the use of alternative faith-­ based schemas. Research also indicated that working for a directive organizational culture may cause people to rely on religious scripts and schemas (Ashforth & Pratt, 2010). In addition, since culture has been shown to be conveyed by rituals (Islam & Zyphur, 2009) and material symbols (Pratt & Rafaeli, 2006) in the workplace, a culture that permits religious relationships, practices, and symbols will impact FWI by allowing these to act as psychological primes or reminders to engage in FWI (Chaves, 2010;

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Weaver & Stansbury, 2014). Such a culture may also allow co-religionists to identify with each other (Chaves, 2010) which can support and encourage FWI. Symbols or other artifacts of religious culture may also provide cues about and individuals’ faith to others. This may result in them being treated differently as a result. Naturally, this treatment can be positive or negative depending on the faith views of the other employees. In addition, religious symbols may remind individuals of their own identities and result in the creation of faith-based scripts and schemas (Weaver & Agle, 2002) to provide meaning to the outcome or process of their work activities (OE and/or PAE). A strong organizational culture can have both a positive and negative impact on FWI as summarized in Table 11.9. Size and Organizational Culture As organizations grow in size, their collective meaning structures change and evolve. Some of this occurs through a natural process of evolution and some may occur through the intentional shaping of corporate culture through structural and cognitive cultural carriers (Kondra & Hurst, 2009; Pedersen & Dobbin, 2006). There are a number of factors related to organizational culture and size that may impact FWI.  For example, some researchers posit that large organizations are more apt to offer extrinsic rewards to compensate for routinized jobs with limited autonomy. This is in contrast to smaller organizations that offer more socially meaningful work, but at lower levels of compensation (Ban, Drahnak-Faller, & Towers, 2003). Thus, the different reward systems may create cultures in which there is more emphasis on outcomes experience (OE) in large organizations and more focus on process/activity experience (PAE) in small organizations. In addition, the more formal or distant relationships that often exist in larger organizations may also impact FWI. Small organization cultures may encourage developing closer relationships than in larger Table 11.9  Strong organizational cultures and FWI • A strong culture that does not support faith values may crowd out FWI, while a weak or fragmented culture might allow the use of faith-based schemas • A culture that permits religious relationships, practices, and symbols will impact FWI by allowing these to act as psychological primes or reminders • The presence of religious primes may result in the creation faith-based scripts and schemas to provide meaning to outcome or process work activities (OE and/or PAE)

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organizations. As discussed in previous chapters on relational job design, relationships with co-workers, customers and clients can help provide meaning to work and, as a result, more PAE may occur. In addition, research indicates that work desirability is higher in small organization and these more desirable work characteristics may enhance FWI (Davidson & Caddell, 1994; Grant, O’Neil, & Stephens, 2004; Lynn, Naughton, & Vanderveen, 2010). There is also some evidence suggesting that FWI is more likely to occur in smaller rather than larger organizations (Weaver & Stansbury, 2014) and that the perception of individual schemas relating to faith occurred less often in larger organizations (Lynn et al., 2010). Thus, the different nature of the work and the work culture in large compared to small organizations may impact whether faith is easily integrated. These key points about organization size and FWI are summarized in Table 11.10. Ethical Workplace Culture Organizations with strong ethical cultures should, by their very natures, encourage and support individual and community ethics (IE and CE). The National Business Ethics Survey of 6420 employees indicated that the percentage of companies with “strong” or “strong-leaning” ethics cultures increased to 66% in 2013, up from 60% in 2011 (Meinert, 2014). Some attributed this increased focus on ethics to the various high-profile corporate scandals2 which occurred during the first decade of the twenty-­ first century. This may also be the result of the numerous cited advantages of ethical organizational cultures, including higher levels of employee satisfaction and organizational commitment, lower levels of turnover and lower levels of employee misconduct (Guerci, Radaelli, Siletti, Cirella, & Table 11.10  Organization size and FWI • Size can be related to different reward systems which may result in emphasis on extrinsic outcomes (OE) in large organizations and on intrinsic meaningful work processes (PAE) in small organizations • The more intimate relationships in small organizations may result in jobs with more meaningful work activities (PAE) because of their relational job characteristics • Evidence suggests FWI is more likely to occur in smaller rather than larger organizations 2  Some of the most notable of these involved Enron, Worldcom, AIG, Countrywide Financial, Lehman Brothers and Siemens AG (Arnaud & Schminke, 2012).

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Shani, 2013). A 2013 survey reported that only 20% of employees in strong ethical cultures reported observing misconduct, while 88%  witnessed wrongdoing in companies with the weakest cultures (Meinert, 2014). These findings propose that organizations can benefit in many ways by promoting cultures in which individual ethics (IE) and community ethics (CE) can thrive. Companies with ethical cultures often extend the scope of their ethical behavior to engage in social and environmental good deeds within and outside of the organization including. Research has also determined a relationship between corporate social responsibility and employee job performance and organizational commitment (Ali, Rehman, Ali, Yousaf, & Zia, 2010; Brammer, Millington, & Rayton, 2007). It appears that how the organization treats others within and outside of the organization is important to employees (Glavas & Kelley, 2014) and supports the idea that employees want to work for organizations engaged in doing good (Sirota, Mischkind, & Meltzer, 2005). The prevalence of community volunteer programs provides an example of companies tapping into employees’ desire for socially responsible activities or programs. SHRM reported that 40% of companies surveyed in 2014 had programs that allowed employees paid time off to do volunteer work (“2014 Employee Benefits,” 2014). These types of activities may enhance employees’ CE and PAE forms of FWI through outside work activities encouraged and supported by the organization. To summarize, key points about FWI in ethical organizations are as follows: • An ethical organizational culture can provide an environment in which employees’ individual ethics (IE) and community ethics (CE) can thrive. • Employees’ community ethics (CE) and experience of meaningful work (PAE) can be supported by organization sponsored socially responsible activities in the community.

Legal Protections There are various perceptions about the potential legal problems related to the integration of religion in the workplace. The first is the view of the ­overzealous proselytizer who oversteps boundaries, offends other organizational members and interferes with the normal flow of work. Another is of harassment and overt discrimination by those of a majority faith against

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those of a minority faith. However, it has been suggested that the major problem and cause of most religious discrimination lawsuits is not overt or intentional acts such as these. Instead, it is more often that an employees’ religious rights are violated  unintentionally by the uninformed person in authority who is not familiar with others’ need for religious accommodation in the workplace (Miller, 2005). Nevertheless, this does not mean than accommodating employees’ religion is a simple process which does not require insight and sensitivity. In fact, evidence suggests that religious discrimination is becoming more of a problem in the workplace. The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) received 3721 charges alleging religious discrimination in 2013 and this number was double those filed in 1997 (Wilkie, 2014). Therefore, it is important that organizations be familiar with how best to accommodate religion in the workplace  if they wish to be sensitive to the religious beliefs of their employees and avoid litigation. What is presented below is an overview of what would be considered appropriate guidance for all business organizations. In addition, there may be additional accommodations faith-friendly and faith-based organizations choose to make, as long as these are not in violation of the law, especially with respect to those of other faith traditions. As discussed in previous chapters, the Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act prohibits discrimination on the basis of religion by employers with 15 or more employees (“Facts about Religious Discrimination,” n.d.). Executive Order 11246 also prohibits federal government contractors and subcontractors from discriminating on the basis or religion. This order describes employment discrimination as both direct disparate treatment and indirect disparate impact through a neutral policy that results in discrimination: Employment discrimination is illegal and generally results when a person is treated differently (usually less favorably) because of his or her race, color, religion, sex, sexual orientation, gender identity or national origin. In addition, employment discrimination can result when a neutral policy or practice has an adverse impact on the members of any race, sex, or ethnic group and the policy or practice is not job related or required by business necessity. (Guide for small businesses with federal contracts, n.d.)

Based on these laws, in the United States most employers recognize that they have a legal responsibility to accommodate religious expressions or practices of faith so long as they do not cause undue hardship or disrup-

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tion in the workplace. However, this involves more than just making sure that a worker receives time off for religious holidays or is not harassed in the workplace based on religion (Miller, 2005). This law also prohibits harassment and negative workplace actions based on nonverbal demonstrations of faith or spirituality such as religious dress and grooming policies. Specific dress or grooming policies may appear to be neutral on first inspection, but may have a disparate impact on employees because of their religious beliefs or practices. Requiring women to wear pants around mechanical equipment as a safety requirement was one such policy that resulted in a religious discrimination claim (Wilkie, 2014). Examples of such policies are provided within our next discussion of the law and FWI. In addition, the EEOC states that these provisions be applied not only to those of a formally recognized religion but also to those with “sincerely held religious, ethical or moral beliefs” (“Facts about Religious Discrimination,” n.d.). Therefore, this could protect those who claim to be spiritual but not practicing a particular religion. The Law and FWI In reference to verbal expression (VE), this law has been interpreted to allow employees to talk openly about their faith/spirituality during breaks and lunch periods. However, employees may be restricted from proselytizing during the time they are being paid to work or from using company technology to share their faith/spiritual views. It has also been suggested that employers develop policies against religious harassment to reduce tension that may be created by employees who do not welcome when others share their faith in the workplace (Rudin & Harshman, 2004). With respect to nonverbal expression (NVE), the law has been interpreted to allow the employer to restrict employees from displaying religious items with a specific policy to this regard. However, if no such policy exists, an employee could display religious items in their work area. Experts suggest that an appropriate approach would be for the employer to allow employees to display religious items in private work areas, but prohibit their display if the employee’s workspace is in a common area such as a company receptionist in main lobby. Another area falling in the NVE category of religious accommodation relates to dress codes. According to US Federal Guidelines: “An employee must be permitted to wear religious garb, such as a crucifix, a yarmulke, a head scarf or hijab. In addition, employees must be allowed to follow their

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religion’s prohibitions against wearing certain garments, such as Muslim, Pentecostal Christian or Orthodox Jewish women’s practice of not wearing pants or short skirts” (“Guidelines on religious expression in the Federal workplace”, n.d.). Organizations must also allow employees to adhere to religious grooming requirements or hair-length observances, such as a Sikh’s uncut hair and beard, Rastafarian dreadlocks or Jewish sidelocks (Wilkie, 2014). Such accommodations must be made by the employer if wearing such attire or being groomed in a certain manner during the work day is part of the employee’s religious practice or expression, so long as this does not unduly interfere with the functioning of the workplace…” Accommodation requirements raise the nebulous questions of how “sincerely held beliefs” are defined and what is considered “undue hardship” on the employer.” For example, in one case, a manufacturer wanted to require a female employee to wear pants around machinery to avoid risk of a skirt or dress getting caught in equipment. Because her religion prohibited this, she would not comply. However, the courts ruled that there was no risk to the company if the woman wore a skirt that was fitted (Wilkie, 2014). In contrast, it would be acceptable for an employer to require a male worker with dreadlocks to wear a hair net when working around food, as long as female employers with long hair are also required to do so. Because of protections provided by Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act and subsequent court interpretation, it can often be unclear as to the best ways to accommodate the religious beliefs of a diverse workforce. It may appear inconsistent to, in one case, require a Wiccan to stop chanting in an employer’s bathroom on breaks, yet to allow another Wiccan to chant with incense in an isolated part of a warehouse (Sullivan, 2013). Or, it could seem unfair to allow one athletic club receptionist to wear a long skirt because of religious requirements for modesty, yet deny another employee a similar exception for non-religious reasons (Wilkie, 2014). Yet both these cases were deemed appropriate under the law. These examples describe the complexities and challenges employers may face when accommodating those with sincerely held religious beliefs, while also not offending those of differing belief systems or disrupting workplace productivity. Human Resource best practices recommend creating workplace cultures in which employees feel free to request specific types of religious accommodations and the leaders are open and responsive to these requests (Accommodating Religion, Belief and Spirituality in the Workplace Toolkit, 2015).

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Creating a Faith-Friendly Organization Clearly, there are many factors that interact to provide an organizational environment more or less conducive to FWI. Ashforth and Pratt (2010) described three organizations types based on individual and organizational control over faith or spiritual integration. Enabling organizations possess high individual control but low organizational control. These organizations acknowledge employees may desire faith or spiritual integration, but allow employees to determine how this will be expressed. Directing organizations exhibit a high level of control by imposing its preferred views on employees and allowing employees little discretion over FWI. They choose to promote values and policies consistent with their mission and view of their organization’s role in the world. Partnering organizations reflect a balance between the other two types because both the organization and the individual have control and work together to arrive at the appropriate type of spiritual or faith integration. FWI flows from the interchange between the employee and organization. This partnering organization type seems to fit best with our FWSI model in that both acknowledge that FWI is a function of an interaction between the individual and the context in which they work. The bottomup approach enabling organization take may leave employees feeling ­ unsupported and uncertain about how their efforts at FWI will be received. In other cases, employees may integrate faith in ways that are inappropriate in a given organization’s setting. The top-down approach, in which the organization dictates what is appropriate may result in employees who engage in practices that inauthentic or even contrary to their own faith or spirituality. Employees may also feel frustrated with no freedom to personalize their FWI.  The information within this book could be helpful to organizational leaders who choose to partner with employees in determining appropriate FWI because the FWSI model acknowledges the impact of both the individual and the organization on this process. The application of this information to the workplace may allow leaders to become aware of the faith/spiritual make-up of their organizations, to understand how employees may choose to exhibit their beliefs at work, and to develop appropriate policies and practices related to these. Organizations that are knowledgeable and supportive in these ways may be perceived as faith-friendly (Miller & Ewest, 2011). These companies respect and welcome all expressions of faith as long as they are compliant with the law. The term faith-friendly company is consistent with the

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idea of “respectful pluralism” proposed by Hicks (2003) as a way to be inclusive of all religious faiths and spiritual beliefs. Such companies may accrue the benefits of increased diversity and inclusion, fewer religious discrimination lawsuits, increased employee engagement, higher job satisfaction, greater employee loyalty, and improved recruiting and retention (Miller & Ewest, 2015). It could be affirming to employees when companies understand how their faith and spirituality may be integrated at work. Also, when employers promote understanding others’ unique ways of integrating faith and spirituality, it can help develop tolerance toward those who are different. David Miller (2007) explained that a faith-friendly organization is one that recognizes the centrality of faith in the lives of many of its employees, as well as their desire to integrate faith in all areas of life, including the workplace. These organizations recognize that faith is an essential component to being human for most employees and consider the employee as being comprised of body, mind, and spirit. However, faith-friendly employers acknowledge this without being intrusive, favoring one tradition over another, excluding certain groups, using the organization to proselytize, or turning the company into a “house of worship” (Mitchell, 2006). Specific practices to support the development of faith-friendly organizations are included at the end of this section. This list was compiled from a variety of sources including the International Center for Spirituality and Work (ICSW) (Biberman, 2009, p.  115), and publications by Stoner (2013), Weaver and Stansbury (2014, p. 84), and Roberts (2015). Some of these examples could be applied in most workplaces, while others might be applicable in only the most faith-friendly cultures. Practices may be selected or modified based on the various organizational variables discussed previously in this chapter. For example, it is quite possible that a faith-based company with strong organizational spirituality could easily adopt all of them (or may already be practicing most of them). In contrast, a company with key leaders who are not open to FWI, may find some of these recommendations offensive or even “silly.” Since the majority of organizations fall somewhere between these two extremes, and because a large majority of workers claim a belief in God, it is possible that some of these ideas might be useful to help most organizations become more faith-­ friendly. These are listed with those amenable to most organizations listed first, followed by those better suited for faith-based organizations listed at the end.

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• Provide religious accommodation and sensitivity training to all employee groups, but especially to management • Create and communicate policies that describe and provide examples of appropriate religious displays and religious dress accommodations • Provide company-sponsored activities related to giving back to the larger community • Commit to nurturing the human spirit within the organization with respectful and affirming policies and practices • Give awards to those who exemplify spiritual values • Incorporate employee faith and spirituality in the workplace such as by allowing spiritual artifacts that represent all faith traditions (such as “The Golden Rule”) • Encourage community meals in which the purpose is to communicate the values of caring, humility, authenticity, acceptance, as well as to develop and deepen personal connections • Allow opportunities in the workplace for employees to nourish their relationship with God or other higher power such as providing a quiet room for prayer, meditation or reflection • Allow and encourage the topic of faith and spirituality to be openly discussed • Allow employees time off for spiritual renewal or to volunteer in the community • Allow Bible studies, prayer groups or other affinity groups at specified times and locations within the organization during non-­work times • Provide religious-related mental health and wellness resources through company-sponsored Employee Assistance Programs (EAP) • Provide spiritual and religious support and counseling by providing workplace chaplains3 • Encourage spiritual mentors in the workplace • Promote religious activities and volunteer activities on company bulletin boards or in-house websites • Permit employees to transmit religious information on the company intranet

 The presence of chaplains representing various faith groups have been discussed as providing support to company Employee Assistance Programs (Seales, 2012) and would provide visible evidence of a company’s faith-friendly orientation. 3

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Conclusion Work organizations play a key role in encouraging or discouraging their employees’ ability to engage in FWI during work hours. In the United States, there are also employment laws that protect and allow some forms of religious expression in the workplace. Some organizations, by their very purpose and form, provide environments more naturally congruent to FWI. Faith-friendly organizations may intentionally encourage FWI because of the associated benefits such as higher levels of employee ethics, employee engagement and organizational commitment. Faith-based organizations may see it as part of their mission or responsibility to support and encourage their employees’ FWI. Finally, in addition to occupational choice, employees who are serious about faith may wish to consider person–organization fit as it applies to FWI when deciding to join a work organization.

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Princeton University Faith & Work Initiative. Retrieved from https://faithandwork.princeton.edu/research/integration-profile/tip-publications-and-conference-papers Miller, D. W. (2007). God at work the history and promise of the faith at work movement. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Miller, D. W., & Ewest, T. (2015). A new framework for analyzing organizational workplace religion and spirituality. Journal of Management, Spirituality & Religion, 12(4), 305–328. https://doi.org/10.1080/14766086.2015.1054864 Mitchell, C. (2006, November 28). Faith at work: What does it mean to be a ‘faith-friendly’ company? The Conference Board of Canada. Retrieved from https://www.conferenceboard.ca/e-Library/abstract.aspx?did=1840&AspxA utoDetectCookieSupport=1 New York State Police. (n.d.). Retrieved May 12, 2019, from https://www.troopers.ny.gov/Introduction/ Pache, A., & Santos, F. (2013). Inside the hybrid organization: Selective coupling as a response to competing institutional logics. Academy of Management Journal, 56(4), 972–1001. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2011.0405 Pawar, B. S. (2017). The relationship of individual spirituality and organizational spirituality with meaning and community at work. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 38(7), 986–1003. https://doi.org/10.1108/ lodj-01-2016-0014 Pedersen, J.  S., & Dobbin, F. (2006). In search of identity and legitimation: Bridging organizational culture and neoinstitutionalism. American Behavioral Scientist, 49(7), 897–907. Petersen, M.  J. (2010, November). International religious NGOs at the United Nations: A study of a group of religious organizations. Retrieved from https:// sites.tufts.edu/jha/archives/847 Pratt, M. G., & Rafaeli, A. (2006). Artifacts and organizations: Understanding our objective reality. In A. Rafaeli & M. G. Pratt (Eds.), Artifacts and o­ rganizations: Beyond mere symbolism (pp.  279–288). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Reinhardt, U. (2000, November/December). The economics of for-profit and not-for-profit hospitals. Health Affairs. Retrieved from https://www.healthaffairs.org/doi/abs/10.1377/hlthaff.19.6.178 Rindova, V., Barry, D., & Ketchen, D. J. (2009). Entrepreneurship as emancipation. Academy of Management Review, 34(3), 477–491. Roberts, G. (2015). Christian scripture and human resource management: Building a path to servant leadership through faith. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137440679 Roundy, P., Taylor, V., & Evans, W. R. (2017). Founded by faith: Social entrepreneurship as a bridge between religion and work. Journal of Ethics and Entrepreneurship, Forthcoming. https://doi.org/10.31235/osf.io/qfsb3

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Ruan, N. (2008). Accommodating respectful religious expression in the workplace. Marquette Law Review, 92(1), 2–28. Rudin, J.  P., & Harshman, E. (2004). Keeping the faith but losing in court: Legal implications of proselytizing in the workplace. Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal, 16(2), 105–112. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:E RRJ.0000023181.62308.14 Scheitle, C.  P. (2009). Identity and government funding in Christian nonprofits. Social Science Quarterly, 90(4), 816–833. https://doi. org/10.1111/j.1540-6237.2009.00664.x Scheitle, C. P. (2010). Beyond the congregation: The world of Christian nonprofits. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Schneider, B., Barbera, K. M., & Keyton, J. (2014). Communication, organizational culture, and organizational climate. The Oxford Handbook of Organizational Climate and Culture. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfor dhb/9780199860715.013.0007 Schwartz, M.  S. (2006). God as a managerial stakeholder? Journal of Business Ethics, 66(2–3), 291–306. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-005-5599-6 Seales, C. E. (2012). Corporate chaplaincy and the American workplace. Religion Compass, 6(3), 195–203. Sekiguchi, T. (2004). Person-organization fit and person-job fit in employee selection: A review of the literature. Osaka Keidai Ronshu, 54(6), 179–196. Sekiguchi, T. (2007). A contingency perspective of the importance of PJ fit and PO fit in employee selection. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 22(2), 118–131. Short, J. C., Moss, T. W., & Lumpkin, G. T. (2009). Research in social entrepreneurship: Past contributions and future opportunities. Strategic Entrepreneurship Journal, 3(2), 161–194. https://doi.org/10.1002/sej.69 Sider, R. J., & Unruh, H. R. (2004). Typology of religious characteristics of social service and educational organizations and programs. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 33(1), 109–134. Sirota, D., Mischkind, L. A., & Meltzer, M. I. (2005). The enthusiastic employee: How companies profit by giving workers what they want. Indianapolis, IN: Wharton School Pub. Sisk, A., & Shoenberger, E. (2018, November 08). What is the difference between non-profit & not for profit? Bizfluent. Retrieved from https://bizfluent.com/ info-7991949-difference-between-nonprofit-not-profit.html Smith, E., & Hattery, A. (2006). The prison industrial complex. Sociation Today, 4(2), 1–28. Smith, J.  M., Arendt, C., Lahman, J.  B., Settle, G.  N., & Duff, A. (2006). Framing the work of art: Spirituality and career discourse in the nonprofit arts sector. Communication Studies, 57(1), 25–46. https://doi. org/10.1080/10510970500481672

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Stoner, J. (2013). Creating a spiritually friendly company. In J.  Neal (Author), Handbook of faith and spirituality in the workplace: Emerging research and practice (pp. 491–517). New York, NY: Springer. Strang, K. D. (2017). Integrating theory and practice to identify contemporary best practice factors in USA not-for-profits. In L. L. West & A. C. Worthington (Eds.), Handbook of research on emerging business models and managerial strategies in the nonprofit sector (pp. 31–55). Hershey, PA: IGI Global. Sullivan, P. M. (2013). EEOC best practices support best practices for spirit and religion at work. In J.  Neal (Ed.), Handbook of faith and spirituality in the workplace: Emerging research and practice (pp. 19–31). New York, NY: Springer Science & Business Media. Thompson, D., & Miller-Perrin, C. (2003). Understanding vocation: Discerning and responding to God’s call, 11(1). Retrieved from http://digitalcommons. pepperdine.edu/leaven/vol11/iss1/11 Tracey, P., Phillips, N., & Lounsbury, M. (2014). Taking religion seriously in the study of organizations. In Religion and organization theory (pp. 3–21). Bingley, UK: Emerald. Turi, D.  M. (2012). The relationship between student engagement and the development of character in mission driven faith-based colleges and universities as measured by the national survey of student engagement (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Thesis (Ph. D.). Seton Hall University, South Orange, NJ. Unruh, H. R., & Sider, R. J. (2005). A typology of faith-based organizations and programs. In Saving souls, serving society: Understanding the faith factor in church-based social ministry (pp. 103–126). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Weaver, G. R., & Agle, B. R. (2002). Religiosity and ethical behavior in organizations: A symbolic interactionist perspective. Academy of Management Review, 27(1), 77–97. Weaver, G.  R., & Stansbury, J.  M. (2014). Religion in organizations: Cognition and behavior. Religion and Organization Theory Research in the Sociology of Organizations, 65–110. https://doi.org/10.1108/ s0733-558x20140000041011 Weiss, J. A., & Piderit, S. K. (1999). The value of mission statements in public agencies. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 9(2), 193–224. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.jpart.a024408 Weitz, E., Vardi, Y., & Setter, O. (2012). Spirituality and organizational behavior. Journal of Management, Spirituality and Religion, 9(3), 255–281. White Jr, R. D. (2003). Religion and spirituality in the workplace. Handbook of workplace spirituality and organizational performance (2nd ed., p.  274). Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe. Wilkie, D. (2014, April 10). Of Hijabs, short skirts and Rastafarian locks. Retrieved May 13, 2019, from https://www.shrm.org/resourcesandtools/hr-topics/

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CHAPTER 12

Faith Organization Influences

Introduction A dominant theme in the first half of this book was of the role and responsibility of the Church1 in the area of faith and work integration (FWI). The theological foundation for church involvement in FWI was provided in Chap. 4 and the need for the Church to become more actively involved in FWI was argued in Chap. 7. Therefore, the foundation has already been laid to make a case for the responsibility of faith organizations in promoting faith and work integration as depicted in our Faith and Work Integration Spheres of Influence model (FWSI) (see Fig. 12.1). This final chapter will add to our previous discussion by describing in greater detail why and how the Church should be involved in equipping its membership with the tools necessary to effectively engage in FWI. This will include a review of how beliefs about the role of the Church in society relate to FWI, how denominational differences may impact FWI and research on how churches currently encourage FWI.  The role played by other faith organization structures, such as faith and work groups and faith-based professional societies, is also acknowledged in this final sphere of FWI influence. This chapter ends with recommendations based on what current research reveals about the effectiveness of the Church in facilitating FWI. 1  When we use the words “the Church” with a capital “C,” we are referring the Biblical view of the Church as the body of Christ on this earth as discussed in Ephesians 2:19–22.

© The Author(s) 2020 S. G. Buszka, T. Ewest, Integrating Christian Faith and Work, Palgrave Studies in Workplace Spirituality and Fulfillment, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-22914-6_12

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Sphere B: Occupational Influences Sphere A: Individual Influences

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Sphere D: Faith Organization Influences

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Sphere C Work Organization Influences

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9 1

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Sweet Spot

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Neither desire nor opportunity to integrate faith and work

Fig. 12.1  Faith and work integration spheres of influence model (FWSI): faith organization influences

FWI and the Role of the Church As mentioned, this chapter builds on material presented in Chap. 7 about the need for the Church to take a more active role in facilitating FWI outside its walls. It was discussed how the perception of the gathered church and the scattered church (Bacote, 2010; Keller, 2016) aligns with Doug Spada’s (Sherman, 2011) analogy of the Church as an aircraft carrier, as opposed to a cruise ship. This view accurately illustrates a problem in the Church today that impedes FWI. Those with a cruise ship mentality view the gathered church as a place to decompress, be fed and entertained while participating in a few edifying “on-board” activities. For this group, FWI might be perceived as working in the formal roles of the church including paid church staff positions, as well as volunteer roles such as teaching, ushering, serving on committees, and organizing church activities. In contrast, those viewing the Church as an aircraft carrier would understand that a larger portion of the work of the Church occurs when its members are scattered “off ship” and that this is where most FWI should occur. Churches that take the charge to go make disciples seriously should shift to an aircraft carrier mentality in which they assume a major responsibility for training

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and equipping members for FWI in their various “scattered church” roles during the week. However, not all church leaders and members hold to this view and different beliefs about the role of the Church exist. The Role of the Church Cafferky (2007) explained that there are various views held by different church congregations that may influence the way FWI is envisioned and enacted. He explained that the diversity of thought about FWI is a function of beliefs about a number of topics, including several we discuss in this chapter: church purpose; views of outreach; what it means to “be” or “do”; the relationship between the church and larger culture and how particular faith traditions define the essence of religious life. The first of these, church purpose, relates to our previous discussion of the gathered and scattered church and whether the church is viewed as a cruise ship or aircraft carrier. Cafferky described two broad views of purpose held by churches to be internally focused or externally focused. The internally focused view would see the church as primarily serving the needs of its existing members, while the externally focused view believes the focus should be on serving the needs of those outside the church. Those taking the internally focused view see the church as being called out from the world to support and build up church members. The externally focused view emphasizes that members are also sent out to proclaim the gospel and serve those outside the church. It seems that both of these are necessary if appropriate FWI is to occur. Using the previous aircraft carrier analogy, the internally focused activities would occur on board to build up and train church members to engage in the externally focused activities that occur when they are off ship. As emphasized throughout this book, the workplace is one of the most significant realms external to the church in which faith integration can (and we believe should) occur. However, for this to happen, more time should be spent on internally focused activities such as preaching, teaching, and mentoring for the purpose of providing the knowledge and skills necessary for appropriate externally focused FWI. This book and the FWSI can be useful resources to use within the church to equip members for work outside of the church. With respect to outreach, Cafferky contrasted the two dominant views of the church as verbal proclamation versus action and stated both can be viewed as different forms of mission. Verbal outreach involves talking to others about the gospel message of God’s redemption through Jesus

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Christ. It also includes providing personal stories or testimonies about faith that can help change lives. This is in contrast to the belief that mission outreach occurs through actions that work for social change to improve the lives of humankind. He also shared Stott’s (1975) explanation that both of these views are promoted in scripture with equal importance because Jesus’ two main commands to his followers were to go make disciples (verbal proclamation) and to love your neighbors (action). Once again, both of these views can be applied in the workplace using different forms of FWI. The TIP faith manifestation model (Miller & Ewest, 2015)2 used in previous chapters can be applied to this idea. The TIP form of verbal expression (VE) would most obviously connect to the verbal proclamation in which workers would share their faith verbally in the workplace with co-workers, clients, or customers. Another TIP form of FWI that might include verbal proclamation would be group enrichment (GE) in which co-workers join together inside or outside the workplace to study and pray about work-related issues. This might especially occur if those not previously exposed to the gospel message are asked to join such groups. With respect to action, both TIP forms of ethics (individual and community), IE and CE, have the potential for changing the internal culture of the organization and the external issues in the social environment. As discussed in Chap. 9, ethical individual employee actions can impact the organizational culture through creating a more ethical climate by specific individual actions and through example setting for others (IE). Community ethics (CE) might be manifest by encouraging the organization to take actions that are socially responsible which could result in helping marginalized or disadvantaged groups outside the organization. Cafferky also explained the metaphors of being and doing have been applied to the church when discussing its purpose. To present support and a description of the church within its being role, examples from New Testament Scripture were provided that described what it means to be in the Church such as being sheep, salt and light, a priesthood, the household of God, the Body of Christ, the Vineyard, God’s fellow workers, and the Temple of God. It was stated that even these analogies of being imply action. In contrast, doing is described as church activities including proclamation, community, service, advocacy, worship and teaching and mission. 2  Chapter 9 included a discussion of Miller and Ewest’s TIP which suggests that people have a natural propensity to integrate faith at work in one of eight ways: community ethics (CE), self-ethics (SE), verbal expression (VE), nonverbal expression (NVE), outcomes experience (OE), process/activity experience (PAE), group enrichment (GE), and individual enrichment (IE).

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To apply metaphors of being and doing to FWI, it is helpful to consider that FWI occurs in the scattered church and that the activity of mission should occur in the workplace. Stevens (2006) discussed that the marketplace is a prime location for mission because it provides Christians access to others with whom they spend time and form ongoing relationships. Therefore, if the Church is viewed as existing in the workplace, many of the being and doing roles should also apply in this setting. For example, Christians should be salt and light and laborers in the vineyard in their workplace roles by performing work with excellence and by setting ethical examples (IE and CE) for others in the workplace. With respect to the doing role of the church, Christian workers can also engage in actions of proclaiming by sharing their faith verbally or nonverbally (VE or NVE). They can also serve by providing support and help to co-workers through practical acts of caring (NVE) or through offering Biblically based words of encouragement and prayer (IE or GE). As for the role of the church in culture, Cafferky discussed Suess’ (1999) four alternatives of separation, identification, acculturation, and inculturation. The position of separation would not allow for those in the church to contact the outside work culture; therefore, the aforementioned mission work or marketplace ministry could not occur. Identification, in which workers so fully embrace the workplace culture they are no different from their co-workers, would result in the worker not even seeing the need for FWI. Acculturation, in which the Christian worker attempts to relate closely enough with the workplace culture that they can engage in FWI, may be the category in which many well-meaning Christians could be placed. It is warned that this position is often difficult to straddle and that it can result in the culture changing the Christian instead of the Christian changing the culture (Cafferky, 2007). In contrast, the position of inculturation is suggested as an appropriate balance between separation and identification and is most consistent with our view of how the church should approach preparing its members to engage in FWI. Inculturation was described as being: a counterintuitive approach where the member of the faith community seeks a relationship with individuals in the larger culture but in a way that does not compromise the distinctiveness of faith (avoiding separation and identification). Here the member attempts to express faith through the culture of business (Scherer & Bevans, 1999, p. 5). The gospel is a guiding influence in all activities in the marketplace. The marketplace offers an immediate and indispensable

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situation in which to live the life of faith in its completeness. Inculturation assumes that the Gospel is proclaimed through culture, and the human response to God’s word is through culture. (p. 27)

Inculturation would encourage any or all forms of Miller and Ewest’s (2015) TIP, and many of the faith and work organizations discussed later in this chapter embrace and attempt to operationalize this philosophy. However, this may not be as easily carried out in practice. For this reason, there is a need for FWI theory to be presented by the church in a discussion that includes examining a given member’s workplace context to determine what particular forms of FWI are most suitable and potentially effective. This could be provided within church-sponsored training by FWI mentors who would assist with developing specific strategies for appropriate FWI.  The FWSI model, as well as supporting information provided throughout this book, could serve as useful tools to assist in this process of inculturation. A summary of how these views of the church impact FWI are provided in Table 12.1. Table 12.1  Beliefs about the Church as they relate to FWI Belief about the Church

View consistent with FWI

Church purpose: whether it be internal or external

Both internal in equipping role and external in its “sending out” role Outreach: through Outreach through both verbal proclamation words and action or through action

Metaphors of being Being implies action in or doing the workplace. Doing includes many forms of FWI

Role of the Church in culture

Inculturation best fits with our view of FWI

FWI application Resources such as this book and the FWSI model may be used to equip members inside the church to carry out FWI in the outside culture Use of verbal expression (VE) Group enrichment (GE) for verbal outreach and individual ethics and community ethics (IE & CE) to demonstrate faith-related actions and model behavior in the workplace Christians should be salt and light in the workplace Doing includes proclamation through such things as verbal expression (VE), and acts of care or service (NVE) or offering prayer and encouragement (IE or GE) The workplace as a part of the culture is viewed as a prime location for all forms of FWI

Table based on interpretation of information provided by Cafferky (2007)

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Denominational Differences and FWI As the previous paragraphs suggest, there are different perceptions of the role of the Church as it relates to the culture which can impact the perception of whether and how churches believe faith should be integrated into the workplace. In addition, views about how faith should relate to work may vary based on the church type or denominational category. Some of the differences between Evangelical Protestant, Catholic, and Orthodox churches were included in Chap. 4. For example, tradition and sacred leaders were said to play a much larger role in determining God’s will and intent in the Catholic and Orthodox faiths. This was in contrast to Protestants, who place greater emphasis on the sacred scriptures and individual reason. These differences suggest that church traditions and leaders who emphasize FWI might be more effective in Catholic and Orthodox churches, while FWI Bible studies and personal self-reflection might be more readily embraced if promoted within the Protestant church. Studies examining what methods of promoting FWI are more effective than others depending on church type could add insight to understand this issue. Yet, research by Neubert and Dougherty (2013) revealed Mainline Protestants and Catholics to be very similar with respect to congregational faith-work integration and entrepreneurial orientation, suggesting (though there may be differences in the source of authority in these churches) manifestations of FWI may be similar. Clearly, more research is needed in this area. Because even within the broad Protestant church umbrella there is significant diversity, it is helpful to further sub-categorize. The Pew Forum (2008) divided Protestant denominations of 6100 churches into the categories of Evangelical Protestant, mainline Protestant, and historically black churches. Generally speaking, these denominations share the aforementioned historical themes discussed in Chap. 4, but there are nuances within these. Evangelical Protestant churches emphasize individual belief and conversion, as well as a commitment to engage in culture with the understanding that all truth is God’s truth. Historically associated with leaders like Jonathan Edwards and contemporary leaders like Carl Henry, this group emphasizes engaging with culture as a means to share the gospel to enable the individual conversion experience (Marsden, 1991). Neubert and Dougherty (2013) also indicated that faith is a defining aspect of personal identity and not a private affair for this group. These ideas would be consistent with viewing the workplace as a mission field. Within such

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churches, FWI that includes verbal and nonverbal expressions (VE and NVE) of faith for the purpose of evangelizing could be promoted as useful. Mainline Protestant churches have emphasized a social justice perspective, understanding work as engagement with the world as social mission. This perspective was seen in the work of Walter Rauschenbusch, whose social gospel promoted concern for the elevation of social problems such as economic inequality, crime, environmental issues, poor schools, and war. Those who adhered to this belief were typically driven by a belief that their human efforts to correct social problems would usher in the second coming of Christ (Gonce, 1996). These views could be easily aligned with FWI that encourages church members to volunteer or work in non-profit organizations that exist for the purpose of solving social problems (as discussed in Chap. 11). Members could also be encouraged to engage in community ethics (CE) at work to promote organization efforts related to social responsibility. Historically Black Protestant churches, like mainline churches, focus on social issues, but have a more specific focus on issues related to discrimination, and how the gospel enables and demands freedom of individuals and equitable justice (Ellison & Sherkat, 1990). Neubert and Dougherty (2013) also described this church type as consistently speaking to economic issues and perceiving God as actively interested in the work people do. Like Evangelical Protestants, faith is considered part of identity and is not a private affair for this group. FWI could be promoted in these churches through work activities and occupations (Chap. 10) that encourage social justice such as social work, human resource management, or the field of law. Verbal and nonverbal forms of expression (VE and NVE) to share faith and encourage others would be consistent with this congregation’s views. In addition to these Protestant groups, Catholics comprise a significant portion of the Christian church. Comparable in size to the mainline Protestant church, about 20% of Americans identify as Catholics (Dougherty, Johnson, & Polson, 2007). As mentioned previously, the Catholic Church is distinct from the Protestant groups because of its reliance on papal authority and apostolic succession. In addition, Catholicism has a developed workplace theology within their Seven Themes of Catholic Social Teaching (Seven Themes of Catholic Social Teaching, n.d.). One of these deals specifically with the dignity and rights of workers and provides faith and work guidance by stating that:

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The economy must serve people, not the other way around. Work is more than a way to make a living; it is a form of continuing participation in God’s creation. If the dignity of work is to be protected, then the basic rights of workers must be respected--the right to productive work, to decent and fair wages, to the organization and joining of unions, to private property, and to economic initiative. (The Dignity of Work and the Rights of Workers, n.d.)

Ethics, social justice and work as part of God’s creation are all evident within this theme and could relate to various forms of FWI including individual and community ethics (IE and CE), and the view that the work activity or process (PAE) or work outcomes (OE) are meaningful because of being part of God’s plan for creation. In addition, the author’s dissertation study found that Catholics were more apt to engage in nonverbal forms of faith expression in the workplace than Protestant groups (Buszka, 2015). This supports Neubert and Dougherty’s (2013) implication Catholics are more private about faith than some of their Protestant counterparts. Therefore, to encourage verbal forms of faith expression (VE) to this group might be ineffective. It would reductionist to suggest these broad categories are representative of the multiplicity of expressions found within the churches and multiple independent denominations not discussed in this section. However, some awareness of denominational group differences may help to understand why some groups may engage in more FWI than others, or may prefer some forms over others. It may also provide a basis to begin further investigation and discussion about how best to develop a congregation-­ specific FWI training curriculum by tailoring it to the key attributes and beliefs of different groups of believers. Also, though there appear to be differences in how various denominations view the role of work in a Christian’s life, a more important question is whether these different views actually translate into FWI.  Also,  whether  FWI is manifest in different ways because of church influences could be examined. Church Impact on FWI The impact of the church in the context of work has been long established, and some of the earliest work in this area is attributed to the field of sociology and the writings of Max Weber (Weber & Kalberg, 2011). Weber described how a sense of religious duty and the ability to delay gratification in order to fulfill calling resulted in positive outcomes for

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individuals, organizations, the economy, and society. This came to be known as the Protestant Work Ethic. With respect to the contemporary church, Neubert and Dougherty (2013) shared that “it is difficult is overstate the prevalence or influence of America’s faith communities” (p. 48) with more than 60% of American adults indicating an affiliation with a church, temple, synagogue, or mosque (Dougherty et al., 2007). There is evidence that church-promoted beliefs and traditions influence outside contexts, including work (Chaves, 2009; Wuthnow, 1989), and that churches effectively encourage civic engagement and volunteerism, which could result in transferable work skills and values (Becker & Dhingra, 2001; Beyerlein & Hipp, 2006; Park & Smith, 2000). Neubert and Dougherty’s (2013) own study of over 1000 working adults found congregational type to influence FWI.  They examined the relationship between faith and work across the previously discussed traditions of evangelical Protestant, black Protestant, mainline Protestant, and Catholic groups and found several significant differences in the areas of congregational entrepreneurial orientation and congregational faith-work integration. Black Protestants reported the highest levels of both entrepreneurial orientation and FWI.  Evangelical Protestants followed the Black Protestant group on both measures. Mainline Protestants and Catholic results were very similar to each other and fell below the other two groups. Other differences were found in congregational alignment with Protestant Work Ethic (PWE) values. Evangelical Protestants ranked highest in this dimension, followed by mainline Protestants and Catholics, with Black Protestants rating the lowest. It was explained that this group’s lower ranking on this could be due to the focus the PWE places on the relationship between individual effort and outcomes. Because of past discrimination and racism, members in black congregations may not believe there is as strong a connection between their effort and work outcomes as do members of other churches. What research such as this does not indicate is whether higher levels of FWI, entrepreneurial activity or Protestant Work Ethic values are the result of an intentional effort by congregations to promote these attitudes or behaviors, or whether they occur as a result of some other attribute of the church or its membership. Another study conducted during this same time period by Lynn, Naughton, and VanderVeen (2010) considered the influence of various factors on FWI, two of which related to denominational differences. The impact of denominational strictness on FWI was considered by categorizing Evangelical Protestants and Mormons as strict and mainline Protestants

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and Catholics as less strict. Results showed members of stricter denominations reported higher levels of FWI. However, with respect to denominational difference and the type of FWI, there were no significant differences in the nature and patterns of FWI between the denomination groups of Catholic, Protestant, Orthodox, Mormon, Jewish, and “other affiliations.” The results of this study indicate that denominational difference may have a more significant impact on the amount of FWI integration than on the type of integration. Clearly, more research in this area would provide additional insight into how different churches specifically impact FWI and the extent of their influence. Church FWI Facilitation Efforts In spite of the argument presented in Chap. 7 for more church involvement in equipping its members to engage in FWI, there is evidence that some congregations are involved in this process. A recent study by the Barna Group (Denzel & Kinnaman, 2018) reported that 53% of those who attended church at least monthly “strongly agreed that their churches help(ed) them live out their faith in the workplace” (p. 77). Also, 45% of this group of regular attenders also reported that they felt their churches were definitely supportive of them in their careers, and 63% indicated that their churches provided specific training on vocation (p. 78.). Another study by Neubert and Dougherty (2015) examined the extent to which church congregations emphasized the elements of Miller’s (2007) initial faith-work integration profile. Results indicated that a good portion of those surveyed believed their churches had exposed them to these ideas. With respect to the ethics, 63% reported that their churches emphasized this category of FWI, and encouraged them to consider ethical options and outcomes for work behavior. This was followed by enrichment (57%), in which members reported that they drew on their faith and prayer to deal with challenging work situations. Expression was reported next, with 42% indicating they agreed or strongly agreed that they let their co-workers know they were a person of faith. Ranked last (38%) was the manifestation of experience, in which work was perceived as calling or meaningful service to God. These results suggest that the church may be communicating some forms of FWI more effectively than others. For example, it could be that the topic of ethics lends itself more to church-­ related preaching and teaching than a discussion of how each worker can view their unique work circumstances as imbued with Godly meaning or

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outcomes (experience). Or, research results could simply reflect what is easiest for workers to understand, apply, and integrate at work on a regular basis. Either way, based on this information, it appears that churches may need to spend more time in equipping their membership in ways their faith can help them deal with challenging situations at work (enrichment) or guide them so see that all work can be viewed as calling or meaningful service to God (experience). FWI Methods For churches serious about engaging members in FWI, the obvious place to begin would seem to be from the pulpit. Yet, some research indicates that sermons have little impact on whether congregants engage in FWI.  Lynn et  al.’s (2010) research supported previous findings by Davidson and Caddell (1994) that pastors and their sermons had no significant impact on viewing work as calling. It could be that sermons are too general to apply to the particularities of individual church member’s work situations. Instead, the same research study found other factors such as scripture reading, regular church attendance, and workplace mentors resulted in a higher likelihood of FWI. Lynn, Naughton, and VanderVeen’s summary that “work-faith integration deepens through intentional, longitudinal and relational influences that are immediately transferable to the workplace” (p.  694), lead to some recommendations for the church. Though sermons and pastoral leadership in the area of FWI are not to be discouraged, these should be paired with the development of FWI small group studies, as well as the development of faith and work affinity groups and mentoring relationships. These types of activities are longer term in nature, may encourage increased and regular church attendance, and provide a specific direction and support helpful for church members to contextualize FWI to their unique work situations. In fact, many larger churches, with the resources to do so, develop church-related centers for faith and work to provide these additional resources to facilitate FWI. Ancillary Faith and Work Groups A number of larger churches are able to encourage FWI through ancillary groups or centers that are part of the formal structure of the church while operating with a focused mission for encouraging the development of FWI.  These faith and work groups or centers provide church members

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with a variety of faith and work tools and resources such as small group studies, specially trained staff, profession-specific mentoring programs, speakers, and retreats. Redeemer Presbyterian Church (NYC) Center for Faith and Work (https://faithandwork.com/) is an example of a well-­ developed ancillary faith and work group. This group describes itself as follows: The Center for Faith & Work (CFW) exists to explore and investigate the gospel’s unique power to renew hearts, communities, and the world, in and through our day-to-day work. As the cultural renewal arm of Redeemer Presbyterian Church, we foster, shepherd, and empower the church as it is scattered, living and working out in the world, beyond the walls of any one gathered place of worship. (CFW, n.d.)

The CFW website also describes that this purpose is carried out through “theological and discipleship training, community formation, and exploring and fostering innovation and imagination in all fields of work” (CFW, n.d.). We suggest that even churches without the size and resources of Redeemer can model programming after these ideas of training, small group formation and encouraging members to think creatively about how their own work can be integrated with faith. Smaller churches may also encourage their members to participate in larger church faith and work center activities to gather information in order to share ideas with their local congregations. Many of these groups promote retreats or events open to the larger community such as Redeemer’s annual CFW weekend retreat that has included themes such as “The Wonder and Fear of Technology” (2016), “Making All Things New” (2014), and “Humanizing Work” (2013), all within the context of faith and work. Website information about several ancillary church-related faith and work groups is listed in Table 12.2.

Parachurch Organizations The Greek term para in the word parachurch means to come alongside (Saunders, 2015), implying that parachurch organizations exist to come alongside or help the Church. As mentioned previously, churches have a wide variety of responsibilities whether it be worship and ministry within the church or missional activities outside of the church. For this reason, many churches may not have the staff, time, or resources for robust faith

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Table 12.2  Examples of Church-affiliated ancillary faith and work groups Name

Church affiliation

Website

Center for Faith and Work (CFW) The Summit Institute Kansas City Fellows

Redeemer Presbyterian (NYC) Summit Church (NC) Christ Community Church (KS) Christ Presbyterian Church (TN)

https://faithandwork.com/

Perimeter Church (GA)

https://www.perimeter.org/pages/ outreach-volunteer/reaching-thecity/live-work-play/ https://saddleback.com/connect/ ministry/saddleback-works/ lake-forest

Nashville Institute for Faith and Work (NIFW) Live, Work, Play

Saddleback Works

Saddleback Church (CA)

http://summitrduinstitute.com https://christcommunitykc.org/ initiatives/#kcf https://www.nifw.org/

and work ministries and might appreciate the outside skills and expertise provided by parachurch groups. Also referred to as special purpose groups (Miller, 2007; Wuthnow, 1988), these organizations and groups were described as evolving to meet needs of mutual concern to both the Church and broader society. Faith and work integration is an example of one such area of mutual concern that is well represented under the umbrella of parachurch organizations. Miller (pp. 50–51) provided examples of parachurch groups that were developed to facilitate faith and work integration in specific occupation groups including the Fellowship of Christian Athletes, the Christian Legal Society, the Association of Christian Economists, International Christian Leadership Group, and Fellowship of Companies for Christ (p.  50). Chapter 7 discussed the growth in these organizations with over 1200 Christian faith and work groups reported in 2003, with almost half being formed in the previous 10 years (Walker, 2005). Some of these fall in the previous category of ancillary church-sponsored groups, yet many others are sponsored by seminaries, professional organizations, and independent faith-based groups. A partial list of over 70 faith and work groups that exist in the United States was posted by Workplace & Leadership Ministry Network (Welch, n.d.) in which they were grouped into categories such as CEO Groups, Leadership Development, and Women’s Initiatives. The

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Table 12.3  Categories and examples of parachurch faith and work groups Faith and work group category

Group/organization name

Website

CEO Groups

Fellowship of Companies for Christ Truth at Work Corporate Chaplains of America Marketplace Chaplains Cru Navigators Intervarsity MBA Ministry Work Matters Nehemiah Project

www.fcci.org

Workplace Chaplaincy

Faith & Work Evangelism/ Discipleship/Equipping

Leadership Development

Primemovers Faith, Work, & Culture Groups Women’s Initiatives

Global/Multicultural/Business As Mission Media/Online

Pinnacle Barnabas Group Women Doing Well 4word Partners Worldwide Global Advance Theology of Work Project Right Now Media

www.truthatwork.org www.chaplain.org www.mchapusa.com www.cru.org www.navigators.com www.ivmba.org www.workmatters.org www.nehemiahproject. org www.primemoversonline. com www.pinnacleforum.com www.barnabasgroup.org www.womendoingwell. org www.4wordwomen.org www.partnersworldwide. org www.globaladvance.org www.theologyofwork.org www.rightnowmedia.org

Thanks to Eric Welch for doing the leg work to identify and categorize the groups listed in this table (as well as others). The full list can be found at the link below: http://www.charlestonsouthern.edu/christianleadership/WLN%20Faith%20and%20Work%20Orgs.pdf

diversity of these faith and work groups is illustrated through examples provided in Table 12.3. Omitted from this table are the many examples of the faith and work groups that operate in affiliation with seminaries and universities such as, Gordon Conwell Theological Seminary, Southwestern Baptist Seminary, Regent College, Reformed Theological Seminary, Fuller Seminary, Seattle Pacific University, Princeton University, Le Tourneau University, Houston Baptist University, and Regent University. In addition, there are many professional Christian groups created to support and encourage career-­ specific FWI. A list of over forty of these have been provided online by Intervarsity Graduate and Faculty Ministries (Christian Professional and

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Academic Societies, 2019) and include groups ranging from those for engineers, nuclear scientists, and pharmacists, to those for performing artists and astronomers. These groups support faith and work integration through activities such as FWI teaching, research, and profession-related ministry activities. These lists are provided to demonstrate nature and amount of support available to the Church from a plethora of different types and sources of parachurch groups and organizations. This information does not imply the quality or effectiveness of these groups. Though many churches may welcome this type of outside support, there has been concern about whether such groups are grounded in appropriate theology and about what type of relationship parachurch organizations should have with formal church structures (Hammett, 2000). Some of this stems from different interpretations about the nature of the church. At one extreme are those who believe that the congregational church is the only legitimate form in which God’s kingdom is manifest because of its divine nature (Stott, 1983). At the other extreme is the view that “any group of Christians working together could be considered part of the universal church” (Hammett, 2000, p.  201; White, 1983). Somewhere between these two extremes is the view that there is Biblical justification for parachurch organizations to be involved in kingdom building, but they must keep close to churches to maintain a mutuality of purpose and vision (Packer, 1995). Hammett presents his own suggestion for a servant-partnership model which proposes that parachurch organizations, while acting as legitimate and valuable partners with the Church, should hold a subordinate status. This view is based on the theological claim of priority for the church as well as the doctrine of the priesthood of all believers. Our point is not to debate these positions (since others have done this), only to point out that there may be different views with respect to how much the Church should work with and depend on parachurch organizations to carry out their Biblically commanded responsibilities.

Conclusion Our view of the role of the church with respect to FWI is based on one we have promoted throughout this book, that God’s commands apply to both the gathered and scattered church. As such, we believe that the gathered church should play a significant role in preparing its membership to go out and carry God’s mission to the world. When church members “go out” they become part of the scattered church and a significant destination

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for them is the workplace. Therefore, if the Church and individual churches choose to fulfill one of the major purposes for which they were formed, equipping membership for FWI should not be neglected. Within this book and chapter, we have presented different views of FWI held by the church and suggest how these views may relate to different forms of FWI. Also provided was research evidence about whether and how churches impact FWI. Recommendations were made for how churches may best promote FWI and we discussed the availability of other types of faith organizations to come alongside the church to facilitate FWI.  Though, as the FWSI model has explained throughout this book, other factors influence FWI, the Church should play a significant role in this regard.

References Bacote, V.  E. (2010). The spirit in public theology: Appropriating the legacy of Abraham Kuyper. Wipf and Stock Publishers. Becker, P. E., & Dhingra, P. H. (2001). Religious involvement and volunteering: Implications for civil society. Sociology of Religion, 62(3), 315. https://doi. org/10.2307/3712353 Beyerlein, K., & Hipp, J.  R. (2006). From pews to participation: The effect of congregation activity and context on bridging civic engagement. Social Problems, 53(1), 97–117. https://doi.org/10.1525/sp.2006.53.1.97 Buszka, S. G. (2015). Factors affecting the integration of faith and spirituality in the college workplace. Oxford Graduate School. Cafferky, M. E. (2007, October 4). Religious beliefs and models of faith integration at work. Paper presented to the Christian Business Faculty Association (CBFA) annual conference, Seattle, WA. CFW. (n.d.). Retrieved May 20, 2019, from https://faithandwork.com/ about/1-what-why Chaves, M. (2009). Congregations in America. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Christian Professional and Academic Societies. (2019, March 04). Retrieved May 27, 2019, from https://gfm.intervarsity.org/resources/christian-professionaland-academic-societies Davidson, J.  C., & Caddell, D.  P. (1994). Religion and the meaning of work. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 33(2), 135–147. Denzel, B., & Kinnaman, D. (2018). Christians at work: Examining the intersection of calling and career. Ventura, CA: Barna. Dougherty, K. D., Johnson, B. R., & Polson, E. C. (2007). Recovering the lost: Remeasuring US religious affiliation. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 46(4), 483–499.

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Ellison, C.  G., & Sherkat, D.  E. (1990). Patterns of religious mobility among black Americans. Sociological Quarterly, 31(4), 551–568. Gonce, R.  A. (1996). The social gospel, Ely, and Common’s initial stage of thought. Journal of Economic Issues, 30(3), 641–665. Hammett, J. S. (2000). How church and parachurch should relate: Arguments for a servant-partnership model. Missiology, 28(2), 199–207. Keller, T. (2016). Preface. In D. H. Kim (Ed.), Holy Bible: NIV, faith and work Bible (pp. IV–IV). Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. Lynn, M.  L., Naughton, M.  J., & VanderVeen, S. (2010). Connecting religion and work: Patterns and influences of work-faith integration. Human Relations, 64(5), 675–701. Marsden, G. (1991). Understanding fundamentalism and evangelicalism. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. Miller, D.  W. (2007). God at work: The history and promise of the faith at work movement. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Miller, D. W., & Ewest, T. (2015). A new framework for analyzing organizational workplace religion and spirituality. Journal of Management, Spirituality & Religion, 12(4), 305–328. https://doi.org/10.1080/14766086.2015.1054864 Neubert, M.  J., & Dougherty, K.  D. (2013). Christian perspectives on faith at work: An empirical exploration of faith and work associations across Christian religious traditions. In Handbook of faith and spirituality in the workplace (pp. 47–67). New York, NY: Springer. Neubert, M. J., & Dougherty, K. D. (2015). Integrating faith and work. Christian Reflection, 56, 67–74. Packer, J. I. (1995). Crosscurrents among evangelicals. In C. W. Colson & R. J. Neuhaus (Eds.), Evangelicals and Catholics together: Toward a common mission (pp. 147–174). Dallas, TX: Word Pub. Park, J. Z., & Smith, C. (2000). ‘To whom much has been given…’: Religious capital and community voluntarism among churchgoing protestants. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 39(3), 272–286. https://doi. org/10.1111/0021-8294.00023 Pew Forum on Religious and Public Life. (2008). Retrieved June 20, 2012, from Pew Forum on Religious and Public Life website: http://religions. pewforum.org Saunders, J. (2015, November 27). The place and purpose of parachurch ministries. Retrieved from https://www.thegospelcoalition.org/article/parachurchministry/ Scherer, J. A., & Bevans, S. B. (Eds.). (1999). New directions in mission and evangelization: Faith and culture. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books. Seven Themes of Catholic Social Teaching. (n.d.). Retrieved May 29, 2019, from http://www.usccb.org/beliefs-and-teachings/what-we-believe/catholicsocial-teaching/seven-themes-of-catholic-social-teaching.cfm

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Sherman, A. L. (2011). Kingdom calling: Vocational stewardship for the common good. Downers Grove, IL: IVP Books. Stevens, R. P. (2006). Doing God’s business: Meaning and motivation for the marketplace. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. Stott, J. (1983). Cooperating in world evangelization: A handbook on church/para-­ church relationships. Lausanne Occasional Paper, 24. Stott, J. R. W. (1975). Christian mission in the modern world. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. Suess, P. (1999). Evangelization and inculturation: Concepts, options and perspectives. In J. A. Scherer & S. B. Bevans (Eds.), New directions in mission and evangelization 3: Faith and culture. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books. The Dignity of Work and the Rights of Workers. (n.d.). Retrieved May 29, 2019, from http://www.usccb.org/beliefs-and-teachings/what-we-believe/catholic-social-teaching/the-dignity-of-work-and-the-rights-of-workers.cfm Walker, M. (2005). A comparison study of Protestants in the workplace: What effect does a church workplace ministry have on Protestant workers’ job satisfaction, organizational citizenship behavior, and organizational commitment within certain faith integration types? (doctoral dissertation). Regent University. Retrieved from https://faithandwork.princeton.edu/research/integration-profile/tippublications-and-conference-papers Weber, M., & Kalberg, S. (2011). The protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism: The revised 1920 edition. New York: Oxford University Press. Welch, E. (n.d.). Partial list of faith & work groups. Retrieved May 27, 2019, from http://www.charlestonsouthern.edu/christianleadership/WLN%20Faith%20 and%20Work%20Orgs.pdf White, J. (1983). The Church and the para-church: An uneasy marriage. Portland, OR: Multnomah press. Wuthnow, R. (1988). The restructuring of American religion: Society and faith since World War II. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Wuthnow, R. (1989). Meaning and moral order: Explorations in cultural analysis. Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press.

CHAPTER 13

Conclusion

The overreaching goal of this book is to present a resource for faith and work application and study, as well as to encourage further research on this topic. Though there have been many books on faith-and-work-related topics, this book was written to bridge faith and work integration (FWI) research and application. Though academic works on this topic number well into the thousands (see Chap. 5) and popular titles appear to be as numerous (see Chap. 7), the authors felt a need to provide a book that would connect these two realms. Much like the gathered church, within academia it is beneficial to grow, learn, and be encouraged. But it is important for those involved in faith and work research to relay findings in a way that reaches beyond colleges and universities. Using the “church as a cruise ship” analogy, this book is an attempt to provide a mechanism whereby both the Church and academia can operate more like air-craft carriers by sending out their members and messages into the world of work. This book brings history (Chap. 2), definitions (Chaps. 3 and 5), and theological views (Chap. 4) together with current research and application in the area of faith and work. In addition, in Chap. 8 the FWSI model is presented as a practical tool that can be used by individuals, organizations, and churches to help understand and facilitate FWI. Conceptually, instead of perceiving these four key areas of faith organization influence separately, this model illustrates how these factors can interact concurrently to help or hinder FWI. The four chapters discussing each of these spheres reflect an © The Author(s) 2020 S. G. Buszka, T. Ewest, Integrating Christian Faith and Work, Palgrave Studies in Workplace Spirituality and Fulfillment, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-22914-6_13

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overview of the academic research that exists in these sub-categories. This book claims to provide a representative, rather than an exhaustive review of research on this topic (remember, this list numbers in the thousands!); therefore, we hope it may provide a way of categorizing other FWI-related research. Also, mentioned throughout this book are areas in which more research would be helpful to further understanding in the area of FWI. Although further academic research in this area is needed and encouraged, there is an even greater need to get research findings out to Christians in the workplace. After all, what is the purpose of the research reported within the pages of this book if not to help facilitate actual faith-work integration? In Chap. 7, interest in this topic was discussed, as well as the need for a more intentional and systematic approach to equipping Christians to engage in FWI. Chapter 6 presented the wide range of benefits accruing to the individual worker, organizations, and society when employees engage in FWI. Therefore, it appears to be a “win-win-win” when workers know how to integrate their faith in the workplace. For these reasons, we hope that this book will stimulate responses or reactions at the individual, occupational, work organization, and faith organization levels. For the individual reader, the first seven chapters of this book can serve as background information to enhance understanding of the importance of work from a Biblical and historical perspective. The FWSI model presented in Chap. 8 can be used to analyze a person’s current level of FWI in the four categories provided in the FWSI modeI.  The information provided in Chap. 9 (individual influences), Chap. 10 (occupational influences), Chap. 11 (work organization influences), and Chap. 12 (faith organization influences) allow the individual to reflect upon their own FWI favorability in each of these spheres. To assist with this process, a blank FWI Situation Favorability Self-Analysis Template has been provided in Table 13.1. At this point, there is no quantitative instrument to assess the level of FWI favorability; however, the FWSI template can still be useful for the individual to analyze whether each sphere is favorable or unfavorable. To do this, the individual could create a list of personal “pros” and “cons” based on current individual circumstances, with the column having the most items indicating whether the sphere is favorable or unfavorable. Following this, the individual could create an action plan based on their assessment and chapter recommendations. Some examples of improvement strategies at the individual level could be to enroll in an FWI Bible study, read more books on FWI or workplace theology, find a workplace mentor, or spend time in praying and reflecting on God’s purpose at work.

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Table 13.1  FWI situation favorability self-analysis template FWSI sphere

Describe favorable conditions “pros”

Describe unfavorable conditions “cons”

Assess favorable or unfavorable based on “pros” vs. “cons”

List strategies for improvement in unfavorable areas

Individual faith influences Occupational influences Work organization influences Faith organization influences

Individuals or organizations could use the information provided about occupational influences in Chap. 10 to consider how occupational choice, job design, and person-job fit impact FWI.  Employees or organizations may consider how to reframe or redesign jobs to make them more amenable to FWI. Individuals may list occupational pros and cons based on Chap. 10 discussion. If the occupational category is unfavorable, strategies such as including more relational job elements, creating faith-related schemas, or deciding to perform work with the highest level of integrity may be considered. In some cases, a complete occupational change may be warranted. Organizations wishing to encourage employee FWI may consider ways they may redesign job tasks or work relationship to provide more opportunities for employee FWI. At the organizational level, much information is provided in Chap. 11 for employer organizations wishing to accommodate employee faith and spirituality or develop strategies to become more faith-friendly. As Chap. 6 describes, there are many benefits to organizations that choose to accommodate and encourage their employees’ FWI. In addition, employees can use this information to assess their current person–organization fit with respect to FWI. Depending on the nature of their current employer, there may be some FWI strategies that would be more naturally suitable. If the individual is early in their career, it may be possible to seek employment in an organization more amenable to FWI. Or, if the work situation is one that causes great tension because of disparity between faith values and work practices, changing organizations might be the best solution.

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This book can be an especially helpful resource for faith organizations including churches, ancillary faith, and work groups and parachurch organizations to promote that Christ’s charge to “go make disciples” includes the workplace. As explained in Chap. 12, churches appear to be doing a better job at promoting FWI in some areas than others, and there appears to be much more that could be done to encourage FWI.  For those churches and congregations still of the cruise ship mentality, the message must be conveyed that the church is not only for the comfort and edification of its members. The church is where members should be provided the inspiration and tools to take their faith into the workplace to fulfill one of the purposes for which they were created—to serve God through work. We acknowledge that at an academic level Social Science research is, in its most basic form, an attempt to describe what is happening (descriptive), and only secondarily is it prescriptive. Yet, as researchers, we must also ask what is motivating the behavior we describe. Certainly, it is a set of values and beliefs within the organizations and individuals being researched, thus of human origins. But, at the spiritual level, we suggest that there may be a subject acting outside the direct observation and thus evaluation of research—Jesus Christ. While this is undoubtedly a biased confessional statement, it is at the same time a statement that would be welcomed and affirmed by countless millions of Christians around the globe.

Index1

A Absenteeism, 93 Academy of Management, 114 Acculturation, 263 Achievement, 28, 30 Action, 261, 262 Acts 16, 55 Acts 17, 79 Adam and Eve, 56 Adherence, 163, 169 Advancement, 29, 30, 34, 40 Affiliation, 30 Age, 28, 36, 41 Aircraft carrier, 123, 127 Alienation, 18 Altruism, 69, 200 Altruistic, 166, 167 Altruistic helping, 91, 102 Altruistic values, 200 Ancient Greece, 74 Ancient Israelites, 12

Ancillary faith and work groups, 270–271 Andrew, 55 Artificial intelligence, 20 Artistic types, 31 Association of Religion Data Archives, 68 Authentic leadership, 35 Autonomy, 197, 199, 202, 206 B Barna Group, 117, 121, 155, 168, 171, 172 Being, 261, 263, 267 Beliefs, 29–30 Biblical precepts, 206 Bibliometric review, 68 Big Five Model, 31 Bi-modal workforce, 19 Bi-vocational ministry, 56 Black Protestants, 268

 Note: Page numbers followed by ‘n’ refer to notes.

1

© The Author(s) 2020 S. G. Buszka, T. Ewest, Integrating Christian Faith and Work, Palgrave Studies in Workplace Spirituality and Fulfillment, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-22914-6

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INDEX

C Calling, 13, 14, 16, 18, 29, 41, 57, 87, 89, 91, 92, 125, 126, 152, 156, 161, 162, 165–169, 173, 177, 178, 181, 191, 193, 195, 196, 198, 200, 208–210, 267, 269, 270 Calvin, John, 2, 16, 122 Career, 19, 29, 32–34, 36, 37, 191, 193–196, 209, 210 Career advancement, 195 Career guidance, 192, 210 Career orientation, 29 Carlyle, John, 18 Carpenter, 55 Catholicism, 2, 3 Catholics, 50, 265–269 Catholic Social Teaching, 2 Chick-fil-A, 238 Christian businesses, 238, 239 Christian Doctrinal Orthodoxy Scale, 162 Christian faith, 49, 50, 59 Christianity, 15 Christian non-profits, 235 Christian theology, 49, 60 Closely held company, 237 Code of ethics, 145, 206 Commercial logic, 231 Commission of Christ, 3 Community, 262, 263, 266, 267, 271 Community ethics (CE), 170, 192, 199, 200, 206, 217, 223, 225, 226, 231, 243 Community volunteer programs, 243 Company mission, 135, 145 Compartmentalizers, 169 Confucianism, 87 Conscientiousness, 31, 91 Conservative Protestants, 154 Conservative religious views, 101 Conventional types, 31

Co-regency, 208 Co-religionists, 236, 241 Corporate Chaplaincy, 116 Corporate culture, 135, 145 Corporate social responsibility, 175, 243 Counselors, 210 Country culture, 39–41 Creation, 50–53, 56–59, 76 Critical psychological states, 197, 198 Cruise ship, 123, 127 Cruise ship mentality, 123 Culture, 215, 216, 221, 229, 232, 235, 237, 239–241, 243 Customer orientation, 95 Customer service skills, 200 D Denominational doctrine, 135 Denominational group differences, 267 Denominational strictness, 268 Deterministic, 67 Deuteronomy 25:15, 58 Development, 156, 158, 167, 169, 174, 181 Dirty work, 204 Discipleship, 4, 122 making, 4 training, 271 Discrimination, 67, 244 Disparate impact, 244, 245 Disparate treatment, 244 Diversity, 93, 98, 101, 104 Division of labor, 18 Dress and grooming policies, 176 Dress codes, 245 Dwelling spirituality, 70 E Early Christian church, 15, 55 Eastern Orthodox, 50

 INDEX 

Education, 35–37 Einstein, Albert, 124 Elective affinities, 1 Emotional intelligence, 19 Employee engagement, 92 Employee performance, 69 Employee retention, 38 Engagement, 179 Enlightenment, 17 Enrichment, 170, 172, 262n2, 269 Enterprising types, 31 Entrepreneurial, 216, 218, 221, 229–231 Entrepreneurial skills, 19 Entrepreneurs, 31, 230, 231 Entrepreneurship, 76 Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, 67, 244 Establishment Clause, 228 Ethical cultures, 174, 175, 242, 243 Ethical examples ethics, 263 Ethical practices, 73 Ethics, 68, 73, 262, 266, 267, 269 The ethics type, 171 Evangelical Christians, 51 Evangelical Protestant, 265 Everywhere integrator, 171, 196 Exodus 20: 8–11, 53 Exodus 23:10–11, 53 Exodus 31:3–4, 53 Exodus 36–40, 53 Experience, 124, 170, 173, 177, 179, 180, 262n2, 265, 269 Expression, 158, 170, 172, 177, 269 Externally focused, 261 External summons, 195 Extraverts, 31 Extrinsic, 193, 194 extrinsic religiosity, 158 factors, 30 Extrinsic rewards, 241

285

F Faith, 29, 41, 42, 90, 93n3 Faith and work, 1, 3, 5, 13, 16 Faith and work groups, 115, 135 Faith and work theology, 138 Faith-based, 135, 216, 218, 221, 231, 235, 237–240, 244, 248 Faith-based organizations, 156, 221, 239, 244 Faith-friendly, 85, 93, 100, 101, 135, 145, 244, 247, 248, 249n3 Faith maturity, 135, 137, 151, 154, 162, 163, 168, 181 Faith Maturity Scale, 162 Faith-work integration, 28, 31 Family-owned businesses, 232 FBI, 38 Feedback, 197, 198, 202 Femininity, 40 Financial rewards, 40 First Amendment, 228 Fishermen, 55 Flexible work arrangements, 19 For-profit, 216, 218–222, 225, 227–229, 238 Frankl, Victor, 88 Franklin, Benjamin, 17 The Free Exercise Clause, 228 Friedman, Milton, 217, 223 FWI favorability, 136, 137, 146, 147 FWSI model, 28, 157, 174, 181 G Galatians 2:10, 58 Gathered church, 4, 5, 113, 118, 122, 127, 260, 274 Gender, 28, 29, 32, 33, 36, 37, 41, 100 Generational differences, 28 Generations X and Y, 209 Genesis 1:26–28, 51 Genesis 1:28, 58

286 

INDEX

Genesis 2:1–3, 51 Genesis 2:8, 56 Giddens, Anthony, 2, 10 Global positive leadership, 36 GLOBE Study, 40 Goal facilitation theory, 166, 167 Google, 38 Government funding, 235 Government run, 135 Greek New Testament, 74 Greeks, 14 Greenleaf, Robert, 70 Greenleaf Center for Servant Leadership, 116 Group enrichment (GE), 170, 172, 192, 200, 201, 262, 262n2 H Hackman, J. R., 193, 197 Handy, Charles, 223 Hawthorne Studies, 34 Healthcare, 68, 70 Hebrews 11:1, 74 Henry, Carl, 265 The Higher Education Research Institute (HERI), 117 Hippocratic Oath, 206 Historically black churches, 265 Hobby Lobby, 237 Holland, 31 Holy Spirit, 79 Horizontal faith maturity, 163 I Identification, 263 Identity, 19, 156, 160, 169, 179, 181 Identity prominence, 153–155, 157 Identity salience, 153–155, 157 Identity theory, 68

Importance of money, 40 Improved psychological states, 90 Inculturation, 263, 264 Individual enrichment (IE), 170, 172, 192, 200, 201 Individual ethics (IE), 199 Industrialization, 17–18 Information age, 19 In-groups, 34, 98–100 Integrators, 169 Internally focused, 261 Internal passions, 196 Intrinsic, 13, 20, 193, 194, 196 intrinsic religiosity, 158, 159, 161, 166, 173, 180 Intrinsic factors, 40 Intrinsic motivation, 30 Intrinsic need satisfaction, 76 Intrinsic satisfaction, 13, 227, 232 Investigative type, 31 Isaiah 28:24–29, 54 Isaiah 65:21–22, 54 Islam, 172 J James, 55 James 2:26, 74 Jesus, 12, 15, 49, 55, 57–59 Jewish, 269 Joanna, 55 Job, 191, 193, 196, 198, 202, 204, 206, 210 Job attitudes, 68 Job characteristics, 191, 193, 198, 199, 206 Job Characteristics Model (JCM), 30, 37, 179, 197, 202 Job crafting, 37, 156, 166–168, 178–181, 210 Job design, 37

 INDEX 

Job involvement, 92, 161, 162 Job satisfaction, 92, 95, 165–167 Journal of Management, Spirituality, and Religion, 114 Justice, 58, 59 K Keller, Tim, 177 knowledge, 124–127 Kohlberg, L., 158 L Leaders, 34, 35, 42 Leadership, 68, 73, 202–204 Lead Like Jesus, 116 Legal environment, 216 Leisure time activities, 21 Liberal Protestant, 154 Life longevity differentials, 89 Life meaning, 85, 88, 94 Lifestyle, 58 Locke, John, 17, 18 Locus of control, 31 Loyola, Ignatius, 16 Luke, 55, 58 Luke 3:11, 59 Luke 6:30 Luther, Martin, 2, 16, 75, 79 Lydia, 55 M Magdalene, Mary, 55 Mainline Protestant, 265, 266, 268 Making disciples, 4 Management, Spirituality and Religion group, 71, 114 Manifestation, 169, 173 Mark, 55 Marketplace, 263

287

Masculinity, 40 Maslow, A. H., 85, 88, 193, 194, 196, 197 Material outcomes, 28 Material symbols, 240 Matthew, 55, 58 Matthew 28:19–20, 59 Meaning, 9, 10, 15, 18, 19, 21, 23 Meaningfulness, 9, 10, 37, 198, 202 Meaningful work, 34 Meaning of work, 34–35, 39 Meaning of Working (MOW) study, 39 Medieval, 65 Meditation, 87, 90 Mentoring, 123, 125, 126, 156, 162, 168, 172 Mentors, 210 Middle Ages, 15–16 Millennials, 117, 119 Mintzberg, H., 202 Mission, 215, 216, 221, 222, 224, 227, 231, 239, 250, 261, 263, 265, 266, 270, 274 Modern, 195 Monolithic, 160 Moral Foundations Theory, 159 Moral imaginations, 180 Mormons, 268 Motivating potential, 197 Motivation, 30, 37, 152, 158, 165–167, 179 Multi-dimensional, 137 N National Business Ethics Survey, 174, 242 National culture, 37 Need for achievement, 31 Negligent retention, 103 Neoclassical, 195 Networking, 232

288 

INDEX

Nicene Creed, 50 Nondenominational, 69 Non-profit, 135, 219, 220, 228, 229, 235, 238 Nonverbal expression (NVE), 170, 192 Non-work domains, 37 Not-for-profit, 216, 218, 220 Nursing, 70 O O∗NET, 178 Occupation, 13, 14, 16, 55, 191, 193, 194, 205, 206, 208, 210 Occupational assessment tools, 76 Occupational categories, 191, 192, 202, 208 Occupational choice, 29 Occupational groups, 156, 157 Occupational identification, 205 Occupational values, 29 Oldham, G. R., 193, 197 Onlooker, 169 Organizational attachment, 165 Organizational citizenship behavior, 85, 92, 93, 102, 165, 166 Organizational commitment, 85, 92–94 Organizational culture, 38, 69, 73, 93, 98, 157 Organizational missions, 37, 38 Organizational spirituality, 239–240 Organization leaders, 175 Organization purpose, 217, 218 Orthodoxy, 2, 3, 78, 125–127, 265, 269 Orthopathy, 78, 125–127 Orthopraxis, 125–127 Other focus, 163 Outcomes experience (OE), 170, 173, 192, 194, 195, 199, 200 Out-groups, 34, 98, 99

P Papal authority, 3 Parables, 55 Parachurch organizations, 271–274 Parenting, 155 Particular call, 75 Passion, 124, 125 Paul, 56–58 Performance orientation, 40 Perkins, William, 16 Personality, 28, 30, 31 Personality-job fit, 178 Person-job fit, 91–92, 210 Person–organization fit, 92, 215 Pew research, 65 Physical and mental health, 85, 88, 90, 91 benefits, 88, 90 Play, 11 Positive psychology, 35, 217 Post-modern, 65, 66 Power, 29, 30, 194, 203 Prejudiced, 99 Prestige, 29 Pricilla and Aquila, 56 Process/activity experience (PAE), 170, 173, 196, 198, 200, 201 Process or activity of work inherently meaningful (PAO), 217 Productivity, 37, 88, 92–94, 103 Profession, 205, 206 Professional Christian groups, 273 Professional occupational groups, 135 Profit maximization, 217, 218, 221, 222, 228 Proselytizing, 176, 245 Prosocial behavior, 166 Prosocial leadership, 36 Pro-social responsibility, 195 Protestantism, 2 Protestant Reformation, 113

 INDEX 

Protestants, 1–3, 50, 57–59, 265, 266, 268 Protestant Work Ethic, 1, 87, 268 Proverbs 3:9–10, 54 Proverbs 6:8–11, 54 Proverbs 12:11, 54 Proverbs 12:24, 54 Proverbs 13:22, 54 Proverbs 14:23, 54 Psalm 90:17, 54 Psalm 107, 54 Psychological contract, 38 Psychological primes, 240 Public sector, 216, 220–223, 227, 228 Q Quest religiosity quest, 158 R Race, 100 Rauschenbusch, Walter, 266 Realistic types, 31 Redemption, 57 Redemptive work, 76 Reformation, 16, 17 Relational architecture, 199, 201–203, 210 Relational job design, 199, 230, 232, 242 Relationship focused relational, 33 Religion, 41 Religiosity, 90, 95, 100, 134, 137, 152, 153, 157–162, 165, 168, 181 Religious accommodation, 229–230, 244, 245, 249 Religious commitment, 151, 161 Religious creed, 237 Religious discrimination, 113, 216, 229, 244, 245, 248

289

Religious dress and grooming policies, 245 The Religious Freedom and Restoration Act, 238 Religious grooming requirements, 246 Religious harassment, 245 Religious identity, 153 Religiously conservative, 101 Religious orientation, 231 Religious symbols, 241 Renaissance, 16 Respectful pluralism, 248 Responsibility, 29, 34, 38 Responsibility for outcomes, 198 Risk taking, 29, 31 Rituals, 240 Role behaviors, 154–157 Role conflict, 154, 175 Role identity demands, 155 Romantics, 18 Rome, 74 S Sabbath, 12, 53 Sacred calling, 41 Saint Augustine of Hippo, 15 Saint Benedict of Nursia, 15 St. Thomas Aquinas, 15 Salt and Light Leadership Training, 116 Sarbanes-Oxley Act, 175 Satisfaction, 37, 166, 173, 174, 179, 180 Scattered church, 4, 5, 113, 118, 122, 123, 127, 260, 261, 263, 274 Scripts and schemas, 179, 181, 228, 240 Secular, 166 Seeking spirituality, 70 Self-actualization, 18, 69, 193, 196 Self-branding, 19 Self-ethics (SE), 192, 200, 201, 206 Self-fulfillment, 195 Self-marketing, 19 Sense of purpose, 28

290 

INDEX

Separation, 263 Sermon content, 168 Sermons, 270 Servant leadership, 36, 116 Servant-partnership model, 274 Service, 269 Seven Themes of Catholic Social Teaching, 266 Sexual orientation, 100 Short Christian Orthodoxy Scale, 163 Sin, 52, 56, 57 Single parent households, 118 Situation favorability, 138, 146 Skill variety, 197, 198, 202 Slavery, 102 Smith, Adam, 17 Social capital, 97 Social change model, 35–36 Social Cognitive Career Theory, 210 Social entrepreneurs, 231 Social identity theory, 34 Social information processing theory, 34 Social justice, 266, 267 Socially responsible behavior, 217, 223 social responsibility, 262 Social relationships, 28, 30, 33 Social responsibility, 85, 93, 95 Social Sciences Citation Index (SSCI), 68, 70 Social support, 89, 90, 97 Social types, 31 Social welfare logic, 231 Societal culture, 96 Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM), 206 Socioeconomic factors, 32 Socio-relational work, 33 Special call, 209 Special purpose groups, 272 Special revelation, 50 Spheres of identity, 156 Spirited workplaces, 73

Spirit of capitalism, 18 Spiritual gift inventories, 178 Spirituality, 41–42, 124 Spiritual leadership, 36 Stakeholder, 227, 228, 230, 238 STEM, 32 Stereotype Content Model, 99 Stewardship, 17, 56, 58, 208, 232 Stimulating creativity and innovation, 98 Stress, 87, 90, 91, 100 Strong Interest Inventory, 178, 210 Strong organizational culture, 240 Study on lottery winners, 29 Sunday-Monday gap, 145 Susanna, 55 Sustainability initiatives, 96 Sustainable competitive advantage, 93 Sweet spot, 134, 136 Synoptic Gospels, 55 T Task identity, 197, 198, 202 Task significance, 179, 197, 202 Tax collector, 55 Teaching, 260, 261, 266, 269 Teamwork, 200 Ten Commandments, 68 Terkel, Studs, 9 The Integration Profile (TIP), 71, 152, 170–171, 173–182, 192–193, 196–199, 201, 203–206, 210, 217, 218, 222, 237, 239, 262, 262n2, 264 1 Thessalonians 4:11, 56 1 Thessalonians 5:14–15, 103 Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act, 66, 67, 228, 244, 246 Tom Sawyer, 11, 14 Tom’s of Maine, 230 Training, 123–125, 127 Transcendence, 63, 69, 196

 INDEX 

Triple bottom line, 73, 73n1 Turnover, 92–94 Twenty-first century, 19 2 Thessalonians 3:7–9, 56 2 Thessalonians 3:10, 56 Tyson Foods, 116 U Undue hardship, 244, 246 Unpleasant work, 180, 204, 211 US Census Department, 229 US Constitution, 66 V Venn diagram, 134, 135, 137 Verbal expression (VE), 170, 192 Verbal proclamation, 261 Vertical faith maturity, 163 Vision, 216, 221–223, 227, 240 Vocation, 16, 18, 30, 41, 75, 76, 125, 126, 136, 137, 153, 168, 173 Vocational calling, 135, 137 Volunteer volunteering, 11, 13, 21 work, 182 W Warren, Rick, 177 Weber, Max, 1, 88, 267

Wesley, John, 16 The Westminster confession, 50 Whistleblowing, 175 Wisdom, 124, 125, 127 Workaholism, 119 Work and family, 36 Work as a job, 193, 194 Work as a means to an end, 194 Work centrality, 29, 40 Work context, 28, 37, 42 Work engagement, 167, 180 Work ethic, 17, 18 Workforce demoralization, 118 Work-life balance, 98, 101, 119, 232 WorkLife Inc., 123 Work orientation, 29 Workplace ethics, 174 Workplace mentors, 270 Workplace spirituality, 64, 71–73 Workplace theology, 75 Work to live, 194 Work values, 28 Worship, 271 X Xenophobic, 98 Z Zacchaeus, 55

291