Insight on the Scriptures [Vol 1, 1 ed.]

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Insight On The Scriptures
Volume-1 Aaron-Jehoshua
1988 Copyright/WTBTS
What This Publication Contains
Special Features in Color
Examples of Helpful Features
Maps
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
Map Index
Abbreviations Used in This Publication
Back Cover

Citation preview

INSIGHT

ON THE SCRIPTURES I

Volume

1:

Aaron - Jehoshua

Copyright © 1988 by WATCH TOWER BIBLE AND TRACT SOCIETY OF PENNSYLVANIA INTERNATIONAL BIBLE STUDENTS ASSOCIATION Publishers W ATCHTOWER BIBLE AND TRACT SOCIETY OF NEW YORK, INC. INTERNATIONAL BIBLE STUDENTS ASSOCIATION Brooklyn, New York, U.S.A. All rights reserved

First Printing in English: 1,000,000 copies

Insight on the Scriptures English (it-I-E) Made in the United States of America

What This Publication Contains of this publication is to help you to acquire insight on the Scriptures. How is it done? By bringing together from all parts of the Bible the details that relate to subjects being discussed. By drawing attention to original-language words and their literal meaning. By considering relat­ ed information from secular history, ar­ chaeological research, and other fields of science and evaluating this in the light of the Bible. By providing visual aids. By helping you to discern the value of acting in harmony with what the Bible says.

The objective

tells about the dealings of Jehovah God with mankind, and it does so in a context that convincingly reflects real life. It names people and places, refers to con­ temporary nations and rulers, and men­ tions specific types of plants and animals. Background knowledge can help you to benefit more fully from Bible references to such people and things. To assist you, Insight on the Scriptures contains informative articles about more than 3,000 persons named in the Scriptures as well as facts concerning 97 nations, tribes, and peoples. There are over 1,000 articles discussing specific geographic places, 96 about vari­ ous plants, and 106 that deal with birds and animals. Besides these, there are arti­ cles on many other vital Scriptural subjects.

The Bible

is given special atten­ tion. An outline of each one of the books draws attention to the prinCipal ideas that are developed by the writer, and it does so in a form that is easy to read and remem­ ber. Unless otherwise indicated, the Bible translation quoted in this reference work is the New World Translation of the Holy Scrip­ tures-With References, 1984 Edibon, al­ though over 40 other translations are also cited and quoted.

Each book of the Bible

include scores of maps, many of which isolate key locations on the basis of historical time periods. There are also a

Visual aids

large number of pictures to help you to visualize the Bible lands and events that took place there. A few are artists' portray­ als of important historical events. Many more are photographs of specific locations and of museum displays that relate to the Bible record. Acknowledgments for pictures from museum displays and for other pic­ tures are shown in Volume 2, on page 1276. discuss Hebrew, Greek, and Aramaic-the languages in which the Bible was originally written. Articles are devel­ oped in line with the meaning of relevant expressions in the original languages, not simply the way those terms are understood in other tongues popularly used today. Meanings of Bible names in this publication are based on the way the original-language components of the names are actually used elsewhere in the Bible.

In-depth articles

to your Bible questions? (1) Is it the meaning of a partic­ ular Bible expression that you want? Is your question about a person, a place, or perhaps a quality? Keep in mind that all the articles are arranged alphabetically and that Bible names and expressions are according to the rendering of the New World Translation. Turn to the article that has as its heading the name or subject that you have in mind. If you do not readily find what you need, try the Subject Index in the back of Vol­ ume 2; it pinpoints valuable material that may be in an unexpected place. (2) If you need the explanation of a specific scripture, turn directly to the Scripture Index in Vol­ ume 2.

How can you find answers

that this publication will deepen your appreciation for the Bible's Author, Jehovah God, and give you greater insight as to the meaning of his Word, and that it will move you to apply its contents more fully in your own life and to share its vital truths with others.

It is our earnest desire

Special Features in Color Page

Volume 1

Page

321

How We Got the Bible

321

Babylonian Empire

324

The Divine Name

327

326

Flood of Noah's Day

Jerusalem's Conquest by Babylon

329

Origin of Nations

327

Medo-Persian Empire

330

Abraham's Travels

332

Exiles Return From Babylon

332

Geographic Features of the Promised Land

333

Grecian Empire

529

529

Gods of the Nations

Events in Jacob's Life

531

531

Tyre

Ancient Egypt

535

Israel in Egypt

533

Roman Empire

536

Exodus From Egypt

538

The Tabernacle

540

W ilderness Wanderings of Israel

543

Plants of the Bible

737

Israelite Conquest of the Promised Land

738

Nations Occupying the Land That God Gave to Israel

Volume 2

537

Early Human Life of Jesus

540

Earthly Ministry of Jesus

542

First-Century Jerusalem

737

Province of Galilee

740

Around the Sea of Galilee

741

Events Leading Up to the Death of Christ

744

Spread of Christianity

746

Apostle Paul's Ministry

751

Jerusalem Destroyed by the Romans

740

The Land That God Gave to Israel

743

Judges Deliver Israel From Oppression

744

Tribal Territory in Israel

945

Congregations of Revelation

947

In and Around Jerusalem Today

745

Time of David

748

Solomon's Reign

750

Temple Built by Solomon

952

752

City of Jerusalem ( David/Solomon)

Everyday Life in Ancient Israel

955

Animals of the Bible

945

Kingdoms Surrounding Israel

947

Divided Kingdom

949

Prophetic Activity of Elijah and Elisha

951

Enemy Nations That Attacked Israel

953

Megiddo

954

Assyrian Empire

959

Benefiting From Archaeology

Maps are listed in

Volume 1 on page 8.

Examples of Helpful Features

AARON

Headings in all-capital letters designate main articles

bed

(Aar'on). A son of Amram and Joche­

of the

tribe

of

Levi,

born

in

Egypt

in

15D7 B.c.E. Levi was Aaron's great-grandfather. (Ex 6: 13, 16-20) Miriam was his elder sister, and

Moses was his younger brother by three years.

During the Kingships of David and Solomon.

Bold lettering with capital letters is used for principal subheadings

Bold italics indicate a subdivision of material under the principal subheading

It appears that when David finally gained the

throne, Abiathar was ma de the lech's

death,

priest. Some

King Saul had Zadok inst.alled as high

Christian principles regarding strangers.

Tn

the

the Christian Greek Script.ures love toward

stranger (Gr., xe'nos) is strongly

ernphasized as a

quality the Christian must exercise. The apostle Paul says: "Do not forget hm.:iJitality [Gr., ph i· [0,-

ABEDNEGO

Pronunciation guide

high

scholars suggest that, after High Priest Ahime­

(A·bed'ne·go) lprobably, Servant

of Nebo [a Babylonian god]]. The name given to

Azariah, one of the youths of the Jewish royalty or nobility taken captive by Nebuchadnezzar in

ELIJAH

Meaning of name

(Kli'jah) [My God Is Jehovah].

1. One of the foremost prophets of Israel. Evi­

dently his home was in Tishbeh,

thought

by

some to be a village in the land of Gilead, E of

t he

Question that is answered in the following paragraph(s)

Jordan River.

(lKi 17:1)

He started

his

long

Why was Aaron not punished for making the golden calf? Despite his privilegc�d position, Aaron had his

shortcomings. During Moses' tlTst 40-day stay on

Mount Sinai, "the people congregated themselves

A boldface number at the beginning of a paragraph indicates a different person or place with the same name

1 . A ga tekeepe r of the Korahires appointed by

David; the seventh son of Meshelemiah of the tribe of Levi.-1Ch 26:1-3.

2 . The

son

of Zerahiah who, accompanied by

200 males of thf} paternal house of Pahath-moab,

returned from Babylon to Jerusalem with Ezra.

firmed by the findin9 of

Cross-references direct attention to articles that have valuable additional information or to visual aids

a

silver denarius coin

bearing the head of Tiberius a nd put in circulation

abo ut the year 15 c.E. (PICTURE, Vol . 2, p. 544 )

(,Compare Lu 3: 1, 2.) The fact that Pontius Pila.te

was then Roman gove rn o r of Judea is al so demon­

strated by a stone slab foun d at Caesarea bearing the Latin names Pontius Pi/atus and Tiberiewn.

-See PILATE; PICTURE, Vol. 2, p. 741 .

Hosea p aid 15 silver pieces (if shekels, $33)

Modern-day equivalents are given for Biblical weights, measures, and money

a n d one a n d a half home r measures (3 30 L;

300 dry qt) of barley to buy back the adulterous woman Gomer as his wife (Ho 1.3;

3:1, 2), a

price that some commentators consider to total the price of a slave, 30 silver shekels ($66).

(Ex

21 :32) The "offering of jealousy" required by the

(Isa 40:11) The expression wife of [one's] bosom," "

All abbreviations are explained in Volume 1, on pages 1277, 1278

as i n some translations (KJ; Ro; RS; AT), is given

clearer meaning when rendered, "wife thou dost

cherish in thy bosom" (Kx), " your cherished wife."

In the period of the Judges, the Canaanite dty

Geographic names in parentheses are equivalents in another language (usually in modern Hebrew)

Geographic locations are shown on an accompanying map; scriptures tell what happened there during the period of history under consideration

I

w a s situated on a mound identified with Tell el­

Fukhkhar (Tel 'Akko), about 1 km

(0.6

mi) from

the bay and 1.8 kIll (1 lui) E of the present-day

Old City walls. During the Persian period, from the sixth century E.c.E-, the city spread westw21rd to

LOCATIONS ON MAP With Related Scriptures Ai Beer-sheba Bethel Damascus Dan Gerar

Ge Ge Ge Ge Ge Ge

12:8; 13:3, 4 21:31-33; 22:19 12:8 14:15 14:14 20:1-18

Maps Vol: Page 1:330

2:945 1:746

Places Associated With-

Vol: Page

Nations and Empires

Abraham

1:97

Amorites

Congregations named in Revelation David

1:954

Assyria

2:321

Babylon

1:679

Edom

2:744

Early Christianity's rapid expansion

1:531

Egypt

1:949

Elijah and Elisha

2:334

Greece

Exodus of Israel from Egypt

2:327,358

Medo-Persia

Jacob

1:329

Origin of nations

2:533

Rome

1:945,951

Surrounding Israel

1:536, 537

1:529

2:540-542,

Jesus' earthly ministry

738,740,

742

2:98

Jonah

1:743

Judges that delivered Israel

2:332

Return of Jewish exiles

2:747,750 1:748

1:541

Paul's ministry Solomon W ilderness wanderings of Israel

Promised Land 2:569

Cross section of the land

1:947

Division between Judah and Israel

1:738

Early occupants of the land

2:956-960

Detailed maps with place-names

1:333

Geographic features, satellite map

1:737

Israelite conquest of the land

2:1116 1:744

Principal torrent valleys Tribal territories in Israel

Jerusalem 2:542,742

Other Areas and Principal Cities

During the first century C. E.

1:752,942

During the kingship of David and of Solomon

1:895

Gates of the city (after Babylonian exile)

1:895;

Land elevations

2:47

Nearby cities and villages

2:742

1:40

Achaia

1:72

Alexandria, Egypt

1:130

Appius, Marketplace of

1:143

Aram

1:194,195

Asia Minor (regional and provincial names)

1:472

Cities of refuge

1:547

Crete

1:564

Cyprus

2:738

Galilee

1:602

1:943

1:1024

Decapolis Gilead Hamath

1:953

Megiddo

2:553

Olives, Mount of

2:501

2:531

Nile River Tyre

Index of locations on all maps:

V olume 1, pages 1273-1276.

--

AARON

A

(Aar'on). A son of Amram and Joche­ bed of the tribe of Levi, born in Egypt in 1597 B.c.E. Levi was Aaron's great-grandfather.

spoken of as acting and speaking together, right

(Ex 6: 13, 16-20) Miriam was his elder sister,and Moses was his younger brother by three years. (Ex 2:1-4; 7:7) Aaron married Elisheba,daughter of Amminadab, and had four sons, Nadab, Abi­

company Moses to the top of Mount Sinai to re­

with Moses when giving instruction,and they are up to the time of Aaron'S death.-Nu 20:6-12. Aaron, in his subordinate position, did not ac­ ceive the Law covenant,but,together with two of his sons and 70 of the older men of the nation,he

hu, Eleazar, and Ithamar. (Ex 6:23) He died in 1474 B.c.E. at the age of 123 years.-Nu 33:39.

was permitted to approach the mountain and be­ hold a magnificent vision of God's glory. (Ex

Owing to Moses' reluctance because he found it difficult to speak fluently,Jehovah assigned Aaron to act as Moses' spokesman before Pharaoh,saying of Aaron: "1 do know that he can really speak." Aaron went to meet Moses at Mount Sinai and was informed of the far-reaching proportions of the divinely outlined program of action involving Isra­ el and Egypt, and the brothers then journeyed back to Egypt.-Ex 4: 14-16, 27-30.

24:9-15) In the Law covenant Aaron and his house received honorable mention, and God designated Aaron for the position of high priest.-Ex 28:1-3. High Priest. By a seven-day installation cer­ emony Aaron was invested with his sacred duties by Moses as God's agent, and his four sons were also installed as underpriests. Moses dressed Aar­ on in beautiful garments of gold,blue,purple,and scarlet materials, including shoulder pieces and a breastpiece that was adorned with precious gems

Aaron now began serving as "a mouth" to Mo­ ses, speaking for him to the older men of Israel and performing miraculous signs as proof of the divine origin of their messages. When the time came for their appearance at Pharaoh's court,the 83-year-old Aaron, as Moses' spokesman, had to face up to that arrogant ruler. As Jehovah there­ after told Moses: "See, I have made you God to Pharaoh, and Aaron your own brother will be­ come your prophet." (Ex 7:1,7) It was Aaron who performed the first miraculous sign before Pha­ raoh and his magic-practicing priests; and, later, it was Aaron who, at Moses' order, stretched forth Moses' rod and signaled the start of the Ten Plagues. (Ex 7:9-12, 19, 20) He continued to work in united coordination with Moses and in obedi­ ence to God during the succeeding plagues, until liberation finally came. In this he was a good example for Christians who serve as "ambassa­ dors substituting for Christ, as though God were making entreaty through us."-Ex 7:6; 2Co 5:20. Aaron's activity as spokesman for Moses evi­ dently diminished during the 40 years of wander­ ing in the wilderness,since Moses appears to have done more of the speaking himself. (Ex 32:26-30; 34:31-34; 35:1,4) The rod also returned to Moses' hands after the third plague. And Aaron, along with Hur, merely supported Moses' arms at the battle of Amalek. (Ex 9:23; 17:9, 12) However,

of varied colors. On his head was placed a turban of fine linen. Attached to it was a plate of pure gold, engraved with the words "Holiness belongs to Jehovah." (Le 8:7-9; Ex 28) Aaron was then anointed in the manner described at Psalm 133:2 and could thereafter be called the messiah

(khri·stos', LXX),

ma·shi'ach,

or

that is, the "anointed

one."-Le 4:5, 16; 6:22. Aaron not only was placed over all the priest­ hood but also was divinely declared to be the one from whose line, or house,all future high priests must come. Yet Aaron himself had not received the priesthood by inheritance, and so the apostle Paul could say of him: "A man takes this honor, not of his own accord,but only when he is called by God,just as Aaron also was. So too the Christ did not glorify himself by becoming a high priest, but was glorified by him who spoke with reference to him: 'You are my son; I,today, I have become your father.'" (Heb 5:4,5) Paul thereafter demon­ strates the way in which the priestly office, first filled by Aaron, was typical of that which Christ Jesus fills as a superior and heavenly high priest. This being so, the priestly functions of Aaron's high office take on added meaning for us.-Heb 8:1-6; 9:6-14,23-28. As high priest, Aaron was responsible for di­ recting all features of worship at the tabernacle

Jehovah generally continued to associate Aaron 9

10

AARON

cle, and the rod for the tribe of Levi was inscribed

and supervising the work of the thousands of Levites engaged in its service. (Nu 3:5-10) On the

with Aaron's name. (Nu 17:1-4) On the following

annual Day of Atonement he presented sin offer­ ings for the priesthood and Levites and for the

found that Aaron's rod had budded, blossomed

day Moses entered the tent of the Testimony and

people of Israel, and he alone was permitted to

with flowers, and bore ripe almonds. (Nu 17:8)

enter the Most Holy of the tabernacle with the sacrificial blood of the animals. (Le 16) The daily

This established beyond dispute Jehovah's choice

offering up of incense, the presentation of the

His authorization of Aaron as high priest. Thereaf­

firstfruits of the grain harvest, and many other

ter, the right of Aaron's house to the priesthood

features of the worship were exclusive preroga­

was never seriously challenged. The budded rod of Aaron was placed in the ark of the covenant as

tives of Aaron and his sons as priests. (Ex 30:7, 8; Lu 1:8-11; Le 23:4-11) His anointing, however,

of the Levite sons of Aaron for priestly service and

"a sign to the sons of rebelliousness," though it

sanctified him to perform not only sacrificial du­

appears that after the death of these rebellious

ties for the nation but other duties as well. He was responsible to teach the nation the Word of God.

ones and the entry of the nation into the Land of Promise the rod was removed, having served its

(Le 10:8-11; De 24:8; Mal 2:7) He, as well as his successors, served as the chief officer under Jeho­

purpose.-Nu 17:10; Heb 9:4; 2Ch 5:10; 1Ki 8:9.

vah the King. On high state occasions he wore the costly garments and the "shining plate" of gold on

Why was Aaron n o t pun ished for making the golden calf?

his linen turban. He also wore the breastpiece that contained the Urim and Thummim, enabling him to receive Jehovah's "Yes" or "No" to national prob­ lems; although, for the duration of Moses' life and mediatorship, this feature appears to have re­ ceived little use.-Ex 28:4, 29, 30, 36; see HIGH

PRIEST.

Despite his privileged position, Aaron had his shortcomings. During Moses' first 40-day stay on Mount Sinai, "the people congregated themselves about Aaron and said to him: 'Get up, make for us

Aaron's devotion to pure worship was early put

a god who will go ahead of us, because as regards this Moses, the man who led us up out of the land

to the test by the death of his sons Nadab and

of Egypt, we certainly do not know what has

Abihu, who suffered destruction by God for mak­

happened to him.'" (Ex 32:1) Aaron acceded and

ing profane use of their priestly positions. The

cooperated with these rebellious ones in making a

record says: "And Aaron kept silent." When he and his two surviving sons were instructed not to

fronted by Moses, he gave a weak excuse. (Ex

golden calf statue. (Ex 32:2-6) When later con­

mourn over the dead transgressors, "they did ac­

32:22-24) However, Jehovah did not single him

cording to Moses' word."-Le 10:1-11.

out as the prime wrongdoer but told Moses: "So

During nearly 40 years Aaron represented the

now let me be, that my anger may blaze against

12 tribes before Jehovah in his capacity as high priest. While in the wilderness, a serious rebellion broke out against the authority of Moses and Aar­ on. It was led by a Levite named Korah, together with the Reubenites Dathan, Abiram, and On, who complained against their leadership. Jehovah caused the earth to open beneath the tents of Korah, Dathan, and Abiram, swallowing them up along with their households, while Korah himself and 250 of his coconspirators were destroyed by fire. (Nu 16: 1-35) Murmuring broke out now on the part of the congregation against Moses and Aaron; and in the divine plague that ensued,

them and I may exterminate them. " (Ex 32: 10) Moses brought the matter to a showdown by crying: "Who is on Jehovah's side? To me!" (Ex 32:26) All the sons of Levi responded, and this undoubtedly included Aaron. Three thousand

Aaron showed great faith and courage in obedi­ ently going out with his fire holder and making atonement for the people while "standing between

idolaters, probably the prime movers of the rebel­ lion, were slain by them. (Ex 32:28) Nevertheless, Moses later reminded the rest of the people that they, too, bore guilt. (Ex 32:30) Aaron, therefore, was not alone in receiving God's mercy. His sub­ sequent actions indicated that he was not in heart harmony with the idolatrous movement but sim­ ply gave in to the pressure of the rebels. (Ex 32:35) Jehovah showed that Aaron had received his forgiveness by maintaining as valid Aaron's appointment to become high priest.-Ex 40:

the dead and the living," until the scourge was stopped.-Nu 16:46-50.

12, 13.

God now directed that 12 rods, each represent­ ing one of the 12 tribes, be placed in the taberna-

brother through many difficult experiences and having recently been installed as high priest by

After having loyally supported his younger

AB

11 Moses

as

God's representative, Aaron foolishly

associated himself with his sister Miriam in criti­ cizing Moses for his marriage to a Cushite woman and in challenging Moses' unique relationship and position with Jehovah God, saying: "Is it just by Moses alone that Jehovah has spoken? Is it not by us also that he has spoken?" ( Nu 1 2 : 1 , 2 ) Jehovah swiftly took action, brought the three before him in front of the tent of meeting, and strongly casti­ gated Aaron and Miriam for disrespecting God's appointment.

The fact

that only Miriam was

stricken with leprosy may mark her as the instiga­ tor of the action and may indicate that Aaron again had shown weakness by being induced to join her. However, if Aaron had been similarly struck with leprosy, it would have invalidated his appointment as high priest, according to God's law. ( Le 21 :21 -23 ) His right heart attitude mani­ fested itself by his immediate confession and apol­

ogy for the foolishness of their act and by his agonized plea for Moses' intercession on leprous Miriam's behalf.-Nu 12: 10- 13. Aaron again shared responsibility for wrong

when he, along with Moses, failed to sanctify and honor God before the congregation in the incident involving the providing of water at Meribah in Kadesh. For this action God decreed that neither of them would enjoy the privilege of bringing the nation into the Land of Promise.-Nu 20 : 9 - 13. On the first day of the month Ab, in the 40th year following the Exodus, the nation of Israel lay encamped on the frontier of Edam before Mount Hor. Within a matter of months they would be crossing over the Jordan; but not the 123-year-old Aaron. At Jehovah's instruction, and with all the camp watching, Aaron, his son Eleazar, and Moses went climbing to the top of Mount Hor. There Aaron let his brother remove his priestly gar­ ments from him and put them on his son and successor to the high priesthood, Eleazar. Then Aaron died. He was probably buried there by his brother and his son, and for 30 days Israel mourned his death.-Nu 20: 24-29. It is noteworthy that in each of his three deflec­ tions, Aaron does not appear as the principal ini­ tiator of the wrong action but, rather, seems to have allowed the pressure of the circumstances or

hood.-Ps 1 1 5 : 10, 1 2 ; 118:3 ; 1 3 3 : 1 , 2 ; 1 3 5 : 19 ; Mt 5 : 17-19 ; 8 : 4.

Aaron's Priestly Descendants . sion "Aaronites" appears in the

sion and Moffatt at

The expres­

King James Ver­

1 Chronicles 1 2 : 27 ; 27: 17. (The

Masoretic text in Hebrew simply uses the name Aaron.

LXX [ Lagardian

edition, at 1 Ch 1 2 : 27 ] says

"of the sons of Aaron." ) It is evident that the word "Aaron" is here used in a collective sense, much as is the name Israel, and stands for the house of Aaron or his male descendants in David's time

who were of the tribe of Levi and were serving as

priests. ( l Ch 6 : 48- 5 3 ) The

New World Translation

reads: "And Jehoiada was the leader [ of the sons] of Aaron, and with him were three thousand sev­ en hundred" ( l Ch 12 : 27 ), bracketing the words "of the sons" to denote that they are supplied.

AB.

The postexilic name of the 5th lunar month

of the Jewish sacred calendar, but the 1 1 th of the secular calendar. It corresponds to part of July and part of August. The meaning of the name Ab is uncertain. In the Bible it is mentioned, not directly by name, but only as "the fifth month. " The name does appear, however, in the Mishnah

( Ta 'anit 4 : 6 )

and

other postexilic Jewish writings. Ab was a month of summer heat, a time when the harvesting of grapes began in Israel. -See CALENDAR. It was on the first day of Ab that Aaron died on Mount Hor. ( Nu 33 : 38 ) Second Kings 2 5 : 8 says that it was on the seventh day of this month that Nebuzaradan, the servant of the king of Babylon, "came to Jerusalem." However, Jeremiah 5 2 : 12 tells us that it was on the tenth day of this month that Nebuzaradan IIcame into Jerusalem. " The

Soncino Books of the Bible

comments on this,

saying : "The interval of three days may be ac­ counted for as representing the date of Nebuzar­ adan's arrival on the scene and the commence­ ment of operations. " ( Edited by A. Cohen, London, 1949 ) It would appear, then, that Nebuzaradan arrived at Jerusalem on the seventh day, made his survey from his camp outside the city walls, and gave directions for the demolition of the city forti­ fications and the plundering of its treasures ; final­

the influence of others to sway him from a course

ly, on the tenth day of the month, he entered the

of rectitude. Particularly in his first trespass, he

city and its holy temple. According to Josephus VI, 250, 268 [ iv, 5, 8 ] ), Herod's

could have applied the principle underlying the

( The Jewish War,

command : "You must not follow after the crowd

temple was burned by the Romans on the tenth

for evil ends. " ( Ex 2 3 : 2 ) Nevertheless, his name is

day of the fifth month ( 70 c.E. ) , and Josephus

thereafter used in the Scriptures in an honorable

makes note of the precise correspondency of this

way, and God's Son, during his earthly lifetime,

date with the burning of the first temple on the

recognized the legitimacy of the Aaronic priest-

same day by the Babylonians.

ABADDON

12

During the following 70-year Babylonian exile,

stating: "I a m living forever and ever, and I have

this fifth month was a time of fastings and wail­

the keys of death and of Hades. " His power with

ings by the Jews in memory of the destruction of

regard to the abyss is shown at Luke 8 : 31 . That he

the temple in Jerusalem. ( Zec 7 : 3, 5 ; 8:19 ) It was

has destroying power, including the power of de­

also in the month Ab that Ezra returned to the

struction over Satan, is evident from Hebrews

restored Jerusalem to instruct the Jews in the Law

2: 14, which says that Jesus partook of blood and

of Jehovah.-Ezr 7:8, 9, 2 5 .

flesh in order that "through his death he might

ABADDON

(Abad'don) (from Heb. , meaning

"Destruction" ]. At Revelation 9: 11 this Hebrew word is transliterated into the English text. There we read concerning the symbolic plague of locusts

bring to nothing the one having the means to cause death, that is, the Devil." At Revelation 19: 1 1 - 16 he is clearly represented as God's ap­ pointed Destroyer or Executioner.-See ApOLLYON.

that they have "a king, the angel of the abyss. In

ABAGTHA

Hebrew his name is Abaddon, but in Greek he has

seven court officials who ministered to the Persian

the name Apollyon. "

king Ahasuerus, the husband of the Jewess Es­

In Hebrew the word 'avad·dohn' means "de­ struction" and may also refer to "the place of destruction. " It appears in the original Hebrew text a total of five times, and in four of the occur­ rences it is used to parallel "the burial place," "Sheol, " and "death. " ( Ps 88:11 ; Job 2 6 : 6 ; 28:2 2 ; Pr 15: 1 1 ) The word 'avad·dohn' in these texts evi­ dently refers to the destructive processes that ensue with human death, and these scriptures indicate that decay or destruction takes place in Shool, the common grave of mankind. At Job 31 : 1 2 'avad-dohn' designates the damaging effect o f a n adulterous course. Job declared: "That [adulterous course ] is a fire that would eat clear to destruction [ 'adh-'avad·dohn' ] , and among all my produce it would

take

( Abag'tha ) . The name of one of

root. "-Compare

Pr

6:26-28,

32;

7:26, 27.

ther, in his palace in Shushan, then capital of Persia. -Es 1 : 10. In the

King James Version,

Abagtha is said to be

one of seven "chamberlains, " and the marginal reading says "eunuchs. " While eunuchs were fre­ quently used as trusted servants within royal households in Middle Eastern countries, the origi­ nal Hebrew word sa·ris' primarily has the mean­ ing of "court official" and only secondarily has reference to a castrated person. Since these seven court officials were attendants of the king and apparently not assigned as guardians of the wom­ en ( as was Hegai, the king's eunuch mentioned at Esther 2 : 3 ) , they may not have been eunuchs in the physical sense.

ABANAH

( Aba'nah ). One of the two rivers of

Damascus referred to by the Syrian army com­

Abaddon, the angel of the abyss -who is he?

mander Naaman when scorning Elisha's instruc­ tions to bathe himself in the waters of the Jordan as a cure for his leprosy.-2Ki 5: 12. This river is generally identified with the Nahr

At Revelation 9 : 1 1 , however, the word "Abad­ don" is used as the name of "the angel of the abyss. " The corresponding Greek name Apollyon means "Destroyer. " In the past century there were efforts made to show that this text prophetically applied to individuals such as Emperor Vespasian, Muhammad, and even Napoleon, and the angel

Barada, which rises in the Anti-Lebanon moun­ tains to the NW of Damascus and, after traversing the mountains, emerges from a gorge just to the W of Damascus.

Then it courses through the

northern part of the city and fans out to irrigate a large area before finally losing itself in a body of marshes to the E of the city. Its waters, used to

was generally regarded as "satanic. " It should be

irrigate fields and orchards by means of canals

noted, however, that at Revelation 20: 1-3 the an­

and conduits, create an extensive verdant oasis. It

gel having "the key of the abyss" is shown to

can well be said that Damascus owes its existence

be God's representative from heaven, and rath­

to the Barada. It has long been the source of water

er than being "satanic," he binds and hurls Satan

for the city's cisterns, fountains, and baths. Classi­

into the abyss. Commenting on Revelation 9:1 1 ,

cal writers called it Golden River ( Chrysorrhoas ) .

says: "Abaddon, however,

So, Naaman's high opinion of the river appears to

The Interpreter's Bjble

is an angel not of Satan but of God, performing his work of destruction at God's bidding." In the Hebrew scriptures just considered, it is evident that 'avad· dohn' is paralleled with Sheol and death. At Revelation 1: 18 we find Christ Jesus

have had a solid basis. The word "Amana" or "Amanah" is used instead of "Abanah" at 2 Kings 5: 12 in

Translation,

An American

also in the translation published by

The Jewish Publication Society of America, and

13

ABBA

the margin of the Masoretic text as well a s the

was the intimate name used by children for their

Syriac Peshitta so read. At Song of Solomon 4:8 reference is made to "Amana" in many transla­

fathers and combines some of the intimacy of the English word "papa" while retaining the dignity of

tions, and it is understood to refer to the Anti­

the word "father," being both informal and yet

Lebanon mountains in which the river here dis­

respectful. It was, therefore, an endearing form of

cussed has its source. Hence, the river may have

address rather than a title and was among the

taken on the name of the mountains in which it originated.

first words a child learned to speak.

ABARIM

Scriptures. It is always in transliterated form in

(Ab'a·rim) [Fords (Crossings); Bor­ derland (Regions Beyond)]. This name doubtless applies to a region E of the Jordan River and, more

This Aramaic word appears three times in the the original Greek and usually is transliterated in English translations. Each time the term is fol­

ho pa·ter ' in

particularly, E of the Dead Sea. At Jeremiah 22:20

lowed immediately by the translation

it is mentioned along with regions of Lebanon and Bashan.

as the vocative, "0 Father." In each case it is used

In the other instances where it appears in the Bible record, it is connected with a range or sys­ tem of mountains. The term "Abarim," as refer­

Greek, which literally means "the father" or, used with reference to the heavenly Father, Jehovah. Mark records that Jesus used the term when praying to Jehovah God in Gethsemane shortly

"Abba,

ring to the "regions beyond," may indicate that the

before his death, saying:

ones originating the term were located on the western side of the Jordan; and it is possible that this term was originally used by Abraham and

are possible to you; remove this cup from me. Yet

Father, all things

Here is the fervent appeal of a son to a beloved

was still retained by the Israelites on leaving

father, followed quickly by an assurance that, in

Egypt.

any event, he would remain obedient.

not what I want, but what you want." (Mr 14:36)

It was near the end of the 40-year trek through

The two other occurrences are in Paul's letters,

the wilderness that the Israelites reached this territory and encamped "in the mountains of Abarim. " (Nu 33:47, 48) Thereafter they descend­

at Romans 8: 15 and Galatians 4:6. In both places

ed to the Plains of Moab, which lie E of the Jordan at the N end of the Dead Sea. Here they made their final encampment before crossing the Jordan River. Here, too, Jehovah said to Moses: "Go up into this mountain of Abarim, Mount Nebo, which is in the land of Moab, which fronts toward Jeri­ cho, and see the land of Canaan, which I am giving to the sons of Israel as a possession."-De 32:49; Nu 27:12. It would appear from this that the region of Abarim, together with its range of mountains, was in the NW part of the territory of Moab. However, it may possibly have extended the full length of the chain of mountain bluffs that rise along the entire E side of the Dead Sea from N to S. At Numbers 21:11 and 33:44 reference is made to a stopping point on the route of the Israelites called "Iye-abarim," and the context places this to the S of Moab and at the S end of the Dead Sea. It may have marked the southernmost point of the region called Abarim.-See IYE-ABARlM. Mount Nebo was evidently one of the higher mountains of Abarim, if not the highest.-See NEBO No. 3.

ABBA

(Ab'ba). The word 'ab·ba " in Aramaic corresponds to the emphatic or definite form of 'av, literally meaning "the father," or "0 Father." It

the word is used in connection with Christians called to be spirit-begotten sons of God and indi­ cates the intimacy of their relationship with their Father. While they are "slaves to God" and "bought with a price," yet they are also sons in the house of a loving Father, and they are made positively aware of this status by holy spirit through their Lord Jesus.-Ro 6:22; 1Co 7:23; Ro 8:15; Ga 4:6. Rather than as just a translation from Aramaic into Greek, some see in the use of both 'Ab·ba" and "Father" together, first, the trust, confidence, and submissiveness of a child, followed by a ma­ ture appreciation of the filial relationship and its responsibilities. It seems evident from these texts that, in apostolic times, the Christians made use of the term 'Ab·ba " in their prayers to God. The word 'Ab ·ba" came to be applied as a title of honor to the Jewish rabbis in the early centuries of the Common Era and is found as such in the Babylonian Talmud.

( Berakhot 16b) The one acting

in the capacity of vice-president of the Jewish Sanhedrin already held the title of 'Av, or Father of the Sanhedrin. In later periods the title was also applied to the bishops of the Coptic, Ethiopic, and Syrian churches and, more particularly, became the title of the Bishop of Alexandria, thereby mak­ ing him the "papa" or "pope" of that part of the Eastern church. The English words "abbot" and "abbey" are

both derived from

the

Aramaic

ABDA

14

'ab·ba". Jerome, the translator of the ga te, objected to the use of the title

Latin

Vul­

"abbot" as

applied to the Catholic monks in his time and did so on the basis that it violated Jesus' instructions at Matthew 23 : 9: " Moreover, do not call anyone your father on earth, for one is your Father, the heavenly One. "

ABDA

1 . A judge, the son of Hillel the Pirathonite of Ephraim. ( J g 1 2 : 13- 1 5 ) According to Josephus

(Jewish Antiquities,

V, 273 [vii, 1 5 ] ), his rule of

eight years was one of peace, and the Bible record Abdon's 40 sons and 30 grandsons all "rode on

1. The father o f Adoniram. ( l Ki 4 : 6 ) His son, Adoniram, was a prince over those conscripted for forced labor during David's and Solomon's reigns, and is evidently the Adoram, or Hadoram, re­ ferred to in other texts. ( 2Sa 20 : 24 ; l Ki 1 2 : 18; 2Ch 10: 18) Hence, Abda probably was a contemporary of King David .

2. A descendant of Jeduthun, of the tribe of

Levi. ( Ne 11 : 17, 18) Abda the Levi te is evidently the same as the "Obadiah" mentioned at 1 Chron­ icles 9: 16. He was among the exiles to return to Jerusalem from Babylon.

(Ab/de · el ) [ Servant of God]. Father of

Shelemiah, one of three men sent by King Jehoia­ kim to seize the prophet Jeremiah and his secre­ tary Baruch. -Jer 36 : 26.

ABDI

( Ab'don) [ from a root meaning "ser­

vant").

makes no mention of wars during that period.

( Ab/da ) [Servant ] .

ABDEEL

ABDON

seventy full-grown asses," a sign of considerable wealth and rank at that time. At the end of his judgeship,

Abdon

was

buried

in

his

native

Ephraim. Some would connect Abdon with "Bedan," men­ tioned at 1 Samuel 1 2 : 11 ; however, Bedan is more likely identified with Barak, whose name appears in this text in both the Greek Syriac

Septuagint

and the

Peshitta.

2. A Benjamite, firstborn son of Jeiel and evi­

dently a brother of Ner, Saul's grandfather. - l Ch 8 : 30 ; 9 : 36, 39.

3. An official in King Josiah's court ( 2Ch 34 :

20 ), called Achbor at 2 Kings 22: 12.-See ACHBOR No. 2.

4. A son of Shashak of the tribe of Benjamin; a headman dwelling in Jerusalem.- l Ch 8: 2 3-28.

( Ab'di) [ shortened form of Abdiel ] .

1 . A Levite o f the house o f Merari. He was the

father of Kishi and. probably a contemporary of

5. One of four cities in the territory of Asher

given to the Levites of the family of Gershon.

( Jos 21 :27-30; l Ch 6:71-74 ) It is probably Khirbet

Saul, whose reign ran from 1117 to 1078 B.CE.

'Abdeh ( Tel 'Avdon) about 6 km ( 3 . 5 mi ) E of

-lCh 6:31 , 33, 39, 44.

Achzib. This site lies on the N side of the Wadi

2. Also a Levite of the house of Merari. He was

the father of Kish. ( 2Ch 29: 1 2 ) Because of the similarity of their sons' names, this Abdi and the one described above are represented in some Bible dictionaries as being the same person. However, the fact that this second Abdi's son, Kish, lived in the time of King Hezekiah some 250 years after David's time, makes such a conclusion illogical. This second Abdi was probably a contemporary of Kings Jotham and Ahaz, whose reigns cover the period from 777 B.CE. to about 746 B.CE.

3. A man of the family of Elam who lived in

postexilic times. ( Ezr 10 : 26 ) He was among those

Israelites who had taken foreign wives but who put them away in response to Ezra's exhortation following his return to Jerusalem in the sev­ enth

year

of

King

Artaxerxes

( Longimanus )

( 468 B.CE. ).-Ezr 7:8; 10: 1 -4, 10- 1 2 , 26, 44.

ABDIEL

Qarn ( Nahal Keziv ) and at the foot of the hills of Galilee and hence near the N end of the Plain of Asher.

ABEDNEGO

( Abed'ne· go ) [ probably, Servant

of Nebo [a Babylonian god]). The name given to Azariah, one of the youths of the Jewish royalty or nobility taken captive by Nebuchadnezzar in 617 B.C.E.-Da 1 : 3, 4, 7. Some scholars believe "Nego" to be an intention­ al corruption of the name Nebo, a Babylonian god, so as not to offend Azariah. ( See NEEO No. 4. ) The name Azariah means "Jehovah Has Helped," and it appears that these Hebrews, among themselves, continued to use their original names. ( Da 2 : 17 ) In Babylon he, along with Daniel,

Hananiah, and

Mishael, passed, with high honors, a three-year training course and a regal examination personal­ ly conducted by Nebuchadnezzar, after having

( Ab'di·el ) [Servant of God]. The son of

first demonstrated religious integrity in matters of

Guni and the father of Ahi, of the tribe of Gad.

food and drink. ( Da 1 :4, 5, 8-20 ) Later, at Daniel's

( 1 Ch 5 : 1 5 ) He lived in the region of Gilead and

request, the king made Azariah and his two com­

Bashan, E of the Jordan, an area prominent for

panions administrators over the jurisdictional dis­

cattle raising. - l Ch 5 : 16.

trict of Babylon.-Da 2 : 49.

1_I

15

ABEL

Abednego (Azariah), along with his two Hebrew companions, was subsequently denounced. before

and Eve had enjoyed before their rebellion. (Heb

the king by certain Chaldeans for refusing to bow

firstlings of his flock certainly was appropriate and

11 :4) In the light of this, Abel's offering of the

down to the king's golden image in response to

undoubtedly was a factor in God's expression of

particular music. (Da 3:5, 8, 12) When they were

approval. To the Giver of life, Abel gave as his gift

questioned by the enraged king, their firm refusal

life, even though it was only from among the

to violate their conscience and their expression of faith in Jehovah resulted in the king's having them thrown into a superheated furnace, where they were miraculously protected by God's angel­ ic representative. Following their release by the

flock.-Compare Joh 1 : 36.

shaken king, and after members of the royal court saw that the three men had escaped unharmed, they were restored to royal favor.-Da 3: 15-30;

11 :48-51) The Greek word for "world" is ko'smos and in this text refers to the world of mankind. The term "founding" is a rendering of the Greek

see MESHACH ; SHADRACH.

ABEL

(A/bel).

1 . [ possibly, Exhalation; Vanity]. The second son of Adam and his wife Eve, and the younger brother of their firstborn son, Cain.-Ge 4:2. It is probable that, while yet alive, Abel had sisters; the record mentions the birth of daughters to his parents, but their names are not recorded. (Ge 5: 1 -4) As a man, he became a herder of sheep; his brother, a farmer.-Ge 4 : 2. After an indefinite period of time, Abel made an offering to Jehovah God. Cain did likewise. Each brought of what he had: Abel, of the firstlings of his flocks; Cain, of his produce. (Ge 4: 3, 4) They both had belief in God. They undoubtedly learned of Him from their parents and must have known why they all were outside the garden of Eden and denied entry to it. Their offerings indicated a recognition of their alienated state and of their desire for God's favor. God expressed favor toward Abel'S offering but not Cain's. How the approval and the rejection were manifested the record does

Jesus shows Abel to have been the first martyr and object of religious persecution waged by his intolerant brother Cain. In doing so, Jesus speaks of Abel as living at "the founding of the world." (Lu

ka·ta·bo·le' and literally means "throwing down [of seed]." (Heb 1 1 : 1 1 , In t) By the expression "the founding of the world," Jesus manifestly referred to the birth of children to Adam and Eve, thereby producing a world of mankind. Paul includes Abel among the "cloud of witnesses" of pre-Christian times.-Heb 1 1 :4; 12:1.

How does the blood of Jesus 'speak in a better way than that of Abel'? Because of his faith and divine approval, the record of which continues to bear witness, it could be said that Abel, "although he died, yet speaks." (Heb 1 1:4) At Hebrews 12:24 the apostle refers to "Jesus the mediator of a new covenant, and the blood of sprinkling, which speaks in a better way than Abel's blood." Though shed in martyrdom, Abel's blood did not ransom or redeem anyone, any more than did the blood of his sacrificed sheep. His blood in effect cried to God for ven­ geance upon assassin Cain. The blood of Jesus,

not show, but it was undoubtedly evident to both men. The reason for God's approval of only Abel's offering is made clear by later writings. The apos­

here presented as validating the new covenant, speaks in a better way than Abel's in that it calls

tle Paul lists Abel as the first man of faith, at Hebrews 11 : 4, and shows that this resulted in his sacrifice being of "greater worth" than Cain's of­ fering. By contrast, 1 John 3: 1 1 , 12 shows Cain's heart attitude to have been bad; and his later rejection of God's counsel and warning, as well as his premeditated murder of his brother Abel, demonstrated this.

Since Seth was evidently born shortly after Abel's death and when Adam was 130 years of age, it is possible that Abel may have been as

While it cannot be said that Abel had any fore­ knowledge of the eventual outworking of the di­ vine promise at Genesis 3: 15 concerning the promised "seed," he likely had given much thought to that promise and believed that blood would have to be shed, someone would have to be 'bruised in the heel,' so that mankind might be uplifted again to the state of perfection that Adam

to God for mercy upon all persons of faith like Abel, and is the means by which their ransoming is possible.

much as 100 years old at the time of his martyr­ dom.-Ge 4:25; 5:3.

2 . [ Watercourse ]. A town also called Abel-beth­ maacah or Abel of Beth-maacah. Elsewhere used as a prefix to the names of various places.-2Sa 20: 18; see ABEL-BETH-MAACAH. 3 . At 1 Samuel 6:18 the King James Version refers to "the great stone of Abel," while the mar­ ginal reading says, "Or, great Abel, that is, mourn­ ing." However, modern translations generally read

16

ABEL-BETH-MAACAH here simply "the great stone." (Compare AT NC [Spanish], NW, JB, and others. ) While the Masoret­ ic Hebrew text uses the word 'A ·veF in this verse, the Greek Septuagint and the Aramaic Targums translate it as if it were 'elven, that is, "stone." This agrees with verse 14 of the same chapter. It could

Elijah found him plowing and anointed prophet successor.- lKi 19:16-19.

not refer to Abel of Beth-maacah, since the inci­ dent recorded at 1 Samuel 6: 18 took place near Beth-shemesh in Judah.

far as the outskirts of Abel-meholah by Tabbath." -Jg 7 : 22.

AB EL- BET H-MAACAH

effort has been made since 1951 to identify Abel­ meholah with Tell el-Maqlub on the Wadi el-Yabis. Additional argument adduced for this identifica­

(A/bel-beth-ma'a­ cah) , ABEL OF BETH-MAACAH [Watercourse of the House of Maacah]. A fortified city of Naphtali in northern Palestine probably 7 km (4 mi) WNW of Dan, identified with Tell Abil (Tel Avel Bet Ma'akha ). It was favorably located on the road from Hazor northward at the intersection of the E-W route from Damascus to Tyre. David's men under Joab besieged the city when the rebel Sheba fled there. Thereupon, a wise woman, speaking for "the peaceable and faithful ones of Israel," pleaded with Joab not to destroy Abel, from of old the place to inquire for wise judgments, hence "a mother in Israel"; meaning also, probably, a metropolis or city having depen­ dent towns. Heeding this woman's advice, the inhabitants pitched Sheba's head over the wall, and the city was spared.-2Sa 20: 14-22. Instigated by Asa of Judah, Syrian Ben-hadad I struck down Abel-beth-maacah to divert Baasha of Israel from building Ramah. (1Ki 15:20; see RAMAH No. 1 . ) Abel of Beth-maacah was captured by Tiglath-pileser III of Assyria during the reign of Pekah, and its inhabitants were sent into exile. (2Ki 15:29 ) This city, called in Assyrian texts Abilakka, appears in the inscriptions of Tiglath­ pileser III in the list of cities he conquered. The surrounding fertile, well-watered fields doubtless gave rise to another merited name, Abel-maim (meaning "Watercourse of Waters" ). Its situation made it a good storage place.-2Ch 16:4.

AB EL-KERAMIM

(A'bel-ker'a·mim) [Water­ course of the Vineyards]. The most distant point to which Jephthah pursued the Ammonites in their defeat. (Jg 11:33 ) It is generally held to be situated between Heshbon and Rabbah, or Rabbah Ammon (modern 'Amman). It is generally identi­ fied today with Khirbet es-Suq, about 8 km (5 mi ) S of Rabbah (,Amman ), which possibly fits Euse­ bi us' d escription. ( Onomasticon 32, 15-16 ) Some recommend Na' ur , about 14 km (9 mi ) SW of Rabbah Ammon as the probable location.

ABEL-MAIM .

See ABEL-BETH-MAACAH.

ABEL-MEHOLAH

(A'bel-me·ho'lah) ( Water­ course of Dancing ]. The home of Elisha, where

him

At an earlier date Abel-meholah figures in the account of the defeat of the Midianites by Gideon's small band of warriors. The disorganized flight of the Midianites is reported to have carried them "as

Because Tabbath lies E of the Jordan River,

tion has been that Elijah, after leaving Horeb, stopped at Abel-meholah to anoint Elisha and had the further commission to travel to "the wilder­ ness of Damascus" to anoint Hazael as king over Syria. ( IKi 19: 15 ) The major ancient highway leading from Horeb to Damascus was E of the Jordan, although at times this route was con­ trolled by nomads. However, the account of Gideon'S pursuit of the Midianites in reality indicates that they were W (rather than E) of the Jordan at the point of Judges 7:22. (See Jg 7:24. ) And, as regards Elijah's trip to the Wilderness of Damascus, the record shows that this was not effected irrunediately but, rather, was made sometime later by his successor, Elisha. ( 1Ki 19:15-19; 2Ki 8:7- 13) In view of this, some geographic texts continue to recommend a site W

( The Geographi­ cal and Topographical Texts of the Old Testament, by J. Simons, Leiden, 1959; The Geography of the Bible, by D. Baly, 1957 ; and the A tlas of the Bible, of the Jordan rather than E of it.

by L. H. Grollenberg, 1956) Both Jerome and Eu­ sebius of the early centuries of the Common Era identified Abel-meholah with a site 10 Roman miles (15 km; 9 mi ) S of Beth-shean (W of the Jordan ). The Land of the Bible, by Y . Aharoni, states: "Abel-meholah has now been identified with much confidence with Tell Abu Sus on the [ west] bank of the Jordan, 15 km. south of Beth­ shean." (Translated and edited by A. Rainey, 1979, p. 3 1 3 ) The nearby plain of Beth-shean is well suited for large-scale farrning.- Compare 1 Ki 19:19. Further indication in favor of such a site W of the Jordan is the fact that Abel-meholah later formed part of Solomon's fifth administrative dis­ trict and is listed with other places W of the Jordan. (1Ki 4: 12) It was evidently the home of Adriel the Meholathite, a son-in-law of Saul. ( l Sa 18: 19; 2Sa 21:8 ) Festal dancing in harvest cele­ brations perhaps accounts for this name Abel­ meholah.

ABEL-MIZRAIM.

See ATAD.

17 ABEL O F BETH-MAACAH. MAACAH. ABEL-SHITTIM.

ABIASAPH See ABEL-BETH­

See SHITI1M No. 1.

AB HORRENT THING . The Hebrew word nid·dah' occurs 30 times in the Hebrew Scriptures and is possibly derived from the root word na­ dhah', which means "exclude; put out of mind (refuse to think of)." (Isa 66: 5; Am 6:3 ) Niddah' indicates impurity,something abhorrent,whether physically,as for example,from menstruation (Le 12:2, 5; 15:20, 24, 25, 33), or morally, as from idolatry. (Ezr 9 : 11 ; 2Ch 29:5) The same Hebrew word is used with regard to the "water for cleans­

ing" (Nu 19:9-21; 31 :23,NW; "water used in case of menstruation," Nu 19:9, NW, fin; "water of separation," KJ; "water for impurity," RS, AT; "lus­ tral water," JB ), indicating water used to remove that which is impure or unclean. Thus, at Lamentations 1 : 17 Jeremiah says that Jerusalem in her desolation "has become an ab­ horrent thing [ "as a menstruous woman," KJ; "ol:r­ jeto de abominacion, " NC (Spanish); "abhorrent," AT] in among them [that is,among the surround­ ing nations ]." Prior to Jerusalem's destruction by Babylon,Je­ hovah said of the people of Israel through his prophet Ezekiel: "The house of Israel were dwell­ ing upon their soil, and they kept making it un­ clean with their way and with their dealings. Like the uncleanness of menstruation [ nid·dah' ] their way has become before me." (Eze 36: 17) Due to idolatrous practices, Israel was spiritually impure and would thus be avoided by her husbandly owner, Jehovah God,and would be reunited with him spiritually only after cleansing. Thus, at verse 25,Jehovah says: "And I will sprinkle upon you clean water,and you will become clean; from all your impurities and from all your dungy idols I shall cleanse you."- Compare Eze 18:6. At Ezekiel 7:19, 20 God expresses his anger against Israel for having made religious images with their silver and their gold and says that he will, therefore, cause them to throw their silver and their gold into the streets as an "abhorrent thing [niddah ' ). " - Compare Isa 30:22; see Drs­

GUST1NG THING, LOATHSOME THING. Abhorrence. Other Hebrew expressions hav­ ing the sense of "abhorrence" are qu ts, referring to the emotional reaction and defined as "abhor; have an abhorrence of; feel a sickening dread of " (Ge 27:46; 1Ki 11 :25 ; Nu 22:3), and ga· 'al', also meaning "abhor," but indicating a rejection of the object abhorred. (Le 26: 11, 15, 30; 2Sa 1 :21, ftn) In the Greek Septuagint these Hebrew words at times are rendered pro·so·khthi'zo, signifying "be-

come disgusted" (Ge 27:46; Le 26:15; compare Heb 3: 10),and

bde·lvs'so·mai, conveying the sense

of "express abhorrence of; have disgust for."-Le 20:23; 26:11; compare Ro 2:22. Because the Canaanites were gUilty of sexual immorality and perversion,idolatry,and spiritistic practices,the Most High abhorred them,and this resulted in his decreeing their destruction. (Le 20:2-23) The Israelites were warned that,if they became disobedient, Jehovah would also abhor them,withdrawing his protection and blessing. By reason of loyalty to his covenant made with Israel, however,he would not abhor them to the point of bringing about their complete extermination. (Le 26: 11-45) In the case of those who will prove to be wicked,the resurrection will tum out to be one to eternal "abhorrence" (Heb.,de·ra·'ohn ' ) . It will be a resurrection to condemnatory judgment resulting in everlasting cutting-off.-Da 12:2; Joh 5:28,29. Deliberate rejection of Jehovah's commands,re­ proof, and provisions constitutes an improper ab­ horrence. The Israelites were guilty of this when they refused to follow Jehovah's commands, as well as when they came to abhor the manna as "contemptible bread." (Nu 21:5; Le 26:15) Prov­ erbs 3:11 counsels against 'abhorring Jehovah's reproof.' At Romans 12:9 Christians are admonished: "Abhor what is wicked." The Greek term here rendered "abhor" ( apo·sty-ge'o) is the intensive form of the Greek verb meaning "hate," and thus literally means "hate intensely." A person's failing to abhor what is wicked,no longer loathing it,can result in his becoming an object of Jehovah's ab­ horrence.

ABI .

See ABIJAH No. 7.

ABI-ALBON

(A'bi-al'bon). A Benjamite and an outstanding warrior listed among 37 of King Da­

vid's most valiant fighters. (2Sa 23:31) He is evi­ dently the Abiel referred to in a parallel passage at 1 Chronicles 1 1:32. He is called the Arbathite, perhaps because of coming from the city of Beth­ arabah,which lay near the frontier between Ben­ jamin· and Judah above the N end of the Dead Sea. (Jos 15:6 ; 18: 18, 21, 22) His fighting valor was in accord with Jacob's deathbed prophecy concern­ ing the tribe of Benjamin.-Ge 49:27.

ABIASAPH

(Abi'a·saph) [ ( My) Father Has Gathered ]. One of the three sons of Korah the Levite, and a descendant of Kohath. (Ex 6:16-24) His brothers were Elkanah and Assir. He is appar­ ently referred to as Ebiasaph at 1 Chronicles 6:37 and perhaps at 1 Chronicles 9:19 and 1 Chronicles 6:23.

ABIATHAR It appears that Korah's sons did not join their father in his rebellion, along with Dathan and Abiram, against Moses and Aaron. Hence, these sons did not die with their father at that time. (Nu 26:9-11) Thus, at a later period, we find reference made to "the sons of Korah" in the superscriptions of many of the Psalms (42, 44-49, 84, 85, 87, 88), although this term has, basically, the meaning of "the descendants of Korah," or "the house of Ko­ rah."

ABIATHAR

(Abi'a·thar) [Father of Excel­ lence; Father of More Than Enough (Overflow)]. A son of High Priest Ahimelech, of the tribe of Levi and of the line of Eli. (1Sa 14:3 ; 22:11; 23:6) He lived during the reigns of Saul, David, and Solo­ mon, and during David's reign he became high priest. He had two sons, Jonathan and Ahimelech (the same name as Abiathar's father).-2Sa 15:27, 36; 8: 17. Abiathar was living in Nob, "the city of the priests," a short distance from Jerusalem, when King Saul had Doeg the Edomite slaughter Abia­ thar's father, the high priest, and other priests (85 in aU), because of their supposed support of David. Doeg also struck down with the sword all the other residents of the city. Only Abiathar escaped. He fled to David, himself a fugitive, evi­ dently at Keilah, several miles to the SW. David, feeling a certain personal responsibility for the tragedy, told Abiathar: "1 well knew on that day, because Doeg the Edomite was there, that he would without fail tell Saul. I personally have wronged every soul of the house of your father. Just dwell with me. Do not be afraid, for whoever looks for my soul looks for your soul, for you are one needing protection with me." - l Sa 22:12-23; 23:6. Abiathar now traveled with David during the remainder of his outlawed state and served as priest for David's forces. First Samuel 23:6 shows that Abiathar had brought with him an ephod, and while the priests in general wore an ephod of linen ( 1 Sa 22:18), verses 9-12 of chapter 23 indi­ cate that this was apparently the ephod of Abia­ thar's father, the high priest, containing the Drim and Thummim. During the Kingships of David and Solomon. It appears that when David finally gained the throne, Abiathar was made the high priest. Some scholars suggest that, after High Priest Ahime­ lech's death, King Saul had Zadok installed as high priest to replace Ahimelech, thereby not recogniz­ ing Abiathar, who was in the company of Saul's future successor, David. They hold that, following his ascension to the throne, David made Abiathar an associate high priest along with Zadok. Such

18 view is evidently taken due to the fact that Zadok and Abiathar are regularly mentioned together as though sharing a high position in the priesthood. (2Sa 15 :29, 35; 17: 15; 19:11; 20:25; lKi 1 : 7, 8, 25, 26; 4:4; l eh 15:11) However, the inspired record nowhere mentions any appointment of Zadok as high priest under King Saul. It is possible that Zadok's prominence is due to his being a seer or prophet, just as the prophet Samuel received greater mention in the divine record than the high priest of his time. (2Sa 15:27) The evidence indi­ cates that Abiathar was the sole high priest dur­ ing David's reign and that Zadok then occupied a position secondary to him.- lKi 2:27, 35; Mr 2:26. The text at 2 Samuel 8: 17 has caused some question in this regard, since it says that "Zadok the son of Ahitub and Ahimelech the son of Abia­ thar were priests" then, but does not mention Abiathar as high priest. Some suggest that the names of Ahimelech and Abiathar were trans­ posed by a scribal error so that the text should read "Abiathar the son of Ahimelech," even as it does in the Syriac Peshitta. However, the record at 1 Chronicles (18:16; 24:3, 6, 31) confirms the order of the names in this verse as found in the Masoret­ ic text. It therefore appears more likely that Zadok and Ahimelech are mentioned simply as second­ ary priests under High Priest Abiathar, and that Abiathar's position was, in this instance, assumed to be understood.-1Ch 16:37-40; compare Nu 3: 32. Abiathar, along with other priests, shared in the privilege of bringing the ark of Jehovah up from Obed-edom's home to Jerusalem. (2Sa 6:12; l Ch 15: 11, 12) In addition to being high priest he was included in David's group of advisers.-1Ch 27: 33, 34. Toward the latter part of his father David's reign, Absalom formed a conspiracy against him. Abiathar again stayed by David when circum­ stances forced the king to flee from Jerusalem. As part of a plan to thwart the counsel of traitorous Ahithophel, David's previous counselor, Abiathar and Zadok as loyal priests were sent back to Jeru­ salem to serve as liaison officers to keep Da­ vid advised of his rebellious son's plans. (2Sa 15: 24-36 ; 17: 15) After Absalom's death, Abiathar and Zadok served as intermediaries to arrange David's return to the capital.-2Sa 19:11-14. In view of his faithful record of enduring many hardships in David's company during his time as a fugitive from Saul and again during Absalom's rebellion, and considering his having enjoyed Da­ vid's confidence, friendship, and favor during some four decades, it is surprising to find Abiathar linking himself up with another son of David,

19

ABIEL

New World 'ITans­

Adonijah, in a later conspiracy for the throne.

for the translation given in the

Though the plot also had the support of Joab as

lation,

head of the army, it failed; and Solomon was

house of God,

appointed as king, with loyal priest Zadok doing

chief priest." Since the account of the first exploits

the anointing at David's instruction. (1Ki 1 : 7,

of Abiathar begins immediately following the rec­

which reads: "How he entered into the

in the account

about Abiathar the

32-40 ) Abiathar's son Jonathan, who had previ­

ord of David's entering the house of God to eat the

ously served as a runner to bear news to David

showbread, and since Abiathar did later become

during Absalom's insurrection, now went to ad­

Israel's high priest in David's reign, this transla­

vise Adonijah of the plot's miscarriage. King Solo­

tion maintains the historical accuracy of the rec­

mon took no immediate action against Abiathar, but when evidence showed that the plot was still

ord.

smoldering, he ordered Adonijah's and Joab's death and banished priest Abiathar from Jerusa­ lem, saying: "Go to Anathoth to your fields! For you are deserving of death; but on this day I shall not put you to death, because you carried the ark of the Sovereign Lord Jehovah before David my father, and because you suffered affliction during all the time that my father suffered affliction. " ( lKi 2:26 ) Zadok was now assigned to replace Abiathar in his priestly position, and with this the office of high priest passed again to the line of Aaron's son Eleazar; and the priestly line of the house of Eli came to a complete end, in fulfillment of the prophecy at 1 Samuel 2:31.-1Ki 2: 27; 12-14.

I Sa 3:

While the record later, at 1 Kings 4:4, again refers to "Zadok and Abiathar" as priests of Solo­ mon's reign, it is likely that Abiathar is listed only in an honorary capacity or in a historical sense. Some scholars suggest that Solomon, after demot­ ing Abiathar, then assigned him to serve as Za­ dok's deputy, and that while one officiated on Mount Zion, where the Ark was kept, the other served at the tabernacle, which continued in Gib­ eon prior to the building of the temple. (See l Ch 16 : 37-40. ) However, 1 Kings 2:26 shows that Sol­ omon sent Abiathar to his fields in Anathoth, and while Anathoth was not far from Gibeon, Solo­ mon's order indicates that Abiathar was being removed from any active partici pation in the priesthood. At Mark 2:26 most translations have Jesus say­ ing that David went into the house of God and ate the showbread "when Abiathar was high priest. " Since Abiathar's father, Ahimelech, was the high priest when that event took place, such translation would result in a historical error. It is notewor­ thy that a number of early manuscripts omit the above phrase, and it is not found in the corre­ sponding passages at Matthew 12:4 and Luke 6:4. However, a similar Greek structure occurs at Mark 12:26 and Luke 20:37, and here many translations use the phrase "in the passage about." ( RS; AT; JB ) So, it appears that Mark 2:26 properly allows

ABIB (A'bib ) [ Green Ears]. The original name of the first lunar month of the Jewish sacred calendar and of the seventh month of the secular calendar. (Ex 13:4; 23:15; 34:18; De 16:1 ) It corre­ sponds, generally, with part of March and part of April. The name Abib is understood to mean "Green Ears," the ears of grain being ripe but still soft. (Compare Le 2:14.) It was during this month that the barley harvest took place, followed some weeks later by the wheat harvest. The latter, or spring, rains also began and these helped to bring the Jordan River to flood stage. (Jos 3:15 ) It was designated by Jehovah as the initial month of the sacred year at the time of the Exodus from Egypt. (Ex 12: 1, 2; 13 : 4 ) Following the Babylonian exile this name was replaced by the name Nisan. -See NISAN.

ABIDA

(Abi'da) [Father Has Known (Me ) ]. Abida was a son of Midian and a grandson of Abraham by his wife Keturah. He had four broth­ ers, named Ephah, Epher, Hanoch, and Eldaah. -Ge 25:1, 2, 4; l Ch 1:33.

ABIDAN

(Ab'i· dan ) [ (My ) Father Has Judged]. The chieftain of the tribe of Benjamin at the time of the census of Israel in the second year following

the Exodus from Egypt. (Nu 1:11, 16 ) He was the head over the 35,400 men of Benjamin over 20 years of age who camped on the W side of the tabemacle.-Nu 2 : 18, 22, 23. At the completion of the tabernacle and its inauguration (1512 B.c.E. ), during 12 days each chieftain presented a noncompetitive offering of silver and gold dishware, worth about $ 1,720, in addition to offerings of grain, oil, incense, and livestock, and it was on the ninth day that Abi­ dan did so. (Nu 7: 10, 60-65 ) He died during the 40-year journey in the wildemess.-Nu 14:29, 30.

ABIEL

1.

(Abi'el ) [(My) Father Is God].

A son of Zeror, and descendant of Bechorath and Aphiah, of the tribe of Benjamin. A compari­ son of 1 Chronicles 8:29 -33 and 9:35-39 with 1 Samuel 9: 1, 2 and 14:50, 51 gives basis for

20

ABI-EZER believing that Abiel is also called "Jeier' in the

The name i s also used t o stand for the house of

Chronicles account,since Jeiel is there shown to be the father of Ner, who became the father of Kish, Saul's father. First Samuel 14:50, 51 also shows

Abi-ezer in a collective sense.-Jg 8:2; see ABI­

Abiel (or Jeiel ) to be the father of Ner. The record in Chronicles indicates that Jeiel (or Abiel) had nine other sons, of whom one was named Kish, and this older Kish would thus be the uncle of the son of Ner who bore the same name.

Manasseh's grandson Gilead. ( l Ch 7: 18 ) Some commentators view this Abi-ezer as being the same as No. 1.

Assuming Abiel and Jeiel both to be names of the same person,we arrive at a genealogy such as is set forth in this chart. Aphiah (a descendant of Benjamin) I

Becorath I

Zeror

ABI -EZRITE ( Z ee her)

Kish I

Therefore, when w e read a t 1 Samuel 9 :1 that Kish (that is, the second Kish, the father of Saul) was lithe son of Abiel," it appears that the meaning is that he was the grandson of Abiel, as is often the case in Bible genealogy where one or more links in the genealogy are simply omitted. (Thus, while lithe family of the Matrites" is mentioned at 1 Samuel 10:21 as including Kish and Saul, the name of Matri does not appear in the accounts we are considering, nor in the rest of the Bible.) The record in 1 Chronicles (8:33; 9:39) seems quite definite in presenting Ner as the immediate father of the second Kish, and this is clearly the more explicit of the two accounts.-See KISH Nos. 2 and 3.

2. Also a Benjamite.-See ABI-ALBON. (Abi-e'zer) [ (My ) Father Is a Help­

er].

1.

year. ( l Ch 1 1 :28; 27:1, 12) Along with other Ben­ jamites,by his valor in war he fulfilled the proph­ ecy at Genesis 49:27. His town of Anathoth lay a few miles NNE of Jerusalem, within the territory of Benjamin.-1Ch 6:60.

Sa u l

ABI-EZER

head over a force of 24,000 fellow tribesmen, serving the king during the ninth month of each

I

Abdon Zur Kish Baal Ner Nadab Gedor Ahio Zechariah Mi kloth

,-----l---,

3. A Benjamite from Anathoth, one of King David's 37 most valiant fighters. (2Sa 23:27, 39 ) He was head of a paternal house and divisional

I

Abiel or Jeiel

Abner

EZRlTE. 2 . A son of Hammolecheth, who was sister of

One of lithe sons of Gilead" the grandson of

Manasseh,Joseph's firstborn. A comparison of the accounts at Numbers 26:28-30 and Joshua 17:1,2

shows that he is also called Iezer (Jeezer, KJ),

which is a shortened form of Abi-ezer, the prefix "Ab" (father) being removed. Abi-ezer was a family head and an ancestor of Judge Gideon. (Jg 6 : 11,24, 34; 8:2) It appears that after the division of land among the tribes of Israel, Abi-ezer's family either originally or at a later time settled in the area of Ophrah, in the terri tory of Manasseh W of the Jordan.

(Abi-ez'rite) [Of (Belonging to )

Abi-ezer]. A descendant of Abi-ezer; of the family of Abi-ezer. (Jg 6:11, 24; 8:32) Numbers 26:30 reads "Iezerites" ("Jeezerites," KJ), which is a con­ traction of Abi-ezrites. This term is applied in the Bible to those descended from Abi-ezer the 'son of Gilead,' rather than to the Abi-ezer of David's time.-See ABI-EZER No. 1 .

ABIGAIL (Ab'i· gail ) [(My) Father Has Made Himself Joyful].

1. A wife of David. Originally, the wife of wealthy Nabal from Maon, a city on the edge of the Wilderness of Judah, W of the Dead Sea. ( l Sa 25 : 2,3; Jos 15:20, 5 5 ) She was "good in discretion and beautiful in form," while her first husband, whose name means "Senseless ; "harsh and bad in his practices."

Stupid,"

was

Following the prophet Samuel's death, David and his men moved into the area where the flocks of Abigail's husband were pastured. David's men thereafter were like a protective "wall" around Nabal's shepherds and flocks, night and day. So, when shearing time came, David sent some young men up to Carmel to call Nabal's attention to the good service rendered him and to request an of­ fering of food from him. ( l Sa 25:4-8, 15, 16 ) But miserly Nabal screamed rebukes at them and in­ sulted David as if he were an inconsequential person, and all of them as if they were possibly runaway slaves. ( l Sa 25:9- 11,14) This so angered David that he girded on his sword and led about 400 men toward Carmel to wipe out Nabal and the men of his household.-1Sa 25:12, 13, 21, 22. Abigail, hearing of the incident through a dis­ turbed servant, showed her wise perception by immediately rounding up an ample supply of food and grain and then sent these ahead of her in care

ABIHAIL

21

o f her servants, much as Jacob had done be­

call Abigail and Zeruiah 'daughters of Jesse' but

fore making contact with Esau. ( lSa 25 : 14 - 19 ;

rather "sisters" of Jesse's sons, including David.

G e 3 2 : 13-20 ) Without saying anything t o her hus­

This allows for the possibility that their mother

band, she rode to meet David, and in a long and

had first been married to a man named Nahash, to

fervent plea, which manifested wisdom and logic

whom she bore Abigail and Zeruiah before be­

as well as respect and humility, she convinced

coming Jesse's wife and the mother of his sons. It

David that her husband's senseless words did not

cannot, therefore, be stated dogmatically that Ab­

justify the unrighteous shedding of blood or the

igail was the daughter of Jesse.-See NAHASH

failure to trust in Jehovah to settle the matter in a

No. 2.

right way himself. ( 1 Sa 2 5 : 14-20, 23-31 ) David thanked God for the woman's good sense and quick action. - 1 Sa 2 5 : 32-35 ; compare Pr 2 5 : 2 1 , 2 2 ; 1 5 : 1 , 2.

Abigail, David's sister, is mentioned as giving birth to only one son, Amasa. Her husband is referred to as Ithra the Israelite at 2 Samuel 17: 25 but elsewhere is called Jether ( l Ki 2 : 5, 32) and at

Returning home, Abigail waited for her hus­

1 Chronicles 2 : 17 is spoken of as "Jether the Ish­

band to sober up from a drunken feast and then

maelite. " (See JETHER No. 6. ) It is possible that

informed him of her actions. Now "his heart came

Abigail contracted marriage with Jether during

to be dead inside him, and he himself became as a

the time Jesse and his family were dwelling in the

stone," and after ten days Jehovah caused him to

land of Moab. ( l Sa 2 2 : 3 , 4) Her son, Amasa, re­

expire. When the news reached David, he sent a

ceived no apparent attention during David's reign

marriage proposal to Abigail, which she did not

until Absalom's rebellion.

hesitate to accept. She shared David's affections

then made him the head of his armed forces.

along with Ahinoam, a Jezreelitess, whom David

Nevertheless, following Absalom's death, Abigail's

had previously taken as wife . David's first wife,

brother, King David, dealt with her son Amasa in

His cousin Absalom

Michal, had already been given by her father Saul

obtaining support for his return to the throne, and

to another man.- 1 Sa 2 5 : 36-44.

thereafter made Amasa the head of the army,

Abigail was with David in Gath on the western edge of the Shephelah and later down in the NW

replacing Joab. ( 2 Sa 19 : 1 1 - 14 ) This appointment soon brought death to Abigail's son, at the hands

Negeb at Ziklag. During David's absence a raiding

of his embittered cousin Joab.-2Sa 20 : 4 - 10.

party of Amalekites from the S burned Ziklag and

ABIHAIL

carried off all the women and children, including Abigail and Ahinoam. Assured by Jehovah of suc­ cess, David led his men in pursuit and, in a sur­ prise attack, overcame the Amalekites and re­ trieved the captives and possessions. - 1 Sa 30: 1 - 19. Back at Ziklag, three days later, the news of Saul's death arrived. ( 2 Sa 1 : 1 , 2 ) Abigail now accompanied her husband to Hebron of Judah, where David was first anointed as king. Here she gave birth to a son, Chileab ( 2Sa 3 : 3 ), also called Daniel at 1 Chronicles 3: 1. David's wives increased to six in Hebron, and neither Abigail nor her son receive

further

mention

in the

account .-2Sa

3 : 2-5.

(Ab'i·ha·il ) [ ( My) Father Is Vital En­

ergy]. A name used in the Bible for three men and two women.

1 . A man of the tribe of Levi and of the family

( or clan) of Merari. He was the father of Zuriel, chieftain of the paternal house of the clan at the time of the Exodus.-Nu 3 : 35.

2. The wife of Abishur, who was of the tribe of

Judah. ( l Ch 2 : 29 ) She had two sons, Ahban and Molid.

3 . A man of the tribe of Gad who settled in

Bashan and Gilead. He was the son of Huri and a family chief or head . - 1 Ch 5 : 14- 17.

4 . The daughter of Eliab, David's oldest broth­

er. (Though the Hebrew word

bath [ daughter 1 at

2 . One of David's two sisters. ( l Ch 2 : 13- 1 7 ) Some scholars believe that she was only a half sister, being related by mother but not by father. At 2 Samuel 1 7 : 25 Abigail is called "the daughter of Nahash. " Rabbinic tradition holds that Nahash

daughter of Jerimoth the son of David to wife, and

is simply another name for Jesse, David's father.

Abihail the daughter of Eliab the son of Jesse. "

Septuagin t ( Lagardian edition ) has

This would make Abihail appear to b e the second

The Greek

2 Chronicles 1 1 : 18 may also mean "granddaugh­ ter. " ) The says:

King James Version a t 2 Chronicles 1 1 : 1 8 "And Rehoboam took him Mahalath the

"Jesse" instead of "Nahash" in this verse. A num­

wife of Rehoboam. However, the original Hebrew

ber of modern translations also read this way. (See

allows for a different rendering, and hence many

AT; JB; NC [ Spanish ] . )

However, it is noteworthy

that the record at 1 Chronicles 2: 13- 16 does not

modern translations here read:

"Mahalath the

daughter of Jerimoth the son of David,

and

of

22

ABIHU Abihail the daughter of Eliab the son of Jesse. "

and turbaned, receive the anointing as priests of

Concerning this, the

God to represent the nation before Him. Thereaf­

( See RS, A T, 1P, Nw, 1B. ) Soncino Books of the Bible

says in a footnote on

ter the newly installed priests remained at the

2 Chronicles 11 : 18: "The coI1iunction is implied.

entrance of the tent of meeting for seven days to

Mahalath was the daughter of Jerimoth and Abi­

complete their installation and, as Moses said, " 'to

hail. Some commentators regard Abihail as the

fill your hand with power.' . . . And Aaron and his

name of another of Rehoboam's wives. " ( Edited by

sons proceeded to do all the things that Jehovah

A. Cohen, London, 195 2 ) ThR singular pronouns

had commanded by means of Moses. "-Le 8 : 1 -3,

used in the following verses ( 19, 20) support the

13-36.

view that only one wife of Rehoboam is meant in

On the eighth day Aaron began to officiate, with

verse 18. It therefore appears most probable that

Abihu and his brothers assisting. ( Le 9 : 1 -24 ) They

Abihail was the mother of Rehoboam's wife Ma­

witnessed

halath.

presence. But, evidently before the day was over,

5. The father of Queen Esther and a descendant

of Benjamin. He was the uncle of Esther's cousin, Mordecai. ( Es 2 : 5 , 1 5 ; 9 : 29 ) Esther 2 : 7 indicates that he and his wife died when their daughter Esther was quite young and thus sometime before her marriage to King Ahasuerus.

ABIHU

(A·bi'hu ) [ He Is Father]. One of Aaron's

four sons by his wife Elisheba; the brother of Nadab, Eleazar, and Ithamar. ( Ex 6 : 2 3 ; lCh 6 : 3 ; 24 : 1 ) Born in Egypt, Abihu, a s the second son of Aaron, was a mature man by the time of the Exodus, his father then being 83.-Nu 33 : 39. As older sons, Nadab and Abihu were permitted by Jehovah to accompany their father and 70 of the older men of Israel in approaching Mount Sinai and there to see from a distance a magnificent vision of God's glory. ( Ex 24 : 1 , 9- 1 1 ) Jehovah honored Aaron's sons, appointing them to serve as priests with their father, the high priest, and ordaining that from among them should come Aaron's

eventual

successor.

They would wear

priestly robes and headgears "for glory and beau­ ty. " Moses was to "anoint them and fill their hand with power and sanctify them" for their service to God. (Ex 28 : 1, 40-43 ) The priesthood would be­ come theirs "as a statute to time indefinite. "-Ex 29 : 8, 9. Thereafter they were continually included in God's instructions regarding the priesthood and its functions. (Ex 29 : 10-46 ; 30 : 26-38) Also, God emphatically impressed upon them, as well as upon the entire nation, the vital importance of respecting the sanctity of the things related to his worship, including the altar of incense and in­ cidental equipment. Their lives depended upon their respecting the divine regulations. Now, one year from the start of the Exodus,

the glorious manifestation

of God's

the account says that "Nadab and Abihu took up and brought each one his fire holder and put fire in them and placed incense upon it, and they began offering before Jehovah illegitimate fire, which he had not prescribed for them. At this a fire came out from before Jehovah and consumed them,

so that they died before Jehovah. "

(Le

10: 1, 2) Their corpses were carried outside the camp by Aaron's cousins at Moses' instruction. Their father and remaining brothers were in­ structed by God to refrain from any display of grief over their being thus cut off from the congre­ gation.-Le 10:4-7. Immediately

thereafter

God

gave

Aaron

a

warning against the use of intoxicating liquor by him or his sons at the time of serving at the tabernacle, "that you may not die . " Commenting on verse 9, The Pentateuch and Haftorahs says: "The Rabbis connected the incident of Nadab and Abihu with this injunction against intoxicating liquors before officiating in the Sanctuary. " ( Edited by J. H. Hertz, London,

1972, p. 446) So, the

matter of intoxication may have been involved in their grave sin, but the actual cause of their death was the violation of God's requirement for pure worship by their offering "illegitimate fire, which he had not prescribed for them. " Abihu enjoyed great honor from God and out­ standing prominence before all the nation for a short while; but, whether from ambition, an in­ flated ego, or due to a trifling attitude toward God's instructions, his privileges were short-lived, and he died childless.-Nu 3 : 2-4; 26 : 60, 61 ; l Ch 24: 1 , 2.

ABIHUD

(Abi'hud) [ possibly, Father Is Digni­ ty ] . A descendant of Benjamin through his first­ born, Bela. -1 Ch 8: 1-3.

came the time for setting up of the tabernacle and

ABIJAH

the installation of the priesthood ( 1 512 B.c. E . ). The

2 Kings 1 8 : 2 Abi occurs as an abbreviation of this name. Abijam is another variant found in the

(Abi'jah ) [ My Father Is Jehovah ]. In

entire nation assembled before the entrance of the tent of meeting for the installation ceremonies and

Masoretic text at 1 Kings 14: 31 ; 1 5 : 1 , 7, 8 . How­

saw Aaron and Abihu and his brothers, washed

ever, in 1 Kings 14 : 3 1 about 12 Hebrew manu-

23

ABIJAH

scripts and the Bomberg edition of the Hebrew

vah . . . for you will not prove successful." -2Ch

Bible of Jacob ben Hayim (1524-1525) read "Abi­

12:16-13: 12.

jah."

In the violent battle that ensued, Jeroboam's

1 . A grandson of Benjamin, listed in seventh position among Becher's nine sons. -1Ch 7:8.

ambush was providentially thwarted and half a million of his men were destroyed, thus breaking

Hezron, a grandson of Judah by his daughter-in­

Jeroboam's military power. Even the city of Beth­ el, where one of the detestable golden calves to­

law Tamar. This Abijah may have been the moth­

gether with an apostate priesthood had been in­

er of Ashhur the father of Tekoa.-1Ch 2:4, 5, 24;

stalled, was captured. And all of this, because Abijah had "leaned upon Jehovah." (2Ch 13:13-20 ) Nevertheless, Abijah went on walking in the sins

2 . According to the Masoretic text, the wife of

see HEZRON No. 2.

3 . The prophet Samuel's second son, who, to­ gether with his elder brother Joel, was appointed by his aging father to be a judge of Israel at Beer-sheba. Because they perverted judgment, ac­ cepted bribes, and extorted unjust profits, the older men of Israel demanded that Samuel appoint a king to rule over them.-1Sa 8:1-5; 1Ch 6:28. 4. A priestly descendant of Aaron, who in King

David's day was recognized as head of one of the paternal houses of Israel. David divided the priest­ hood into 24 divisions, each to serve at the sanctu­ ary for a one-week period every six months. The paternal house of Abijah was chosen by lot to head the eighth division and thereafter it was known as "the division of Abijah." (1Ch 24:3-10; Lu 1: 5) So it is said that priest Zechariah, the father of John the Baptizer, belonged to "the divi­ sion of Abijah."

5. One of Rehoboam's 28 sons, also called Abi­ jam, who became the second king of the two­ tribe kingdom of Judah and reigned from 980 to 978 B.C.E. (1Ki 14 : 31-15 : 8 ) He was a regal descen­ dant of David on both his father'S and his mother's side, the 16th generation from Abraham in the royal lineage of Jesus Christ. ( l Ch 3: 10; Mt 1 :7 ) Of Rehoboam's 18 wives and 60 concubines, Maacah

of his father Rehoboam by allowing the high places, sacred pillars, and even the male temple prostitutes to continue in the land. "His heart did not prove to be complete with Jehovah his God." ( lKi 14:22-24; 15:3 ) During his lifetime he had 14 wives and 38 children, and upon his death his son Asa succeeded him upon the throne.-2Ch 13:21; 14: 1. 6 . The son of King Jeroboam I of Israel who died in his youth as a judgment from Jehovah. With Jeroboam's apostasy, adversity began plagu­ ing his house, including the desperate sickness of young Abijah. Thereupon Jeroboam disguised the identity of his queen and sent her to consult the aged and blind prophet Ahijah at Shiloh. But Jeho­ vah cannot be deceived. Through his prophet Ahi­ jah, Jehovah declared that He would exterminate the male heirs of Jeroboam "just as one clears away the dung until it is disposed of." (1Ki 14:10; 15:25-30) Abijah, however, was the only descen­ dant of Jeroboam who was honorably buried "for the reason that something good toward Jehovah" had been found in him.-1Ki 14:1-18. 7 . The wife of King Ahaz of Judah and the

(called Micaiah in 2 Chronicles 13 :2), the grand­ daughter of Absalom, was his most beloved and

mother of King Hezekiah. She was the daughter of Zechariah. At 2 Kings 18:2 her name is abbreviat­ ed as Abi.-2Ch 29:1.

was favored above the others by having her son Abijah chosen as successor to the throne, although

of Zerubbabel and Jeshua following the Babylo­

he was not 11:20-22.

Rehoboam's

firstborn

son.-2Ch

With the ascension of Abijah to the throne in the 18th year of King Jeroboam I of Israel, the hostili­ ties between the northern and southern kingdoms resumed, and war ensued. Drawn up in battle formation against Judah's chosen army of 400,000 mighty men of war were Jeroboam's 800,000 warriors. Undaunted by such odds, Abij ah, in an impassioned speech, addressed himself to Jerobo­ am's crowd, condemning their idolatrous calf wor­ ship and reminding them that Jehovah's covenant with David was for a never-ending kingdom. "With us there is at the head the true God," de­ clared Abijah, therefore "do not fight against Jeho-

8 . One of the family heads of priests in the days nian exile. Abijah is listed among more than 20 "heads of the priests and their brothers" who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel. (Ne 12:1-7 ) Quite likely he was on hand at the laying of the temple foundation in the second year when the priestly services were reorganized. (Ezr 3:8-10) A generation later, in the days of Joiakim and Nehemiah, Abijah's priestly family was repre­ sented by Zichri.-Ne 12:12, 17, 26. 9. A priest, or the forefather of one, who, in the days of Nehemiah, participated in the sealing of the "trustworthy arrangement" or resolution to Jehovah. (Ne 9:38-10:8) If this was the same Abijah listed as No. 8, as suggested by some, then he would have been more than 100 years old.

24

ABIJAM

ABIJAM.

See

ABIJAH No. 5.

ABILENE

(Ab·i·le'ne). A Roman district,or te­ trarchy,in the region of the Anti-Lebanon moun­ tains N of Mount Hermon. It was named after its capital, Abila, a city situated in a picturesque gorge by the bank of the river Abanah (modern Barada). At Luke 3:1 we are told that in the 15th year of Tiberius Caesar (28/29 c.E.) the district was ruled by Lysanias. This fact is confirmed by an inscrip­ tion found at Abila in connection with a temple dedication dating from the reign of Tiberius. This inscription bears the name "Lysanias the te­ trarch." Previously, Abilene had formed part of the kingdom of Herod the Great,but following his death,about the year 1 B.c.E., it was included in the province of Syria. Josephus records that the tetrarchy of Lysanias was joined to Palestine, in 37 c.E., under Herod Agrippa 1 , and that it was thereafter bestowed upon Herod Agrippa II by Claudius,in 53 C.E.

ABIMAEL (Abim'a·el). A descendant of Shem through Arpachshad. His father was Joktan, whose brother, Peleg, was an ancestor of Abra­ ham. (Ge 10: 28; l Ch 1:17-27) It is likely that Abimael and his 12 brothers were the progenitors of 13 different Arabian tribes that settled in the Arabian Peninsula.

ABI MELECH

(Abim'e·lech) [ My Father Is King]. Either a personal name or an official title of several Philistine kings,perhaps similar to the title Pharaoh among the Egyptians and Caesar among the Romans.

1 . The king of the city of Gerar, where Abra­ ham and Sarah took up temporary residence in about 1919 B.c.E. Thinking the couple were broth­ er and sister, he took Sarah to become his wife but, providentially, did not touch her. Warned by Jehovah in a dream, the king returned Sarah to Abraham together with compensation consisting of livestock and slaves and,in addition,a thousand shekels of silver (c. $2,200) as a guarantee of Sarah's chastity. Sometime later this king conclud­ ed a covenant of peace and mutual confidence with Abraham at Beer-sheba.-Ge 20: 1-18; 21:22-34.

2 . Possibly another king of Gerar at the time Isaac went there because of a famine. This was after the death of Abraham in 1843 B.c.E. Isaac, like his father Abraham,attempted to pass Rebek­ ah off as his sister,but when the king,by accident, discovered she was Isaac's wife,he issued a pub­ lic decree granting them protection. Isaac's God­ given prosperity,however, became the object of

envy,and so the king requested Isaac to move out. Sometime later this king of Gerar concluded a covenant of peace with Isaac similar to the one his predecessor had made with Abraham.-Ge 26: 1-31.

3 . The Philistine king of the city of Gath in David's day.-Ps 34: Sup; see ACI-nSH. 4. A son of Judge Gideon born to his concubine

at Shechem. After his father's death, Abimelech with presumptuous impudence sought to make himself king. Cunningly,he appealed to the land­ owners of Shechem through his mother's influen­ tial family. Upon obtaining their financial support he hired some ruffians,went to his father'S house at Ophrah,and there massacred his half brothers upon a single stone. Of the 70 half brothers,only the youngest,Jotham,escaped the slaughter. Abimelech was then proclaimed king,but Jeho­ vah allowed a bad spirit to develop between the Shechemites and their new "king," in order to avenge the bloodguilt of all those connected with the conspiracy. A revolt was organized by Gaal. Abimelech quickly crushed it, captured and de­ stroyed the city of Shechem, and sowed it with salt. Then he attacked the vault of the house, or sanctuary,of El-berith and set it afire,and in the conflagration about a thousand of his previous collaborators,the landowners of the tower of She­ chern who had taken refuge there,were burned to death. Immediately Abimelech followed up this success by attacking Thebez to the N, only to have a woman on the city tower hurl an upper mill­ stone down upon his head. Abimelech's three­ year "reign" came to an end when his armor­ bearer,in compliance with his dying request,ran him through with the sword,so that it could not be said that a woman had killed him.-Jg 8:30, 31 ; 9:1-57; 2Sa 11 : 21.

5. The Masoretic text, followed by the King James Version, reads "Abimelech" in 1 Chronicles 18: 16. The Greek Septuagint, Latin Vulgate, Syriac Peshitta, and 12 Hebrew manuscripts read "Ahim­ elech," which is in agreement with 2 Samuel 8:17.

ABINADAB

(Abin'a·dab) [ Father Is Willing (Noble; Generous)].

1.

An inhabitant of the city of Kiriath-jearim in

the territory of Judah about 14 km (8.5 mi) WNW of Jerusalem,in whose home the ark of the cove­ nant was kept for a time. When the sacred Ark was brought up from Beth-shemesh after its disastrous seven-month sojourn among the Philistines, it was deposited in the home of Abinadab, and his son Eleazar was sanctified to guard it. Here in this home the Ark

25

remained for some 7 0 years, until David arranged to transfer it to Jerusalem. During the transfer another of Abinadab's sons, Uzzah, dropped dead in his tracks when Jehovah's anger blazed against him, because of his touching the Ark in disregard of the command at Numbers 4: 1 5 . - 1 Sa 6 : 20-7: 1 ; 2Sa 6: 1-7; 1 Ch 13 :6-10. 2. The second son of Jesse, and one of David's three older brothers who went to war with Saul against the Philistines. - 1 Sa 16 : 8 ; 17: 13.

3 . One of the sons of King Saul who was slain by the Philistines at Mount Gilboa.- 1 Sa 31 : 2 ; 1Ch 9 : 39.

4. The father of one of King Solomon's 12 food­ supply deputies. This deputized "son of Abina­ dab," who is also called Ben-abinadab, married Solomon's daughter Taphath, and was assigned to provide food for Solomon's household one month out of the year from all the mountain ridge of Dor. - 1 Ki 4 : 7, 11 .

ABINOAM ( Abin'o·am) [ Father Is Pleasant­ ness]. The father of Judge Barak, and a descen­ dant of Naphtali. He was evidently a resident of the refuge city of Kedesh in the territory of Naph­ tali.-Jg 4:6, 12; 5 : 1 , 12. ABIRAM

(Abi'ram) [ Father Is High ( Exalted )].

1. A Reubenite, the son of Eliab and brother of

Dathan and Nemuel. He was a family head and one of the principal men in Israel at the time of the Exodus from Egypt.-Nu 26: 5-9. Abiram and his brother Dathan supported Ko­ rah the Levite in his rebellion against the authori­ ty of Moses and Aaron. A third Reubenite, named On, is also included in the initial stage of the rebellion but thereafter receives no mention. ( Nu 16: 1 ) Having gathered a group of 2 50 chieftains, who were "men of fame," these men accused Mo­ ses and Aaron of arbitrarily elevating themselves over the rest of the congregation. ( Nu 16: 1-3) From Moses' words to Korah it is clear that Korah and his followers among the Levites sought the priesthood that had been conferred on Aaron ( Nu 16:4-11 ) ; but this was evidently not the case with Abiram and Dathan, who were Reubenites. Moses dealt separately with them, and their rejection of his call for them to appear before him contains accusations directed solely against Moses, with no mention made of Aaron. They decried Moses' leadership of the nation and said that he was 'trying to play the prince over them to the limit,' and that he had failed in making good the promise of leading them into any land flowing with milk and honey. Moses' prayer to Jehovah in answer to

ABlRAM

these accusations likewise contains a defense of his own actions, not those of Aaron.-Nu 16: 12- 15. From this it would appear that the rebellion was two-pronged and aimed not only at the Aaronic priesthood but also at Moses' position as adminis­ trator of God's instructions. ( Ps 106 : 16 ) The situa­ tion may have seemed opportune for organizing popular sentiment toward a change, since shortly before this the people had severely complained against Moses, had talked of appointing a new head to lead the nation back to Egypt, and had even talked of stoning Joshua and Caleb for up­ holding Moses and Aaron. ( Nu 14: 1 - 10 ) Reuben was Jacob's firstborn son but lost his right to the inheritance as such because of wrong action. ( lCh 5: 1) Thus, Dathan and Abiram may have been expressing resentment at Moses the Levite's exer­ cise of authority over them, because of desiring to regain the lost primacy of their forefather. Num­ bers 26 :9, however, shows that their struggle was not only against Moses and Aaron but also "against Jehovah," who had divinely commis­ sioned Moses and Aaron to occupy positions of authority. Since the family of the Kohathites ( in which Korah's family was included ) encamped on the S side of the tabernacle, the same side as did the Reubenites, it is possible that Korah's tent was nearby those of Dathan and Abiram. ( Nu 2: 10; 3 : 29 ) At the time of God's expression of jUdgment, Dathan and Abiram stood at the entrances of their tents, while Korah and 250 rebel supporters were gathered at the entrance of the tent of meeting with their incense holders in their hands. Then, following Moses' call to the rest of the people to withdraw from around the tents of the three ring­ leaders of the rebellion, God manifested his con­ demnation of their disrespectful course by causing the ground to open up beneath the tents of these men, swallowing up Dathan and Abiram, and their households. ( Nu 16: 16-35 ; De 1 1 : 6 ; Ps 106: 17) Korah's household, with the exception of his sons, likewise perished. Korah himself died with the 250 rebels, destroyed by fire before the taber­ nacle. ( Nu 16 : 35 ; 26: 10, 11 ) Thus the rebellion against divinely assigned authority came to a swift termination, and for his share in it, Abiram's name was wiped out of Israel.

2. The firstborn son of Hiel the Bethelite. At Joshua 6 : 26 Joshua's oath is recorded concerning the destroyed city of Jericho, foretelling that who­ ever should rebuild it would do so at the loss of his firstborn son. Abiram's father, Hiel, ignored this oath and, during the reign of King Ahab

26

ABISHAG (c. 940-920 B.c. E . ) some five centuries after Josh­

Abishai loyally supported his uncle David in all

ua's time, he laid Jericho's foundations. Abiram,

his military campaigns but tended to be impulsive

his son, died, evidently prematurely as a histori­

and ruthless and on occasion had to be restrained.

cally recorded fulfillment of the prophecy.- 1 Ki

For example, when he and David stole into Saul's military camp by night he would have pinned

1 6 : 34.

ABISHAG

( Ab'i·shag ). A young virgin from

the town of Shunem, N of Jezreel and Mount Gilboa, in the territory of Issachar. ( Jos 19 : 17-2 3 ) She was "beautiful i n the extreme" and was cho­

�

sen by David's servants to become the nurse an

companion of the king during his final days . - 1 Kl 1 : 1-4. David was now about 70 years of age ( 2 Sa 5 :4, 5 ), and as a result of debilitation he had little body heat. Abishag waited on him during the day, doubtless brightening the surroundings with her youthful freshness and beauty, and at night she 'lay in the king's bosom' to give him warmth, but "the king himself had no intercourse with her." Nevertheless, the attitude later manifested by Sol­ omon regarding her indicates that Abishag was viewed as being in the position of wife or concu­

sleeping Saul, "the anointed of Jehovah," to the earth with Saul's own spear had not David re­ strained him. ( l Sa 2 6 :6-9 ) When Absalom re­ belled, Abishai had to be held back twice from executing king-cursing Shimei. However, David was not able to prevent Abishai from collaborat­ ing in the death of Abner.-2Sa 3 : 30; 1 6 : 9 - 1 1 ; 19: 21-23. Abishai was noted for his taking the lead in striking down

18,000 Edomites and, again, in

leading in the rout of the Ammonites. He also cooperated in putting down the rebellion of Sheba, a good-for-nothing Benj aminite. In David's last recorded battle had it not been for Abishai, he would have lost his life at the hand of a Philistine of great stature . - 1 Ch 1 8 : 1 2 ; 19 : 1 1 - 1 5 ; 2Sa 20: 1 , 6 ; 21 : 15- 17.

bine of David. As such, by a rule in the ancient

ABISHALOM.

East, she would become the property of David's

ABISHUA

heir at the time of his death. The account concerning Abishag directly pre­ cedes the account of the attempt at gaining the crown by the one who was probably David's old­ est surviving son, Adonijah, and would seem to be so placed to give understanding to Adonljah's sub­

sequent action during Solomon's reign. Solorr:?n,

after ascending the throne, had placed AdoIDJ ah on conditional pardon. Now Adonijah persuaded Solomon's mother, Bath-sheba, to ask Solomon to give him Abishag as his wife. Solomon, convinced that Adonijah's request was not due alone to Abishag's beauty but, rather, indicated a sub­ tle effort to strengthen Adonij ah's claim to the throne, reacted angrily, revoked Adonijah's par­ don, and ordered his death. ( l Ki 2: 13- 2 5 ) No fur­ ther mention is made of Abishag, but it is prob­ able that she continued as one of Solomon's wives or concubines. -See ADoNIJAH No. 1 .

ABISHAI ists ) ).

(Abish'ai) [possibly, Father I s ( Ex­

The son of David's sister or half sister

Zeruiah and brother of Joab and Asahel .-2Sa 2: 1 8 ; lCh 2: 1 5 , 16. Abishai came to be more distinguished for his prowess than the 30 mighty warriors over whom

See ABSALOM.

( Ab·i·shu'a)

[ possibly,

Father

Is

Help].

1 . A Benjamite of the family of Bela. ( l Ch

8 : 1 -4 ) Though he appears to be a son of Bela, the variance between the accounts at Numbers 26 :40, 1 Chronicles 7: 7, and 1 Chronicles 8: 1-4 causes some to believe the word "sons" may mean, rath­ er, "descendants. "

2. The son of Phinehas and a great-grandson of

Aaron. He was the father of Bukki. ( l Ch 6: 4, 5, 50, 51 ) At Ezra 7 : 1-5 he is shown to have been one of Ezra's forefathers. Josephus

(Jewish Antiquities,

V, 361 , 362 [ xi, 5 ) ; VIII, 12 [ i, 3 ] ) refers to Abishua (called Abiezer in Book V) as the high priest, which, if accepted, would make him the fourth high priest of Israel. This would harmonize with Jehovah's

promise

made

to

Abishua's

father,

Phinehas, that the priesthood would remain in his family.-Nu 25 : 1 1 - 13.

ABISHUR

( Abi'shur) [Father Is a [Protective]

Wall ]. A descendant of Judah through the family line of Hezron, of the house of Jerahmeel. He was evidently the second son of Shammai and became the father of two sons by his wife Abihail. -1 Ch 2 : 28, 29.

he served as chief, his reputation even rivaling

ABITAL

those of David's three most mighty men, for

wives through whom David had sons during the

( Abi'tal ) [ Father Is Dew ] . One of six

he once struck down 300 of the enemy single­

seven and a half years he reigned in Hebron

handed, but "to the rank of the first three he did

( 1077- 1070 B.c. E . ) . Her son was named Shepha­

not come. "-2Sa 2 3 : 18, 19.

tiah.-2Sa 3 : 4 ; l Ch 3 : 3 .

27 ABITUB (Abi'tub) [ Father Is Goodness ]. A BeQjamite, evidently the son of Shaharaim by his wife Hushim.- lCh 8:8, I I . ABIUD ( Abi'ud ) [ possibly, Father I s Dignity ]. The Grecized or Anglicized form of the Hebrew name Abihud. A descendant of Zerubbabel and an ancestor of Christ Jesus. ( Mt 1 : 13 ) The term "fa­ ther" as used by Matthew may have the meaning of "forefather. " Some scholars suggest that he may be the same as "Joda" at Luke 3 : 26. However, it is not necessary to relate these persons as being the same individual, since the genealogical lines given by Matthew and Luke are only parallel, not identi­ cal, while those at First Chronicles are indepen­ dent. Abiud's son, Eliakim, is also included in the line of descent of the Messiah.-Mt 1 : 13. ABNER (Ab'ner) [Father Is a Lamp ]. Son of Ner, of the tribe of Benjamin. First Samuel 14: 50, 51 evidently refers to Abner as "the uncle of Saul," though this phrase in the Hebrew can be applied either to Abner or to Ner, his father. Josephus speaks of Abner as Saul's cousin, and of their fathers, Ner and Kish, as brothers. ( Jewish Antiq­ uities, VI, 129, 130 [ vi, 6]) However, the inspired history at 1 Chronicles 8:33 and 9:39 seems to weigh heavily in favor of Kish as being the son of Ner and, hence, the brother of Abner. This would make Abner the uncle of Saul. -See also the chart under ABIEL No. 1 . Abner served a s chief of the army for Saul, and his fighting force sometimes assumed major pro­ portions, upwards of 200,000 men. ( 1 Sa 15:4) On special occasions he sat next to the king at the banquet table. ( 1 Sa 20: 25 ) Though Abner was undoubtedly a powerful and valiant man, Abner was chided by David, when the latter was a fugi­ tive in the Wilderness of Ziph, for having failed to guard Saul's person properly as his lord and "the anointed of Jehovah. "- lSa 26: 14 -16. Following Saul's death in the crushing defeat administered by the Philistines, Abner withdrew across the Jordan to Mahanaim in Gilead, taking Saul's son Ish-bosheth with him. Though David had been proclaimed king in Hebron by the tribe of Judah, Abner set up Ish-bosheth as a rival king in Mahanaim. Abner was clearly the power be­ hind the throne and in time obtained the support of all the tribes except Judah on behalf of Ish­ bosheth. -2Sa 2 :8-10. Eventually, the armies of the two opposing kings met in a test of strength at the Pool of Gibean in the territory of Benjamin, about a third of the way from Hebron to Mahanaim. After the two armies had sized each other up, Abner pro-

ABNBR

posed a contest between a dozen young warriors from each side. The sides were so evenly matched that a mutual slaughter resulted, provoking a full­ scale combat between the two armies. Abner's forces lost 18 men for every one of Joab's sol­ diers and retreated toward the wilderness.-2Sa 2: 12-17, 30, 3I . Abner, pursued by Joab's fleet-footed brother Asahel, urged him repeatedly to turn his attention elsewhere and avoid a deadly encounter with him. When Asahel kept refusing, Abner finally made a powerful backstroke and killed Asahel with the butt end of his spear, running him through in the abdomen. ( 2Sa 2: 18-23 ) At Abner's appeal, Joab finally called a halt to the pursuit at sundown, and the two armies began marches back to their re­ spective capitals. Their stamina can be seen from the 80 km ( 50 mi ) or more that Abner's forces marched, down into the basin of the Jordan, ford­ ing the river, then up the Jordan Valley to the hills of Gilead, where they made their way to Mahana­ im. After burying Asahel in Bethlehem (perhaps on the following day ), Joab's men had a night-long march of over 22 km ( 14 mi ) through the moun­ tains to Hebron.-2Sa 2 : 29-32. Abner supported Ish-bosheth's declining regime but also strengthened his own position, perhaps with an eye on the kingship, since he was, after all, the brother of Saul's father. When taken to task by Ish-bosheth for having relations with one of Saul's concubines ( an act allowable only to the dead king's heir) , Abner angrily announced the transfer of his support to David's side. (2Sa 3: 6-11 ) He made overtures to David, stressing his own position as virtual ruler of the rest of Israel outside Judah. Satisfying David's requirement of the re­ turn of his wife Michal, Abner now privately ap­ proached the heads of the 11 tribes separated from Judah to build up their favor toward Jeho­ vah's appointed king, David. ( 2Sa 3 : 12-19 ) There­ after he was warmly received by David at his capital in Hebron, and that same day set out to persuade all the tribes to make a covenant with David. But Joab, absent on a raid, returned and, after denouncing Abner as a conniving spy, per­ sonally called him back and tricked Abner into a position where he could kill him. -2Sa 3: 20-27. With Abner's death, any hoped-for support for Ish-bosheth collapsed and Ish-bosheth was soon assassinated by traitorous men. With this the rule of the house of Saul came to a complete end. -2Sa 4: 1 -3, 5-12. Many years later, while nearing the time of his own death, David remembered Abner's death ( as well as Amasa's) and charged Solomon with the

28

ABOMINATION OF DESOLATION

responsibility of removing the stain of bloodguilt that Joab had brought on David's house. ( l Ki 2 : 1 , 5, 6 ) Shortly thereafter, Abner's slayer, Joab, was executed at Solomon's order. - 1 Ki 2 : 3 1 -34.

"The viable embryo in the uterus IS a human individual, and therefore destroying it, is a viola­ tion of the sixth commandment. " The Bible and Modern Medicine, 1963, p. 176.

Only one son of Abner is listed, Jaasiel, who was a leader in the tribe of Benjamin during David's reign. ( lCh 27 : 2 1 ) First Chronicles 26: 28 also mentions Abner's contributions toward the taber­ nacle from spoils won as chief of the army.

Properly viewed, the fruitage of the womb is a blessing of Jehovah. (Le 26:9; Ps 127 : 3 ) Hence, in promising to prosper Israel, God gave assurance of successful culmination of pregnancy and the bringing forth of children, saying: "Neither a woman suffering an abortion nor a barren woman will exist in your land." (Ex 23:26 ) As indicated in the prayer of the righteous, on the other hand, evidence of God's disfavor to his enemies would be their having miscarrying wombs and their becom­ ing like miscarriages that never see the sun.-Ps 58:8; Ho 9: 14.

ABOMINATION OF DESOLATION.

See

DISGUSTING THING, LoATHSOME THING.

ABORTION.

The expulsion of an embryo or fetus before it can live on its own. Common use often distinguishes between abortion and miscar­ riage, the former being defined as the deliberate and induced emptying of a pregnant uterus, the latter being considered as the accidental and un­ avoidable interruption of pregnancy. The distinc­ tion between abortion and miscarriage is not made in the Bible; there the terms are used in a broader and interchangeable sense. The Hebrew sha·khaF, meaning "suffer an abortion" ( Ex 2 3 : 26 ), is also rendered "bereave" (De 32 : 2 5 ), 'bereave of children' ( Le 26 : 22 ), 'miscarry' ( Ho 9: 14), and "prove fruitless" ( Mal 3 : 11 ). The Hebrew word yoh-tse'th, rendered "abortion" in Psalm 144: 14, is from a root meaning "come out. " ( Compare Ge 27: 30. ) The expressions "miscarriage" and "one prematurely born" (Ps 58:8; Ec 6 : 3 ) render the Hebrew word ne'phel, which comes from the root naphal', meaning "fall. "-Compare Isa 26: 18. Unavoidable abortion or miscarriage may be caused by accident, infectious disease, mental or physical stress and strain, or because of a general organic weakness on the part of the mother. The waters near Jericho were death dealing, caus­ ing miscarriages, until Jehovah's prophet Elisha healed them.-2Ki 2: 19-22. Deliberately to induce abortion or miscarriage by artificial means, by the use of drugs, or by medical operation, the sale purpose of which is to avoid the birth of an unwanted child, is an act of high crime in the sight of God. Life as a precious gift from God is sacred. Hence God's law to Moses protected the life of an unborn baby against more than criminal abortion, for if in a fracas between men a pregnant woman suffered an accident fatal to her or the child, "then you must give soul for soul. " ( Ex 21 : 22-25 ) Of course, before applying that penalty, the circumstances and degree of deliberateness were taken into consideration by the judges. (Compare Nu 3 5 : 22-24, 31 . ) But em­ phasizing the seriousness of any deliberate at­ tempt to cause injury, Dr. J. Glenn comments:

-

Job in his misery contemplated that it would have been better had he been Ita hidden miscar­ riage. " "Why from the womb did I not proceed to die?" this tonnented man cried out. ( Job 3 : 11-16) Solomon, too, reasoned that a prematurely ex­ pelled fetus is better off than the person who lives a long time but who never comes to enjoy life.-Ec 6 : 3. Contagious abortion, a disease characterized by premature birth, may occur among animals such as cattle, horses, sheep, and goats. Accidental abortion due to neglect or disease of domestic animals has also been known since the days of the patriarchs Jacob and Job.-Ge 31 : 38 ; Job 21 : 10.

ABRAHAM

( A'bra·ham) [Father of a Crowd ( Multitude )]. The name given by Jehovah to ,, Abram (meaning "Father Is High ( Exalted ) ) when he was 99 years old, and when God was reaffirm­ ing His promise that Abraham'S offspring would become many.-Ge 1 7 : 5 . Family Origin and Early History. Abraham was the tenth generation from Noah through Shem and was born 352 years after the Deluge, in 2018 B.c.E. Although listed first among the three sons of Terah, at Genesis 1 1 :26, Abraham was not the firstborn. The Scriptures show that Terah was 70 years old when his first son was born, and that Abraham was born 60 years later when his father Terah was 130 years old. ( Ge 1 1 : 32; 12:4) Evident­ ly Abraham is listed first among his father's sons because of his outstanding faithfulness and prom­ inence in the Scriptures, a practice that is followed in the case of several other outstanding men of faith such as Shem and Isaac.-Ge 5 : 3 2 ; 1 1 : 10; 1Ch 1 : 28.

Abraham was a native of the Chaldean city of Ur, a thriving metropolis located in the land of Shinar, near the present junction of the Euphrates

29 and Tigris rivers. It was about 240 k m ( 150 mi) SE of Nimrod's onetime royal city of Babel, or Bab­ ylon, so notorious for its unfinished Tower of Ba­ bel.

In Abraham's time, the city of Ur was steeped in Babylonish idolatry and the worship of its patron moon-god Sin. (Jos 24: 2, 14, 1 5 ) Nevertheless, Abraham proved to be a man of faith in Jehovah God, even as his forefathers Shem and Noah; and as a consequence, he earned the reputation "the father of all those having faith while in uncircum­ cision . " ( Ro 4: 11 ) Since true faith is based on accurate knowledge, Abraham may have received his understanding by personal association with Shem ( their lives overlapped by 150 years ). Abra­ ham knew and used the name of Jehovah; to quote him: "Jehovah the Most High God, Producer of heaven and earth," "Jehovah, the God of the heavens and the God of the earth. "-Ge 14: 22; 24: 3. While Abraham was still living in Ur, "before he took up residence in Haran," Jehovah commanded him to move out to a strange land, leaving behind friends and relatives. ( Ac 7: 2-4 ; Ge 1 5 : 7 ; Ne 9 : 7 ) There i n that country that H e would show Abra­ ham, God said he would make out of him a great nation. At the time, Abraham was married to his half sister Sarah, but they were childless and both were old. So it would take great faith to obey, but obey he did. Terah, now around 200 years old and still the family's patriarchal head, agreed to accompany Abraham and Sarah on this long journey, and it is for this reason that Terah as father is credited with making the move toward Canaan. (Ge 11 : 31 ) It appears that fatherless Lot, Abraham's nephew, was adopted by his childless uncle and aunt and so accompanied them. Northwestward the cara­ van moved, some 960 km ( 600 mi ), until they reached Haran, which was an important junction on the E-W trade routes. Haran is located where two wadis join to form a stream that reaches the Balikh River in the winter, about 110 km ( 68 mi ) above where the Balikh empties into the Euphra­ tes River. Here Abraham remained until the death of his father Terah.-MAP, Vol. 1 , p. 330. Sojourn in Canaan. Now 75 years old, Abra­ ham began to move his household out of Haran to the land of Canaan, where he lived out the re­ maining hundred years of his life in tents as an alien and migratory resident. ( Ge 12:4) It was following the death of his father Terah that Abra­ ham went out from Haran in 1943 B.C.E. and crossed the Euphrates River, evidently on the 14th day of the month that later became known as

ABRAHAM

Nisan. ( Ge 11 : 3 2 ; Ex 12 :40-43, LXX ) It was at that time that the covenant between Jehovah and Abraham went into effect, and the 430-year peri­ od of temporary residence until the making of the Law covenant with Israel began.-Ex 1 2 : 40-42 ; Ga 3 : 17. Evidently Abraham, with his flocks and herds, traveled down through Damascus and on to She­ chern ( located 48 km [ 30 mi l N of Jerusalem ), near the big trees of Moreh. (Ge 1 2 : 6 ) Here Jehovah appeared again to Abraham, confirming and en­ larging His covenant promise by declaring: "To your seed I am going to give this land." ( Ge 12 : 7 ) Abraham not only built a n altar t o Jehovah there but, as he moved southward through the land, he built other altars along the way ; and he called on the name of Jehovah. ( Ge 12:8, 9 ) In time a severe famine compelled Abraham to move temporarily to Egypt, and to protect his life, he represented Sarah as his sister. This resulted in Pharaoh's taking beautiful Sarah into his household to be his wife, but before he could violate her, Jehovah had Pharaoh give her back. Abraham then returned to Canaan to the campsite between Bethel and Ai and again called "on the name of Jehovah. "-Ge 1 2 : 10- 1 3 : 4. It now became necessary, because of the in­ creasing size of their flocks and herds, for Abra­ ham and Lot to separate. Lot selected the basin of the lower Jordan, a well-watered region "like the garden of Jehovah," and later established his camp near Sodom. ( Ge 1 3 : 5 - 1 3 ) Abraham, for his part, after being told to travel about through the length and breadth of the land, came to dwell among the big trees of Mamre in Hebron, 30 km ( 19 mi ) SSW of Jerusalem.-Ge 1 3 : 14- 18. When four allied kings, headed by the Elamite king Chedorlaomer, were successful in crushing a revolt of five Canaanite kings, Sodom and Gomor­ rah were sacked, and Lot was taken captive to­ gether with all of his property. Abraham, upon learning of this, quickly mustered 318 of his trained household servants. With his confederates Aner, Eshcol, and Mamre, he made a forced march in hot pursuit perhaps as much as 300 km ( 190 mi) northward to beyond Damascus and, with Jehovah's help, defeated a far superior force. Lot was thus rescued, and the stolen property was recovered. ( Ge 14: 1 - 16, 23, 24 ) As Abraham was returning from this great victory a "priest of the Most High God," Melchizedek, who was also the king of Salem, came out and blessed him, and Abraham, in turn, "gave him a tenth of every­ thing. "-Ge 14: 17-20.

ABRAHAM

30

righteousness," even though this occurred years before Abraham was circumcised. ( Ge 1 5 : 1 - 6 ; Ro 4 : 9 , 10 ) Jehovah then concluded a formal covenant over animal sacrifices with Abraham, and at the same time, he revealed that Abraham's offspring would be afflicted for a period of 400 years, even being taken into slavery.-Ge 1 5 : 7-21 ; see COVE­

Appearance of the Promised Seed. Since Sarah continued to be barren, it appeared that Eliezer the faithful house steward from Damascus would receive Abraham's inheritance. Neverthe­ less, Jehovah again reassured Abraham that his own offspring would become uncountable, as the stars of heaven, and so Abraham "put faith in Jehovah ; and he proceeded to count it to him as

NANT.

G E N EALOGY O F AB RAHAM I NAHOR

Reumah

Il

JL

4 sons

I I sca h

I M i lcah

UEL

7 other sons

�

I

I LOT

I

I Daughter 2 I B E N - AM M I

I

I

M OA B I T E S

�

Reb k a h I

I LEVI

(1)

AEL

Keturah I 6 sons

I S AAC

-----�I I JACOB

-----+l--� Rachel

I REUBEN

�

I I S S AC HAR

( 9)

(3) S I M EON

( 1 0)

(4)

,I I

_ _

J

_ _ _

--,

The l i n e I in w h i c h I : Jesus C h r i st : was born I I L

_ _ _ _ _ _

�

------

�� � � I I

L

Z i l Pa h

Bilhah-

I Dinah

Z E B U LU N

J U DAH

(2)

Sarah

I S H MAEL/TES

AMMON ITES

I ESAU I E DOM I T E S

ISH

L---

I A B RAHA M

H agar ---1

I Daughte r 1 I MOAB

I LA BAN

Le h

I H A RAN

T E RAH

B

JOS E P H

( 11)

N

N AM I N

( 1 2)

DAN

(5)

r--

P TALI

AS H E R

(6)

(8)

GAD

(7 )

Sons of J acob are shown n u m bered in order of birth ---

ind icates marriage or concu b i n age

--- i nd icates offspring

31

Time passed. They had now been in Canaan for about ten years, yet Sarah continued barren. She therefore proposed to substitute her Egyptian maidservant Hagar so that she might have a child by her. Abraham consented. And so in 1932 B.C.E., when Abraham was 86 years old, Ishmael was born. (Ge 16:3, 15, 16 ) More time passed. In 1919 B. c.E. , when Abraham was 99 years old, as a sign or seal to testify to the special covenant relationship existing between himself and Abraham, Jehovah commanded that all the males of Abraham's household be circum­ cised. At the same time Jehovah changed his name from Abram to Abraham, "because a father of a crowd of nations I will make you. " ( Ge 17:5, 9-27; Ro 4: 11 ) Soon after, three materialized an­ gels, whom Abraham received hospitably in the name of Jehovah, promised that Sarah herself would conceive and give birth to a son, yes, within the coming year!-Ge 18: 1-15. And what an eventful year it proved to be! Sodom and Gomorrah were destroyed. Abraham's nephew and his two daughters barely escaped. A famine drove Abraham and his wife to Gerar, only to have the king of that Philistine city take Sarah for his harem. Jehovah intervened; Sarah was released ; and at the appointed time, 1918 B.C. E . , Isaac, the long-promised heir, was born when Abraham was 100 years old and Sarah was 90. ( Ge 18: 16-21 : 7 ) Five years later, when Isaac's 19-year-old half brother Ishmael poked fun at him, Abraham was compelled to dismiss Ishmael and his mother Hagar. It was then, in 1913 B.c.E., that the 400 years of affliction upon Abraham's offspring began. - Ge 21 :8-21 ; 1 5 : 13; Ga 4 : 29. The supreme test of Abraham'S faith came about 20 years later. According to Jewish tradi­ tion, Isaac was now 25 years old. ( Jewish Antiqui­ ties, by F. Josephus, 1, 227 [ xiii, 2 ] ) In obedience to Jehovah's instructions Abraham took Isaac and traveled N from Beer-sheba at the Negeb to Mount Moriah, situated directly N of Salem. There he built an altar and prepared to offer up Isaac, the promised seed, as a burnt sacrifice. And indeed Abraham "as good as offered up Isaac," for "he reckoned that God was able to raise him up even from the dead." Only at the last moment did Jehovah intervene and provide a ram as a substi­ tute for Isaac on the sacrificial altar. It was, there­ fore, this implicit faith backed up by complete obedience that moved Jehovah to reinforce his covenant with Abraham with a sworn oath, a special legal guarantee.-Ge 22 : 1- 18; Heb 6 : 13-18; 11 : 17-19. When Sarah died at Hebron in 1881 B.C.E. at the age of 127, it was necessary for Abraham to pur-

ABRAHAM

chase a burial plot, for indeed he was only an alien resident owning no land in Canaan. So he bought a field with its cave at Machpelah near Mamre from the sons of Heth. ( Ge 23: 1-20; see PURCHASE. ) Three years later, when Isaac reached the age of 40, Abraham sent his oldest servant, likely Eliezer, back to Mesopotamia in order to find a suitable wife, one who was also a true worshiper of Jeho­ vah, for his son. Rebekah, who was the grandniece of Abraham, proved to be Jehovah's choice.-Ge 24: 1-67. "Furthermore, Abraham again took a wife," Ke­ turah, and thereafter fathered six additional sons, so that from Abraham sprang not only the Israel­ ites, Ishmaelites, and Edomites but also Medan­ ites, Midianites, and others. ( Ge 2 5 : 1 , 2; lCh 1 : 28, 32, 34) Thus it was that Jehovah's prophetic utter­ ance was fulfilled in Abraham: "A father of a crowd of nations I will make you." ( Ge 17: 5) Final­ ly, at the good old age of 175, Abraham died, in 1843 B.c.E., and was buried by his sons Isaac and Ishmael in the cave of Machpelah. ( Ge 2 5 : 7- 10 ) Prior t o his death Abraham gave gifts t o the sons of his secondary wives and sent them away, so that Isaac would be the sole heir of "everything he had. "-Ge 2 5 : 5 , 6. Patriarchal Head and Prophet. Abraham was a very wealthy man with great flocks and herds, much silver and gold, and a very large household numbering many hundreds of servants. ( Ge 12:5, 16; 13 : 2 , 6, 7; 17: 23, 27; 20: 14; 24: 3 5 ) For this reason the kings of Canaan considered him a powerful "chieftain" and one with whom covenants of peace should be made. ( Ge 23:6; 14: 13; 21 : 22, 23) Yet at no time did Abraham allow materialism to blind his vision of Jehovah and His promises or cause him to become proud, high-minded, or selfish.-Ge 13:9; 14: 2 1 -23.

The first occurrence of the word "prophet" in the Hebrew Scriptures refers to Abraham, though others like Enoch prophesied before him. ( Ge 20: 7 ; Jude 1 4 ) The first identified i n the Scriptures a s a "Hebrew" is Abraham. ( Ge 14: 13) Abraham, like Abel, Enoch, and Noah, was a man of faith. ( Heb 11 : 4 -9 ) But the first occurrence of the expression "put faith in Jehovah" is in reference to Abraham. - Ge 1 5 : 6. Indeed, this man of unusual faith walked with God, received communications from him by means of visions and dreams, and entertained his angelic messengers. (Ge 1 2 : 1-3, 7 ; 15: 1-8, 12-21 ; 18: 1-15 ; 22 : 11, 12, 15-18) He was well acquainted with the name of God even though Jehovah had not at that time revealed the full significance of His name. ( Ex 6 : 2 , 3 ) Time after time Abraham

32

ABRAM built altars and offered up sacrifices in the name of

and Ezion-geber and has been identified with

and to the praise and glory of his God Jehovah.

the oasis 'Ain Defiyeh ( 'En 'Avrona), which lies 14.5 km (9 mi ) NNE of Ezion-geber.-Nu 3 3 :

-Ge 12:8; 13 :4, 18; 2 1 : 3 3 ; 24:40; 48: 15. As patriarchal head, Abraham allowed no idola­ try or ungodliness in his household but constantly taught all his sons and servants to " keep Jehovah's way to do righteousness and judgment . " ( Ge 18: 19 ) Every male member of Abraham's household was bound by Jehovah's law to submit to circum­ cision. The Egyptian slave girl Hagar called on Jehovah's name in prayer. And Abraham's oldest servant in a very heart-touching prayer to Jeho­ vah demonstrated his own faith in Abraham's God. Isaac too, in his early manhood, proved his faith and his obedience to Jehovah by allowing himself to be bound hand and foot and placed atop the altar for sacrifice. - Ge 1 7 : 10- 14, 23-27; 16: 1 3 ; 24: 2-56. Historicity.

Jesus and his disciples referred

to Abraham more than 70 times in their conversa­ tions and writings. In his illustration of the rich man and Lazarus, Jesus referred to Abraham in a symbolic sense. ( Lu 16: 19-31 ) When his opponents boasted that they were the offspring of Abraham, Jesus was quick to point out their hypocrisy, say­ ing : "If you are Abraham's children, do the works of Abraham. " ( Joh 8 : 31-58; Mt 3 : 9, 10 ) No, as the apostle Paul said, it is not fleshly descent that counts, but, rather, faith like that of Abraham that enables one to be declared righteous. ( Ro 9 : 6-8; 4: 1 - 1 2 ) Paul also identified the true seed of Abra­ ham as Christ, along with those who belong to Christ as "heirs with reference to a promise. " ( Ga 3: 16, 29 ) He also speaks of Abraham's kindness and hospitality to strangers, and in his long list in Hebrews chapter

11 of illustrious witnesses of

Jehovah, Paul does not overlook Abraham. It is Paul who points out that Abraham's two women, Sarah and Hagar, figured in a symbolic drama that

involved

Jehovah's

two

covenants.

( Ga

4: 22-31 ; Heb 1 1 : 8 ) The Bible writer James adds that Abraham backed up his faith by righteous works and, therefore, was known as "Jehovah's friend. "-Jas 2 : 21-23. Archaeological discoveries have also confirmed matters related in the Biblical history of Abraham: The geographic locations of many places and cus­ toms of that period of time, such as the purchase of the field from the Hittites, the choice of Eliezer as heir, and the treatment of Hagar.

ABRAM . ABRONAH

See ABRAHAM. ( Abro/nah ). The site of one of the

34, 3 5 .

ABSALOM

( Ab/sa·lom ) [ Father [that i s , God ] Is

Peace]. The third of six sons born to David at Hebron. His mother was Maacah the daughter of Talmai the king of Geshur. ( 2Sa 3 : 3-5 ) Absalom fathered three sons and one daughter. ( 2Sa 14:27) He is evidently called Abishalom at 1 Kings 15 : 2 , 10. -See 2Ch 11 : 20, 21 . Physical beauty ran strong in Absalom's fami­ ly. He was nationally praised for his outstanding beauty ; his luxuriant growth of hair, doubtless made heavier by the use of oil or ointments, weighed some 200 shekels ( 2 . 3 kg ; 5 I b ) when annually cut. His sister Tamar was also beautiful, and his daughter, named for her aunt, was "most beautiful in appearance. " ( 2Sa

14 : 25- 27 ;

13 : 1 )

Rather than being of benefit, however, this beauty contributed to some ugly events that caused im­ mense grief to Absalom's father, David, as well as to others, and produced great turmoil for the nation. Murder of Amnon.

The beauty of Absalom's

sister Tamar caused his older half brother Amnon to become infatuated with her. Feigning illness, Arnnon contrived to have Tamar sent to his quar­ ters to cook for him, and then he forcibly violated her. Amnon's erotic love turned to contemptuous hate and he had Tamar put out into the street. Ripping apart her striped gown that had distin­ guished her as a virgin daughter of the king, and with ashes on her head, Tamar was met by Absa­ lom. He quickly sized up the situation and voiced immediate suspicion of Amnon, indicating a prior alertness to his half brother's passionate desire. Absalom instructed his sister to raise no accusa­ tion, however, and took her into his home to reside.-2Sa 13 : 1 -20. According

to

John

Kitto,

Absalom's

taking

charge of Tamar, rather than her father's doing so, was in harmony with the Eastern custom, where­ by, in a polygamous family, children of the same mother are the more closely knit together and the daughters "come under the special care and pro­ tection of their brother, who, . . . in all that affects their safety and honor, is more looked to than the father himself. " (Daily Bible Illustrations, Samuel, Saul, and David, 1857, p. 384 ) Much earlier, it was Levi and Simeon, two of Dinah's full brothers, who took it upon themselves to avenge their sister's dishonor.- Ge 34:25.

encampments of the Israelites on their wilderness

Hearing of his daughter's humiliation, David

trek from Egypt. It is listed between Jotbathah

reacted with great anger but, perhaps due to the

l

33

ABSALOM

fact that no direct or formal accusation was made

roding influence of ambition. Absalom might have

with the support of evidence or witnesses, took no

viewed himself as destined for the throne because

judicial action against the offender. ( De

of being descended from royalty on both sides of

19: 15 )

Absalom may have preferred not to have an issue

the family. Since Chileab ( Daniel ), who was sec­

made of Amnon's violation of the Levitical law ( Le

ond in line of David's sons, is not mentioned after

1 8 : 9 ; 20 : 1 7), to avoid unsavory publicity for his

the account of his birth, it is also possible that he

family and name, but he, nevertheless, nursed a

had died, thereby leaving Absalom as David's

murderous hatred for Amnon while outwardly

oldest surviving son. ( 2Sa 3 : 3 ; l Ch 3 : 1 ) Neverthe­

controlling himself until the propitious moment

less, God's promise to David of a future "seed"

for exacting vengeance in his own way. ( Compare

to inherit the throne was given

Pr 26: 24-26 ; Le 1 9 : 17 . ) From this point forward

birth, and hence he should have known that he

his life is a study in perfidy, occupying the major

was not Jehovah's choice for the kingship. ( 2 Sa

after

Absalom's

part of six chapters of Second Samuel . - 2Sa 1 3 :

7 : 12 ) At any rate, once restored to royal rank,

21, 22.

Absalom began an underhanded political cam­

Two years passed. Sheepshearing time came, a

paign. With consummate skill he feigned great

festive occasion, and Absalom arranged a feast at

concern for the public welfare and presented him­

Baal-hawr about 22 km ( 14 mi ) NNE of Jerusalem,

self as a man of the people. He carefully insinuated

inviting the king's sons and David himself. When

to the people, particularly those of the tribes out­

his father begged off from attending, Absalom

side Judah, that the king's court was lacking in

pressed him to agree to send Amnon, his first­

interest in their problems and was greatly in

born, in his stead. ( Pr 10: 18) At the feast, when

need of a warmhearted man like Absalom.-2Sa

Arnnon was in "a merry mood with wine," Absa­

1 5 : 1 -6.

lom ordered his servants to slay him. The oth­

The phrase "at the end of forty years" found at

er sons headed back to Jerusalem, and Absa­

2 Samuel 15 : 7 is uncertain in its application, and

lom went into exile with his Syrian grandfather in

in the Greek

Septuagint

the kingdom of Geshur to the E of the Sea of

iac

and Latin

Galilee. ( 2 Sa 1 3 : 23-38) The "sword" foretold by

"four years . " But it is not likely that Absalom

Peshitta,

( Lagardian edition ), Syr­

Vulgate

it is rendered as

David's

would wait a total of six years to fulfill a vow, if

"house" and would continue there for the rest of

the "four years" were viewed as counting from the

his life. -2Sa 1 2 : 10.

time of his complete reinstatement. ( 2Sa 1 4 : 2 8 )

the prophet Nathan had

now

entered

years'

Since a three-year famine, a war with the Philis­

time had eased the pain of the loss of his firstborn,

tines, and Adonijah's attempt at the throne all

Restoration

to

Favor.

When

three

David felt paternal longing for Absalom. Joab, reading his royal uncle's thoughts, by means of stratagem opened the way for David to extend a probationary pardon allowing Absalom to be re­ patriated but without the right to appear in his father's court. ( 2Sa 1 3 : 39 ; 14: 1-24) Absalom en­ dured this ostracized status for two years and then began maneuvering for full pardon. When Joab, as an official of the king's court, refused to

took place during David's reign but after the events now considered, it is evident that the writ­ er's starting point of "forty years" would have to have begun considerably prior to the begirming of David's 40-year reign,

and

perhaps

means

40 years from his first anointing by Samuel. This would

then allow for

Absalom's

being

still

a

"young man" at this point ( 2 Sa 1 8 : 5 ), since he was born sometime between 1077 and 1070 B . c . E .

visit him, Absalom peremptorily had Joab's barley

Absalom, feeling satisfied that h e h a d built up a

field burned and, when the indignant Joab came,

strong following throughout the realm, obtained

told him he wanted a final decision by the king

permission from his father by means of a pretext

and said, "If there is any error in me, he must then

to go to Hebron, the original capital of Judah.

put me to death. " When Joab relayed the message,

From there he quickly organized a full-scale con­

David received his son, who thereupon fell on the

spiracy for the throne, including a nationwide web

ground in symbol of complete submission, and

of spies to proclaim his kingship. After having

the king gave him the kiss of full pardon. -2Sa

invoked God's blessing on his rule by offeri ng sacrifices, he obtained the support of his father's

14: 28-33.

Treasonous Activity.

Any natural or filial af­

fection that Absalom had for David, however, had

most respected counselor, Ahithophel. Many now swung to Absalom's side.-2Sa 1 5 : 7- 1 2 .

apparently vanished during the five years of sep-

Faced with a major crisis and anticipating a

aration from his father. Three years of association

large-scale attack, David chose to evacuate the

wi th pagan royalty may have cultivated the cor-

palace along with all his household, although he

--

- - --

ABSALOM

had the loyal support of a large body of faithful men, including the principal priests, Abiathar and Zadok. These two he sent back to Jerusalem to serve as liaison agents. While ascending the Mount of Olives, barefoot, head covered, and weeping, David was met by Hushai, the king's "companion," whom he likewise dispatched to Je­ rusalem to frustrate Ahithophel's counsel. ( 2Sa 15: 13-37) Beset by opportunists, one seeking fa­ vor, another filled with partisan spirit and venting stored-up hatred, David stands in sharp contrast to Absalom by his quiet submission and refusal to render evil for evil. Rejecting his nephew Abishai's plea for permission to cross over and 'take off the head' of the stone-throwing, cursing Shimei, Da­ vid reasoned: " Here my own son, who has come forth out of my own inward parts, is looking for my soul; and how much more now a Benjaminite! Let him alone that he may call down evil, for Jehovah has said so to him! Perhaps Jehovah will see with his eye, and Jehovah will actually restore to me goodness instead of his malediction this day. "-2Sa 16: 1-14. Occupying Jerusalem and the palace, Absalom accepted Hushai's apparent defection to his side after first making a sarcastic reference to Hushai's being the faithful "companion" of David. Then, acting on Ahithophel's counsel, Absalom publicly had relations with his father's concubines as proof of the complete break between himself and David and of his unrelenting determination to maintain control of the throne. ( 2Sa 16: 15-23) In this way the latter part of Nathan's inspired prophecy saw fulfillment.-2Sa 12: 1 1 . Ahithophel now urged Absalom to charge him with authority to lead a force against David that very night so as to administer the deathblow before David's forces could get organized. Pleased, Absalom still thought it wise to hear Hushai's opinion. Realizing David's need for time, Hushai painted a vivid picture, possibly designed to play on any lack of genuine courage in Absalom ( who, till now, had displayed more arrogance and crafti­ ness than manly valor), as well as to appeal to Absalom's vanity. Hushai recommended the tak­ ing of time first to build up an overwhelming force of men to be then commanded by Absalom him­ self. By Jehovah's direction, Hushai's counsel was accepted. Ahithophel, evidently realizing that Ab­ salom's revolt would fail, committed suicide.-2Sa 17: 1 -14, 23. As a precautionary measure, Hushai sent word to David of Ahithophel's counsel, and despite Ab­ salom's efforts to catch the clandestine couriers, David received the warning and crossed over the

34

Jordan and went up into the hills of Gilead to Mahanaim ( where Ish-bosheth had had his capi­ tal ). Here he was received with expressions of generosity and kindness. Preparing for the con­ flict, David organized his expanding forces into three divisions under Joab, Abishai, and Ittai the Gittite. Urged to remain in the city, as his pres­ ence would be of more value there, David submit­ ted and again displayed an amazing lack of rancor toward Absalom by publicly requesting his three captains to "deal gently for my sake with the young man Absalom. "-2Sa 17: 15-18:5. Decisive Battle and Death. Absalom's new­ ly formed forces were administered a crushing defeat by David's experienced fighters. The battle reached into the forest of Ephraim. Absalom, rid­ ing away on his royal mule, passed under the low branches of a large tree and apparently got his head enmeshed in the fork of a branch so that he was left suspended in the air. The man who re­ ported to Joab that he had seen him said he would not have disobeyed David's request by slaying Absalom for "a thousand pieces of silver [if shek­ els, c. $2 ,200 ]," but Joab felt no such restraint and drove three shafts into Absalom's heart, af­ ter which ten of his men joined their captain in sharing the responsibility for Absalom's death. Absalom's body was thereafter thrown into a hol­ low and covered with a mound of stones as un­ worthy of burial.-2Sa 18:6-17; compare Jos 7:26 ; 8 : 29. When messengers reached David in Mahanaim, his first concern was for his son. Learning of Absalom's death, David paced the floor of the roof chamber, crying: "My son Absalom, my son, my son Absalom! 0 that I might have died, I myself, instead of you, Absalom my son, my son! " ( 2Sa 18: 24-33 ) Only Joab's blunt, straightforward speech and reasoning brought David out of his great grief due to the tragic course and end of this physically attractive and resourceful young man, whose driving ambition led him to fight against God's anointed, thus bringing himself to ruin. -2Sa 19 : 1-8; compare Pr 24: 2 1 , 22. Psalm 3 was written by David at the time of Absalom's revolt, according to the superscription that heads the psalm. Absalom's Monument. A pillar had been erected by Absalom in "the Low Plain of the King," also called "the Low Plain of Shaveh," near Jerusa­ lem. ( 2Sa 18: 18; Ge 14: 17 ) He had erected it be­ cause of having no sons to keep his name alive after his death. It thus appears that his three sons mentioned at 2 Samuel 14: 27 had died when young. Absalom was not buried at the place of his

35

monument but was left in a hollow in the forest of Ephraim.-2Sa 18:6, 17. There is a pillar cut out of the rock in the Kidron Valley that has been called the Tomb of Absalom, but its architecture indicates it is from the Greco­ Roman period, perhaps of the time of Herod. So there is no basis for associating the name of Absa­ lom with it. ABUSIVE SPEECH . The original Greek word bla·sphe·mi'a and the verb bla·sphe·me'o basical­ ly indicate defamatory, calumnious, abusive lan­ guage. As noted under the heading BLASPHEMY, the Greek word bla·sphe·mi'a has a broader meaning than the present English word "blasphemy." In English, only when such speech is directed against God, not against his creatures, is it properly termed "blasphemy." ( Mt 12 : 31 ) Concerning this, The Popular and Critical Bible Encyclopcedia and Scriptural Dictionary says : "Our English transla­ tors [that is, primarily those of the KJ] have not adhered to the right use of the term. They employ it with the same latitude as the Greek; but it is generally easy to perceive, from the connection and subject of a passage, whether blasphemy, properly so called, be meant, or only defamation. " -Edited by S . Fallows, 19 i 2, Vol. I , p. 291 . Thus, while the King James Version uses "blas­ phemy" and "blasphemed" in Acts 18:6, Colossians 3 : 8, 1 Timothy 6: 1 , and Titus 2:5, later transla­ tions say "slander," "abusive talk [ or "speech"]," "reviled," "defamed," "abused," "spoken of abusive­ ly," and similar expressions. (See RS, AT, NW, and others. ) However, the King James Version does recognize this distinction elsewhere in the Greek Scriptures. As the following texts and surrounding vers­ es show, at the time of his impalement abusive speech was directed against Christ by passersby, who said, "Bah! You would-be thrower-down of the temple and builder of it in three days' time, save yourself by coming down off the torture stake. " Similar words came from one of the evildo­ ers alongside. (Mr 15 : 29, 30; Mt 27: 39, 40 ; Lu 23:39 ) Paul and his fellow Christians were objects of such speech by those who falsely construed their purpose, message, and Christian conscience ( Ac 18:6; Ro 3 : 8 ; 14: 16; 1Co 10:30; I Pe 4:4), yet they themselves were to "speak injuriously of no one, " and by their conduct gave no true grounds for their work or message to be spoken of abusive­ ly. ( Eph 4 : 31 ; Col 3 : 8 ; ITi 6 : 1 ; Tit 2 : 5 ; 3 : 2 ; com­ pare 2Pe 2 : 2. ) Even the angels "do not bring . . . an accusation in abusive terms, not doing so out of respect for Jehovah. " (2Pe 2 : 11 ) But such talk can be expected from those who indulge in loose con-

ABYSS

duct, those who are proud and mentally diseased over questionings and debates, and those who disregard or disrespect God's appointments.-lTi 6:4; 2Pe 2 : 10- 12; Jude 8- 10. The word ga·dhaph is used in a corresponding way in the Hebrew Scriptures. Evidently original­ ly referring to inflicting violent physical injury, it is used figuratively to mean "speak abusively," that is, harm with reproachful words. ( Nu 15:30 ; 2Ki 19 : 6 ; Eze 20: 27) The Hebrew word na·qa v ', basically meaning "pierce; bore" ( 2Ki 12:9; 2Ki 18: 21 ), has the sense of blaspheming in the ac­ count where the son of an Israelite woman was said to have 'abused' Jehovah's name. (Le 24: 1 1 , 16) In these cases harsh or coarse speech is indicated, directed against either Jehovah God himself or his people. A study of the context makes clear the nature of such "abusive speech. " -See EXECRATION ; MALEDICTION ; REVILING. I

ABYSS. According to Parkhurst's Greek and English Lexicon to the New Testamen t ( London, 1845, p. 2 ), the Greek a 'bys·sos means "very or exceedingly deep. " According to Liddell and Scott's Greek-English Lexicon ( Oxford, 1968, p. 4), it means "unfathomable, boundless." The Greek Septuagin t uses it regularly to translate the He­ brew tehohm' ( watery deep), as at Genesis 1 : 2 ; 7 : 11 . A 'bys-sos occurs nine times i n the Christian Greek Scriptures, seven of them being in the book of Revelation. It is from "the abyss" that the sym­ bolic locusts come forth under the headship of their king, Abaddon or Apollyon, lithe angel of the abyss." (Re 9: 1-3, 1 1 ) "The wild beast" that makes war against the "two witnesses" of God and kills them is also spoken of as coming flout of the abyss. " (Re 11 : 3 , 7 ) Revelation 20: 1-3 describes the future casting of Satan into the abyss for a thousand years; something that a legion of de­ mons urged Jesus not to do to them on a certain occasion.-Lu 8:31. Scriptural Significance. It is noteworthy that the Greek Septuagin t does not use a 'bys-sos to translate the Hebrew she'ohl', and in view of the fact that spirit creatures are cast into it, it cannot properly be limited in meaning to Sheol or Hades, inasmuch as these two words clearly refer to the common earthly grave of mankind. ( Job 17: 13-16 ; see HADES; SHEOL. ) It does not refer to "the lake of fire," since it is after Satan's release from the abyss that he is thereupon hurled into the lake of fire. (Re 20: 1 -3, 7- 10) Paul's statement at Romans 10: 7, in which he speaks of Christ as being in the abyss, also precludes such possibility and shows

ACACIA

36

as well that the abyss is not the same as Tartarus.

seyaJ and Acacia tortiJis far better

-See TARTARUS.

plant life in the area. These acacia trees are still

Romans 10 : 6 , 7 aids in clearing up the meaning of "the abyss" in stating: "But the righteousness resulting from faith speaks in this manner : ' Do not say in your heart, "Who will ascend into heav­

than any other

common in the Negeb and the Sinai area and some are found along the Jordan Valley S of the Sea of Galilee, but not in northern Palestine. It is interesting to note that the word

seyaJ

is

en?" that is , to bring Christ down; or, "Who will

Arabic for "torrent," and the habitat of the acacia

descend into the abyss?" that is, to bring Christ up

is in the torrent valleys, or wadis, down which

( Compare De 30:11 - 13. ) It is

water rushes during the rainy season and which

evident that "the abyss" here refers to the place in

are found in the otherwise arid, desert regions

which Christ Jesus spent part of three days and

around the Dead Sea area and southward into

from which place his Father resurrected him.

the Arabian Desert and the Sinai Peninsula. Thus

from the dead. ' "

( Compare Ps 71 : 19, 20; Mt 1 2 : 40. ) Revelation 20:7

Joel's prophecy ( 3 : 1 8 ) says: "Out of the house of

refers to the abyss as a "prison, " and the confine­

Jehovah there will go forth a spring, and it must

ment of absolute restraint resulting from death in

irrigate the torrent valley of the Acacia Trees,"

the case of Jesus certainly harmonizes with this.

which is clearly a place that would otherwise

-Compare Ac 2:24; 2Sa 2 2:5 , 6; Job 38:16, 1 7 ; Ps

usually be dry. (See SHITTIM. ) At Isaiah 41 : 19 Jeho­

9: 1 3 ; 107 : 18; 116:3.

vah says: "In the wilderness I shall set the cedar

Concerning the root meaning "unfathomable" as characteristic of "the abyss," it is of interest to note the statement in Hastings'

gion and Ethics

EncycJopcedia of Reli­

( 1913, Vol. I , p. 54), which, in

commenting on Romans 10 : 6 , 7, says: "The im­

tree, the acacia and the myrtle and the oil tree. " Here three trees that normally grow in rich and fertile soils are prophesied to become the compan­ ions of the desert-loving acacia, as a result of divine provision for irrigation.-Isa 41 : 17, 18.

pression conveyed by St. Paul's language is of the

The acacia has many long thorns extending

vastness of that realm, as of one that we should

out from the widely spreading branches. These

vainly attempt to explore . " Paul contrasts the inac­

branches

cessibility of "heaven" and of the "abyss" with the

neighboring acacias to form tangled thickets ; this

accessibility of righteousness by faith. The use of

fact doubtless explains why the plural form

the related word

by Paul at Romans

tim ' is almost always used in the Bible record. The

of

acacia may grow to heights of 6 to 8 m ( 20 to

ba thos made

1 1 :33 illustrates this: "0 the depth

[ba'thos]

usually

interlace

with

those

of the

shit­

God's riches and wisdom and knowledge! How

26 ft ), but often is bushlike in appearance. It has

unsearchable his judgments are and

past tracing

soft, feathery leaves and is covered with pleasing­

his ways are ! " (See also l Co 2 : 10; Eph 3 : 18,

ly fragrant yellow blossoms, producing curved

out

19. ) So, in harmony with Romans 10:6, 7, the place

tapering pods as its fruit. The rough, black bark

that is represented by "the abyss" would also

covers a very hard, fine-grained, heavy wood that

evidently imply being out of the reach of anyone

is immune to insect attack. These characteristics

but God or his appointed angel with "the key of the abyss. " ( Re 20 : 1 ) Liddell and Scott's Greek­

and its availability in the desert made the acacia especially well suited as a building material for the

EngJish Lexicon

( p . 4 ) gives as one of the mean­

tabernacle and its furnishings. It was employed to

ings of the word

a'bys·sos "the

infinite void . "

The plural form o f the Hebrew word

metsohJah '

( or metsu .]ah ' ) is translated "large abyss" in Psalm 88 : 6 and literally means "abysses, " or "depths. " ( Compare Zec 1 0 : 11 . ) I t i s related t o

tsu·Jah ',

meaning "watery deep. "-Isa 44:27.

ACACIA

[ Heb . ,

shit·tah ' ].

A tree that grew well

in the wilderness, where the Israelites sojourned. It was capable of providing rather large boards ( nearly 4 . 5 m; 15 ft long, according to Ex 3 6 : 20, 2 1 ), which the Israelites used in constructing the portable tabernacle. Since this tree practically dis­ appears from the Bible record after the entry into the Promised Land, this may also indicate a tree not commonly found throughout Palestine. Such description fits the acacia types known as

Acacia

construct the ark of the covenant ( Ex 2 5 : 10; 37:1 ) , the table o f showbread ( Ex 2 5 : 2 3 ; 37 : 1 0 ) , altars ( Ex 27: 1 ; 37:2 5 ; 38:1 ), poles for carrying these items ( Ex 2 5 : 13, 2 8 ; 27 : 6 ; 30:5 ; 37:4, 15, 28; 38:6), pillars for the curtain and screen ( Ex 26 : 3 2, 37 ; 36:36), and the panel frames ( Ex 26 : 1 5 ; 36 : 20 ) and their connecting bars ( Ex 26 : 2 6 ; 3 6 : 31 ) . Acacia i s still prized for cabinetwork because of its fine grain, rich orange-brown color, and dura­ bility. The ancient Egyptians clamped their mum­ my coffins shut with acacia and used it in the construction of their boats. Certain types of the tree also produce the gum arabic of commerce.

ACCAD

( Ac'cad ). One of the four cities founded

by Nimrod that formed "the beginning of his king­ dom . " ( Ge 10: 10) Accad ( Akkad ) has been identi-

37

Acacia trees, common in the Sinai area, provided wood for the tabernacle

fied with the ancient city of Agade. The precise location is uncertain. The name Akkad is also applied to the whole northern region of what later was called Babylo­ nia. Akkad appears to have received prominence as the principal or royal city of that region under Sargon I ( not the Sargon of Isa 20: 1 ). The southern region of Mesopotamia was known as Sumer. Bab­ ylonia grew out of these two areas, and in Babylo­ nian texts her rulers were still called "king of Akkad" down to the time of Babylon's fall in 539 B.C.E. On the Cyrus Cylinder, Babylon's con­ queror takes over the title "King of Babylon, king of Sumer and Akkad. " The Akkadians appear to have surpassed the Sumerians in fine sculpture and intricate seal cut­ ting. The name Akkadian ( Accadian ) today is used to describe the ancient Assyrian and Babylonian languages.

ACCEPTABLE TIME .

At 2 Corinthians 6 : 2 the apostle Paul quotes from the prophecy of Isa­ iah 49 : 8, which says: "This is what Jehovah has said: 'In a time of goodwill I have answered you, and in a day of salvation I have helped you; and I kept safeguarding you that I might give you as a covenant for the people, to rehabilitate the land, to bring about the repossessing of the desolated he­ reditary possessions." In its original setting this statement was evidently made to Isaiah as repre­ senting or personifying the nation of Israel. ( lsa 49 : 3 ) It was clearly a restoration prophecy and, hence, had its first fulfillment at the time of the liberation of Israel from Babylon when the call went to the Israelite prisoners, "Come out!" They thereafter returned to their homeland and reha­ bilitated the desolated land.-Isa 49:9.

ACCEPTABLE TIME

However, the words "that I might give you as a covenant for the people" in verse 8 of this chapter and the preceding statement in verse 6 that this "servant" of Jehovah would be given as "a light of the nations, that [ God's) salvation may come to be to the extremity of the earth," definitely mark the prophecy as Messianic and as therefore applying to Christ Jesus as God's "servant. " ( Com­ pare Isa 42: 1 -4, 6, 7 with Mt 1 2 : 18-21 . ) Since the "time of goodwill" was a time when Jehovah would 'answer' and 'help' his servant, it must apply to Jesus' earthly life when he "offered up suppli­ cations and also petitions to the One who was able to save him out of death, with strong outcries and tears, and he was favorably heard for his godly fear." ( Heb 5 : 7-9 ; compare Joh 12: 27, 28; 17: 1-5 ; Lu 22:41 -44; 23 :46. ) It was, therefore, "a day of sal­ vation" for God's own Son, during which period of opportunity he demonstrated perfection of integ­ rity and, as a result, "became responsible for ever­ lasting salvation to all those obeying him."-Heb 5 :9. Additionally, Paul's quotation from this prophe­ cy indicates a still further application to those Christians whom Paul urges "not to accept the undeserved kindness of God and miss its purpose," and to whom he says ( after quoting Isa 49: 8 ) : "Look! Now is the especially acceptable time. Look! Now is the day of salvation. " ( 2Co 6 : 1, 2) Such Christians had become the spiritual "Israel of God" from Pentecost of 33 C.E. forward ( Ga 6 : 16 ), but there was a need for them to prove worthy of God's undeserved kindness, so that the "accept­ able time" might indeed prove to be "a day of salvation" for them. The fact that the prophecy in its original appli­ cation was one of restoration would likewise indi­ cate an application to a time of release from spiri­ tual captivity and of restoration to full favor with God.-Compare Ps 69 : 13-18. To natural Jews who failed to appreciate the favorableness of the time and the opportunity that was theirs for entry into 'spiritual Israel,' Paul announced that he was turning to the non-Jewish nations, and he quoted Isaiah 49 : 6 in support, saying: "In fact, Jehovah has laid commandment upon us in these words, 'I have appointed you as a light of nations, for you to be a salvation to the extremity of the earth.' '' ( Ac 13:47 ) Since "time" and "day" are terms indicating temporariness, they imply urgency and the need to use wisely an

ACCIDENT, ACCIDENTAL

opportune period or season of favor before its end comes bringing the withdrawal of divine mercy and offer of salvation.-Ro 13: 1 1 - 1 3 ; ITh 5 : 6- 11 ; Eph 5 : 15 -20.

ACCIDENT ACCIDENTAL . Unforeseen oc­ currences that result from ignorance, careless­ ness, or unavoidable events and that cause loss or injury are commonly called accidents. The Hebrew word 'a·sohd evidently literally means "a healing" and is used as a euphemism for "a fatal accident. " ( Compare Ge 42:4, ftn. ) The Hebrew miq·reh', which is derived from a root that means "meet; befall" ( Ge 44: 29 ; De 2 5 : 18), is rendered not only "accident" ( 1 Sa 6 : 9 ) but also "eventuality" ( Ec 2: 14, 15 ; 3: 19 ) and "by chance. "-Ru 2 : 3. I

Jacob feared that a fatal accident might befall his beloved son Bel1iamin if allowed to go to Egypt with his brothers. ( Ge 42: 4, 38 ) The Philistines returned the ark of Jehovah to prove whether the plague of piles they suffered really was from Jeho­ vah or was just "an accident. " ( 1Sa 6 : 9 ) Solomon recognized that anyone may become a victim of unforeseen occurrence. -Ec 9 : 1 1 . The Mosaic Law differentiated between a n acci­ dent that proved fatal and one that was not. ( Ex 21 : 22-25 ) It also distinguished between killing in­ tentionally and unintentionally. For deliberate Acco ( later known as Ptolemais) . The apostle Paul stopped a t this seaport city on his final trip to Jerusalem

38

murder, capital punishment was mandatory; for those guilty of accidental homicide, cities of refuge were set up. ( Nu 35: 11-25, 31 ; see CITIES OF REF­ UGE. ) The law applied equally to native Israelite and alien resident, and instructions for the neces­ sary sacrifices to atone for accidental or uninten­ tional sins were provided. -Le 4: 1-35; 5 : 14-19; Nu 1 5 : 22-29.

ACCO

(Ac'co). A seaport city also known as Accho, Acre, and Ptolemais. It is located at the northern point of the yawning crescent-shaped Bay of Acco ( or Bay of Haifa [ Mifraz Hefa ] ). This bay is formed by the cape of Mount Carmel jutting out into the Mediterranean Sea about 13 krn (8 mi ) to the S. In the period of the Judges, the Canaanite city was situated on a mound identified with Tell el­ Fukhkhar ( Tel 'Akko ), about 1 km ( 0. 6 mi ) from the bay and 1 . 8 km ( 1 mi ) E of the present-day Old City walls. During the Persian period, from the sixth century B.c.E. , the city spread westward to include the peninsula that forms the N end of the Bay of Haifa. The port of the city was located there from the Persian period onward. By the time of the Christian Era, the location of Acco had come to include the peninsula and is included in the area of modern 'Akko. Situated about 39 km ( 24 mi ) S of Tyre, Acco was the most important seaport on the harbor-shy Palestinian coast until Herod the Great ran sea­ walls out from the shore to produce an artificial

I

39

port a t Caesarea. Acco was inferior t o the Phoeni­ cian ports to the N and provided but poor shelter from the sea winds. However, it was strategically located close to the approach to the rich Plain of Jezreel ( Esdraelon), and several commercial trade routes connected the port with Galilee, the Jordan Valley, and other points to the east. Timber, artis­ tic commodities, and grain were exported through Acco. Acco pertained to the territorial division as­ signed to Asher in the Promised Land, but Asher failed to drive out the Canaanites who were then living there. ( Jg 1 : 3 1 , 3 2 ) Mentioned only once in the Hebrew Scriptures, the city is more frequently referred to in non-Biblical records. Its name occurs several times in the Amarna Tablets. Other rec­ ords show that it was subjugated by the Assyrian kings Sennacherib and Ashurbanipal. The city is mentioned in the Apocrypha as a center of oppo­ sition during the rule of the Maccabees. ( 1 Macca­ bees 5 : 15, 22, 5 5 ; 12:45-48; 13: 12 ) By then its name had been changed to Ptolemais, a name originated by Ptolemy II Philadelphus of Egypt. Under Emperor Claudius, the city of Ptolemais ( Acco ) became a Roman colony, and in apostolic times there was a group of Christians there. When returning from his third missionary tour, Paul put in at Acco ( then known as Ptolemais ) and spent the day visiting the brothers there before travel­ ing on to Caesarea and Jerusalem.-Ac 21 : 7. Today 'Akko is eclipsed in importance by the modern city of Haifa, located directly across the bay.

ACCUSATION.

A charge of wrongdoing. The one accused is called to account. One Hebrew word rendered "accusation" ( sit­ nah ' ) comes from the root verb sa·tan ', meaning

"resist. " ( Ezr 4 : 6 ; compare Zec 3 : 1 . ) The most common Greek word for "accuse" is ka·tego·re'o, carrying the idea of 'speaking against' someone, usually in a judicial or legal sense. ( Mr 3 : 2 ; Lu 6 : 7 ) At Luke 1 6 : 1 the Greek word di·a·bal'lo, rendered 'accuse,' may also be translated 'slander.' ( Int) It is related to di·a 'bo·los ( slanderer), root of the word "Devil. " The Greek term translated 'accuse falsely' in Luke 3: 14 ( sy-kophan-te'o) is rendered 'extort by false accusation' in Luke 19 : 8. It literally means "take by fig-showing. " Of the various explanations of the origin of this word, one is that in ancient Athens the exporting of figs from the province was prohibited. One who denounced others, ac­ cusing them of attempting to export figs, was termed a "fig-shower. " The term came to desig-

ACCUSATION

nate a malignant informer, a person who accused others out of a love of gain, a false accuser, a blackmailer. One might be called to account and charged with wrong, yet be entirely innocent, blameless, the victim of a false accuser. Hebrew law, there­ fore, set forth the responsibility each one in the nation had to bring to account wrongdoers, and at the same time it adequately provided protection for the accused. A few examples from the Mosaic Law will serve to illustrate these principles. If a person had any knowledge respecting a crime, he had to bring the accusation before the proper authorities. ( Le 5 : 1 ; 24: 1 1 - 14 ) The authorities, in turn, were to "search and investigate and inquire thoroughly" into the accusations to determine their validity before administering punishment. ( De 1 3 : 12-14) An observer was not to hide wrong­ doing or fail to bring an accusation against a guilty one, even if the person was a close relative like a brother, son, daughter, or marriage mate. ( De 13:6-8; 21 : 18-20; Zec 13 : 3 ) The testimony of two or three witnesses was required, and not just the word of a single accuser.-Nu 35 : 30 ; De 17: 6 ; 19 : 15 ; Joh 8: 17; Heb 10: 28. The Law of Moses also gave the accused the right to face his accuser before a court of justice in order that the truth of the charges might be fully established. ( De 19 : 16- 19 ; 25 : 1 ) A classic instance of this was the case of the two prostitutes who, with a baby, appeared before wise King Solomon for him to decide which one was its mother.-1Ki 3 : 16-27. Roman law likewise required the accusers to appear in court. So, when the Roman citizen Paul stood trial before governors Felix and Festus, his accusers were ordered to appear also. ( Ac 22: 30 ; 23: 30, 35; 24: 2, 8 , 1 3 , 1 9 ; 2 5 : 5, 1 1 , 1 6 , 1 8 ) Paul's appearance before Caesar in Rome, however, was on his own appeal that he might win an acquittal, and not that he might accuse his own nation. ( Ac 28: 19 ) Not Paul, not even Jesus, but Moses, by his conduct and by what he wrote, accused the Jew­ ish nation of wrongdoing.-Joh 5 :45. Three Hebrews were accused of not worshiping Nebuchadnezzar's gold image and were pitched into the furnace. The accusation was true, though based on a bad law. However, they were innocent of wrongdoing, and upon appeal to the Supreme Court of Heaven they were cleared of any guilt by Jehovah. ( Da 3 : 8-2 5 ) Similarly, Daniel was deliv­ ered from death, and the accusers who hatched the plot against him were thrown to the lions. ( Da 6 : 24 ) The word "accused" in these two accounts translates an Aramaic phrase literally meaning

ACHAIA

"had eaten the pieces [ of flesh torn from the body ]," and it may also be rendered "slandered. " ( Da 3 : 8; 6 : 24 ; ftns ) Opposers o f the reconstruction of the temple in Jerusalem wrote a letter accusing the builders of wrongdoing, and a ban against the work based on the false accusation was imposed, a ban that was later proved unlawful. ( Ezr 4 : 6-6: 1 2 ) I n like manner the religious leaders sought out ways of accusing Jesus as a lawbreaker. ( Mt 12: 10; Lu 6 : 7 ) They finally succeeded in having the inno­ cent man arrested, and at the trial they were most vehement in their false accusation of the Righ­ teous One, Jesus. ( Mt 27 : 12 ; Mr 1 5 : 3 ; Lu 23 : 2, 10; Joh 18:29) These examples show how wrong it is to accuse others falsely, especially if the accusers are in positions of authority.-Lu 3 : 14 ; 19 :8. In the Christian congregation, overseers and ministerial servants not only should be innocent of bearing false witness against others but must be free from accusation themselves. ( lTi 3 : 10; Tit 1 : 6 ) Hence, if accusations are brought against an older man, there should be two or three witnesses to back them up. ( Mt 18: 16 ; 2Co 13: 1 ; lTi 5 : 19 ) The whole congregation must be free from accu­ sation ( l Co 1 : 8 ; Col 1 : 2 2 ), though this does not mean they will be free from false accusations, for, indeed, the great Adversary, Satan the Devil, is "the accuser of our brothers . . . who accuses them day and night before our God! "-Re 1 2 : 10.

ACHAIA

(A·cha'ia ). Prior to the Roman con­ quest in 146 B.c.E., Achaia properly referred only to a small region in the Peloponnesus, stretching across the southern coast of the Gulf of Corinth, in a position somewhat similar to that occupied to­ day by the section of the same name. In Homeric poetry Greeks in general are spoken of under the name of Achaians. Due to the prom­ inence of the Achaean League, a confederacy of cities, as the most powerful political body in Greece at the time of its conquest, the Romans thereafter generally spoke of all Greece as Achaia. In 27 B.c.E., when Caesar Augustus reorganized the two provinces of Greece, Macedonia and Acha­ ia, the name Achaia then applied to all the Pelo­ ponnesus and to part of continental Greece. The province of Achaia was under the administration of the Roman Senate and was ruled through a proconsul from its capital, Corinth. ( 2Co 1 : 1 ) Other cities of the province of Achaia mentioned in the Christian Greek Scriptures were Athens and Cen­ chreae. Achaia and its neighboring province to the N, Macedonia, were often linked together in com­ mon usage.-Ac 18: 1 , 18; 19 : 21 ; Ro 15 : 26 ; 16: 1 ; lTh 1 : 7, 8.

40

In the year 15 c.E. , in response to complaints over the severity of taxation, Tiberius placed Achaia and Macedonia under imperial control, to be governed from the province of Moesia. This continued until 44 c.E. when Emperor Claudius restored these provinces to senatorial control, thereby causing a proconsul again to take up gov­ erning powers in Corinth. Due to ignorance of these facts, in the past some critics objected to the Bible's reference to Gallio as the "proconsul of Achaia," before whom Paul was brought. ( Ac 18: 1 2 ) However, the discovery of an inscription at Delphi made it evident that there was indeed a proconsul at Achaia named Gallio at the time described by the historian Luke, writer of Acts. -See GAwo. At Romans 1 5 : 26 the apostle Paul speaks of the generosity of the Christians in the province of Achaia in providing help for their needy brothers in Jerusalem. During Paul's second and third mis­ sionary journeys a considerable part of his time was spent in Achaia, and he expressed strong love for the brothers of that region.-2Co 11 : 10.

ACHAICUS (Acha'i·cus) [ Of (Belonging to) Achaia ]. One of the mature associates of the Co­ rinthian congregation, who, together with Stepha­ nas and Fortunatus, visited Paul while he was at Ephesus.- 1 Co 16 : 17, 18.

41 ACHAN

ACHOR

(A'chan) [ related through a play on

the superscription of Psalm 34 is called Abime­

words to Achar, meaning "Bringer of Ostracism

lech, perhaps a title similar to Pharaoh or Czar.

(1touble )" ] . The son of Carmi of the household of

- l Sa 27 : 2 ; 1 Ki 2 : 39.

Zabdi of the family of Zerah of the tribe of Judah ; also called Achar. - 1 Ch 2 : 7.

TWice when David was in flight from Saul he found refuge in the domain of King Achish. On the

When the Israelites crossed the Jordan, Jehovah

first occasion, when suspected of being an enemy,

explicitly commanded that the firstfruits of the

David feigned insanity, and Achish let him go as a

conquest, the city of Jericho, "must become a

harmless idiot. ( 1 Sa 2 1 : 10- 1 5 ; Ps 34:Sup; 56 :Sup)

thing devoted to destruction; . . . it belongs to

On the second visit David was accompanied by

Jehovah . " Its silver and gold were to be given to

600 warriors and their families, and so Achish

the treasury of Jehovah. (Jos 6 : 17, 19 ) Achan,

assigned them to live in Ziklag. During the year

however, upon finding a costly garment from Shi­

and four months that they were there Achish

nar and a 50-shekel gold bar ( worth some $6,400)

believed that David's band was making raids on

and 200 silver shekels ( $440), secretly buried

Judean towns, whereas David was actually pillag­

them beneath his tent. (Jos 7 : 2 1 ) Actually he had

ing the Geshurites, Girzites, and Amalekites. ( 1 Sa

robbed God! Because of this violation of Jehovah's

27: 1 - 1 2 ) So successful was the deception that

explicit instructions, when the next city, Ai, was

Achish actually made David his personal body­

attacked Jehovah withheld his blessing, and Israel was put to flight. Who was guilty? No one con­ fessed. All Israel was then put on trial. 1tibe by tribe, then family by family of the tribe of Judah, and finally, man by man of the house of Zabdi, they passed before Jehovah until Achan "got to be picked. " ( Jos 7 : 4 - 18 ) Only then did he admit his sin. Execution quickly followed. Achan, his family ( who could hardly have been ignorant of what he had done ), and his livestock were first stoned to death, and then burned with fire, together with all his possessions, in the Valley of Achor, meaning "Ostracism ; 1touble. "-Jos 7 : 19-26.

ACHAR.

See ACHAN.

ACHBOR ( Ach' bor) [Jerboa ; Jumping Rodent ]. 1. The father of Baal-hanan, who is listed as the seventh king of Edom. - Ge 36: 38, 39 ; 1Ch 1 : 49.

guard when the Philistines were organizing an attack on King Saul, and only at the last moment, upon the insistence of the other "axis lords" of the Philistines, were David and his men sent back to Ziklag. ( 1 Sa 28: 2 ; 29: 1 - 1 1 ) When David became king and warred against Gath, Achish apparently was not killed. He lived into Solomon's reign . - 1 Ki 2 : 39-41 ; see GATH.

ACHOR

(A'chor) [ Ostracism; 1touble]. A valley

or low plain forming part of the NE boundary of the tribal territory of Judah. (Jos 15 : 7 ) The val­ ley's name, meaning "Ostracism; 1touble," result­ ed from its being the place where Achan and his household were stoned to death. Achan, by his stealing and hiding some booty from the capture of Jericho, had brought ostracism on the nation of Israel, including defeat at the first attack on Ai. -Jos 7: 5-26.

2. The son of Micaiah and a trusted official of

Some have identified the Valley of Achor with

King Josiah's court. ( 2Ki 2 2 : 1 2 ) He is called "Ab­

the Wadi el Qilt, a ravinelike torrent valley that

don the son of Micah" at 2 Chronicles 34 : 20. Upon

passes near Jericho. However, the description of

learning of Jehovah's burning rage expressed in

its position as given at Joshua 1 5 : 7 appears to

the ancient book of the Law, only recently discov­

place it more to the S, and the statement at Isaiah

ered, Josiah sent Achbor as one of a committee of five to the prophetess Huldah to learn what should be done. ( 2Ki 2 2 : 8 - 1 4 ) Achbor was the father of Elnathan, a prince of the court of King Jehoiakim and very likely the great-grandfather of King Je­ hoiachin. -Jer 26 : 2 2 ; 36 : 1 2 ; 2Ki 24 :8.

ACHIM

(A'chim) [ possibly from Heb. , mean­ ing "May [Jehovah] Firmly Establish; [Jehovah ] Has Firmly Established " ]. A royal descendant of David through Solomon and an ancestor of Joseph the adoptive father of Jesus. -Mt 1 : 14.

ACHISH

( A'chish ). A Philistine king of Gath who reigned during the time of David and Solo­ mon. He was the son of Maoch or Maacah, and in

6 5 : 10 would indicate a broader, more spacious area. In view of this it is tentatively identified with el Buqei'a ( Biq'at Hureqanya), a barren, low-lying plateau or basin, that stretches N and S across the Wadi Qumran ( Nahal Qumeran ) near the NW cor­ ner of the Dead Sea. Archaeological investigation there has revealed sites of ancient towns or forts as well as systems of dams. At Hosea 2: 15 Jehovah recalls Israel's youth at the time of the Exodus, and in a prophecy of restoration from future captivity, he promises that "the low plain of Achor," once a place of ostracism, will then become "as an entrance to hope . " And, although the area is one of wilderness, in a similar restoration prophecy God foretells that the low

ACHSAH

42

plain of Achor will become "a resting-place for cattle. "-Isa 65 : 10.

(9 mi ) N of Acco at the mouth of the Wadi Qarn (Nahal Keziv ).

ACHSAH (Ach'sah) [Anklet; Bangle]. The daughter of the Judean spy Caleb whom he of­ fered in marriage as a prize to whoever captured the stronghold of Debir in Judah's newly acquired territory. Caleb's nephew Othniel, who evidently became the first judge after Joshua ( Jg 3:9, 10), captured it and, as a reward, married his cousin Achsah. -See OTHNIEL. When Achsah left for her new home, she re­ quested and received from her father an addition­ al choice gift, a section containing the Upper and Lower Gulloth. (Jos 15: 15-19; Jg 1 : 12- 15 ) Achsah may have been the mother of Hathath.-1Ch 4: 13.

ACRE . As used in the Scriptures, "acre" is un­ derstood to denote the measure of land that a span of bulls can plow in a day. The Hebrew word thus rendered ( tse1medh ) literally means "span" ( 1Sa 14: 14, ftn; 1 Ki 19 : 19 ) and is also rendered "couple" (Jg 19 : 3 ), "pair" ( 1Sa 11 :7 ) , and 'team' ( 2Ki 9 : 25 ). Likely the measure of land referred to was some­ what less than 0.4 ha ( 1 acre ). The word jugerum found in the Latin Vulga te, refers to an area of 0.25 ha ( 0. 62 acre).

ACHSHAPH (Ach'shaph ) [Place of Practicing Sorcery ]. A royal city of Canaan whose king re­ sponded to the call of Jabin, king of Hazor, and joined the encampment of kings at the waters of Merom to fight against Israel. (Jos 11 : 1 , 5 ) He was killed in the battle that followed. (Jos 12: 7, 20) The city of Achshaph was later included in the territo­ ry assigned as an inheritance to the tribe of Asher. -Jos 19 : 25. Some scholars propose identifying Achshaph with Tell Kisan ( Tel Kison ), a site about 10 km (6 mi ) SE of Acco ( Acre ). However, others favor Khirbet el-Harbaj (Tel Regev) about 11 km ( 7 mi ) SE of Haifa. ACHZIB (Ach'zib) [ Deceitful Place]. The name of two cities. 1 . A city in the southern part of the Promised Land, in the territory of Judah. ( Jos 15:44 ) It is understood to be the same as "Chezib" ( Ge 38 :5, KJ ), the birthplace of Judah's son Shelah. Joshua 15:33 shows it to be in the hilly country of the Shephelah, and it is tentatively identified with Tell el-Beida ( Horvat Lavnin ) 5 km (3 mi ) WSW of Adullam. Lachish, Moresheth-gath, and Mareshah ( mentioned along with Achzib in Mic 1 : 13- 1 5 ) are all in that area. Cozeba, in 1 Chronicles 4: 22, is generally considered to be the same as Achzib. 2. A Phoenician coastal city in the territory of the tribe of Asher. ( Jos 19 : 29 ) Asher, however, never succeeded in conquering it, nor the more important city of Acco (Acre) to the S, perhaps due to hindering action on the part of the Phoeni­ cian fleet. (Jg 1 : 31 , 32) Sennacherib of Assyria overran it in King Hezekiah's time and mentions it in his annals under the name Akzibi. In Greek and Roman times it was called Ecdippa. It has been identified with ez-Zib (Tel Akhziv), some 14 km

,

ACTS OF APOSTLES . This is the title by which one of the Bible books has been called since the second century c.E. It covers primarily the activity of Peter and Paul, rather than that of all the apostles in general ; and it provides us with a most reliable and comprehensive history of the spectacular beginning and rapid development of the Christian organization, first among the Jews and then among the Samaritans and the Gentile nations. The overriding theme of the entire Bible, Jeho­ vah's Kingdom, dominates the book (Ac 1 : 3 ; 8: 12; 14: 22; 19 :8; 20: 25; 28:31 ), and we are constantly reminded of how the apostles bore "thorough wit­ ness" concerning Christ and that Kingdom and fully accomplished their ministry. ( 2 :40; 5:42; 8:25; 10 :42; 20: 21, 24 ; 23 : 11 ; 26 : 22; 28 : 2 3 ) The book also provides a superb historical background against which to view the inspired letters of the Christian Greek Scriptures. The Writer. The opening words of Acts refer to the Gospel of Luke as "the first account. " And since both accounts are addressed to the same individual, Theophilus, we know that Luke, though not signing his name, was the writer of Acts. (Lu 1 : 3; Ac 1 : 1 ) Both accounts have a similar style and wording. The Muratorian Fragment of the late second century c.E. also attributes the writership to Luke. Ecclesiastical writings of the second century c.E. by Irenaeus of Lyons, Clem­ ent of Alexandria, and Tertullian of Carthage, when quoting from Acts, cite Luke as the writer. When and Where Written. The book covers a period of approximately 28 years, from Jesus' ascension in 33 c.E. to the end of the second year of Paul's imprisonment in Rome about 61 c.E. During this period four Roman emperors ruled in succession: Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero. Since it relates events through the second year of Paul's imprisonment in Rome, it could not have been completed earlier. Had the account been written later, it is reasonable to expect that Luke

ACTS OF APOSTLES

43

would have provided more information about Paul ; if written after the year 64 c.E., mention surely would have been made of Nero's violent persecution that began then; and if written after 70 c.E., as some contend, we would expect to find Jerusalem's destruction recorded. The writer Luke accompanied Paul much of the time during his travels, including the perilous voyage to Rome, which is apparent from his use of the first-person plural pronouns "we," "our," and "us" in Acts 16: 10- 1 7 ; 20: 5-15 ; 21 : 1 - 18 ; 27: 1 -37; 28: 1 - 16. Paul, in his letters written from Rome, mentions that Luke was also there. ( Col 4 : 14; Phm 24) It was, therefore, in Rome that the writing of the book of Acts was completed. As already observed, Luke himself was an eye­ witness to much of what he wrote, and in his travels he contacted fellow Christians who ei­ ther participated in or observed certain events described. For example, John Mark could tell him of Peter's miraculous prison release (Ac 12: 1 2 ), while the events described in chapters 6 and 8 could have been learned from the missionary Phil-

ip. And Paul, of course, as an eyewitness, was able to supply many details of events that happened when Luke was not with him. Authenticity. The accuracy of the book of Acts has been verified over the years by a number of archaeological discoveries. For example, Acts 1 3 : 7 says that Sergius Paulus was the proconsul of Cyprus. Now it is known that shortly before Paul visited Cyprus it was ruled by a propraetor, or legate, but an inscription found in Cyprus proves that the island did come under the direct rule of the Roman Senate in the person of a provincial governor called a proconsul. Similarly in Greece, during the rule of Augustus Caesar, Achaia was a province under the direct rule of the Roman Sen­ ate, but when Tiberius was emperor it was ruled directly by him. Later, under Emperor Claudius, it again became a senatorial province, according to Tacitus. A fragment of a rescript from Claudius to the Delphians of Greece has been discovered, which refers to Gallio's proconsulship. Therefore, Acts 18: 12 is correct in speaking of Gallio as the "proconsul" when Paul was there in Corinth, the

H IG H L I G HTS OF ACTS The beg i n n i ng of the C hristian congregation and a record of its zealous public witnessing in the face of fierce op­ position Time covere d : 33 to c. 6 1 C . E . Before asce n d i n g to heaven, Jesus comm issions fol­ lowers to be witnesses of him as Jehovah's Messi ­ ah ( 1 : 1 -26) After receiving holy spirit, d isciples boldly witness i n many languages (2: 1 -5 : 42 )

Jews i n Jerusalem from many lands are g iven witness i n their own lang uages; about 3,000 baptized Peter and John are arrested and taken before Sanhe­ d r i n ; fearlessly declare they will not stop witnessing Filled with holy spiri t , a l l the d isciples speak the word of God bold ly; m ul t itudes become believers Apostles are arrested ; a n angel releases them; brought before the Sanhedrin, they declare: ·We must obey God as ruler rather than men" Persecution results in expa n sion of the w i t ness ( 6 : 1 -9:43)

Stephen is seized, g ives fearless witness, d ies a martyr Persecution scatters all but apostles; witness g iven in S amaria; E t hiopian eun uch baptized Jesus a ppears to the persecutor Saul; Saul is converted , baptized, begins zealous m i n i stry

Apostle's report of this prompts further expansion among nations Paul's evangel i z i ng tours ( 1 3 : 1 -2 1 : 26 )

First t o u r : T o Cyprus, A s i a M inor. P a u l and Barnabas boldly witness pu blicly and i n synagogues; t h rown out of Antioc h ; mobbed i n Ico n i u m ; first t reated like gods i n Lystra, then Paul is stoned C i rcumcision issue decided by governing body at Jeru­ salem ; Paul and Barnabas assigned to i nform broth­ ers t hat circ umcision i s not requ i red b u t that bel iev­ ers must abstain from t h i n g s sacrificed to idols, from blood, and from fornication Second tour: Back through Asia M in o r, into M acedon i a and G reece. I m prisoned i n Philippi, but j a i l e r and his family get baptized; Jews stir u p t rouble i n Thessalo­ nica and Beroea; i n Athens, Paul preaches i n syna­ gogue, i n the marketplace, then on the Areopagus; 1 8-month m i nistry i n Corinth Third tour: Asia M i nor, G reece. Fruitful E phesian m i nis­ try, then uproar by silversmit h s ; apostle admonishes elders Paul is arrested, witnesses to officials, is taken to Rome ( 2 1 : 27-28 : 3 1 )

After mobbing in Jerusalem, Paul before San hedrin

reac h e s

As prisoner, Paul g ives fearless witness before Felix, Festus, and King H erod Agrippa II, also on boat en route to Rome

Peter preaches to Cornel ius, his fam ily, and h i s friend s ; t hese believe, receive h o l y spirit, and a r e baptized

A prisoner i n Rome, Paul cont inues to find ways to preach about C h rist and the Kingdom

U n d e r d i v i n e d i rect i o n t h e w i t n e s s u n c i rcumcised Gentiles ( 1 0 : 1 - 1 2 : 25)

ADADAH

capital of Achaia. (See GALLIo. ) Also, an inscrip­ tion on an archway in Thessalonica ( fragments of which are preserved in the British Museum ) shows that Acts 17:8 is correct in speaking of "the city rulers" ( "politarchs," governors of the citi­ zens ), even though this title is not found in classi­ cal literature. To this day in Athens the Areopagus, or Mars' Hill, where Paul preached, stands as a silent wit­ ness to the truthfulness of Acts. ( Ac 17 : 19 ) Medi­ cal terms and expressions found in Acts are in agreement with the Greek medical writers of that time. Modes of travel used in the Middle East in the first century were essentially as described in Acts: overland, by walking, horseback, or horse­ drawn chariots ( 2 3 : 24, 31, 32; 8: 27-38) ; overseas, by cargo ships. ( 21 : 1 -3 ; 27 : 1 -5 ) Those ancient vessels did not have a single rudder but were controlled by two large oars, hence accurately spoken of in the plural number. ( 27 :40 ) The de­ scription of Paul's voyage by ship to Rome ( 27: 1 -44) as to the time taken, the distance trav­ eled, and the places visited is acknowledged by modern seamen familiar with the region as com­ pletely reliable and trustworthy. Acts of Apostles was accepted without question as inspired Scripture and canonical by Scripture catalogers from the second through the fourth centuries c.E. Portions of the book, along with fragments of the four Gospels, are found in the Chester Beatty No. 1 papyrus manuscript (p45 ) of the third century c.E. The Michigan No. 1571 manuscript ( P38) of the third or fourth century contains portions of chapters 18 and 19, and a fourth-century manuscript, Aegyptus No. 8683 (P8), contains parts of chapters 4 through 6. The book of Acts was quoted from by Polycarp of Smyrna about 115 c.E., by Ignatius of Antioch about 110 c.E. , and by Clement of Rome perhaps as early as 95 c.E. Athanasius, Jerome, and Au­ gustine of the fourth century all confirm the earli­ er listings that included Acts. ADADAH (Ada/dah). One of the cities in the southern part of the territory originally assigned to Judah, lying toward the border of Edom. (Jos 15:22 ) The Vatican Manuscript No. 1209 of the Greek Septuagin t here reads A·rou·el. On this ba­ sis, as well as 1 Samuel 30: 28, some scholars favor identifying it with Aroer in Judah.-See AROER No. 3 . ADAH (A/dah ) [ shortened form of Eleadah or Adaiah). 1 . The first of Lamech's two living wives. She was the mother of Jabal and Jubal, the founders of

44

nomadic herdsmen and musicians respectively. -Ge 4: 19-23. 2 . A Canaanite daughter of Elon the Hittite, and one of Esau's wives. As such she was "a source of bitterness of spirit to Isaac and Rebekah." Her son's name was Eliphaz, the father of Amalek. She may be the one called Basemath in Genesis 26: 34. -Ge 26 : 3 5 ; 36 : 2, 4, 10, 12. ADAIAH (Adai/ah ) [Jehovah Has Decked [the nameholder ]]. 1. A descendant of Levi's son Gershom and an ancestor of Asaph.-1Ch 6: 39-43. 2. A Benjaminite, son of Shimei.-1 Ch 8 : 1, 21. 3 . The father of Maaseiah, who was one of "the chiefs of hundreds" that helped Jehoiada the priest overthrow wicked Athaliah's rule and set Jehoash upon the throne of Judah.-2Ch 23: 1 . 4 . The father of Jedidah, who was the mother of King Josiah. ( 2Ki 22: 1 ) He was a native of Bozkath, located in the Shephelah in the territory of Judah.-Jos 1 5 : 21 , 33, 39. 5 . A son of Joiarib of the tribe of Judah.-Ne 11 : 4, 5. 6 . A priest dwelling in Jerusalem after the re­ turn from Babylonian exile, the son of Jeroham. - l eh 9 : 10- 12; Ne 11 : 12. 7 . An Israelite, one of the descendants of Bani who divorced their foreign wives and sent away their sons after the Babylonian exile.-Ezr 10: 29, 44. 8. Another of the Israelites who sent away their foreign wives and sons, his ancestral head being Binnui.-Ezr 10: 38, 39, 44. ADALIA (Ada/li·a ). One of Haman's ten sons. -Es 9 : 7-10 ; see HAMAN. ADAM (Ad/am) [Earthling Man; Mankind; Hu­ mankind; from a root meaning "red"]. The Hebrew word occurs as "man," "mankind," or "earthling man" over 560 times in the Scriptures and is applied to individuals and mankind in general. It is also used as a proper name. 1 . God said: "Let us make man in our image." (Ge 1 : 26) What a historic pronouncement! And what a singular position in history Adam, the "son of God," holds-the first human creature! (Lu 3 : 38) Adam was the crowning glory of Jehovah's earthly creative works, not only because of the timing near the close of six creative epochs but, more importantly, because "in God's image he created him." ( Ge 1 : 27) This is why the perfect man Adam, and his degenerate offspring to a much lesser degree, possessed mental powers and abilities far superior to all other earthly creatures.

45

ADAM and filled the earth with billions of their kind, they

In what way was Adam made in the likeness of God ?

were to expand this Paradise to earth's limits. This was a divine mandate .-Ge 1 : 28. "God saw everything he had made and, look! it

Made in the likeness of his Grand Creator, Adam had the divine attributes of love, wisdom, justice, and power; hence he possessed a sense of morali­ ty involving a conscience, something altogether new in the sphere of earthly life. In the image of God, Adam was to be a global administrator and have in subjection the sea and land creatures and the fowl of the air. It was not necessary for Adam to be a spirit . creature, in whole or in part, to possess Godlike qualities. Jehovah formed man out of the dust particles of the ground, put in him the force of life so that he became a living soul, and gave him the ability to reflect the image and likeness of his Creator. "The first man is out of the earth and made of dust . " "The first man Adam became a living soul. " ( Ge 2 : 7 ; 1Co 1 5 :45, 47 ) That was in the year 4026 B . C E . It was likely in the fall of the year, for mankind's most ancient calendars began counting time in the autumn around October 1 , or at the first new moon of the lunar civil year.-See

YEAR.

was very good . " ( Ge 1 : 3 1 ) Indeed, from the very beginning Adam was perfect in every respect. He was equipped with the power of speech and with a highly developed vocabulary. He was able to give meaningful names to the living creatures all around him. He was capable of carrying on a two-way conversation with his God and with his wife. For all these reasons and many more, Adam was under obligation to love, worship, and strictly obey his Grand Creator. More than that, the Uni­ versal Lawgiver spelled out for him the simple law of obedience and fully informed him of the just and reasonable penalty for disobedience : "As for the tree of the knowledge of good and bad you must not eat from it, for in the day you eat from it you will positively die . " ( Ge 2 : 16, 17; 3 : 2 , 3) Not­ withstanding this explicit law carrying a severe penalty for disobedience, he did disobey.

Results of Sin.

Eve was thoroughly deceived

by Satan the Devil, but "Adam was not deceived, " says the apostle Paul. ( l Ti 2 : 14) With full knowl­ edge Adam willfully and deliberately chose to

Adam's home was a very special paradise, a veritable garden of pleasure called Eden ( see

disobey and then as a criminal he tried to hide.

EDEN

When brought to trial, instead of showing sor­

all the necessary phys­

row or regret or asking for forgiveness, Adam

ical things of life, for "every tree desirable to one's

attempted to justify himself and pass the respon­

No. 1 ), providing him with

sight and good for food " for his perpetual suste­

sibility off on others, even blaming Jehovah for his

nance was there. ( Ge 2 : 9 ) All around Adam were

own willful sin. "The woman whom

peaceful animals of every kind and description.

with me, she gave me fruit from the tree and so I

But Adam was alone. There was no other creature

ate. " ( Ge 3 : 7- 1 2 ) So Adam was cast out of Eden

'according to his kind' with which to talk. Jehovah

into an unsubdued earth that was cursed to pro­

recognized that "it is not good for the man to

duce thorns and thistles, there to sweat out an

you gave to be

continue by himself. " So by divine surgery, the

existence, harvesting the bitter fruits of his sin.

first and only case of its kind, Jehovah took a rib

Outside the garden, awaiting death, Adam fa­

from Adam and fashioned it into a female coun­

thered sons and daughters, the names of only

terpart to be his wife and the mother of his chil­

three being preserved-Cain, Abel, and Seth. To

dren. Overjoyed with such a beautiful helper and

all of his children Adam passed on hereditary sin

constant companion, Adam burst forth in the first

and death, since he himself was sinful. - Ge 3 : 2 3 ;

recorded poetry, "This is at last bone of my bones

4 : 1 , 2, 25.

and flesh of my flesh," and she was called

woman

"because from man this one was taken . " Later Adam called his wife Eve. ( Ge 2: 18- 2 3 ; 3 : 20 ) The truthfulness of this account is attested to by Jesus and the apostles.-Mt 1 9 : 4 - 6 ; Mr 10:6-9 ; Eph 5 : 31 ; 1Ti 2: 1 3 .

This was the tragic start Adam gave the hu­ man race. Paradise, happiness, and everlasting life were forfeited, and in their place sin, suffering, and death were acquired through disobedience. "Through one man sin entered into the world and death through sin, and thus death spread to all

Furthermore, Jehovah blessed these newlyweds

men because they had all sinned. " "Death ruled as

with plenty of enjoyable work. ( Compare Ec 3: 1 3 ;

king from Adam down . " ( Ro 5 : 12, 1 4 ) But Jehovah

5 : 18. ) They were not cursed with idleness. They

in his wisdom and love provided a "second man, "

were to keep busy and active dressing and taking

"the last - Adam," who is the Lord Jesus Christ. By

care of their garden home, and as they multiplied

means of this obedient "Son of God" the way was

46

ADAMAH opened up whereby descendants of the disobedi­

ADAMI-NEKEB

ent "first man Adam" could regain Paradise and

Piercing ( Boring ) ] . A place in the southern part of

everlasting life, the church or congregation of

Naphtali. ( Jos 19 : 3 3 ) Its site is generally identified

( Ad'a·mi-ne'keb) [ Ground of

Christ even gaining heavenly life. "For just as in

as Khirbet et-Tell ( Tel Adami ), above and W of

Adam all are dying, so also in the Christ all will be

Khirbet ed-Damiyeh, about 16 km ( 10 mi ) ENE of

made alive. "-Joh 3 : 16, 1 8 ; Ro 6 : 2 3 ; l Co 1 5 : 22,

Nazareth and approximately midway between Ti­

45, 47. After sinner Adam's expulsion from Eden he lived to see the murder of his own son, banish­ ment of his killer-son, abuse of the marriage ar­ rangement, and profanation of Jehovah's sacred name. He witnessed the building of a city, the development of musical instruments, and the forging of tools out of iron and copper. He watched and was condemned by the example of Enoch, "the seventh one in line from Adam," one who "kept walking with the true God . " He even lived to

berias and Mount Tabor. Its position commanded a pass on an old caravan route between Gilead and the Plain of Acco.

ADAR

(A'dar ). The postexilic name of the 1 2th

Jewish lunar month of the sacred calendar, but the 6th of the secular calendar. ( Es 3 : 7 ) It corre­ sponds to part of February and part of March. It is after the month Adar that the intercalary month, called Veadar, or the second Adar, is added in certain years.

see Noah's father Lamech of the ninth generation.

During this month, which came at the close of

Finally, after 9 30 years, most of which was spent

the winter season and led into spring, the carob

in the slow process of dying, Adam returned to the ground from which he was taken, in the

trees began to blossom in parts of Palestine, and in

year 3096 B.C.E. , just as Jehovah had said.-Ge

were ready for harvesting.

4 : 8-26 ; 5 : 5-24; Jude 14 ; see LAMECH No. 2 .

2 . A city mentioned a t Joshua 3 : 16 a s being at the side of Zarethan. It is generally identified with Tell ed-Damiyeh (Tel Damiya' ), a site E of the Jordan River about 1 km (0.6 mi ) S of the conflu­ ence of the Jordan and the torrent valley of Jab­ bok ; it is about 28 km ( 1 7 mi ) NNE of Jericho. The name of the city may be derived from the color of the alluvial clay, which is abundant in that region. - l Ki 7 : 46. The Bible record indicates that the damming up of the Jordan's waters at the time of Israel's cross­ ing the river took place at Adam. The Jordan Valley narrows considerably, beginning at the site of Tell ed-Damiyeh ( Tel Damiya' ) northward, and history records that in the year 1267 a blockage of the river occurred at this very point due to the falling of a lofty mound across the river, stopping the flow of water for some 16 hours. In modern times, earth tremors in the summer of 19 27 again caused landslides that darruned up the Jordan so that the flow of water was cut off for 21 V2 hours. ( The Foundations of Bible History: Joshua, Judges, by J. Garstang, London, 19 3 1 , pp. 136, 137 ) If this was the means God saw fit to employ, then such a damming of the river in the days of Joshua was miraculously timed and effected so as to synchro­ nize with the crossing of the Jordan on the day previously announced by Jehovah through Josh­ ua. -Jos 3 : 5 - 1 3 .

ADAMAH

( Ad'a'mah) [ Ground ]. One o f the fortified cities in the territory assigned to the tribe of Naphtali. Its location is not definitely known. -Jos 19 : 32 , 36.

the warm lowlands the orange and lemon trees By a royal decree of King Ahasuerus of Persia the 13th day of Adar was to mark the destruction of all the Jews in the jurisdictional districts of his domain, this at the instigation of his prime minis­ ter, Haman. A new decree, issued through Queen Esther's mediation, enabled the Jews to gain a victory over their would-be assassins, and there­ after Mordecai ordered the 14th and 1 5th days of Adar to be celebrated in commemoration of their deliverance. (Es 3 : 1 3 ; 8: 1 1 , 1 2 ; 9 : 1, 1 5 , 20, 2 1 , 27, 28) This Jewish festival is known as Purim, a name derived from "Pur, that is, the Lot."-Es 9 : 24-26; see PuRIM. Adar is also the month in which Governor Zerubbabel finished the reconstruction of the tem­ ple in Jerusalem. ( Ezr 6 : 15 ) Elsewhere in the Bible it is mentioned only as "the twelfth month."-2Ki 2 5 : 27 ; 1 Ch 27 : 1 5 ; Jer 5 2 : 3 1 ; Eze 3 2 : 1 .

ADB EEL

(Ad'be·el ) . A grandson o f Abraham,

listed third among the 12 sons of Ishmael, his mother being an Egyptian. He was the chieftain of a tribal clan bearing his name.-Ge 21 : 21 ; 2 5 : 13- 1 6 ; l Ch 1 : 29.

ADDAR

1.

( Ad'dar ) .

A son o f BeJa, a Benjaminite.- 1 Ch 8 : 1 , 3.

2 . A southern border town of Judah located near Kadesh-barnea. (Jos 15 : 3 ) In Joshua's ac­ count it is listed as lying between Hezron and Karka, but at Numbers 34:4 it appears that the name Hezron ( meaning "Courtyard ; Settlement" ) is combined with Addar to form Hazar-addar, since the accounts are parallel. The book Biblical

47

Archaeology (by G. E. Wright. 1963, p. 71 ) sug­ gests as a possible location that of 'Ain el­ Qudeirat, where a perennial spring waters a small but fertile valley. It lies about 8 km ( 5 mi ) NNW of 'Ain Qedeis, the possible location of Kadesh­ barnea.

ADDI (Ad/di ). The son of Cosam and father of Melchi. As a descendant of David through Nathan, Addi was an ancestor of Jesus.-Lu 3 : 28, 31 . ADDON

(Ad/don). Apparently an unidentified location in Babylonia, from which some returning to Jerusalem in 537 B.C.E., at the end of the 70-year desolation of Judah, were unable to estab­ lish their genealogy from the public records. As a consequence, they were disqualified from serving in the priesthood. Some scholars think Addon was an individual who was unable to prove his ances­ try.-Ezr 2 : 59-62 ; Ne 7 : 61-64.

ADIEL

( Ad/i·el ) [ God Is an Ornament].

1. The father of Azmaveth, whom King David

appointed to be over his royal treasure house. - l Ch 27 :25, 31 . 2. One of the chieftains of the tribe of Simeon, who, in the days of King Hezekiah of Judah in the eighth century B.C.E . , shared in the dispossession of the Hamites from the region near Gedor.- 1 Ch 4 : 36, 38-41 . 3. An Aaronic priest of the paternal house of Immer whose father was Jahzerah. His son Maasai served at Jerusalem after the Babylonian exile. - l Ch 9 : 12.

ADIN

( Aldin) [ Pleasure-Given ]. One of the pa­ ternal heads of Israel, several hundred of whose descendants returned from Babylonian exile with Zerubbabel. ( Ezr 2: 15 ; Ne 7 : 20 ) Later, 51 more of his lineage returned with Ezra in 468 B.c.E. ( Ezr 8: 6 ) A princely representative of Adin's pater­ nal house was among those who attested to the "trustworthy arrangement" drawn up in the days of Nehemiah.-Ne 9 : 38 ; 10: 1 , 16.

ADJUTANT

sions as "captain," "chariot-Ieader," " lord," "war­ rior," "adjutant." Some monumental inscriptions illustrating "Hit­ tite" and Assyrian war chariots show three men: one, the driver; another, the fighter with the sword, lance, or bow; and a third, the carrier of the shield. Though Egyptian monuments usually do not show three-manned chariots, the term is used at Exodus 14: 7 with respect to Pharaoh's charioteers. The third chariot warrior, usually the one carrying the shield, was an assistant com­ mander in the war chariot, an adjutant. The En­ glish word "adjutant" literally means "one that helps; assistant. " After mentioning that none of the sons of Israel were constituted slaves by Solomon, 1 Kings 9 : 2 2 states: "For they were the warriors and his ser­ vants and his princes and his adjutants and chiefs of his charioteers and of his horsemen. " Com­ menting on this text, C. F. Keil states that the term sha·Jj·shim l (plural ), used in this passage, could be understood as "royal adjutants . "- Com­ mentary on the Old Testament, 1973, Vol. III, 1 Kings, p. 146. In the days of King Jehoram of Israel, the Syri­ ans put Samaria under siege, which in time caused famine conditions within the city. When Elisha prophesied that there would be plenty of food, Jehoram's special adjutant ridiculed the prophecy. As Elisha had foretold, the adjutant saw the fulfillment of the prophecy but did not get to eat any of the food, being trampled to death in the gateway.-2Ki 7 : 2, 16-20. At Jehu's command, his runners and adjutants, likely including Bidkar, struck down the Baal wor­ shipers. ( 2Ki 9 : 2 5 ; 10: 2 5 ) Pekah, another adjutant

ADINA

( Ad/i·na) [from a root meaning "luxuri­ ate" [ that is, get pleasure ] ]. The son of Shiza, and an officer over 30 other Reubenites in David's army.- 1 Ch 11 : 26, 42.

ADINO.

See JOSHEB-BASSHEBETH.

ADITHAIM

( AdHha/im). One of the cities of Judah located in the Shephelah, or lowland. (Jos 15: 33, 36) The exact site is uncertain.

ADJUTANT .

The Hebrew word sha·ljsh l (third man, referring to the third warrior in a war chariot ) has been translated in various Bible ver-

Three men in an Assyrian war chariot

48

ADLAI referred to in the Scriptures, assassinated Peka­

ses according to the divine will during the 40-year

hiah the king of Israel and succeeded him to the

wilderness trek provides a brilliant example of

throne.- 2Ki 1 5 : 2 5 ; see Eze 2 3 : 1 5 , ftn.

administration, including the delegation of au­

ADLAI

( Ad'lai). Father of Shaphat, who served

as overseer of the herds of David in the low plains. -l Ch 27: 29.

ADMAH

( Ex

18: 19-26 )

Within the priesthood the prime responsibility for administration

rested

on the

high

priest

( Nu

3 : 5 - 10 ) ; however, others were given the responsi­

(Ad'mah ) [ Ground); One of the five

cities in the region of "the Low Plain of Siddim" inhabited by Canaanites. ( Ge 10: 19 ; 14 : 1 - 3 ) This low plain, or vale, was probably near the southern end of the Salt Sea. Along with the neighboring cities of Sodom, Gomorrah, Zeboiim, and Bela (Zoar ) , Admah and its king, Shinab, suffered defeat at the time of the invasion by four eastern kings. ( Ge 14: 8 - 1 1 ) Deu­ teronomy 29 : 2 3 shows that Admah was later de­ stroyed along with Sod om, Gomorrah, and Ze­ boiim when Jehovah caused a rain of fire and sulfur to descend upon the entire basin. ( Ge 19 : 2 5 ) At Hosea 1 1 : 8 it i s referred to, along with Zeboiim, as a warning example. Many scholars believe that the original sites of Admah and the other "cities of the District" now lie submerged beneath the waters of the Salt Sea, though some others recently have claimed that the ruins of the cities may be identified with sites along wadis to the

E

and SE of the Dead Sea. -Ge

1 3 : 12.

ADMATHA

thority to reliable subordinates.

bility of the oversight and supervision of certain departments of service. ( Nu 3 : 25 , 26, 30-32, 36, 37; 4: 16 ) Following Israel's entry into the Prom­ ised Land, judges acted as administrators of the nation, with divine backing.-Jg 2 : 16, 1 8 ; Ru 1 : 1 . Upon the establishment of the kingdom in Isra­ el , a more complete system of administration de­ veloped. Under King David the administrative structure was quite detailed, with officials directly under the king and with divisional administrators serving throughout the country. ( l Ch 26 : 29-32 ; 27: 1 , 16-22, 25 -34) The priesthood was also thor­ oughly organized during David's reign, with su­ pervisors for the tabernacle work, officers and judges, gatekeepers, singers and musicians, and the setting up of 24 priestly divisions for han­ dling the service at the tabernacle. ( 1 Ch 2 3 : 1 - 5 ; 24: 1 - 19 ) Solomon's administration was even more extensive and provides an outstanding example of capable administration in the construction of the temple.-1Ki 4 : 1 -7, 26, 27; 5 : 13- 18. Other nations also developed complex systems of administration, as indicated by the classes of

(Ad·ma'tha ) [ from Persian, mean­

officials assembled by King Nebuchadnezzar at the

ing " Unconquered "]. One of the seven princes in

time of inaugurating his golden image. ( Da 3 : 2 , 3 )

the kingdom of Persia and Media who had access

Daniel himself was 'made ruler' ( from Aramaic,

to King Ahasuerus. These princes concurred in the

sheJet' ) over the jurisdictional district of Babylon

judgment against Queen Vashti, and apparently

and under him civil "administration" ( Aramaic,

such a committee of seven regularly served the

'avi·dhah ' ) was given to Shadrach, Meshach, and

Persian kings as counselors .-Es 1 : 14; Ezr 7 : 14.

Abednego.-Da 2 : 48, 49 .

ADMINISTRATION. A managerial proce­ dure or an arrangement for supervision in the

In the Christian Greek Scriptures, proper use of the delegated authority and responsibility resting

fulfilling of a responsibility or the attaining of a goal. The Hebrew word translated "administration" in 1 Chronicles 2 6 : 30 (pequd·daN ) comes from the root pa·qadh ', meaning "visit; turn attention to. " ( Ru 1 : 6, ftn) It is also rendered "care; oversight . " -2Ch 24: 1 1 ; N u 3 : 3 2 ; compare 2 K i 11 : 18, ftn ; see

OVERSEER. From the start of human history God authorized perfect man to care for the earth and have in subjection its creatures. ( Ge 1 : 26-28) After man's

upon those charged with overseeing the applica­ tion and execution of God's expressed will among his people is often discussed ; and this is done by references to stewardship and oversight. ( Lu 16 : 2-4; l Co 9 : 1 7; Eph 3 : 2 ; Col 1 : 2 5 ; Tit 1 : 7 ) While responsibility to God is shown to be of paramount importance ( Ps 109 : 8 ; Ac 1 : 20 ) , the interests of those who serve under such administration are also stressed.- l Pe 4: 10; see STEWARD.

What is th e "adm in istration " that God

rebellion, particularly from the Flood forward, a . patriarchal system of administration developed

has put into operation since 33 C.E. ?

and became prominent. It managed family affairs

In his undeserved kindness God has purposed to have "an administration [ Gr. , oi·ko·no·mi'an, liter­

and property and enforced standards of conduct. The handling of Israel's national affairs by Mo-

ally, "household management " ] at the full limit of

49

ADONIJAH

the appointed times, namely, t o gather a l l things

feat. Upon being captured, his thumbs and great

together again in the Christ, the things in the

toes were also severed, at which time he declared:

heavens and the things on the earth. " ( Eph 1 : 10;

"Just the way

compare Lu 12 :42, ftn . ) This "administration," or

He was transported to Jerusalem, where he died.

managerial procedure, which God has been carry­

-Jg 1 : 4- 7.

ing on since the day of Pentecost of 33 c.E. , has as its objective the unification of all his intelligent creatures. The first stage of God's "administration" is the gathering together again of "the things in

ADONIJAH

1.

I

have done, so God has repaid me. "

( Ad·o ·ni'jah ) [ Jehovah Is Lord ].

David's fourth son, born of Haggith in He­

bron . -2Sa 3 : 4, 5 .

the heavens," preparing the congregation of King­

Though o f a different mother, Adonijah was

dom heirs who are to live in the heavens under

quite similar to Absalom in being "very good­

Jesus Christ as the spiritual Head. ( Ro 8 : 16, 1 7 ;

looking in form" and in his ambition. ( 1 Ki 1 : 5 , 6 ;

Eph 1 : 1 1 ; 1 P e 1 : 4 ) The second stage of this "ad­

compare 2Sa 14 : 2 5 ; 1 5 : 1 . ) He becomes prominent

ministration" is the gathering together again of

in the Bible record during David's waning years.

"the things on the earth," preparing those who are

Despite Jehovah's declaration that the kingship

to live in an earthly paradise.-Joh 10: 16; Re 7 : 9 ,

would go to Solomon ( lCh 2 2 : 9 , 10), Adonijah

10 ; 2 1 : 3, 4.

began boasting that he would be Israel's next

ADNA

king. Since Amnon and Absalom, and probably

(Ad'na) [ Pleasure ].

1. An Israelite,

descendant of the paternal

house of Pahath-moab, among those who agreed to send their non-Israelite wives away during the cleansing that took place following the counsel of Ezra the priest.-Ezr 10: 30, 44.

2. A priest belonging to the paternal house of Harim, during the days of High Priest Joiakim and of Nehemiah and of Ezra the

priest.-Ne

12:

1 2 - 1 5 , 26.

ADNAH

Chileab, were dead, Adonijah doubtless founded his claim to the throne on the basis of his being the eldest son. Like Absalom, he made a showy display of .his pretensions and went uncorrected by his father. He built up party support by gaining the favor of the head of the army, Joab, and the head of the priesthood, Abiathar. ( 1 Ki 1 : 5 - 8 ) He then held a sacrificial feast near En-rogel, a short distance from the city of Jerusalem, inviting most of the royal household, but not Solomon, Nathan

( Ad'nah) [ Pleasure ].

1. A valiant military officer of Manasseh who deserted from Saul to David's army at Ziklag. He fought at David's side in the pursuit of the ma­ rauding band of Amalekites that ravaged David's camp at Ziklag, and he came to be a chief in David's army.- 1 Ch 1 2 : 20, 21 ; 1 Sa 30: 1 . 2, 1 7-19.

2 . A Judean general of the armies during the reign of King Jehoshaphat, commanding 300,000 valiant, mighty warriors, and exercising con­ trol over an additional 480,000 troops under the command of generals Jehohanan and Amasiah, all of whom ministered to the king at Jerusalem. -2Ch 1 7 : 13- 16, 19.

ADONI-BEZEK

the prophet, and Benaiah. His obvious purpose was to have himself declared king . - 1 Ki

1 : 9,

10, 25. Nathan the prophet acted promptly to block Adonijah's scheme. He counseled Solomon's moth­ er Bath-sheba to remind David of his oath in favor of Solomon's kingship and then appeared after her at the king's quarters to confirm her words and alert David to the gravity of the situation, also, in effect, indicating that he felt David may have been acting behind the backs of his close associates. ( 1 Ki 1 : 1 1 -27 ) This stirred the old king to action, and he promptly gave orders for the immediate anointing of Solomon as coregent and successor to the throne. This action provoked a joyful uproar

( A·do'ni-be'zek) [ Lord of Be­

by the people, which was heard at Adonijah's

zek ]. A powerful ruler who, prior to the Israelite

banquet. Soon a runner, priest Abiathar's son,

attack at Bezek, had humbled 70 pagan kings by

appeared with the disquieting news of David's

cutting off their thumbs and great toes.

proclamation of Solomon as king. Adonijah's sup­

A similar practice was employed at one time by the ancient Athenians, who decreed that prisoners of war should lose their thumbs. Thereafter they

porters quickly dispersed, and he fled to the tab­ ernacle courtyard seeking refuge. Solomon then granted him pardon on the provision of his good

could row but were unfit to handle a sword or spear. Soon after Joshua's death the combined

behavior. - l Ki 1 : 32-53.

forces of Judah and Simeon clashed with 10,-

proached Bath-sheba and induced her to act as his

However, following David's death, Adonijah ap­

000 troops of the Canaanites and Perizzites at

agent before Solomon to request David's youth­

Bezek, causing Adoni-bezek to flee from the de-

ful nurse and companion, Abishag, as his wife.

50

ADONIKAM Adonijah's statement that "the kingship was to

as Adoram ( 2Sa 20 : 24 ; l Ki 1 2 : 18), and as Hado­

have become mine, and it was toward me that all

ram. -2Ch 10: 18.

Israel had set their face for me to become king" indicates that he felt he had been deprived of his right, even though he professedly acknowledged God's hand in the matter. ( 1 Ki 2 : 13-2 1 ) While his request may have been based solely on the desire for some compensation for the loss of the king­ dom, it strongly suggested that the fires of ambi­ tion continued in Adonijah, since by a rule in the ancient East the wives and concubines of a king would only become those of his legal successor. ( Compare 2 Sa 3 : 7 ; 16 : 2 1 . ) Solomon so viewed this request made through his mother and ordered Adonijah's death, which order was promptly car­ ried out by Benaiah . - 1 Ki 2 : 22-25.

ADONI-ZEDEK

( A do'ni-ze'dek ) [ ( My ) Lord Is

Righteousness ] . A king of Jerusalem at the time of the Israelite conquest of the Promised Land. Adoni-zedek joined with other petty kingdoms W of the Jordan in a consolidated effort to halt Josh­ ua's conquering forces. ( Jos 9 : 1 - 3 ) However, the Hivite inhabitants of Gibeon made peace with Joshua. In a retaliatory measure designed to stop further desertion to the enemy, Adoni-zedek unit­ ed his army with those of four additional kings of the Amorites, and he laid siege against Gibeon and warred against it. Joshua's spectacular rescue of the Gibeonites and the shattering defeat of these combined forces caused the five kings to flee

2. A Levite sent by Jehoshaphat to teach in the cities of Judah.-2Ch 1 7 : 7-9 .

to Makkedah, where they were trapped in a cave. Joshua himself slew Adoni-zedek and the other

3 . One of "the heads of the people" whose de­ scendant, if not he himself, joined certain princes

fou r kings before his troops, and hung them upon stakes. Their corpses were finally thrown back

contract made by the returned Israelites in the

into the cave, which came to be their tomb. -Jos 10: 1 -27.

days of Nehemiah and Ezra. ( Ne 9 : 38 ; 10: 1 , 14, 1 6 )

ADOPTION.

and Levites in attesting by seal the confession

H e is suggested by some t o b e the same as Adoni­ kam at Ezra 2 : 13, whose descendants, numbering 666, returned from Babylon under Zerubbabel in 537 B . C E . A comparison of the names of those whose representatives sealed the resolution at Ne­ hemiah 10 and of those listed as heads of the returning exiles at Ezra 2 seems to bear this out.

ADONIKAM

( Ad·o ·ni' kam )

[ (My )

Lord

Has

Raised Himself Up [that is, to help]]. A founder of one of the paternal houses of Israel. More than 600 members of this family returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile at Babylon. ( Ezr 2 : 13 ; Ne 7 : 18 ) An additional 63 members of this paternal house accompanied Ezra to Jerusalem in 468 B . C E . ( Ezr 8 : 1 3 ) When the representatives of the paternal houses attested to the "trustworthy arrangement," or resolution drawn up in Nehemi­ ah's day, this family was apparently listed by the name Adonijah. -Ne 9 : 38 ; 10 : 16 .

The taking or accepting as a son

or daughter one who is not such by natural rela­ tionship. The Greek word translated "adoption"

(hui·o·the·si'a) is a technical legal term that literal­ ly means "a placing as son. "- Compare Ro 8: 15, ftn. In the Hebrew Scriptures adoption is not dealt with from the viewpoint of legal procedure, but the basic idea is set forth in several cases. It appears that Abraham, prior to the birth of Ish­ mael and Isaac, considered his slave Eliezer as at least in line for a position similar to that of an adopted son and as the likely inheritor of Abra­ ham's house. ( Ge 15 : 2- 4 ) The practice of adopting slaves as sons has long been a common Middle Eastern practice, and as such they had inheritance rights, though not above those of children de­ scended naturally from the father. Rachel and Leah both considered the children born to Jacob by their handmaids as their own sons, 'born upon their knees . ' ( Ge 30: 3-8, 12, 13,

ADONIRAM

( Ad·o·ni'ram) [ ( My ) Lord Is High ( Exalted ) ]. A prince, able administrator, and the

24) These children inherited along with those born directly of Jacob's legal wives. They were

son of Abda. Adoniram served as overseer of those conscripted for forced labor during the

natural sons of the father, and since the slave girls were property of the wives, Rachel and Leah had

reigns of David, Solomon, and Rehoboam, playing

property rights in these children.

an important part in Solomon's many building

The child Moses was later adopted by Pharaoh's daughter. ( Ex 2 : 5 - 10 ) Since men and women

projects.

Later,

when

the

ten tribes

revolted

chern in 997 B.CE. , the king sent this conscriptor

had equal rights under Egyptian law, Pharaoh's daughter was in position to exercise the right of

for forced labor to the people, but they "pelted him

adoption.

with stones, so that he died . " ( 2Ch 10 : 18 ) He is

Within the nation of Israel adoption does not appear to have been widely practiced. The law of

against the harsh dictates of Rehoboam at She­

variously referred to as Adoniram ( 1 Ki 4 : 6 ; 5 : 14),

51

ADORNMENT

levirate marriage doubtless eliminated t o a great

a deceptive purpose. The Hebrew word for "adorn­

extent a basic reason for adoption of children: the

ment" is

continuance of the parental name.-De 2 5 : 5, 6.

hadha·rah ', evidently from the root ha­ dhar ', meaning "honor. " ( l Ch 16 : 29 ; La 5 : 1 2 ) At

In the Christian

1 Peter 3 : 3 "adornment" translates the Greek word

Greek Scriptures adoption is mentioned several times by the apostle Paul with regard to the new

ko'smos, elsewhere rendered "world. " The related verb ko·sme'o is translated "adorn. "-Tit 2 : 10.

status of those called and chosen by God. Such ones, born as descendants of the imperfect Adam,

ment if it is properly done, and they highly recom­

were in slavery to sin and did not possess inherent

mend spiritual adornment. Jehovah himself is de­

A Christian Significance.

The Scriptures do not condemn physical adorn­

sonship of God. Through purchase by means of

scribed as clothed in light and surrounded by

Christ Jesus, they receive the adoption as sons and

beauty. ( Ps 104: 1 , 2; Eze 1 : 1 , 4-2 8 ; Re 4 : 2, 3 ) He

also become heirs with Christ, the only-begotten

has richly ornamented his creation with color,

Son of God. ( Ga 4 : 1 - 7 ; Ro 8: 14 - 1 7 ) They do not

variety, and majestic magnificence.-Lu

come by such sonship naturally but by God's choice and according to his will. (Eph 1 : 5 ) While

2 8 ; Ps 139 : 14 ; l Co 15 :41 .

acknowledged as God's children, or sons, from the

adorned themselves for the marriage feast. In

time of God's begetting them by his spirit ( l Jo 3 : 1 ; Joh 1 : 1 2 ,

1 3 ) , their full realization of this

privilege as spirit sons of God is dependent on their ultimate faithfulness.

( Ro 8: 17;

Re 21 : 7·)

Thus, Paul speaks of them as "earnestly waiting for adoption as sons, the release from our bodies by ransom."-Ro 8 : 2 3 . Such adopted state brings benefits o f freedom from "a spirit of slavery causing fear, " replacing it with the confidence of sons ; of hope-of a heavenly inheritance assured by the witness of God's spirit. At the same time these spiritual sons are remind­ ed by their adoption that such position is by God's undeserved kindness and selection rather than by their inherent right.-Ro 8: 15, 1 6 ; Ga 4 : 5-7. At Romans 9:4 Paul speaks of the fleshly Israel­ ites as those "to whom belong the adoption as sons and the glory and the covenants and the giving of the Law," and this evidently refers to the unique position granted Israel while they were God's cov­ enant people. Thus, God, on occasion, spoke of Israel as "my son . " ( Ex 4: 22, 2 3 ; De 14: 1 , 2 ; Isa 43 : 6 ; Jer 31 : 9 ; Ho 1 : 10 ; 1 1 : 1 ; compare Joh 8 : 41 . ) Actual sonship, however, awaited the ransom pro­ vision made through Christ Jesus and was depen­ dent on acceptance of that divine arrangement and faith in it. -Joh 1 : 1 2, 1 3 ; Ga 4 : 4, 5 ; 2Co 6 : 16- 18.

1 2 : 27,

In Bible times the bridegroom and the bride preparation the bride decked herself with the fin­ est clothing and the best of the ornamental things that she possessed to present herself before the bridegroom.

( Ps 45 : 13,

14; Isa 61 : 10 ) Jehovah

speaks to Jerusalem, figuratively describing her as a girl whom he decked with fine, costly clothing and jewelry but who used her beauty and adorn­ ment unfaithfully as a prostitute. ( Eze 1 6 : 10- 19 ) Jehovah's prophet Hosea condemned Israel for adorning herself for the wrong purpose of attract­ ing passionate lovers and engaging in false wor­ ship. ( Ho 2 : 13 ) Through his prophets Jehovah foretold a restoration of Israel when she would come out of Babylonian exile and again adorn herself to express her joy and exultation.-Isa 5 2 : 1 ; Jer 31 : 4 . The temple in Jerusalem and Solomon'S govern­ mental buildings were beautifully adorned, to the delight of the queen of Sheba. ( 1 Ki chaps 6, 7, 10) The temple rebuilt by Herod was a magnificent edifice adorned with fine stones and dedicated things.

But

Jesus showed that these material

adornments would be of no avail when God's judgment came upon Jerusalem for her unfaith­ fulness.-Lu 21 : 5, 6. The Proverbs show that if a great number of people choose to live under and delight in the rule of a king, this is one measure of his success. It is

( Ad·o·ra'im ). One of the cities of

an adornment to him, recommending and adding

Judah rebuilt and fortified by King Rehoboam in tlfe tenth century B.c.E. ( 2Ch 1 1 : 9 ) It is identified

luster to him as a ruler. ( Pr 1 4 : 2 8 ) Jehovah is such

with the modern village of Dura, located on a

Php 2: 10, 1 1 .

hillside about 8 km (5 mi ) W of Hebron.

Christian Counsel o n Personal Adornment. and his apostles counseled constantly against putting trust in physical things and put­ ting on a false show by means of material adorn­ ment. The apostle Paul said that Christian women should "adorn themselves in well-arranged dress, with modesty and soundness of mind, not with

ADORAIM

ADORAM.

See ADONIRAM.

ADORNMENT .

That which is put on to deco­

rate, beautify, embellish, add luster to, and make the person himself, or that which he represents, pleasing or attractive. It may be for a good or for

a ruler by his Messianic Kingdom.-Ps 2 2 : 27-31 ;

Jesus

52

ADRAMMELECH styles of hair braiding and gold or pearls or very

Adramyttium was part o f the province o f Asia

expensive garb . " ( 1Ti 2 : 9 ) During the days of the

under Roman rule and was evidently at one time

apostles it was a custom among women in that

a maritime commercial center of some impor­

world of Greek culture to go in for elaborate

tance, since it lay on the Roman road that passed

coiffures and other adornment. How appropriate,

through Pergamum and Ephesus to the S and

therefore, is Peter's counsel to women in the

Assos, Troas, and the Hellespont to the W and N.

Christian congregation not to put emphasis on 'the

It is likely that Paul passed through Adramyttium

external braiding of the hair and the putting on of

on his third missionary tour. The only direct Bible

gold ornaments or the wearing of outer garments'

reference to the place, however, is at Acts 27: 2. At

but to let their adornment be, as with the faithful

Caesarea, Paul, as a prisoner in the custody of the

women of old, "the secret person of the heart in

Roman officer Julius, boarded a ship from Adra­

the incorruptible apparel of the quiet and mild

myttium that was sailing to points along the coast

spirit"! - l Pe 3 : 3-5.

of Asia Minor. Paul's party left the ship at Myra in

The apostle Paul points out that the Christian can, by fine works of incorruptibleness in his teaching,

seriousness,

wholesome

speech,

and

right conduct in all his ways of life, adorn the teachings of God, making them attractive to oth­ ers. (Tit 2: 10 ) In this spiritual way, the Christian congregation, the bride of Christ, eventually ap­ pears in her full beauty to her husband Jesus Christ. She is similarly described at Revelation 21 : 2 as "prepared as a bride adorned for her hus­ band . " Her spiritual beauty is a direct contrast to the adornment of Babylon the Great, spoken of as adorned with material things, the wage of her prostitution.-Re

18: 16 ;

COSMETICS; DRESS ; JEWELS AND PRECIOUS STONES ; ORNAMENTS. ADRAMMELECH

1.

A

son

of King

Adrammelech

see

ADRIA

( A'dri·a ). At Acts 27 : 27 reference is

made to lithe sea of Adria, " in which Paul spent 14 turbulent days before being shipwrecked on the island of Malta. Strabo says this name is de­ rived from the city of Atria, located at the mouth of the Po River on what is now called the Gulf of Venice.

( Geography, 5, I, 8) The present Italian

city of Adria lies somewhat back from the coast. It appears that the name Adria came to apply to the waters in that vicinity and was progressively ex­ tended to include all the present Adriatic Sea, the Ionian Sea, and those waters of the Mediterranean E of Sicily ( and Malta) and W of Crete. So the name covered some waters that today are considered as

( Adram'me·lech ). Sennacherib

Lycia, transferring to a grain boat from Alexan­ dria that was sailing for Italy.-Ac 27 : 3- 6 .

of Assyria.

and his brother Sharezer killed

their father while he was bowing down at the

outside the Adriatic Sea; but in Paul's day the island of Malta could properly be said to be bound­ ed by lithe sea of Adria. "

house of his god Nisroch at Nineveh. They then

ADRIEL

escaped to the land of Ararat, apparently in the

the city of Abel-meholah.

(A'dri·el ). The son o f Barzillai, from

location of ancient Armenia in the mountainous

Adriel was given Saul's oldest daughter Merab

region to the W of what is now known as the

as wife, though she had previously been promised

Caspian Sea. ( 2Ki 19 : 35 -37; Isa 37: 36-38) An in­

to David. ( l Sa 18: 17- 19 ) All of Adriel' s five sons

scription of Esar-haddon, another son of Sennach­

were later surrendered for execution to help atone

erib, relates that as his father's successor he en­

for Saul's attempted annihilation of the Gibeon­

gaged and defeated the armies of his father's

ites. ( 2 Sa 21 :8, 9) In this account Michal rather

murderers at Hanigalbat in that region.

than Merab is spoken of as the mother of Adriel's

2 . A god worshiped by the Sepharvites, one of the subjugated peoples the king of Assyria brought into the territory of Samaria after his taking the Israelites of the ten-tribe kingdom into exile. It was to Adrarnrnelech and Anarnrnelech that the Sepharvites sacrificed their sons in the fire.-2Ki 1 7 : 22-24, 3 1 , 33.

ADRAMYTTIUM

( Ad·ra·myt'ti·um ).

five sons. Since Michal died childless ( 2 Sa 6 : 2 3 ) and i s nowhere spoken o f as having been the wife of Adriel, some translators view the appearance of Michal's name as a scribal error. Nearly all He­ brew manuscripts, however, use Michal's name, and the traditional explanation is that Merab, Michal's older sister, died early after having borne five sons to Adriel and that Michal thereafter

sea­

undertook the bringing up of her sister's five boys,

port city on the Aegean Sea, located in Mysia at

A

thus resulting in their being spoken of as her sons.

the NW corner of Asia Minor, N of Pergamum. In

Isaac Leeser's translation reads at 2 Samuel 21 :8:

modern Turkey the inland town of Edremit (E of

"And the five sons of Michal the daughter of Saul,

the harbor) preserves the earlier name.

whom she had brought up for Adriel. "

53 ADULLAM (Adul' lam ). A city of Judah i n the fertile lowland or Shephelah, about halfway be­ tween Bethlehem and Lachish. (Jos 15 :35 ) It is identified with Tell esh-Sheikh Madhkur ( Horvat 'Adullam ), about 26 km ( 16 mi ) WSW of Jerusa­ lem. The original name seems to be preserved in the name of the nearby ruins of 'Id el-Ma ( Miyeh ). The site of Adullam dominates the Wadi es-Sur and the approach from that part of the Shephelah into the interior of Judah, thus making it a strate­ gic location. It is primarily known for "the cave of Adullam," where David fled before King Saul. There are numerous limestone caves in this area. -2Sa 23: 13. Adullam was evidently an ancient city. Its first Biblical mention is in connection with Hirah "the Adullamite," who became a companion of Judah prior to the transfer of Jacob's family to Egypt. (Ge 38: 1, 2, 12, 20 ) At the time of Joshua's invasion some three centuries later, Adullam was one of the 31 petty kingdoms that were vanquished by him. ( Jos 1 1 : 1 - 1 5 ; 12: 15 ) Adullam was thereafter allotted to Judah along with other cities of the Shephelah. -Jos 15: 33-35. David, as a fugitive from King Saul, escaped from the Philistine king Achish of Gath and went up to Adullam to a cave, where he was eventual­ ly joined by some 400 men. ( 1Sa 22 : 1 -5 ) About 19 km ( 12 mi ) WSW of Bethlehem, the area may have been known to David from his shepherd days. Its relative inaccessibility appears to have recommended it as David's stronghold. In later times, during his reign David used it as an opera­ tional site in wars against the Philistines. It was from this point that the three warriors made their sortie into Bethlehem to obtain the cistern water that David later refused to drink as representing their blood risked to obtain it.-1Ch 1 1 : 15-19 ; 12: 16 ; 2Sa 5: 17, 18. Adullam was one of the chain of 15 fortress cities reinforced by Rehoboam of Judah. ( 2Ch 11 :5- 12 ) This chain, intended to provide protec­ tion from the W and S, was overrun by Sennach­ erib's troops during Hezekiah's rule ( 732 B.c.E. ). ( 2Ki 18: 13) Adullam is mentioned in the days of Nehemiah as among the cities resettled by the repatriated Jews who returned from the Babylo­ nian exile.-Ne 11 : 30. ADULTERY. As used in the Bible, adultery generally refers to voluntary sexual intercourse by a married person with one of the opposite sex other than one's mate, or, during the time that the Mosaic Law was in effect, such intercourse by any man with a married or a betrothed woman. The Hebrew root meaning "commit adultery" is na-

ADULTERY

'aph ', while its Greek counterpart is moi·kheu'o. -Eze 16 : 32, ftn; Mt 5: 32, ftn. Certain primitive societies allow free relations within the same tribe, but promiscuity outside tribal bounds is considered adultery. On the histo­ ry of adultery, Funk & Wagnalls Standard Dictio­ nary of Folklore, Mythology and Legend ( 1949, Vol. 1, p. 15) says: "It occurs in all parts of the world and though it is considered reprehensible by many cultures it has enjoyed a considerable popularity in all cultures and at all times." Monu­ ments attest to its prevalence in ancient Egypt; Potiphar's wife, who proposed that Joseph have relations with her, was such an Egyptian. (Ge 39 : 7, 10 ) Historically as well as at present, adul­ tery is generally forbidden, but penalties are sel­ dom imposed. Jehovah's law separated Israel and raised the moral status of marriage and family life to a much higher level than that of the surrounding nations. The seventh commandment of the Decalogue stat­ ed in direct, unmistakable language: " You must not commit adultery. " ( Ex 20: 14; De 5: 18; Lu 18 : 20 ) Adulterous invasion of another man's do­ main was prohibited, as were other forms of sex­ ual misconduct.-See FORNICATION ; PROSTITUTE. Under the Law of Moses the penalty for adultery was severe-death for both guilty parties: "In case a man is found lying down with a woman owned by an owner, both of them must then die togeth­ er. " This applied even to a betrothed woman, it being considered that she had committed adultery if she had relations with a man other than the one to whom she was duly engaged. ( De 22: 22-24 ) If suspected of adultery, a wife had to stand trial. -Nu 5 : 11-31 ; see THIGH. Christians, though not under Mosaic Law, must also refrain from adultery. "For the law code, 'You must not commit adultery,' . . . is summed up in this word, namely, 'You must love your neighbor as yourself. ' " There can be no hypocrisy in this matter. (Ro 13:9; 2 : 22 ) In teaching Bible princi­ ples, Jesus raised the moral standard still higher for Christians. He broadened out the matter of adultery, saying it was not limited to sexual con­ tact a man might have with a woman not his mate: "Everyone that keeps on looking at a woman so as to have a passion for her has already com­ mitted adultery with her in his heart . " Such men are among those who "have eyes full of adultery. " -Mt 5 : 27, 28 ; 2Pe 2: 14. Jesus also pointed out that if a divorce was obtained by either husband or wife, except on the ground of fornication (Gr., por·nei'a), the remar­ riage of either one would constitute adultery. Even

54

ADUMMIM a single man who took such a divorced woman as

"The torrent valley" mentioned at Joshua 15 : 7,

his wife would be guilty of adultery.-Mt 5 : 32 ;

in relation to which the ascent of Adummim lay to

19 : 9 ; M r 10: 1 1 , 1 2 ; Lu 16: 18; Ro 7 : 2, 3 . Adultery i s "actually s i n against God . " ( Ge 39 : 9 )

the S, is evidently the Wadi el Qilt, which runs fairly parallel to the road and passes just to the S

Jehovah will judge those guilty of adultery, and

of Jericho on its way to the Jordan River.

none who persist in such a course "will inherit God's kingdom." ( Mal 3 : 5 ; l Co 6 : 9, 10; Heb 13 : 4 )

ADVERSARY.

How true the proverb: "Anyone committing adul­ tery with a woman is in want of heart; he that does it is bringing his own soul to ruin."-Pr 6 : 32-35.

An enemy that contends with

or resists; an antagonist or opponent. The Hebrew word for "adversary"

( tsar) comes from a root

meaning "harass; show hostility to. " (Nu 2 5 : 18; Ps 129: 1 ) The Greek word

an-ti'di·kos primarily refers

to an "adversary at law" in a legal case ( Lu 12 : 58 ;

How could one become guilty of spiritual adultery? In a spiritual sense, adultery denotes unfaithful­ ness to Jehovah on the part of those who are joined to him in a covenant. Natural Israel in the Law covenant was, therefore, guilty of spiritual adultery because of false religious practices, some of which included sex-worship rites and disregard for the seventh commandment. (Jer 3 : 8, 9 ; 5 : 7, 8; 9 : 2 ; 1 3 : 27; 2 3 : 10 ; Ho 7 : 4 ) For similar reasons Jesus denounced as adulterous the generation of Jews in his day. ( Mt 12: 39 ; Mr 8 : 38) Likewise today, if Christians who are dedicated to Jehovah and who are in the new covenant defile them­ selves with the present system of things, they commit spiritual adultery. -Jas 4 :4 .

ADUMMIM

( A dum'mim) [ from a root mean­

ing "red " ; possibly, Red Rocks ]. The ascent of Adummim is a steep pass about 12 km ( 7 . 5 mi ) ENE of Jerusalem and midway between the cities of Jericho and Jerusalem. It leads up from the low Jordan Valley to the mountainous region of Judah. From ancient times till the present the road be­ tween the two cities has gone through this pass. It is mentioned in the Bible record, however, only as a boundary mark between the territories of Judah and Benjamin. -Jos 1 5 : 7 ; 1 8 : 17. I n Arabic the pass is called Tal'at ed-Damm ( meaning "Ascent of Blood " ) and in Hebrew Ma'ale Adummim ( meaning "Ascent of Adummim" ). While some ancient writers have ascribed the name's origin to the spilling of blood by robbers and highwaymen, the more likely explanation is the reddish color of the soil due to exposed patches of ocher. The route was always a dangerous one because of the desolateness of the region and the prevalence of thievery, and from early times a fort was maintained there to protect travelers. Because of this, the site has been suggested as the scene of the attack on the traveler 'on his way down to Jericho, ' as mentioned in Jesus' illustration of the neighborly Samaritan.-Lu 10 : 30-37.

1 8 : 3 ), but it can refer t o others who are adver­ saries, or enemies, as in 1 Peter 5 : 8 . The most wicked Adversary, Satan the Devil, caused men and angels ( see DEMON) to join his opposition to God and man. Satan first showed his opposition in the garden of Eden, where, through cruel and underhanded action, he led Eve and then Adam into a course of rebellion that brought sin and death upon all mankind. In the courts of heaven Satan displayed his antagonism, charging Jehovah with bribing Job for his loyalty, a charge which became an issue of universal importance. -Job 1 : 6 - 1 1 ; 2 : 1 - 5 ; see SATAN. Worshipers of Jehovah in all ages have endured similar opposition from the Adversary by means of his agents. For example, when the remnant of God's people returned from Babylon, there were those who tried to prevent rebuilding the temple and the city wall. (Ezr 4: 1 ; Ne 4 : 1 1 ) Hateful Ha­ man, having the spirit of the Devil, proved to be a wicked adversary of the Jews in the days of Queen Esther. ( Es 7 : 6 ) Christians today must be alert, watchful, on guard, and must put up a hard fight for the faith against the Adversary's machina­ tions. (Eph 6 : 1 1 , 1 2 ; Jude 3 ) Peter counsels: "Keep your senses, be watchful. Your adversary, the Devil, walks about like a roaring lion, seeking to devour someone. But take your stand against him, solid in the faith. " ( 1Pe 5 : 8, 9) Eventually Jeho­ vah's power will triumph over all opposers. -Jer 30: 16; Mic 5 : 9. When God's people were unfaithful he allowed their adversaries to plunder and defeat them. ( Ps 89 :42 ; La 1 : 5 , 7, 10, 1 7 ; 2 : 17 ; 4 : 12 ) The enemy, however, drew wrong conclusions from these vic­ tories, taking credit for themselves and praising their gods or feeling that they would not be called to account for the way they treated Jehovah's people. ( De 3 2 : 27; Jer 50 : 7 ) Jehovah was therefore obliged to humble these proud and boasting ad­ versaries ( Isa 1 : 24 ; 2 6 : 1 1 ; 59 : 18 ; Na 1 : 2 ) ; and this he did for his holy name's sake.-Isa 64 : 2 ; Eze 36 : 21 -24.

55 AENEAS ( Ae·ne'as ) [Praised ]. A man of Lydda, alongside the Plains of Sharon, healed by Pe­ ter after being paralyzed for eight years.-Ac 9: 32-35. AENON (Ae'non). A place having "a great quantity of water" available, where John the Bap­ tizer performed immersions after the Passover of 30 c.E. (Joh 3 : 23 ) It was near the apparently better known place named Salim. The exact loca­ tions of these places are uncertain; however, Eu­ sebius, bishop of Caesarea in the third and fourth centuries C.E. , indicates a location in the Jordan Valley about 8 Roman miles ( 12 km; 7.5 mi ) S of Beth-shean. In this area is Tell Ridgha (Tel Shalem ), tentatively identified with Salim. Nearby are several springs that might fit Eusebius' de­ scription of the place called Aenon. AFFECTION. A strong, warm, personal at­ tachment, such as that existing between genuine friends. The Hebrew word cha·shaq I, translated 'show affection' in Deuteronomy 7 : 7, has the root mean­ ing "be attached to. " ( Ge 34: 8 ) The Greek verb phUe'o is translated 'have affection,' "like," 'be fond of, ' and " kiss." (Mt 10 : 37 ; 23:6; Joh 1 2 : 25 ; Mr 14:44 ) 'To have affection' expresses a very close bond, of the kind that exists in close families between parents and children. Jesus felt such a deep affection for his friend Lazarus, so that he "gave way to tears" in connection with the death of Lazarus. (Joh 11 : 35, 36) The same expression is used to show the strong, warm, personal attach­ ment Jehovah has for his Son and for his Son's followers, as well as the warm feeling of the disci­ ples for God's Son.-Joh 5 : 20 ; 16 : 27; compare 1Co 16:22. It is to be noted that there is a distinction between the Greek verbs phi·Je'o and a·gapalo, although many translators do not differentiate between these words. (See LovE. ) Regarding the difference between these words, F. Zorell ( Lexicon Graecum Novi Testamen ti, Paris, 1961 , col. 1402 ) says: "[A·gapa'o] signifies a kind of love for some­ one or something occasioned freely and of our own accord because of clearly perceived reasons ; [phi·le'o] differs from this in that it indicates a tender and affectionate kind of love such as arises spontaneously in our souls towards relatives or friends, and towards things we deem delightful. " The use of these two verbs i n John 2 1 is worthy of note. 'TWice Jesus asked Peter if he loved him, using the verb a·gapa lo. Both times Peter earnest­ ly affirmed that he had affection for Jesus, using the more intimate word phi·leh (Joh 21 : 15, 16 ) Finally, Jesus asked: "Do you have affection for

AGABUS

meT And Peter again asserted that he did. ( Joh 21 : 17) Thus, Peter affirmed his warm, personal attachment for Jesus. Brotherly love ( Gr. , phi·la·deJphi'a, literally, "af­ fection for a brother" ) should exist among all members of the Christian congregation. ( Ro 12 : 10 ; Heb 13: 1 ; see also 1 Pe 3:8. ) Thus, the relationships within the congregation should be as close, strong, and warm as in a natural family. Even though the members of the congregation already show broth­ erly love, they are urged to do it in fuller measure. -lTh 4:9, 10. The Greek word phi·Jo'stor-gos, meaning "hav­ ing tender affection," is used of a person who is close to another in warm intimacy. One of the roots of this compound term, ster Igo, is frequently used to denote a natural affection, as between family members. The apostle Paul encouraged Christians to cultivate this qUality. (Ro 12: 10) Paul also indicated that the last days would be charac­ terized by people "having no natural affection" (Gr., a'stor-goi ) and that such persons are deserv­ ing of death.-2Ti 3 : 3 ; Ro 1 : 31 , 32. The Greek noun phi·Ji'a ( friendship ) is found only once in the Christian Greek Scriptures, where James warns that "the friendship with the world is enmity with God . . . Whoever, therefore, wants to be a friend [ Gr. , phi 'los] of the world is constitut­ ing himself an enemy of God."-Jas 4 :4. Fondness for Money. One may develop a love of money (Gr. , phi·lar-gy-ri'a, literally, "fond­ ness of silver" ) and cause much damage to him­ self. ( 1 Ti 6: 10, In t) In the first century c.E. the Pharisees were money lovers, and this would be a characteristic of people in the last days. (Lu 16: 14; 2Ti 3 : 2 ) In contrast, a Christian's manner of life should be "free of the love of money" ( Gr., aphi­ Jarlgyros, literally, "having no fondness of silver"). (Heb 13 : 5 ) To attain the office of overseer in the Christian congregation, one of the qualifications that has to be met is to be "not a lover of money. " -lTi 3 : 3. Tender

Affections

( Tender

Compassions).

Strong emotions often have an effect on the body. Hence, the Greek word for intestines ( spJag 'khna) is often used to denote "tender affections" or "ten­ der compassions. "-See 2Co 6: 12; 7: 15 ; Php 2 : 1 ; Col 3 : 12 ; Phm 7, 12, 20; l Jo 3: 17; see PITY. AGABUS (Ag'a·bus ). A Christian prophet who, together with other prophets, came down from Jerusalem to Antioch of Syria during the year of Paul's stay there. Agabus foretold through the spirit "that a great famine was about to come upon the entire inhab­ ited earth. " (Ac 11 : 27, 28) As the account states,

AGAG

the prophecy was fulfilled during the reign of Emperor Claudius ( 41-54 CE. ). The Jewish his­ torian Josephus refers to this "great famine. " -Jewish Antiquities, XX, 51 ( ii, 5 ) ; XX, 101 (v, 2). Toward the close of Paul's last missionary tour ( about 56 CE. ), he was met in Caesarea by Aga­ bus, who illustrated a prophecy of Paul's future arrest in Jerusalem by binding his own hands and feet with Paul's girdle.-Ac 21 :8-11. AGAG ( A'gag ). The name or title applied to more than one king of the Amalekites. 1 . Balaam, in his third prophetic utterance, foretold that a king of Israel would be "higher than Agag, and his kingdom will be lifted up." ( Nu 24 : 7 ) These words were spoken about 1473 B.CE. , and no subsequent reference is made to Agag until the reign of King Saul ( 1117- 1078 B.CE. ). Because of this some scholars suggest that "Agag" was a title used by the kings of the Amalekites similar to the title of Pharaoh used by the kings of Egypt. It may also be simply a case of the repeated use of a personal name. At any rate the manner of Ba­ laam's reference to Agag indicates that his king­ dom was at that time a powerful one.-Nu 24: 20 ; see AMALEK, AMALEKlTES. 2 . The king of Amalek who was defeated by King Saul in fulfillment of Jehovah's decree. ( Ex 17: 14 ; De 25: 17- 19 ; 1 Sa 15 : 1 -7 ) However, Saul failed to execute Agag and allowed the people to keep some of the spoiL and this resulted in Samu­ el's pronouncement of God's rejection of Saul as king. ( 1Sa 15:8-29) Agag was then executed by Samuel, who told him : "Just as your sword has bereaved women of children, in that way your mother will be most bereaved of children among women. "- 1Sa 15: 32, 33; compare Jg 1 : 5-7. AGAGITE (Ag 'ag·ite) [ Of ( Belonging to ) Agag]. A term applied to Haman and to his father, Ham­ medatha, at Esther 3 : 1 , 10; 8 : 3, 5; 9 : 24. It appar­ ently designates them as descendants of Agag and hence of Amalekite descent. The Jews tradi­ tionally have understood the expression in this way and take the Agag to be the monarch men­ tioned at 1 Samuel 15:8-33. Josephus refers to Haman as "of Amalekite descent." (Jewish An tiq­ uities, XI, 209 [vi, 5 J ) Mordecai was a descendant of Kish of the tribe of Benjamin, thus making him and Haman, in a sense, traditional enemies.-Es 2:5. AGATE. A precious ornamental stone that i s a form of chalcedony, a variety of colored quartz. Most agates form as nodules in stratified depos­ its of silica found in certain rock cavities. The

56

agate layers vary from clear to opaque, and they assume many shades of color because of the pres­ ence of microscopic particles of iron salts. The colors appear in combinations of yellow, brown, gray, blue, or black, and these may be attractively distributed in patterns of stripes, bands, or cloudy blends. Agate is slightly harder than steel and can be polished to a high gloss. Agate used by the Israelites in the wilderness may have been brought from Egypt. According to Pliny the Elder, red agates veined with white were found in the vicinity of Thebes. Such a red agate may have been the variety that was mounted on the high priest's "breastpiece of judgment" to rep­ resent one of the 12 tribes of Israel. The center stone of the third row on Aaron's breastpiece was an agate (Heb. , shevoh l, a kind of precious stone ). -Ex 28 : 2, 15, 19, 21 , ftn; 39 : 12. AGE . The time one has lived, usually counted by years, months, and days. The Hebrew idiom to describe the physical age of an individual was to say one was the "son of" so many years. Thus, Joseph is literally said to have died a "son of one hundred and ten years," that is, flat the age of a hundred and ten years . " ( Ge 50: 26 ) Age may also refer to maturity. The Hebrew word seh v or seh­ vah l (age; old age ) comes from a root mean­ ing "grow gray" and is also rendered "gray­ headedness. " ( 1Sa 12 : 2 ; Pr 20: 29 ) A number of Hebrew words relating to old age and aging are derived from the noun za·qanl, meaning "beard. " (Le 19 : 27 ) The Greek word heHkFa primarily de­ notes the "life span" or "age" of an individual but can also refer to one's "physical growth" or "size. " (Mt 6 : 27 ; Joh 9 : 21 ; Lu 2:52; Lu 19 : 3 ) Also occur­ ring in the Greek Scriptures are ge1ras ( "old age" ; Lu 1 : 36), pre·sby1tes ( "aged man" ; Phm 9 ), and pre·sbyltis ( 'aged woman' ; Tit 2 : 3 ). The latter two words are related to pre·sbyte·ros, meaning "older man; elder."-See OLDER MAN. Under the Law, at the age of 20 years the men qualified for military service. ( Nu 1 : 3 ) The man blind from his birth to whom Jesus gave sight must have been at least 20 years old, since his parents told their interrogators: "Ask him. He is of age. He must speak for himself." (Joh 9 : 21 , 23) Sarah is spoken of as being "past the age limit" for the bearing of children, as she was then some 90 years of age.-Heb 11 : 11 . A n age limit was set for qualification t o temple service, as was an age limit at which obligatory service ceased. Some have alleged a discrepancy in the statements at Numbers 4:3, 30, 31 and 8:24-26, since the age for beginning Levitical ser­ vice is stated first as from 30 years of age and

AGRICULTURE

57 thereafter a s from 25 years. However, the case

phemer against the holy spirit was guilty of "ever­

seems to be that of two categories of service

lasting [ agelong, perpetual, eternal ] sin," or a sin

involved. Thus, certain rabbinic sources present

never to be canceled out at any future time. A

the view that at the age of 25 a Levite was

similar expression was used with regard to the

introduced into the tabernacle service but only to

fruitless fig tree, where "forever" in the Greek is

perform lighter tasks, and then, on reaching the

literally "to [ for] the age. " ( Mt 21 : 19 ) At Jesus'

full age of 30, he entered into the heavier tasks.

birth the angelic promise was that "he will rule as

They point out that the references to "the work"

king over the house of Jacob forever [l iterally, into

and " laborious service and the service of carrying

the ages ]. "-Lu 1 : 3 3 ; see TI M E INDEFINITE.

loads" mentioned in Numbers 4 : 3 , 47 do not ap­ pear at Numbers 8: 24, where the age limit is 2 5 . Others add the suggestion that those serving from the age of 30 years up had to do with the trans­ porting of the tabernacle and its equipment when on the move, while those serving between the ages of 25 and 30 served only when the tabernacle was erected and standing at an encampment site. Those favoring the view that assignments to heavier tasks were given only at the age of 30 advance the reason that at

that

age greater

strength, intellectual maturity, and soundness of

However,

ai·onl can

also refer more particularly

to the consistent state of things or the current state of affairs or features that distinguish a cer­ tain period of time, epoch, or age rather than to the matter of time itself. As R. C. Trench states in

Synonyms of the New Testament

( London, 1961 ,

p. 203 ) : "Thus signifying time, it comes presently to signify all which exists in the world under conditions of time; . . . and then, more ethically, the course and current of this world's affairs. " -See SYSTEMS OF THINGS; WORLD.

judgment would have been attained. The Greek

AGEE

Septuagint

mah, who was one of David's mighty men.-2Sa

gives the age as 25 at both Numbers

4 : 3 and 8 : 24. Later, in David's day, the age limit was dropped to 20 years for beginning tabernacle service, which was in time replaced by temple service.- 1 Ch 2 3 : 24 - 3 2 ; compare also Ezr 3 : 8. As to retirement from obligatory service, this took place when the Levites reached the age of 50. The statement at Numbers 8 : 25, 26 indicates that at this age the Levites could still voluntarily assist those still eligible for assigned duties, but they themselves were given no direct assignment nor were they held accountable to fill such. The sug­ gestion is made that the reason for the retirement limit for Levitical service was not merely out of consideration for their age but to prevent over­ crowding of such offices. This age limit for Levites did not apply to the Aaronic high priest, for the high priest himself served in his holy office until death if he continued capable. ( Nu 35 : 25 ) Aaron, Israel's first high priest, was chosen for service when he was more than 80 and served for almost 40 years.-Ex 7 : 7 ; Nu 3 3 : 39.

The Greek Alon. U

n

"Age" may also refer to a

period of time in man's history, whether having or not having datable bounds. It is frequently used to

( A'gee). A Hararite, the father of Sham­

2 3 : 8, 11 .

AGRICULTURE .

Farming; the cultivating of

the soil and producing of crops, also the raising of livestock. Agriculture had its beginning in Eden, since Adam, after his creation by God, was placed in the garden "to cultivate it and to take care of it. " (Ge 2 : 5 , 15 ) However, due t o the unfaithfulness of the first human pair, extension of the Edenic Par­ adise did not result ; on the contrary, the ground came under God's curse. Sweat and toil were re­ quired for one to eke out a living from the soil. - Ge 3 : 17- 19. Adam and Eve's first son, Cain, became "a culti­ vator of the ground" ; Abel, a herder of sheep. (Ge 4 : 2-4 ) Following the Flood, "Noah started off as a

farmer" and planted a vineyard. ( Ge g : 20 ) At a later period Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob led essen­ tially a nomadic and pastoral life with their flocks, somewhat like pre-Flood Jabal ( Ge 4 : 20), though in the case of Isaac and Jacob there is also evi­ dence of their raising crops, wheat being specif­ ically mentioned. - Ge 26 : 1 2 ; 27: 37; 30: 14; 37 : 7 .

Israelite Agriculture.

Excavations

by

ar­

translate the Greek word ai·onl ( plural, ai·o'nes) in some translations. Greek lexicographers show the

chaeologists show the Palestine area to have been one of the earliest centers of agriculture. The Land

word to mean "space of time clearly defined and marked out, epoch, age, " and also "lifetime, life," or

of Promise was a very fertile land. In Lot's day the

"age, generation. " Since an epoch, or age, can

Jehovah, like the land of Egypt as far as Zoar." (Ge

begin and end or it can go on forever, it follows that

ai·on l could

refer to a period of time that is

district of the Jordan was "like the garden of 1 3 : 10 ) Prior to the Exodus, the nation of Israel had been well acquainted with agriculture down in

endless, though having a beginning. Thus, as re­

Egypt,

corded at Mark 3 : 29, Jesus said that the blas-

watermelons,

where

wheat, leeks,

flax,

onions,

barley, garlic,

cucumbers, and

other

AGRICULTURE

products were grown. ( Ex 9 : 25, 26, 31, 3 2 ; Nu 1 1 : 5 ; De 11 : 10 ) Then for 40 years the nation led an unsettled way of life in the wilderness, though relatively free from the corrupting association of pagan peoples. Upon their entry into the Land of Promise, the nation settled down to a life of cultivation of crops and of herding. There was definite advantage to their possessing a land already under cultivation. The great majority of the Hebrews familiar with agriculture in Egypt had by now perished in the wilderness, and hence, few if any qualified, pro­ ficient farmers with practical experience were available to begin farming in a land that was new and strange to them. ( Nu 14: 22-30 ; Heb 3 : 16, 17) So, it was greatly to their advantage now to inher­ it 'houses full of all good things, cisterns hewn out, vineyards and olive trees already planted and producing. '-De 6 : 10, 11 ; 8: 6-9. Following the division of the land into tribal territories, plots of ground were apportioned out, evidently by use of a measuring rope. (Ps 78: 55 ; Eze 40: 3 ; A m 7 : 17; Mic 2 : 4, 5 ) Once established, such boundaries were to be honored and respect­ ed.-De 19 : 14; 27 : 17 ; Pr 2 2 : 28 ; Ho 5 : 10 ; compare Job 24 :2. Agriculture occupied an important place in the legislation given Israel. The land belonged to Jeho­ vah and so was not to be abused. ( Le 25 : 23 ) The land could not be sold in perpetuity, and with the exception of properties within walled cities, land sold due to misfortunes and economic reverses was to be returned to the original possessor in the Jubilee year. (Le 2 5 : 10, 23-31 ) A sabbath rest was required every seventh year, during which the land lay fallow and its fertility was restored, thus accomplishing what is today done by rotation of

58 crops. (Ex 23: 10, 11 ; Le 2 5 : 3-7) Such a require­ ment might have appeared hazardous and was certainly a test of the nation's faith in God's prom­ ise to provide in sufficient abundance to carry them through till the harvest of the succeeding year. At the same time, it encouraged prudence and foresight. The Jubilee year (every 50th year) was also a year of rest for the land.-Le 25: 1 1 , 12. The three annual festivals that Israel was com­ manded to celebrate were timed to coincide with agricultural seasons: the Festival of Unfermented Cakes at the time of the barley harvest, Pentecost at the time of the wheat harvest, and the Festival of Booths at the time of the completion of the harvesting of crops of the outgoing year. ( Ex 23: 14- 16 ) For the Israelites the seasons and har­ vest were date factors and time indicators and were used more commonly as such than the names of the calendar months. Such agricultural life also protected the Israelites in a spiritual way, since it made them largely independent of other peoples for their needs and maintained at a mini­ mum the need for commercial intercourse with the surrOlmding nations. Though it was to be a land "flowing with milk and honey" for them under God's blessing, never­ theless, there were agricultural problems to be worked out. On condition of their obedience, there would be no need for large-scale irrigation. ( De 8 : 7 ; 1 1 :9-17) The rainy season began with the early rains about the middle of October and con­ tinued until the time of the later rains, which ended about the middle of April. (De 1 1 : 14) Then followed five generally rainless months, the heat and dryness of which were alleviated by heavy dews that settled at night and refreshed the soil and plants.-Ge 27: 28; De 33 : 28 ; see DEW. For soil conservation on slopes, terraces were apparently em­ ployed with stone walls to contain them and prevent the wash­ ing away of the vital topsoil. Archaeological excavations show as many as 60 or more of such terraces rising one above another on some hillsides. To en­ sure the safety of the A terraced hillside, common in Israelite agriculture

I

I

I

59 crops, booths o r huts o r even permanent towers were built in the vineyards and fields so that a watchman could be stationed to survey the sur­ rounding areas.-Isa 1 :8; 5 : 2 ; Mt 21 :33. King Uzziah is particularly mentioned as Ita lov­ er of agriculture [ literally, the ground], "-2Ch 26: 10. Though subsequent disobedience led to a with­ drawal of God's blessing and brought as a conse­ quence agricultural disasters through crop fail­ ures, droughts, locust plagues, mildew, and other problems, and though the destruction of much of the woodlands and the failure to maintain sys­ tems of terracing over a period of many centuries have led to a washing away of vast amounts of topsoil in much of Palestine, the remaining soil generally continues to be of great fertility to the present time. -See HARVEST; SOWER, SOWING; THRESHING ; and similar related subjects under their individual headings.

AG RIPP A.

See HEROD No. 3.

AGUR

(A'gur ). The son of Jakeh and writer of the 30th chapter of the book of Proverbs. (PI' 30: 1 ) Nothing further is stated to enable further identi­ fication. He probably lived sometime during the period from Solomon's reign ( 1037-998 B.c.E. ) to Hezekiah's reign ( 745-717 B.c.E . ). Some rabbinic scholars have considered the name Agur to be allegorical, applying to Solomon. Thus the footnote on Proverbs 30: 1 in the Soncino Books of the BibJe quotes from the Midrash as saying: "He was called Agur because he stored up ( agar) knowledge of Torah, and the son of Jakeh because he spewed it out ( hikki ) in that he ignored the warning against multiplying wives. " (Edited by A. Cohen, London, 195 2 ) Even among the Jew­ ish commentators, however, this view was not unanimous, many holding that the change of style, language, and content indicates a different writer.

AHAB (A/ hab ) [Father's Brother]. 1 . Son of Omri and a king of the northern kingdom of Israel. He ruled in Samaria 22 years, from about 940 B.C.E. - 1 Ki 16: 28, 29. Condones False Worship. Ahab's record was one of the worst as regards the vital area of true worship. Not only did the corrupted worship of Jehovah by means of Jeroboam's golden calves continue but Ahab also allowed Baal worship to infect Israel on an unprecedented scale due to his early marriage to Jezebel, the daughter of Ethbaal, king of Sidon. Josephus, quoting ancient historian Menander, refers to Ethbaal as Ithobal, and the

AHAB

account ( Against Apion, 1, 123 [ 18 ] ) relates that he was the priest of Astarte before ascending the throne by murdering the king. Ahab allowed his pagan wife Jezebel to lead him into Baal worship, to build a temple for Baal, and to erect a sacred pole in honor of Ashtoreth ( As­ tarte ). ( 1Ki 16 : 30-33) Before long there were 450 prophets of Baal and 400 prophets of the sacred pole, all being fed from Jezebel's royal table. ( 1 Ki 18: 19 ) True prophets of Jehovah were slain by the sword, and only the action of Ahab's house manager Obadiah, a man of faith, preserved the lives of 100 of them by hiding them in caves, where they subsisted on bread and water.-1Ki 18: 3, 4, 13; 19 : 10. As a result of his turning to Baal worship, Ahab was informed by Elijah of the coming of a severe drought that, according to Luke 4:25 and James 5: 17, covered a period of three years and six months. ( l Ki 17: 1 ; 18: 1 ) The rains would return only at Elijah's word, and though Ahab searched for him in all the surrounding nations and king­ doms, Elijah stayed out of his reach until the due time. ( l Ki 17 : 8, 9 ; 18: 2 , 10) Ahab now endeavored to place the blame on Elijah for the drought and famine, an accusation that Elijah refuted, showing the real cause to be the Baal worship patronized by Ahab. A test held on top of Mount Carmel proved Baal to be a nonentity and manifested Jehovah as the true God ; the prophets of Baal were slain at Elijah's command, and shortly there­ after a drenching downpour brought an end to the drought. ( 1Ki 18: 17-46 ) Ahab headed back to Jez­ reel and to his wife, whom he informed of Elijah's actions against Baalism. Jezebel reacted with a violent threat to Elijah, resulting in his flight to Mount Horeb. - 1 Ki 19 : 1-8. Capital Construction; Victories Over Syria.

It is believed that Abab's construction works in­ cluded the completing of Samaria's fortifications, shown by archaeology to have consisted of three immensely strong walls of superior workmanship. Excavations have revealed a rectaqgular palace platform measuring about 90 m ( 295 ft ) by 180 m ( 590 ft ), with an enclosing wall of fine ashlar masonry. Numerous ivory panels for decorating furniture and wall panels were found, perhaps connected with Ahab's "house of ivory" mentioned at 1 Kings 22: 39.-PICTURE, Vol. 1, p. 948; also compare Am 3 : 15 ; 6 :4. The wealth of the city and the strength of its position were soon put to the test by a siege set against Samaria by Syrian Ben-hadad II at the head of a coalition of 32 kings. At first meekly acquiescing to the aggressor's demands, Ahab

60

AHARAH then balked at agreeing to allow the virtual plun­

Ahab's relations with Judah to the S were

der of his palace voluntarily. Peace negotiations

strengthened

fell through, and by divine direction Ahab em­ ployed a battle stratagem that caught the enemy

which Ahab's daughter Athaliah was married to

through

a

marriage

alliance

in

King Jehoshaphat's son Jehoram. ( l Ki 22 :44 ; 2Ki

off guard and led to their slaughter, though Ben­

8: 18, 26; 2Ch 18: 1 ) During a friendly visit by

hadad escaped. - 1 Ki 20: 1-21 .

Jehoshaphat to Samaria, Ahab induced him to

Convinced that Jehovah was a 'mountain god'

support him in an effort to retake Ramoth-gilead

only, Ben-hadad returned the following year with

from the Syrians, who evidently had not carried

a military force of equal size, but drew up for

out to the full the terms of the covenant made by

battle on the generally flat tableland near Aphek

Ben-hadad. While a body of false prophets cho­

in the territory of Manasseh, rather than advanc­

rused their assurances of success, at Jehosha­

ing into the mountainous region of Samaria. ( See APHEK No. 5 . ) The Israelite forces advanced to the

phat's insistence the prophet Micaiah, hated by

battle site but looked like "two tiny flocks of goats"

Ordering Micaiah's arrest, Ahab stubbornly went

compared to the massive Syrian encampment.

ahead with the attack, though taking the precau­

Ahab, was called and predicted certain calamity.

Reassured by Jehovah's promise to demonstrate

tion to disguise himself, but he was hit by a

that his power was not controlled by geography,

random arrow so that he slowly died. His body

Ahab's forces dealt a crushing defeat to the ene­ my. ( l Ki 20: 26-30) However, much like King Saul with Agag the Amalekite, Ahab let Ben-hadad survive and concluded a covenant with him by which captured cities would be returned to Israel and streets in Damascus would be assigned to Ahab, evidently for the establishment of bazaars, or markets, to promote Ahab's commercial inter­ ests in that Syrian capital. ( 1 Ki 20 : 31-34) Similar to Saul, Ahab was condemned by Jehovah for this, with future calamity foretold for him and his people. - 1 Ki 20: 3 5-43.

Murder of Naboth, and Consequences.

Dur­

ing a three-year interval of peace, Ahab turned his attention to the acquisition of the vineyard of Naboth of Jezreel, a piece of land much desired by Ahab because it bordered his residential palace grounds there. When Naboth refused the request on the basis of God's law regarding the inviola­ bility of hereditary possessions, Ahab petulantly withdrew to his house, where he lay on his couch with his face to the wall, refusing to eat. Learning the cause of his dejection, pagan Jezebel arranged

was brought to Samaria for burial and when "they began to wash off the war chariot by the pool of Samaria . . . the dogs went licking up his blood. " A large artificial basin has been excavated in the NW corner of the spacious palace courtyard in Samar­ ia, and this may be the location of this fulfillment of prophecy.- 1Ki 2 2 : 1 -38.

Moabite and Assyrian Inscriptions.

Men­

tion is made of the rebuilding of Jericho during Ahab's reign, perhaps as part of a program for strengthening Israel's control over Mo9.b. ( l Ki 16: 34; compare 2Ch 28: 15 . ) The Moabite Stone by King Mesha of Moab speaks of the domination of Moab by King Omri and his son. Assyrian

inscriptions

describing

the

battle

waged between Shalmaneser III and a coalition of 12 kings at Karkar include the name

A-ha-ab-bu

as a member of the coalition. This is generally accepted by most scholars as a reference to King Ahab of Israel ; however, for evidence showing tha t such a claim is subject to question, see the article on SHALMANESER No. 1 .

the murder of Naboth under guise of a trial for

2 . A false prophet among the exiles i n Babylon ;

blasphemy, using letters written in Ahab's name.

son of Kolaiah. Jeremiah predicted that this im­

When Ahab went to take possession of the coveted

moral and lying prophet and his associate would

plot of ground, he was met by Elijah, who scath­

be roasted in the fire by Nebuchadnezzar. -Jer

ingly denounced him as a murderer and as one who sold himself to do wickedness at the constant

29 : 21 -23.

prodding of his pagan wife. As the dogs had licked up Naboth's blood so dogs would lick up Ahab's blood, and Jezebel herself and Ahab's descendants would become food for dogs and scavenger birds. These words hit home, and in deep grief Ahab fasted in sackcloth, alternately sitting and pacing

AHARAH

(Ahar 'ah ). The third son of Benja­

min. ( l Ch 8 : 1 ) Probably the same as Ehi in Gene­ sis 46 : 2 1 and Ahiram in Numbers 26: 38.

AHARHEL

(Ahar 'hel ). Descendant of Judah,

a son of Harum . - 1 Ch 4 : 8.

AHASBAI

( Ahas'bai ).

A

Maacathite

whose

the floor in despondence. On this basis a measure of mercy was extended to him as regards the time when the calamity would come on his house. - 1 Ki

vid. ( 2 Sa 23 : 34 ) The Maacah from which Ahasbai

21 : 1 -29.

came could refer to Abel-beth-maacah in the ter-

"son" Eliphelet was an outstanding fighter for Da­

61

ritory of Naphtali or to the Syrian kingdom of Maacah. ( 2Sa 20: 14 ; 10:6, 8 ) In the parallel list at 1 Chronicles 11 : 35, 36 the name Dr appears in place of Ahasbai. AHASUERUS (Ahas·u·e'rus). The name or ti­ tle applied in the Hebrew Scriptures to three dif­ ferent rulers. 1 . The father of Darius the Mede mentioned at Daniel 9: 1 . It is not presently possible to make any conclusive identification of this Ahasuerus with any person in secular history. 2. The Ahasuerus of Ezra 4:6, in the beginning of whose reign an accusation was written against the Jews by their enemies, may have been Cam­ byses, the successor of Cyrus the conqueror of Babylon and liberator of the Jews. Cambyses reigned from 529 to 522 B. C.E. 3. The Ahasuerus of the book of Esther is be­ lieved to be Xerxes I, the son of the Persian king Darius the Great (Darius Hystaspis ). Ahasuerus ( Xerxes I) is shown as ruling over 127 jurisdiction­ al districts, from India to Ethiopia. The city of Shushan was his capital during major portions of his rule.-Es 1 : 1 , 2. In the book of Esther the regnal years of this king apparently are counted from the coregency with his father Darius the Great. This would mean that Xerxes' accession year was 496 B.c.E. and that his first regnal year was 495 B.c.E. (See PERSIA, PERSIANS. ) In the third year of his reign, at a sumptuous banquet, he ordered lovely Queen Vashti to present herself and display her beauty to the people and princes. Her refusal caused his anger to flare up, and he dismissed her as his wife. ( Es 1 :3, 10-12, 19-21 ) In the seventh year of his reign he selected Esther, a Jewess, as his choice out of the many virgins brought in as prospects to replace Vashti. ( Es 2: 1-4, 16, 1 7 ) In the 12th year of his reign he allowed his prime minister Haman to use the king's signet ring to sign a decree that would result in a genocidal destruction of the Jews. This scheme was thwarted by Esther and her cousin Mordecai, Haman was hanged, and a new decree was issued, allowing the Jews the right to fight their attackers.-Es 3: 1-9, 1 1 ; 7: 9, 10; 8:3- 14; 9 : 5 - 10. Subsequently, "King Ahasuerus proceeded to lay forced labor upon the land and the isles of the sea." ( Es 10: 1 ) This activity fits well with the pursuits of Xerxes, who completed much of the construction work his father Darius initiated at Persepolis. Xerxes I also appears to be the "fourth [king )" mentioned at Daniel 11 : 2, the three preceding

AHAZ

ones being Cyrus the Great, Cambyses II, and Darius Hystaspis. While seven other kings fol­ lowed Xerxes on the throne of the Persian Empire, Xerxes was the last Persian emperor to carry war into Greece, whose rise as the dominant world power is described in the verse immediately fol­ lowing.-Da 1 1 : 3. AHAVA ( Aha'va). The name given to a river or canal located in Babylonia, NW of Babylon, where Ezra gathered together certain Jews and held a fast before undertaking the trek to Jerusa­ lem . ( Ezr 8: 15, 21, 31 ) It evidently was a journey of about eight or nine days from Babylon. ( Com­ pare Ezr 7:9; 8: 15, 31. ) Herodotus (I, 179 ) speaks of a little river named Is, which flows into the Eu­ phrates, and states that the city of Is on this river is about eight days' journey from Babylon. Is has been identified with the modern Hit, and some suggest this as the probable location of Ahava. Concerning the town of Hit, The New Encyclo­ pcedia Britannica ( 1987, Vol. 5, p. 949 ) says : "On the Euphrates River, Hit is a small walled town built on two mounds on the site of an ancient city; bitumen wells in the vicinity have been utilized for at least 3,000 years and were used in the building of Babylon." This source of bitumen may corre­ spond to the Biblical account of the construction of the Tower of Babel, in which bitumen served for mortar. -Ge 1 1 : 3. AHAZ (A' haz) [shortened. form of Jehoahaz, meaning "May Jehovah Take Hold; Jehovah Has Taken Hold"]. 1 . The son of King Jotham of Judah. Ahaz be­ gan to reign at the age of 20 and continued for 16 years.-2Ki 16 : 2 ; 2Ch 28: 1 . Since Ahaz' son Hezekiah was 2 5 when h e be­ gan to reign, this would mean that Ahaz was less than 12 years old when fathering him. ( 2Ki 18: 1 , 2 ) Whereas puberty in males is usually reached between the ages of 12 and 15 in temper­ ate climates, it may come earlier in warmer cli­ mates. Marriage customs also vary. Zeitschrift fOr Sermtistik und verwandte Gebiete (edited by E. Littmann, Leipzig, 1927, Vol. 5, p. 132) reported that child marriage is frequent in the Promised Land even in modern times, one case being cited of two brothers aged 8 and 12 who were married, the wife of the older attending school with her husband. However, one Hebrew manuscript, the Syriac Peshitta, and some manuscripts of the Greek Septuagint at 2 Chronicles 28: 1 give "twenty-five years" as the age of Ahaz when be­ ginning to reign. Whatever his exact age, Ahaz died relatively young and left a record of consistent delinquency.

62

AHAZIAH

Despite the fact that Isaiah, Hosea, and Micah all actively prophesied during Ahaz' time, rank idol­ atry marked his reign. He not only allowed it among his subjects but also personally and regu­ larly engaged in pagan sacrificing, to the extent of offering up his own son(s ) in fire in the Valley of Hinnom. ( 2Ki 16:3, 4; 2Ch 28: 3, 4) Because of this abandonment to false worship, Ahaz' rule was beset by a flood of troubles. Syria and the north­ ern kingdom of Israel combined to attack Judah from the N, the Edomites seized the opportunity to hit from the SE, and the Philistines invaded from the W. The valuable port of Elath on the Gulf of 'Aqaba was lost. Zichri, a mighty Ephraimite, killed a son of the king and two of Ahaz' principal men during the northern kingdom's raid that re­ sulted in the slaughter of 120,000 in Judah and the taking captive of some 200,000 Judeans. Only the intervention of the prophet Oded, with the sup­ port of certain leading men of Ephraim, caused these captives to be released to return to JUdah. -2Ch 28: 5 - 15, 17- 19 ; 2Ki 16 : 5 , 6 ; Isa 7: l . Ahaz' 'quivering heart' should have been strengthened by the prophet Isaiah's message from God assuring him that Jehovah would not allow the Syro-Israelite combine to destroy Judah and place a man not of the Davidic line upon the throne. But, when invited to request a sign from God, idolatrous Ahaz replied : "I shall not ask, neither shall I put Jehovah to the test." (Isa 7 : 2 - 1 2 ) Nevertheless, it was foretold that, a s a sign, a maiden would give birth to a son, Immanuel (With Us Is God ), and that before the boy grew up the Syro-Israelite combine would have ceased to pose a threat to Judah.-Isa 7 : 13- 17; 8 : 5 -8. With regard to the "sixty-five years" at Isaiah 7:8, which Isaiah prophesied would be the period within which Ephraim would be "shattered to pieces," the Commentary on the Whole Bible ( by Jamieson, Fausset, and Brown) states: "One depor­ tation of Israel happened within one or two years from this time [the time of Isaiah's prqphecy], under Tiglath-pileser (2 Kings 15. 29 ). Another in the reign of Hoshea, under Shalmaneser ( 2 Kings 17. 1-6), was about twenty years after. But the final one which utterly 'broke' up Israel so as to be 'not a people: accompanied by a colonization of Samaria with foreigners, was under Esar-haddon, who carried away Manasseh, king of Judah, also, in the twenty-second year of his reign, sixty-five years from the utterance of this prophecy ( cf. Ezra 4.2, 3, 10, with 2 Kings 17. 24; 2 Chronicles 33. 11 ). " Vassalage t o Assyria, and Death. Rather than put faith in Jehovah, however, Ahaz, out of fear of the Syro-Israelite conspiracy, chose the

shortsighted policy of bribing Tiglath-pileser III of Assyria to come to his aid. ( Isa 7 : 2-6; 8: 1 2 ) Whatever relief the ambitious Assyrian king now brought to Ahaz by smashing Syria and Israel was only temporary. In the end it "caused him distress, and did not strengthen him" ( 2Ch 28:20), since Ahaz had now brought the heavy yoke of Assyria on Judah. As a vassal king, Ahaz was apparently sum­ moned to Damascus to render homage to Tiglath­ pileser III and, while in that city, admired the pagan altar there, copied its design, and had priest Urijah build a duplicate to be placed before the temple in Jerusalem. Ahaz then presumed to offer sacrifices on this "great altar. " The original copper altar was set to one side until the king should decide what use to make of it. ( 2Ki 16 : 10- 16) Meanwhile he mutilated much of the copper tem­ ple equipment and rearranged other features in the temple area all "because of the king of Assyr­ ia," perhaps to pay the heavy tribute imposed on Judah or possibly to conceal some of the temple wealth from the greedy Assyrian's eyes. The tem­ ple doors were closed and Ahaz "made altars for himself at every corner in Jerusalem. "-2Ki 16: 17, 18; 2Ch 28: 23-25. After 16 years of misrule and rank apostasy Ahaz died, and though buried as his forefathers were "in the City of David" ( 2Ki 16:20), his body was not placed in the royal burial places of the kings. ( 2Ch 28: 27) His name is listed in the royal genealogies.- 1Ch 3 : 13; Mt 1 : 9. The name of Ahaz appears in an inscription of Tiglath-pileser III as Yauhazi.

2. A great-grandson of Jonathan, son of King Saul.-lCh 8 : 35, 36.

AHAZIAH

(Aha·zi'ah) [Jehovah Has Taken Hold ]. The name of two kings, one of Israel, the other of Judah.

1 . Son of Ahab and Jezebel, and king of Israel for two years beginning in about 919 B.C.E. He followed his idolatrous parents in Baal worship. ( 1Ki 22: 51-53) Upon the death of Ahaziah's father, Moab seized the opportunity to revolt and thereby free itself from the heavy tribute of 100,000 lambs and an equal number of male sheep with their wool. ( 2Ki 1 : 1 ; 3:4, 5 ) This revolt is described by King Mesha of Moab in the Moabite Stone inscrip­ tion. Perhaps due to his subsequent accident and early death, Ahaziah made no effort to subjugate the Moabites. Ahaziah did form a maritime alliance with Je­ hoshaphat of Judah for a shipbuilding enterprise

63

AHIEZER

a t Ezion-geber o n the Gulf o f 'Aqaba. The project

Jehoram at Jezreel.-2Ki

was disapproved by God because of Ahaziah's

22:5, 6.

8: 28,

29 ;

9 : 15 ;

2Ch

wickedness, and the ships were wrecked. ( 2Ch

Coordinating the two accounts ( 2Ki 9 : 2 1-28;

20 : 3 5 - 37) The account at 1 Kings 2 2 : 48, 49 shows

2Ch 2 2 : 7-9 ), the following evidently took place:

that Ahaziah wanted Jehoshaphat's authorization

Jehu, on nearing Jezreel, met Jehoram and Ahazi­

for Israelite mariners to man the ships jointly with

ah. Jehu struck down Jehoram, but Ahaziah fled.

those of Judah, a request that Jehoshaphat re­

At this time Jehu did not pursue Ahaziah but

fused. If this request was made prior to the wreck­

continued to Jezreel to finish his executional work

ing of the ships, it may simply indicate Jehosha­

there.

phat's distrust of Ahaziah and caution against

make his way back to Jerusalem; however, he

Meanwhile the fleeing Ahaziah tried to

encroachment by the northern kingdom. If the

only got as far as Samaria, where he tried to hide

request came after the failure of the fleet, it may

himself. Jehu's men, pursuing Ahaziah, discov­

have been an insinuation on Ahaziah's part that

ered him in Samaria and captured him, and he

Jehoshaphat's men were lacking in ability and

was brought to Jehu, who was near the town of

were responsible for the wreckage of the ships and

Ibleam, not far from Jezreel. When Jehu saw Aha­

hence the suggestion that the ships be refitted and

ziah, he ordered his men to kill him in his chariot.

sent out again with Israelite sailors also on board.

They struck and wounded him on the way up to

In that case Jehoshaphat's refusal may have been

Gur, near Ibleam; but Ahaziah was allowed to

in acknowledgment of God's manifest disapproval of the project. A house accident, in which the king fell through a grating ( perhaps one covering a daylight shaft) in his roof chamber, left him bedridden and seri­ ously ill. ( 2Ki 1 : 2 ) As if the true God no longer existed, Ahaziah sent messengers to inquire of the Philistine god Baal-zebub ( meaning "Owner of the Flies " ) as to his prospects of recovery. Intercepted by the prophet Elijah, the messengers turned back and delivered the message to the king that his sickbed would become his deathbed. Instead of humbling himself, Ahaziah sent a force of 50 men under their captain to bring Elijah in to him. That force and a second one, after giving Elijah the king's order to "come down" from the mountain where he was sitting, were both destroyed by fire. A third force sent by the stubborn king escaped only by virtue of the captain's respectful plea that he and his men's lives "be precious in [ Elijah's] eyes. " Elijah thereafter descended and delivered the death message to Ahaziah's face. Ahaziah gradually died and, being sonless, was succeeded by his brother Jehoram.-2Ki 1 : 2- 1 7 .

2 . Son o f Jehoram and Athaliah and listed as king of Judah for one year (c. 906 B.c.E. ). During his father's reign the Philistines and Arabs invad­ ed Judah and took captive all of Jehoram's sons except Jehoahaz ( Ahaziah ), the youngest. ( 2Ch

escape, and he fled to Megiddo, where he died of his wounds. He was then taken to Jerusalem and buried there. The accounts of his death are not contradictory but complementary. Second Chronicles 2 2 : 7 points out that Ahazi­ ah's death "was from God," and thus Jehu acted as God's executioner in slaying this man who fellow­ shipped with the condemned house of Ahab. Aha­ ziah is also referred to as "Azariah" at 2 Chronicles 2 2 : 6 ( though here 15 Hebrew manuscripts read uAhaziah"), and as "Jehoahaz" at 2 Chronicles 2 1 : 1 7 ; 2 5 : 23 (a case of transposing the divine name to serve as a prefix instead of as a suffix).

AHBAN

( Ah'ban). Son of Abishur and Abihail

of the tribe of Judah.- 1 Ch 2 : 29 .

AHER

(A' her) [ Another ]. A descendant o f Ben­

jamin ( l Ch 7: 1 2 ), likely the same as Ahiram ( Nu 26 : 38) or Aharah ( l Ch 8 : 1 ), for which names Aher could be a contracted form.

AHI

( A' hi ) [ from a root meaning "brother"].

1. Son of Abdiel, a family head from the tribe of Gad . - 1Ch 5 : 1 5 .

2 . One o f four sons o f Shemer, a chieftain o f the tribe of Asher from the family of Beriah. - 1 Ch 7 : 30, 3 1 , 34.

AHIAM

( Ahi'am ). The son of Sharar ( Sacar)

the Hararite ; one of David's 30 mighty men of the

2 1 : 16, 1 7 ; 2 2 : 1 ) He was a young man of 22 years

military forces.-2Sa 2 3 : 3 3 ; 1 Ch 1 1 : 35 .

when ascending the throne, and his domineering

AHIAN

( Ahi'an )

Shemida, 7 : 14, 19.

from

mother Athaliah, daughter of Ahab and Jezebel, influenced him to wickedness. ( 2Ki 8 : 2 5 -27; 2Ch 2 2 : 2- 4 ) He accompanied King Jehoram of Israel

the

[ Little tribe

Brother ]. of

A

son

of

Manasseh. -1 Ch

( his maternal uncle) in a fight against Syria at

AHIEZER

Ramoth-gilead, which resulted in Jehoram's being

1. Son of Ammishaddai and chieftain of the tribe of Dan, selected a year after the Exodus. ( Nu

wounded. Later, Ahaziah visited the convalescing

(A·hi·e'zer) [ My Brother Is a Helper].

64

AHIHUD 1 : 1 , 4, 1 2 ) In this capacity he assisted Moses with the census, commanded the rearguard three-tribe division when on the march, and presented his offering on the tenth day of the inauguration of the altar at the tabernacle.-Nu 2 : 25 ; 7 : 66, 71 ; 10: 25. 2. A son of Shemaah the Gibeathite, and head of the mighty Benjamites that came to David's support at Ziklag.-1Ch 1 2 : 1-3.

AHIHUD

( Ahi'hud ). Despite differences in He­ brew spelling and vowel pointing, the names of the two different individuals below are speJled the same in English. 1 . [ 'Achi·hudh ', possibly, "Brother Is Dignity" ]. Son of Shelomi; as chieftain of the tribe of Asher, he was chosen to assist in dividing the Promised Land among the people.-Nu 34: 18, 27, 29.

2. [ 'Achi-chudh ']. Brother of Uzza, of the tribe of Benjamin. - 1 Ch 8 : 7.

AHIJAH

( Ahi'jah) [Jehovah Is ( My ) Brother].

1 . The fifth-named son of Jerahmeel, of the

8. Father of Baasha, who conspired against Na­ dab and made himself king of Israel; of the tribe of Issachar.- 1 Ki 15 : 27, 3 3 ; 2Ki 9:9.

9 . One of the 44 heads of the people whose descendant, if not he himself, joined in sealing Nehemiah's "trustworthy arrangement" to walk in Jehovah's laws.-Ne 10: 26 ; 9: 38.

AHIKAM

( Ahi'kam) [ ( My) Brother Has Raised Himself Up [ that is, to the battle ]]. Son of Shaphan the royal secretary during Josiah's reign. Ahikam was one of the five sent to the prophetess Huldah by Josiah to inquire concerning what they had read in the recently discovered book of the Law. ( 2Ki 22: 12-14; 2Ch 34: 20-22 ) Later he protected Jeremiah's life when it was threatened. ( Jer 26: 24 ) Ahikam's son Gedaliah was governor of Judah after Jerusalem's destruction in 607 B.C.E.-2Ki 2 5 : 2 2 ; Jer 40: 5 .

AHILUD ( Ahi'lud ). Father o f David's royal re­ corder Jehoshaphat. ( 2Sa 8 : 16 ; 1Ch 18: 15) Likely the father of Baana, a deputy of food supplies under Solomon. -1Ki 4 : 7, 12.

tribe of Judah . - 1 Ch 2 : 25.

AHIMAAZ

8 : 6, 7) Some think he is the same as Ahoah in verse 4.

2. Son of the priest Zadok and father of Aza­ riah. ( l Ch 6 : 8, 9, 5 3 ) When Absalom rebelled against his father David and usurped the throne, young Ahimaaz served a vital role in communicat­ ing intelligence to David. When about to be caught on one occasion, he and his companion hid in a well, the mouth of which a woman camouflaged with grain. ( 2 Sa 15 : 27, 36 ; 17 : 17-21 ) When Absa­ lom was killed, a Cushite runner was picked to take the news to David. Ahimaaz kept insisting that he too be allowed to run . Permission granted, he overtook the first runner and, upon approach­ ing the city, was recognized by his running style. "This is a good man, and with good news he should come," exclaimed David. It proved to be so; Ahimaaz reported good news and left the bad for the second courier to deliver. ( 2Sa 18: 19-32 ) Whether Ahimaaz was ever high priest is not certain. Some suggest he may have died before his father, thereby allowing Ahimaaz' son Azariah to succeed Zadok. - 1 Ki 4 : 2 ; 1Ch 6 : 8 - 10.

2. A family head in the tribe of Benjamin. ( l Ch

3 . Son of Ahitub and great-grandson of Eli. He served as high priest in Shiloh when Saul was king. ( l Sa 14 : 3, 18) Some suggest that he was either a brother of Ahimelech or, by substituting "melech" for "jah" in his name, was Ahimelech. - l Sa 2 2 :9. 4 . One of the mighty men in David's army, a Pelonite. - 1 Ch 11 : 36.

5. A Levite appointed over the treasures of Jehovah's house in David's reign. - 1 Ch 26: 20.

6. Son of Shisha. He and his brother Elihoreph were Solomon's princely secretaries.- 1 Ki 4 : 2 , 3.

7. A prophet of Jehovah residing in Shiloh who foretold how Solomon's kingdom would be split. Ripping a new garment into 12 parts, Ahijah gave 10 pieces to Jeroboam, promising that if Jeroboam proved faithful, Jehovah would build him "a last­ ing house. " ( l Ki 11 : 29- 39 ; 12 : 15 ; 2Ch 10 : 15 ) After years of wicked rule Jeroboam sent his wife to inquire of Ahijah concerning the welfare of his sick son. The prophet, now old and blind, foretold that the boy would soon die and that Jehovah would "make a clean sweep behind the house of Jeroboam, just as one clears away the dung. " ( l Ki 14: 2-18; 15 : 29 ) "The prophecy of Ahijah," one of the written records including Solomon's affairs, survived to the time of Ezra's compilation of Chronicles. -2Ch 9 : 29.

( Ahim'a·az ).

1. Father of Saul's wife Ahinoam.- 1Sa 14:50.

3 . Husband of Solomon's daughter Basemath, and one of the 12 deputies appointed to provide food for the king's household one month out of the year from the territory of Naphtali. ( l Ki 4 : 7, 1 5 ) Some suggest that h e was the same individual as No. 2.

AHlMAN

( Ahi'man ).

1 . Brother of Sheshai and Talmai. Likely Ahi­

man, Sheshai, and Talmai are to be understood as

65 representing three families o f Anakim residing i n Hebron when Canaan was spied out b y the Israel­ ites in 1512 B.c.E. ( Nu 13: 22, 28, 3 3 ) Many years later these Anakim were dispossessed by Caleb and the conquering Judeans.-Jos 14: 10- 1 5 ; 1 5 : 1 3 , 1 4 ; J g 1 : 10.

2. A Levite and one of the trusted gatekeepers of Jerusalem after the return from Babylonian exile.- 1 Ch 9 : 17, 18.

AHIMELECH

( Ahim'e·lech).

1 . Son of Ahitub and great-grandson of Eli ;

high priest at the tabernacle located at Nob. Be­ cause of giving aid to David, not knowing he was a fugitive from Saul, Ahimelech ( along with 84 other priests of Jehovah as well as the men, wom­ en, and children of Nob) was massacred by the Edomite Doeg. Abiathar was the only son of Ahimelech to escape. ( 1Sa chaps 21 , 22) David, later composing Psalm 52, recounted Doeg's hei­ nous act. ( Ps 5 2 : Sup) Jesus too recalled David's experience with Ahimelech.-Mt 1 2 : 3 , 4; Mr 2 : 25, 26 ; Lu 6 : 3, 4; see AHIJAH No. 3.

2 . Son of Abiathar and grandson of Ahimelech, whom Doeg killed.- 1Ch 18: 16; 24 : 3, 6, 31. 3 . A Hittite who was invited but who did not accompany David when he slipped into Saul's camp at night.- 1Sa 26 :6, 7.

AHITHOPHEL

2. A Benjamite, son of Jeiel by his wife Maacah. -lCh 8 : 29 , 31 ; 9 : 3 5-37. 3. Son of Abinadab of Kiriath-jearim. The ark of the covenant was being moved to Jerusalem on a new wagon; Ahio was walking ahead when his brother Uzzah was struck down for touching the Ark.-2Sa 6 : 3, 4; l Ch 13 : 7- 10.

AHIRA

(Ahi'ra) [possibly, My Brother Is a Companion ( Friend ) ]. The son of Enan, and the chieftain of the tribe of Naphtali during the wil­ derness wandering. Following the other chief­ tains, he made his own contribution at the inaugu­ ration of the altar.-Nu 1 : 15 ; 2 : 29 ; 7 : 1-3, 78 ; 10: 27.

AHIRAM

( Ahi'ram) [ My Brother Is High ( Ex­ alted ) ]. A son of Benjamin and founder of a family. ( Nu 26:38) Apparently the same as Ehi at Genesis 46 : 21 and Aharah at 1 Chronicles 8 : 1 .

AHIRAMITES

( Ahi'ram·ites ) [ Of ( Belonging to ) Ahiram ]. A family descended from Ahiram, a son of Benjamin.-Nu 26: 38.

AHISAMACH

(Ahis'a·mach) [ My Brother Has Supported ]. Danite father of Oholiab, who was the skilled craftsman associated with Bezalel in con­ structing the tabernacle.-Ex 31 : 2-6 ; 35 : 34; 38:23.

AHIMOTH (Ahi'moth) ( possibly, Brother of Death ]. A Levite son of Elkanah of the family of Kohath. - 1 Ch 6 : 25.

AHISHAHAR

AHINADAB

AHISHAR

( Ahin'a·dab) (Brother Is Willing ( Noble; Generous ) ]. One of the 12 deputies respon­ sible to provide food for Solomon's royal household on a monthly rotation basis. ( l Ki 4:7, 14) Head­ quartered in Mahanaim, his assigned territory was located in southern Gilead.

AHINOAM

(Ahin'o·am) ( Brother Is Pleasant­

ness ].

1. King Saul's wife, daughter of Ahimaaz, and apparently the mother of Jonathan. - 1 Sa 14: 49, 50. 2. The Jezreelite wife of David. ( lSa 25:43; 2Sa 2 : 2 ) She accompanied David in his exile to Philis­ tia, was captured by Amalekite raiders at Ziklag, and was rescued unharmed. ( l Sa 27 : 3 ; 30:5, 18) Later, in Hebron, she became the mother of Da­ vid's firstborn, Amnon. -2Sa 3 : 2 ; lCh 3 : 1 .

AHIO

(Ahi'o) (shortened form of Ahijah; or, possibly, Little Brother]. 1 . Apparently a son of Beriah and grandson of Elpaal, of the tribe of Benjamin.-1Ch 8: 12-16.

(Ahish'a·har) [ Brother of the Dawn]. Last-named son of Bilhan and descendant of Benjamin.-1Ch 7:6, 10, 1 1 . charge 4 : 2, 6 .

of

(Ahi'shar). The princely steward in Solomon's palace household.-1Ki

AHITHOPHEL ( Ahith'o·phel ). A native o f Gi­ loh in the hills of Judah ( 2Sa 15 : 1 2 ), father of one of David's mighty men named Eliam, and possibly the grandfather of Bath-sheba. ( 2Sa 11 : 3 ; 2 3 : 34 ) A s David's personal adviser, Ahithophel's saga­ cious counsel was esteemed as if it were the direct word of Jehovah. ( 2Sa 16 : 2 3 ) Later this once­ close companion treacherously turned traitor and joined David's son Absalom in a coup against the king. As a ringleader in the rebellion, he advised Absalom to violate David's concubines, and he asked permission to raise an army of 1 2,000 and immediately hunt down and kill David while Da­ vid was in a disorganized and weakened state. ( 2Sa 15 : 31 ; 16 : 15, 21 ; 17: 1-4 ) When Jehovah thwarted this bold scheme, and the counsel of Hushai was followed, Ahithophel evidently real­ ized that Absalom's revolt would fail. ( 2Sa 1 5 : 32-34; 1 7 : 5 - 14 ) He committed suicide and was

66

AHITUB buried with his forefathers. ( 2Sa 17: 23 ) Apart from wartime, this is the only case of suicide mentioned in the Hebrew Scriptures. His traitor­ ous act is apparently recalled in Psalm 5 5 : 12-14.

AHITUB

(Ahi'tub) [ My Brother Is Goodness ].

1. A descendant of Aaron's son Ithamar; son of

Phinehas and grandson of High Priest Eli. ( lSa 14: 3 ; 1Ch 24: 3 ) Following the death of his father and grandfather on the same day, Ahitub possibly officiated as high priest. ( l Sa 4: 17, 18) His son, High Priest Ahimelech, was slain at Saul's com­ mand.- l Sa 2 2:9-20.

2. Son of Amariah, a descendant of Aaron's son Eleazar. ( l Ch 6 : 3-8) There is no indication that he acted as high priest; this office was in the line of Ithamar at the time. Ahitub's son Zadok served as a secondary priest, not as high priest, during the reign of David, and then was assigned to replace Abiathar as high priest during the reign of Solo­ mon.-2Sa 8: 17; lCh 18: 16 ; 1Ki 1 : 8; 2 : 27. 3. Another priest who descended from Ahitub No. 2. Genealogical listings are interrupted to call him "a leader of the house of the true God . " ( l Ch 9 : 11 ; Ne 11 : 1 1 ) His father's name was also Ama­ riah, and from 1 Chronicles 9 : 11 and Nehemiah 1 1 : 11 it appears that his son was Meraioth and his grandson was Zadok.-lCh 6 : 1 1 , 1 2 ; Ezr 7 : 2.

AHLAB (Ah'lab ). This Canaanite town was lo­ cated in Asher's territory. (Jg 1 : 31 ) The tribe, however, failed to drive out the Canaanites, who subsequently continued to inhabit the city. The location is at present uncertain. AHLAI

(Ah'lai ).

1 . Likely the daughter of Sheshan of the tribe of

Judah, given in marriage to her father's Egyptian servant Jarha for whom she bore AttaL However, Ahlai, if actually a son of Sheshan, may have died early.- 1Ch 2 : 31 , 34, 35. 2 . Father of Zabad, who was a mighty man in David's army.-1Ch 11 :41 .

AHOAH (Aho'ah ), AHOHI (Aho'hi ), AHO­ HITE (Aho'hite). A descendant of Benjamin through Bela. ( l Ch 8: 1 -4 ) Perhaps the same as Ahijah in 1 Chronicles 8 : 7. Some of his descen­ dants, Ahohites, were prominent fighters in Da­ vid's army.-2Sa 23:9, 28; 1Ch 11 : 12, 29 ; 27:4.

AHUMAI

(Ahu'mai). First-named son of Ja­ hath in the genealogies of Judah.- 1 Ch 4: 1 , 2.

AHUZZAM

( Ahuz'zam ) [ from a root meaning "take hold"]. First-named son of Ashhur, of the tribe of Judah, by his wife Naarah.- l Ch 4:5, 6 ; 2 : 3-5, 24.

AHUZZATH

(Ahuz'zath) [Possession). The "confidential friend" who accompanied Abimelech, Philistine king of Gerar, on a visit to Isaac at Beer-sheba. ( Ge 26: 23, 26) This is the first refer­ ence in the Bible to a "confidential friend," the trusted inner-circle position -of one consulted for advice or authorized as spokesman.-See FRIEND ( Friend [ Companion] of the King ).

AHZAI (Ah'zai) [shortened form of Ahaziah, meaning "Jehovah Has Taken Hold"). Son of Me­ shillemoth and ancestor of certain priests in Jeru­ salem after the Babylonian exile. ( Ne 1 1 : 1 3 ) Some believe he is the Jahzerah listed in 1 Chronicles 9: 12. AI (A'i ) [ Heap of Ruins]. In the King James Version also called "Hai," with the definite article prefixed, as it is in the Hebrew. The name also occurs in the feminine forms Aiath and Aija.-Isa 10:28; Ne 1 1 : 31 . 1 . A royal city o f the Canaanites, the second city taken during the Israelite invasion. Ai was situated "close by Beth-aven, to the east of Bethel, " with a valley plain to the N . (Jos 7 : 2 ; 8 : 1 1 , 1 2 ) Michmash apparently lay t o the S.-Isa 10 : 28. Shortly after arrival in Canaan, Abraham had pitched his tent "with Bethel on the west and Ai on the east." He built an altar there and revisited the place after his sojourn in Egypt.-Ge 1 2 : 8 ; 13:3. In 1473 B.C.E. , following the victory over Jeri­ cho, Ai was attacked by a small force of about 3,000 Israelite soldiers, since the spies said of the inhabitants of Ai, "They are few. " ( Jos 7:2 , 3 ) However, because of Achan's sin Israel suffered defeat. (Jos 7:4- 15 ) After correction of this matter, Joshua employed a stratagem against Ai, setting an ambush at the rear of the city on its W side. The main force was deployed before the city to the N, where a valley or low desert plain lay, and from here Joshua prepared for a frontal attack on Ai. Having lured the king of Ai and a body of men out of Ai, Joshua's force feigned retreat until their pursuers were far from their fortress. Then the ambush was signaled into action, and the city was captured and set on fire. ( Jos 8: 1 -27) Ai's king was executed, and the city was reduced to "an indef­ initely lasting mound [ Heb. , tel), as a desolation down to this day. "-Jos 8 : 28. By Isaiah's time, in the eighth century B.C.E. , the city, or perhaps an adjoining site, was inhabit­ ed and it was prophesied that it would be the first to be taken by the king of Assyria in his march on Jerusalem. ( Isa 10: 28) Following the Babylonian exile, Benjamites from Ai returned with Zerubba­ bel's caravan.-Ezr 2 : 28; Ne 7 : 3 2 ; 11 : 3 1 .

67

Low Plain of Aijalon. When figh ting the Amorites, Josh ua called for the moon to be motionless "over the low plain of Aijalon "

Ai has been generally identified with the site Khirbet et-Tell ( Horvat et-Tel ), which preserves the meaning of the ancient name ( et-Tell means "The Mound ; The Heap of Ruins" ). It is 2 . 3 km ( 1 .4 mi ) ESE of Bethel ( modern Beitin). How­ ever, excavations made there in 1933- 1935 and in 1964-1972 indicate that it was a large city, devastated about 2000 B.c.E. and thereafter unin­ habited until about 1050 B.C.E. ( according to ar­ chaeological methods of dating ). Because of this, various attempts have been made by archaeolo­ gists to alter the sense of the Scriptural references to Ai. However, archaeologist J. Simons finds the identification with Khirbet et-Tell unacceptable on the basis of the city's size ( Jos 7 : 3 ), the fact that there is no broad valley to the N of Khirbet et-Tell (Jos 8: 11 ), and on other grounds. (American Jour­ nal of Archaeology, July-September 1947, p. 311 ) If the archaeological dating is correct, then the site must be located elsewhere. The name itself would not necessarily identify the place, since as Sir Frederic Kenyon states: "The transference of a name from a ruined or abandoned site to another near by is a common phenomenon in Palestine. " - The Bible and ArchCEOlogy, 1940, p . 190. 2. A city mentioned along with Heshbon in Jeremiah's prophecy against the Ammonites. (Jer 49: 3 ) The location is unknown.

AIJALON

AIAH

( A'iah ) [ Black Kite].

1. First named of two sons of the Hivite sheik

Zibeon and uncle to one of Esau's wives, Oholiba­ mah.-Ge 36 : 2, 20, 24, 29 ; l Ch 1 : 40. 2. Father of Saul's concubine Rizpah. His two grandsons from this union were executed.-2Sa 3 : 7 ; 21 : 8- 1 1 .

See Al No. 1 .

AIATH. AIJA.

See Al No. 1 .

AIJALON

(Ai'ja·lon ) [ Place of the Hind; Place of the Stag ]. 1. A city of the Shephelah or hilly lowland of Palestine, on a hill at the S end of the beautiful low plain, or valley, of Aijalon. The village at this site is now called Yalo and is situated just N of the road from Jerusalem to Tel Aviv-Yafo, about 21 km ( 13 mi) WNW of Jerusalem. The Valley of Aijalon is the northernmost of several valleys cutting across the hills of the She­ phelah and was an important pass leading from the coastal plains up into the central mountainous region. Joshua was evidently near this plain when he called for the sun and the moon to stand "motionless" over Gibeon and over "the low plain of Aijalon," when he was completing his victorious battle against the five Amorite kings who had warred against Gibeon. (Jos 10 : 12-14) After Josh­ ua's conquest of Canaan, Aijalon was assigned to the tribe of Dan. ( Jos 19 :40-42 ) It was later

68

AIN

assigned to the sons of Kohath as a Levite city. -Jos 21 : 24. The Danites at first proved unable to oust the Amorites from Aijalon, but it appears that Ephra­ im from the N came to their aid and "the hand of the house of Joseph got to be so heavy that they [the Amorites j were forced into task work. " (Jg 1 : 34, 35 ) This may be the reason 1 Chronicles 6 : 69 lists Aijalon as belonging to Ephraim and as given by them to the Kohathites. ( See, however, the corresponding case of GATH-RIMMON No. 1 . ) Later on, perhaps after the division of the kingdom, it is spoken of as the city of certain prominent Benja­ mites.-1Ch 8: 13. At Aijalon, Saul won his first victory over the Philistines, when Israel "kept striking down the [fleeing j Philistines from Michmash to Aijalon. " ( 1 Sa 14: 31 ) Many years after that, when the king­ dom had been divided after King Solomon's death (c. 998 B.C.E. ), his son and successor Rehoboam fortified Aijalon and made it one of his strongholds against the N and W. ( 2Ch 11 : 5- 1 2 ) Almost two and a half centuries later, Aijalon was lost to the Philistines during the reign of unfaithful King Ahaz ( 761 -746 B.C.E. ).-2Ch 28 : 18. Aijalon is mentioned in one of the Amarna Tab­ lets as Aialuna.

2. A place in the territory of Zebulun, where Judge Elon of that tribe was buried. (Jg 1 2 : 1 2 ) Its site is uncertain.

AIN ( A'in) [Fountain; Spring]. The word literal­ ly means "eye" but by analogy is used to mean a natural spring or fountain as distinguished from a man-made well or tank, which latter water source is expressed by the Hebrew terms be'er' and bohr. ( Ge 49: 2 2 ; De 8 : 7 ; see CISTERN ; WELL. ) It is often written "En-" when used in compounds, as En­ rimmon, En-gedi, En-gannim. 1. A place mentioned by Jehovah when setting out the E boundary of Israel to Moses. ( Nu 34: 11 ) The "Riblah" mentioned in this text as being "on the east of Ain" evidently does not refer to the Riblah in the land of Hamath considerably to the N of Damascus, inasmuch as Ain is named in relation to the Sea of Chinnereth (Galilee ). It lay to the N of that sea, but its exact location is uncer­ tain. 2. One of the southernmost cities originally as­ signed to the tribe of Judah ( Jos 1 5 : 3 2 ), then assigned to the tribe of Simeon when part of Simeon's allotment was taken out from Judah's overly large territory. ( Jos 19: 1 , 7, 9 ; 1 Ch 4: 24, 32) Ain was near the city of Rimmon, and it appears that when it was resettled following the exile in

Babylon, the names of the two places were com­ bined as one: En-rimmon. (Ne 1 1 : 29 ) As such, it is usually identified with Khirbet Umm er-Ramamin ( Horvat Remalya), lying about 15 km (9 mi ) N of Beer-sheba.-See RIMMON No. 2. 3. At Joshua 21 : 16 Ain is listed as one of the cities given to the Levites. A comparison of this text with Joshua 15 :42; 19 : 7 and 1 Chronicles 6 : 59 indicates that the city here referred to is else­ where called Ashan.-See AsHAN.

AKAN ( A'kan ). Last named of three sons of Sheik Ezer of the Seirites. (Ge 36: 20, 21, 27) The Masoretic text reads "Jaakan" at 1 Chronicles 1 :42, but the Greek Septuagin t ( Codex Alexandrinus ) and 22 Hebrew manuscripts read "Akan" in agree­ ment with Genesis 3 6 : 27. AKELDAMA

(Akel'da·ma) [Field of Blood). The name applied by the Jews to the plot of land, the purchase of which resulted from "the wages for unrighteousness" paid to Judas Iscariot for his betrayal of Christ Jesus. (Ac 1 : 18, 19 ) It has been identified as the Haqq ed-Dumm ( meaning "Price of Blood") on the S side of the Valley of Hinnom, on the "Hill of Evil Counsel," which is a level plot of land a short distance up the slope. Upon this spot are ruins of a charnel house. A little to the SE is the Minzar Haqal Dema' (Akeldama Monastery) erected over the remains of cave tombs. The statement at Acts 1 : 18 that Judas "pur­ chased a field" indicates that he furnished the means for purchasing the field, or was the occa­ sion of doing so. The record at Matthew 27: 3-10 shows that the priests used the 30 pieces of silver (if shekels, $66) thrown into the temple by Judas to make the actual purchase and that this "Field of Blood" was previously a potter's field and was obtained by the priests "to bury strangers. " ( See POTTER'S FIELD. ) The suggested location has been used as a burial site from early centuries. Why does Matthew attribute the prophecy of Zechariah 1 1 : 12, 13 to Jerem iah ?

The fulfillment of prophecy recorded by Mat­ thew is based on "what was spoken through Jere­ miah the prophet." Jeremiah was at times placed first in "the book of the prophets," and this section of prophecies therefore included not only Jeremi­ ah's writings but also those of Zechariah. (Com­ pare Lu 24 :44. ) The quotation made by Matthew appears to be drawn principally from Zechariah 1 1 : 12, 13, but paraphrased by Matthew and ap-

69

plied to the circumstances fulfilling it, this under inspiration by God's spirit. As a potter's field the land would be considered as worn out and of little value, worth only the price of a slave.

AKKUB

(Ak'kub) [probably, One Seizing the Heel; Supplanter].

1. Father of a family of Nethinim who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel, 5 37 B.C.E.-Ezr 2 : 1 , 2, 45. 2. A postexilic Levitical gatekeeper and fami­ ly head of gatekeepers. - 1 Ch 9 : 17; Ezr 2 :42 ; Ne 7:45 ; 11 : 19 ; 12: 25. 3. One of the 13 Levites who assisted Ezra with "explaining the law to the people."-Ne 8 : 7, 8. 4. Fourth named of seven sons of Elioenai, among the last descendants of David enrolled in Hebrew Scripture genealogy.-1 Ch 3 : 24.

AKRABBIM ( Akrab'bim) [ Scorpions]. An up­ ward slope or ascent on the SE frontier of Judah that constituted a boundary division when Ca­ naan was apportioned to Israel. ( Nu 34:4; Jg 1 : 36) It was situated about 29 km ( 18 mi ) SW of the southern end of the Dead Sea and near the Wilder­ ness of Zin. The area has been identified with present-day Naqb es-Safa ( Ma'ale 'Aqrabbim), where the road from Beer-sheba to the Arabah descends abruptly into the Wadi Murra ( Nahal Zin) . The name may have been derived from the abundance of scorpions in this desert country or perhaps from the way the road repeatedly curves back on itself like the tail of a scorpion. It was evidently an ancient route used to go down to Edom and S to 'Aqaba on the Gulf of 'Aqaba. ALABASTER.

The name of small perfume vaselike vessels originally made of a stone found near Alabastron, Egypt. The stone itself, a form of calcium carbonate, also came to be known by the same name. David collected "alabaster [ Heb. , sha'­ yish] stones in great quantity" for the building of Jehovah's temple in Jerusalem.- 1 Ch 29 : 2. This ancient or "Oriental" alabaster should not be confused with a modern alabaster, a hydrated calcium sulfate that is easily scratched. The origi­ nal alabaster is usually white and, because it is a stalagmite formation, sometimes has streaks of various colors. It approaches the hardness of mar­ ble but will not receive quite as high a polish. The solid alabaster was bored or drilled out to contain as much as a Roman pound (0.33 kg ; 0.72 lb) of liquid. ( Joh 12: 3 ) The alabaster case (Gr. , a·la 'ba­ stron) was usually fashioned with a narrow neck that could be effectively sealed to prevent the escape of the precious scent.

' ALEPH

When less costly materials such as gypsum were used to make such cases, these too were called alabasters simply because of the use to which they were put. However, cases made from genuine alabaster were used for the more costly ointments and perfumes, like those with which Jesus was anointed on two occasions-once in the house of a Pharisee in Galilee ( Lu 7: 37) and once in the house of Simon the leper in Bethany.-Mt 26:6, 7 ; Mr 14: 3 .

ALAMOTH (Al'a·moth) [ Maidens ; Young Women]. Evidently a term of musical execution. It probably refers to the soprano voices of young women or the falsetto of boys. In 1 Chronicles 1 5 : 20, stringed instruments are described as be­ ing "tuned to Alamoth," the term being transliter­ ated. However, in the superscription to Psalm 46 'ala·moh th ' is translated "Maidens. " At 1 Chronicles 1 5 : 2 1 , the verse following the above citation, another musical expression is transliterated, namely, shemi·nith ', referring to "harps tuned to Sheminith. " In the superscriptions of Psalms 6 and 12 this word is translated "lower octave. " While the two terms Alamoth and Shem­ inith are not necessarily opposites in meaning, some scholars believe they do stand in contrast to each other. The contents of the respective psalms seem to indicate this also : Both psalms ( 6 and 1 2 ) containing shemi·nith' in their superscriptions are somewhat plaintive and would accordingly be ac­ companied in a more somber, lower range; whereas Psalm 46, containing 'ala·mohth' in its superscription, is joyous and reasonably would have accompaniment or be sung in a higher regis­ ter.-See HARP; MUSIC.

ALEMETH

(AI'e·meth).

1. Listed as the last of nine sons of Becher born in Egypt some time after 1728 B.C.E.- 1Ch 7:8; Ge 46 : 2 1 , 26. 2. A son of Jehoaddah ( or Jarah) and a direct descendant of King Saul. His two brothers were Azmaveth and Zimri . - 1 Ch 8 : 3 6 ; 9 : 42. 3. A town of Benjamin.-See ALMON.

'ALEPH [ X ] ( 'A'leph). The first letter of the Hebrew alphabet. The name assigned to this letter is the same as the Hebrew word for "ox; cow . " -Compare P s 8 : 7 ; D e 7 : 13. In Hebrew 'a'leph is not a vowel but a consonant and has no true equivalent in English. It is trans­ literated in writing by a raised comma ( ' ). As pronounced in Hebrew it is the softest of guttural sounds (that is, sounds pronounced in the throat)

70

ALEXANDER and is like the slight guttural sound given to the silent "h" at the beginning of the English word "hour," or like with the second

"0"

in "cooperate. "

I n the Hebrew, the first eight verses i n Psalm 119 begin with

'aleph.

ALEXANDER (Al·ex·an'der) [ Defender of Man].

1.

Jerusalem, on the other hand, opened its gates in surrender, and according to Josephus

( Jewish AntiqUities, XI, 337 [viii, 5 ] ), Alexander was shown the book of Daniel's prophecy, presumably chapter 8, where a mighty Greek king would subdue and conquer the Persian Empire. There­ upon, Alexander spared Jerusalem and pushed S

Alexander the Great, son of Philip II of Mac­

into Egypt, where he was greeted as a deliverer.

edonia and his wife Olympias, born at Pella in

There he founded the city of Alexandria, the

356 B.c.E. Although not mentioned by name in

seat of learning where the Greek

the Bible, his rule of the fifth world empire was

made.

foretold two centuries before his birth. -Da 8: 5-7,

from Egypt through Palestine, and with 47,000

20, 2 1 .

men, overpowered a reorganized Persian army of

Looking

eastward,

Septuagin t was

Alexander

returned

In his early 20's, two years after ascending the

1 ,000,000 near Gaugamela. In quick succession

throne following the assassination of his father,

Darius III was murdered by onetime friends, Bab­

Alexander set out to conquer the world. ( Da 8 : 5 )

ylon surrendered, and Alexander pushed on to

This dashing young military strategist deployed

secure Susa and Persepolis. From there he contin­

his comparatively

ued his campaign into India before looking west­

small army in deep-ranked

phalanx formation, a tactic that was introduced by his father and that Alexander developed to a high degree of efficiency.

ward again.

Postconquest Events.

Alexander had great

plans for rebuilding Babylon and making it his

Instead of pursuing the fleeing Persians after

capital, but they were never realized. As Daniel

two decisive victories in Asia Minor ( the first at

had foretold, he was cut down and broken in

the Granicus River; the second on the Plain of

death. ( Da 8 : 8 ) Alexander's ambition to rebuild

Issus, where a great Persian army estimat­ ed at half a million met utter defeat ), Al­ exander turned his at­ tention to the island city of Tyre. Centuries earlier

it

foretold

had

been

that

the

walls, towers, houses, and the very dust of Tyre would be pitched into the sea. ( Eze 2 6 : 4, 12)

It

is,

therefore,

quite significant that Alexander rubble

took

of

mainland

the city

old de­

nezzar some years be­ and

built

with

it an 800-m ( 0. 5 mi ) out

to

city.

The

causeway the

island

pounding by his navy and

engines

of

war

destroyed that proud mistress of the sea in July 3 3 2 B . c.E.

Pro p hecy

Fulfi l l ment

"A m a l e o f t h e goats . . . proceeded to s t r i ke down t he ram and to break its two hor n s . " "T he ram t h at you saw possess i n g t h e two horns stands for t h e k i ng s o f Med i a and Per s i a . And t he h a i ry h e-goat stands for t h e k i n g of G reece . " ( Oa 8 : 5 , 7 , 20, 2 1 )

After defeat i n g t he Medo-Persian forces twice in As ia M i nor, Alexander's army pus hed fi rst t o t he S and t h e n to t h e E , com p l etely conquering t h e M edo-Pers ian E m pi re

"And you r [Tyre's] d u st t h ey w i l l p l ace i n the very m idst of t h e water . " ( Eze 2 6 : 4 , 1 2 )

I n 3 3 2 B . C . E . , Alexander u sed t h e r u bble o f t h e old m a i n l a nd city of Tyre to b u i l d a cau seway to t he i s l a nd c i t y , w h i c h he destroyed

"As soon as it became m ig h t y , t h e g reat horn was broke n . " ( Oa 8 : 8 )

I n 323 B . C . E . , a t 32 years of age , h e w a s stricken a n d d ied

"Oesol ate wastes t o t i me i ndefi n ite are what [ Babylon ] w i l l become." ( Jer 5 1 : 26 )

His g rand iose plans to reb u i l d Baby l o n a s h i s capital t h u s fai led , and f i n a l l y i t s site beca me a deso l ate waste

"His k i ngdom w i l l be broken and be d ivided . . . b u t not to h i s posterity . " ( Oa 1 1 : 4 )

Alexander'S h e i rs were m u rdered , and t h e k i ngdom fell apart

"The g reat horn was broke n , and t here proceeded to come u p . . . four i n s tead o f i t . " ( Oa 8 : 8 , 22)

By 3 0 1 B . C . E . , four of Alexand er'S generals h ad taken over separate sect ions o f t h e former e m p i re

the

stroyed by Nebuchad­ fore

ALEXANDER TH E GR EAT AND B I B L E PROPH ECY

71

ALEXANDRIA

Babylon failed t o materialize not simply because in 323 B.c.E. at 32, in the prime of life, he sudden­ ly died of malarial fever complicated by his reck­ less living but because Jehovah had long before determined that Babylon would never ,be rebuilt. -Jer 50:35-40. During his short career Alexander married Rox­ ana, the daughter of the conquered Bactrian king, and also Statire, a daughter of the Persian king Darius III. By Roxana he had a son who was named Alexander ( Allou) . And by a certain Bar­ sine he had an illegitimate son named Heracles ( Hercules ). However, the prophecy of Daniel had foretold that "not to his posterity" would his em­ pire be left; so it was that all Alexander's fami­ ly and heirs were done away with before many years passed. ( Da 11 : 3, 4) Furthermore, it was written: "And that one having been broken, so that there were four that finally stood up instead of it, there are four kingdoms from his nation that will stand up, but not with his power." ( Da 8 : 2 2 ) It was, therefore, no mere historical coincidence that the empire was divided among four of Alexan­ der's generals: Seleucus Nicator taking Mesopota­ mia and Syria; Cas sander, Macedonia and Greece ; Ptolemy Lagus, Egypt and Palestine; and Lysima­ chus, Thrace and Asia Minor. Alexander's conquest left its greatest mark on history by spreading the Greek language and cul­ ture far and wide. Common Greek ( Koine) became the international language, hence the latter por­ tion of the Bible was written in Koine rather than in Hebrew. 2. Son of Simon of Cyrene and brother of Rufus. Their father was compelled to carry Jesus' torture stake.-Mr 1 5 : 21 ; Lu 2 3 : 26 . 3 . A relative o f Chief Priest Annas present at the trial of Peter and John.-Ac 4:6.

4. A Jew in Ephesus present when the silver­ smiths stirred up a riot against Paul. When Alex­ ander attempted to speak to them, the wild mob shouted him dOWll . -Ac 19 :33, 34. 5. One who, with Hymenaeus, 'experienced shipwreck concerning his faith,' and was disfel­ lowshipped because of his blasphemy. ( 1 Ti 1 : 19, 20 ) Possibly the same as No. 6, below.

6. The coppersmith against whom Timothy was warned, because of his inflicting "many inju­ ries" on Paul.-2Ti 4: 14, 15.

ALEXANDRIA

( AI·ex·an'dria). Chief city and famed metropolis of Egypt during the time of Jesus and his apostles. Modern Alexandria (called in Arabic AI-Iskandariyah) stands on the ancient

Medal bearing wha t is claimed to be the likeness of Alexander the Great

site and is a seaport but has little of the ancient splendor. The city derived its name from Alexander the Great, who ordered it to be built in 332 B.c.E. In time it became the principal city of Egypt, and under the Ptolemies, the Hellenistic kings of Egypt, Alexandria was made Egypt's capital. It remained such when Rome took control in 30 B.c.E. and served as the administrative center of Egypt on through the Roman and Byzantine epochs down to the Arabic conquest in the sev­ enth century c.E. The Jews for long had formed a sizable por­ tion of the population of Alexandria, which, at its height, reached perhaps 500,000 persons. Many of the Jews were descendants of the refugees who fled to Egypt after Jerusalem's fall in 607 B.C.E. In Tiberius' time they were said to compose about one-third of the city's total population. With their own section or quarter called Regio Juda:!orum, the Jews were allowed to live according to their own laws and have their own governor, or Ala­ barch. It was here in Alexandria that the Greek Septu­ agint, the first translation of the Hebrew Scrip­ tures, was made. It was produced by Alexandrian Jews, evidently beginning during the reign of Ptolemy (II) Philadelphus ( 285-246 B.c.E. ). Only brief reference is made to Alexandria in the Bible. Among those disputing with Stephen

ALGUM

72

delivered by Hiram is indicated by the statement that "timbers of algum trees like this have not come in nor have they been seen down to this day."-lKi 10: 12.

ANOENT ALEXANDRIA

8

•

•

before his trial were "Alexandrians," or Jews from Alexandria. Alexandria was the native city of the eloquent Apollos. And two of the ships on which Paul traveled as a prisoner headed for Rome were out of Alexandria, doubtless large grain ships of the great Alexandrian fleet that crossed the Med­ iterranean Sea to Puteoli, Italy, though at times doing coastwise sailing to the ports of Asia Minor. -Ac 6 : 9 ; 18:24; 27: 6 ; 28: 11 .

ALGUM [Heb., 'al·gum·mim l ( 2Ch 2 : 8 ; 9 : 10, 11 ) ; 'al·mug-giml ( 1 Ki 10: 1 1 , 12 )]. A tree included by Solomon in his request to Hiram of Tyre for timbers for the construction of the temple and from which stairs and supports as well as harps and stringed instruments were constructed. The algum tree of this account cannot be identi­ fied with certainty. It is traditionally suggested to be the red sandalwood (Pterocarpus san talinus) now found in India and Ceylon, although some favor the white sandalwood ( San talum album), perhaps because of Josephus' statement that it is like pine wood "but . . . whiter and more gleam­ ing." (Jewish Antiquities, VIII, 177 [ vii, 1 ] ) The red sandalwood grows to heights of about 7 . 5 to 9 m ( 25 to 30 ft ) and has a hard, fine-grained, reddish­ brown wood that takes a high polish. It is suggest­ ed as suitable for musical instruments of the type mentioned in the Bible account. The wood has a sweet scent and is highly resistant to insects. The red sandalwood does not grow in Lebanon at the present time. However, the record is not definite whether the "algum" trees were native to Lebanon or not. At any rate, Hiram later saw fit to bring them from Ophir, and here again, the tim­ bers may have been imports even in Ophir, as it was in position to act as a trading center dealing with India, Egypt, and other places in Africa. ( lKi 10: 11 , 2 2 ) The rarity and preciousness of the wood

ALIEN RESIDENT. In its general meaning the Hebrew noun ger refers to anyone who is residing as an alien outside his native land and who is restricted in civil rights. He may or may not have religious connections with the natives of the land in which he resides. Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and their descendants were referred to as such before they were given legal title to the Promised Land.-Ge 1 5 : 1 3 ; 17:8; De 23 : 7. When the Bible refers to a person of non­ Israelite origin in relation to the Israelite common­ wealth, the designation "alien resident" sometimes applies to one of these who had become a prose­ lyte or a full worshiper of Jehovah. At times it refers to a settler in the land of Palestine who was content to live among the Israelites, obeying the fundamental laws of the land but not fully accept­ ing the worship of Jehovah. The context deter­ mines to which class the term applies. The Greek Septuagin t translates ger as prose­ lyte ( Gr. , pro·selly-tos) more than 70 times. Some suggest that often the alien resident attached himself to a Hebrew household for protection and was somewhat of a dependent but still distin­ guished from a slave. This is inferred from the expression "your alien resident."-De 5 : 14; com­ pare De 1 : 16 ; also Le 2 2 : 10, where the term toh­ shavl, meaning "settler," is used. When the Law covenant was transmitted at Mount Sinai, special legislation was embodied governing, in a very loving spirit, the relationship of the alien resident to the natural Israelite. Being at a disadvantage because of not being a natural­ born Israelite, the alien resident was given special consideration and protection under the Law cove­ nant, which had many provisions for the weak and vulnerable. Regularly Jehovah called Israel's at­ tention to the fact that they themselves knew the afflictions that beset an alien resident in a land not his own and hence should extend to the alien residents among themselves the generous and protective spirit that they had not received. ( Ex 2 2 : 21 ; 2 3 : 9 ; De 10 : 18 ) Basically, the alien resident, especially the proselyte, was to be treated as a brother.-Le 19 : 33, 34. Although the terms of the Law covenant al­ lowed for persons of all national backgrounds to come into membership of the congregation of Is­ rael by accepting the true worship of Jehovah and becoming circumcised, there were exceptions and restrictions. The Egyptians and Edomites could

73

not enter into the congregation until the third generation, that is, the third generation living in the land of Israel. ( De 2 3 : 7, 8) Illegitimate sons and their descendants were denied entry into the congregation "to the tenth generation. " ( De 23 : 2 ) Ammonites and Moabites were prohibited "to the tenth generation . . . to time indefinite . . . You must not work for their peace and their prosperity all your days to time indefinite." ( De 23 : 3-6 ) These restrictions all applied to males of these nations. Also, no male mutilated in his sexual parts could ever become a member of the congregation.-De 23: 1 . The alien resident who had become a circum­ cised worshiper was bound to one law with the Israelites, that is, to obey all the terms of the Law covenant. ( Le 24: 22 ) A few examples are: He was required to keep the Sabbath ( Ex 20: 10; 23 : 12 ) and to celebrate the Passover ( Nu 9 : 14 ; E x 12:48, 49 ), the Festival of Unfermented Cakes ( Ex 12:19 ) , the Festival o f Weeks ( De 1 6 : 10, 11 ), the Festival of Booths ( De 16: 13, 14), and the Day of Atonement ( Le 16 : 29, 30). He could offer sacrifices ( Nu 15: 14) and had to do so in the same manner as pre­ scribed for the natural Israelite. ( Nu 15: 15, 16 ) His offerings were to be unblemished ( Le 22: 18-20 ) and brought to the entrance of the tent of meeting just as was done by the natural Israelite. ( Le 17:8, 9 ) He could not engage in any false worship. ( Le 20: 2 ; Eze 14: 7 ) He was required to drain blood out of game killed in hunting and would be "cut off" if he ate it undrained. ( Le 17: 10- 14 ) He could receive forgiveness along with natural Israel for community responsibility for sins. ( Nu 15 : 26, 29 ) He had to observe the purification procedures, for example, if unclean by touching a human corpse. ( Nu 19 : 10, 11 ) The alien resident who could be given the body of an animal that had died of itself was evidently one who had not become a full­ fledged worshiper of Jehovah.-De 14:21 . Judicially, the alien resident was guaranteed impartial justice in judgments involving a natural Israelite. ( De 1 : 16, 1 7 ) He was not to be defrauded or subjected to perverted judgment. ( De 24: 14, 1 7 ) Curses were laid o n those who rendered injustice to alien residents. ( De 27 : 19 ) The cities of refuge for the unintentional manslayer were available for the alien resident and the settler as well as the natural Israelite.-Nu 35 : 15 ; Jos 20:9. Alien residents, not having any land inheri­ tance, might be merchants or hired laborers. Some were slaves. ( Le 25 :44-46 ) There was a possibility of their becoming wealthy. ( Le 2 5 : 47 ; D e 28:43) Generally, however, the Law classified

ALIEN RESIDENT

them as among the poor and outlined arrange­ ments for protecting and providing for them. The alien resident could share in the tithes provided every third year. ( De 14: 28, 29; 26 : 12 ) Gleanings of the field and of the vineyard were to be left for him. (Le 19 :9, 10; 2 3 : 22 ; De 24: 19-21 ) He could receive the benefits of what grew during Sabbath years. ( Le 2 5 : 6 ) He was given equal protection with a native Israelite as a hired laborer. A poor Israelite might sell himself to a wealthy alien resident, in which case the Israelite was to be treated kindly, like a hired laborer, and could be repurchased at any time by himself or by a kins­ man or, at the latest, was released on the seventh year of his service or at the Jubilee.-Le 25 : 39-54; Ex 21 : 2 ; De 1 5 : 12. During the period of the kings the alien resi­ dents continued to enjoy favorable relations. At the time of the construction of the temple at Jerusalem, they were drawn on as construction workers. ( l Ch 2 2 : 2 ; 2Ch 2 : 17, 1 8 ) When King Asa acted to restore true worship in Judah, alien resi­ dents from all over the Promised Land assembled at Jerusalem along with natural Israelites, to enter jointly into a special covenant to search for Jeho­ vah with all their heart and soul. ( 2Ch 1 5 : 8-14) After cleansing the temple, King Hezekiah de­ clared a Passover celebration in Jerusalem in the second month. He sent the invitation throughout Israel, and many alien residents responded.-2Ch 30: 25. Following the restoration of the remnant of Isra­ elites from the Babylonian exile, alien residents, comprised of such groups as the Nethinim ( mean­ ing "Given Ones" ), slaves, professional male and female singers, and the sons of the servants of Solomon, were again found associated with them in true worship at the temple. The Nethinim in­ cluded the Gibeonites who had been assigned by Joshua to permanent temple service. ( Ezr 7 : 7 , 24; 8: 17-20 ; Jos 9 : 22-27 ) Down to the last mention of them these alien residents were inseparable ad­ herents to the true worship of Jehovah, serving with the remnant of faithful natural Israelites who had returned from Babylon. ( Ne 11 : 3, 21 ) In the postexilic period, prophets of Jehovah reiterated the principles of the Law covenant that safeguard­ ed the rights of the alien resident.-Zec 7 : 10 ; Mal 3:5. The prophet Ezekiel foretold a time when the alien resident would receive an inheritance in the land like a native among the sons of Israel. ( Eze 47: 21-23 ) After the coming of Jesus Christ the good news of the Kingdom was preached to Jews and proselytes, and these could equally become

ALIEN RESIDENT

members of the Christian congregation. Then, in the time of Cornelius ( 36 c.E. ), an uncircumcised Gentile and his household were accepted by Jeho­ vah, receiving gifts of the spirit. ( Ac 10) From that time on, uncircumcised Gentiles, upon accepting Christ, were admitted into the Christian congre­ gation, "where there is neither Greek nor Jew, circumcision nor uncircumcision, foreigner, Scyth­ ian, slave, freeman, but Christ is all things and in all . " ( Col 3 : 11 ; Ga 3 : 28 ) Revelation 7 : 2-8 describes spiritual Israel as made up of 12 tribes of 12,000 each. Then verses 9 to 17 tell of a great crowd that no man could number, people out of all nations, tribes, peoples, and tongues who hail the en­ throned King and his Lamb and receive God's favor and protection. Settler. A settler was an inhabitant of a land or country not his own. The Hebrew word for settler ( tohshav') comes from the root verb ya­ shav', meaning "dwell. " ( Ge 20: 1 5 ) Evidently some of the settlers in Israel became proselytes ; others were content to dwell with the Israelites and to obey the fundamental laws of the land but did not become worshipers of Jehovah as did circumcised proselytes. The settler was distinguished from the foreigner, who was generally a transient and was only extended the hospitality that is usually ac­ corded guests in the Orient.

The settler who was an uncircumcised dweller in the land did not eat of the Passover or of anything holy. ( Ex 12 :45 ; Le 2 2 : 10) He received benefits along with the alien residents and the poor during the Sabbath year and the Jubilee year by being able to share in what the land produced. ( Le 2 5 : 6, 12 ) He or his offspring could be pur­ chased as slaves by the Israelites and passed on as a permanent inheritance without the right of re­ purchase or benefit of Jubilee release. ( Le 2 5 :45, 46 ) On the other hand, an Israelite might sell himself as a slave to a settler or to members of the settler's family, maintaining the right of repur­ chase at any time, as well as release in his seventh year of servitude or at the Jubilee.-Le 25 :47-54; Ex 21 : 2 ; De 15: 12. While only the natural Israelites had a heredi­ tary possession in the land, Jehovah was the actu­ al owner and could put them in or out of the land as it suited his purpose. Regarding the sale of land he said: "So the land should not be sold in perpe­ tuity, because the land is mine. For you are alien residents and settlers from my standpoint. "-Le 25 : 23 . Stranger. The Hebrew word for stranger ( zar) evidently comes from the root zur, meaning "tum aside; become estranged" ( Ps 78 : 30 ; 69 : 8 )

74

and thus has the basic meaning "one who distanc­ es or removes himself." - Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, edited by G. Botterweck and H. Ringgren, 1980, Vol. 4, p. 53. The considering of persons as strangers was done in matters pertaining to the Aaronic family and the tribe of Levi, and it affected the natural Israelite and the alien resident, as well as all other persons. Priestly functions were committed by the Law to the family of Aaron ( Ex 28: 1 -3 ), and other temple matters were assigned to the tribe of Levi in general. ( Nu 1 :49, 50, 5 3 ) All other persons, including the natural Israelites of the 12 non­ Levitical tribes, were likened to strangers with respect to the Levitical tribe in certain affairs. ( Ex 29 : 33, NW ftn, '''non-Aaronite, ' that is, a man not of the family of Aaron" ; KJ margin, "every one not a Levite" ; Nu 3 : 38, NW ftn, "that is, a non-Levite" ; JE, "layman. " See also L e 22 : 10 ; N u 3 : 10. ) Accord­ ing to the context "stranger," in most occurrences in the Pentateuch, refers to anyone not of the family of Aaron or not of the tribe of Levi, because priestly or ministerial privileges and duties were not assigned to him. The stranger ( non-Aaronite ) could not eat of the installation sacrifice ( Ex 29 : 33 ), nor be anointed with holy anointing oil (Ex 30: 33 ), nor eat any­ thing holy ( Le 2 2 : 10 ). A non-Aaronite stranger could not handle any priestly duties. ( Nu 3: 10; 16 : 40; 18: 7 ) A non-Levite stranger, that is, even those of any of the other 12 tribes, could not come near the tabernacle to set it up or for any purpose except to offer sacrifices or to approach the priests at the gate of the tent of meeting. (Le 4 : 24, 27-29 ) The daughter of a priest who married a non­ Aaronite stranger could not eat of the contribution of the holy things, nor could her "stranger" hus­ band.-Le 2 2 : 12, 13. The word "stranger" was also applied to those who turned aside from what was in harmony with the Law and so were alienated from Jehovah. Thus the prostitute is referred to as a "strange woman. " ( Pr 2 : 16 ; 5 : 17 ; 7 : 5 ) Both the worship­ ers of false gods and the deities themselves are termed "strangers. "-Jer 2 : 2 5 ; 3 : 13. Strangers in the sense of persons with whom one is unacquainted, or foreigners, are also re­ ferred to in the Hebrew Scriptures. - 1 Ki 3: 18; Job 19 : 15 . Christian principles regarding strangers. I n the Christian Greek Scriptures love toward the stranger ( Gr., xe1nos) is strongly emphasized as a quality the Christian must exercise. The apostle Paul says: "Do not forget hospitality [Gr . , phi·lo­ xe·ni'as, "fondness for strangers"], for through it

I

75

some, unknown to themselves, entertained an­ gels. " ( Heb 13 : 2 ) Jesus showed that he counts hospitality extended to his brothers, strangers or unacquainted though they may be at the time, as having been extended toward him. ( Mt 2 5 : 34-46) The apostle John wrote commending Gaius for his good works toward Christian men, strangers to Gaius, sent to visit the congregation of which Gaius was a member, and he condemns Diot­ rephes, who showed them no respect. -3Jo 5- 10; ITi 5 : 10. Christians are termed "aliens" and "temporary residents" in the sense that they are no part of this world. ( Joh 1 5 : 19 ; 1Pe 1 : 1 ) They are aliens in that they do not conform to the practices of the world hostile to God. O Pe 2: 11 ) Those of the Gentile nations, once "strangers to the covenants of the promise, " without hope and "without God in the world," are, through Christ, "no longer strangers and alien residents," but "fellow citizens of the holy ones and are members of the household of God. " ( Eph 2 : 11 , 12, 19) The "other sheep" that Jesus said he would gather into the "one flock" likewise take a position separate from the world, with favor of God and hope of life.-Joh 10: 16; Mt 2 5 : 33, 34, 46 ; compare Re 7:9-17. One who attempts to gather religious followers to himself is termed by Christ as "a thief" and "a stranger," one dangerous to Christ's "sheep," and is considered a false shepherd. Jesus' true "sheep" will give no recognition to a false shepherd's voice, just as the faithful Israelites kept themselves sep­ arate from the foreigner who advocated strange gods. -Joh 10: 1, 5 ; see FOREIGNER.

ALKALI.

See LAUNDRYMAN.

ALLAMMELECH (Al·lam/me·lech ) [ Massive 'free of the King]. A town in the territory allotted the tribe of Asher (Jos 19 : 2 6 ), N of the torrent valley of Kishon. The exact site is unknown but was probably in the S part of the Plain of Acco, perhaps on the Wadi el-Melek ( Nahal Zippori ), which empties into the Kishon. ALLIANCE.

A uniting together of different parties, families, individuals, or states, whether by marriage, mutual agreement, or legal compact. An alliance usually implies resultant mutual ben­ efit or the joint pursuit of a desired purpose. The Hebrew word eha·var/ literally means "be joined" but is used figuratively to mean "be allied; have partnership. " ( Ex 28: 7 ; Ps 94: 20 ; 2Ch 20: 3 5 ) The related eha·ver/ denotes an ally or partner.-Jg 20: 11 ; Ps 119 : 63. Abraham entered into an early alliance with Ma ShCOL and Aner of the Amorites. The

��E

ALLIANCE

nature of the confederacy is not stated, but they joined him in his march to rescue his nephew Lot from invading kings. ( Ge 14 : 13-24 ) Abraham was then dwelling as an alien in land controlled by petty kingdoms, and in this case, some formal declaration in the form of a covenant may have been required of him as a prerequisite for peace­ ful residence in their midst. However, Abraham avoided unnecessarily obligating himself to such political rulers, as is manifest by his statement to the king of Sodom at Genesis 14: 21-24. Later, at Gerar, the Philistine king Abimelech reminded Abraham of his alien status and that he resided in the land of Philistia by Abimelech's consent, and he requested of him the swearing of an oath guaranteeing faithful conduct. Abraham acqui­ esced and later, following a water-rights dispute, made a covenant with Abimelech.-Ge 20: 1 , 1 5 ; 21 : 22-34. Abraham's son Isaac also came to dwell in Ge­ rar, although he was later asked by Abimelech to move out of the immediate vicinity, and he will­ ingly complied. Disputes over water rights again occurred, but thereafter Abimelech and his chief associates approached Isaac requesting an oath of obligation and a covenant, doubtless as a renewal of that made with Abraham. Sworn statements were made by both parties guaranteeing recip­ rocal peaceful conduct. ( Ge 26 : 16, 19-22, 26-31 ; compare Ge 31 : 48-53. ) The apostle Paul states that these early patriarchs publicly declared themselves strangers and temporary residents tenting in the land, awaiting a city having real foundations, whose builder and maker is God. -Heb 1 1 : 8- 10, 13- 16. A different situation prevailed with the entry of the nation of Israel into Canaan, the Land of Prom­ ise. The Sovereign God had given Israel full right to the land in fulfillment of his promise to their forefathers. They were, therefore, not entering as alien residents, and Jehovah prohibited their mak­ ing alliances with the pagan nations in the land. ( Ex 2 3 : 31-33 ; 34: 11 - 16 ) They were to be subject only to God's laws and statutes, not to those of the nations due for eviction. ( Le 18 : 3 , 4; 20: 22-24) They were particularly warned against forming marriage alliances with such nations. Such alli­ ances would intimately involve them not only with pagan wives but with pagan relatives and their false religious practices and customs, and this would result in apostasy and a snare.-De 7 : 2-4 ; Ex 34: 16; Jos 2 3 : 12, 13. Marriage Alliances. The Hebrew verb eha­ than /, meaning "form a marriage alliance," is relat­ ed to eho·then / ( father-in-law), eha·than / ( bride­ groom; son-in-law), eho·the/neth ( mother-in-law),

ALLIANCE and chathun-nah' (marriage ).- lSa 18: 2 2 ; Ex 3 : 1 ; 4 : 2 5 ; Ge 19 : 14; De 27: 2 3 ; Ca 3 : 11 . Abraham insisted that Isaac's wife not be taken from among the Canaanites. ( Ge 24: 3, 4) Isaac gave similar instruction to Jacob. ( Ge 28: 1 ) At the time of Dinah's violation by Shechern the Hivite, the family of Jacob was urged by Hamor, She­ chern's father, to enter into marriage alliances with that tribe. Though Jacob's sons did not follow through with their apparent acceptance, they did take the Hivite women and children captive after avenging Dinah's honor. (Ge 34: 1 - 1 1 , 29 ) Judah later married a Canaanite woman ( Ge 38: 2 ), and Joseph's wife was an Egyptian. ( Ge 41 : 50 ) Moses married Zipporah, a Midianite, evidently called a "Cushite" at Numbers 12 : 1 . ( Ex 2 : 16, 21 ) These marriages, however, were contracted before the giving of the Law and hence could not be consid­ ered a violation of its requirements. In the battle with Midian, the Israelites pre­ served alive only virgins from among the women and girls. ( Nu 31 : 3 , 18, 35 ) The Law allowed for the taking of a wife from among such parentless female war captives. ( De 21 : 10- 14 ) Within the Promised Land itself God's warning concerning marriage alliances with pagans was often ignored, with resulting problems and apostasy.-Jg 3 : 5 , 6. Marriage alliances were sometimes arranged with a view to achieving certain ends, as when David was invited by King Saul to form a marriage alliance with him by taking his daughter Michal as wife. ( lSa 1 8 : 2 1 -27 ) One of the six wives who later bore David sons at Hebron was the daughter of the king of Geshur ( 2Sa 3 : 3 ), and some consider this to be a marriage alliance entered into by David with a view to weakening the position of rival Ish-bosheth, since Geshur was a petty king­ dom lying on the other side of Mahanaim, Ish­ bosheth's capital. Early in his reign King Solomon formed a marriage alliance with Pharaoh, taking his daughter as wife. ( 1Ki 3 : 1 ; 9 : 16) This mar­ riage, along with others to Moabite, Ammonite, Edomite, Sidonian, and Hittite women, eventually caused Solomon to succumb to gross idolatry. ( lKi 11 : 1 -6 ) King Ahab's marriage alliance with the king of Sidon by marrying his daughter Jezebel brought similar disastrous results for the northern kingdom of Israel. ( 1Ki 1 6 : 3 1 - 3 3 ) King Jehosha­ phat thereafter formed an unwise marriage alli­ ance with the idolatrous house of Ahab, with lasting bad consequences for the kingdom of Ju­ dah.-2Ch 18: 1 ; 21 :4-6 ; 2 2 : 2-4. Following the exile, Ezra was shocked to find that even the priests and Levites had made mar­ riage alliances with the Canaanites and others, a

76 situation that was promptly corrected. (Ezr 9: 1 -3, 12- 14; 10 : 1 -5, 10-14, 44) Yet, in Nehemiah's time Tobiah the Ammonite again used marriage alli­ ances to develop strong relations with the priestly family in Jerusalem and foster a strong faction of allies among the nobles of Judah, to the point that, in defiance of the Law ( De 23: 3 ) , the priest Elia­ shib made a dining hall in the temple courtyard for this Ammonite. Nehemiah, however, indig­ nantly threw all of Tobiah's furniture outside.-Ne 6 : 18; 13 :4-9, 25-27 ; see MARRIAGE. Covenants. Other alliances aside from mar­ riage alliances were made, and these were gener­ ally in the form of a covenant. The covenant made with the Gibeonites was, of course, entered into by Israel because of a deception. ( Jos 9 : 3-15 ) Nev­ ertheless, once made, the covenant was thereafter respected so that Israel was willing to fight to protect the Gibeonites. (Jos 9 : 19-21 ; 10 : 6, 7) A personal alliance by covenant existed between Jonathan and David ( 1 Sa 18: 3 ; 20: 11 - 1 7 ), a rela­ tionship that Saul condemned as a conspiracy. ( lSa 2 2 : 8 ) King Hiram of Tyre showed friendship toward David when David succeeded Saul as king, and Hiram became "a lover of David. " ( 2Sa 5 : 11 ; 1 Ki 5 : 1 ) Friendly relations continued, and on Solo­ mon's accession to the throne a contract was made with King Hiram that called for the supplying of much of the material needed for the temple con­ struction. ( lKi 5 : 2- 1 8 ) Under this contract thou­ sands of Israelite laborers were allowed entry into Lebanon and its forests. Hiram even addressed Solomon as "my brother. " ( 1Ki 9 : 13 ) Tyre fur­ nished seamen for Solomon's fleet of ships operat­ ing out of Ezion-geber. ( 1Ki 9 : 26, 27) When the kingdom of Tyre later turned against Israel and handed over Israelite exiles to Edom, it was ac­ cused of having violated "the covenant of broth­ ers. "-Am 1 :9. Unwise Alliances With Other Nations. Though God's prophets gave strong warnings against the forming of alliances with other na­ tions, in times of danger or under the pressure of ambition the kings of Judah and Israel frequently ignored such warnings. ( Isa 30: 2-7 ; Jer 2 : 16- 19, 36, 37; Ho 5 : 13 ; 8:8- 10; 12 : 1 ) The end results were never good, as the following examples show. King Asa of Judah used the royal treasures to buy King Ben-hadad I of Syria out of a covenant with King Baasha of Israel. ( 1 Ki 1 5 : 18-20) As a result of this 'leaning on Syria' instead of on Jeho­ vah, Asa was rebuked by the prophet Hanani with the words : "You have acted foolishly respecting this, for from now on there will exist wars against

ALMIGHTY

77 you. " ( 2Ch 16 : 7-9 ) King Ahab of Israel later made a covenant with defeated Ben-hadad II and re­ ceived similar condemnation from a prophet of God. ( 1 Ki 20: 34, 42 ) Jehoshaphat allied himself with Ahab in an unsuccessful attack against Syria and was thereafter asked by the prophet Jehu: "Is it to the wicked that help is to be given, and is it for those hating Jehovah that you should have love? And for this there is indignation against you from the person of Jehovah. " ( 2Ch 18:2, 3; 19 : 2 ) Later Jehoshaphat made a commercial shipbuild­ ing partnership with wicked King Ahaziah of Isra­ el, but prophetic condemnation was fulfilled when the ships were wrecked. ( 2Ch 20: 35-37 ) Obeying divine counsel, Amaziah of Judah wisely decided against the use of mercenary troops from Israel though it meant a loss of 100 talents of silver ( $660,600) paid to them as a fee.-2Ch 25 : 6- 10. In the eighth century B.c.E. as Assyria began to rise as a dominant world power, its menacing shadow drove lesser kingdoms into many alliances and conspiracies. ( Compare Isa 8:9- 13. ) A buildup of new weapons of warfare among the nations also caused increased fear. ( Compare 2Ch 26: 14, 1 5 . ) Menahem of Israel bribed the attacking Pul ( Tiglath-pileser III ) of Assyria. ( 2Ki 15: 17-20) Re­ zin of Syria and Pekah of Israel formed a conspir­ atorial alliance against Ahaz of Judah, who, in turn, used the royal treasures and those from the temple to buy protection from Assyrian Tiglath­ pileser III, resulting in the fall of Syrian Damascus. ( 2Ki 16: 5-9 ; 2Ch 28: 16 ) Hoshea of Israel made a conspiratorial alliance with King So of Egypt in the false hope of throwing off the Assyrian yoke im­ posed by Shalmaneser V, with the consequent fall of Israel in 740 B.c.E. ( 2Ki 1 7 : 3-6 ) Faithful Hezeki­ ah of Judah, however, though falsely accused of trusting in Egypt, relied solely on Jehovah and was saved from the Assyrian Sennacherib's at­ tack. -2Ki 18: 19-22, 32-35 ; 19 : 14- 19, 28, 32-36 ; compare Isa 31 : 1-3. In its closing years, the kingdom of Judah fluc­ tuated between Egypt and Babylon, "prostituting" itself to both powers. ( Eze 16: 26-29 ; 2 3 : 14 ) It came under the dominance of Egypt during Jehoi­ akim's reign ( 2Ki 2 3 : 34 ) but was soon made sub­ ject to Babylon. ( 2Ki 24: 1, 7, 12- 1 7 ) The last king, Zedekiah, made a futile attempt to free Judah from Babylon by a vain alliance with Egypt. De­ struction of Jerusalem resulted. ( 2Ki 24: 20 ; Eze 17: 1 - 15 ) They had failed to accept Isaiah's in­ spired advice: "By coming back and resting you people will be saved. Your mightiness will prove to be simply in keeping undisturbed and in trustful­ ness."-Isa 30: 15-17.

During the Maccabean period many treaties and alliances were made with the Syrians and the Romans for political advantage, but freedom from bondage did not result for Israel. In a later period the religious Sadducees were especially prominent in favoring political collaboration as a means to­ ward ultimate national independence. Neither they nor the Pharisees accepted the Kingdom message proclaimed by Christ Jesus but allied themselves with Rome, declaring: "We have no king but Caesar. " (Joh 19 : 12- 1 5 ) Their religiopolit­ ical alliance with Rome, however, ended in the disastrous destruction of Jerusalem in 70 c.E. -Lu 19 :41-44; 21 : 20-24. Political and religious alliances are indicated in the symbolisms of Revelation 17 : 1 , 2, 10- 1 8 ; 18: 3. ( Compare Jas 4: 1 -4. ) Thus, throughout the Scrip­ tural record the principle stated by Paul is stressed: "Do not become unevenly yoked with unbelievers. For what fellowship do righteousness and lawlessness have? Or what sharing does light have with darkness? . . . Get out from among them, and separate yourselves. "-2Co 6 : 14- 17.

ALLON

(Anon ) [ Massive Tree ]. A Simeonite, descendant of Shemaiah.- 1 Ch 4 : 37.

ALLON-BACUTH ( Al'lon-bac'uth) [ Massive Tree of Weeping]. A massive tree at the foot of Bethel, below the hill occupied by the city, named thus because under it Jacob buried "Deborah the nursing woman of Rebekah. "-Ge 35 : 8 ; see BIG TREE, MASSIVE TREE.

ALMIGHTY.

The word "Almighty" is trans­ lated from the Hebrew word Shaddai' and the Greek word Pan·to·kra'tor. Both words evidently convey the idea of strength or power. The Hebrew Term. In the Hebrew text Shad­ dai' is used seven times along with 'E1 ( God ),

forming the title "God Almighty. " ( Ge 17: 1 ; 28: 3 ; 3 5 : 11 ; 43: 14; 48: 3 ; Ex 6 : 3 ; Eze 10 : 5 ) I n the other 41 occurrences it stands alone and is translated "the Almighty" or "the Almighty One. " Similar to 'A dho·nai' ( Sovereign Lord) and 'E10·him ' ( God ), Shaddai' is in the plural to denote excellence.-Ge 49: 25 ; Nu 24: 4 ; Ps 68: 14. The exact derivation of the word Shad·dai' is a matter of discussion. The translators of the Septu­ agint used several Greek words in translating it, but in the book of Job they did employ the word Pan-to·kra 'tor ( All Powerful ) 16 times for Shad·daY In a few cases they rendered it by a Greek term ( hi·ka·nos') meaning "sufficient" or "fit" ( Ru 1 : 20, 21 ; Job 21 : 15 ; 31 : 2 ; 40: 2 ), and later Greek transla­ tors such as Aquila and Symmachus followed this

ALMIGHTY interpretation, thereby presenting Shad-dai' as the "Sufficient ( Fit) One. " The view of some modern critics is expressed in the comment on Genesis 17: 1 in the Catholic translation known as The Jerusalem Bible ( ftn b), which states: "The usual translation 'Almighty God' is inaccurate ; 'Mou[n]tain God' is the prob­ able meaning. " Such extreme view, however, is based on an imagined linkage of Shad·dai' with the Akkadian term shadu ( mountain). Unger's Bible Dictionary ( 1965, p. 1000) comments : "This view, however, is unacceptable and Shaddai is best tak­ en from the root shadad [sha·dhadh l, 'to be strong or powerful,' as in Arabic."-See also The Analyt­ ical Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon, by Benjamin Davidson, p. 702.

Sha·dhadh f in the Bible text commonly implies violent power, as used in despoiling. ( Compare Ps 1 7 : 9 ; Pr 11 : 3 . ) Isaiah 1 3 : 6 states: "Howl, you peo­ ple, for the day of Jehovah is near! As a despoiling [keshodh 1 from the Almighty [mishShad-dai1 it will come." While the idea of violent action is basic in the Biblical use of this root word, some scholars suggest that its original sense or primary meaning was simply "be strong" or "act strongly. " The Jew­ ish Encyclopedia ( 1976, Vol. IX, p. 162 ) states: "It is possible, however, that the original signif­ icance was that of 'overmastering' or 'overpower­ ing strength,' and that this meaning persists in the divine [ title]." Jehovah used the title "God Almighty" ( 'El Shad­ dai') when making his promise to Abraham con­ cerning the birth of Isaac, a promise requiring that Abraham have great faith in God's power to carry out that promise. It was thereafter used when God was spoken of as the one who would bless Isaac and Jacob as heirs of the Abrahamic covenant.-Ge 17: 1 ; 28: 3 ; 35 : 11 ; 48: 3 . I n harmony with this, Jehovah could later say to Moses : "1 used to appear to Abraham, Isaac and Jacob as God Almighty [be'El' Shad-dail, but as respects my name Jehovah I did not make myself known to them." ( Ex 6 : 3 ) This could not mean that the name Jehovah was unknown to these pa­ triarchs, since it was frequently used by them as well as by others before them. ( Ge 4 : 1 , 26; 14: 2 2 ; 27: 27 ; 28: 16 ) I n fact, i n the book o f Genesis, which relates the lives of the patriarchs, the word "Al­ mighty" occurs only 6 times, whereas the personal name Jehovah was written 172 times in the origi­ nal Hebrew text. Yet, while these patriarchs had come to appreciate by personal experience God's right to and qualifications for the title of "the Almighty One," they had not had opportunity to appreciate the full meaning and implications of his

78 personal name, Jehovah. In this regard, The Ill us­ tra ted Bible Dictionary (Vol. 1 , p. 572 ) comments : "The former revelation, to the Patriarchs, con­ cerned promises belonging to a distant future ; it supposed that they should be assured that He, Yahweh, was such a God ( 'el) as was competent ( one possible meaning of sadday) to fulfill them. The revelation at the bush was greater and more intimate, God's power and immediate and con­ tinuing presence with them being all wrapped up in the familiar name of Yahweh. "-Edited by J. D. Douglas, 1980. Might implies strength or power to perform and to accomplish a thing purposed, as well as to overcome obstacles or opposition, and Jehovah's almightiness manifests his irresistible power to accomplish his purpose. At times violent action is presented in connection with God's title of "the Almighty One," as at Psalm 68: 14, when he 'scat­ ters abroad the kings' ; at Joel 1 : 15, which de­ scribes the "despoiling [shodh] from the Almighty One [mishShad·daiT to come in "the day of Jeho­ vah"; and at Isaiah 13:6, quoted earlier. It also gives assurance of his ability to bless ( Ge 49 :25.) and is a guarantee of security to those trusting in him: "Anyone dwelling in the secret place of the Most High will procure himself lodging under the very shadow of the Almighty One."-Ps 91 : 1 . In the book of Job, Shad·dai' occurs 31 times, being used by all the characters in the drama there presented. Jehovah's power to punish or to afflict are set forth (Job 6:4; 27: 13-2 3 ), so that the ones who say, "What does the Almighty amount to, that we should serve him, and how do we benefit ourselves in that we have come in touch with him?" and who therefore trust in their own power, can expect to drink of "the rage of the Almighty. " (Job 21 : 15, 16, 20 ) The Almighty, therefore, merits awe, even dread, since his will cannot be ignored nor his law violated with im­ punity ( Job 6 : 14 ; 2 3 : 15, 16; 31 : 1-3 ), even though the expression of his might is not immediately seen. (Job 24 : 1-3, 24; compare Ex 9 : 14- 16; Ec 8: 11-13. ) Yet his power and might are always used in strict accord with justice and righteousness, never in an uncontrolled, wanton, erratic, or irre­ sponsible manner. (Job 34: 10, 1 2 ; 3 5 : 13 ; 37: 23, 24) Hence, there is no just cause for men to con­ tend or find fault with him. (Job 40: 2-5 ) Those practicing righteousness can confidently approach him and enjoy a personal relationship with him. (Job 13 : 3 ; 29:4, 5 ; 31 : 35-37 ) As the Creator, he is the Source of life and wisdom. -Job 3 2 : 8; 33 :4. In the prophecy at Isaiah 9 : 6 concerning the Messiah, the title "Mighty God" is applied to the

I

ALOE, ALOESWOOD

79 promised Prince of Peace. This expression, how­ ever, translates the Hebrew 'E1 Gib·bohr� not 'E1 Shad-daF, as in the above scriptures. The Greek Term. In the Christian Greek Scriptures the word Pan·to·kra'tor occurs ten times, nine of them in the book of Revelation. The word basically means "Almighty," or "All Power­ ful. " Its use in the Christian Greek Scriptures lends weight to the understanding of the Hebrew term Shad·daj' as meaning "Almighty One," since other­ wise there would be no corresponding term for Pan-to·kra 'tor in the Hebrew Scriptures. At 2 Corinthians 6: 18 Paul quotes from the Hebrew Scriptures in urging Christians to avoid false worship and the use of lifeless, powerless idols, thus qualifying as children of "the Almighty [Pan·to·kra 'tor]. " In view of the apostle's quota­ tions, it is obvious that the title here applies to Jehovah God. Similarly, throughout Revelation the title Pan-to­ kra 'tor is applied to the Creator and King of Eter­ nity, Jehovah, as in "the song of Moses the slave of God and the song of the Lamb [Jesus Christ]," which acclaims Jehovah God as the one worthy of worship and fear by all nations. ( Re 15 : 3 ; compare Re 21 : 22. ) The title's application to Jehovah God is made obvious at Revelation 19:6 by the use of the expression Hallelujah ( Praise Jah, you people! ). Likewise, the expression "the One who is and who was and who is coming" ( Re 1 : 8 ; 4 : 8 ) clearly points to the God of eternity ( Ps 90 : 2 ), who not only "was" the Almighty in ancient times but continues to be so and "is coming" as such with an expression of his all-powerfulness. Again violent action is indicated, following his 'taking his great power' to rule as king, by the expression of his wrath against the opposing nations at "the war of the great day of God the Almighty. " ( Re 11 : 17, 18; 16: 14) His Son, Christ Jesus, "The Word of God," is shown as expressing this "wrath of God the Al­ mighty" against the nations in his position as king anointed by God. ( Re 19 : 13-16) Yet such mighty expressions of God's judicial decisions continue to be in full accord with his standards of truth and righteousness.-Re 16 : 5-7; see GOD.

ALMODAD

( Al·mo'dad ). First of Joktan's 13 sons; fourth generation after Shem; nephew of Peleg, through whom the Messianic lineage is traced. Almodad fathered one of the 70 post-Flood families, settling in Arabia. ( Ge 10: 26, 3 2 ; 1Ch 1 : 20 ) Arabian tradition has him chief of the tribe Jurham and father of a wife of Ishmael.

ALMON

(Al'mon). A Levite city within the ter­ ritory of Benjamin; assigned to the sons of Aaron

in the days of Joshua and of Eleazar the priest. (Jos 21 : 1 , 1 8 ) It is called Alemeth in 1 Chronicles 6:60. The ancient site is at the village ruins of Khirbet 'Almit ( Horvat 'Almit ), about 6 km ( 3. 5 mi ) NE of Jerusalem and about 2 km ( 1 mi ) ENE of Anath­ oth, another Levite city.

ALMOND

[ Heb. , 1uz ( Ge 30: 37 ) ; sha·qedh ' (Ge 43: 11 )]. The almond (Amygda1us communis) is a tree native to Palestine, Lebanon, and some areas of Mesopotamia. A member of the peach family, it grew both wild and as a cultivated fruit tree. The Hebrew name sha·qedh ' means, literally, "awakening one," and this is quite fitting since the almond is one of the earliest trees to bloom follow­ ing the winter rest, blossoming as early as late January or early February. Note the play on words at Jeremiah 1 : 11 , 12, where the Hebrew word for "almond tree" ( sha·qedh ') is followed by the ex­ pression "keeping awake" ( sho·qedh '). The tree may grow up to 5 m ( 16 ft ) in height and, when blossoming, is covered with lovely pink and some­ times white flowers arranged in pairs. At Eccle­ siastes 1 2 : 5 the blossoming almond tree is used to picture the white-headedness of old age. The leaves are oval shaped and serrated on the edges. The almond fruit has an oblong shape, rounded on one end and pointed on the other. It has always been considered a delicacy and was used by Jacob as part of a gift sent to Egypt with his returning sons. ( Ge 43 : 11 ) The kernel is a source of desirable oil, 45 kg ( 100 lb) of the fruit producing some 20 kg ( 44 lb) of oil. Doubtless due to their delicate beauty, the flow­ ers of the almond were used as a pattern for the cups on the branches of the tabernacle lampstand. ( Ex 2 5 : 33, 34; 37: 19, 20 ) Aaron's rod was also an almond branch and miraculously budded over­ night, producing ripe almonds as proof of God's approval on him as anointed high priest.-Nu 1 7 : 8.

ALMON-DIBLATHAIM ( Al'mon-dib·la·tha'­ im). A place between Dibon-gad and the moun­ tains of Abarim where the Israelites encamped in the 40th year after their going out from Egypt ( 1473 B.c.E. ). It was one of the last encampments during their wanderings. ( Nu 33 :46, 47 ) The site is not certain, but some scholars identify it with Khirbet Deleilat esh-Sherqiyeh, about 16 km ( 10 mi ) NNE of Dibon ( Dhiban). Possibly identical with Beth-diblathaim.-Jer 48: 22 .

ALMUG.

See ALGUM.

ALOE, ALOESWOOD [ Heb. , 'aha·1im ' ( plural ) and 'aha·1oh th ' (plural ) ; Gr. , a·10'e]. A name ap­ plied to a variety of tree containing a fragrant, or

ALPHA AND OMEGA

80 Almond blossoms. The almond is among the first trees to bloom as win ter ends; thus its Hebrew name means "awakening one"

aloe trees resembling an encampment of tents. ( Nu 24: 6 ) This text, however, has occasioned some discussion, since the Aquilaria agallocha trees are not found in Palestine. Their absence to­ day, of course, would not necessarily prove that such trees were not present in that land nearly 3,500 years ago. On the other hand, Balaam's reference to the trees does not require that they be growing right in the area where he spoke. If the "cedars" mentioned im­ mediately afterward in this text were cedars of Lebanon, then they would be trees growing outside that area, and the same could be true of the aloes. The other texts dealing with aloes re­ fer only to their aromatic qualities and would allow for them to have been foreign imports.

aromatic, substance used as a perfume in the Biblical period. ( Ps 4 5 : 8 ; Pr 7 : 1 7 ; Ca 4: 14) Most commentators consider the aloe tree of the Bible to be the Aquilaria agaJJocha, sometimes called the eaglewood tree and now found principally in India and neighboring regions. The tree is large and spreading, at times reaching a height of 30 m (c. 100 ft ). The inner core of the trunk and of branches is impregnated with resin and an odor­ iferous oil, from which comes the highly prized perfume. Apparently attaining its most aromatic state when in decay, the wood is sometimes bur­ ied in the ground to hasten the decaying process. In a finely powdered condition it is then sold commercially as "aloes. " The prophet Balaam's comparison o f the tents of Israel with "aloe plants that Jehovah has planted, like cedars by the waters," may relate to the spreading shape of these lofty trees, a cluster of

Following the death of Christ Jesus, Nicodemus brought "a roll of myrrh and aloes" weighing about 100 Roman pounds ( 33 kg ; 72 lb ), to be used in preparing Jesus' body for burial. ( Joh 19 : 39 ) Nicodemus' contribution must have represented a considerable out­ lay of money on his part, although the proportion of the less expensive myrrh included in the 100 pounds is not stated. While some apply the term "aloes" in this text to the plant of the lily family that now bears the botanical name of Aloe vera, the product of this plant (a thick juice from the leaves ) is employed not for its aroma but as a purgative and for other health-related pur­ poses. The aloes brought by Nicodemus was likely the same aloeswood product as that referred to in the Hebrew Scriptures.

ALPHA AND OMEGA. These are the names of the first and last letters of the Greek alphabet and are used as a title three times in the book of Revelation. The additional occurrence of this phrase in the King James rendering of Revelation 1 : 1 1 , however, does not receive support from some of the oldest Greek manuscripts, including the Alexandrine, Sinaitic, and Codex Ephraemi rescriptus. It is, therefore, omitted in many mod­ ern translations.

81

ALTAR

While many commentators apply this title both to God and to Christ, a more careful examination of its use restricts its application to Jehovah God. The first verse of Revelation shows that the reve­ lation was given originally by God and through Jesus Christ, hence the one speaking ( through an angelic representative ) at times is God himself, and at other times it is Christ Jesus. ( Re 2 2 : 8 ) Thus Revelation 1 : 8 ( RS) says : " 'I a m the Alpha and the Omega,' says the Lord God [ "Jehovah God," NW], who is and who was and who is to come, the Almighty. " Although the preced­ ing verse speaks of Christ Jesus, it is clear that in verse 8 the application of the title is to "the Al­ mighty" God. In this regard

New Testamen t

Barnes' Notes on the

( 1974 ) observes : ''It cannot be

absolutely certain that the writer meant to refer to the Lord Jesus specifically here . . . There is no real incongruity in supposing, also, that the writer here meant to refer to God as such. "

him. He will bring to a successful conclusion the issue over Godship, forever vindicated as the one and only Almighty God . -Compare Isa 44 : 6 .

ALPHAEUS

1.

( AI·phae'us ).

The father of the apostle Matthew Levi, the tax collector.-Mt 9 : 9 ; Mr 2 : 14.

2. The father of James the Less, the 9th listed of the 12 apostles. ( Mt 10 : 3 ; Mr 3: 18; Lu 6: 1 5 ; Ac 1 : 1 3 ) Many scholars are supported by tradition in the general belief that Alphaeus was the same person as Clopas ( Joh 19 : 2 5 ), which would also make him the husband of "the other Mary . " ( Mt 27 : 56 ; 28: 1 ; Mr 15 : 40 ; 16: 1 ; Lu 24 : 10 ) Either a variation in pronunciation of the root word or the individual's having had two names, a common thing in those days, would explain this difference.

AL TAR. on

Basically, a raised structure or place

which

sacrifices

are

offered

or incense

is

burned in worship of the true God or of another

The title occurs again at Revelation 21 : 6, and the following verse identifies the speaker by say­

miz·be'ach ( altar ) comes za·vach ' ( slaughter; sacrifice)

deity. The Hebrew word from the root verb

ing : "Anyone conquering will inherit these things,

and thus basically refers to a place of slaughtering

and I shall be his God and he will be my son. "

or sacrificing. ( Ge 8 : 20; De 12 : 2 1 ; 16 : 2 ) Similarly,

Inasmuch as Jesus referred to those who are joint

the Greek

heirs with him in his Kingdom as "brothers," not

root verb

thysi·a·ste'ri·on ( altar) comes from the thy/a, also meaning "slaughter; sacri­ 2 2 : 4 ; Mr 14: 1 2 ) The Greek word bo·mos'

"sons," the speaker must be Jesus' heavenly Fa­

fice. " ( Mt

ther,

refers to the altar of a false god.-Ac 1 7 : 23.

Jehovah

God.-Mt

2 5 :40;

compare

Heb

2: 10- 1 2 .

The first mention of an altar occurs after the

The final occurrence o f the title is at Revelation

Flood when "Noah began to build an altar to

2 2 : 13, which states: "I am the Alpha and the

Jehovah" and offered burnt offerings thereon. ( Ge

Omega, the first and the last, the beginning and

8 : 2 0 ) The only offerings mentioned prior to the

the end . " It is evident that a number of persons

Flood were those of Cain and Abel, and though it

are represented as speaking in this chapter of

is likely that they did so, it is not stated whether

Revelation; verses 8 and 9 show that the angel

they used altars or not.-Ge 4 : 3 , 4.

spoke to John, verse 16 obviously applies to Jesus,

Abraham built an altar at Shechem ( Ge 12 : 7 ), at

the first part of verse 17 is credited to "the spirit

a point between Bethel and Ai ( Ge 1 2 : 8 ; 13 : 3 ), at

and the bride," and the one speaking in the latter

Hebron ( Ge 1 3 : 18), and also evidently on Mount

part of verse 20 is manifestly John himself. "The

Moriah, where he sacrificed a ram given him by

Alpha and the Omega" of verses 1 2 - 1 5 , therefore,

God in substitution for Isaac. ( Ge 22 : 9 - 1 3 ) Only in

may properly be identified as the same one who bears the title in the other two occurrences : Jeho­

this last case is a sacrifice specifically mentioned as being offered on these altars by Abraham.

vah God . The expression, "Look! I am coming

However, the basic meaning of the Hebrew word

quickly," in verse 12, does not require that these

indicates that offerings were likely made in each

aforementioned verses apply to Jesus, inasmuch

case. Isaac later built an altar at Beer-sheba ( Ge

as God also speaks of himself as "coming" to ex­ ( Compare Isa 2 6 : 21 . ) Malachi

2 6 : 23, 25 ), and Jacob built altars at Shechem and at Bethel. ( Ge 3 3 : 18, 20; 35 : 1 , 3, 7) These altars

ecute judgment.

3: 1 -6 speaks of a join t coming for judgment on the

made by the patriarchs were doubtless of the type

part of Jehovah and his "messenger of the cove­

later mentioned by God in the Law covenant,

nant. "

either mounds of earth or platforms consisting of natural ( unhewn) stones.-Ex 20: 24, 25.

The title "the Alpha and the Omega" carries the same thought as "the first and the last" and "the

Moses constructed an altar following the victory

beginning and the end" when these terms are

over Amalek, naming it Jehovah-nissi ( Jehovah Is

used with reference to Jehovah. Before him there

My Signal Pole ). ( Ex 1 7 : 1 5 , 1 6 ) At the making of

was no Almighty God, and there will be none after

the Law covenant with Israel, an altar was built by

82

ALTAR Moses at the foot of Mount Sinai, and sacrifices

Two gold rings were made for the insertion o f the

were offered up on it. Blood from the sacrifices

carrying poles made of acacia overlaid with gold,

was sprinkled on the altar, on the book, and on the

and these rings were placed underneath the gold

people, thereby validating and putting in force the

border on opposite sides of the altar. ( Ex 30: 1 - 5 ; 37: 25-28 ) A special incense was burned o n this

covenant.-Ex 24 :4-8 ; Heb 9: 1 7-20.

Tabernacle Altars.

With the setting up of the

tabernacle, two altars were constructed according to divine pattern. The altar of burnt offering ( also called "the altar of copper" [ Ex 39 : 39 ] ) was made of acacia wood in the form of a hollow chest, apparently without top or bottom. It was 2 . 2 m ( 7. 3 ft ) square and 1 . 3 m (4.4 ft) high with "horns" projecting from the upper four corners. All its surfaces were overlaid with copper. A grating, or network, of copper was placed below the altar's rim "down within," "toward the center. " Four rings were placed at the four extremities near the grat­ ing,

and these appear to

be the

same rings

through which the two copper-sheathed acacia­

altar twice daily, in the morning and in the eve­ ning. ( Ex 30: 7-9 , 34-38) The use of a censer, or a fire holder, is elsewhere mentioned for burning incense, and evidently such was employed also in connection with the altar of incense. ( Le 16 : 12, 1 3 ; Heb 9 : 4 ; Re 8 : 5 ; compare 2Ch 26 : 16, 19. ) The position of the altar of incense was within the tabernacle just before the curtain of the Most Holy so that it is spoken of as being "before the ark of the testimony . "-Ex 30: 1 , 6; 40: 5, 26, 27. Sanctification and use of tabernacle altars.

At the time of the installation ceremonies, both altars were anointed and sanctified. ( Ex 40 :9, 10 ) At that time, as also in subsequent sacrifices of

wood poles were passed for carrying the altar.

certain sin offerings, blood of the sacrificed animal

This might mean that a slot was cut through two sides of the altar allowing for a flat grating to be

offering, and the rest was poured out at its base.

inserted, with the rings extending out on both sides. There is considerable difference of opinion among scholars on the subject, and many consider it likely that two sets of rings were involved, the second set, for insertion of the carrying poles, being attached directly to the outside of the altar. Copper equipment was made in the form of cans and shovels for the ashes, bowls for catching the blood of the animals, forks for handling the flesh, and fire holders . -Ex 27: 1-8; 38 : 1 -7, 30; Nu 4 : 14. This copper altar for burnt offerings was placed before the entrance of the tabernacle. ( Ex 40 : 6, 29 ) While it was of relatively low height, thus not necessarily requiring a means of approach, for ease of handling the sacrifices placed within it the earth may have been raised around it or there may have been a ramp leading up to it. ( Compare Le 9 : 22 , which states that Aaron "came down" from making offerings. ) Since the animal was sac­ rificed "at the side of the altar to the north" ( Le 1 : 11 ) , "the place for the fatty ashes" removed from the altar was to the E ( Le 1 : 16 ), and the basin of copper for washing was located to the W ( Ex 30: 18), this would logically leave the S as the open side on which such a means of approach might be placed. Altar of incense.

was put upon the horns of the altar of burnt ( Ex 29 : 1 2 ; Le 8: 15 ; 9 : 8 , 9 ) Some of the anointing oil and blood on the altar was spattered upon Aaron and his sons and their garments to sanctify them toward the conclusion of the installation ceremony. ( Le 8 : 30 ) In all, seven days were re­ quired for the sanctification of the altar of burnt offering. ( Ex 29 : 37 ) In other burnt offerings, com­ munion sacrifices, and guilt offerings, the blood was sprinkled about upon the altar, while the blood of fowls sacrificed was spattered or drained at the side of the altar. ( Le 1 : 5 - 17 ; 3 : 2-5 ; 5 : 7-9 ; 7 : 2 ) Grain offerings were made to smoke upon the altar as "a restful odor" to Jehovah. ( Le 2 : 2- 1 2 ) Remaining portions o f the grain offering were eaten by the high priest and his sons alongside the altar. (Le 10: 1 2 ) Annually on Atonement Day the altar was cleansed and sanctified by the high priest's placing some of the sacrificial animals' blood on the horns of the altar and by spattering it seven times upon the altar.-Le 16: 18, 19. In all the animal sacrifices presented, portions of the animal were made to smoke upon the altar, and for this purpose a fire was maintained on the altar and was never allowed to go out. ( Le 6 :9- 13 ) From here the fire was obtained for the burning of incense. ( Nu 16:46 ) Only Aaron and those of his descendants who were free from defects were

The altar of incense ( also

called "the altar of gold" [ Ex 39 : 38 ] ) was likewise

permitted to serve at the altar.

(Le

21 : 2 1 - 2 3 ) The

other Levites were only assistants. Any man not of

made of acacia wood, the top and sides being

the seed of Aaron drawing near was to be put to

overlaid with gold. A border of gold ran around

death. ( Nu 16:40; 1 8 : 1 - 7 ) Korah and his assembly were destroyed for failing to recognize this divine

the top. The altar measured 44. 5 cm ( 1 7 . 5 in. ) square and 89 cm ( 2 .9 ft) high, and also had "horns" extending out from the four top corners.

assignment, and the copper fire holders that they had taken were made into thin metal plates and

83

ALTAR

overlaid o n the altar a s a sign that n o one not of

The altar of incense for the temple was made of

the offspring of Aaron should draw near.-Nu

cedarwood, but this seems to have been the only

16: 1 - 11 , 16- 18, 36-40.

difference between it and that of the tabernacle. It

Once a year the golden altar of incense was also atoned for by the placing of sacrificial blood upon

was likewise overlaid with gold.- 1 Ki 6 : 20, 2 2 ; 7 : 4 8 ; 1 Ch 28: 18; 2 C h 4 : 19 .

its horns. Other occasions on which it was so

At the inauguration of the temple Solomon's

treated were when the sin offerings were made

prayer was offered before the altar of burnt offer­

for members of the priesthood. -Ex 30: 10 ;

Le 4:7.

When being transported by the sons of Kohath

ing, and at its conclusion fire came down from the heavens and consumed the sacrifices on the altar.

both the altar of incense and the altar of burnt

( 2Ch 6: 12, 13 ; 7: 1 - 3 ) Despite the fact that it cov­

offerings were covered, the first with a blue cloth

ered an area of over 79 sq m ( 850 sq ft ), this

and sealskins, the second with a reddish-purple

copper altar proved too small for the immense

wool cloth and sealskins.-Nu 4 : 1 1 - 14 ; see TABER­

quantity of sacrifices made then, and so a portion

NACLE.

of the courtyard was sanctified for that purpose.

Temple Altars. Prior to the dedication of Sol­ omon's temple, the copper altar made in the wil­ derness served for Israel's sacrificial offerings at the high place in Gibeon. ( l Ki 3 : 4; 1 Ch 16: 39, 40 ;

- l Ki 8 : 62-64.

offerings came into neglect so that King Asa found

21 : 29 , 30; 2Ch 1 : 3-6 ) The copper altar thereafter

it necessary to renew it. ( 2Ch 1 5 : 8 ) King Uzziah

made for the temple covered an area 16 times as

was stricken with leprosy for attempting to burn

large as the one made for the tabernacle, measur­

incense

ing about 8.9 m ( 29 . 2 ft) square and about 4. 5 m

26: 16"': 19 ) King Ahaz moved the copper altar of

( 14.6 ft) high. ( 2Ch 4: 1 ) In view of its height, some means of approach was essential. God's law pro­ hibited the use of steps to the altar to prevent exposure of nakedness. ( Ex 20: 26 ) Some believe that the linen drawers worn by Aaron and his sons served to obviate this command and thus made steps allowable. (Ex 28:42, 43 ) However, it seems likely that an inclined ramp was used to approach the top of the altar of burnt offering. Josephus

( The Jewish War, V,

225 [v, 6]) indicates

that such an approach was used for the temple altar later built by Herod. If the arrangement of the altar of the temple followed that of the taber­ nacle, the ramp was probably on the S side of the altar. "The molten sea , " where the priests washed, would thus be convenient, as it also lay toward the south. ( 2Ch 4: 2-5, 9, 10) In other respects the altar constructed for the temple apparently was mod­ eled after that of the tabernacle, and no detailed description of it is given.

In the latter part of Solomon'S reign, and in the reigns of Rehoboam and Abijam, the altar of burnt

on the

burnt offering to one side and put a pagan altar in its place. ( 2Ki 1 6 : 14) His son Hezekiah, how­ ever,

had

the

and

its

utensils

Postexilic Altars.

The first thing built in Je­

rusalem by the returning exiles under Zerubbabel and High Priest Jeshua was the altar for burnt offerings. ( Ezr 3 : 2-6 ) In due time a new altar of incense was also made. The Syrian king Antiochus Epiphanes carried off the golden altar of incense, and two years later ( 168 B.GE. ) he built an altar over the great altar of Jehovah and offered up a sacrifice to Zeus thereon. ( 1 Maccabees 1 : 20-64) Judas Maccabaeus thereaf­ ter built a new altar of unhewn stones and also restored

the

altar

of

incense. -1

Maccabees

4 : 44-49. The altar of burnt offerings of Herod's temple was made of unhewn stones and, according to

1 C h 21 : 2 6; 2Ch 8 : 1 2 ; 1 5 : 8 ) This i s also traditional­ ly held to have been the location where Abraham had attempted to offer up Isaac. ( Ge 22 : 2 ) The

ish Mishnah

horn of the altar, and in the rock of the temple

altar

29 : 18-24, 27; see TEMPLE.

Josephus

conduit existed for carrying the blood away from the temple area. Herod's temple is reported to have had such a conduit connected with the SW

copper

cleansed, sanctified, and restored to service. -2Ch

It was located where David had earlier built his temporary altar on Mount Moriah. ( 2Sa 24 : 21 , 2 5 ;

blood of sacrificial animals was poured out at the altar's base, and it is likely that some kind of

golden altar of incense. ( 2Ch

( The Jewish War, V,

225 [v, 6]), was 50

cubits square and 15 cubits high, though the Jew­

(Middot 3: 1 ) gives smaller dimen­

sions for it. It was to this altar, therefore, that Jesus made reference in his day. ( Mt 5 : 2 3, 24; 2 3 : 18-20) The altar of incense of that temple is not described, but Luke 1 : 11 shows that an angel was standing to the right of it when he appeared to John's father Zechariah.

Altar of Ezekiel's Temple.

In the visionary

area, an opening has been found that leads to an

temple seen by Ezekiel, the altar for burnt offer­

underground channel going out to the Kidron Val­

ings was similarly positioned before the temple

ley.

(Eze 40 : 47 ) , but it had a different design from that

ALTAR

of the previous altars. The altar consisted of sev­ eral sections successively indented or recessed. Its dimensions are given in measurements of the long cubit ( 51 . 8 cm ; 20.4 in. ). The base of the altar was one cubit thick and had a "lip" of one span (per­ haps 26 cm; 10 in. ) as a border around the top, thus forming a sort of gutter or channel, perhaps for receiving blood poured out. ( Eze 43 : 13, 14) Resting on the base itself, but set in one cubit from its outer edge, was another section, and it mea­ sured two cubits (c. 104 cm; 41 in. ) in height. A third section was stepped in one cubit and was four cubits (c. 207 cm; 82 in. ) in height. It also had a border surrounding it of a half cubit (c. 26 cm; 10 in. ), perhaps forming a second channel or a protective ledge. Finally, the altar hearth extend­ ed up yet another four cubits and was also stepped in one cubit from the preceding section; out from it extended four "horns. " Stairs from the E provided approach to the altar hearth. ( Eze 43: 14- 1 7 ) As with the altar built in the wilderness, a seven-day period of atonement and installation was to be observed. (Eze 43: 19-26 ) Annual atone­ ment was to be made for the altar along with the rest of the sanctuary on the first day of Nisan. ( Eze 45: 18, 19 ) The river of healing waters seen by Ezekiel flowed eastward from the temple and passed S of the altar.-Eze 47 : 1 . The altar o f incense i s not mentioned b y name in the vision. However, the description of "the wooden altar" at Ezekiel 41 :22, particularly the reference to it as "the table that is before Jeho­ vah," indicates that this corresponded to the altar of incense rather than to the table of showbread. (Compare Ex 30:6, 8 ; 40: 5 ; Re 8 : 3. ) This altar was three cubits ( c. 155 cm; 61 in. ) high and evidently two cubits (c. 104 cm ; 41 in. ) square. Other Altars. Since the post-Flood population did not continue with Noah in pure worship, it follows that many altars for false worship were produced, and excavations in Canaan, Mesopota­ mia, and other sites indicate that these existed from the earliest periods. Balaam had seven altars erected successively at three different sites in his vain attempts at calling down a curse on Israel. -Nu 22:40, 41 ; 23 :4, 14, 29, 30.

The Israelites were instructed to tear down all pagan altars and destroy the sacred pillars and poles customarily built alongside them. ( Ex 34: 13; De 7 : 5, 6 ; 12 : 1- 3 ) They were never to imitate these nor offer up their children by fire as did the Canaanites. (De 12 : 30, 31 ; 16 : 21 ) Instead of a multiplicity of altars, Israel was to have just one altar for the worship of the one true God, and this would be located at the place Jehovah would

84 choose. (De 1 2 : 2-6, 13, 14, 27; contrast this with Babylon, where there were 180 altars to the god­ dess Ishtar alone. ) They were at first instructed to make an altar of unhewn stones following the crossing of the Jordan River (De 27 :4-8), and this was built by Joshua on Mount Ebal. (Jos 8: 30-32 ) Following the division of the conquered land, the tribes of Reuben and Gad and the half tribe of Manasseh built a conspicuous altar by the Jordan, which provoked a temporary crisis among the other tribes until it was determined that the altar was no sign of apostasy but only a memorial of faithfulness to Jehovah as the true God.-Jos 2 2 : 10-34. Other altars were constructed, but these appear to have been built for specific occasions, not for continual use, and they were usually built in con­ nection with angelic appearances or at angelic instruction. The one at Bochim and those of Gide­ on and Manoah were such. (Jg 2 : 1-5 ; 6 : 24-32 ; 13: 15-23 ) The record concerning the altar set up at Bethel by the people when considering how to prevent the disappearance of the tribe of Benja­ min does not indicate whether such had divine approval or was simply a case of their 'doing what was right in their own eyes.' ( Jg 21 :4, 25) As God's representative, Samuel offered sacrifice at Mizpah and also built an altar at Ramah. ( lSa 7 : 5 , 9, 10, 17) This may have been due to the fact that Jehovah's presence was no longer in evidence at the tabernacle in Shiloh, following the removal of the Ark.- 1 Sa 4:4, 11 ; 6 : 19-2 1 ; 7: 1, 2; compare Ps 78: 59-64. Use of temporary altars. On a number of oc­ casions temporary altars were constructed. For example, Saul offered sacrifice at Gilgal and built an altar at Aijalon. ( 1Sa 13 : 7-12 ; 14: 3 3-35 ) In the first case he was conderrmed for not waiting for Samuel to do the sacrificing, but the propriety of the locations as places for sacrifiCing was not con­ sidered.

David instructed Jonathan to explain his ab­ sence at Saul's table on the day of the new moon by saying that David was attending an annual family sacrifice at Bethlehem; however, since this was a subterfuge, it cannot definitely be known whether such was really celebrated. ( 1Sa 20:6, 28, 29 ) Later, as king, David built an altar on the threshing floor of Araunah (Ornan), and this was at divine command. ( 2Sa 24: 18-25 ; lCh 21 : 18-26 ; 22: 1 ) The statement at 1 Kings 9 : 25 with regard to Solomon's 'offering up sacrifices on the altar' clearly refers to his causing such to be done through the authorized priesthood. -Compare 2Ch 8: 12-15.

85 With the setting u p o f the temple at Jerusalem, it appears that the altar was now definitely at "the place that Jehovah your God will choose . . . and there you must come. " (De 12 : 5 ) Aside from the altar used by Elijah on Mount Carmel in the fire test with the Baal priests ( lKi 18: 26-35 ), only apostasy now caused the setting up of other al­ tars. Solomon himself was the first to be guilty of such apostasy, because of the influence of his foreign wives. ( 1 Ki 1 1 : 3-8 ) Jeroboam of the newly formed northern kingdom endeavored to divert his subjects from going to the temple in Jerusa­ lem by setting up altars at Bethel and Dan. ( 1Ki 1 2 : 28-3 3 ) A prophet then foretold that in the reign of King Josiah of Judah priests officiating at the altar in Bethel would be slaughtered and that the bones of dead men would be burned on the altar. The altar was ripped apart as a sign, and the prophecy was later completely fulfilled.-1Ki 13: 1-5 ; 2Ki 2 3 : 15-20; compare Am 3 : 14. During King Ahab's rule in Israel, pagan altars flourished. ( 1Ki 16 : 31-33) In the time of King Ahaz of Judah, there were altars "at every corner in Jerusalem," as well as many "high places. " ( 2Ch 28: 24, 2 5 ) Manasseh went so far as to build altars within the house of Jehovah and altars for wor­ shiping "the army of the heavens" in the temple courtyard.-2Ki 21 : 3-5. Though faithful kings periodically destroyed these idolatrous altars ( 2Ki 1 1 : 18; 23: 12, 20; 2Ch 14: 3 ; 30 : 14; 31 : 1 ; 34:4-7), prior to Jerusalem's fall Jeremiah could still say : "Your gods have become as many as your cities, 0 Judah; and as many altars as the streets of Jerusalem you people have placed for the shameful thing, altars to make sacrificial smoke to Baal. "-Jer 11 : 13. During exile and in apostolic period. During the period of the exile, the Jews who fled to Elephantine in Upper Egypt set up a temple and an altar, according to the Elephantine Papyri ; and some centuries later the Jews near Leontopolis did likewise. (Jewish Antiquities, XIII, 62-68 [ iii, 1 ]; The Jewish War, VII, 420-432 [x, 2, 3 ] ) This latter temple and altar were built by Priest Onias in an attempt to fulfill Isaiah 19 : 19, 20.

I n the Common Era, the apostle Paul in speaking to the Athenians referred to an altar inscribed "To an Unknown God." (Ac 1 7 : 2 3 ) Ample historical information is available to corroborate this. Apol­ lonius of Tyana, who visited Athens sometime after Paul, is reported to have said: "It is a much greater proof of wisdom and sobriety to speak well of all the gods, especially at Athens, where altars are set up in honour even of unknown gods. " (Philostratus, Th e Life of Apollonius of Tyana,

ALTAR

VI, Ill ) Geographer Pausanias in the second centu­ ry c.E. reported that on the road from the Phale­ ron Bay harbor to the city of Athens he had observed "altars of the gods named Unknown, and of heroes. " He also spoke of "an altar of Unknown Gods" at Olympia. ( Description of Greece, Atti­ ca, I, 4; Elis 1, XIV, 8) A similar altar was discovered in 1909 at Pergamum in the precincts of the tem­ ple of Demeter. Significance of Altars. In Hebrews chapters 8 and 9 the apostle Paul clearly shows that all the things related to the tabernacle and temple ser­ vice were typical. ( Heb 8: 5 ; 9 : 2 3 ) The significance of the two altars is made evident by information in the Christian Greek Scriptures. The altar of burnt offerings represented God's "will," that is, his will­ ingness to accept the perfect human sacrifice of his only-begotten Son. ( Heb 10 : 5- 10 ) Its location in front of the entrance to the sanctuary empha­ sizes the requirement of faith in that ransom sacrifice as a prerequisite for acceptance by God. (Joh 3: 16- 18 ) The insistence upon a single altar of sacrifice is in harmony with Christ's declaration: "I am the way and the truth and the life. No one comes to the Father except through me," as well as with the many texts declaring the unity to be manifest in the Christian faith.-Joh 14: 6 ; Mt 7: 13, 14; lCo 1 : 10- 1 3 ; Eph 4 : 3-6 ; note also Isaiah's prophecy, at Isa 56: 7 ; 60: 7, that people of all nations would come to God's altar.

It is notable that, though some individuals fled to the altar, taking hold of its horns, in hope of gaining protection, God's law prescribed that the willful murderer was to be taken "even from be­ ing at my altar to die. " ( Ex 21 : 14 ; compare · 1Ki 1 : 50-53 ; 2: 28-34. ) The psalmist sang: "I shall wash my hands in innocency itself, and I will march around your altar, 0 Jehovah. "-Ps 26:6. Although Hebrews 13: 10 has been used as basis for erection of literal altars by professed Chris­ tians, the context shows that the "altar" spoken of by Paul is not literal but symbolic. ( Heb 13: 10- 16 ) M'Clintock and Strong's CycJopCEdia ( 1882, Vol. 1, p. 183 ) says concerning the early Christians: "When the ancient apologists were reproached with having no temples, no altars, no shrines, they simply replied, 'Shrines and altars we have not. ' " Commenting on Hebrews 13 : 10, M. R. Vincent's Word Studies in the New Testamen t ( 1957, Vol. IV, p. 567 ) says: "It is a mistake to try to find in the Christian economy some specific object answering to altar-either the cross, or the eucharistic table, or Christ himself. Rather the ideas of approach to God,-sacrifice, atonement, pardon and accep­ tance, salvation,-are gathered up and generally

86

ALUSH represented in the figure of an altar, even as the

3 6 : 15, 16 ) Amalek's name also designated his trib­

Jewish altar was the point at which all these ideas

al descendants. -De 2 5 : 1 7 ; Jg 7 : 1 2 ; 1 Sa 15 : 2 .

converged. " The mUltiplying of altars was strongly

The belief o f some that the Amalekites were

condemned by the Hebrew prophets. ( lsa 1 7 : 7, 8 )

of a much earlier origin and not descendants of

Hosea said that Ephraim "multiplied altars in or­

Esau's grandson Amalek is not founded on solid

der to sin" ( Ho 8 : 11 ; 10 : 1 , 2, 8; 12 : 1 1 ) ; Jeremiah

factual ground. The idea that the Amalekites pre­

stated that the sin of Judah was engraved "on the horns of their altars" (Jer 1 7 : 1 , 2 ) ; and Ezekiel foretold the slaughter of false worshipers "all around their altars" (Eze 6 : 4-6, 13 ) .

dated Amalek was based on Balaam's proverbial utterance: "Amalek was the first one of the na­ tions, but his end afterward will be even his perishing. " ( Nu 24 : 20 ) However, Balaam was not

Expressions of divine judgment are also pro­ phetically associated with the true altar.

( lsa

speaking here of history in general and the origin of nations seven or eight centuries earlier. He was

6 : 5 - 1 2 ; Eze 9 : 2 ; Am 9 : 1 ) It is from "underneath

speaking of history only in connection with the

the altar" that the souls of those slaughtered for

Israelites, whom he was hired to curse and who

witnessing for God symbolically cry out : "Until

were about to enter the Promised Land. Hence,

when, Sovereign Lord holy and true, are you re­

after listing Moab, Edom, and Seir as Israel's oppo­

fraining from judging and avenging our blood

nents, Balaam declares that the Amalekites were

upon those who dwell on the earth?"-Re 6 : 9, 10;

actually "the first one of the nations" to rise up in

compare 8 : 5 ; 1 1 : 1 ; 16:7.

opposition to the Israelites on their march out of

At Revelation 8:3, 4 the golden altar of incense is expressly related to the prayers of the righ­ teous. It was customary among the Jews to pray at "the hour of offering incense. " ( Lu 1 : 9,

10;

Egypt toward Palestine, and for this reason, the end of Amalek "will be even his perishing. " Moses, therefore, i n relating events o f Abra­ ham's day before Amalek was born, spoke of "the

compare Ps 141 : 2. ) The single altar for offering

whole field of the Amalekites," evidently describ­

incense also corresponds with the one avenue of

ing the

approach outlined in the Christian Greek Scrip­

time, instead of implying that Amalekites predat­

region

as understood by people of Moses'

tures. -Joh 10 : 9 ; 14:6 ; 16 : 2 3 ; Eph 2 : 18-2 2 ; see

ed Amalek. ( Ge 14: 7 ) The center of this Amalekite

OFFERINGS.

territory was N of Kadesh-bamea in the Negeb

ALUSH

( A/lush ). A place on the Sinai Peninsu­

la, between Dophkah and Rephidim, where the Israelites encamped. The site is not known.-Nu 3 3 : 13, 14.

desert in the southern part of Palestine, with their tributary camps radiating out into the Sinai Penin­ sula and northern Arabia. ( l Sa 1 5 : 7 ) At one time their influence may have extended into the hills of Ephraim.-Jg 1 2 : 1 5 .

ALVAH

(AI/vah ). A sheik of Edom and descen­

The Amalekites were "the first one of the na­

dant of Esau. ( Ge 36:40, 4 3 ; 1 Ch 1 : 5 1 ) Possibly a

tions" to launch an unprovoked attack on the Isra­

place and a tribe were also called Alvah. -See

elites after the Exodus, at Rephidim near Mount

TIMNA No. 3 .

ALVAN

Sinai. As a consequence, Jehovah decreed ulti­

( AI/van ).

First-named

son o f Sheik

Shobal, a Seirite.-Ge 36: 20, 23, 29 ; 1 Ch 1 : 40.

mate extinction for the Amalekites. ( Nu 24 : 20; Ex 1 7 : 8- 16; De 2 5 : 17-19 ) A year later, when the Israelites attempted to enter the Promised Land

( A'mad ). A city of the fertile coastal

contrary to Jehovah's word, they were repulsed

plain N of the Carmel Range, assigned to the tribe

by the Amalekites. ( Nu 14 :41-45 ) Twice during the

AMAD

of Asher. ( Jos 19 : 2 6 ) Although there are several

days of the Judges these adversaries of Israel

ruins in this area called 'Amud, the exact location

shared in assaulting Israel. They did it in the days of Eglon king of Moab. ( Jg 3 : 12, 1 3 ) Again, with

of this city is not known.

AMAL

(A/mal ) [ Hard Work ] . Last named of

four sons of Helem listed among "the sons of Asher, heads of the house of the forefathers, se­ lect, valiant, mighty men, heads of the chieftains. " - l Ch 7 : 35 , 40.

AMALEK

( Am/a·lek ),

AMALEKITES (Amal/-

the Midianites and Easterners, they pillaged the land of Israel seven years before Gideon and his 300 men dealt them a smashing defeat.-Jg 6 : 1 -3 , 3 3 ; 7 : 12 ; 10 : 1 2. Because of this persistent hatred, during the period of the kings Jehovah 'called to account' the Amalekites, commanding King Saul to strike them

ek·ites ). Son of Esau's firstborn Eliphaz, by his

down, which he did "from Havilah as far as Shur,

concubine Timna. ( Ge 3 6 : 12, 16 ) Amalek, a grand­

which is in front of Egypt . " However, Saul, over­

son of Esau, was one of the sheiks of Edom. ( Ge

stepping Jehovah's order, spared Agag their king.

87

AMASA

But God was not mocked, for "Samuel went hack­

6. Son of Hezekiah ( probably the king of Judah)

ing Agag to pieces before Jehovah in Gilgal." ( lSa

and great-grandfather of the prophet Zephaniah.

1 5 : 2-3 3 ) Some of David's raids included Amalekite

-Zep 1 : 1 .

villages, and when they in return attacked Ziklag and carried off David's wives and goods, he and 400 men overtook them, recovering all that had been stolen. ( 1 Sa 27:8; 30 : 1 -20 ) During the reign of Hezekiah, some of the tribe of Simeon annihilat­ ed the remnant of the Amalekites.- 1Ch 4:42, 43. There is no further direct mention of the Amal­ ekites in Biblical or secular history. However, "Ha­ man the son of . . . the Agagite" was probably a descendant, for "Agag" was the title or name of certain Amalekite kings. (Es 3 : 1 ; Nu 24 : 7 ;

ISa

1 5 : 8, 9) Thus the Amalekites, along with others mentioned by name, were exterminated in order "that people may know that you, whose name is Jehovah, you alone are the Most High over all the earth. "-Ps 83:6- 18.

AMAM

( A'mam ). A village in the Negeb, in the

southern part of the territory of Judah.-Jos 15 : 26 .

AMANAH

7 . One of the principal priests returning from

Babylon with Zerubbabel , 537 B.C.E. ( Ne 1 2 : 1 , 2 , 7 ) I n the days o f Governor Nehemiah there was a 'paternal house' of priests by his name.-Ne 1 2 : 12, 13, 26.

8 . A descendant of Binnui ; one of those who

sent away their pagan wives and sons in the days

of Ezra.-Ezr 10: 10- 12, 38, 42, 44.

9. A priest, or the forefather of one, who attest­

ed to the "trustworthy arrangement" during Nehe­ miah's governorship. ( Ne 9 : 38; 10: 1 , 3 ) He would have been more than 112 years old if the same as No. 7 above.

1 0 . Ancestor of residents of Jerusalem in Nehe­

miah's time; of the tribe of Judah.-Ne 11 :4.

AMASA

(Ama'sa) [ shortened form of Ama­

siah ].

1. Son of David's sister or half sister Abigail

and Jether ( Ithra ), and cousin of Absalom and (Ama'nah ) ( from a root meaning

Joab. ( 2Sa 1 7 : 2 5 ; lCh 2 : 16, 17) Jether is called an

"trustworthy; faithful; long-lasting"]. This name

Israelite in Samuel and an Ishmaelite in Chroni­

appears in the Hebrew at Song of Solomon 4 : 8

cles, perhaps because he lived in Ishmaelite terri­

i n connection with Lebanon and Mount Hermon.

tory. Some contend that Amasa is to be identified

Most translations simply transliterate the Hebrew

with Amasai, one of those who joined David's

word; however, some scholars understand it to

army at Ziklag, but such an identification is uncer­

refer to the Anti-Lebanon Range, while others

tain. - 1 Ch 1 2 : 18.

apply it to that portion of the Anti-Lebanons in which the Nahr Barada has its source.-See ANTI-LEBANON.

AMARIAH

Years later, when Amasa threw in his lot with

Absalom's rebellion against David, he w as put

over Absalom's army in place of Joab. ( 2Sa 17: 25 ) (Am·a·ri'ah) (Jehovah Has Said].

1 . A priestly descendant of Aaron's son Eleazar through Phinehas ; son of Meraioth; father of Ahi­ tub; grandfather of Zadok, who served as a sec­ ondary priest during the reign of David and high priest during the reign of Solomon. ( l eh 6:7, 5 2 ) It cannot be stated definitely that Amariah officiat­ ed as high priest,

since the office temporarily

switched to the house of Eli at about that time.

2 . A Levite descendant of Kohath's son Hebron, listed in David's reorganization of temple service. - l Ch 2 3 : 1 , 12, 19 ; 24 : 23.

The rebellion was suppressed, David's son Absa­ lom was killed by Joab, and Amasa was offered the place of Joab as David's army chief, for as David said, he is "my bone and my flesh. "-2Sa 18:9-1 5 ; 19: 13. Again rebellion broke

out,

this time

Sheba

wanted no share in David. ( 2Sa 20 : 1 , 2) Amasa was given three days to assemble an army. When he did not come at the fixed time, Abishai was told to take David's servants and pursue the rebels. Abishai's brother Joab and his men went with them in the pursuit of Sheba. Finally, when the

3. Chief priest "for every matter of Jehovah," especially legal cases, during Jehoshaphat's reign. -2Ch 19 : 11 .

4 . Another descendant of Eleazar who lived at

other hand to rip Amasa's abdomen open. ( 2Sa

a later time than No. 1 above. Son of Azariah and

pense for Amasa's siding with Absalom but cer­

father of another Ahitub . - 1 Ch 6: 11 ; Ezr 7 : 3.

5. A Levite who assisted in distributing the tithes to the priests in their cities during the reign of Hezekiah.-2Ch 31 : 14, 1 5 .

latecomer Amasa met them, Joab, pretending to give an affectionate kiss, grabbed Amasa by the beard with one hand and used the sword in his 20:4- 1 2 ) This may have been deserved recom­ tainly not at the hand from which it came. Da­ vid therefore commanded Solomon that Amasa should be avenged through the death of Joab. - 1 Ki 2 : 5, 32.

88

AMASAI 2 . Son of Hadlai. Following victory over Judah,

Seir, using a force o f 300,000 from Judah and

when Israelite warriors were bringing their broth­

Benjamin. He had also hired 100,000 mercenaries

ers back as servants, Amasa was one of four

from Israel, but upon the advice of a man of God

headmen of Ephraim who heeded the plea of the

he paid them off and sent them home. Jehovah

prophet Oded to return the captives. He also as­

gave Amaziah a smashing victory in the Valley of

sisted those of Judah with supplies and trans­

Salt, allowing him to kill off 20,000 of the enemy

portation

needed

for

their

repatriation.-2Ch

28:8- 1 5 .

AMASAI

and to capture Sela, which he renamed Joktheel. However, Amaziah brought the gods of Seir back

( Ama'sai ) [ shortened form of Ama­

siah].

1. A Levite of the family of Kohath ; son of Elkanah and ancestor of the prophet Samuel and the temple singer Heman of David's day . - 1 Ch 6 : 2 5 , 3 5 , 36.

2. The head of 30 men from the tribes of Judah and Benjamin who joined David at Ziklag. To allay David's fear of treachery, "spirit itself enveloped Amasai" as he pledged their wholehearted sup­ port, acknowledging that Jehovah was David's helper.- 1Ch 1 2 : 16- 18.

3. One of seven priests "loudly sounding the trumpets before the ark of the true God" when David had it brought to Jerusalem. - 1 Ch 1 5 : 24.

with him and began worshiping them, causing Jehovah's anger to blaze against him: "Why have you searched for the people's gods that did not deliver their own people out of your hand?" Ama­ ziah only compounded the injury by silencing Jehovah's prophet.-2Ki 14 : 7 ; 2Ch 2 5 : 5- 16. Amaziah's second campaign was tragic from start to finish. The 100,000 from Israel who were dismissed raided towns of Judah on their return north. Perhaps it was this that provoked Amaziah foolishly to challenge Jehoash of the strong north­ ern kingdom, saying: "Do come. Let us look each other in the face. " Jehoash's response: How foolish for a thorny weed to confront a massive cedar only to be trampled by a wild beast! Amaziah refused to listen; he was apparently puffed up

4 . A Levite of the family of Kohath whose son

with his recent victory, and Jehovah had doomed

Mahath assisted in cleansing and sanctifying the

Amaziah to defeat because of his idolatry. The

temple in the days of Hezekiah.-2Ch 29 : 12- 18.

AMASHSAI

( Amash'sai ) . Son of Azarel and

one of the priests residing in Jerusalem in Nehe­ miah's time.-Ne 11 : 13.

AMASIAH

(Am·a·si'ah) [Jah Has Carried the

battle was joined at Beth-shemesh, Judah fled, Amaziah was captured, a breach of about 178 m ( 5 84 ft ) was made in Jerusalem's wall, and much temple treasure and many hostages were carried back to Samaria. -2Ki 14 : 8- 14; 2Ch 25 : 13, 17-24. From the time that Amaziah turned away from

Load ]. Son of Zichri. During Jehoshaphat's reign

Jehovah's

he headed one of the Judean army divisions num­

against him that finally forced Amaziah to flee to

bering 200,000 . -2Ch 1 7 : 16.

AMAZIAH (Am·a·zi'ah ) [ Jehovah Is Strong ]. 1. A Levite of the family of Merari ; son of Hilkiah, father of Hashabiah. One of his descen­ dants shared in directing the singing before the tabernacle in David's time. - 1 Ch 6 : 3 1 , 3 2 , 45.

2. King of Judah who, in 858 B.c. E . , came to the throne at 25 and ruled for 29 years from the assassination of his father Jehoash. His mother was Jehoaddin ( Jehoaddan ), his wife Jecoliah. ( 2Ki 14: 1 , 2; 1 5 : 2 ; 2Ch 2 5 : 1 ; 26 : 3 ) With the kingdom firm in his hand, he executed those that had murdered his father, but he heeded the law of Moses not to punish their sons. ( 2Ki 14 : 5, 6 ; De 24: 16 ) His reign was marked by some enthusiasm for true worship but not with "a complete heart" and not without serious shortcomings that brought disaster both to himself and to the nation of Judah. The record of his rule deals primarily with two military campaigns.-2Ch 2 5 : 2 . Amaziah was first successful against Edom, or

worship,

a

conspiracy

was

formed

Lachish. There the conspirators put him to death. Amaziah was succeeded by his 16-year-old son Azariah ( Uzziah ). -2Ki 14 : 17-21 ; 2Ch 2 5 : 25-28.

3. A priest of the calf worship at Bethel who complained to Jeroboam II that the prophet Amos was a seditionist. He personally tried to frighten Amos into going back to Judah. The prophet, however, stood his ground, telling Amaziah that his wife would become a prostitute, his children would fall by the sword, and Amaziah himself would die on unclean ground.-Am 7 : 10- 17. 4 . Father of Joshah; of the tribe of Simeon. Joshah was one of the chieftains numbered among those clearing the valley near Gedor of the Meu­ nim and of the Hamitic settlers in the days of Hezekiah . - 1Ch 4 : 24, 34, 38-41 .

AMBASSADOR.

In Biblical usage, an official

representative sent out by a ruler on a special occasion for a specific purpose. Older, mature men usually served in this capacity. Thus, the Greek words pre·sbeu'o ( 'act as an ambassador' [ Eph

89

AMBASSADOR

pre­

principle clearly when he said: "He that receives

( "body of ambassadors" [ Lu 14: 3 2 ] ) are both

anyone I send receives me also. In turn he that

6 : 20 ] ; 'be a n ambassador' [ 2Co 5 : 20 ] ) and

sbei'a

related to the word

pre-sby'te·ros,

meaning "older

man; elder."-Ac 1 1 : 30; Re 4:4.

receives me, receives also him that sent me. "-Joh 1 3 : 20; see also Mt 2 3 : 34, 35 ; 2 5 : 34-46.

"sent one. " He it is who fIshed light upon life and

Jesus also used the peace-promoting work of an ambassador to illustrate our individual need to sue

incorruption through the good news . "-Heb 3 : 1 ;

for peace with Jehovah God and give up all to

2Ti 1 : 10.

follow in the footsteps of his Son in order to get

Jesus Christ came as Jehovah God's "apostle," or

After Christ had been resurrected to the heav­ ens, being no longer on earth in person, his faith­ ful followers were appointed to act in his place, "substituting for Christ" as ambassadors of God. Paul specifically mentions his office of ambassa­ dorship. ( 2Co 5 : 18-20 ) He, like all the anointed followers of Jesus Christ, was sent to nations and people who were alienated from Jehovah God the Supreme Sovereign-ambassadors to a world not at peace with God. ( Joh 14 : 30 ; 1 5 : 18, 19 ; Jas 4:4) As an ambassador, Paul bore a message of rec­ onciliation to God through Christ and therefore spoke of himself while in prison as "an ambassa­ dor in chains . " ( Eph 6 : 20) His being in chains is a demonstration of the hostile attitude of this world toward God, Christ, and the Messianic Kingdom government, for ambassadors have since time im­ memorial been considered inviolate. It revealed the greatest hostility and was the grossest of insults on the part of the nations when they disre­ spected the ambassadors sent to represent the Kingdom of God under Christ. In fulfilling his role as an ambassador, Paul respected the laws of the land but remained strict­ ly neutral toward the world's political and military activities. This was in harmony with the principle that ambassadors of worldly governments must obey the law but are exempt from allegiance to the country to which they are sent. Like the apostle Paul, all of Christ's faithful, anointed, spirit-begotten followers, who have a heavenly citizenship, are "ambassadors substitut­ ing for Christ. "-2Co 5 : 20 ; Php 3 : 20. How a person receives these ambassadors of God determines how God will deal with him. Jesus Christ set forth the principle in his illustration of the man who owned a vineyard and who first sent his slaves, then his son, as his representatives. The cultivators of the vineyard brutally mistreated

God's favor and everlasting life. ( Lu

14: 3 1 -3 3 )

Conversely, he illustrated the folly o f being associ­ ated with those sending ambassadors to speak against the one on whom God confers kingly pow­ er. ( Lu 19 : 12-14, 2 7 ) The Gibeonites are good examples of taking action in a tactful, successful suit for peace.-Jos 9 : 3- 1 5, 22-27.

Pre-Christian Envoys.

In the pre-Christian

period there was no official governmental office corresponding exactly to the modem-day ambas­ sador. There was no resident official representing a foreign government. Hence, the terms "messen­ ger" ( Heb. ,

maJ. 'akh') and

"envoy" ( Heb. ,

tsir) more

accurately describe their duties in Bible times. However, their rank and status were in many respects similar to those of ambassadors, and some of these aspects will be considered here. Such men were official representatives who car­ ried messages between governments and individ­ ual rulers. Unlike modern-day ambassadors, ancient en­ voys, or messengers, did not reside in foreign capitals but were dispatched only on special occa­ sions for specific purposes. Often they were per­ sons of rank ( 2Ki 18: 17, 18), and their office was highly respected.

Consequently, they were ac­

corded inviolability of person when they visited other rulers. The treatment accorded a ruler's messengers, or envoys, was regarded as treatment given the ruler and his government. Thus, when Rahab showed favor to the messengers sent as spies to Jericho by Joshua, she really was acting as she did because she recognized that Jehovah was the God and King of Israel. Jehovah, through Joshua, showed her favor accordingly. (Jos 6 : 17 ; Heb 1 1 : 3 1 ) A flagrant violation of the unwritten international custom of respect toward envoys was the action of Hanun the king of Ammon, to whom King David sent some servants in a gesture of friendship. The

another illustration, of the king whose slaves were

king of Ammon listened to his princes, who falsely called the messengers spies, and he publicly hu­ miliated the messengers, demonstrating his disre­ spect for David and his government. This dis­

killed while acting as messengers inviting guests to a marriage feast. The ones receiving his repre­

graceful action 1 2 : 26-3 1 .

those slaves and killed the owner's son. For this the owner of the vineyard brought destruction on the hostile cultivators. ( Mt 21 : 3 3-41 ) Jesus gave

led

to

war.-2Sa

10: 2- 1 1 : 1 ;

sentatives in such a manner were counted as

Instead o f recalling an ambassador, which is

enemies of the king. ( Mt 2 2 : 2-7 ) Jesus stated the

what modem-day nations do when diplomatic

AMBUSH relations are broken, the people of ancient times sent messengers, or envoys, as spokesmen to one another during times of strain in an effort to reestablish peaceful relations. Isaiah speaks of such "messengers of peace. " ( Isa 3 3 : 7 ) Hezekiah sent a peace appeal to Sennacherib the king of Assyria. Although Sennacherib was threatening the fortified cities of Judah, the messengers were given freedom of passage by the Assyrians be­ cause they were acting as Hezekiah's envoys. ( 2Ki 18: 13-15 ) Another example of this can be seen in the record about Jephthah, a judge in Israel. By messengers he dispatched a letter to the king of the Ammonites to remonstrate against wrong ac­ tion on his part and to clear up a dispute over territorial rights. If possible, Jephthah, through his envoys, would have settled the matter without war. These messengers were permitted to pass back and forth between the armies without hin­ drance.-Jg 11 : 12-28; see MESSENGER.

AMBUSH.

A lying in wait in a concealed place to attack by surprise. Three Hebrew words for "ambush" ( 'elrev, drev, and ma·'arav') come from the root 'a·ravl, meaning "lie in wait." (Job 37:8; Jer 9 : 8 ; Ps 10 :8; Jg 9 : 32 ) Similarly, the Greek word for "ambush" ( e·neldra) is related to the verb e·ne­ dreulo, meaning "lie in wait. "-Ac 25 : 3 ; 2 3 : 2 1 .

Joshua skillfully employed a n ambush against Ai, posting 5,000 men to the W of the city at night, while deploying the main body of his forces to the N. The following morning he drew the city's de­ fenders away from the city by feigning defeat, thus allowing the ambush to rise up and take the city. ( Jos 8 : 2-21 ) Ambushes were involved in the dispute between the landowners of Shechem and Gideon's son Abimelech. ( Jg 9 : 25, 31-45 ) Samson was the object of ambushes by the Philistines. (Jg 16 : 1 - 1 2 ) Saul set an ambush against Amalek and later accused David of lying in ambush for him. ( 1Sa 15 : 5 ; 2 2 : 8 ) Other ambushes were those in the fight of Israel against the tribe of Benjamin ( Jg 20: 29-44 ), the unsuccessful ambush of Judah by Jeroboam ( 2Ch 13: 13-19 ), the ambush producing confusion among Judah's attackers in the days of Jehoshaphat ( 2Ch 20: 22, 23), those mentioned in describing the fall of Jerusalem ( La 4: 19), and the ambush decreed against Babylon by Jehovah ( Jer 51 : 1 2 ). The returning Jewish exiles were protect­ ed by Jehovah from ambush.-Ezr 8 : 31 ; see WAR. The Hebrew noun 'elrev, meaning "ambush," is used in describing hunting tactics. ( Job 37:8; 38: 40) The Hebrew verb 'a·ra vl is used figuratively to describe the prostitute as she waylays men ( Pr 7 : 1 2 ; 23 : 28 ) and t o describe the tactics of wicked ones against the innocent as well as the righteous.

90 (Ps 10 :9; Pr 1 : 11 , 18; 1 2 : 6 ; 24 : 15 ; Mic 7 : 2 ; com­ pare Job 31 :9. ) In Israel the death penalty was decreed for the man found guilty of killing another after lying in wait to do it.-De 19 : 1 1 , 12. The more than 40 Jews who "bound themselves with a curse" plotted an ambush against the apos­ tle Paul but were foiled by Paul's nephew.-Ac 23: 12-35.

AMEN.

This word in both English and Greek is a transliteration from the Hebrew 'a·menl. The meaning is "so be it," or "surely." The Hebrew root word from which it is drawn ( 'a·man, means "be faithful ; be trustworthy. "

I n the Hebrew Scriptures the word i s used a s a solemn expression to obligate oneself legally to an oath or covenant and its consequences ( Nu 5 : 2 2 ; D e 27: 15-26 ; Ne 5 : 13), also a s a solemn expression to subscribe to an expressed 'prayer ( 1 Ch 16 : 36 ), to an expression of praise ( Ne 8 : 6 ), or to an ex­ pressed purpose ( 1Ki 1 : 36; Jer 11 : 5 ). Each of the first four books, or collections, of the Psalms con­ cludes with this expression, perhaps indicating that it was customary for the congregation of Israel to join in at the end of the song or psalm with an "Amen."-Ps 41 : 13 ; 72: 19 ; 89 : 5 2 ; 106: 48. The Hebrew word 'a·manl is applied to Jehovah as "the faithful God" ( De 7:9; Isa 49 : 7 ) and de­ scribes his reminders and promises as "trustwor­ thy" and "faithful. " ( Ps 19 : 7 ; 89 : 28, 37) In the Christian Greek Scriptures the title "Amen" is ap­ plied to Christ Jesus as "the faithful and true witness. " ( Re 3 : 14) Jesus made singular use of the expression in his preaching and teaching, using it very often to preface a statement of fact, a prom­ ise, or a prophecy, thereby emphasizing the abso­ lute truthfulness and reliability of what he said. ( Mt 5 : 18 ; 6 : 2 , 5, 16; 24: 34) In these cases the Greek word ( a·men') is translated as "truly" (KJ, "verily") or, when doubled, a s throughout the book of John, "most truly." ( Joh 1 : 51 ) Jesus' use of "amen" in this way is said to be unique in sacred literature, and it was consistent with his divinely given authority.-Mt 7 : 29. However, as Paul shows at 2 Corinthians 1: 19, 20, the title "Amen" applies to Jesus not merely as a truth speaker or as a true prophet and spokes­ man of God but also as the one in whom all of God's promises find fulfillment. His course of faithfulness and obedience even to a sacrificial death confirms and makes possible the bringing to reality of all the promises and declarations of God's purpose. He was the living Truth of those revelations of God's purpose, the things to which God had sworn.-Compare Joh 1 : 14, 17; 14 : 6 ; 1 8 : 37.

91 The expression "Amen" is used many times in letters, especially those of Paul, when the writer has expressed some form of praise to God ( Ro 1 : 25; 16 : 27; Eph 3 : 21 ; I Pe 4: 11 ) or expresses the wish that God's favor be manifested in some man­ ner toward the recipients of the letter. ( Ro 1 5 : 3 3 ; Heb 13: 20, 21 ) I t i s also used where the writer earnestly subscribes to what is expressed.-Re 1 : 7 ; 2 2 : 20. The prayer expressed at 1 Chronicles 16 : 36 and those contained in the Psalms ( 41 : 13 ; 72: 19 ; 89 : 5 2 ; 106 :48), as well as the expressions contained in the canonical letters, all indicate the correctness of the use of "Amen" at the close of prayers. It is true that not all the prayers recorded show such conclusion, such as David's closing prayer for Sol­ omon ( 1 Ch 29 : 19 ) or Solomon's dedication prayer at the inauguration of the temple ( l Ki 8: 53-61 ), although such expression may well have been made. ( Note l Ch 29: 20. ) Similarly, its use is not recorded in Jesus' prayers ( Mt 26 : 39, 42; Joh 1 7 : 1-26 ) or in the prayer of the disciples at Acts 4: 24-30. However, the weight of the prior evi­ dence presented strongly indicates the rightness of the use of "Amen" as a conclusion to prayer, and Paul's statement at 1 Corinthians 14: 16 in particU­ lar shows that it was customary for those in Chris­ tian assembly to join in the Amen to a prayer. Additionally, the examples of those in heaven, recorded at Revelation 5: 13, 14 ; 7: 10- 1 2 ; and 19 : 1 -4, all give support to its use in subscribing to prayers or solemn statements and thereby, through the use of this one word, expressing the confidence, strong approval, and earnest hope that is in their hearts.

AMETHYST.

A semiprecious variety of crys­ tallized quartz, purple or violet in color and used for jewelry. It occurs in the form of hexagonal crystals, and the color is attributed to traces of manganese or iron. One type of amethyst is the quartz variety ( Occidental ), whereas precious am­ ethyst ( Oriental ) is a variety of corundum or sap­ phire. The name amethyst is taken from the Greek word a·me'thystos ( meaning "not to intoxicate" ), which is employed in the Greek Septuagint to render the Hebrew word 'acb-la·mah' in Exodus 28: 19 and 39: 12. Israel's high priest wore an amethyst stone in the third position of the third row of stones on his embroidered "breastpiece of judgment. " ( Ex 28:2, 15, 19, 21 ; 39: 12) In his vision of "New Jerusalem, " John observed that the 12th foundation of the holy city's wall was amethyst.-Re 21 : 2, 10, 19, 20.

tAM HA·' A'RETS . ( EARTH).

See PEOPLE OF THE LAND

AMMIHUD

AMI.

See AMON No. 3.

AMITTAI

(Amit'tai ). Father of the prophet Jonah, from Gath-hepher in Zebulun. -2Ki 14 : 2 5 ; Jon 1 : 1 .

AMMAH

(Am'mah ) [possibly, Cubit]. A hill "in front of Giah on the way to the wilderness of Gibeon. " Here Abner, Saul's former chief of the army and now fighting for Saul's son and heir, Ish-bosheth, made his last stand against the pur­ suing forces of Joab and Abishai, after they had defeated Abner in the battle at the Pool of Gibeon. At this hill Abner persuaded Joab to stop pursuing him, and the battle ended. ( 2Sa 2 : 12-32 ) While Ammah probably lay to the E of Gibeon, it is not known exactly which of the hills of this region bore this name.

AMMIEL

(Am'mi·el ) [ People of God ].

1. Son of Gemalli of the tribe of Dan. One of 12

sent out by Moses to spy out the land of Canaan. ( Nu 1 3 : 1 2 ) He was among the ten spies who gave a bad report of the Promised Land; he died by the scourge from Jehovah.-Nu 14:36, 37. 2. Father of Machir of Lo-debar, E of the Jor­ dan. It was in the house of Machir that Mephibo­ sheth, son of Jonathan, was lodging when David desired to extend loving-kindness to him.-2Sa 9 :4, 5, 7 ; 17:27.

3. Father of Bath-sheba, Uriah's wife later tak­ en by David. ( 1 Ch 3 : 5 ) At 2 Samuel 11 : 3 , he is called Eliam, which is simply a transposition of the components of the name Amrniel and means "God of the People. " He was possibly the son of Ahitho­ phel, the Gilonite, who was David's counselor but who turned traitor.-2Sa 2 3 : 34 ; 15 : 31 . 4 . A Levite, the sixth son of Obed-edom. He was a gatekeeper who shared responsibility for the storehouses of the house of Jehovah during David's time.- 1 Ch 26:4, 5, 12-15.

AMMIHUD

( Am·rni'hud) [ My People Is Dig­

nity].

1. An Ephrairnite, father of Elishama, who was chieftain of the tribe of Ephraim in the second year after coming out of Egypt ( 1512 B. c.E. ). ( Nu 1 : 10; 2 : 18 ) He was an ancestor of Joshua ( Jehosh­ ua ). - l Ch 7 : 26, 27.

2. A Simeonite, father of the Shemuel who was the chieftain for the tribe of Simeon appointed to share in dividing Canaan among the tribes of Israel ( c. 1467 B.C.E. ). -Nu 34: 20.

3 . Of the tribe of Naphtali, and father of Ped­ ahel, who was the chieftain appointed shortly before Moses' death to share in dividing the land of Canaan among the tribes of Israel.-Nu 34: 28.

AMMINADAB

4. Father of Talmai, king of Geshur, and grand­ father of Maacah the mother of Absalom, David's son. Absalom fled to Geshur after killing his half brother Amnon.-2Sa 3 : 3 ; 13: 37.

5. Son of Omri and a descendant of Perez, the son of Judah. He was the father of Uthai, who is listed as being among the first inhabitants to dwell in Jerusalem following the exile in Babylon. - 1 Ch 9 : 2, 4.

AMMINADAB (Am·min'a·dab ) Are Willing (Noble; Generous ) ] .

[My

People

1 . A son o f Ram o f the family o f Hezron, tribe of Judah. ( 1 Ch 2: 10) His son, Nahshon, was chief­ tain of Judah during the wilderness trek ( Nu 1 : 7; 7 : 1 1 , 12 ) ; his daughter, Elisheba, became Aaron's wife. ( Ex 6 : 2 3 ) Amminadab was an ancestor of King David and of Christ Jesus.-Ru 4: 19-22 ; Mt 1 :4- 16; Lu 3 : 23-33.

2. Perhaps an alternative name for Izhar, a son of Kohath and father of Korah. ( l Ch 6 : 22 ; compare vss 2, 18, 37, 38; Ex 6 : 18, 21 ; Nu 3 : 19, 27. ) Some copies of the Greek Septuagin t give "Izhar" instead of "Amminadab" at 1 Chronicles 6 : 22 ( 6 : 7, LXX). 3. A Levite, of the sons of Uzziel; a family head in David's time. He helped to bring the ark of the covenant to Jerusalem.-1Ch 15: 10- 12.

AMMISHADDAI

(Am'mi'shad'dai) [ People of the Almighty ]. Father of Ahiezer, who, as chief­ tain of the tribe of Dan, was with Moses when he numbered the assembly of Israel in the second year after coming out of Egypt ( 1512 B.C.E. ).-Nu 1 : 12 ; 2 : 25.

AMMIZABAD ( Am·miz'a·bad ) [ My People Have Endowed ]. Son of Benaiah, who was King David's mighty man over the 30 outstanding fighters. Ammizabad acted for his father, Benaiah, in overseeing the third royal service group, for the third month of the year. -1 Ch 27: 5, 6. AMMON

(Am'mon) [The People ] . Lot's son by his younger daughter; the progenitor of the Am­ monites. ( Ge 19 : 38) As in the case of the older daughter, so also Lot's younger daughter had rela­ tions with her father while they were residing in a cave in a mountainous region-after Lot's daughters had given him much wine to drink. ( Ge 19: 30-36 ) The name given to Ammon by his mother was Ben-ammi, meaning, "Son of My Peo­ ple [that is, relatives)" and not of foreigners like the Sodomites. The name thus evidently was as­ sociated with the concern voiced by the older daughter that the two daughters could not find anyone of their own people or family line to marry in the land they were inhabiting.

92 "Ammon" is also used at Psalm 83:7 to refer to the nation of his descendants. The expression "sons of Ammon" would recall to the Israelites the relationship existing between them and the Am­ monites, a relationship that even Jehovah took into account, as evidenced by his directing the Israelites not to molest Ammon or to engage in strife with them, since they were sons of Lot, Abraham's nephew.-De 2: 19 ; see AMMONITES.

AMMONIM

( Am'mon·im) [The Peoples]. At 2 Chronicles 20: 1 the Masoretic text refers to some of the "Ammonim [ Heb. , 'Am·moh-nim T as being joined with the sons of Moab and of Ammon in war against Jehoshaphat king of Judah. The King James Version inserts the word "other" to make the text read, "the children of Moab, and the children of Ammon, and with them other beside the Ammonites" ; while some other translations render the phrase in question as reading "some of the Ammonites" ( MR, JP, Dy), though this seems illogical since the Ammonites are already men­ tioned in the verse. Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia (ftn) and most modern translations (Ro, Mo, AT, RS, JB) regard the text as referring to the Meunim of 2 Chronicles 26 : 7. This view supposes that a scribal error resulted in the first two consonants ( 11r.l ) of the Hebrew Me'u·niml being transposed, thus giving 'Am·moh-niml• This identification with the Meunim may find support in the fact that the remainder of the account of the fight against Je­ hoshaphat refers to "the mountainous region of Seir" ( in place of "the Ammonim" ) as joined with the Ammonite-Moabite forces. ( 2Ch 20: 10, 22, 23) The translators of the Septuagin t used the same Greek word ( Mi·naFon ) to render the Hebrew term at 2 Chronicles 20: 1 as they did in the texts referring to the Meunim, showing that they un­ derstood them to be the same.-See MEUNIM. Since the matter is not certain, however, some translations, such as that of Isaac Leeser and the New World Translation, prefer simply to translit­ erate the term into English, thereby retaining the wording found in the Masoretic text.

AMMONITES

( Am'mon·ites) [ Of ( Belonging to ) Ammon ]. Descendants of Ammon, Lot's son by the younger of his two daughters. ( Ge 19 : 36-38) They were close relatives of the Moabites, de­ scended from Lot's other son, Moab, and are regu­ larly mentioned in Biblical and ancient secular history along with the Moabites. They were also more distantly related to the Israelites, and this Biblical relationship is supported by the fact that the Ammonite language was a dialect or variant of Hebrew. With rare exceptions, however, the

93 Ammonites displayed violent enmity toward the nation of Israel. Territory Occupied. Evidently out of consid­ eration for their faithful forefather Lot, Jehovah God enabled the Ammonites to take possession of the territory previously held by the Rephaim, a towering people called the Zarnzummim by the Ammonites. ( De 2 : 17-21 ) This land lay E of the southern end of the Jordan River, and at one time, the territory of the Ammonites joined with that of the Moabites in the plateau region on the eastern side of the Dead Sea. Sometime prior to Israel's entry into Canaan, however, the Amorites had dispossessed the Ammonites of some of their land and pushed them to the N and E, thereby driving a wedge between them and the Moabites (who also suffered the loss of considerable territory ). (Nu 21 : 26 ; Jos 12 : 2 ; Jg 11 : 13, 22) Thereafter the land of the sons of Ammon generally extended from the upper reaches of the curving torrent valley of Jabbok eastward toward the desert ( Nu 21 : 24; Jos 12 : 2 ), with their capital located at Rabbah ( modern 'Amman) by the Jabbok's head­ waters. ( De 3: 11 ) Archaeologists have discovered ancient Ammonite sites and border fortresses in this region. Under divine orders, the Israelites were careful not to trespass on the landholdings of the Am­ monites when conquering the neighboring Amor­ ites. ( De 2 : 37; Jos 13:8-10) Thus, whereas Joshua 1 3 : 25 states that the tribe of Gad received "half of the land of the sons of Ammon" as part of their tribal inheritance, the reference is evidently to that portion of land previously taken from the Ammonites by the Amorites, territory apparently situated between the Jordan River and the upper Jabbok. Conflicts With Israel. It was not until the time of King Eglon of Moab that the Ammonites, together with the Amalekites, joined with the Moabites in attacking Israel, driving westward to Jericho W of the Jordan. ( Jg 3 : 12- 14) After Judge Ehud erased the effects of this assault ( Jg 3 : 26-30 ), the Ammonites did not again constitute a major threat to Israel until the days of Jephthah. By then the Israelites had returned to serving the gods of the nations and an 18-year period of oppression had ensued, with the Ammonites pushing at Israel from the E, while the Philistines menaced from the west. Ammonite forces not only terrorized the Israelites living in Gilead but even sallied W of the Jordan to harass the tribes of Benjamin, Judah, and Ephraim. ( Jg 10 : 6- 10) Final­ ly cleansed of false worship, the Israelites rallied under the headship of Jephthah, and after Jeph­ thah legally refuted the Ammonite charges of a

AMMONITES usurpation of land rights by Israel, the Ammon­ ites were severely defeated.-Jg 10: 16-1 1 : 3 3 ; see JEPHTHAH. Some scholars have viewed Jephthah's refer­ ence to "Chemosh your god" as erroneous, claim­ ing that Chemosh was the national god of Moab, not Ammon. (Jg 11 : 24; Nu 21 : 29 ) While the god of the Ammonites is variously referred to as Molech, Milcom, or Malcam ( 1 Ki 1 1 : 5, 7; Jer 49 : 1 , 3 ), these terms ( all related to the root "king") are considered by some scholars to be titles rather than proper names, and they could have been applied to the god Chemosh. At any rate, the Ammonites were polytheistic ( Jg 10 :6), and the worship of Che­ mosh may have been nearly as prominent among them as among their relatives, the Moabites. According to the Greek Septuagint, about one month after Saul's being designated king of Israel, King Nahash of Ammon besieged the city of Ja­ besh in Gilead, demanding the city's surrender, with the cruel requirement that its men could have peace only by each one's allowing his right eye to be bored out. ( See NAHASH No. 1 . ) Learning of the siege, Saul proved his merit as king, mar­ shaling the Israelite forces and routing the Am­ monites. ( 1 Sa 1 1 : 1 -4, 1 1 - 1 5 ) Samuel's later state­ ment reveals that it was the growing menace of the Ammonites under Nahash that ultimately pro­ voked the Israelites' request for a king.-1Sa 12: 12. During David's rule. The Ammonites also suffered defeat at the hands of David, spoils or tribute being taken from them. ( 1 Ch 18: 11 ) The account of this at 2 Samuel 8: 1 1 , 12 forms part of a summary of David's conquests, and this summa­ ry may not necessarily be in complete chronolog­ ical order with the preceding and subsequent ac­ counts. Thus 2 Samuel 10 : 1 , 2 suggests a com­ paratively peaceful relationship existing between Ammon and Israel during David's rule up to the time of King Nahash's death. Hanun, Nahash's son and successor, greatly angered David, however, by humiliating the messengers David sent to him as bearers of consolation. Becoming aware of the seriousness of the affront committed, the Am­ monites sought out mercenary troops from the Syrians and prepared for an offensive against Isra­ el, but they were outmaneuvered and defeated by the Israelite general Joab and his brother Abishai. -2Sa 10 : 1- 14; 1Ch 19 :6-15.

The following spring Rabbah, the capital city of Ammon, came under siege by David's forces. Dur­ ing one desperate sally by the besieged Ammon­ ites, Uriah the Hittite died. ( 2Sa 11 : 1 , 17, 24, 26, 27; see RABBAH No. 1 . ) The length of the siege is

AMMONITES difficult to determine. The record of the birth of the adulterine child to Bath-sheba and the later birth of Solomon may fit chronologically within the period of the siege or may simply be given in complete form in order to terminate the account involving Bath-sheba, even though one or both of the births could have taken place after the siege. While the account at 1 Chronicles 20: 1 , 2 does not seem to indicate a protracted period, it would not be unusual if the siege had lasted into the follow­ ing year. The full conquest of the Ammonite cap­ ital was finally effected by David.-2Sa 1 2 : 26-29. "The crown of Malcam," referred to in the cap­ ture of Rabbah, was evidently a crown placed on the head of the Ammonite idol god, elsewhere called Molech or Milcom. While the Revised Stan­ dard Version translates the Hebrew term Mal·kaml here as "their king," it does not seem logical that a human king is referred to, inasmuch as the crown weighed "a talent of gold" (c. 34 kg ; 92 lb t). It also seems likely that the crown's being placed on David's head was only a momentary act, perhaps to demonstrate the victory over this false god. -2Sa 1 2 : 30. Because of some renderings of 2 Samuel 12: 31

( KJ, AS, Dy), many have understood that the defeated Ammonites were cruelly sawed, axed, and burned to death by David. Later translations (RS, AT, NW, JB), however, evidently give the correct sense, showing that the Ammonites were put to forced labor working with saws and axes and in making bricks. This is substantiated by the fact that the Hebrew term rendered "brickkiln" in some translations is now known to refer instead to a wooden mold in which the clay was formed into a brick shape. That not all Ammonites were bitter enemies of Israel is evident from the presence of Zelek the Ammonite among David's mighty men. ( 2Sa 2 3 : 37) King Solomon had Ammonite women, includ­ ing the mother of Rehoboam, among his foreign wives. ( 1 Ki 11 : 1 ; 14: 31 ) This, however, contribut­ ed to Solomon's apostasy and his setting up of "high places" for the worship of Milcom and other gods, these places being finally ruined by faithful King Josiah.-1Ki 11 : 5 ; 2Ki 2 3 : 13. During the divided kingdom . The Ammonites regained their independence from the Davidic kings and during Jehoshaphat's reign (936c. 911 B.c.E. ) joined the Moabites and the inhabit­ ants of the mountainous region of Seir in a com­ bined offensive against Judah, but the alliance suffered a crushing defeat. ( 2Ch 20: 1-4, 10-26 ) The inscriptions of Assyrian King Shalmane­ ser III, who ruled in the time of King Jehu

94 ( c . 904-877 B.c.E. ) of Israel, claim that the forces of "Ba'sa, son of Ruhubi, from Ammon" were among a coalition of kings opposing Assyria in the battle of Karkar. ( Ancien t Near Eastern Texts, edited by J. B. Pritchard, 1974, p. 279 ) One of the conspirators in the death of King Jehoash of Judah ( c . 859 B.c.E. ) was Zabad, the son of the Ammon­ itess Shimeath. ( 2Ch 24 : 22, 26 ) The strong gov­ ernment of Uzziah (829-778 B.c.E. ) once more made the Ammonites tributaries of Judah ( 2Ch 26 : 8 ), and Uzziah's son Jotham reimposed this dominance over Ammon, exacting from them 100 silver talents ( $660,600) and 10,000 cor measures ( 2 ,200 kl; 62, 500 bu ) of wheat and 10,000 of barley. ( 2Ch 27 : 5 ) The ability of the Ammonites to pay this large sum during three successive years may have been due to their favorable position along one of the major trade routes from Arabia to Damascus and to the relative fertility of the Jab­ bok Valley region, wheat and barley still being principal products in this area. Evidently the increasing intervention of Assyri­ an power in Palestine during the reign of Jotham's successor Ahaz ( 761-746 B.c.E. ) allowed the Am­ monites to break free of Judean domination but only to exchange it for Assyrian oppression, for the records of Tiglath-pileser III list "Sanipu of Bit-Ammon [the house of Ammon ]" as paying tribute to Assyria, along with Ahaz of Judah and Salamanu of Moab. Sennacherib's Prism, recount­ ing his invasion of Judah in Hezekiah's time, likewise shows Ammon bringing gifts to the As­ syrian invader, while Sennacherib's son Esar­ haddon, a contemporary of Manasseh, includes "Puduil, king of Beth-Ammon," among those pro­ viding materials for building the city of Nineveh. It appears likely that, following the deporting of the people of the northern kingdom of Israel by Tiglath-pileser III and one of his successors ( 2Ki 1 5 : 29 ; 1 7 : 6 ) , the Ammonites began occupying the territory of the tribe of Gad, for which they had unsuccessfully fought against Jephthah. ( Compare Ps 83:4-8. ) Thus, in Jehovah's prophetic message through Jeremiah, the Ammonites are rebuked for seizing the Gadites' inheritance and are warned of a coming desolation upon Ammon and its god Malcam ( Milcom). (Jer 49 : 1 -5 ) The Ammonites went yet further by sending marauder bands to harass Judah under King Jehoiakim during the closing years of the Judean kingdom. -2Ki 24 : 2, 3. Babylonian Invasion. With the Babylonian overthrow of Judah (607 B.c. E . ) , some Jews fled into Ammon, Moab, and Edom but returned upon hearing of the appointment of Gedaliah over the

AMNESTY

95 land. (Jer 40 : 1 1 , 12) King Baalis of Ammon, how­

understood to mean that these people could not

ever, conspired with the Judean army chief Ish­

enter into full legal membership in the nation of

mael in the assassination of Gedaliah ( 2Ki 2 5 : 2 3 ;

Israel with all the concomitant rights and privi­

Jer 40: 14; 41 : 1 -3 ), and Ishmael thereafter took

leges that such membership would signify. It does

refuge in Ammon.-Jer 41 : 10- 15.

not mean, of necessity, that Ammonite and Moab­

Although Ammon rejoiced at the fall of Jerusa­

ite individuals could not associate themselves with

lem, Jehovah's day of accounting with the circum­

or reside among the Israelites and thereby benefit

cised Ammonites finally came upon them because

from the divine blessings upon God's people, and

of their uncircumcised hearts. (Jer 9 : 25 , 2 6 ) 1hle

this is evident from the inclusion of Zelek, men­

to the prophecies proclaimed by Jeremiah, Ezekiel,

tioned earlier, among David 's chief warriors, as

and Amos, the Ammonites began to drink the cup

well as from the record concerning Ruth the Mo­

of Jehovah's wrath, experiencing sword, famine,

abitess.-Ru 1 : 4, 16- 18.

pestilence, and the desolation of their land. -Jer 25: 17, 21 ; 27: 1 -8 ; Eze 2 5 : 1 - 10 ; Am 1 : 13-15.

As to this latter case, Ruth's marriage to Boaz shows that females of these nations, upon turning

That Ammon did not willingly submit to the

to the worship of the true God, could be acceptable

Babylonian yoke is indicated by Ezekiel's descrip­

for marriage by Jewish males. Because the terms

tion of the king of Babylon ( Nebuchadnezzar)

"Ammonite" and "Moabite" in the Hebrew text of

standing at the crossways and using divination to

Deuteronomy 2 3 : 3-6 are in the masculine gender,

decide whether to go against Rabbah of Ammon

the Jewish Mishnah

or against Judah. ( Eze 21 : 19-23, 28-32 ) Though

only male Ammonites and Moabites were exclud­

the choice came out for attack first upon Jerusa­

ed from Israel. Nevertheless, Ezra's insistence that

( Yevamot

8 : 3 ) argues that

lem, Jewish historian Josephus records that, in the

the Jewish men send away their foreign wives

fifth year after desolating Jerusalem, Nebuchad­

and Nehemiah's similar attitude, previously men­

nezzar returned to war against Coele-Syria, Am­ mon, and Moab.

( Jewish AntiqUities, X,

181 [ ix, 7 ] )

A s foretold, Ammon would become "a resting­ place of a flock" and Rabbah "a pasture ground of camels. " ( Eze 25 : 5 ) The camel-riding Orientals were to possess the land and tent therein.-Eze 25 :4. It is likely that Ammonite exiles, along with those of other nations, were allowed to return to their homeland by Cyrus, the conqueror of Bab­ ylon, in fulfillment of Jeremiah 49 :6.

tioned, indicate that the admission of Ammonite and Moabite females into association with Israel was dependent upon their acceptance of true wor­ ship. Though historical evidence, including the Apoc­ ryphal book of 1 Maccabees ( 5 : 6 ), shows that Ammon continued to be a distinct territory down till the second century B.C.E. , by the first century B.c.E. the region appears to have become part of the Nabataean kingdom, and by the third century c.E. the Ammonites as a people disappear from

Following

history, doubtless absorbed by the Arabic tribes.

the return of the Jews from exile ( 5 37 B.c.E. ), an

As Zephaniah had prophesied, the sons of Ammon

Intermarriage

With

Israelites.

Ammonite named Tobiah took a leading part in endeavoring to obstruct the rebuilding of Jerusa­ lem's walls. ( Ne 4 : 3 , 7, 8) Yet later he had the audacity to make use of a dining hall within the temple precincts, until Nehemiah indignant­ ly threw his furniture out. ( Ne 13 :4-8 ; see TOBIAH No. 2. ) Many of the returned Jewish exiles also had taken wives of Ammonite and other foreign extraction and were severely rebuked for this, resulting in a general dismissal of such wives. -Ezr 9 : 1 , 2 ; 10: 10- 19 , 44 ; Ne 1 3 : 2 3-27.

had become "like Gomorrah, . . . a desolate waste." -Zep 2 : 8- 10. In view of the disappearance of the Ammonites early in the Common Era, Daniel's mention of Ammon in his prophecy of "the time of the end" must apply in a spiritual sense and would logically refer to those who are among the hard -set ene­ mies of the spiritual Israel of God, the Christian congregation.-Da 11 :40, 41 .

AMNESTY.

At Esther 2: 18 it is related that

temple

the Persian monarch Ahasuerus, after making Es­

grounds, God's law at Deuteronomy 2 3 : 3-6 pro­

ther his queen, held a great banquet in her honor

hibiting the entry of Ammonites and Moabites

and granted "an amnesty for the jurisdictional

After

Tobiah's

ej ection

from

the

into the congregation of Israel was read and ap­

districts" of his domain. The Hebrew word

plied. ( Ne 13 : 1 - 3 ) This restriction, imposed some

chah ' here

hana­

used occurs but once in the Scriptures.

1 ,000 years earlier because of the Ammonite and

It is variously rendered as "amnesty"

Moabite refusal to succor the Israelites when they

lease"

were approaching the Promised Land, is generally

and

( KJ), "remission of taxes" RS), "holiday" ( Vg, AI); and

(LXX),

(one

"re­

Targum

commentators

96

AMNON

suggest that the release, or amnesty, may have involved a remission of tribute, a remission of military service, release from prison, or a combi­ nation of these. A different Hebrew word ( shemit­ tah 1 is used elsewhere in the Scriptures to de­ scribe a releasing from debt or suspension of labor.-De 1 5 : 1 , 2, 9 ; 31 : 10; see SABBATH YEAR. As to a release of prisoners, it may be noted that during the reign of Xerxes I, believed to be the Ahasuerus of the book of Esther, a number of revolts occurred. An inscription from Persepolis attributed to Xerxes states: "After I became king, there were (some ) among these countries . . . which revolted ( but ) I crushed ( lit. : killed) these countries, . . . and I put them ( again) into their (former political ) status." (Ancien t Near Eastern Texts, edited by J. B. Pritchard, 1974, p. 317) Political prisoners doubtless resulted from such suppression of uprisings, and the festive time of Esther's being made queen may have been the occasion for Ahasuerus to efface the charges against such ones and grant them arrmesty, or release. (Compare Mt 27 : 15 . ) The precise nature of the amnesty, however, remains undetermined.

AMNON ( Am'non) Long-Lasting ].

[Trustworthy;

Faithful;

1. David's firstborn son by Ahinoam the Jezre­ elitess, born at Hebron.�2Sa 3 : 2 ; 1eh 3 : 1 .

Amnon developed a passionate desire for lovely Tamar, Absalom's sister, to the point of lovesick­ ness. Following the advice of his cousin Jehona­ dab, Amnon feigned illness and induced King Da­ vid to send Tamar to Amnon's private quarters to prepare "bread of consolation" in his presence. He then used the opportunity to violate his half sister forcibly, despite her pleading and reasoning with him. His case illustrates how extremely selfish erotic love can be, for, having satisfied his desire, Amnon then had Tamar put out into the street as someone repugnant to him, someone whose very presence doubtless made him feel unclean.-2Sa 1 3 : 1 - 19. Tamar's full brother, Absalom, nursed a hatred of Amnon for this act, and two years later at a sheepshearing festival Absalom had his servants murder Amnon when he was "in a merry mood with wine." ( 2Sa 1 3 : 20-29 ) Since Amnon, as Da­ vid's eldest son, was heir apparent to the throne, his death may also have been viewed as desirable by Absalom as a means to better his own possibil­ ities of gaining the kingship. With this event the prophecy made by Nathan following David's own misconduct with the wife of Uriah began to un­ dergo fulfillment. -2Sa 12: 10; see ABSALOM.

2. The first in the list of four sons of Shimon, of the tribe of Judah.- lCh 4: 1, 20.

AMOK ( A'mok ) [ Deep; Unintelligible ]. A prin­ cipal priest who returned with Zerubbabel from exile in Babylon. ( Ne 12: 1 , 7 ) His family was represented by his son Eber in the time of Joia­ kim.-Ne 1 2 : 12, 20. AMON

(A'mon ).

[ 1 -3 : Trustworthy ; Faithful ; Long-Lasting]

1 . A chief of the city of Samaria when Ahab, king of Israel, was ruling ( c. 940-920 B. C.E. ). The prophet Micaiah was put in his care while Ahab warred against Ramoth-gilead.- l Ki 2 2 : 10, 26; 2Ch 18: 25.

2. A king of Judah ( 661-660 B.C.E. ), and son of wicked King Manasseh. He began to rule at the age of 22 and followed the idolatrous course of his father's earlier years. The bad conditions de­ scribed at Zephaniah 1 :4; 3: 2-4 doubtless were developing at this time. After two years on the throne, he was murdered by his own servants. "The people of the land [ 'am ha" a1rets]" put the conspirators to death, placed his son Josiah on the throne, and buried Amon in "the garden of Uzza. " ( 2Ki 21 : 19-26; 2Ch 3 3 : 20-2 5 ) The genealogy of Jesus includes his name.-Mt 1 : 10.

3. The family head of certain returned exiles included among "the sons of the servants of Solo­ mon." ( Ne 7 : 57-59 ) He is referred to as "Ami" in Ezra 2 : 57. 4. A local god of Thebes, or No-Amon, who rose to the position of "king of the gods" under the name Amon-Ra and whose high priest became head of all the Egyptian priesthoods. Amon is generally represented as a man wearing a crown surmounted by two tall parallel plumes. Like many of the other Egyptian deities, he is frequent­ ly shown holding the crux ansata, the "sign of life." Amon, his wife Mut, and Khonsu ( his adopt­ ed son ) made up the Theban triad. A large part of Egypt's spoils of war found its way into the treasury of Amon, whose priesthood became very powerful and wealthy. In his work A History of Egypt ( 1902, Vol. V, pp. 205-217 ), E. A. W. Budge suggests that the priesthood may actually have encouraged warfare for their own benefit. In time the high priests of Amon, whose office had become hereditary, exercised even greater power than the pharaohs. One of them, Herihor, succeeded the last of the Ramses to the throne. According to J. H. Breasted's History of Egypt, under Hrihor ( Herihor) "whatever the High Priest wished legally to effect could be sanctioned by special oracle of the god [ Amon] at any time,

97 and by prearrangement the cultu s image before which the High Priest made known his desires invariably responded favourably . . . Priestly jug­ glery, ruling if necessary in utter disregard of law and justice, thus enabled the High Priest to cloak with the divine sanction all that he wished to effect. "-1937, p. 523. A number of adversities came to Thebes and her god Amon. Two of these are mentioned in the Scriptures. In the seventh century B.c.E . , the con­ quering Assyrians under the command of Ashur­ banipal razed Thebes to the ground, stripping her of all her wealth. The prophet Nahum refers to this event, using it as an illustration of Nineveh's com­ ing destruction. (Na 3 : 8 ) Thebes recovered some­ what from the blow meted out to her by Assyria, regaining a measure of prosperity, but even this was to be short-lived. Jeremiah indicated that Jehovah's judgment was against Egypt and her gods, including Thebes and her god Amon. Into the hand of Nebuchadnezzar, Egypt would be giv­ en, bringing shame to her and to her gods, espe­ cially to Amon from No (Thebes). -Jer 46 : 25 , 26 ; see No, No-AMON.

AMORITE ( Am/or·ite ). "The Amorite" appears among the list of the sons of Canaan, but else­ where this term, always in the singular in the Hebrew text, is used collectively of the Canaanite tribe descended from the original A.rnorite. They were, therefore, a Hamitic race.-Ge 10:6, 15, 16; lCh 1 : 13, 14. In Abraham's time the king of Elam in coalition wi th three other kings raided to the S of Canaan and defeated some of the Amorites dwelling at Hazazon-tamar, thought to be located SW of the Dead Sea. Three Amorite men living near or in Hebron were then "confederates of Abram" and as such aided him in pursuing and defeating the invading kings, thereby rescuing his nephew Lot. ( Ge 14) Still, sometime thereafter God advised Abraham that when the error of the Amorites had finally "come to completion," Abraham's descen­ dants would return to Canaan from an alien land and would take possession of the Amorites' land. -Ge 15: 13-21 . Shortly before Jacob's death in Egypt, that pa­ triarch promised Joseph : "1 do give you one shoul­ der of land more than to your brothers, which I took from the hand of the Amorites by my sword and by my bow. " ( Ge 48 : 22 ) Since the word ren­ dered "shoulder" in this text is shekhem ' in He­ brew, some have claimed that Jacob was here referring to the plot of ground he had purchased near Shechem ( Heb. , Shekhem'). ( Ge 33: 18, 19 ) The purchase was a peaceable transaction, how-

AMORITE

AMORITE TERRITORY

J

�--------___________

ever, and there is no record of any battle waged by Jacob in connection with the land. While Ja­ cob's sons later did make a savage attack on the people of Shechem, Jacob disavowed responsibili­ ty for the act at the time ( Ge 34: 30 ) ; and on his deathbed he cursed the anger of Simeon and Levi that had motivated the attack. (Ge 49 : 5-7 ) Thus, it seems more reasonable to understand Jacob's promise as a prophetic utterance in which he envisioned by faith the future conquest of Canaan as though it were already effected, with Jacob 'taking the land of the Amorites' vicariously through the sword and bow of his descendants. A Dominant Tribe in Canaan. Some com­ mentators consider the term "Amorites" as used at Genesis 1 5 : 16 and 48 : 2 2 to represent the peoples of Canaan as a whole. The Amorites do appear to have been the principal or dominant tribe in Ca­ naan at the time of the Israelite Exodus from Egypt. ( Compare De 1 :6-8, 19-21 , 27 ; Jos 24: 1 5, 18; Jg 6 : 10. ) If this is so, then it would be under­ standable that, at times, other subordinate and related tribes should be referred to under the name of the dominant tribe of the Amorites. Thus,

AMORITE at Numbers 14:44, 45 the account states that "Amalekites" and "Canaanites" handed the Israel­ ites their first military defeat, whereas Moses' recapitulation of events at Deuteronomy chapter 1 simply says "the Amorites" administered the de­ feat. ( De 1 : 44) Likewise, Jerusalem is said to be ruled by an Amorite king at Joshua 10: 5 (compare Eze 16 : 3 , 45 ) but is shown elsewhere to be inhab­ ited by Jebusites. (Jos 1 5 : 8, 63; Jg 1 : 21 ; compare also the case of Gibeon at Jos 9 : 7 and 2Sa 21 : 2 . ) In a similar manner, the name of one tribe of the nation of Israel, Judah, came to apply to all Israel­ ites through the appellative "Jew." Nevertheless, the Amorites are also listed sepa­ rately among the independent Canaanite tribes. ( Ex 3 : 8 ; 2 3 : 23, 24; 34: 1 1 - 1 5 ) They composed one of the "seven nations more populous and mighty" than Israel, all devoted to destruction, with whom Israel was to make no covenant, form no marriage alliance, nor share in false worship. -De 7: 1 -4. The 12 spies Moses sent into Canaan found the mountainous region occupied by Amorites, Hit­ tites, and Jebusites, while the Amalekites resided in the Negeb, and the Canaanites dwelt by the sea and by the Jordan. ( Nu 13 : 1 , 2, 29 ) As previously in Abraham's time, Amorites still resided at He­ bron as well as in other cities in the mountains W of the Jordan. (Jos 10: 5) However, by the time of Israel's Exodus, they had invaded Moabite and Ammonite territory E of the Jordan, taking pos­ session of the region from the torrent valley of Arnon in the S ( thereafter the border of Moab ), up to the torrent valley of Jabbok in the N ( the border of Ammon). ( Nu 21 : 13, 24, 26; Jos 1 2 : 2 ; Jg 1 1 : 22 ) This was the realm of Amorite King Sihon, de­ scribed by Josephus the Jewish historian as "a region situated between three rivers [ the Jordan, the Arnon, and the Jabbok J, which give it some­ thing of the nature of an island." (Jewish An tiqui­ ties, IV, 9 5 [v, 2 ] ) Additionally, to the N of Sihon's realm, there was another Amorite kingdom cen­ tered in Bashan under King Og. The southern border of his kingdom seems to have been contig­ uous with the territories of Sihon and of the Am­ monites, thus extending from the Jabbok in the S up to Mount Hermon in the N.-De 3 : 1 , 8. Conquest by Israel. Drawing near the Prom­ ised Land and under divine orders not to trespass on the territories of Moab and Ammon (De 2 :9, 37), the Israelites requested a transit permit from King Sihon at his capital city, Heshbon, offering stringent guarantees: "Let me pass through your land. We shall not tum off into a field or a vine­ yard. We shall drink water of no well. On the king's road we shall march until we pass through your territory. " Instead, Sihon struck at Israel with

98 his combined forces and was summarily defeated a short distance from Heshbon, at Jahaz, his en­ tire territory falling into Israelite possession. ( Nu 21 : 21-32; De 2: 24-36 ; see SIHON. ) Invading neigh­ boring King Og's territory, Israel also vanquished this Amorite ruler, capturing 60 fortified cities. ( Nu 21 : 33-35 ; De 3 : 1 -7; see OG. ) The fall of these powerful Amorite kingdoms to Israel caused a sense of sickening dread to pervade Moab ( Nu 22: 2-4) and also the people of Canaan, as is re­ vealed by Rahab's words to the Israelite spies. ( De 2 : 24, 25; Jos 2: 9-11 ) The territory of the two defeated Amorite kings now became the inheri­ tance of the tribes of Reuben and Gad and half the tribe of Manasseh.-Nu 3 2 : 31 -33, 39 ; De 3 : 8- 13 . As for the Amorites W o f the Jordan, "their hearts began to melt" upon hearing of the Israel­ ites' miraculous crossing of the Jordan. This mira­ cle, combined with the smashing victories Israel had already obtained, may explain, in part, why the Amorites made no attack upon the Israelite camp during the ensuing period in which the Israelite males were circumcised or while the Passover was celebrated. ( Jos 5 : 1 , 2, 8, 10) How­ ever, after the destruction of Jericho and Ai, a massive alliance of the tribes of Canaan was formed to present a united front against Israel. (Jos 9: 1, 2 ) When the Hivite men of Gibeon elected to seek peace with Israel, they were promptly attacked by "five kings of the Amorites" and es­ caped destruction only because of an all-night march by Joshua's forces and Jehovah's miracu­ lous intervention. -Jos 10: 1 -27; 11 : 19. After this battle and after Joshua's succeeding campaign throughout the land, the power of the Amorites in the S of Palestine was evidently bro­ ken. Still, the Amorites in the northern regions joined with other tribes in an alliance that en­ gaged Israel in battle at "the waters of Merom." Disastrously overwhelmed, the Amorites are nev­ er again mentioned as constituting a major danger to Israel. (Jos 1 1 : 1-9) A remnant remained, but their territory was greatly reduced, and in course of time they came into forced labor under Israelite domination. (Jos 1 3 : 4 ; Jg 1 : 34-36 ) Amorite wom­ en were taken as wives by Israelites, resulting in apostasy (Jg 3 : 5, 6), and the Amorites generally seem to have continued to be troublesome for some time, for it is mentioned that in Samuel's day, after a decisive defeat of the Philistines, "there came to be peace between Israel and the Amorites. " ( 1 Sa 7: 14) Amorites were again among those put to forced labor during Solomon's reign. ( 1Ki 9 : 20, 21 ) Their idolatry and wickedness, evi­ dently representative of that of all the Canaanites, was proverbial. ( 1 Ki 2 1 : 26 ; 2Ki 21 : 11 ) The taking of Amorite wives still constituted a thorny prob-

99

AMOS

lem among the returned Israelites after the Bab­

B.C.E. (See AMOS, BOOK OF. ) He was not, however,

ylonian exile. (Ezr 9 : 1 , 2 ) Eventually, however, the

born as the son of a prophet, nor was he one of

Amorite people, once the foremost ones of all

"the sons of the prophets. " - l Ki 20 : 35 ; 2Ki 2 : 3 ;

Canaan, passed completely out of existence, like a

4 : 1 ; A m 7 : 14.

tall, massive tree with its fruit removed and its roots destroyed.-Am 2 : 9, 10.

His home was the town of Tekoa, some 16 km ( 10 mi ) S of Jerusalem, at an elevation of about

Secular historians regularly

820 m ( 2 ,700 ft ) . To the E, and sloping toward the

associate the Amorites of the Bible with the people

Dead Sea, which lay about 1 , 200 m ( 4,000 ft )

The

U

Amurru.

called the

n

Amurru

in early Akkadian ( Assyro­

Babylonian ) cuneiform texts.

The

Amurru

are

represented as invading Mesopotamia early in the second millennium B.c.E.

and as having had

a kingdom in Babylonia for several centuries.

below, was the bleak wilderness of Judah, where,

in his early life, the prophet found employment as

a humble sheep raiser. ( Am 1 : 1 ) The Hebrew word

no·qedhim'

here translated "sheep raisers"

occurs in only one other place in the Bible ( 2Ki 3 : 4 )

Hammurabi, famed lawgiver of that period, is

and is related t o

often referred to as of "Amorite" origin.

special breed of sheep, rather unattractive but

naqqad,

the Arabic word for a

however,

highly valued for its fleece. Out in that wild coun­

does not appear to warrant the strong conclusions

try Amos also engaged in menial seasonal work as

The evidence concerning the

Amurru,

that are advanced as to their positive identifica­

a nipper of sycamore figs, a variety considered

in the

food only for the poor. The practice of pinching or

ancient cuneiform texts basically meant "west"

puncturing the figs was to hasten the ripening and

as referring to the region W of Mesopotamia.

increase the size and sweetness of the fruit.-Am

A. H. Sayce, in

The In ternational Standard Bible Encyclopedia, says that the name Amurru is "a

7: 14 ; see SYCAMORE.

purely geographical indication of their immediate origins, from the perspective of Mesopotamia, and

public service by God, so also "Jehovah proceeded to take [Amos] from following the flock" and made

conveys no information about their ethnic compo­

him a prophet.-Am 7: 1 5 .

tion with the Biblical Amorites.

Amurru

sition or their real name. " ( Edited by G. W. Brom­ iley, 1979, Vol. 1, p. 113) While Mari, an ancient city on the Euphrates in northern Mesopotamia, is referred to by modern secular historians as a center of the expansion of the

Amurru into

Meso.:.

potamia, the thousands of tablets recovered there were almost all in the Semitic Akkadian ( Assyro­ Babylonian) language, with some names of West Semitic origin. As noted, however, the Biblical Amorites were Hamitic, not Semitic, and while the adoption of a Semitic tongue by some branch of them is not an impossibility, it is equally possible that the early

Amurru

were simply "westerners"

from among the Semitic peoples living to the W of Babylonia. Professor John Bright in A History of Israel ( 1981 , p. 49 ) says: "For some centuries [ of the late third millennium and early second millen­

nium B.C.E. ] the people of northwestern Mesopo­ tamia and northern Syria had been referred to in cuneiform texts as Amurru, i.e. , 'Westerners. ' This became, apparently, a general term applying to speakers of various Northwest-Semitic dialects found in the area including, in all probability, those strains from which later sprang both He­ brews and Arameans. "

AMOS Load ].

( Almos)

[ Being

a

Load;

Carrying

a

1. A prophet of Jehovah and writer of the book bearing his name, who lived in the ninth century

Like the shepherd David, who was called to

From the solitude i n the wilderness o f t h e south, Amos was sent to the idolatrous ten-tribe king­ dom in the north with its capital Samaria. Amos began his career as a prophet two years before the great earthquake that occurred during the reign of Uzziah, king of Judah. At the same time Jeroboam II, son of Joash, was king of Israel. ( Am 1 : 1 ) Amos' prophecy is, therefore, placed sometime within the 26-year period from 829 to about 804 B.c.E., when the reigns of these two kings of Judah and Israel overlapped. The great earthquake that occurred two years after Amos was commissioned to be a prophet was of such magnitude that nearly 300 years later Zechariah made particular mention of it.-Zee 14 : 5 . How long Amos served a s a prophet i n the northern kingdom is uncertain.

Amaziah,

the

wicked calf-worshiping priest of the state religion centered at Bethel, attempted to have him thrown out of the country on the grounds he was a threat to the security of the state. ( Am 7 : 10- 1 3 ) Whether Amaziah succeeded is not disclosed. At any rate, when Amos' prophetic mission to Israel was com­ pleted, he presumably returned to his native tribal territory of Judah. Jerome and Eusebius report that the prophet's sepulcher was located at Tekoa in their day. It also seems that after returning to Judah, Amos wrote down the prophecy, which at first had been delivered orally. He is often called

AMOS, BOOK OF

100

one of the 12 "minor" prophets ( his book is cata­

cepted the writings of Amos as inspired Scripture.

loged 3rd among the 1 2 ) , yet the message he delivered is by no means of minor significance.

Am 5 : 25-27 ) and James the half brother of Jesus

2. One of Jesus' ancestors, the eighth genera­

For example, the martyr Stephen ( Ac 7 : 42, 43 ; ( Ac 1 5 : 13- 19 ; Am 9: 1 1 , 1 2 ) noted the fulfillment of

tion before Mary.-Lu 3 : 2 5 .

some of the prophecies.

AMOS, BOOK OF.

Other historical events likewise attest to the truthfulness of the prophet. It is a matter of histo­

The prophecy o f this He­ brew book of the Bible was directed primarily to the northern kingdom of Israel. Apparently it was first delivered orally during the reigns of Jerobo­ am II and Uzziah, kings of Israel and of Judah respectively, whose periods of kingship over­ lapped between 829 and about 804 B.C.E. ( Am 1 : 1 ) By about 804 B. c.E. it was committed to writing, presumably after the prophet returned to Judah. For details about the prophet himself, see AMos No. 1 . The canonicity o f this book, o r its claim to a rightful place in the Bible, has never been ques­ tioned. From early times it has been accepted by the Jews, and it appears in the earliest Christian catalogs. Justin Martyr of the second century C.E. quoted from Amos in his Dialogue With TIypho, a ( chap XXII). The book itself is in complete agreement with the rest of the Bible, as is shown by the writer's many references to Bible history and the laws of Moses. ( Am 1 : 11 ; 2 : 8- 10 ; 4: 1 1 ; 5 : 22, 2 5 ; 8 : 5 ) Christians of the first century ac-

Jew

ry that all the nations condemned by Amos were in due time devoured by the fire of destruction. The highly fortified city of Samaria itself was besieged and captured in 740 B.c.E., and the As­ syrian army took the inhabitants "into exile be­ yond Damascus," as foretold by Amos. ( Am 5 : 27 ; 2Ki 1 7 : 5 , 6 ) Judah t o the south likewise received her due punishment when she was destroyed in 607 B.c.E. ( Am 2 : 5 ) And true to Jehovah's word through Amos, captive descendants of both Israel and Judah returned in 537 B.c.E. to rebuild their homeland.-Am 9 : 14 ; Ezr 3 : 1 . Biblical archaeology also confirms that Amos was a truthful historian of his time, when, in describing the ostentatious lUXUry of the rich, he referred to their "houses of ivory" and "couches of ivory. " (Am 3 : 1 5 ; 6 : 4 ) Commenting on some of these findings, Jack Finegan states: "It is of much interest that numerous ivories were found in the excavation of Samaria. These are mostly in the

H I G H L I G HTS O F AMOS Prophecy d irected especially t o Israel, t h e northern ten­ tribe k i ngdom, with its centers for calf wors h i p at Dan a n d at Bethel

Israel has not returned to Jehovah despite pun ishments already meted out ; now warned, "Get ready to meet you r God"

Written about 804 B.C. E . , while J e roboam " was king in Israel

Even while warning of woes to come, J ehovah u rges: ·Search for me, and keep l iving," "H ate what is bad, and love what is good"

Execution of J e h ovah's judgment is certa i n not only agai nst surround i n g nations but especi a l l y against I srael ( 1 : 1 - 2 : 1 6 )

Syria, Philistia, a n d Tyre f o r cruel treatment t o Israel Edom ( re l ated t h ro u g h E sa u ) a n d A m m o n ( re l ated t hrough Lot ) for hatred and mistreatment of their brother Israelites; Moab for b ur n i n g the bones of the king of Edom for lime Judah for rejecting the law of Jehovah Israel for oppressing the poor, for i m m o rality, also for t reating disrespectfully prophets and Nazirites raised u p by God ; no escape from divine punishment J e h ova h 's m e s sage of j u d g m e n t ( 3 : 1 -6 : 1 4)

against

I srael

I s rael has been specially favored by God ; t h i s results i n special accountability When Jehovah reveals his p urpose to his servants, they prophesy; thus Amos warns that Jehovah w i l l hold an accounting for false relig ious practices at Bethel and defra u d i n g by l uxury lovers in Samaria

Visions and prophecies show Israel's end is near ( 7 : 1 -8 : 1 4)

Vision of desolation by locusts; prophet i ntercedes Vision of destructive fire; Amos again i ntercedes J ehovah with a p l u m met to test Israe l ; no further excusing of I srael Priest of Bethel commands Amos to stop prophesying there; Amos prophesies calamity for h i m Basket of perishable s u m mer f r u i t , s i g n ifying Isra­ el's end near Famine for hearing the words of J ehovah Punishment a n d restoration ( 9 : 1 - 1 5 )

No place that they can go to escape; nothing is be­ yond the reach of the Sovereign Lord Jehovah Booth ( royal house ) of David to be rebu i l t ; regathered captives to enjoy lasti ng security

i

101

AMUSEMENTS

form of plaques or small panels in relief and pre­ sumably were once attached to furniture and in­ laid in wall paneling."-Ligh t From the Ancient Past, 1959, pp. 187, 188.

AMPLIATUS ( Am·pli·a'tus) [ from Lat., mean­ ing "Enlarged" ]. A beloved Christian brother in the congregation at Rome, to whom the apostle Paul sent greetings.-Ro 16:8.

Jehovah's spirit moved Amos to employ simple, direct, picturesque language iIi a dignified manner befitting a prophet of God. Simple words, powerful words, words full of meaning, were chosen so both the high and the low could understand and get the sense of what he said. He used a variety of illus­ trations, some with rural flavor, to give vitality and force to his message. (Am 2 : 13; 4 : 2 ; 9:9) Historical events are accurately recalled. ( 1 :9, 1 1 , 13; 4: 11 ) Allusions are made t o familiar practices and customs of the people. ( 2 :8; 6:4-6 ) The whole ' is a well-ordered composition with definite form and purpose.

AMRAM ( Am'ram) [People High ( Exalted )]. 1. A grandson of Levi through Kohath. ( Ex 6: 16, 18, 20 ; Nu 3 : 19 ; 26:58; lCh 6 : 18) It is stated that he married "his father'S sister" Jochebed, an act then allowable but later prohibited in the Mo­ saic Law. ( Le 18: 12) Some translations, however, endeavor to show her to be his cousin. ( See JOCH­ EBED. ) His children were Aaron, Miriam, and Mo­ ses.-Ex 6 : 20; Nu 26: 59 ; l Ch 6 : 2, 3 ; 23: 12, 13. 2 . One of "the sons of Bani," who, along with other returned exiles, responded to the call to put away foreign wives in 468 B.C.E.-Ezr 10:34, 44. 3 . Name given to a Seirite, a son of Dishon, in the King James Version rendering of 1 Chronicles 1 :41 . -See HEMDAN.

As one of Jehovah's servants, Amos magnified the word and name, the righteousness, and the sovereignty of the Almighty. He describes how "the Sovereign Lord, Jehovah of the armies, " is infinitely great, that nothing is beyond His reach or power. ( Am 9 : 2-5 ) Even the sun, moon, constel­ lations, and the elements are subject to Jehovah's commands. ( 5 : 8 ; 8:9) It is, therefore, a small mat­ ter for God to demonstrate his supremacy over the nations.- 1 :3-5 ; 2 : 1 - 3 ; 9 : 7. In keeping with the meaning of his name, Amos bore a weighty message laden with woe and de­ nunciation against the pagan nations as well as against Judah and Israel. He also carried a com­ forting message of restoration in which those faithful to Jehovah could put their hope.

AMOZ ( A'moz) [ Strong ]. Father of Isaiah the prophet.-2Ki 19: 2 ; Isa 1 : 1 . AMPHIPOLIS ( Am·phip'o·lis) [Around the City]. A city of Macedonia, about 5 km (3 mi ) from the Aegean Sea and the seaport of Eion. Paul passed through here on his second missionary tour. ( Ac 17: 1 ) It was built on a hill surrounded on three sides (N, W, and S ) by the curving river Strymon, which situation doubtless gave name to the city. Amphipolis lay about 50 km ( 30 mi ) WSW of Philippi and, due to its position on the famous Roman highway Via Egnatia and its con­ trol of the bridge over the river Strymon, was of considerable importance strategically and com­ mercially. Originally founded as an Athenian colo­ ny in the fifth century B.C.E., it later came under the Macedonians. Thereafter Rome took control and made it a free city and the capital of the first district of Macedonia. The village of Neochori is now found there.

AMRAMITES (Am'ram·ites) [ Of (Belonging to) Amram ]. The descendants of Amram, the grandson of Levi by Kohath. They composed a subdivision of the family of Kohathites. During the trek through the wilderness, they encamped on the S of the tabernacle with all the families of the sons of Kohath. The service assignment of the Kohathites was the Ark, the table, the lampstand, the altars, and the utensils, as well as the screen between the Holy and the Most Holy.-Nu 3: 27-31 ; l Ch 26: 23. AMRAPHEL (Am'ra·phel). King of Shinar in southern Mesopotamia, and an ally and supporter of King Chedorlaomer of Elam in the invasion and victory over five kings at the Low Plain of Siddim. Amraphel and his allies were later overtaken by Abram, in his rescue of Lot, and were completely routed. ( Ge 14 : 1-16) There have been attempts to identify Amraphel with Hammurabi, but the iden­ tification is not certain. AMUSEMENTS. As expressed by the writer of Ecclesiastes : "For everything there is an ap­ pointed time, . . . a time to weep and a time to laugh ; a time to wail and a time to skip about." ( Ec 3: 1 , 4) The word "laugh" here translates the He­ brew verb sa·chaq'. Though the basic meaning is "laugh," this word and the related words sechoq' and tsa·chaq' are also translated by expressions such as "celebrate, " "play," "make sport," 'offer amusement,' and "have a good time." ( 2Sa 6 : 21 ; Job 41 : 5 ; Jg 16 : 2 5 ; Ex 3 2 : 6 ; Ge 26 : 8 ) Forms of the verb sa·chaq' are used at Proverbs 8: 30, 31 with regard to the "master worker" as "being glad"

AMZI

before Jehovah following the earth's creation, as well as to describe the "play" of the animal cre­ ation in the sea and in the fields.-Ps 104: 26; Job 40: 20. Expressions of Joy and Pleasure. The amusements and diversion of the Israelites are not prominently portrayed in the Bible record. Nev­ ertheless, it shows them to be viewed as both proper and desirable when in harmony with the religious principles of the nation. The principal forms of recreation were the playing of musi­ cal instruments, singing, dancing, conversation, as well as some games. The propounding of rid­ dIes and difficult questions was much esteemed. -Jg 14: 12. Singing, dancing, and the use of tambourines broke forth in praise of Jehovah right after Israel's deliverance at the Red Sea. ( Ex 15 : 20, 21 ) Later, when Aaron proclaimed "a festival to Jehovah" after having made the golden calf, the people ate and drank and then got up "to have a good time [ letsa·cheq1 - " Their dancing and singing in this case, however, were coupled with false worship, causing disgrace.-Ex 3 2 : 5, 6, 18, 19, 25. The three annual festivals provided occasion for enjoyment along with the observance of the re­ quirements of worship set forth in the Law. "Circle dances" are mentioned with regard to the yearly festival held in Shiloh. ( Jg 2 1 : 21 ) Other occasions were the victory celebrations ( Jg 11 : 34 ; lSa 18:6, 7) and the coronation of a king. ( lKi 1 :40 ) While dancing was engaged i n more particularly by women, men also danced on occasion, as did David when bringing the Ark up to Jerusalem. ( 2Sa 6 : 5 , 14, 21 ; lCh 13:8; 15 : 29 ) The vintage time and also sheepshearing time were occasions of joy and feasting. ( Jer 25:30 ; 2Sa 1 3 : 23-28) Marriages, too, were times for enjoyment, and Jesus contrib­ uted toward such at a marriage held in Cana. (Jer 7 : 34; 16:9 ; Joh 2 : 1 - 10) At Luke 15:25 a music concert and dancing are mentioned as part of the festivities celebrating the return of the prodigal son. In Egypt slaves were taught music and danc­ ing to entertain the family and their guests. The Greeks also employed professional female danc­ ers and musicians to entertain guests. There was dancing for entertainment on Herod's birthday when he was asked for the head of John the Baptizer. ( Mt 14:6-8) Dancing was popular among the Greeks as an amusement, though Greek danc­ ing was originally associated with religious wor­ ship. Proper Balance in Amusement . Warnings against improper forms of amusement and the need for keeping entertainment in its place are set

102

forth in certain texts. Proverbs describes the stu­ pid one to whom the carrying on of loose conduct is like "sport [ sechohqT and the man who tricks his fellow and says, "Was I not having fun [mesa­ cheq1?" (Pr 10: 23; 26 : 19 ) Showing amusement's relative worth to be small, Proverbs 14: 13 says: "Even in laughter [bi·sechohq1 the heart play be in pain; and grief is what rejoicing ends up in. " (Compare Ec 2 : 2 ; 7 : 2, 3, 6. ) The merry Philistines called out blind Samson to offer them amusement (sa·chaqt only to have him bring the house down on them.-Jg 16: 25-30. Jeremiah, aware of the seriousness of the times and undergoing persecution for his preaching, states that he did not sit down with "those play­ ing jokes [mesa-chaqim T and eXUlting. ( Jer 1 5 : 17) Though he foretold doom for Jerusalem, he also prophesied of the time when her inhabitants would again go forth with rejoicing in the dance of those laughing, decked with tambourines. ( Jer 30: 19; 31 :4) Zechariah similarly foretold the day when the public squares of restored Jerusalem would be filled with children playing.-Zec 8 : 5 ; see DANCING ; GA MES ; THEATER.

AMZI ( Am'zi ) [ shortened form of Amaziah, meaning "Jehovah Is Strong"]. 1. A Levite of the family of Merari and an ancestor of Ethan, who was one of the singers at Jehovah's house appointed by David.- 1Ch 6 : 3 1 , 44-47. 2. A priest, son of Zechariah, and an ancestor of Adaiah, who is listed as residing in Jerusalem and doing service at the temple in the time of Nehemi­ ah.-Ne 11 : 12. ANAB ( A'nab ) [Grape]. A town in the S part of the hill country of Judah from which the giant Anakim were expelled by Joshua. (Jos 11 : 21 ; 15: 48, 50) The site is identified with Khirbet 'Anah es-Saghireh, 1 . 5 km ( 1 mi) W of Edh Dhahiriya, about halfway between Hebron and Beer-sheba_ The original name of the city may have been Kiriath-anab, since Egyptian texts apparently mention it as Qrt 'nb. ANAH ( A'nah) . A son of Zibeon and the father of Esau's wife Oholibamah. ( Ge 36 : 2, 14, 18, 20, 24, 2 5 ; lCh 1 : 34, 40, 41 ) At Genesis 36:2 the Hebrew text reads "Oholibamah the daughter of Anah the daugh ter of Zibeon. " The Syriac Peshitta, the Samaritan Pentateuch, and the Greek Septu­ agint here all read "son of Zibeon," in agreement with Genesis 36: 24, which shows Anah to be Zibeon's son. Some modem translations follow this rendering and say "son of Zibeon" in both

103

verse 2 and verse 14. (RS, AT, JB) However, the Hebrew word for "daughter" here also allows for the broader meaning of granddaughter and may thus apply to Oholibamah rather than to Anah. Hence the New World Translation at Genesis 36: 2 reads: "Oholibamah the daughter o f Anah, the granddaughter of Zibeon the Hivite. " Some believe the name Anah applies to two persons, inasmuch as Anah is spoken of as a "Hivite" in verse 2 while the Anah of verses 20 and 29 is called a "Horite. " However, if the term "Horite" means simply a "cave dweller," it could be used to describe the cave-dwelling habits of the Seirites rather than being used in a genealogical sense. The word "sons" in verse 20 thus appears to have the more general meaning of descendants. As M'Clintock and Strong's Cyclopcedia ( 1882, Vol. I , p. 21 2 ) states: "The intention of the geneal­ ogy plainly is not so much to give the lineal descent of the Seirites as to enumerate those de­ scendants who, being heads of tribes, came into connection with the Edomites. It would thus ap­ pear that Anah, from whom Esau's wife sprang, was the head of a tribe independent of his father, and ranking on an equality with that tribe. "

ANAHARAT H (An·a·ha/rath). A city of the tribe of Issachar, evidently in the eastern part of the Plain of Jezreel. ( Jos 19 : 18, 19 ) Its exact loca­ tion is at present uncertain. ANAIAH (Anai/ah) [Jah Has Answered]. 1. One of the men who stood at Ezra's right hand when he read the Law to the people, on the first day of the seventh month. Probably a priest or prince.-Ne 8:2, 4. 2 . One of the headmen of the people whose descendant, if not he himself, attested to the con­ fession contract of Nehemiah.-Ne 10: 1 , 22. ANAK ( A/nak) [ probably, Long-Necked [that is, of tall stature n. The name applied to a tribe of unusually tall men and perhaps to their progeni­ tor. At Numbers 13: 22 and 28 the article is used with the name in Hebrew ( ha·'Anaq'). If it is the personal name of the son of "Arba . . . the father of Anak" ( Jos 1 5 : 13), the name thereafter was also applied to his progeny. ( Compare Jos 1 5 : 14 with 14: 15, where Arba is called "the great man among the Anakim." )-See ANAKIM. ANAKIM ( An/a·kim) [Those of (Belonging to ) Anak]. A race of people of extraordinary size who inhabited the mountainous regions of Canaan as well as some coastal areas, particularly in the S thereof. At one time three prominent men of the

ANAN

Anakim, that is, Ahiman, Sheshai, and Talmai, resided at Hebron. ( Nu 1 3 : 2 2 ) It was here that the 12 Hebrew spies first saw the Anakim, and 10 of the spies subsequently gave a frightening report of the experience, alleging that these men were descendants of the pre-Flood Nephilim and that, by comparison with them, the Hebrews were like "grasshoppers. " (Nu 13:28-33 ; De 1 : 28 ) Their great stature caused them to be used as a stan­ dard of comparison in describing even the giant­ like men of the Emim and the Rephaim. Their strength apparently produced the proverbial say­ ing: "Who can make a firm stand before the sons of Anak?"-De 2 : 10, 1 1 , 20, 21 ; 9 : 1 -3 . I n Joshua's rapid sweep through Canaan, he gained victories over the Anakim in the moun­ tainous regions, destroying their cities, but others remained in the Philistine cities of Gaza, Ashdod, and Gath. Whether the Anakim were related to the Philistines, as some suggest, or were only associated with them is not stated in the record. (Jos 1 1 : 21 , 2 2 ) Later, Caleb requested the city of Hebron (Kiriath-arba) and its territory, as prom­ ised him by God. (Jos 14: 12- 1 5 ; Nu 14: 24) It ap­ pears that the Anakim had reestablished them­ selves in this area, perhaps while Joshua and his army were continuing their conquest in the north­ ern parts of Canaan, and hence Caleb was now obliged to reconquer the territory.-Jg 1 : 10, 20. Egyptian execration texts ( from pottery on which the names of enemies of the pharaoh were written and which was then broken as a curse) might make reference to a tribe of Anak in Pales­ tine as Iy- 'anaq.

ANAMIM (An/a·mim). Hamitic descendants of Mizraim. Since Mizraim became synonymous with Egypt, it is probable that the Anamim settled there or in that area. ( Ge 10: 13 ; 1 Ch 1 : 11 ) A cuneiform text of the time of Sargon II of Assyria (second half of the eighth century B.c.E. ) appar­ ently refers to them under the name "Anami. " ANAMMELECH (Anam/me·1ech) [possibly from Babylonian, meaning "Anu Is King"]. A deity of the Sepharvites that proved unable to deliver them from the Assyrian aggressors. ( 2Ki 18:34 ) The worship o f Anammelech included the revolt­ ing practice of child sacrifice. -2Ki 17:31 . ANAN ( A/nan) [ possibly, Cloud]. One of the heads of the people of Israel, whose representa­ tive, if not he himself, together with Nehemiah and others, sealed the nation's resolution to serve Jehovah faithfully (455 B.C.E. ).-Ne 10: 1 , 26.

ANANI

ANANI

104 (Ana'ni) [ possibly a shortened form of

Ananiah ]. A son of Elioenai; a postexilic descen­ dant of King David . - 1 Ch 3 : 24.

ANANIAH

(Ana·ni'ah) [ Jah Has Answered Me ] .

1. Father o f Maaseiah and grandfather t o Aza­

riah, who assisted Nehemiah in rebuilding the walls of Jerusalem.-Ne 3 : 23 . 2. A city inhabited b y members o f the tribe of Benjamin after the return from exile. ( Ne 11 : 3 2 ) I t i s believed t o b e the same a s Bethany ( el­ 'Azariyeh [ EI 'Eizariya ] ) 2 . 5 km ( 1 . 5 mi) ESE of the Temple Mount in Jerusalem. -See BETHANY No. 1 .

ANANIAS

(An·a·ni'as) [ Gr. form o f the Heb. name Hananiah, meaning "Jehovah Has Shown Favor ; Jehovah Has Been Gracious" ].

1. A member of the early Christian congrega­ tion of Jerusalem. Following Pentecost of 33 c.E.

the physical needs of the believers who remained in Jerusalem were cared for by mutual assistance among the Christians. A common fund was set up for this purpose. It was sustained by contributions

�

representing the price of fields and houses sold y members of the congregation and then voluntanly donated. ( Ac 4 : 34-37) Ananias sold a field and, with his wife's full knowledge, presented a part of the money obtained, while giving the appearance of turning in the entire sum, no doubt to gain a measure of commendation and esteem within the congregation. However, through a special gift of knowledge by the spirit, Peter discerned his pre­ tense, exposed him as 'playing false to the holy spirit and to God,' and Ananias fell down and expired. When the men who buried him returned in about three hours, they found his wife Sapphira also dead for having tried to keep up the same false pretense.-Ac 5 : 1 - 10.

2. A Christian disciple of Damascus. Following

the conversion of Saul, Ananias was given a vision

in which Jesus gave him Saul's name and address with instructions to visit him. Though at first hesitant because he knew of Saul's fiery persecu­ tion of the Christians, Ananias thereafter respond­ ed and went to Saul, caused him to recover his sight, informed him of his commission to be God's witness, and arranged for his baptism. Saul ( Paul ), in a later defense before opposing Jews, referred to Ananias as a man "reverent according to the Law, well reported on by all the Jews dwelling there [ in Damascu s ] . " In view of his being a Chris­ tian, such Jewish commendation was indeed a remarkable testimony to his right conduct.-Ac 9 : 10- 1 8 ; 2 2 : 12-16.

3. Jewish high priest from about 48 to 58 CE. He was the son of Nedebaeus and was appointed

to office by Herod, king of Chalcis, the brother of Herod Agrippa 1. ( Josephus' Jewish Antiquities, XX, 103 [ v, 2 ] ) He was sent to Rome in 5 2 CE. to stand trial because of certain difficulties that had arisen between the Jews and the Samaritans, but he was acquitted by Claudius 1, the emperor. In about 56 CE., while presiding at Paul's trial before the Sanhedrin, Ananias ordered Paul to be struck in the face. Paul reacted to this by predict­ ing that God would repay such wrong action, and he referred to Ananias as a "whitewashed wall." Called to account for this, Paul excused himself as being unaware of the fact that the source of the order to strike him was the high priest and quoted Exodus 22 : 28 in acknowledgment of his obligation to show due respect. Some suggest that Paul's plea of ignorance was because Ananias' position as high priest was not legally certain after his return from Rome, but proof for this is not substantial. It could be simply an additional evidence of poor eyesight on Paul's part, as appears to be indicated in other texts. Ananias' command may have been brief enough and sufficiently charged with emo­ tion to make it difficult for Paul to identify the speaker.-Ac 2 3 : 2-5 . Following the Sanhedrin trial Ananias, accom­ panied by certain older men and a public orator, traveled to Caesarea to press charges against Paul before Governor Felix. ( Ac 24: 1 ) No further men­ tion of him is made in the Scriptural record. Secu­ lar history, however, represents him as a haughty and cruel person, whose conduct, both during his high priesthood and in the years following his removal, was marked by greed. Toward the be­ ginning of the Jewish revolt of 66-70 C.E. , Ananias was pursued by elements of the Jewish population because of his collaboration with the Roman au­ thorities. Though hiding out in an aqueduct, he was discovered and murdered.

ANATH

( A'nath ).

1. The father of one of Israel's judges, Shamgar.

-Jg 3 : 31 ; 5 : 6.

2. One of the three principal Canaanite god­ desses. She is presented both as the sister and spouse of Baal and as a symbol of lustful sex and war. There is no evidence, however, to show that the name of Shamgar's father was drawn from that of the goddess Anath, although the apostasies of Israel during this period could allow for that. -Compare the case of Gideon at Jg 6 : 25-27.

ANATHOTH

(An'a·thoth).

1. A Benjamite, son of Becher. - 1 Ch 7 : 8 .

2. One o f the heads o f t h e people whose de­ scendant, if not he himself, attested to and sealed

105

a trustworthy arrangement in the days of Nehe­ miah, to walk in the path of true worship of Jehovah.-Ne 9 : 38 ; 10: 1, 19. 3. A Levite city in the territory of Benjamin.

(Jos 21 : 17, 18; 1Ch 6:60) The name continues in that of the small village of 'Anata under 5 km ( 3 mi ) NNE of Jerusalem, while the original site has been identified with Ras el-Kharrubeh about 800 m (0.5 mi ) to the SW of the village. From its position on the hills, a view can be had of the Jordan Valley and the northern part of the Salt Sea. Anathoth was the home of two of David's mighty men. ( 2Sa 2 3 : 27 ; 1 Ch 1 2 : 3 ) It was to Anathoth that Solomon banished Abiathar, thus bringing to an end the line of high priests from the house of Eli. ( 1Ki 2 : 26 ) Anathoth was one of the afflicted cities in the line of attack of invading Assyrian armies. -Isa 10: 30. Jeremiah was from Anathoth but became a 'prophet without honor' among his own people, as they threatened his life for speaking Jehovah's message of truth. (Jer 1 : 1 ; 11 : 21-23 ; 29 : 27 ) As a result, Jehovah foretold calamity for the city, and this came in due time when Babylon overran the land. (Jer 1 1 :21-23) Prior to Jerusalem's fall, Jere­ miah exercised his legal rights to purchase his cousin's tract of land at Anathoth as a sign that there would be a restoration from exile. (Jer 32: 7-9 ) Among the first group of those returning from exile with Zerubbabel were 128 men of An­ athoth; and Anathoth is included among the towns that were resettled, thus fulfilling Jeremi­ ah's prophecy.-Ezr 2 : 23 ; Ne 7 : 27; 11 : 32 .

ANATHOTHITE ( An'a·thoth·ite ) [ Of (Belong­ ing to) Anathoth ). An inhabitant of Anathoth, a priestly city in the territory of Be�amin.-2Sa 2 3 : 27 ; 1Ch 11 : 28; 1 2 : 3 ; 27: 12. ANC HOR.

See SHlP.

ANCIENT OF DAYS. A translation of the Ar­ amaic expression 'a t·tiql yoh-min l, which indicates "one advanced ( or aged) in days. " This title of Jehovah appears only at Daniel 7:9, 13, and 22 and alternates with the title "Supreme One. " (Da 7: 18, 22, 25, 27) The scene is a courtroom where the Ancient of Days sits to judge the world powers, described under the symbolism of huge beasts. Their lease of rulership over the earth is taken away, and the "rulership and dignity and king­ dom" are given to one "like a son of man" to whom all peoples are commanded to render obedience. -Da 7 : 10- 14. The title "Ancient of Days" appropriately con­ trasts the everlasting God with the successive world powers that rise and fall, and it portrays

ANDRONICUS Jehovah in his role as the majestic and venerable Judge of all.-Ps 90: 2 ; 75 : 7.

ANDREW ( An'drew) [ from a Gr. root meaning "man; male person" ; probably, Manly ]. A brother of Simon Peter and son of Jonah (John). ( Mt 4: 18; 16: 17) While Andrew's native city was Bethsaida, he and Simon were living together in Capernaum at the time Jesus called them to become "fishers of men. " ( Mr 1 : 16, 17, 21, 29 ; Joh 1 :44 ) Both cities were on the N shore of the Sea of Galilee, where the two brothers engaged in the fishing business in partnership with James and John.-Mt 4: 18; Mr 1 : 16 ; Lu 5: 10. Andrew was first a disciple of John the Baptizer. (Joh 1 : 35, 40 ) In the fall of 29 C.E. he was at Bethany on the E side of the Jordan River and heard John the Baptizer introduce Jesus as "the Lamb of God." (Joh 1 : 29 ) He, along with another disciple (likely John ), followed Jesus to his resi­ dence and was soon convinced he had found the Messiah. He then found and informed his brother Simon and led him to Jesus. ( Joh 1 : 36-41 ) The two brothers returned to their fishing business, but between six months and a year later, after the arrest of John the Baptizer, they, along with James and John, were invited by Jesus to become "fishers of men. " They immediately abandoned their nets and began accompanying Jesus. ( Mt 4: 18-20; Mr 1 : 14, 16-20) In time these four became apostles, and it is notable that Andrew is always listed as among the first four in all the apostolic lists.-Mt 10: 2 ; Mr 3 : 18; Lu 6: 14. Andrew thereafter receives but brief mention. He and Philip discuss with Jesus the problem of feeding a crowd of about 5,000 men, and Andrew offers a suggestion that he himself considers of little practical value about some available food. (Joh 6 :8, 9) At the time of the last Passover festival that they celebrated, Philip comes to Andrew for advice about a request of some Greeks to see Jesus, and the two then approach Jesus on the matter. (Joh 1 2 : 20-22) He is among the four on the Mount of Olives who ask Jesus for the sign that would mark the conclusion of the existing system of things. ( Mr 13 : 3 ) The final mention of Andrew by name is shortly after Jesus' ascension.-Ac 1 : 13. ANDRONICUS ( An·dron'i·cus ) [ Man-Conquer­ ing ]. A faithful Jewish Christian in the congrega­ tion at Rome to whom Paul sent greetings. Paul calls Andronicus and Junias "my relatives. " While the Greek word used here (sygge·nesj in its broader sense can mean "fellow-countrymen," the primary meaning is "blood relatives of the same

ANEM

106

generation. " The context indicates that Androni­ cus likely was so related to Paul. Like Paul, An­ dronicus had suffered imprisonment, was now a 'man of note' among the apostles, and had become a Christian prior to Paul. -Ro 16:7.

ANEM ( A'nem ). A city near the S border of Issachar, given as a Levite city to the Gershonites. ( 1 Ch 6:71, 73 ) In the corresponding list at Joshua 21 : 29, Anem appears to be referred to as En­ gannim, probably the complete name. -See EN­ GANNIM No. 2. ANER ( A'ner). 1. A Canaanite. He and his two brothers, Mam­ re the Amorite and Eshcol, were "confederates" ( "allies," AT; RS) of Abraham. (Ge 14: 13) The word "confederates" is here translated from the Hebrew ba.'aiehI verith', which literally means "owners (masters) of the covenant" ; but "confederate" is from the Latin confoederatus, meaning "united," or "joined by a league," and hence properly trans­ lates the idea, the word foedus occurring in Gene­ sis 14: 13 in the Latin Vulga te. As to the terms of this agreement between these three brothers and Abraham, little indication is given in the record as to whether it was one of mutual defense against their warlike neighbors or simply one of peaceful coexistence. When Abraham'S nephew Lot was taken captive by a league of kings, this confedera­ cy saw action, as Aner with his brothers accompa­ nied Abraham and his 318 trained servants from the big trees of Mamre (where Abraham was tenting) up to Dan, about 200 kID ( 120 mi ) to the NNE, and then on beyond Damascus. After the victory Abraham refused any part of the spoil but saw to it that the three confederates were given a share for honoring this "confederacy. "-Ge 14: 24; see AlliANCE. 2. A town of the territory of Manasseh given to the families of the sons of Kohath. ( 1 Ch 6 : 70; Jos 21 : 26 ) Some scholars believe it is the same as Taanach at Joshua 21 : 25.-See TAANACH. I

ANGEL. Both the Hebrew maJ.'akh ' and the Greek ag'ge·los literally mean "messenger. " From the first book of the Bible to the last, these words occur nearly 400 times. When spirit messengers are indicated, the words are translated "angels," but if the reference definitely is to human crea­ tures, the rendering is "messengers. " ( Ge 16: 7 ; 32: 3 ; Jas 2 : 25 ; R e 2 2 : 8 ; see MESSENGER. ) However, in the highly symbolic book of Revelation certain references to 'angels' may apply to human crea­ tures.-Re 2 : 1 , 8, 12, 18; 3 : 1 , 7 , 14. Angels are sometimes termed spirits; that which is spirit is invisible and powerful. Thus we

read: "A spirit came out and stood before Jeho­ vah" ; "Are they not all spirits for public service?" ( l Ki 2 2 : 21 ; Heb 1 : 14) Having invisible spiritual bodies, they make their abode "in the heavens. " ( Mr 12 : 25 ; lCo 15:44, 50) They are also termed "sons of the true God," "morning stars," and "holy myriads" ( or "holy ones").-Job 1 : 6 ; 2 : 1 ; 38 : 7 ; De 3 3 : 2. Not being creatures that marry and reproduce their own kind, the angels were individually creat­ ed by Jehovah through his firstborn Son, "the beginning of the creation by God." ( Mt 22: 30; Re 3: 14 ) "By means of him [this firstborn Son, the Word 1 all other things were created in the heavens . . . the things invisible . . . Also, he is before all other things and by means of him all other things were made to exist. " ( Col i : 15- 17; Joh 1 : 1-3) The angels were created long before man's appear­ ance, for at the 'founding of the earth' lithe morn­ ing stars joyfully cried out together, and all the sons of God began shouting in applause." -Job 38:4-7. As for the number of the angelic hosts of heav­ en, Daniel said he saw "a thousand thousands that kept ministering to [God] , and ten thousand times ten thousand that kept standing right before him." -Da 7: 10; Heb 12:22; Jude 14. Order and Rank. As with the visible creation, so also in the invisible realm there is order and rank among the angels. The foremost angel, both in power and authority, is Michael, the archangel. (Da 10: 13, 21 ; 12: 1 ; Jude 9; Re 1 2 : 7 ; see ARCHAN­ GEL; MICHAEL No. 1 . ) Because of his preeminence and his being called lithe great prince who is standing in behalf of the sons of [ God's ] people," he is presumed to be the angel that led Israel through the wilderness. (Ex 2 3 : 20-23) Ranking very high among the angels in privileges and honor are the seraphs. ( Isa 6 : 2, 6 ; see SERAPHS. ) More frequently ( some 90 times ), the Scriptures mention the cherubs, and from the description of their duties and responsibilities it is apparent that they, too, hold a special position among the an­ gels. ( Ge 3 : 24 ; Eze 10: 1 -2 2 ; see CHERUB No. 1 . ) Then there is the great body of angelic messen­ gers who serve as a means of communication between God and man. However, they do more than simply relay messages. As agents and depu­ ties of the Most High God, they serve as respon­ sible executioners of the divine purpose, be it protection and deliverance of God's people or destruction of the wicked.-Ge 19 : 1 -26. Personality. Some may deny distinct person­ ality of individual angels, claiming they are im­ personal forces of energy dispatched to accom-

107

ANGEL

plish the will of God, but the Bible teaches other­

powers, angels have their limitations. They did

wise. Individual names imply individuality. The

not know the "day and hour" when this system of

fact that two of their names, Michael and Gabriel,

things would be swept away, Jesus said. ( Mt 24:

are given establishes the point sufficiently. ( Da

36 ) They take a keen interest in the outworking of

1 2 : 1 ; Lu 1 : 26 ) The lack of more names was a

Jehovah's purposes, yet there are some things

safeguard against giving undue honor and wor­

they do not understand. ( l Pe 1 : 1 2 ) They rejoice at

ship to these creatures. Angels were dispatched

the repentance of a sinner, and they watch the

by God as agents to act in his name, not in their

"theatrical spectacle" furnished by Christians here

own name. Hence, when Jacob asked an angel for

on the world stage of public activity. They also

his name, he refused to give it. ( Ge 32 : 29 ) The

observe the proper example of Christian women

angel that approached Joshua, when asked to

who wear a sign of authority upon their heads.

identify himself, replied only that he was "prince

-Lu

of the army of Jehovah. " ( Jos 5 : 14 ) When Sam­

( Kingdom Heirs Granted Immortality ) .

son's parents asked an angel for his name, he withheld it, saying: "Just why should you ask about my name, when it is a wonderful one?" (Jg 1 3 : 17, 1 8 ) The apostle John attempted to worship angels and was twice rebuked : "Be careful! Do not do that! . . . Worship God. "-Re 19 : 10; 22:8, 9.

1 5 : 10;

lCo

4:9;

1 1 : 10;

see

IMMORTAUTY

A s Jehovah's ministers, the angels have enjoyed many privileges during the aeons of passing time. Angels ministered on behalf of Abraham, Jacob, Moses, Joshua, Isaiah, Daniel, Zechariah, Peter, Paul, and John, to mention but a few. ( Ge 22 : 11 ; 31 : 1 1 ; Jos 5 : 14, 15 ; Isa 6 : 6, 7 ; Da 6 : 2 2 ; Zec 1 : 9 ; Ac

As personalities, angels have the power to com­

5 : 19, 20 ; 7 : 35 ; 1 2 : 7, 8; 27: 23, 24 ; Re 1 : 1 ) Their

municate with one another ( l Co 13 : 1 ), the ability

messages contributed toward the writing of the

to talk various languages of men ( Nu 2 2 : 32-3 5 ; Da

Bible. In Revelation angels are mentioned far more

4 : 2 3 ; Ac 10: 3-7 ), and the thinking ability with

times than in any other Bible book. Innumerable

which to glorify and praise Jehovah ( Ps 148 : 2 ; Lu

angels were seen around the great throne of Jeho­

2 : 1 3 ). It is true that angels are sexless, because

vah; seven blew the seven trumpets, while anoth­

Jehovah made them so, not because they are

er seven poured out the seven bowls of God's

impersonal forces. Angels are generally repre­

anger; an angel flying in midheaven had "ever­

sented as males, and when materializing it was

lasting good news " ; but another proclaimed, "Bab­

always in the male form, because God and his Son

ylon the Great has fallen. "-Re 5 : 1 1 ; 7 : 11 ; 8 : 6 ;

are spoken of as males. However, when certain

14:6, 8 ; 1 6 : I .

materialized angels indulged in the pleasure of sex in the days of Noah, they were expelled from Jehovah's heavenly courts. Here was a display of angelic individuality, for, like humankind, they too are free moral agents, with the power of personal choice between right and wrong. ( Ge 6 : 2, 4; 2Pe 2 : 4 ) By personal choice, hordes of angels joined Satan in his rebellion.-Re 1 2 : 7-9 ; Mt 2 5 : 4I .

Powers and Privileges.

Support of Christ and followers.

From begin­

ning to end, the holy angels of God followed the earthly sojourn of Jesus with extreme interest. They announced his conception and birth, and they ministered to him after the 40-day fast. An angel strengthened him when he prayed in Geth­ semane on his final night as a human. When the mob came to arrest him, he could have called for

Since God created

no less than 12 legions of angels had he chosen to

man "a little lower than angels" ( Heb 2 : 7), it fol­

do so. Angels also announced his resurrection and

lows that angels have a greater mental capacity

were present at his ascension into heaven.-Mt

than man. They are superhuman in power too. "Bless Jehovah, 0 you angels of his, mighty in power, carrying out his word. " Angelic knowl­ edge and power were displayed when two angels brought flaming destruction upon Sodom and Go­ morrah. A single angel killed 185 ,000 of the As­

4: 1 1 ; 26 : 5 3 ; 28: 5-7; Lu 1 : 30, 31 ; 2 : 10, 1 1 ; 2 2 : 4 3 ; A c 1 : 10, I I . Thereafter, God's spirit messengers continued ministering to his servants on earth, even as Jesus promised : "Do not despise one of these little ones; for I tell you that their angels in heaven always

syrian army . -Ps 103 : 20 ; Ge 19 : 13, 24 ; 2Ki 19:35.

behold the face of my Father. " ( Mt 18: 1 0 ) "Are

Angels too can travel at tremendous speeds, far

they not all spirits for public service, sent forth

exceeding the limits of the physical world. Thus

to minister for those who are going to inherit

when Daniel was praying, God dispatched an an­

salvation?" ( Heb 1 : 14) No longer do these mighty

gel to answer his prayer; and the angel arrived

angelic ones appear visibly in behalf of Jehovah's

within moments, even before the prayer was con­

servants on earth, as when they delivered the

cluded.-Da 9 : 20-23.

apostles from prison ;

But for all their higher mental and spiritual

nevertheless,

God's ser­

vants are assured of the ever-present, invisible

ANGER protecting armies, as real as those that surround­ ed the prophet Elisha and his servant. "He will give his own angels a command concerning you, to guard you in all your ways. " Yes, "the angel of Jehovah is camping all around those fearing him, and he rescues them."-Ps 91 : 11 ; 34 : 7 ; Ac 5 : 19 ; 2 Ki 6 : 15-17. Angels are further shown accompanying Jesus Christ when he comes for judgment, separating "the wheat" from "the weeds" and "the sheep" from "the goats. " Angels joined with Michael in his war on the dragon and the demons at the birth of God's Kingdom in heaven. They will also support the King of kings in fighting the war of the great day of God the Almighty.-Mt 13:41 ; 2 5 : 31-3 3 ; Re 1 2 : 7- 10 ; 19 : 14- 16.

ANG ER. In the Bible several different Hebrew and Greek words are used to denote anger. The most common Hebrew word for anger is 'aph, basically meaning "nose; nostril" but often used figuratively for "anger" because of the violent breathing or snorting of an enraged person. (Com­ pare Ps 18 : 7 ; Eze 38: 18. ) Related to 'aph is 'a·naph � meaning "be incensed. " Anger is also often associ­ ated in the Hebrew Scriptures with heat and thus is said to blaze. Other Hebrew words are rendered "rage," "fury," and "indignation. " In the Christian Greek Scriptures orgel is generally translated "wrath," while thy-mas! is usually rendered "an­ ger. " God's Anger. Anger may be justified or un­ justified. On God's part, his anger is always justi­ fied, being based on principle dictated by his right to exclusive devotion and his constancy in uphold­ ing truth; it is governed by his love for righteous­ ness and for those practicing righteousness. Di­ vine anger does not stem from a momentary whim, to be later regretted. Jehovah sees all the issues involved in a matter and has complete, entire knowledge of a situation. (Heb 4: 13) He reads the heart; he notes the degree of ignorance, negligence, or willful sin; and he acts with impar­ tiality.-De 10: 17, 18; lSa 16 : 7 ; Ac 10: 34, 35. Principles con trolling divine wrath. God's anger is always under control and in harmony with his attributes of love, wisdom, and justice. Because of his almighty power it is expressible to the degree he desires. ( lJo 4 : 8 ; Job 1 2 : 13; 37: 2 3 ) God's anger i s not futile. I t i s fully based on sufficient cause and always takes effect. His anger is satisfied and quieted only by the application of his principles. For example, in Israel a willful mur­ derer could not be ransomed. Only by the shed­ ding of his blood could the land be cleansed and freed from God's displeasure. ( Nu 3 5 : 16- 18,

108

30-33 ) But an arrangement was made on the basis of sacrifices and the services of the high priest to satisfy justice and to allay the anger of the God­ ordained avenger of blood, whose heart may have been "hot." This was the provision of the cities of refuge.-De 19 :4-7. The anger of Jehovah can be allayed or satisfied only when justice is fully carried out. God's wrath is against all unrighteousness. He will not tolerate unrighteousness or exempt from punishment one deserving it. (Ex 34: 7 ; Hab 1 : 13 ) However, on the basis of the sacrifice of Jesus Christ, who bore the pains and chastisement justly due mankind, God's anger may be relieved and turned away for those who come to exercise faith. (lsa 5 3 : 5 ) By means of this arrangement, Jehovah God is able to exhibit his own righteousness, "that he might be righ­ teous even when declaring righteous the man that has faith in Jesus. " ( Ro 3:26) In this way justice is fully satisfied, and yet God has a basis on which to extend mercy. Anyone who is disobedient has the wrath of God remaining upon him. (Joh 3 : 36 ) But when a person exercises faith, the sacrifice of Jesus Christ saves him from the wrath of God. - lTh 1 : 10. Means for expressing and the causes of anger.

God's anger may be expressed directly or indi­ rectly. He may use his laws governing natural things, or he may use other persons as instru­ ments to express his anger. Those who violate his moral laws are under his wrath and receive in themselves "the full recompense, which was due for their error. " These suffer a disapproved mental state, degradation, diseases, strife, and death. ( Ro 1 : 18, 24, 27-32 ) When a person violates laws of the land that are in harmony with God's laws and is punished by the governmental authority, this is an indirect expression of God's wrath against that one. (Ro 1 3 : 1-4) Jesus Christ is the chief execu­ tioner of God's anger, and he will completely ex­ press God's wrath to fulfill his anger against the wicked.-Jer 30: 23, 24; Re 19: 7- 16, 19-21. Wrong attitudes and actions toward God's cho­ sen ones will provoke his anger. The Egyptians were plagued because of not letting Israel worship Jehovah. (Ps 78:43-50) Miriam and Aaron felt the heat of divine anger because of disrespect for Moses' God-appointed position. ( Nu 12:9, 10) Jeho­ vah's anger was against judges who oppressed the lowly. ( Isa 10: 1-4) Those who hinder the preach­ ing of the good news are in line for God's wrath. -lTh 2 : 16. Jehovah is provoked to anger by false worship, especially when his professed people turn away to other gods. (Ex 3 2 : 7- 10; Nu 25:3, 4; Jg 2 : 13, 14, 20 ; 1Ki 11 : 8, 9 ) His anger is aroused by immoral-

109

ANGER

ity, suppression of the truth, unrepentance, dis­

almost resulting in the loss of a blessing from God.

obedience to the good news, the despising of his

-2Ki 5 : 10- 14.

words, mocking at his prophets, covetousness, in­ juriousness, envy, murder, strife, deceit, malicious disposition; by those who are whisperers, back­ biters,

haters of God,

insolent,

haughty,

self­

assuming, inventors of injurious things, disobedi­ ent to parents, false to agreements, merciless, spiritists, and liars. All of these and the practice of any other unrighteousness provoke God's anger. -Col 3 : 5 , 6 ; 2Th 1 : 8 ; Ro 1 : 18, 29-31 ; 2 : 5 , 8 ; 2Ch 36 : 15 , 1 6 ; Re 22: 15. Anger not a dominan t quality.

However, Je­

hovah God is "slow to anger and abundant in loving-kindness . " ( Ex 34 : 6 ; Nu 14 : 18 ) If one fears Jehovah and works righteousness, he will receive mercy from Jehovah, for the Almighty recognizes man's inherited imperfection and shows mercy to him on this account and on the basis of Jesus' sacrifice. ( Ps 103: 13, 14; Ge 8 : 21 ; see also Zep 2 : 2 , 3 . ) He checks his anger in behalf of his name and in order to carry out his purpose toward his cho­ sen people. ( lsa 48: 9 ; Joe 2: 13, 14 ) Jehovah's an­ ger in time passes from those who truly serve him, acknowledge their sin, and repent. ( Isa 1 2 : 1 ; Ps 30 : 5 ) He is not an angry God but a happy God, not unapproachable but pleasant, peaceful, and calm toward those who properly approach his presence. ( 1 Ti 1 : 1 1 ; Ps 16 : 1 1 ; compare Re 4 : 3 . ) This is in contrast to the angry, merciless, cruel characteristics ascribed to the false gods of the pagans and portrayed in images of these gods.

What place does anger have in the life of a servan t of God?

Vital need for control.

Unjustified and un­

controlled anger has led many persons into great­ er sin, even acts of violence. "Cain grew hot with great anger" and slew Abel.

( Ge 4 : 5 , 8) Esau

wanted to kill Jacob, who received the blessing of their father. (Ge 27 :41-45 ) Saul in his rage hurled spears at David and Jonathan. ( 1Sa 1 8 : 1 1 ; 19 : 10 ; 20: 30-34 ) Those i n attendance a t the synagogue in Nazareth, aroused to anger by Jesus' preaching, endeavored to hurl him from the brow of a mountain. ( Lu 4: 28, 29 ) Angered religious lead­ ers "rushed upon [ Stephen ] with one accord" and stoned him to death.-Ac 7: 54-60. Anger, even when justified, if not controlled, may be dangerous, producing bad results. Simeon and Levi had reason to be indignant at Shechem for violating their sister Dinah, though some of the blame was hers. But the wanton slaughter of the Shechemites was an excessive penalty to inflict. Hence their father Jacob denounced their uncon­ trolled anger, cursing it.

(Ge

34: 1 - 31 ; 49 : 5-7)

When under heavy provocation a person should control his anger. The complaint and rebellious­ ness of the Israelites provoked Moses, the meekest man on the earth, to an uncontrolled act of anger in which he failed to sanctify Jehovah, and for which he was punished.-Nu 1 2 : 3 ; 20: 10- 1 2 ; Ps 106 : 32 , 33. Fits of anger are classified along with other detestable works of the flesh, such as loose con­ duct, idolatry, practice of spiritism, and drunken bouts. Such will keep one from inheriting God's Kingdom. ( Ga 5: 19-21 ) Angry talk is to be kept out of the congregation. Men representing the congre­

Man's expression of anger may be proper if it is based on principle. One may rightly express righ­ teous indignation. We are commanded to "abhor what is wicked. " ( Ro 12 : 9 ) The Bible provides numerous examples of righteous indignation.-Ex 1 1 : 8 ; 32: 19 ; Nu 16: 1 2 - 1 5 ; 1Sa 20 : 34; Ne 5 : 6 ; Es 7 : 7 ; see also 2Sa 12 : 1 -6 . However, the anger o f man i s more often unjus­

gation in prayer should be free from feelings of anger and ill will. ( 1 Ti 2 : 8 ) Christians are com­ manded to be slow about wrath, being told that man's wrath does not work out God's righteous­ ness. (Jas 1 : 19, 20) They are counseled to "yield place to the wrath" and to leave vengeance to Jehovah. (Ro 1 2 : 19 ) A man cannot be used as an overseer in the congregation of God if he is prone

tified and is many times uncontrolled. It is often

to wrath.-Tit 1 : 7.

based on insufficient cause and expressed without due regard for the consequences. After Jehovah

sometimes justifiably so, he should not let it be­

had spared Nineveh, Jonah was displeased, "and

come sin to him by harboring it or maintaining a

While a person may on occasion be angry and

he got to be hot with anger." Jonah lacked mercy

provoked state. He should not let the sun set with

and had to be corrected by Jehovah. (Jon 4 : 1 - 11 )

him in such a condition, for he would thereby

King Uzziah of Judah became enraged when cor­

allow place for the Devil to take advantage of him.

rected by the priests of Jehovah and went ahead

( Eph 4 : 26, 27 ) Especially if it is a case of anger

in his presumptuous course, for which he was

between Christian brothers, he should take proper

punished. ( 2Ch 26: 16-21 ) Naaman's ill-advised pride caused indignation and rage on his part,

steps to make peace or get the matter settled in the God-provided way.

(Le

19 : 17, 1 8 ; Mt 5 : 23, 24;

ANIAM 18: 1 5 ; Lu 17:3, 4 ) The Scriptures counsel that we should watch our associations in this regard, not having companionship with anyone given to an­ ger or fits of rage, thereby avoiding a snare for our souls.-Pr 2 2 : 24, 25. Jesus Christ, when a man on earth, gave us the perfect example. The records of his life do not recount one occasion where he had a fit of uncon­ trolled anger or where he allowed the lawlessness, rebelliousness, and harassment of the enemies of God to upset his spirit and cause him to reflect such a thing toward his followers or others. On one occasion he was "thoroughly grieved" at the insensibility of the hearts of the Pharisees and looked upon them with indignation. His next act was an act of healing. ( Mr 3 : 5 ) When he, in anoth­ er instance, drove out those who were defiling God's temple as well as violating the Law of Moses by making Jehovah's house a house of merchan­ dise, it was through no uncontrolled, unjustified fit of anger. Rather, the Scriptures show that it was properly directed zeal for the house of Jehovah. -Joh 2 : 13- 17. A voiding the damaging effects. Not only does anger have an adverse effect upon our spiri­ tual health but it produces profound effects on the physical organism. It can cause rise in blood pres­ sure, arterial changes, respiratory trouble, liver upsets, changes in the secretion of gaU, effects on the pancreas. Anger and rage, as strong emotions, have been listed by physicians as contributing to, aggravating, or even causing such ailments as asthma, eye afflictions, skin diseases, hives, ulcers, and dental and digestive troubles. Rage and fury can upset thinking processes so that one cannot form logical conclusions or pass sound judgment. The aftermath of a fit of rage is often a period of extreme mental depression. It is therefore wisdom not only in a religious sense but in a physical sense to keep anger under control and to pursue peace and love.-Pr 14: 29, 30; Ro 14: 19 ; Jas 3 : 17; IPe 3: 1 1 .

According t o the Scriptures, the time o f the end is a time of rage and fury, with the nations be­ coming angry at Jehovah's taking over his power to reign, and the Devil being hurled to the earth, "having great anger, knowing he has a short peri­ od of time. " ( Re 1 1 : 17, 18; 1 2 : 10- 1 2 ) With such strenuous conditions, the Christian will do well to control his spirit, avoiding the destructive emotion of anger.-Pr 14 : 29 ; Ec 7:9.

ANIAM

(Ani/am ) [ I Am [ of the ] People [that is, a kinsman] ]. A son of Shemida of the tribe of Manasseh. - l Ch 7 : 14, 19.

110

ANIM

( A/nim). A city in the mountainous re­ gion of southern Judah, mentioned in the distribu­ tion of land in the days of Joshua. (Jos 15:48, 50) It has been identified with Khirbet Ghuwein et­ Tahta ( Horvat 'Anim), a double ruin situated about 5 km ( 3 mi ) S of Eshtemoa and about 19 km ( 12 mi ) SSW of Hebron.

ANIMALS.

Living souls that are not human. (Compare Nu 31 : 28. ) The Hebrew word behe·mah' refers to larger four-footed creatures, usually do­ mestic animals but occasionally wild beasts. It is rendered "domestic animals," "beasts," "livestock," and "cattle." (Ge 1 : 26 ; 9 : 10 ; 34: 2 3 ; Ps 107 : 38 ) The Hebrew re/mes denotes "moving animals" or "creeping things" and comes from the root ra'm as', meaning "move; creep. " ( Ge 6 : 20; Eze 8 : 10; Ge 1 : 28, ftn) Also, the Hebrew term chai-yah', literally meaning "living creature," is used to refer to "wild beasts" or "wild animals. " ( Ge 1 : 28 ; 3 : 14; Isa 56 :9) The parallel Greek term is zo 'on ( living creature), also rendered 'animal. '-Re 4 : 7 ; 2Pe 2 : 12. Jehovah God formed all the animals, each fami­ ly kind having its own originally created represen­ tatives, for the record assures us that God made them each one "according to its kind. " ( Ge 1 : 25 ) In this article we shall consider particularly land an­ imals. In view of God's granting perfect man dominion over the various creatures of the earth, it was most appropriate that Adam be privileged to name these creatures. (Ge 1 : 26; 2 : 19, 20 ) Man's having the animals in subjection placed upon him a stewardship for which he would always be ac­ countable to God.-Lu 12:48. Animals were so created that they would have a fear and dread of man as their superior. ( Ge 9 : 2, 3 ) According to naturalists, wild creatures, such as the leopard and the king cobra, normally prefer to retreat from man's presence, although they do attack when provoked, wounded, cornered, or suddenly surprised. It has been suggested that tigers become man-eaters, for example, by force of circumstances, such as old age or injury that would greatly limit the tiger's ability to procure its normal game, or the depletion of the tiger's game through man's hunting. Already prior to the Flood, animals were killed to provide clothing for man and for sacrificial purposes. (Ge 3 : 21 ; 4:4) However, not until after the Deluge did Noah and his family receive per­ mission from Jehovah to add flesh to their diet, with the stipulation that it must be drained of its blood. (Ge 9 : 3, 4) While this made it proper for man to kill animals for necessary food, he was not authorized thereby to indulge in needless slaugh-

111

ter for the sheer thrill of the hunt or to display personal prowess, as Nimrod, the rebel against God, undoubtedly did.-Ge 10 :9. Some have contended that the presence of ani­ mals on isolated islands like Australia and New Zealand is an indication that not all land animals outside the ark perished in the Deluge. However, the findings of oceanographers indicate that at one time land ridges connected what are now isolated land areas. For example, oceanographic studies indicate that the Mid-Atlantic Ridge may have crossed that ocean above the surface. Possi­ bly there were also other ridges, and animals could have migrated by means of these before such ridges sank below the surface of the ocean. Other oceanographic studies have turned up evi­ dence that once there existed a huge South Pacific continent that took in Australia and many of the South Sea isles. If such was the case, then, of course, the animals had no difficulty in migrating to these lands. Clean and Unclean Animals. A classification of animals is to be noted in God's instructions to Noah to take with him into the ark seven of each clean animal and two of each unclean animal. (Ge 7 : 2, 3, 8, 9) Since a flesh diet had not yet been authorized, this distinction between clean and un­ clean was probably determined on the basis of what was acceptable to Jehovah as a sacrifice. Hence, on emerging from the ark, Noah knew which creatures were clean and suitable for offer­ ing upon the altar. ( Ge 8 : 20) At that time no restriction existed with respect to the type of animals that Noah and his family could eat, as is indicated by Jehovah's words : "Every moving an­ imal that is alive may serve as food for you . " -Ge 9:3. God's law t o the Israelites, therefore, introduced a new distinction when it classified certain ani­ mals as clean and fit for food and others as un­ clean and prohibited as food. The scripture speci­ fies : "Every creature that splits the hoof and forms a cleft in the hoofs and chews the cud among the beasts, that is what you may eat. " ( Le 11 : 3 ) And again: "You must eat no detestable thing of any sort. This is the sort of beast that you may eat: the bull, the sheep and the goat, the stag and gazelle and roebuck and wild goat and antelope and wild sheep and chamois; and every beast that splits the hoof and that forms a cleft into two hoofs, chew­ ing the cud among the beasts."-De 14: 3-6. Animals lacking one or both of the above­ mentioned features were not to be eaten by those under the terms of the Law covenant. The prohib­ ited animals included the rock badger, the hare,

ANIMALS

the pig, the camel. Also, creatures 'going upon their paws' were prohibited, this doubtless em­ bracing such creatures as the lion, the bear, and the wolf.-Le 11 :4-8, 26, 27; De 14: 7, 8. These dietary limitations applied only to those who were under the Mosaic Law, for the state­ ment of Leviticus 1 1 : 8 is: "They are unclean for you," that is, for the Israelites. With the abrogation of the Law on the basis of the sacrificial death of Christ Jesus, the prohibitions were canceled, and once more all humans could consider themselves under the same broad provision announced to Noah following the Deluge.-Col 2 : 13- 1 7 ; Ge 9 : 3, 4. Since the restriction concerning unclean foods was taken out of the way with the rest of the Law, a question may arise as to why Peter, about three and a half years later, still had not eaten any "unclean" animals. (Ac 10: 10- 1 5 ) It must be re­ membered that the cancellation of the Law result­ ed in great changes in the lives of Christ's follow­ ers, and therefore, it reasonably took some time for them to appreciate all that was involved. Illustrative Usage. The outstanding traits of animals are alluded to and used by Bible writers to symbolize a variety of qualities and powers. At times animal features may portray excellent qual­ ities, divine as well as human. ( Eze 1 : 10, 11 ; Re 4 : 6, 7) In other instances animals may be em­ ployed to represent wild, beastlike ruling powers that oppress and crush peoples.-Da 7 : 2-7; 8: 5-8, 20, 2 1 ; Re 13: 1 - 17 ; see BEASTS, SYMBOUC. Proper Use and View of Animal Creation.

In connection with worship under the Mosaic Law, cattle, sheep, and goats were among the creatures acceptable for sacrifice. Such animals were to be sound ones, and no castrated animal was admissi­ ble. ( Le 22: 23-25 ) The use of animal blood for food or for any purpose other than sacrifice was pro­ hibited. (Le 1 7 : 13, 14) Worship of any representa­ tion of an animal or other created thing was strictly forbidden. -Ex 20 :4, 5. The Bible inculcates just and merciful treatment of the lower creatures. Indeed, Jehovah represents himself as the Loving Provider for their lives and well-being. (Pr 12 : 10; Ps 145 : 15, 16 ) The Mosaic Law enjoined proper care of domestic animals. When found straying, domestic animals were to be returned safely to their owner; when crushed under a burden, they were to be relieved. ( Ex 23 :4, 5) They were to be worked humanely. (De 2 2 : 10; 25:4) They, as well as man, were to benefit from the Sabbath rests. (Ex 20 : 10 ; 23 : 12 ; De 5 : 14) Dangerous animals were to be controlled or

ANKLET

112

destroyed. ( Ge 9 : 5 ; Ex 2 1 : 28, 29 ) Crossbreeding of different sorts was forbidden.-Le 19 : 19. God-fearing men see in animals part of God's

and "the beauty o f the bangles ," o r anklets, as well as their "step chains . " ( Isa 3: 16, 18, 20 ) The Bab­ ylonian

conquest

of Judah

and

Jerusalem

in

generous provision for human welfare. Animals

607 B.c.E. surely made inroads into the lives of

have served man as burden bearers, as sources of

these women, resulting in the loss of their many

food and clothing, as sanitation agents, a nd as helpers in the vital activities of plowing and har­ vesting. Their variety of form and color has de­ lighted his eye ; their habits and instincts have been and still are an extensive field for inquiry into the marvels of God's creative work. Though animals die in the same manner as man, they do not share his hope of a resurrection. - 2Pe 2: 1 2 ; additionally, see individual animals, birds, insects, reptiles by name; also BIRDS ; FI SH ; INSECTS.

ANKLET.

The Hebrew words for "ankle chain­

( 'ets·ra·dhah '; Nu 31 : 50 ) and "step chains" ( tsera·dhah'; Isa 3 : 20 ) both come from the root tsa·radh', meaning "take steps; march . " ( Jer 10 : 5 ; Pr 7 : 8 ) The Hebrew re'khes ( bangle; anklet) comes from the root ra·khas', meaning "make a tinkling lets"

sound" or "shake bangles . " ( Isa 3 : 1 6 , 18, ftns ) An­ kle bracelets or ornamental rings worn on the legs above the ankles were in common use in the ancient Middle East. They were made of such materials as brass, gold, silver, iron, glass, and ivory. On Egyptian monuments persons of both sexes are depicted as wearing them, and in Egypt anklets and bracelets were frequently made as matching ensembles. Heavy anklets might make a ringing sound as they knocked together while the wearer walked along. However, at times pebbles were placed in hollow bangles or anklets in order to produce a

ornaments and of their freedom.-See ORNAMENTS.

ANNA

( An'na ) [ from Heb . , meaning "Favor;

Grace" ]. A prophetess, daughter of Phanuel of the tribe of Asher. Her name is the Greek form of Hannah. Anna had become a widow after just seven years of married life and, at the time of the child Jesus' presentation at the temple, was 84 years of age. Nevertheless, she was constant in her atten­ dance at the temple, evidently from the time of the morning service until the evening service and, as a result, was privileged to see the young child Jesus and bear witness about him. Her "fastings and supplications" indicate a mourning attitude and an earnest longing on her part. The centuries­ long period of Jewish subjection, coupled with the deteriorating

religious

conditions

that

reached

even to the temple and its priesthood, could well explain this. At any rate, though she might not have expected to be alive when the child became grown, she now joyfully witnessed to others of the liberation due to be effected through this coming Messiah.-Lu 2 : 36-38.

ANNAS

( An'nas ) [from Heb . , meaning "Show­

ing Favor; Gracious" ]. Appointed high priest about 6 or 7 c.E. by Quirinius, the Roman governor of Syria, and serv­ ing until about 15 c.E. (Lu 2 : 2 ) Annas was there­

sound, and Arabian girls of more recent times

fore high priest when Jesus, at the age of 12,

have also occasionally worn anklets with small

amazed the rabbinic teachers at the temple. ( Lu

bells attached to them. Too, ankle chainlets were sometimes fastened to the anklets worn by a

assigned jurisdiction, Annas was removed as high

2 : 42-49 ) For reportedly overstepping his Roman­

woman, thus tying these ornaments together. The

priest by Procurator Valerius Gratus. Though he

chainlets would make tinkling sounds as the wear­

no longer had the official title, it was quite evident

er walked, and of course, they and the anklets themselves would attract attention. Ankle chain­

that he continued to exercise great power and

lets or step chains would also restrict or shorten

nant voice of the Jewish hierarchy. Five of his

the woman's step, so that she would walk with

sons, as well as his son-in-law Caiaphas, each held

influence as high priest emeritus and predomi­

tripping steps and what might be considered a

the office of high priest. Because of his prominent

graceful or genteel feminine gait.-Isa 3 : 16.

position, Annas is rightly designated in the Scrip­

"Ankle chainlets" were among pieces of jewelry the Israelites took from the Midianites as war booty and contributed as "Jehovah's offering. " ( Nu 31 : 50, 5 1 ) The haughty "daughters of Zion" of later times are described as women who "go walking with tripping steps, and with their feet they make

tures as one of the chief priests. ( Mt 2 6 : 3 ; Lu 3 : 2 ) When Jesus was arrested, h e was first taken to Annas for questioning and then was sent to Caia­ phas for trial. ( Joh 18: 1 3 ) The name of Annas heads the list of the foremost opponents of the apostles of Jesus Christ.-Ac 4 : 6 .

a tinkling sound," or "on their feet they shake

The wealthy and powerful house o f Annas was

bangles . " Through Isaiah, Jehovah warned them that he would take away their ornamental articles

of the tribe of Levi, and the sale of sacrifices within the temple grounds was one of their chief

I

113 sources of income-reason enough why they sought to kill Jesus, who twice cleansed the tem­ ple, which they had made "a cave of robbers." (Joh 2 : 13- 16 ; Mt 2 1 : 12, 13 ; Mr 11 : 15-17; Lu 19 :45, 46 ) An additional reason for Annas' hatred of Jesus and his apostles was likely Jesus' teaching of the resurrection, the raising of Lazarus in living proof, and the preaching and teaching of the same doc­ trine by the apostles, for if Annas was indeed a Sadducee, he did not believe in the resurrection. -Ac 23:8; compare 5 : 17.

ANOINTED, ANOINTING. The Bible often uses the Hebrew sukh and the Greek a·lei'pho for the commonplace greasing, or rubbing on of oil. (Da 10: 3 ; Ru 3 : 3 ; Joh 11 : 2 ) But for a special anointing with oil, it generally uses the Hebrew word ma·shacN, from which the word ma·shi'ach ( Messiah) comes, and the Greek word khri'o, from which comes khri-stos' ( Christ ). ( Ex 30: 30; Le 4 : 5 , ftn; Lu 4: 18; A c 4 : 2 6 ) This distinction i s main­ tained quite consistently both in the Hebrew and in the Greek. Some versions of the Bible do not maintain this fine distinction but translate all such words by the one term "anoint. " Rubbing o r Greasing With Oil. I n the lands of the Middle East it was a common practice to rub oil on the body, and among other things, this helped to protect the exposed portions from the intense rays of the sun. The oil also helped to keep the skin supple. Olive oil was generally used, and often perfume was added to it. The customary practice was to apply the oil after bathing. ( Ru 3 : 3 ; 2Sa 1 2 : 20) Esther underwent a course of massage treatment for six months with oil of myrrh and for six months with oil of balsam before being presented to King Ahasuerus. (Es 2: 1 2 ) Oil was also rubbed on the body in preparing a person for burial.-Mr 14: 8 ; Lu 23: 56. When Jesus sent the 12 apostles out by twos, they greased with oil many whom they healed. The healing of the ailment was due to, not the oil itself, but the miraculous operation of God's holy spirit. Oil, which did have some healing and re­ freshing properties, was symbolic of the healing and refreshing experienced.-Mr 6: 13; Lu 9: 1 ; compare Lu 10: 34. Greasing the head with oil was a sign of favor. (Ps 2 3 : 5 ) The headmen of Ephraim took favorable action toward the captured Judean soldiers by greasing them and returning them to Jericho, as advised by the prophet Oded. ( 2Ch 28: 1 5 ) Jehovah spoke of bringing about a lack of oil for rubbing as a sign of his displeasure. ( De 28:40 ) To refrain from rubbing one's body with oil was regarded as a sign of mourning. ( 2Sa 14: 2 ; Da 10:2, 3 ) To

ANOINTED, ANOINTING

grease the head of a guest with oil was regarded as an act of hospitality and courtesy, as is indi­ cated by Jesus' words regarding a woman who greased his feet with perfumed oil. -Lu 7 : 38, 46. Jesus told his disciples to grease their heads and wash their faces when fasting in order to appear normal, not making a show of sanctimoniousness and self-denial as the hypocritical Jewish religious leaders did to impress others.-Mt 6 : 16, 17. James speaks of a spiritual 'greasing with oil' in the name of Jehovah for spiritually sick ones as the proper procedure for one needing spiritual help. That he refers to spiritual sickness is indicat­ ed by his statements : "Let him call the older men of the congregation," not doctors, and, "if he has committed sins, it will be forgiven him. " (Jas 5: 13- 16 ) Jesus makes a spiritual application of the practice when he tells the Laodicean congregation to "buy from me . . . eyesalve to rub in your eyes that you may see. "-Re 3 : 18. Anointing. When a person was anointed with oil, the oil was put on his head and allowed to run down on his beard and onto the collar of his garments. (Ps 133 : 2 ) During the times of Biblical history, both the Hebrews and some of the non­ Hebrews ceremonially anointed rulers. This con­ stituted the confirmation of their official appoint­ ment to office. ( Jg 9 : 8, 1 5 ; 1Sa 9: 16 ; 2Sa 19 : 10) Samuel anointed Saul as king after God had desig­ nated Saul as his choice. ( 1Sa 10: 1 ) David was anointed as king on three different occasions: once by Samuel, later by the men of Judah, and finally by all the tribes. ( l Sa 16: 13 ; 2Sa 2 :4 ; 5 : 3 ) Aaron was anointed after his appointment to the office of high priest. ( Le 8: 12) Afterward, Aaron and his sons had some of the anointing oil along with the blood of the sacrifices spattered upon their gar­ ments, but Aaron was the only one who had the oil poured over his head.-Le 8 : 30. Things dedicated as sacred were also anointed. Jacob took the stone on which he rested his head when he had an inspired dream, set it up as a pillar, and anointed it, thus marking that place as sacred ; and he called the place Bethel, meaning "House of God." ( Ge 28: 18, 19 ) A short time later Jehovah acknowledged that this stone had been anointed. ( Ge 31 : 13 ) In the wilderness of Sinai, at Jehovah's command, Moses anointed the taberna­ cle and its furnishings, indicating that they were dedicated, holy things.-Ex 30: 26-28. There are instances in which a person was re­ garded as being anointed because of being ap­ pointed by God, even though no oil was put on his head. This principle was demonstrated when Je­ hovah told Elijah to anoint Hazael as king over

1 14

ANOINTED ONE Syria, Jehu as king over Israel, and Elisha as prophet in place of himself. ( 1Ki 19 : 15, 16) The Scriptural record goes on to show that one of the sons of the prophets associated with Elisha did anoint Jehu with literal oil, to be king over Israel. ( 2Ki 9: 1-6 ) But there is no record that anyone anointed with oil either Hazael or Elisha. Moses was called a Christ, or Anointed One, although not anointed with oil, because Moses was appointed by Jehovah to be his prophet and representatve, the leader and deliverer of Israel. ( Heb 1 1 : 24-26) Another case in point is the Persian king Cyrus, whom Isaiah had foretold that Jehovah would use as His anointed. ( Isa 45 : 1 ) Cyrus was not actually anointed with oil by one of Jehovah's representa­ tives, but because he was appointed by Jehovah to do a certain work, he could be said to be anointed. In the Law Jehovah gave to Moses, he pre­ scribed a formula for the anointing oil. It was of a special composition of the choicest ingredients -myrrh, sweet cinnamon, sweet calamus, cassia, and olive oil. ( Ex 30: 22-25 ) It was a capital offense for anyone to compound this mixture and to use it for any common or unauthorized purpose. ( Ex 30: 31 -33 ) This figuratively demonstrated the im­ portance and sacredness of an appointment to office that had been confirmed by anointing with sacred oil. Fulfilling many prophecies in the Hebrew Scrip­ tures, Jesus of Nazareth proved to be the Anointed One of Jehovah and could properly be called Mes­ siah, or Christ, which titles convey that thought. ( Mt 1 : 16; Heb 1 : 8, 9 ) Instead of being anointed with literal oil, he was anointed with Jehovah's spirit. ( Mt 3 : 16 ) This was Jehovah's appointment of him as King, Prophet, and High Priest, and so he was referred to as Jehovah's Anointed. ( Ps 2 : 2 ; Ac 3 : 20-26; 4 : 26, 27; Heb 5 : 5, 6) In his hometown of Nazareth, Jesus acknowledged this anointing when he applied to himself the prophecy of Isaiah 61 : 1 , where the phrase appears: "Jehovah has anointed me. " (Lu 4: 18) Jesus Christ is the only one in the Scriptures who holds an anointing to all three offices : prophet, high priest, and king. Jesus was anointed with "the oil of exultation more than [ his] partners" ( the other kings of the line of Da­ vid ). This was by reason of his receiving the anointing directly from Jehovah himself, not with oil but with holy spirit, not to an earthly kingship but to a heavenly one combined with the office of heavenly High Priest.-Heb 1 :9 ; Ps 45 :7. Like Jesus, his footstep followers who have been spirit begotten and anointed with holy spirit can be spoken of as anointed ones. ( 2Co 1 : 21 ) Just as Aaron was directly anointed as head of the priest-

hood, but his sons did not have the oil poured on their heads individually, so Jesus was anointed directly by Jehovah, and his congregation of spir­ itual brothers receive their anointing as a body of people through Jesus Christ. ( Ac 2 : 1 -4, 32, 3 3 ) They have thereby received a n appointment from God to be kings and priests with Jesus Christ in the heavens. ( 2Co 5 : 5 ; Eph 1 : 13, 14; IPe 1 : 3, 4; Re 20: 6 ) The apostle John indicated that the anoint­ ing by holy spirit that Christians receive teach­ es them. ( lJo 2 : 27) It commissions and qualifies them for the Christian ministry of the new cove­ nant.-2Co 3 : 5 , 6. Jehovah has great love and concern for his anointed ones and watches over them carefully. ( 1Ch 16 : 2 2; Ps 2 : 2 , 5; 20: 6 ; 105 : 1 5 ; Lu 18 : 7 ) David recognized that God was the one who chose and appointed His anointed ones and that it was God who would judge them. To raise one's hand to do harm to Jehovah's anointed ones or any whom he appoints would bring Jehovah's displeasure.-lSa 24: 6 ; 26 : 11 , 2 3 ; see CHRIST; INSTALLATION ; KING ( Divinely appointed representatives ) ; MESSIAH.

ANOINTED ONE.

See CHRIST.

ANT [ Heb., nema·Jahl A small but extremely numerous and widespread insect, living in colo­ nies, and noted in the Bible for its industriousness and instinctive wisdom. ( Pr 6:6-8; 30: 24, 25 ) It is estimated that there are over 10,000 varieties of ants, these insects being found in all parts of the earth with the exception of the polar regions. U A People. " The ants are called "a people" [ Heb., 'am] in Proverbs 30: 25, even as Joel re­ ferred to the locusts as "a nation" ( Joe 1 : 6 ), and this expression is very suitable for these small creatures. While some ant colonies may contain only a few dozen ants, others have a huge popula­ tion running into the hundreds of thousands. Al­ though generally of moderate size, the nest or tunneled area may grow until it is as much as an acre in size. Within each colony there are three basic castes: the queen or queens, the males, and the workers (sexually undeveloped females ). Yet, as the proverb states, the ant "has no commander, officer or ruler. " ( Pr 6 : 7 ) The queen is not such in a governmental sense and more fittingly can be called the mother ant, for her essential function is that of egg laying. Whereas a queen ant may live as much as 15 years, the males live only long enough to mate and then die. The worker ants, whose life span may reach six years, have various duties to perform, such as searching for and gath­ ering in food for the colony, feeding the queen, acting as nurses for the larvae, cleaning the nest,

115

digging new chambers a s expansion i s needed, and defending the nest. Worker ants may be of different sizes and proportions, even within the same colony, in some cases the larger ones acting as soldiers in the event of invasion of the nest. Still, despite the fairly precise division of work ( which in some colonies is arranged according to the age of the workers and in others according to size) and the relatively complex social organiza­ tion existent, there is no sign of any superior officer, or taskmaster. 'Instinctive Wisdom: The 'wisdom' of the ants is not the product of intelligent reasoning but results from the instincts with which they are endowed by their Creator. The Bible makes refer­ ence to the ant as 'preparing its food in the sum­ mer and gathering its supplies in the harvest. ' ( Pr 6 : 8 ) One of the most common varieties of ants found in Palestine, the harvester, or agricultural, ant ( Messor semirufus), stores up a large supply of grain in the spring and summer and makes use of it in seasons, including winter, when the obtaining of food becomes difficult. This ant is often found in the vicinity of threshing floors, where seeds and grain are plentiful. If rain causes dampness to reach the stored seeds, the harvester ant will thereafter carry the grains out into the sun for drying. It is even known to bite off the germ part of the seed so that it will not germinate while stored. Colonies of harvester ants are made con­ spicuous by well-worn paths as well as by seed husks that are left outside the entrance. Exemplary Characteristics. Thus, a brief in­ vestigation of the ant gives force to the exhorta­ tion: "Go to the ant, you lazy one; see its ways and become wise. " ( Pr 6 : 6 ) Not only is their instinctive preparing for the future notable but also their persistence and determination, often carrying or tenaciously dragging objects weighing twice their own weight or more, doing everything possible to fulfill their particular task, and refusing to turn back even though they may fall, slide, or roll down some steep precipice. Remarkably coopera­ tive, they keep their nests very clean and show concern for their fellow workers, at times assisting injured or exhausted ants back to the nest.

ANTELOPE

[ Heb. , di·shonl A cud-chewing animal and a splitter of the hoof, sole mention of which is made at Deuteronomy 14 :5, where it is included in the list of animals permitted to the Israelites for food. There is uncertainty as to which animal is meant by the Hebrew word di­

shonto The addax antelope ( Addax nasomacuJa tus), still surviving in the desert regions of North Afri-

ANTICHRIST

ca, is often suggested as corresponding to the di·shon ' of the Hebrew Scriptures. This antelope measures about 1 m (40 in. ) high at the shoulder. Its spreading, cloven hooves equip it admirably for travel in the loose sands of the desert, where it can survive without water for extremely long periods. The widespread horns of this animal are twisted like a screw, making from one and a half to nearly three turns, and measuring about 1 m ( 40 in. ) along the curve. With the exception of the belly, tail, hindquarters, and facial markings, which al­ ways remain white, the color of the addax ante­ lope becomes darker in winter, changing from a sandy color to brownish. Another possibility is the Arabian oryx ( Oryx gazeJJa Jeucoryx), also a des­ ert antelope.

ANTHOTHIJAH

(An·tho·thi'jah). A son of Shashak of the tribe of Benjamin. - 1 Ch 8 : 24, 25.

ANTICHRIST .

This word means "against ( or instead of) Christ. " It occurs a total of five times, singular and plural, all of them in two of John's epistles. The subject was not new among the Christians when John wrote his letters (c. 98 c.E. ). First John 2: 18 states: "Young children, it is the last hour, and, just as you have heard that antichrist [Gr., an·ti'khri·s tos] is coming, even now there have come to be many antichrists ; from which fact we gain the knowledge that it is the last hour. " John's statement shows that there are many individual antichrists, though all together they may form a composite person designated "the antichrist. " ( 2Jo 7) The use of the expression "hour" as refer­ ring to a period of time, either relatively brief or of undetermined length, is exemplified in other writ­ ings of John. (See Joh 2 : 4 ; 4: 21-23; 5 : 25 , 28 ; 7 : 30; 8:20; 12: 23, 27. ) He thus did not restrict the ap­ pearance, existence, and activity of such antichrist to some future time only but showed that the antichrist was then present and would continue on.-lJo 4 : 3. Identification. Although there has been much effort in the past to identify "the antichrist" with an individual, such as Pompey, Nero, or Mu­ hammad (this latter person being suggested by Pope Innocent III in 1213 C.E. ), or with a specific organization, as in the Protestant view of "the antichrist" as applying to the papacy, John's in­ spired statements show the term to be broad in its application, embracing all those who deny that "Jesus is the Christ," and who deny that Jesus is the Son of God who came "in the flesh. "-lJo 2 : 2 2 ; 4 : 2, 3 ; 2Jo 7, NE, NIV; compare Joh 8:42, 48, 49 ; 9 : 22.

ANTI-LEBANON

Denial of Jesus as the Christ and as the Son of God of necessity embraces the denial of any or all of the Scriptural teachings concerning him: his origin, his place in God's arrangement, his fulfill­ ment of the prophecies in the Hebrew Scriptures as the promised Messiah, his ministry and teach­ ings and prophecies, as well as any opposition to or efforts to replace him in his position as God's appointed High Priest and King. This is evident from other texts, which, while not using the term "antichrist," express essentially the same idea. Thus, Jesus stated : "He that is not on my side is against me, and he that does not gather with me scatters. " ( Lu 11 : 2 3 ) Second John 7 shows that such ones might act as deceivers, and hence the "antichrist" would include those who are "false Christs" and "false prophets, " as well as those who perform powerful works in Jesus' name and yet are classed by him as "workers of lawlessness." -Mt 24 : 24; 7: 15, 22, 23. In view of Jesus' rule that what is done to his true followers is done to him ( Mt 25:40, 45 ; Ac 9 : 5 ), the term must include those who persecute such ones, which means it would include the sym­ bolic "Babylon the Great" and those described as the "evil slave" in Jesus' parable. -Lu 21 : 1 2 ; Re 17:5, 6; Mt 24 :48-51. John specifically mentions apostates as among those of the antichrist by referring to those who "went out from us," abandoning the Christian con­ gregation. ( 1 Jo 2 : 18, 19 ) It therefore includes "the man of lawlessness" or "son of destruction" de­ scribed by Paul, as well as the "false teachers" Peter denounces for forming destructive sects and who "disown even the owner that bought them. " -2Th 2 : 3-5 ; 2Pe 2 : 1 ; see M AN O F LAWLESSNESS. Kingdoms, nations, and organizations are simi­ larly shown to be part of the antichrist in the symbolic description at Revelation 17:8-15 ; 19 : 19-21 . -Compare Ps 2 : 1 , 2. In all the above cases those composing the anti­ christ are shown to be headed for eventual de­ struction as a recompense for their opposing course.

ANTI-LEBANON

( Anti-Leb'a·non ). The east­ ernmost of the two ranges forming the mountain system of Lebanon. The Anti-Lebanon Range par­ allels the Lebanon Range for about 100 km ( 60 mi ), extending from the plateau of Bashan, E of Dan, up to the great Plain of Emesa, not far from the site of Riblah. Between the two ranges lies a long valley formed by the Orontes and Litani rivers and called Coele-Syria ( "Hollow Syria") or the Beqa'. -Jos 11 : 17. In the N the ridge is narrow and broken by a

116 series of prominent peaks. The central mass is broader, higher, and rougher, while the southern zone is cut by long torrent valleys that lead off to the E and S. To the E of the main ridge there is a series of descending plateaus that gradually drop to the level of the Plains of Damascus. The south­ ern zone includes Mount Hermon, which reaches 2, 814 m ( 9,232 ft ). The geology of these moun­ tains is similar to that of the Lebanon Range, and they are composed mainly of limestone, having gray cliffs and round gray summits. The Anti-Lebanon Range is evidently referred to in the Hebrew by the name "Amanah" at Song of Solomon 4 : 8, where it is mentioned in connec­ tion with Mount Hermon. While some have con­ sidered Amanah to be a particular mountain peak, it appears rather to refer either to the entire Anti-Lebanon Range or some part of it. The mountain ranges of uLibana" and "Ammanana" are mentioned jointly in inscriptions of Assyrian mon­ archs Tiglath-pileser III and Sennacherib. The Abanah River ( modern Barada) is also called "Amanah" at 2 Kings 5 : 12 in the Syriac Peshitta and the Aramaic Targums, and this river, the principal one of Damascus, has its source in the southern part of the Anti-Lebanon mountains. Hence the name may refer either to that part of the range or to the range as a whole. Since the major part of the Anti-Lebanon Range is not snowcapped, it has few rivers or streams. Little vegetation grows, but thin forests of dwarf oak and juniper trees are seen on various parts of the slopes. Few cedars remain today. The lower slopes still support vineyards, olive groves, and orchards, as they did in Bible times.

ANTIOCH

( An'ti·och).

1 . The city of Antioch in Syria was fOilllded by

Seleucus I (Nicator) shortly after he and Generals Cassander and Lysimachus won the decisive bat­ tle of Ipsus in Phrygia, Asia Minor, in 301 B.c.E. He selected the site because of its military advan­ tages and named it after his father Antiochus. At the location of what today is called Antakya in TUrkey, Antioch was founded on the S side of the navigable Orontes River at a bend some 32 km ( 20 mi ) from the Mediterranean Sea. It was so situated geographically that it could easily domi­ nate the trade of all NW Syria that traversed the routes between the Euphrates River and the Med­ iterranean Sea. It soon became a commercial cen­ ter, and its manufacture of lUXUry goods brought prosperity and wealth to the cosmopolitan city. As a seaport for Antioch, Seleucus also founded the coastal city of Seleucia, named after himself. Be­ fore he was assassinated in 281 B.c.E. , he trans-

117

ANTIPATRIS

ferred his seat of government from Babylon t o his

sionary tour and while he was in Antioch, the

new Syrian capital, Antioch, where the Seleu­

matter of circumcision for Gentiles arose in about

cid dynasty of kings continued in power until

49 c.E. , and the decree of the governing body at

64 B . C . E . , when Roman General Pompey made

Jerusalem was delivered by Paul and Barnabas to

Syria a Roman province. Not only was Antioch

the congregation at Antioch. ( Ac 1 5 : 13-3 5 ) Paul's

made the capital of the Roman province of Syria

second missionary journey, about 49-5 2 c . E . , like­

but it also became the third-largest city in the

wise began and ended at Antioch, and here also

empire, after Rome and Alexandria.

was where Paul corrected Peter's compromising

The physical structure of the city had been laid out according to the plan of Alexandria, with great colonnaded streets that intersected, lending im­ pressive beauty to the splendor of the surrounding buildings. It was called "The Queen of the East," "Antioch the Beautiful, " "The Third Metropolis of the Roman Empire," and was unique in possessing a regular system of street lighting. Despite this outward show of beauty and industriousness, it gained a reputation for being morally corrupt be­ cause of the defiling practice of orgiastic rites in the name of religion. Juvenal said that 'the Orontes River had flowed into the Tiber River flooding Rome with the superstition and immoral­ ity of the East . ' -Ju ven al

and Persius,

Satire III,

62-65.

Biblical

Connections

and

Later

History.

Josephus records that the Seleucids encouraged Jews to settle in Antioch and gave them full citi­ zenship rights, thus establishing a sizable Jewish population. The first mention of Antioch in the Bible is in connection with Nicolaus from Antioch, who became a Christian after becoming a prose­ lyte to the Jewish religion. ( Ac 6 : 5 ) Direct Chris­ tian activity began there when some of the dis­ ciples were scattered as far as Antioch by the tribulation that arose following Stephen's death. (Ac 11 : 19, 20 ) When the congregation at Jerusa­ lem heard that many Greek-speaking people were becoming believers, they dispatched Barnabas as

action of discriminating between Jews and Gen­ tiles.-Ga 2: 1 1 , 12.

2 . Antioch in Pisidia was also founded by Se­

leucus I ( Nicator) and named in honor of his fa­ ther, Antiochus. The ruins of the city are located near Yalvac in modern Turkey. ( PICTURE, Vol . 2, p. 748 ) It was situated on the border of Phrygia and Pisidia and so might be considered part of one or the other of these provinces at different times. Thus, Greek geographer Strabo refers to it as a

( Geography, 1 2 , VIII, Funk and Wagnalls New Standard Bible Dictionary ( 1936, p. 51 ) observes, "the ma­ city of Phrygia toward Pisidia 13, 14 ), but, as

jority of writers speak of it as Pisidian," even as did Luke. This identification served to distinguish it from Antioch in Syria. (See PISlDIA. ) Because of its location, Antioch in Pisidia became part of the trade route between Cilicia and Ephesus and con­ tained a mixed population including many Jews, who had established a synagogue there. It was a thoroughly Hellenized Greek-speaking city. Paul twice visited it with Barnabas on his first evange­ listic journey about 47-48 c.E. and preached in the synagogue,

finding much interest. ( Ac 13 :

14; 14: 19 -23 ) However, becoming jealous of the crowds that were attending, certain Jews stirred up some of the leading men and women of the city and threw Paul and Barnabas outside.-Ac 1 3:45, 50; 2Ti 3 : 1 1 .

far as Antioch, and when he observed the thriving

ANTIPAS

interest manifested there, he brought Paul in from

pater, meaning "Instead of [ His ] Father" ].

Tarsus to help. ( Ac 1 1 : 21 -26 ) They both dwelt there for a year teaching the people, and Paul thereafter used Antioch as a home base for his missionary tours. It was in Antioch that, by divine providence, the disciples were first called "Chris­ tians . " ( Ac 1 1 : 26 ) The generosity of the congrega­ tion was expressed when they sent a relief min­ istration ( Ac 1 1 : 29 ) by the hands of Paul and

(An'ti·pas) [shortened form o f Anti­

1. A martyr of the early Christian congregation

at Pergamum in the first century C.E.-Re 2: 12, 1 3 ; see PERGAMUM.

2. Herod Antipas, son of Herod the Great.-See

HEROD No. 2 .

ANTIPATRIS

( An·tip'a·tris ) [ Of (Belonging to )

Antipater]. A city rebuilt by Herod the Great in

Barnabas to the governing body in Jerusalem

9 B.c.E. and named after his father Antipater ( II ) .

about 46 c.E. This coincided with a great famine

It is identified with Ras el-'Ain (Tel Afeq ) i n a

occurring in the time of Claudius, as prophesied

well-watered and fertile section of the Plain of

by Agabus. (Ac 11 : 27, 28) After they returned to

Sharon. Antipatris is believed to have been the

Antioch, the holy spirit directed that Paul and Barnabas be set aside for special work, so they

location of the earlier city of Aphek, mentioned

were sent on Paul's first missionary tour, about 47-48 c.E. Before he started on his second mis-

at 1 Samuel 4: 1 . Excavations conducted there in 1946, 1961 , and 1974 appear to confirm this. -See APHEK No. 3.

ANTONIA, TOWER OF

It was to here that the main body of the Roman army escort conducted Paul, traveling some 50 km ( 30 mi ) down the mountains from Jerusalem by night. ( Ac 2 3 : 31 ) The place lay at the junction of the Roman military roads leading from Jerusalem and Lydda respectively to the Roman capital of Caesarea. From Antipatris the 70 cavalrymen took Paul the remaining distance of some 40 km (25 mi ) across the plain to Caesarea.

ANTONIA, TOWER OF. A fortified structure in Jerusalem, serving as soldiers' quarters. Ac­ cording to Josephus, it had apartments, baths, barracks, and courtyards. -PICTURE, Vol. 2, p. 535. The Tower of Antonia was situated at the NW corner of the temple court and evidently occupied the site where Nehemiah earlier had constructed the Castle (or fortress) mentioned at Nehemiah 2: 8. Herod the Great did extensive and costly repair work on it and increased its fortifications. Previously known as the Baris, Herod named it Antonia in honor of Mark Antony. As the Jewish high priest and ruler John Hyrcanus had done before him, Herod had the priestly garments kept there, apparently as a means of maintaining a certain check or control on the high priest. According to Josephus, the fortress was built on a rocky eminence 50 cubits (c. 22 m; 73 ft) high. Above the rock, it had stone walls 40 cubits ( c. 18 m; 58 ft) high and four comer towers, three of them 50 cubits (c. 22 m ; 73 ft) high and the other, at the southeast corner overlooking the whole temple area, 70 cubits ( c. 31 m; 102 ft ) high. ( The Jewish War, V, 238-247 [v, 8 ] ) Prior to Her­ od's time the fortress served primarily against incursions from the N, but thereafter it mainly served as a point of control over the Jews and a means of policing the activities in the temple area, to which there was direct access from the fortress. The square layout of the fortress would indicate that it had a central court. Some believe that it was in such a central court within this tower that Jesus appeared before Pilate for judgment. ( Joh 19: 13) They suggest that a stone pavement found in this area was the one referred to as "Gabbatha. " Others, however, believe that Jesus' judgment by Pilate took place before Herod's palace.-See STONE PAVEMENT. A more certain reference to the Tower of Anto­ nia is that recorded in the account at Acts 21 : 30-40 and 2 2 : 24. Paul appears to have deliv­ ered his defense and witness to a religious mob from the steps of the fortress and thereafter was taken into the soldiers' quarters for examining. Probably Paul was returned to this place after his

118 stormy session with the Sanhedrin and was here when his nephew came to warn him of the con­ spiracy against his life.-Ac 23: 10, 16. The Tower of Antonia came to final ruin when it was destroyed along with the temple and city by Roman General Titus in 70 C.E.

ANUB

( A/nub ). A descendaQt of Judah and son of Koz.- 1 Ch 4: 1 , 8.

ANXIETY.

A number of Hebrew words con­ vey the sense of anxiety or worry. One of these ( tsa·rar� means to be confined in a physical sense and is thus rendered 'wrap up,' 'shut up,' and 'be cramped. ' ( Ex 1 2 : 34; Pr 26:8; Isa 49 : 19 ) In a figurative sense it means "grow anxious; be in sore straits." ( Ge 32:7; 1Sa 28: 15 ) Another is da­ 'agh', rendered "become anxious; become fright­ ened"; it is related to de'aghah� meaning "anxious care. " ( 1Sa 9 : 5 ; Isa 57 : 1 1 ; Pr 1 2 : 25 ) The Greek noun me'ri·mna is rendered "anxiety," while the related verb me·ri·mna'o means "be anxious. "-Mt 13: 22; Lu 1 2 : 22. Anxiety can be damaging to one's well-being. It can lead to depression, robbing one of strength and the initiative to act. Says the inspired proverb : "Anxious care in the heart of a man is what will cause it to bow down. " (Pr 1 2 : 25 ) There can be serious physical manifestations from worry. Ob­ serves the book How to Master Your Nerves: "Doc­ tors know how anxiety can affect the body's func­ tions. It can raise ( or lower) blood pressure ; it can elevate the white blood cell count; it can suddenly affect the blood sugar by the action of adrenalin on the liver. It can even change your electrocar­ diogram. Dr. Charles Mayo said: 'Worry affects the circulation, the heart, the glands, the whole ner­ vous system.f I'-By Drs. P. Steincrohn and D. La­ Fia, 1970, p. 14. Far more serious is the spiritual harm to which undue anxiety may lead. Jesus Christ indicated that appreciation for "the word of God" can be completely choked out by worry over the prob­ lems that are often part of life in the present system of things. Just as thorns can stop seedlings from reaching maturity and bearing fruit, so such anxiety can prevent spiritual development and the bearing of fruitage to God's praise. ( Mt 1 3 : 2 2 ; M r 4: 18, 19; Lu 8:7, 1 1 , 14 ) Because of having permitted these worries to dominate their lives, to the exclusion of spiritual interests, many will find themselves in a disapproved state before the Son of God upon his return in glory, to their everlast­ ing loss.-Lu 21 : 34-36. Proper Anxieties or Concerns. It is right to be anxious about doing what is pleasing to Jeho-

119 vah God in order not to miss out on the blessings to be enjoyed by his devoted servants. One guilty of serious wrongdoing should feel as did the psalmist: "I began to be anxious over my sin." (Ps 38: 18) A proper concern over sin leads to confes­ sion, repentance, and turning around from the wrong course, restoring a good relationship with the Most High. All Christians should be anxious, or should truly care, about the spiritual, physical, and material welfare of fellow believers. ( l Co 12:25-27 ) This kind of concern is reflected in the apostle John's letter to Gaius: "Beloved one, I pray that in all things you may be prospering and having good health, just as your soul is prospering. " ( 3Jo 2) The apostle Paul spoke of "the anxiety for all the con­ gregations. " ( 2Co 1 1 : 28 ) He was deeply concerned that all remain faithful disciples of the Son of God to the end. The Scriptures refer to being "anxious for the things of the Lord, " that is, concerned for every­ thing that will promote the interests of the Son of God. Free from the responsibilities and cares for a mate and children, single Christians are in a bet­ ter position than are married people to minimize concern over "the things of the world" and so give greater attention to "the things of the Lord."-lCo 7: 32-35 . The apostle Paul wrote that Christian husbands and wives would be "anxious for the things of the world," having distractions not shared by single Christians. In the case of an unmarried person, what may be ample for personal and home care and life's necessities-food, clothing, shel­ ter-may fall far short of what is needed for a family. Because of the intimate relationship of husband and wife, both are rightly anxious or concerned about pleasing each other in providing that which will contribute to the physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual welfare of the entire fam­ ily. Even without having to contend with sickness, emergencies, limitations, or handicaps, married couples with children are required to devote much more time to "things of the world, " that is, to nonspiritual activities related to human life, than would usually be true of single Christians. Still, mundane concerns should not be permitted to take on too much importance. Jesus Christ made this clear to Lazarus' sister Martha. Anxious about the entertainment of her guest, she could not see how it was possible to take time to listen to Jesus. Mary, on the other hand, was able to choose "the good portion," the receiving of spiritu­ al nourishment from God's Son.-Lu 10: 38-42. Avoiding Undue Anxiety. Implicit trust in Jehovah's loving concern for the welfare of his

-

-- ---- -

- - -- - - -

- -- -------

APHEK

servants can help one to avoid giving in to need­ less worry. (Jer 17:7, 8) Jesus Christ made the same observation in his Sermon on the Mount. He concluded his counsel regarding anxiety with the words: "Never be anxious about the next day, for the next day will have its own anxieties. Sufficient for each day is its own badness. " ( Mt 6: 25-34) For a Christian, there are enough problems each day without one's adding to them by anxiety over what might happen the next day and may, in fact, never take place. Even if a Christian is brought before interrogat­ ing authorities in times of persecution, his trust in God's help can liberate him from anxiety. By means of His spirit, Jehovah will sustain the Christian in this trialsome situation and make it possible for him to bear witness in a fine way. -Mt 10: 18-20 ; Lu 1 2 : 11 , 12. Whenever a Christian is assailed by anything that could make him anxious, filling him with uneasiness and apprehension, he should turn to his heavenly Father in prayer. Thus he can 'throw his anxiety on Jehovah,' confident that he will be heard by the One who cares for him. ( lPe 5 : 7 ) The result will be an inner calm, the peace of God, that will guard the heart and the mental powers. Deep within himself, in his heart, the Christian will be freed from uneasiness, foreboding, and alarm, and the mind will not be unsettled by the distractions and perplexities reSUlting from anxiety.-Php 4:6, 7.

APE [Heb., qohph ]. The apes imported by King Solomon may have been a species of long-tailed monkeys referred to by ancient writers as being native to Ethiopia. ( lKi 10: 22; 2Ch 9 : 21 ) The fact that the Hebrew word qohph may be related to the Sanskrit word kapi and that peacocks are considered to be native to SE Asia has given rise to the conclusion that the apes were brought by Solomon's fleet from India or Ceylon. However, the imported items need not necessarily have come directly from the country of origin nor from the same land, in view of the indications that commercial intercourse existed between India and Africa even before Solomon'S time.-See PEACOCK ; TARSHlSH No. 4. APELLES (Apel'les) [from Lat., appelJo, "call"]. A Christian in the congregation at Rome to whom Paul sent greetings as "the approved one in Christ."-Ro 16: 10; compare 2Co 10: 1 8 ; 2Ti 2: 15. APHEK (A'phek) [Streambed ]. 1 . A town evidently N of Sidon mentioned to Joshua by Jehovah as among the places yet to be conquered. (Jos 13:4) It is presently identified

APHEKAH

with Afaka (modern Afqa ) about 39 km ( 24 mi ) ENE of Beirut. It lies at the source of the Nahr Ibrahim, anciently known as the river Adonis, which flows down to Byblos on the Mediterranean Coast. 2 . A town within the territory of Asher but which the tribe was unsuccessful in possessing. (Jos 19 : 24, 30 ) It is called Aphik at Judges 1 : 3 1 . It has been identified with Tell Kurdaneh ( Tel Afeq ), about 8 km (5 mi ) SSE of Acco. 3 . A city that, on the basis of the cities men­ tioned with it, was evidently in the Plain of Shar­ on. Its king was among those slain by Joshua. (Jos 12: 18) Centuries later, but prior to Saul's kingship, the Philistines encamped here before their victory over Israel, drawn up at nearby Ebenezer. ( ISa 4: 1 ) Its location is considered to be at Ras el-'Ain ( Tel Afeq; different from No. 2 above) at the source of the Yarkon River. Aphek is mentioned in Egyptian and Assyrian texts. It is believed that the town of Antipatris, mentioned at Acts 2 3 : 3 1 , was built a t the site o f ancient Aphek. Josephus mentions "a tower called Apheku" in connection with Antipatris. ( The Jewish War, II, 513 [xix, 1 ] ) Shiloh, from which the Israelites brought the ark of the covenant, is about 35 km ( 22 mi ) to the E. 4. A town apparently located in the Plain of Jezreel between the towns of Shunem and Jezreel. In the battle between the Philistines and the Isra­ elites that resulted in King Saul's death, the origi­ nal position of the Philistines was at Shunem, while the Israelites took a position on Mount Gil­ boa. ( lSa 28:4) The account thereafter indicates that the Philistines advanced to Aphek while Isra­ el descended to the spring at Jezreel. At Aphek the axis lords of the Philistines now reviewed their marshaled forces and discovered David and his men accompanying Achish in the rear. David's forces were ordered to leave on the following morning, and then the Philistines advanced to the battle site at Jezreel. ( 1Sa 29: 1 - 1 1 ) From there they pushed the defeated Israelites back up into Mount Gilboa, where the slaughter was completed and Saul and his three sons died.- lSa 31 : 1 -8.

Some scholars suggest that the events leading up to this battle are not written in chronological order and, therefore, identify this Aphek with the one in the Plain of Sharon. (See APHEK No. 3. ) Yohanan Aharoni favors this view, stating: "The narrative of this war has been truncated to some degree by the insertion of the story about David. But one can still follow its general line. The Philis­ tine rulers assembled their forces at Aphek at the sources of the Yarkon ( 1 Sam. 29. 1 ) preparatory to

120

marching on Jezreel ( vs. 11 ). Saul's troops 'were encamped by the fountain which is in Jezreel' (vs. 1 ) ; on the eve of the battle they ranged themselves on Mount Gilboa. The Philistines made camp across from them at Shunem ( 1 Sam. 28.4). The conflict ended in Philistine victory, while Saul and his three sons fell during the retreat at Gil­ boa."- The Land of the Bible, translated and edit­ ed by A. Rainey, 1979, pp. 290, 291 . 5 . A city mentioned at 1 Kings 20: 26 as the site of the defeat of the Syrian Ben-hadad II. The retreating Syrians pulled back to the city, only to have its wall fall upon 27,000 of them. ( I Ki 20:29, 30) It likewise seems to be the place prophetically indicated to King Jehoash by the dying prophet Elisha as the point where the Syrians would suf­ fer future defeats at the hands of Israelites. ( 2Ki 13: 17- 19, 25 ) Some scholars would place the Aphek mentioned in these texts about 5 km (3 mi ) E of the Sea of Galilee, where the modern village of Afiq or Fiq is found. However, so far no remains older than the fourth century B.c.E. have been found at the site. But at nearby 'En Gev on the shore of the Sea of Galilee remains of a large fortified city of the tenth to eighth centuries B.c.E. have been discovered.

APHEKAH (Aphe'kah) [Streambed]. A city in the mountainous region of southern Judah, men­ tioned as in the neighborhood of Hebron. (Jos 15:48, 5 3 ) Some scholars propose identifying it with Khirbet el-Hadab, about 6 km ( 3 . 5 mi) SW of Hebron. There are two water sources nearby, and archaeological remains of the Israelite period have been found at the site. APHIAH (A·phi'ah ). A Benjamite and one of King Saul's ancestors.-lSa 9 : 1 , 2. APHIK.

See APHEK No. 2.

APHRAH ( Aph'rah) [probably, Dust]. A place mentioned by Micah ( 1 : 10 ) apparently in the She­ phelah or the Plains of Philistia, according to the other towns mentioned in the context. Micah evi­ dently makes a play on words in saying: "In the house of Aphrah [Heb. , 'Aph-rahl wallow in the very dust [ Heb. , 'apharT " APOCRYPHA (Apoc'ry·pha) . The Greek word apo'kryphos is used in its original sense in three Bible texts as referring to things "carefully con­ cealed. " ( Mr 4 : 2 2 ; Lu 8 : 17; Col 2 : 3 ) As applied to writings, it originally referred to those not read publicly, hence "concealed" from others. Later, however, the word took on the meaning of spu­ rious or uncanonical, and today is used most com­ monly to refer to the additional writings declared

I

121

APOCRYPHA

part of the Bible canon by the Roman Catholic

lation by the translating body. At best, then, they

Church at the Council of Trent ( 1546). Catholic

could rate only as accretions to that work.

writers refer to these books as

deuterocanonical,

meaning "of the second (or later) canon," as distin­ guished from protocanonical.

Additionally, while the Greek-speaking Jews of Alexandria eventually inserted such Apocryphal writings into the Greek

Septuagin t and apparently

These additional writings are Tobit, Judith, Wis­ dom ( of Solomon ), Ecclesiasticus (not Ecclesiastes ), Baruch, 1 and 2 Maccabees, supplements to Es­

viewed them as part of an enlarged canon of sacred writings, the statement by Josephus quot­ ed earlier shows that they were never brought

ther, and three additions to Daniel: The Song of

into the Jerusalem or Palestinian canon and were,

the Three Holy Children, Susanna and the Elders, and The Destruction of Bel and the Dragon. The

at the most, viewed as only secondary writings and not of divine origin. Thus, the Jewish Council of Jamnia ( about 90 c.E. ) specifically excluded all

exact time of their being written is uncertain, but the evidence points to a time no earlier than the second or third century B.C.E.

Evidence

Against

Canonicity.

While

in

some cases they have certain historical value, any claim for canonicity on the part of these writ­ ings is without any solid foundation. The evi­ dence points to a closing of the Hebrew canon following the writing of the books of Ezra, Nehe­ miah, and Malachi in the fifth century B. c.E. The Apocryphal writings were never included in the

such writings from the Hebrew canon. The need for giving due consideration to the Jewish stand in this matter is clearly stated by the apostle Paul at Romans 3: 1, 2.

Additional ancient testimony. One of the chief external evidences against the canonicity of the Apocrypha is the fact that none of the Chris­ tian Bible writers quoted from these books. While this of itself is not conclusive, inasmuch as their writings are also lacking in quotations from a few

Jewish canon of inspired Scriptures and do not

books recognized as canonical, such as Esther,

form part of it today.

Ecclesiastes, and The Song of Solomon, yet the fact

The first-century

Jewish historian Josephus

shows the recognition given only to those few books ( of the Hebrew canon ) viewed as sacred, stating: "We do not possess myriads of inconsis­

that not one of the writings of the Apocrypha is quoted even once is certainly significant. Not without weight also is the fact that leading

those which are justly accredited, are but two and

Bible scholars and "church fathers" of the first centuries of the Common Era, on the whole, gave the Apocrypha an inferior position. Origen, of the

twenty [the equivalent of the 39 books of the Hebrew Scriptures according to modern division],

early third century c.E. , as a result of careful investigation made such a distinction between

and contain the record of all time. " He thereafter clearly shows an awareness of the existence of

these writings and those of the true canon. Atha­ nasi us, Cyril of Jerusalem, Gregory of Nazianzus, and Amphilocius, all of the fourth century C . E . , prepared catalogs listing the sacred writings in

tent books, conflicting with each other. Our books,

Apocryphal books and their exclusion from the Hebrew canon by adding: "From Artaxerxes to our own time the complete history has been writ­ ten, but has not been deemed worthy of equal credit with the earlier records, because of the failure of the exact succession of the prophets . "

-Against Apion, 1, 38, 41 ( 8 ). Inclusion in NSeptuagin t. " Arguments in fa­ vor of the canonicity of the writings generally revolve around the fact that these Apocryphal writings are to be found in many early copies of the Greek Septuagint translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, which translation was begun in Egypt about 280 B.c.E. However, since no original copies of the Septuagint are extant, it cannot be stated categorically that the Apocryphal books were originally included in that work. Many, perhaps most, of the Apocryphal writings were admittedly written after the commencement of the transla­ tion work of the Septuagin t and so were obviously not on the original list of books selected for trans-

accord with the Hebrew canon and either ignored these additional writings or placed them in a sec­ ondary class. Jerome, who is described as "the best Hebrew scholar" of the early church and who completed the Latin Vulgate in 405 c.E., took a definite stand against such Apocryphal books and was the first, in fact, to use the word "Apocrypha" explicitly in the sense of noncanonical as referring to these writings. Thus, in his prologue to the books of Samuel and Kings, Jerome lists the inspired books of the Hebrew Scriptures in harmony with the Hebrew canon ( in which the 39 books are grouped as 22) and then says : "Thus there are twenty-two books . . . This prologue of the Scriptures can serve as a fortified approach to all the books which we translate from the Hebrew into Latin; so that we may know tha t wha tever is beyond these must be put in the apocrypha. " In writing to a lady named

APOCRYPHA

Laeta on the education of her daughter, Jerome counseled: "Let her avoid all the apocryphal books, and if she ever wishes to read them, not for the truth of their doctrines but out of respect for their wondrous tales, let her realize that they are not really written by those to whom they are as­ cribed, that there are many faulty elements in them, and that it requires great skill to look for gold in mud. "-Select Letters, CVIL The trend toward Differing Ca tholic views. including these additional writings as canoni­ cal was primarily initiated by Augustine ( 354-430 c.£. ), although even he in later works acknowledged that there was a definite distinction between the books of the Hebrew canon and such "outside books. " However, the Catholic Church, following Augustine's lead, included such addi­ tional writings in the canon of sacred books deter­ mined by the Council of Carthage in 397 c.E. It was, however, not until as late as 1546 c.£. , at the Council of Trent, that the Roman Catholic Church definitely confirmed its acceptance of these addi­ tions into its catalog of Bible books, and this action was deemed necessary because, even within the church, opinion was still divided over these writ­ ings. John Wycliffe, the Roman Catholic priest and scholar who, with the subsequent help of Nicholas of Hereford, in the 14th century made the first translation of the Bible into English, did not in­ clude the Apocrypha in his work, and the preface to this translation declared such writings to be "without authority of belief. " Dominican Cardinal Cajetan, foremost Catholic theologian of his time ( 1469- 1534 c.£. ) and called by Clement VII the "lamp of the Church," also differentiated between the books of the true Hebrew canon and the Apoc­ ryphal works, appealing to the writings of Jerome as an authority. It is to be noted as well that the Council of Trent did not accept all the writings previously approved by the earlier Council of Carthage but dropped three of these: the Prayer of Manasses and 1 and 2 Esdras (not the 1 and 2 Esdras that, in the Catholic Douay Bible, correspond with Ezra and Nehemiah) . Thus, these three writings that had appeared for over 1 , 100 years in the approved Latin Vulga te were now excluded. In ternal evidence. The internal evidence of these Apocryphal writings weighs even more heavily against their canonicity than does the external. They are completely lacking in the pro­ phetic element. Their contents and teachings at times contradict those of the canonical books and are also contradictory within themselves. They are rife with historical and geographic inaccura-

122 cies and anachronisms. The writers in some cases are guilty of dishonesty in falsely representing their works as those of earlier inspired writers. They show themselves to be under pagan Greek influence, and at times resort to an extravagance of language and literary style wholly foreign to the inspired Scriptures. TWo of the writers imply that they were not inspired. (See the Prologue to Ecclesiasticus; 2 Maccabees 2 : 24-3 2; 15: 38-40, Dy. ) Thus, it may be said that the best evidence against the canonicity of the Apocrypha is the Apocrypha itself. A consideration of the individual books here follows: Tobit (Tobias ) . The account of a pious Jew of the tribe of Naphtali who is deported to Nineveh and who becomes blinded by having bird's dung fall in both of his eyes. He sends his son, Tobias, to Media to collect a debt, and Tobias is led by an angel, impersonating a human, to Ecbatana ( Rages ). En route he acquires the heart, liver, and gall of a fish. He encounters a widow who, though married seven times, remains a virgin because of each husband's having been killed on the mar­ riage night by Asmodeus, the evil spirit. Encour­ aged by the angel, Tobias marries the widowed virgin, and by burning the fish's heart and liver, he drives away the demon. Upon returning home he restores his father's sight by use of the gall of the fish.

The story was probably written originally in Aramaic and is estimated to be of about the third century B.c.£. It is obviously not inspired by God because of the superstition and error found in the narrative. Among the inaccuracies it contains is this: The account states that in his youth Tobit saw the revolt of the northern tribes, which oc­ curred in 997 B.C.E. after Solomon's death (Tobit 1 :4, 5, JE) , also that he was later deported to Nineveh with the tribe of Naphtali, in 740 B. c.£. (Tobias 1 : 1 1 - 13, Dy) That would mean that he lived more than 257 years. Yet Tobias 14: 1-3 ( Dy) says he was 102 years old at the time of his death. Judith. This is the account of a beautiful Jew­ ish widow of the city of "Bethulia. " . Nebuchadnez­ zar sends his officer Holofernes on a campaign to the W to destroy all worship except that of Nebu­ chadnezzar himself. The Jews are besieged in Bethulia, but Judith pretends to be a traitoress to the Jews' cause and is admitted to the camp of Holofernes, where she gives him a false report of the conditions in the city. At a feast, in which Holofernes becomes drunk, she is able to behead him with his own sword and then return to Bethu­ lia with his head. The following morning the ene-

123 my camp i s thrown into confusion, and the Jews gain complete victory. As the Catholic translation The Jerusalem Bible comments in its Introduction to the Books of Tobit, Judith and Esther: "The book of Judith in particu­ lar shows a bland indifference to history and ge­ ography. " Among the inconsistencies pointed out in that introduction is this: The events are stated as occurring during the reign of Nebuchadnezzar, who is called the king "who reigned over the Assyrians in the great city of Nineveh. " ( Judith 1 : 1, 7 [ 1 : 5 , 10, DyJ) The introduction and footnotes of this translation point out that Nebuchadnezzar was king of Babylonia and never reigned in Nine­ veh, since Nineveh had been destroyed earlier by Nebuchadnezzar's father Nabopolassar. Concerning the traveling itinerary of the army of Holofernes, this Introduction states that it is "a geographical impossibility. " The Illustra ted Bible Dictionary (Vol. 1 , p. 76 ) comments: "The story is frank fiction-otherwise its inexactitudes would be incredible. "-Edited by J. D. Douglas, 1980. The book is thought to have been written in Palestine during the Greek period toward the end of the second century or the start of the first century B.c.E. It is believed to have been original­ ly written in Hebrew. Additions to the Book of Esther. These form six additional passages. Preceding the first chapter in some ancient Greek and Latin texts ( but Es 11 : 2-12 : 6 in Dy) is the first portion, of 17 verses, presenting a dream of Mordecai and his exposing a conspiracy against the king. Following 3 : 13 ( but 13: 1 -7 in Dy) the second addition pre­ sents the text of the king's edict against the Jews. At the close of chapter 4 ( but 13 :8-14: 19 in Dy) prayers by Mordecai and Esther are related as the third addition. The fourth is made to follow 5 : 2 ( but 1 5 : 1 - 19 i n Dy) and recounts Esther's audience with the king. The fifth comes after 8: 12 (but 16: 1-24 in Dy) and consists of the king's edict allowing the Jews to defend themselves. At the close of the book ( but 10 :4- 1 1 : 1 in Dy) the dream presented in the Apocryphal introduction is inter­ preted.

The placement of these additions varies in dif­ ferent translations, some placing them all at the end of the book (as did Jerome in his transla­ tion) and others interspersing them throughout the canonical text. In the first of these Apocryphal sections Morde­ cai is presented as having been among the cap­ tives taken by Nebuchadnezzar, in 617 B.c.E. , and as being an important man in the king's court in

APOCRYPHA

the second year of Ahasuerus ( Gr. says Arta­ xerxes) over a century later. This statement that Mordecai occupied such an important position so early in the king's reign contradicts the canonical part of Esther. The Apocryphal additions are be­ lieved to be the work of an Egyptian Jew and to have been written during the second century B.c.E. Wtsdom ( of Solomon ) . This is a treatise ex­ tolling the benefits to those seeking divine wis­ dom. Wisdom is personified as a celestial woman, and Solomon'S prayer for wisdom is included in the text. The latter part reviews the history from Adam to the conquest of Canaan, drawing upon it for examples of blessings for wisdom and calami­ ties for lack of it. The folly of image worship is discussed.

Though not mentioning him directly by name, in certain texts the book presents Solomon as its author. ( Wisdom 9 : 7, 8, 1 2 ) But the book cites passages from Bible books written centuries after Solomon's death (c. 998 B.C.E. ) and does so from the Greek Septuagint, which began to be translat­ ed about 280 B.C.E. The writer is believed to have been a Jew in Alexandria, Egypt, who wrote about the middle of the first century B.c.E. The writer manifests a strong reliance on Greek philosophy. He employs Platonic terminology in advancing the doctrine of the immortality of the human soul. (Wisdom 2 : 2 3 ; 3 : 2 , 4) Other pagan concepts presented are the preexistence of human souls and the view of the body as an impediment or hindrance to the soul. ( 8 : 19, 20 ; 9 : 15 ) The presentation of the historical events from Adam to Moses is embellished with many fanciful details, often at variance with the canonical record. While some reference works endeavor to show certain correspondencies between passages from this Apocryphal writing and the later works of the Christian Greek Scriptures, the similarity is often slight and, even where somewhat stronger, would not indicate any drawing upon this Apocryphal work by the Christian writers but, rather, their drawing upon the canonical Hebrew Scriptures, which the Apocryphal writer also employed. Ecclesiasticus. This book, also called The Wisdom of Jesus, the Son of Sirach, has the dis­ tinction of being the longest of the Apocryphal books and the only one whose author is known, Jesus ben-Sirach of Jerusalem. The writer ex­ pounds upon the nature of wisdom and its appli­ cation for a successful life. Observance of the Law is strongly emphasized. Counsel on many areas of social conduct and daily life is given, including comments on table manners, dreams, and travel.

APOCRYPHA The concluding portion contains a review of important personages of Israel, ending with the high priest Simon II. Contradicting Paul's statement at Romans 5: 12-19, which places the responsibility for sin upon Adam, Ecclesiasticus says: "From the wom­ an ·came the beginning of sin, and by her we all die." ( 25 : 33, Dy) The writer also prefers "any wickedness, but the wickedness of a woman. " -25: 19, Dy. The book was originally written in Hebrew in the early part of the second century B.c.E. Quota­ tions from it are found in the Jewish Talmud.

124 of Joakim, a wealthy Jew in Babylon. While bath­ ing, Susanna is approached by two Jewish elders who urge her to commit adultery with them and, upon her refusal, frame a false charge against her. At the trial she is sentenced to die, but youthful Daniel adroitly exposes the two elders, and Susan­ na is cleared of the charge. The original language is uncertain. It is considered to have been written during the first century B.C.E. In the Greek

Septu­

agint

it was placed before the canonical book of Daniel, and in the Latin Vulgate it was placed after it. Some versions include it as a 13th chapter of Daniel.

Baruch ( Including the Epistle of Jeremias ).

The Destruction of Bel and the Dragon.

The first five chapters of the book are made to appear as though they were written by Jeremiah's friend and scribe, Baruch; the sixth chapter is presented as a letter written by Jeremiah ( Jere­ mias ) himself. The book relates the expressions of repentance and prayers for relief on the part of the exiled Jews in Babylon, exhortations to follow wisdom, encouragement to hope in the promise of deliverance, and the denunciation of Babylonish idolatry.

This is a third addition to Daniel, some versions placing it as a 14th chapter. In the account King

Baruch is represented as being in Babylon (Bar­ uch 1 : 1 , 2 ), whereas the Bible record shows he went to Egypt, as did Jeremiah, and there is no evidence that Baruch was ever in Babylon. (Jer 43: 5-7) Contrary to Jeremiah's prophecy that the desolation of Judah during the Babylonian exile would last 70 years (Jer 2 5 : 1 1 , 1 2 ; 29 : 10), Baruch 6 : 2 tells the Jews that they will be in Babylon for seven generations and then experience release. Jerome, in his preface to the book of Jeremiah, states: "I have not thought it worth while to trans­ late the book of Baruch. " The introduction to the book in The Jerusalem Bible ( p. 1128) suggests that sections of the composition may have been written as late as the second or first century B.c.E. ; hence by an author ( or authors ) other than Baruch. The original language was probably He­ brew.

The Song of the Three Holy Children. This addition to Daniel is made to follow Daniel 3 : 23. It consists of 67 verses presenting a prayer sup­ posedly uttered by Azariah within the fiery fur­ nace, followed by an account of an angel's putting out the fiery blaze, and finally a song sung by the three Hebrews inside the furnace. The song is quite similar to Psalm 148. Its references to the temple, priests, and cherubim, however, do not fit the time to which it alleges to conform. It may have been originally written in Hebrew and is considered to be of the first century B.c.E. This short story relates an incident in the life of the beautiful wife

Susanna and the Elders.

Cyrus requires of Daniel that he worship an idol of the god Bel. By sprinkling ashes on the floor of the temple and thus detecting footprints, Daniel proves that the food supposedly eaten by the idol is really consumed by the pagan priests and their families. The priests are killed, and Daniel smash­ es the idol. Daniel is asked by the king to worship a living dragon. Daniel destroys the dragon but is thrown into the lions' den by the enraged popu­ lace. During the seven days of his confinement, an angel picks up Habakkuk by his hair and carries him and a bowl of stew from Judea to Babylon to provide Daniel with food. Habakkuk is then re­ turned to Judea, Daniel is released from the den, and his opponents are thrown in and devoured. This addition is also considered to be from the first century B.c.E. These additions to Daniel are re­ ferred

to

in

The Illustrated Bible Dictionary

( Vol. 1 , p. 76 ) as "pious legendary embroidery. "

First Maccabees.

A historical account of the

Jewish struggle for independence during the sec­ ond century B.C. E . , from the beginning of Anti­ ochus Epiphanes' reign ( 175 B.C.E. ) to the death of Simon Maccabaeus (c. 134 B.c.E. ). It deals particu­ larly with the exploits of priest Mattathias and his sons, Judas, Jonathan, and Simon, in their battles with the Syrians. This is the most valuable of the Apocryphal works because of the historical information it sup­ plies for this period. However, as The Jewish En­ cyclopedia ( 1976, Vol. VIII, p. 243 ) comments, in it "history is written from the human standpoint. " Like the other Apocryphal works, it did not form part of the inspired Hebrew canon. It was evident­ ly written in Hebrew about the latter part of the second century B.C.E.

Second

Maccabees.

Though

placed

after

First Maccabees, this account relates to part of the same time period ( c. 180 B.C.E. to 160 B.C.E. ) but

125

APOLLOS

was not written b y the author o f First Maccabees .

basis in the Bible or are in contradiction to it. Thus

The writer presents the book as a summary of the

the so-called Gospel of Thomas and the Protevan­

previous works of a certain Jason of Cyrene. It

gelium of James are filled with fanciful accounts

describes the persecutions of the Jews under An­

of miracles supposedly wrought by Jesus in his

tiochus Epiphanes, the plundering of the temple,

childhood. But the whole effect of the picture they

and its subsequent rededication.

draw of him is to cause Jesus to appear as a

The account represents Jeremiah, at the de­ struction of Jerusalem, as carrying the tabernacle and the ark of the covenant to a cave in the mountain from which Moses viewed the land of Canaan. ( 2 Maccabees 2 : 1 - 16 ) The tabernacle had, of course, been replaced by the temple some 420 years previously. Various texts are employed in Catholic dogma as support for doctrines such as punishment af­ ter death ( 2 Maccabees 6 : 2 6 ), intercession by the saints ( 1 5 : 12- 16 ) , and the propriety of prayers for the dead ( 1 2 : 41-46,

Dy).

In its Introduction to the Books of Maccabees,

The Jerusalem Bible says concerning Second Mac­ cabees: "The style is that of hellenistic writers, though not of the best: at times it is turgid, fre­ quently pompous. " The writer of Second Macca­ bees makes no pretense of writing under divine inspiration and devotes part of the second chapter to justifying his choice of the particular method used in handling the subject material. ( 2 Macca­ bees 2 : 24-32,

JB)

He concludes his work by say­

ing: "Here, then, I will make an end of writing; if it has been done workmanly, and in historian's fashion, none better pleased than 1; if it is of little merit, I must be humoured none the less. " -2 Maccabees 1 5 : 38, 39, Kx. The book was evidently written in Greek some­ time between 134 B.e.E. and the fall of Jerusalem in 70 e.E.

Later Apocryphal Works.

Particularly from

the second century e.E. forward there has devel­ oped an immense body of writings making claim to divine inspiration and canonicity and pretend­ ing to relate to the Christian faith. Frequently referred to as the "Apocryphal New Testament, " these writings represent efforts a t imitating the Gospels, Acts, letters, and the revelations con­ tained in the canonical books of the Christian

capricious and petulant child endowed with im­ pressive powers. ( Compare the genuine account at Lu 2 : 5 1 , 52. ) The Apocryphal "Acts , " such as the "Acts of Paul" and the "Acts of Peter," lay heavy stress on complete abstinence from sexual rela­ tions and even depict the apostles as urging wom­ en to separate from their husbands, thus contra­ dicting Paul's authentic counsel at 1 Corinthians 7. Commenting on such post apostolic Apocryphal writings,

The In terpreter's Dictionary of the Bible

( Vol. 1 , p. 16 6 ) states: "Many of them are trivial, some are highly theatrical, some are disgusting, even loathsome. " ( Edited by G. A. Buttrick, 196 2 )

Funk and Wagnalls New Standard Bible Dictionary ( 1936, p. 56) comments : "They have been the fruitful source of sacred legends and ecclesiastical traditions. It is to these books that we must look for the origin of some of the dogmas of the Roman Catholic Church. " Just as the earlier Apocryphal writings were excluded from among the accepted pre-Christian Hebrew Scriptures, so also these later Apocryphal writings were not accepted as inspired nor includ­ ed as canonical in the earliest collections or cata­ logs of CANON.

the

Christian

APOLLONIA

Greek

Scriptures. -See

(Ap·oEo/ni·a ) [ Of ( Belonging to )

Apollo; Place of Apollo]. A city of Macedonia, named after the Greek sun-god Apollo, as were a number of other cities in the Mediterranean area. It was situated in the district of Mygdonia about 44 km ( 27 mi ) from Amphipolis and 56 km ( 35 mi ) from Thessalonica, or about one day's travel from each. It lay on the great Roman highway

Egna tia,

Via

S of Lake Bolbe, but it does not receive

prominence in history.

Paul

and

Silas

passed

through it on Paul's second missionary tour, most likely in the spring or early summer of the year

50 C.E.-Ac 17: 1 .

Greek Scriptures. A large number of these are

APOLLOS

known only through fragments extant or by quo­

of Apollonius ]. A Jew of Alexandria, Egypt, pos­

tations from them or allusions to them by other writers.

( Apol'los) [ Destroyer; abbreviation

sessed of notable eloquence in speaking and a sound knowledge of the Hebrew Scriptures. He

These writings manifest an attempt to provide

seems to have been witnessed to by disciples of

information that the inspired writings deliberately

John the Baptizer or else by Christian witnesses

omit, such as the activities and events relating to

prior to Pentecost, since he was "acquainted with

Jesus' life from his early childhood on up to the

only the baptism of John. " ( Ac 18: 24, 2 5 ) Yet he

time of his baptism, or an effort to manufacture support for doctrines or traditions that find no

was fired with conviction, and on arriving in Eph­ esus about 52 e.E. , he began witnessing in the

APOLLYON local synagogue. This brought him in contact with Aquila and Priscilla, who filled in some of the gaps in his understanding of Christian teaching. From Ephesus he went over to Achaia, supplied with a letter of introduction, and there he seems to have centered his activity in Corinth, where Paul had preceded him. His intensity and his powerful Scriptural confutations of the arguments of the unbelieving Jews proved of great aid to the broth­ ers there. He thus 'watered what Paul had plant­ ed. '-Ac 1 8 : 26-28; 19 : 1 ; l Co 3 : 6 . Unfortunately, b y the time Paul wrote his first letter to the Corinthians (c. 55 C.E. ) , factions had developed in the Corinth congregation, with some viewing the eloquent Apollos as their leader, while others favored Paul or Peter or held only to Christ. ( l Co 1 : 10- 1 2 ) Paul 's letter corrected their wrong thinking, showing the vital need for unity and the relative unimportance of individuals as only min­ isters serving under God and Christ. ( l Co 3 : 4-9, 21- 2 3 ; 4:6, 7) It appears that Apollos must then have been in or near Ephesus, where Paul evident­ ly wrote First Corinthians, for Paul tells of his urging Apollos to visit the Corinth congregation. ( l Co 16: 1 2 ) Apollos' reluctance to go may have been due to the improper attitudes existing in Corinth or simply due to his having a field of activity that he felt required his continued atten­ tion a while longer. At any rate, Paul's brief state­ ment shows that these two active missionaries had not allowed matters to produce a breach in their own unity. The final mention of Apollos is at Titus 3: 13, where Paul asks Titus, then in Crete, to supply Apollos' needs for a certain trip.

APOLLYON (Apol'lyon) [ Destroyer]. The Greek name used by the apostle John to translate the Hebrew "Abaddon" at Revelation 9: 1 1 . Apollyon means "Destroyer, " and is given as the name of "the angel of the abyss. " Though most reference works apply this name to some evil personage or force, the whole setting of the apocalyptic vision is to the contrary, as it consistently portrays angels being used by God to bring woes upon His ene­ mies.

126 other texts point to the glorified Christ Jesus as the one referred to by this title.-Compare Re 19 : 1 1 - 16 ; Lu 8 : 31 ; see ABADDON.

APOSTASY. This term in Greek ( aposta·si'a) comes from the verb aphi'ste·mi, literally meaning "stand away from. " The noun has the sense of "desertion, abandonment or rebellion. " ( Ac 21 : 2 1 , ftn ) I n classical Greek the noun was used t o refer to political defection, and the verb is evidently employed in this sense at Acts 5 : 37, concern­ ing Judas the Galilean who "drew off" (apelst� The Greek Sep­ 14 : 4 with refer­ ence to such a rebellion. However, in the Christian Greek Scriptures it is used primarily with regard

se, form of aphi'ste·mi) followers. tuagint uses the term at Genesis

to religious defection ; a withdrawal or abandon­ ment of the true cause, worship, and service of God, and hence an abandonment of what one has previously professed and a total desertion of prin­ ciples or faith. The religious leaders of Jerusalem charged Paul with such an apostasy against the Mosaic Law. It may properly be said that God's Adversary was the first apostate, as is indicated by the name Satan. He caused the first human pair to aposta­ tize. (Ge 3 : 1 - 1 5 ; Joh 8:44 ) Following the Flood, there was a rebellion against the words of the God of Noah. (Ge 11 : 1 -9 ) Job later found it necessary to defend himself against the charge of apostasy on the part of his three supposed comforters. ( Job 8: 13 ; 15 : 34; 20: 5 ) In his defense Job showed that God grants no audience to the apostate (Job 13: 16), and he also showed the hopeless state of one cut off in apostasy. ( Job 27:8; compare also Elihu's statement at 34 : 30 ; 36: 13. ) In these cases the

Hebrew noun cha·neph l is used, meaning "[one 1 alienated from God," that is, an apostate. The related verb cha·neph ' means "be inclined away from the right relation to God," or "pollute, lead to apostasy . " Lexicon in Veteris Testamenti Libros, by L. Koehler and W. Baumgartner, Leiden, 1958, p. 317. -

The use of the related verb apol'ly·mi illustrates this, as at James 4: 12, which says of God : "One there is that is lawgiver and judge, he who is able to save and to destroy. " ( Compare Mt 10: 28. ) The

Apostasy in Israel. The first two command­ ments of the Law condemned all apostasy. ( Ex 20 : 3 -6 ) And before Israel's entry into the Prom­ ised Land, they were warned against the grave danger of apostasy resulting from marriages with the people of the land. ( De 7 : 3 , 4) Even though a

unclean spirit cast out of a man by Jesus in a synagogue at Capernaum acknowledged Jesus as God's agent and said: "What have we to do with you, Jesus you Nazarene? Did you come to destroy us?" ( Mr 1 : 24; Lu 4 : 34) Jesus warned unrepentant opposers among his listeners of the danger of being destroyed. ( Lu 13 : 3-5 ; 20: 16 ) These and

person who was inciting others to apostasy was a close relative or a marriage mate, he was to be put to death for having "spoken of revolt against Jeho­ vah your God . " ( De 13 : 1 -15 ) The tribes of Reuben, Gad, and Manasseh were quick to exonerate them­ selves of a charge of apostasy that arose because of their construction of an altar. -Jos 2 2 : 21-29.

127

APOSTLE

Many o f the kings o f Israel a n d o f Judah fol­

ship, and those who did so were required to signi­

lowed an apostate course-for example, Saul ( 1 Sa

fy their apostasy by making an incense offering

1 5 : 11 ; 28:6, 7), Jeroboam ( 1 Ki 1 2 : 28-3 2 ), Ahab

before some pagan god or by openly blaspheming

( 1 Ki 16: 30-33 ) , Ahaziah ( 1 Ki 2 2 : 5 1 -53 ), Jehoram

the name of Christ.

( 2Ch 21 : 6- 1 5 ) , Ahaz ( 2Ch 28: 1 -4 ), and Amon ( 2Ch 3 3 : 22, 2 3 ) . In due time a nation of apostates de­ veloped because the people listened to apostate priests and prophets ( Jer 2 3 : 1 1 , 1 5 ) and other unprincipled men who, by smooth words and false sayings, led them into loose conduct, immorality, and desertion of Jehovah, "the source of living water. " (Isa 1 0 : 6 ; 3 2 : 6 , 7 ; Jer 3 : 1 ; 1 7 : 13 ) Accord­ ing to Isaiah 24:5, the very land became "polluted

[ cha'nephahl under its inhabitants, for they have bypassed the laws, changed the regulation, bro­ ken the indefinitely lasting covenant. " No mercy was to be granted them in the predicted destruc­ tion.-Isa 9 : 1 7 ; 3 3 : 1 1 - 14; Zep 1 : 4-6.

What characteristics iden tify apostates as distin ct from true Christians ?

It is evident that there is a distinction between a 'falling' due to weakness and the 'falling away' that constitutes apostasy. The latter

implies a

definite and willful withdrawal from the path of righteousness. ( 1 Jo 3 : 4-8; 5 : 16, 1 7 ) Whatever its apparent basis, whether intellectual, moral, or spiritual, it constitutes a rebellion against God and a rejection of his Word of truth.-2Th 2 : 3 , 4; see

MAN OF LAWLESSNESS. APOSTLE.

The Greek word

rived from the common verb

apo'sto·]os is de­ apo·stel'lo, meaning

simply "send forth ( or off) . " ( Mt 10: 5 ; Mr 11 : 3 ) Its basic sense is clearly illustrated in Jesus' state­ ment: "A slave is not greater than his master, nor is one that is sent forth

[ apo'sto·]os] greater than

the one that sent him." ( Joh 1 3 : 1 6 ) In this sense the word also applies to Christ Jesus as "the apos­ tle and high priest whom we confess . " ( Heb 3 : 1 ;

An apostasy among professed Christians was foretold by the apostle Paul at 2 Thessalonians 2 : 3 . He specifically mentioned certain apostates, such as Hymenaeus, Alexander, and Philetus. ( 1 Ti 1 : 19, 20 ; 2Ti 2: 16- 19 ) Among the varied causes of apos­ tasy set forth in apostolic warnings were: lack of faith ( Heb 3 : 1 2 ) , lack of endurance in the face of persecution ( Heb 10 : 3 2-39 ), abandonment of right

compare Mt 10:40; 1 5 : 24; Lu 4 : 18, 4 3 ; 9 : 48 ; 10: 16; Joh 3 : 17 ; 5 : 36, 38; 6 : 29, 57; 7 : 29; 8:42; 10 : 36 ; 11 :42 ; 1 7 : 3 , 8 , 1 8 , 21 - 2 5 ; 20 : 21 . ) Jesus was sent forth by God as his appointed and commissioned representative. The term is principally applied, however, to those disciples whom Jesus personally selected as a body of 12 appointed representatives. The

moral standards ( 2Pe 2 : 15-22 ), the heeding of the

names of the original 12 selected are given at

"counterfeit words" of false teachers and "mislead­

Matthew 10 : 2-4; Mark 3 : 16- 19, and Luke 6: 13-16.

ing inspired utterances" ( 2Pe 2 : 1 - 3 ; ITi 4: 1 - 3 ; 2Ti

Pr

One of the original 1 2 , Judas Iscariot, proved to be

1 1 : 9 ), and trying "to be de­

a traitor, thereby fulfilling earlier prophecies. ( Ps

clared righteous by means of law" ( Ga 5 : 2-4).

41 : 9 ; 109 : 8 ) The remaining 11 faithful apostles are again listed at Acts 1 : 13.

2 : 16- 19 ; compare

While still making profession of faith in God's Word, apostates may forsake his service by treat­

Some of the apostles had been disciples of John

ing lightly the preaching and teaching work that

the Baptizer before becoming Jesus' disciples. ( Joh

he assigned to followers of Jesus Christ. ( Lu 6 : 46 ;

1 : 3 5 -42 ) Eleven of them were evidently Galileans

Mt 24: 14; 28: 19, 20) They may also claim to serve God but reject his representatives, his visible or­ ganization, and then turn to 'beating' their former associates to hinder their work. ( Jude 8, 11 ; Nu 16:

( Ac 2 : 7 ) , Judas Iscariot being considered the sole Judean. They were from the working class ; four were definitely fishermen by trade; one had been a tax collector. ( Mt 4: 18-2 1 ; 9 : 9- 1 3 ) At least two of

19- 21 ; Mt 24:45-51 ) Apostates often seek to make others their followers. ( Ac 20: 30; 2Pe 2: 1 , 3 ) Such

them appear to have been cousins of Jesus ( James and John, the sons of Zebedee ) . They were men

ones willfully abandoning the Christian congrega­

who were viewed by the religious leaders as "un­

tion thereby become part of the "antichrist. " ( l Jo

lettered and ordinary ," indicating that their edu­

2: 18, 19 ) As with the apostate Israelites, destruc­

cation was elementary and not from the schools of

tion is likewise foretold for apostates from the

higher learning. A number of them, including Peter ( Cephas), were married men.-Ac 4: 1 3 ; 1 Co 9:5.

Christian congregation.-2Pe 2: 1 ; Heb 6 : 4- 8; see

ASSOCIATION. During the period of persecution that the early

Of the 1 2 , Peter, James, and John seem t o have

Christian congregation experienced at the hands of the Roman Empire, professed Christians were at times induced to deny their Christian disciple-

enjoyed the closest relationship with Jesus. They alone witnessed the resurrection of Jairus' daugh­ ter ( Mr 5 : 35-43 ) and the transfiguration of Jesus

APOSTLE ( Mt 17: 1 , 2 ), and they accompanied him farther into the garden of Gethsemane than the other apostles on the night of his arrest. ( Mr 14:32, 3 3 )

128 Activity in Christian Congregation.

The

outpouring of God's spirit upon them at Pentecost greatly strengthened the apostles. The first five

A special affinity appears t o have existed between Jesus and JoOO, and JoOO is accepted as being the one referred to as "the disciple whom Jesus used to love. "-Joh 21 : 20-24; 13 : 2 3.

chapters of the Acts of Apostles testify to the

The 12 were selected out of a larger group of disciples and were designated "apostles" by Jesus, "that they might continue with him and that he might send them out [ apo·stel'leil to preach and to have authority to

threats of death from their rulers. During those

Selection and Early Ministry.

expel the demons . " ( Mr 3 : 13- 1 5 ) Thereafter they did "continue with him" in very close association during the remainder of his earthly ministry, re­ ceiving extensive personal instruction and minis­ terial training. ( Mt 10: 1 -42; Lu 8: 1 ) Since they continued to be Jesus' pupils, they were still called "disciples ," particularly in accounts of events prior to Pentecost. ( Mt 11 : 1 ; 14 : 26 ; 20: 1 7 ; Joh 20: 2 ) Thereafter they are consistently called "apostles . " A t the time o f their appointment, Jesus gave them miraculous powers to heal, as well as to expel demons, and they used these powers to some extent during Jesus' ministry. ( Mr 3 : 14, 1 5 ; 6 : 1 3 ; M t 10: 1-8; Lu 9 : 6 ; compare M t 1 7 : 16. ) This activ­ ity, however, is shown to be always subordinate to their principal work of preaching. Though forming an inner circle of followers, their instruction and training included no mysterious rituals or ceremo­ nies.

great fearlessness of the apostles and their bold­ ness in declaring the good news and the resurrec­ tion of Jesus in spite of jailing, beatings, and early days after Pentecost, the dynamic leadership of the apostles, under the power of the holy spirit, resulted in amazing expansion in the Christian congregation. ( Ac 2 : 41 ; 4 : 4 ) Their ministry was at first concentrated in Jerusalem, then extended to Samaria, and in time, throughout the known world.-Ac 5 : 42 ; 6 : 7 ; 8 : 5- 1 7, 2 5 ; 1 : 8. Their primary function as apostles was to be witnesses as to Jesus' fulfillment of Jehovah God's purposes and prophecies, particularly of his resur­ rection and exaltation, and to do a disci piing work among all nations; and this commission was em­ phasized to them by Jesus just before his ascen­ sion to heaven. ( Mt 28: 19 , 20 ; Ac 1 : 8, 2 2 ; 2 : 32-36; 3 : 15-26 ) Their testimony concerning the resurrec­ tion was that of eyewitnesses.-Ac 1 3 : 30-34.

Miraculous powers.

Additionally, to fortify

their testimony, the apostles continued to exercise the miraculous powers previously granted them by Jesus, and also other gifts of the spirit received from Pentecost forward. ( Ac 5 : 12 ; 9 : 36-40; see GIFTS FROM GOD [Gifts of the Spirit ]. ) While others,

Though greatly favored as apostles of God's Son, they manifested normal human failings and weaknesses. Peter was in­

too, received such miraculous gifts of the spirit,

clined to be rash and impetuous ( Mt 16 : 22, 2 3 ; Joh

by the laying on of the hands of the apostles. Paul,

Human Weaknesses.

21 : 7, 8 ) ; Thomas was slow to be convinced (Joh 20: 24, 25 ) ; James and John manifested youthful impatience ( Lu 9 : 49, 54). They quarreled over the issue of their future greatness in the earthly king­ dom that they expected Jesus to establish. ( Mt 20: 20-28 ; Mr 10 : 3 5-45 ; compare Ac 1 : 6 ; Lu 24: 21 . ) They acknowledged their need for greater faith. (Lu 17: 5 ; compare Mt 17: 20. ) Despite their years of intimate association with Jesus and though knowing him to be the Messiah, they all abandoned him at the time of his arrest ( Mt 26: 56); the matter of his burial was handled by others. The apostles were slow at first to accept the testimony of the women who first saw Jesus after his resurrection. ( Lu 24: 10, 11 ) Because of fear they met behind locked doors. (Joh 20: 19, 26 ) The resurrected Jesus gave them further enlight­ enment, and following his ascension to heaven on the 40th day from his resurrection, they manifest­ ed great joy and "were continually in the temple blessing God. "-Lu 24 :44-53.

the account shows that such was the case only when one or more of the apostles were present, or though not one of the 12, also served in this way as an apostle personally appointed by Jesus Christ. ( Ac 2: 1 , 4, 14; 8: 14- 18; 10 :44; 19 : 6 ) Thus the power to transmit such gifts was unique with these apostles. Such miraculous gifts would there­ fore pass away with the passing away of these apostles and of those who had received these gifts through the apostles ( l Co 1 3 : 2 , 8- 11 ), and thus we read that these powers were "missing in the 2nd­ century church, the writers of those days speaking of them as a thing in the past-in the apostolic age, in fact . "- The Ill ustra ted Bible Dictionary, edited by J. D. Douglas, 1980, Vol . 1 , p. 79.

Administrative position . In the formation, and subsequent direction of the Christian congregation, the apostles occupied a primary position. ( lCo 1 2 : 28 ; Eph 4: 1 1 ) Although they were joined by others of the "older men" in such supervision, they formed a principal part of the governing body of the expanding Christian organization,

APOSTLE

129 congregation, and this body was recognized by

of Pentecost it was viewed as necessary that an­

the early Christians everywhere as the channel of

other be selected to fill the vacancy left by Judas,

communication used by God to render decisions

not simply on the basis of his death but, rather, on

and direct the affairs of the congregation through­

the basis of his wicked defection, as the Scriptures

out the earth. ( Ac 2 : 4 2 ; 8 : 14 - 1 7 ; 1 1 : 22 ; 15 : 1 , 2,

quoted by Peter indicate. ( Ac 1 : 1 5 - 2 2 ; Ps 69 : 2 5 ;

6-31 ; 16:4, 5) This was possible for these men only because of the fulfillment of the promises about guidance by God's holy spirit. ( Joh 1 5 : 26, 27 ) Such help enabled them to recall Jesus' instructions and teachings, to clarify points of doctrine, and to be progressively guided "into all the truth" revealed through them at that apostolic period. ( Joh 14 : 26 ; 16: 13- 15 ; compare Joh 2 : 22 ; 1 2 : 16. ) They made appointments to positions of service within the congregation and also designated areas in which certain ones would engage in missionary activity. -Ac 6 : 2, 3; Ga 2 : 8, 9. The apostles, therefore, served as a foundation, resting on Christ Jesus himself as the cornerstone, for the building up of the "holy temple for Jeho­ vah." ( Eph 2 : 20-2 2 ; I Pe 2 : 4 - 6 ) There is no evi­ dence of the primacy of any one apostle in the established Christian congregation. ( See PETER. ) Peter and John appear to have been especially prominent at Pentecost and immediately thereaf­ ter, with Peter acting as the principal spokesman. ( Ac 2: 14, 37, 38; 3 : 1 , 4, 1 1 ; 4: 1, 13, 19 ; 5 : 3, 8, 15, 29) However, in the decisions made at that time neither of these appears to have had a superiority over the others of the governing body, and when news arrived of the baptisms taking place in Samaria, the apostles in Jerusalem "dispatched Peter and John to them," so that these two served, in effect, as apostles of the apostles. (Ac 6 : 2- 6 ; 8 : 14, 15 ) Following the death

[ ape'stei·lan]

of the apostle James, the disciple of the same name, James the half brother of Jesus, appears to have presided in the governing body. Paul speaks of this James and also Peter ( Cephas) and John as "the ones who seemed to be pillars. " (Ac 1 2 : 1, 2, 16, 1 7 ; Ga 1 : 18, 19 ; 2 : 9 , 1 1 - 14 ) It was James who announced the final decision on the important issue of circumcision as involving the Gentile be­ lievers, at which meeting Peter and Paul both presented testimony. -Ac 1 5 : 1 , 2, 6-21 .

Who replaced Judas Iscariot as a twelfth apostle?

109 : 8 ; compare Re 3 : 1 1 . ) Thus, b y contrast, when the faithful apostle James was put to death, there is no record of any concern to appoint anyone to succeed him in his position of apostle.-Ac 1 2 : 2 . I t i s evident from Peter's statements that i t was then considered that any individual filling the position of an apostle of Jesus Christ must have the qualifications of having been personally con­ versant with him, having been an eyewitness of his works, his miracles, and particularly his resur­ rection. In view of this it can be seen that any apostolic succession would in course of time be­ come an impossibility, unless there were divine action to supply these requirements in each indi­ vidual case. At that particular time before Pente­ cost, however, there were men meeting these requirements, and two were put forth as suitable for replacing unfaithful Judas. Doubtless having in mind Proverbs 16 : 33, lots were cast, and Matthias was selected and was thereafter "reckoned along with the eleven apostles." ( Ac 1 : 23-26 ) He is thus included among "the twelve" who settled the problem concerning the Greek-speaking disciples ( Ac 6 : 1 , 2 ), and evidently Paul includes him in referring to "the twelve" when speaking of Je­ sus' postresurrection appearances at 1 Corinthi­ ans 1 5 : 4-8. Thus, when Pentecost arrived, there were 12 apostolic foundations on which the spiri­ tual Israel then formed could rest.

Congregational Apostleships.

Matthias was

not a mere apostle of the Jerusalem congregation, any more than the remaining 11 apostles were. His case is different from that of the Levite Joseph Barnabas who became an apostle of the congrega­ tion of Antioch, Syria. ( Ac 1 3 : 1 - 4 ; 14:4, 14; l Co 9 :4 - 6 ) Other men also are referred to as "apostles of congregations" in the sense that they were sent forth by such congregations to represent them. ( 2Co 8: 2 3 ) And, in writing to the Philippians, Paul speaks of Epaphroditus as "your envoy [ apo'sto­ and private servant for my need. " ( Php 2 : 2 5 )

lon]

The apostleship o f these men was clearly not by virtue of any apostolic succession, nor did they form part of "the twelve" as did Matthias.

Because of the defection of Judas Iscariot, who died unfaithful, there were only 1 1 apostles re­ maining, and during the 40 days from Jesus' res­ urrection until his ascension to heaven he made no appointment of a replacement. Sometime during the ten days between Jesus' ascension and the day

The correct understanding of the wider applica­ tion of the term "apostle" can help to clear away any apparent discrepancy between Acts 9 : 26, 27 and Galatians 1 : 1 7- 19, when applied to the same occasion. The first account states that Paul, on arriving in Jerusalem, was led "to the apostles" by

APPAIM

130

Barnabas. In the account in Galatians, however,

observation is made that "whenever it [ the term

Paul states that he visited with Peter and adds:

"apostle" ] is applied to individuals in later Chris­

"But I saw no one else of the apostles, only James the brother of the Lord . " James ( not the original

tian literature, the use of the term is metaphorical. The church has never had apostles in the N[ew]

apostle James the son of Zebedee nor James the

T[ estament ] sense since the first century . " - The

son of Alphaeus, but the half brother of Jesus ) was evidently viewed as an "apostle" in the wider sense, namely, as "one sent forth" by the Jerusa­ lem congregation. This would allow for the Acts account to use the title in the plural in saying that Paul was led "to the apostles" ( that is, Peter and James ) . - Compare l Co 1 5 : 5-7; Ga 2 :9. Probably about the The Selection of Paul. year 34 c.E. , Saul of Tarsus was converted and is later referred to as Paul . He did become a true apostle of Jesus Christ and was the direct choice of the resurrected and ascended Jesus Christ. ( Ac

9 : 1 -22; 2 2 : 6-21 ; 26: 12-23 ; 1 3 : 9 ) He argued on behalf of his apostleship and presented as his qualification the fact that he had seen the resur­

Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible,

G. A. Buttrick, 1962, Vol. 1, p. 172.

During their lifetime the apostles'

edited by presence

served as a restraint upon the influences of apos­ tasy, holding back the forces of false worship within the Christian congregation. It is evidently to this "restraint" that the apostle Paul referred at

2 Thessalonians 2 : 7 : "True, the mystery of this lawlessness is already at work ; but only till he who is right now acting as a restraint gets to be out of the way . " ( Compare Mt 1 3 : 24, 25 ; Ac 20: 29,

30. ) This apostolic influence, including the author­ ity and powers unique with them, continued until the death of John about 100 c.E. ( 1 10 2 : 26 ; 3Jo 9,

10 ) The rapid influx of apostasy and false doctrine

rected Lord Jesus Christ, that he had performed miracles, and that he had served as a channel for

and practices after the death of the apostles shows

imparting the holy spirit to baptized believers.

of the restraining influence of the apostles.

( l Co 9 : 1 , 2 ; 15 :9, 10; 2Co 12 : 12 ; 2Ti 1 : 1 , 1 1 ; Ro

1 : 1 ; 1 1 : 13; Ac 19 : 5 , 6 ) Since the apostle James ( the brother of John ) was not killed until about the year 44 c . E . , "the twelve" were yet alive at the time of Paul's becoming an apostle. He nowhere includes himself among such "twelve," while at the same time he acknowledges no inferiority in his apostleship compared with that of such ones. -Ga 2 : 6-9. Matthias' and Paul's apostleships were both val­ id for the purpose for which those men were "sent forth," yet when the apostle John saw the vision of the heavenJy New Jerusalem in the Revelation ( given about 96 c.E. ) he saw only 12 foundation stones and on them inscribed "the twelve names of the twelve apostles of the Lamb . " ( Re 21 : 14) The testimony of the Holy Scriptures is clear that the apostle Paul was never referred to as one of "the twelve. " Therefore, it logically follows that one of "the twelve names of the twelve apostles of the Lamb" inscribed on the foundation stones of the New Jerusalem is that of Matthias and not that of Paul. This means that the vision of the apostle John reflects the situation that existed at the start of the Christian congregation on the day of Pente­ cost in the year 33 c.E.-See PAUL.

End of the Apostolic Period.

Though the

Bible does not relate the death of the 12 apostles,

aside from that of James, the evidence available indicates that they maintained their faithfulness until death and therefore needed no replacement. Concerning history in the following centuries, the

that any pretended apostolic successors had none The reference to Andronicus and J unias at Ro­ mans 16 : 7 as "men of note among the apostles" indicates, not that they were apostles, but, rather, that they were held in high repute by the apostles. That some made false pretenses of being "apostles of Christ" is shown at 2 Corinthians 1 1 : 5 , 1 3 ;

1 2 : 1 1 , 1 2 ; Revelation 2 : 2.

APPAIM

( Ap'pa·im)

[ from

a

root

meaning

"nose; nostrils " ] . A son of Nadab and descendant of

131 Jerahmeel o f the tribe of Judah.- l Ch 2 : 25, 30, 31.

APPARITION. The Greek word pban 'ta·sma occurs only in the two accounts of Jesus' walking over the waters of the Sea of Galilee to his disci­ ples who were in a boat. (Mt 14: 26; Mr 6:49 ) The frightened disciples are quoted as saying: "It is an apparition!" The word pban'ta·sma is variously translated as "spirit" (KJ), "ghost" (AS, AT, RS, Mo), "phantom" (Fn), "false vision" ( La ), and "ap­ parition" ( Da, ED, Dy, Kx, MR, NW). An apparition is an illusion; something actually not present but temporarily believed in because of excited imagination or other cause. Assuring the disciples that such was not the case and that he was real, Jesus said : "It is I ; have no fear."-Mt 14: 27 ; Mr 6 : 50. This was, therefore, a different situation from the occasion when the resurrected Jesus suddenly appeared in the midst of his disciples, causing them to imagine they beheld "a spirit [ Gr. , pneu'­ ma]. " ( Lu 24 : 36, 37 ) Jesus' words in this situation evidently were not designed to convince them merely of his reality but to assure them that he was appearing before them in a fleshly human form and not in spirit form; hence, he told them to "feel me and see, because a spirit does not have flesh and bones just as you behold that I have. " ( Lu 24: 38-43 ; compare Ge 18 : 1 -8; 19 : 1-3. ) There was, therefore, no need for them to be fearful, which was the effect produced on Daniel by an awesome angelic appearance of a completely different na­ ture. (Compare Da 10:4-9. ) The situation was like­ wise very different from that of Saul of Tarsus, who was later blinded by Jesus' appearance to him on the road to Damascus.-Ac 9 : 1-9 ; 26: 12- 14; see TRANSF1GURATION; VISION.

APPHIA

(Ap'phi·a ). A Christian woman men­ tioned along with Philemon and Archippus in Paul's letter directed to these three and the con­ gregation in Philemon's house. ( Phm 2) It is possi­ ble she was the wife of Philemon.

APPIUS, MARKETPLACE OF (Ap'pi·us ). A marketplace 74 km (46 mi ) SE of Rome. It was a well-known station on the famous Roman high­ way Via Appia, running from Rome to Brundu­ sium (now called Brindisi) by way of Capua. Both the road and the marketplace draw their name from the founder, Appius Claudius Caecus, of the fourth century B.c.E. As the usual point at which travelers halted at the close of the first day's journey out of Rome, this post station became a busy trading center. Adding to its importance was its location at the

APPLB

northern terminus of a canal that ran alongside the road, traversing the Pontine Marshes. Travel­ ers reportedly were conveyed over this canal by night in barges pulled by mules. The Roman poet Horace describes the discomforts of the journey, complaining of the frogs and gnats and depict­ ing the Marketplace of Appius as crammed with "boatmen and stingy tavern-keepers. "-Sa tires, I , v, 1-6. It was at this busy junction that the apostle Paul, traveling from Puteoli to Rome as a prisoner, first met the delegation of Christian brothers who, on hearing the news of his coming, had journeyed from Rome to meet him. Part of the delegation waited at Three Taverns ( 15 km [9 mi ] closer to Rome ) while the rest proceeded as far as the Marketplace of Appius.-Ac 28: 1 5 . Today there is a place still known a s the Foro Appio, or Appian Forum, on the Appian Way. A signpost indicates the area where the Marketplace of Appius once stood. There is a small rural town called Faiti across the Appian Way.

APPLE [ Heb. , tappu'acb ]. There is much con­ jecture as to the identification of the tree and fruit denoted by the Hebrew word tappu'ach. The word itself indicates that which is distin­ guished by its fragrance, or scen t. It comes from the root napbacb ', meaning "blow; pant; struggle for breath. " ( Ge 2 : 7 ; Job 31 : 39 ; Jer 1 5 : 9 ) Regard­ ing this, M. C. Fisher wrote: "Relationship [to na­ pbach ' ] seems at first semantically strained, but the ideas of 'breathe' and 'exhale an odor' are related. The by-form puah means both 'blow' ( of wind) and 'exhale a pleasant odor, be fragrant.' " - Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament, edited by R. L. Harris, 1980, Vol. 2, p. 586. Several fruits have been suggested in place of the apple, including the orange, the citron, the quince, and the apricot. The main objection raised to the apple is that the hot, dry climate of most of Palestine is unfavorable to apple culture. However, the related Arabic word tufah primarily means "apple," and it is notable that the Hebrew place­ names Tappuah and Beth-tappuah ( probably so named because of the prevalence of this fruit in their vicinity) have been preserved in their Arabic equivalents by the use of this word. (Jos 1 2 : 1 7 ; 1 5 : 34, 53; 16 :8; 1 7 : 8 ) These places were not in the lowlands but in the hill country, where the climate is generally somewhat moderated. Additionally, the possibility of some climatic variations in the past cannot be completely ruled out. Apple trees do grow in Israel today and thus seem to fit the Bible description satisfactorily. William Thomson, who spent many years in Syria and Palestine in

APPOINTED TIMES OF THE NATIONS the past century, even reported finding apple or­

132 Thus, the apostle Paul speaks o f "the sacred secret"

chards in the area of Ashkelon on the Plains of

revealed by God "for an administration at the full

Philistia. - The

limit

Land and the Book,

revised by

of the appoin ted times [kai·ronl ],

namely, to

J. Grande, 1910, pp. 545, 546.

gather all things together again in the Christ, the

The apple tree ( Pyrus malus) is mentioned mainly in The Song of Solomon, where the expres­

things in the heavens and the things on the earth."

sions of love by the Shulammite's shepherd com­ panion are likened to the pleasant shad� of the apple tree and t0e sweetness of its fruit. ( Ca 2 : 3 , 5 ) In turn, he compares her breat h to the fragrance of apples. ( Ca 7 : 8 ; see also 8 : 5. ) In the ' Proverbs ( 25 : 1 1 ) appropriate, opportune speech is likened to "apples of gold in silver carvings. " The only other reference to the apple is at Joel 1 : 12. The common tradition as to the apple's being the forbidden fruit of Eden is without any Scriptural basis whatsoever. Similarly, the expression "apple of the eye" is found in the King James Version ( Ps 1 7 : 8 ; Pr 7 : 2 ; and others ) but is not a Hebrew expression, the literal translation being "the pupil of [ ope's] eyeball . "

APPOINTED TIMES O F T H E NATIONS. After discussing the destruction due to come upon the city of Jerusalem, Jesus made the statement: "And Jerusalem will be trampled on by the na­ tions, until the appointed times of the nations [ "times of the Gentiles, " KJ, RS] are fulfilled . " ( Lu 21 : 24 ) The period indicated b y the expres­ sion "appointed times of the nations [ Gr. , kai·roi' e·thnon ' ]" has occasioned considerable discussion as to its meaning and implication.

Meaning of "Appointed Times." The ex­ pression "appointed times" here comes from the Greek word kai·rosl ( plural, kai·roF ), which, ac­ cording to Vine's Expository Dictionary of Old and

New Testament Words ( 1981 , Vol . 4, p. 138), "sig­ nified a fixed or definite period, a season, some­ times an opportune or seasonable time . " Liddell and Scott's Greek-English Lexicon ( 1968, p. 859 ) gives the further definition of "exact or critical time. " Thus, kai·rosl is used to refer to the harvest "season," "the season" of the fruits, and "the sea­ son" of figs ( Mt 13 : 30 ; 21 : 34 ; Mr 1 1 : 13 ) ; "the proper time" for dispensing food ( Mt 24 :45 ; Lu 1 2 : 42 ) ; "the appointed time" for Jesus' ministry to begin and the period of opportunity it brought (Mr 1 : 15 ; Mt 16 : 3 ; Lu 12 : 56 ; 19 : 44 ) ; and the "appoint­ ed time" of his death. ( Mt 26 : 18 ) The demons, about to be cast out of certain men, screamed at Jesus: "Did you come here to torment us before the appointed time?"-Mt 8 : 2�. is also used with reference to future times or occasions within God's arrangement or timetable, particularly in relation to Christ's pres­ ence and his Kingdom. ( Ac 1 : 7 ; 3 : 19 ; I Th 5 : 1 )

Kai·ros'

( Eph 1 : 9, 10) In view of the meaning of the word

kai·rosl as

used in the Bible text, it can properly be

expected that the expression "appointed times of the nations" refers, not to something vague or indefinite, but, rather, to a "fixed or definite peri­ od, " an "exact or critical time," one hqving a def­ inite beginning and a definite end.

"The Nations" and "Jerusalem."

The signif­

icance of Jesus' statement is necessarily bound up in his reference to the 'trampling on Jerusalem,' which he stated would continue until the fulfill­ ment of "the appointed times of the nations. " The term "nations" or "Gentiles" translates the Greek word

e1thne,

which means "nations" and was used

by the Bible writers to refer specifically to the non-Jewish nations. On this basis some have con­ sidered the prophecy to apply to the period of time during which the geographic site of the ancient city of Jerusalem would be under Gentile domina­ tion and control. While the literal city of Jerusalem is obviously referred to in Jesus' description of the destruction that was to come and did come upon that city in the year 70 c.E. when the Romans demolished Jerusalem, the statement concerning "the appoint­ ed times of the nations" carries the prophecy far beyond that point, as many commentators have noted. Thus, the well-known

Commentary

by

F. C. Cook says of Luke 21 : 24: "It serves to sepa­ rate the strictly eschatological portion [ that is, the portion relating to the last days] of the great prophecy, from the part belonging properly to the destruction of Jerusalem. " So, it becomes essential to determine what significance the inspired Scrip­ tures attach to "Jerusalem" in order to ascertain whether "the appointed times of the nations" re­ late only to the literal city of Jerusalem or to something additional and greater. Jerusalem was the capital of the nation of Israel, whose kings of the line of David were said to "sit upon Jehovah's throne. " ( 1 Ch 29 : 2 3 ) As such, it represented the seat of the divinely constituted government or typical kingdom of God operating through the house of David. With its Mount Zion, it was "the town of the grand King . " ( Ps 48: 1 , 2 ) Hence, Jerusalem came t o stand for the kingdom of the dynasty of King David, much as Washing­ ton, London, Paris, and Moscow represent the rul­ ing powers of present-day nations and are so referred to in news communiques. After Jerusa-

133

APPOINTED TIMES OF THE NATIONS

lem was trampled o n b y the Babylonians, its king being taken into exile and the land laid desolate, no member of the Davidic dynasty again ruled from earthly Jerusalem. But the Scriptures show that Jesus, the Messiah, who was born in the line of David, would rule from heavenly Mount Zion, from heavenly Jerusalem.-Ps 2 : 6, 7 ; Heb 5 : 5 ; Re 14: 1 , 3.

The 'trampling' on Beginning of 'trampling. that kingdom of the dynasty of Davidic rulers did not begin with the Roman devastation of the city of Jerusalem in 70 c.E. It began centuries earlier with the Babylonian overthrow of that dynasty in 607 B.c.E. when Nebuchadnezzar destroyed Jeru­ salem and took captive the dethroned king Zede­ kiah and the land was left desolate. ( 2Ki 2 5 : 1 -26; see CHRONOLOGY. ) This accorded with the prophetic words directed to Zedekiah at Ezekiel 21 : 25 -27, namely: "Remove the turban, and lift off the crown. This will not be the same . . . . A ruin, a ruin, a ruin I shall make it. As for this also, it will certainly become no one's until he comes who has the legal right, and I must give it to him. " The one who has "the legal right" to the Davidic crown lost by Zedekiah is demonstrated in the Christian Greek Scriptures to be Christ Jesus, of whom the angel, announcing his future birth, said: "Jehovah God will give him the throne of David his father, and he will rule as king over the house of Jacob forever, and there will be no end of his kingdom. " -Lu 1 : 3 2 , 33. '

With Jerusalem's fall in 607 B.c.E. the Gen­ tile powers exercised domination over the en­ tire earth. The Davidic dynasty and rule suffered interruption, and so Jerusalem, or what it stood for, would continue to be "trampled on" as long as God's kingdom, as functioning through David's house, was kept in a low, inoperative condition under the Gentile powers. Observing this connec­ tion with rulership Unger's Bible Dictionary ( 1965, p. 398) comments: "Consequently Gentiles move on as 'the nations' to the end of their stewardship as earth rulers. The termination of this period will be the end of the 'times of the Gentiles. ' ( Luke 21 : 24 ; Dan. 2 : 36-44)."- Compare Eze 17: 12-21 ; also the description of Medo-Persia's fall at Da 8 : 7 , 20.

Relation to Daniel's Prophecies. At least twice in this prophecy concerning the time of the end, Jesus referred to the contents of the book of the prophet Daniel. ( Compare Mt 24: 15, 21 with Da 1 1 : 31 ; 12 : 1 . ) In the book of Daniel we find a picture drawn of the domination of the earth by the Gentile powers during their "appointed times." The second chapter of Daniel contains the pro-

phetic vision ( received by King Nebuchadnezzar) of the great image that Daniel by inspiration showed to represent the march of Gentile world powers, ending with their destruction by the Kingdom set up by "the God of heaven," which Kingdom then rules earth wide. ( Da 2 : 3 1-45 ) It is of note that the image begins with the Babylonian Empire, the first world power to 'trample Jerusa­ lem' by overthrowing the Davidic dynasty and leaving "Jehovah's throne" in Jerusalem vacant. This also confirms the start of "the appointed times of the nations" in the year of Jerusalem's destruction, 607 B.c.E.

Dream vision of tree in Daniel chapter 4. Again in the book of Daniel we find a close parallel to Jesus' use of the word "times" with regard to "the nations," or Gentile powers. And again it is Nebuchadnezzar, the dethroner of David's descen­ dant Zedekiah, who was given another vision in­ terpreted by Daniel as relating to divinely ap­ pointed kingship. The symbolic vision was of an immense tree; an angel from heaven commanded that it be chopped down. Its stump was then banded with iron and copper and had to stay that way among the grass of the field until "seven times" passed over it. "Let its heart be changed from that of mankind, and let the heart of a beast be given to it, and let seven times pass over it . . . to the intent that people living may know that the Most High is Ruler in the kingdom of mankind and that to the one whom he wants to, he gives it and he sets up over it even the lowliest one of man­ kind."-Da 4 : 10- 17 ; see 4 : 16, ftn.

Related to Nappointed times of the nations. The vision definitely had a fulfillment in Nebu­ chadnezzar himself. (See Da 4 : 3 1 - 35 . ) Therefore, some view it as having direct prophetic applica­ tion only to him and see in this vision merely the presentation of the eternal verity of 'God's su­ premacy over all other powers-human or sup­ posedly divine. ' They acknowledge the application of that truth or principle beyond Nebuchadnez­ zar's own case but do not see it as relating to any specific time period or divine schedule. Yet, an examination of the entire book of Daniel reveals that the element of time is everywhere prominent in the visions and prophecies it presents ; and the world powers and events described in each such vision are shown, not as isolated or as occurring at random with the time element left ambiguous, but, rather, as fitting into a historical setting or time sequence. ( Compare Da 2 : 36 -45 ; 7 : 3- 12, 17-

"

26 ; 8 : 3 - 14, 20-25 ; 9 : 2 , 24-27 ; 1 1 : 2-45 ; 1 2 : 7- 13. )

Additionally, the book repeatedly points toward the conclusion that forms the theme of its proph­ ecies: the establishment of a universal and eternal

APPOINTED TIMES OF THE NATIONS Kingdom of God exercised through the rulership of the "son of man . " ( Da 2 : 35, 44, 45 ; 4 : 17, 25, 3 2 ; 7 : 9 - 14, 1 8 , 22, 27; 1 2 : 1 ) The book i s also distinc­ tive in the Hebrew Scriptures for its references to "the time of the end. "-Da 8 : 19 ; 1 1 : 3 5 , 40 ; 1 2 : 4, 9. In view of the above, it does not seem logical to evaluate the vision of the symbolic "tree" and its reference to "seven times" as having no other application than to the seven years of madness and subsequent recovery and return to power experienced by one Babylonian ruler, particularly so in the light of Jesus' own prophetic reference to "the appointed times of the nations. " The time at which the vision was given: at the critical point in history when God, the Universal Sovereign, had allowed the very kingdom that he had established among his covenant people to be overthrown; the person to whom the vision was revealed : the very ruler who served as the divine instrument in such overthrow and who thereby became the recipient of world domination by divine permission, that is, without interference by any representative king­ dom of Jehovah God ; and the whole theme of the vision, namely : "that people living may know that the Most High is Ruler in the kingdom of mankind and that to the one whom he wants to, he gives it and he sets up over it even the lowliest one of mankind" ( Da 4: 1 7 ) -all of this gives strong rea­ son for believing that the lengthy vision and its interpretation were included in the book of Daniel because of their revealing the duration of "the appointed times of the nations" and the time for the establishment of God's Kingdom by his Christ. The tree symbolism and God's sovereign ty. The symbolisms used in this prophetic vision are by no means unique. Trees are elsewhere used to represent ruling powers, including that of God's typical kingdom at Jerusalem. ( Compare Jg 9 : 6 - 1 5 ; Eze 17: 1 -24 ; 31 : 2- 18. ) A stump's being caused to sprout and the symbol of "a twig" or "sprout" are found a number of times as repre­ senting the renewal of rulers hip in a certain stock or line, particularly in the Messianic prophecies. ( Isa 10 : 33-11 : 10; 5 3 : 2-7 ; Jer 2 3 : 5 ; Eze 1 7 : 2 2-24; Zec 6 : 12, 13; compare Job 14: 7-9. ) Jesus spoke of himself as both "the root and the offspring of David."-Re 5 : 5 ; 2 2 : 16. The fact is evident that the key point of the vision is Jehovah God's exercise of irresistible sov­ ereignty in "the kingdom of mankind," and this provides the guide to the full meaning of the vision. The tree is shown to have an application to Nebuchadnezzar, who at that point in history was the head of the dominant World Power, Babylon. Yet, prior to Nebuchadnezzar's conquest of Jerusa-

134 lem, the typical kingdom of God ruling out of that city was the agency by which Jehovah expressed his rightful sovereignty toward the earth. It thus constituted a divine block or impediment for Neb­ uchadnezzar in attaining his goal of world domi­ nation. By allowing that typical kingdom at Jeru­ salem to be overthrown, Jehovah permitted his own visible expression of sovereignty through the Davidic dynasty of kings to be cut down. The expression and exercise of world domination in lithe kingdom of mankind, " unhindered by any representative kingdom of God, now passed into the hands of the Gentile nations. ( La 1 : 5 ; 2 : 2, 16, 17) In the light of these facts lithe tree" is seen to represent, beyond and above its application to Nebuchadnezzar, world sovereignty or domination by God's arrangement. Renewal of world domination. God, however, here makes clear that he has not forever delivered up such world domination to the Gentile powers . The vision shows that God's self-restraint ( repre­ sented by the bands of iron and of copper around the stump of the tree) would continue until "seven times pass over it. " ( Da 4: 16, 23, 2 5 ) Then, since "the Most High is Ruler in the kingdom of man­ kind," God would give world domination "to the one whom he wants to. " ( Da 4: 1 7 ) The proppetic book of Daniel itself shows that one to be the "son of man" to whom are given "rulership and dignity and kingdom, that the peoples, national groups and languages should all serve even him." ( Da 7: 13, 14 ) Jesus' own prophecy, in which the refer­ ence to "the appointed times of the nations" oc­ curs, points definitely toward Christ Jesus' exer­ cise of such world domination as God's chosen King, the heir of the Davidic dynasty. ( Mt 24 : 30, 31 ; 2 5 : 31 -34; Lu 21 : 27-31 , 36 ) Thus, the symbolic stump, representing God's retention of the sover­ eign right to exercise world domination in "the kingdom of mankind," was due to sprout again in his Son's Kingdom.-Ps 89 : 27, 35-37. Seven Symbolic Times. In Nebuchadnezzar's personal experience of the vision's fulfillment the "seven times" were evidently seven years, during which he became mad, with symptoms like those of lycanthropy, abandoning his throne to eat grass like a beast in the field. ( Da 4 : 31-36 ) Notably, the Biblical description of the exercise of world domi­ nation by the Gentile powers is presented through the figure of beasts in opposition to the holy peo­ ple of God and their "Prince of princes. " (Com­ pare Da 7 : 2-8, 12, 17-26 ; 8 : 3- 1 2 , 20-25 ; Re 1 1 : 7 ; 13 : 1 - 1 1 ; 1 7 : 7-14. ) Concerning the word "times" ( from Aramaic 'id·dan! ), as used in Daniel's proph­ ecy, lexicographers show it here to mean "years. "

135 ( See

APPROACH TO GOD

Lexicon in Veteris Testamen ti Libras,

by

the genuineness of their credentials. To enter the

1958,

inner courtyard of Persian King Ahasuerus with­

A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament, by Brown, Driver, and Briggs, 1980, p. 1 105 ; Lexicon Linguae Aramaicae Veteris Testa­ menti, edited by E. Vogt, Rome, 1971 , p. 1 24. ) The

out being called meant death; but Queen Esther,

L.

Koehler and W. Baumgartner, Leiden,

p. 1 106 ;

when risking her life to gain access to the king's presence, was favored with approval. ( Es 4: 1 1 , 16;

5 : 1 - 3 ) The actions and words of Joseph's brothers

duration of a year as so used is indicated to be 360

illustrate the care employed to avoid causing of­

days, inasmuch as three and a half times are

fense before a king, for Judah said to Joseph: "It is

shown to equal "a thousand two hundred and

the same with you as with Pharaoh. " ( Ge 4 2 : 6 ;

sixty days" at Revelation 1 2 : 6, 14. ( Compare also Re 1 1 : 2, 3. ) "Seven times," according to this count,

43: 1 5 - 2 6 ; 44: 14, 1 8 ) Thus, t o gain access t o the presence of an earthly ruler, though only an im­

would equal 2 , 5 20 days. That a specific number of

perfect human, was often a very difficult matter

days may be used in the Bible record to represent

and a rare privilege.

prophetically an equivalent number of years can be seen by reading the accounts at Numbers 14: 34 and Ezekiel 4 : 6. Only by applying the formula there expressed of "a day for a year" to the "seven times" of this prophecy can the vision of Daniel chapter 4 have significant fulfillment beyond the day of now extinct Nebuchadnezzar, as the evi­ dence thus far presented gives reason to expect. They therefore represent 2 , 5 20 years. It is a historical fact worth noting that, on the basis of the points and evidence above presented, the March 1880 edition of the

Watch Tower maga­

zine identified the year 1914 as the time for the close of "the appointed times of the nations" ( and the end of the lease of power granted the Gentile rulers ). This was some 34 years before the arrival of that year and the momentous events it initiat­ ed. In the August 30, 1914, edition of

The World,

a

leading New York newspaper at that time, a fea­ ture article in the paper's Sunday magazine sec­ tion commented on this as follows: "The terrific war outbreak in Europe has fulfilled an extraordi­ nary prophecy. For a quarter of a century past, through preachers and through press, the ' Inter­ national Bible Students' . . . have been proclaiming to the world that the Day of Wrath prophesied in the Bible would dawn in 1914. " The events that took place from and after the year 1914 c.E. are well-known history to all, be­ ginning with the great war that erupted, the first

world war in mankind's

history and the first to be fought over the issue, not of the domination of Europe alone, nor of Africa, nor of Asia, but of the domination of the world.-Lu 21 : 7-33; Re

1 1 : 1 5 - 1 8 ; see LAsT DAYS; PRESENCE.

APPROACH TO GOD .

In an ancient Oriental

Sanctity of God's Presence.

Although Paul

stated in Athens that God "is not far off from each one of us" ( Ac 1 7 : 2 7 ) , and his accessibility is pre­ sented throughout his Word the Bible, the one approaching Him must also meet definite require­ ments and have His divine permission or approv­ al. Daniel's vision of the majestic heavenly court of "the Ancient of Days" to whom the "son of man" "gained access" and was "brought . . . up close even before that One," illustrates the dignity, re­ spect, and order associated with the presence of the Sovereign Ruler of the universe. ( Da 7 : 9 , 10,

13, 14 ; compare Jer 30: 21 . ) The record at Job 1 : 6 and 2: 1 indicates that God's angelic sons are also invited into his immediate presence at appointed times, and Satan's appearance among them must reasonably have been only by Sovereign permis­ sion. Man, having been made in his Creator's image and likeness by being endowed with a measure of the divine attributes and having the responsibility of caring for the planet Earth and the animal creation on it, would need to be in communication with his God and Father. ( Ge 1 : 26, 2 7 ) Such com­ munication

is

described

at

Genesis

1 : 28-30;

2 : 16, 17. As perfect creatures, and hence with no guilt complex or consciousness of sin, Adam and Eve could originally approach God in conversation without feeling the need for an intercessor be­ tween them and their Creator, doing so as chil­ dren would approach their father. ( Ge 1 : 31 ; 2 : 25 ) Their sin and rebellion lost for them this rela­ tionship,

bringing condemnation of death.

( Ge

3 : 16-24 ) Whether they made future attempts at approaching God is not stated.

court any approach to the presence of the mon­

Through Faith, Right Works, and Sacrifices.

arch by an individual could be made only in ac­

The account of the approach to God on the basis of

cord with established regulations and with the

offerings by Cain and by Abel shows that prereq­

monarch's permission. In most cases an interme­

uisites for access to God were faith and right

diary acted for petitioners desiring an audience

works. Hence, Cain was debarred from divine

with the ruler, introducing them and vouching for

acceptance until he should "tum to doing good. "

APPROACH TO GOD

136

( Ge 4 : 5 -9 ; 1Jo 3 : 1 2 ; Heb 11 : 4 ) The start that was

Moses was instructed b y God's angel not to

later made of "calling on the name of Jehovah" in

approach the burning bush and was ordered to

Enosh's time does not appear to have been sincere

remove his sandals because of standing on "holy

( Ge 4 : 26 ) , inasmuch as the next man of faith

ground . " ( Ex 3 : 5 ) As God's appointed representa­

mentioned after Abel is not Enosh but Enoch,

tive in the nation of Israel, Moses had unique

whose 'walking with God' shows his approach was

access to Jehovah's presence during his life, as

approved. ( Ge 5 : 24 ; Heb 1 1 : 5 ) Enoch's prophecy,

Jehovah spoke "mouth to mouth" with him. ( Nu

recorded at Jude 14, 15, however, indicates that rampant disrespect for God existed in his day. -See ENOSH, ENOS.

Jesus.-De 18: 1 5 ; Ac 3 : 20-23.

Noah's righteous and faultless course among his contemporaries gained him access to God and preservation. ( Ge 6 : 9 - 19 ) Following the Flood, he approached God on the basis of a sacrifice, as had Abel; he was blessed and was advised of added requirements for divine approval as well as of God's covenant with all flesh guaranteeing that there would be no future global deluge. ( Ge 8 : 20, 21 ; 9 : 1 - 11 ) The expression "Jehovah, Shem's God," apparently indicates that this son had gained a position of greater favor with God than had his two brothers. -Ge 9 : 26, 27.

Melchizedek's

1 2 : 6- 13 ; Ex 24: 1 , 2, 1 2- 18 ; 34: 30-3 5 ) Moses, like Melchizedek, served as a prophetic type of Christ

priesthood.

Although

Noah

officiated at the altar on behalf of his family, there is no specific mention of a "priest" as acting on behalf of men in their approach to God until Mel­ chizedek's time. Melchizedek's priesthood was rec­ ognized by Abraham, who "gave him a tenth of everything. " ( Ge 14 : 18-20) Melchizedek is pre­ sented as a prophetic type of Christ Jesus at He­ brews 7 : 1 -3, 1 5 - 1 7 , 25.

Approach by other patriarchs.

Abraham's

relations with God qualified him to be called 'God's friend' ( Isa 41 : 8 ; 2Ch 20 : 7 ; Jas 2 : 23 ), and his faith and obedience, coupled with his respectful ap­

Importance of approved approach stressed. Prior to the giving of the Law covenant, Jehovah instructed the entire nation of Israel to sanctify themselves for three days, washing their clothes. Bounds for approach were set and no one, man or beast, was to touch the mountain of Sinai un­ der penalty of death. ( Ex 19 : 10- 1 5 ) Moses then "brought the people out of the camp to meet the true God," stationing them at the base of the mountain, and he ascended the mountain to re­ ceive the covenant's terms amid the thunder and lightning, smoke and fire, and trumpet sounds. ( Ex 19 : 16-20 ) Moses was ordered not to let "the priests and the people break through to come up to Jehovah, that he may not break out upon them. " ( Ex 19 : 2 1 -25 ) "The priests" here mentioned were perhaps a principal male of each family of Israel and as such would "regularly come near to Jehovah, " like Job, on behalf of the family.

Under the Law Covenant.

Through the Law

covenant an arrangement was set up that provid­ ed for individual and national approach to God through an appointed priesthood and with legally prescribed sacrifices, connected with a sacred tab­

proach through altars and offerings, are empha­

ernacle and later a temple. The sons of Aaron the

sized as the basis for this. ( Ge 18: 18, 19 ; 26 : 3- 6 ; Heb 1 1 : 8- 10, 1 7- 19 ) He was taken into covenant relationship with God. (Ge 1 2 : 1-3, 7; 1 5 : 1 , 5-21 ;

others, even the Levites not of Aaron's line, to

1 7 : 1 - 8 ) Circumcision was given as a sign of this, for a time becoming a requirement for divine acceptance. ( Ge 1 7 : 9 - 14 ; Ro 4: 1 1 ) Abraham's posi­

Levi te acted as priests on behalf of the people. For presume to draw near to the altar or the holy utensils to effect such service would result in death. ( Le 2 : 8; Nu 3 : 10; 16:40 ; 1 7 : 12, 1 3 ; 1 8 : 24, 7 ) The priests had to meet strict requirements

tion qualified him to make supplication even on

as to both physical and ceremonial cleanness, and

behalf of others ( Ge 20 : 7 ), yet his deep respect is always manifest before Jehovah's presence or his

they had to have on approved attire when ap­ proaching

representative. ( Ge 17 : 3 ; 1 8 : 23-33 ) Job, a distant

28:40-43 ; 30: 18-2 1 ; 40 : 3 2 ; Le 2 2 : 2, 3 ) Any disre­

the

altar

or

"the

holy

place. "

( Ex

relative of Abraham, acted as priest for his family,

spect or violation of divine instructions in ap­

offering up burnt sacrifices for them (Job 1 : 5 ), and

proaching the Sovereign God brought the death

made supplication on behalf of his three "com­ panions," and "Jehovah accepted Job's face. "-Job

( Le 10: 1 -3, 8- 1 1 ; 16: 1 ) Of the entire nation only

42 : 7-9.

Aaron, and those who succeeded him as high

penalty, as in the case of two of Aaron's own sons.

priest, could enter the Most Holy before the ark of

Isaac and Jacob, heirs of the promise to Abra­ ham, approached God by calling on "the name of Jehovah" in faith, and by the construction of altars and the presentation of offerings.-Heb 1 1 :9, 20,

on but one day in the year, on Atonement Day.

2 1 ; Ge 2 6 : 2 5 ; 3 1 : 54 ; 3 3 : 20.

16 : 2, 1 7 ) I n this privileged position Aaron prefig-

the covenant, which was associated with Jeho­ vah's presence ; but even he was allowed to enter

( Le

APPROACH TO GOD

137 ured Christ Jesus as God's High Priest. -Heb

be first manifested before approach was approved.

8: 1 - 6 ; 9 :6, 7, 24.

( Ps 5 1 : 16, 1 7 ) Priestly office could not gain favor­

At the dedication of the temple in Jerusalem,

able reception by God if such priests despised his

King Solomon approached Jehovah on behalf of

name and offered unacceptable sacrifices.-Mal

the nation. His prayer was that Jehovah's eyes

1 : 6-9.

would prove to be opened day and night toward

Approach to God is also described as the pre­

that house where He had placed His name and

senting of oneself before a court and coming near

that He would hear the entreaties made by the

before the judge for judgment. ( Ex 2 2 : 8 ; Nu 5 : 16 ;

king, the nation, and also foreigners joining them­

Job 31 : 35 -37 ; Isa 50 : 8 ) At Isaiah 41 : 1 , 2 1 , 2 2

toward this

Jehovah tells the national groups t o approach,

selves to Israel, whoever would "pray

house. "

Thereby, Jehovah was accessible to all,

from the king to the least person in the nation. -2Ch 6 : 19-42.

with their controversial case and arguments, for judgment by him.

Basis for Approach Under New Covenant.

In Israel, approach to God on matters affecting

The Law covenant arrangement with its animal

the entire nation was made by king, priest, and

sacrifices, as a pictorial legal basis, pointed toward

prophet. The Urim and Thurnrnim of the high

a superior basis for approach to God. ( Heb 9 : 8- 10 ;

priest were employed on certain occasions to de­

1 0 : 1 ) This came b y means o f the new covenant

termine God's direction. ( l Sa 8 : 2 1 , 2 2 ; 14: 36-41 ;

through which all were to 'know Jehovah, from

lKi 1 8 : 36 -45 ; Jer 42 : 1 - 3 ) Violation of Jehovah's

the least one even

to the greatest one . ' ( Jer

law regarding proper approach brought punish­

31 : 31 -34 ; Heb 7 : 19 ; 8 : 10- 1 3 ) As the sole Mediator

ment, as in the case of Uzziah ( 2Ch 26 : 16-20), and

of that new covenant, Christ Jesus became "the

could result in a complete cutting off of communi­

way. " He said, "No one comes to the Father except

cation with God, as in the case of Saul. ( 1 Sa 28 : 6 ;

through me. " (Joh 14 : 6 , 13, 14) The barrier sepa­

l Ch 1 0 : 1 3 ) That Jehovah would permit n o trifling

rating the Jews from the uncircumcised Gentile

with regard to his Sovereign Presence and objects

nations outside God's national covenant with Isra­

associated with it is illustrated in the case of

el was removed by means of Christ's death, so

Abinadab's son Uzzah, who took hold of the ark of

that "through him we, both peoples, have the

the covenant to steady it, with the result that

approach

"Jehovah's anger blazed against Uzzah and the

2 : 1 1 - 19 ; Ac 10 : 3 5 ) Faith in God as "the rewarder

to

the

Father

by

one

spirit. "

( Eph

true God struck him down there for the irreverent

of those earnestly seeking him" and in the ransom

act. "-2Sa 6 : 3-7.

is the prerequisite for peaceful approach and a

Mere ritual and sacrifice insufficient.

While

it has been argued that the worship of Jehovah developed from one of ritual and sacrifice to one of moral requirement, the evidence is all to the con­ trary. Mere ritual and sacrifice in themselves nev­ er sufficed but provided only a token legal basis for approach to God. ( Heb 9 : 9 , 10) In the final analysis Jehovah himself decided whom to re­ ceive ; thus Psalm 65 :4 states: "Happy is the one you choose and cause to approach, that he may reside in your courtyards. " Faith, righteousness,

kindly reception by God through Jesus Christ. ( Heb 1 1 : 6 ; I Pe 3 : 1 8 ) Those approaching through Christ Jesus as their High Priest and Intercessor know that "he is always alive to plead for them" ( Heb 7 : 2 5 ), and they can confidently "approach with freeness of speech to the throne of unde­ served kindness. " ( Heb 4 : 14 - 16 ; Eph 3 : 1 2 ) They do not approach in fear of condemnation. ( Ro 8 : 33, 34) Yet they retain the godly fear and awe that such approach to God, "the Judge of all , " merits. -Heb 1 2 : 18-24, 28, 29.

justice, freedom from bloodguilt, truthfulness, and

The Christian's approach to God involves sacri­

obedience to God's expressed will were continual­

fices and offerings of a spiritual kind. ( 1 Pe 2 : 4, 5 ;

ly stressed as the credentials required for ap­

Heb 1 3 : 15 ; Ro 1 2 : 1 ) Material temples and gold,

proach to God, so that not simply the one bearing

silver, and stone images are shown to be of no

gifts to the Universal Sovereign but the one "inno­

benefit in approaching the true God. ( Ac 7 : 47-50 ;

cent in his hands and clean in heart" could ascend into the mountain of Jehovah. ( Ps 1 5 : 1 - 4 ; 24 : 3- 6 ; 50: 7-2 3 ; 119: 169- 171 ; P r 3 : 3 2 ; 2 1 : 3 ; H o 6 : 6 ; Mic 6 : 6 - 8 ) Where these qualities were lacking, sacri­ fices, fasting, and even prayers became detestable

1 7 : 24 -29 ; compare Eph 2 : 20-22. ) Friends of the world are God's enemies ; the haughty he opposes, but humble ones with 'clean hands' and a 'pure heart' can "draw close to God, and he will draw close to [them ]. "-Jas 4 : 4 -8.

and worthless in God's eyes. ( Isa 1 : 1 1 - 1 7 ; 58: 1 -9 ;

Anointed Christians called to a heavenly hope

29 : 13 ; Pr 1 5 : 8 ) When wrongdoing had been com­

have a "way of entry into the holy place by the

mitted, a broken spirit and a crushed heart had to

blood of Jesus," and, knowing well the "great

APRON

138

priest over the house of God," they can "approach with true hearts in the full assurance of faith. " -Heb 10: 19 -22. As to the importance of one's trustfully ap­ proaching God, the psalmist aptly sums up the matter in saying: "For, look! the very ones keeping away from you will perish. You will certainly silence every one immorally leaving you. But as for me, the drawing near to God is good for me. In

Claudius' rule had ended and Aquila and Priscil­ la had returned to Rome, for Paul conveyed his greetings to them, his "fellow workers. " ( Ro 16 : 3 ) Here, also, the congregation met i n their house. ( Ro 16 : 5 ) Sometime during their relationship with Paul, Aquila and Priscilla had "risked their own necks" in behalf of Paul, thus meriting the thanks of all the congregations. ( Ro 16:4) Later they moved back to Ephesus, for Paul, while in Rome

the Sovereign Lord Jehovah I have placed my refuge, to declare all your works. "-Ps 73: 27, 28; see PRAYER.

just before suffering martyrdom (c. 65 c.E. ), asked

APRON.

AR

The Greek word

si-mi·kin'thi·on

de­

notes a thing girded around half the body, a half-girding and a narrow covering. ( Ac 19 : 1 2 ) It seems to have been tied around the waist to cover part of the body for a distance below the waist. It may have been worn to protect other garments, perhaps by tradesmen such as fishermen, potters, water carriers, grocers, bakers, and carpenters. The ephod of the priests was considerably differ­ ent, being an apronlike garment that hung from the shoulders, having front and back sections. -Ex 28:6-8; see HIGH PRIEST. The Greek word translated "put on an apron" in Luke 1 7 : 8 (pe·ri·zon 'ny-mai ) literally means "gird oneself about. "-Compare Eph 6 : 14. �

AQABA, GULF OF.

See RED SEA.

AQUILA

( Aq'ui·la) [ from Lat . , meaning "Ea­ gle"]. A natural Jew and native of Pontus in north­ ern Asia Minor. Priscilla, his wife and loyal com­ panion, is always mentioned in association with him. Banished from Rome by Emperor Claudius'

decree against Jews sometime in the year 49 or early 50 c.E. , they took up residence in Corinth. ( Ac 18: 1, 2) When Paul arrived there in the au­ tumn of 50 c.E. , Aquila and Priscilla kindly re­ ceived him into their home. A very close friend­ ship developed among them as they worked together at their common trade of tentmaking and as Aquila and Priscilla doubtless aided Paul in building up the new congregation there.-Ac 18:3. When Paul sailed for Syria a t the end o f his second missionary tour in the spring of about 52 c . E . , Aquila and Priscilla went as far as Ephe­ sus with him. ( Ac 18: 18, 19 ) They remained there at least until Paul wrote to the Corinthians from there about 55 c.E. Their home was used as the local meeting place for the congregation, and there they had the privilege of assisting the elo­ quent Apollos to a more accurate understanding of the way of God. ( l Co 16: 19 ; Ac 1 8 : 2 6 ) By the time Paul wrote to the Romans, about 56 c.E. ,

Timothy to convey his greetings to them there. - l Ti 1 : 3 ; 2Ti 4: 19. [ probably, City ). A city of Moab, possibly its capital. It was on the S side of the Arnon Valley, but its precise location is uncertain. ( Nu 21 : 15 ) At times Ar is used as synonymous with Moab. (De 2 : 18, 9, 29 ) At one time the limits of Moab extend­ ed N of the Amon, but this region was taken from them by King Sihon of the Amorites. ( Nu 21 : 26-28 ) The Israelites did not attack Moab, since Jehovah had forbidden them to do so, having given "the territory of Moab, that is, Ar, " to the sons of Lot as "a holding." (De 2 : 9 , 18, 29 ) In his pronouncement of desolations against Moab, Isa­ iah foretold that Ar would be "silenced" along with the other principal cities of Moab.-Isa 15 : 1 . Since the name Ar probably means "City," some suggest that the "city of Moab" ( Heb. , 'ir Moh'av' ) mentioned at Numbers 2 2 : 36 and also the "city" of Deuteronomy 2 : 36 both refer to Ar.

ARA (A'ra ). A son of Jether of the tribe of Asher. - 1 Ch 7 : 30, 38. ARAB, I

( A'rab) [Ambush). A town in the

mountains of Judah, mentioned along with He­ bron, Dumah, and other cities. (Jos 1 5 :48, 5 2 ) It is identified with Khirbet er-Rabiyeh, lying between Dumah and Carmel, about 12 km ( 7 . 5 mi ) SW of Hebron. Paarai the Arbite ( 2Sa 23 : 35 ) was evi­ dently from this town.

ARAB, II.

See ARABIAN.

ARABAH

(Ar'a·bah) [ Desert Plain]. That part of the extraordinary depression, or rift valley, that

extends toward the S from the slopes of Mount Hermon, cradles the Sea of Galilee and the Jordan River, drops far below sea level to form the basin of the Dead Sea, and then continues on southward to the Gulf of 'Aqaba at the Red Sea. -De 3: 1 7 ; Jos 3 : 16; 11 : 16 ; Jer 52 : 7. This long, narrow, N-S valley, often dry, and containing few cities, is limited on each side by a long row of mountains. It varies in width from less than 1 km to 16 km ( 0 . 5 to 10 mi ) and is 435 km ( 270 mi ) long, owing its existence to a fault line, or

139

long fracture in the earth's crust. The Jordan winds through the northern part of this straight valley, and its steady flow waters a green belt down the center of the valley's floor. South of the Dead Sea, however, the Arabah is fed only by seasonal torrent streams that are insufficient to bring life to the dry soil. Some commentators limit the word "Arabah" to the part of this great rift valley that is S of the Dead Sea, but it also refers to the region at least as far N as the Sea of Galilee, or Chinnereth. (Jos 1 2 : 3 ; 2Sa 2 : 29 ) The part of this valley N of the Dead Sea is now called the Ghor, meaning "De­ pression," while the word "Arabah" is more partic­ ularly applied to the far drier region to the S. The Dead Sea is called "the sea of the Arabah. " ( De 3: 17; 4:49 ; 2Ki 14: 2 5 ) Without the definite article the word 'ara·vah ' is also used in a general sense and may be properly translated as "desert plain. " The plural ( 'ara·voh th ' ) is frequently ap­ plied to the desert plains of Jericho and Moab, the part of the Jordan Valley just N of the Dead Sea. -Nu 22: 1 ; 26:3, 6 3 ; 3 1 : 12 ; Jos 4: 13; 5 : 10 ; Jer 39: 5 .

ARABAH, TORRENT VALLEY O F . At Amos 6: 14 the prophet warns the kingdoms of Judah and Israel that the land will be oppressed by a foreign power all the way from "Hamath down to the torrent valley of the Arabah [Desert Plain]." (Compare 2Ki 14: 25. ) While the term "Ar­ abah" is applied to the entire Rift Valley region from the Sea of Galilee on down to the Red Sea, here it has particular application to the area from S of the Dead Sea down to the Gulf of 'Aqaba. Thus, while the expression "torrent valley of the Arabah" might have reference to a wadi such as the torrent valley of Zered, which empties into the S end of the Dead Sea ( "the sea of the Arabah," De 3 : 17), it is notable that the expression used by Amos is the exact equivalent of the Arabic name applied to the region running from the S end of the Dead Sea to the Gulf of 'Aqaba, namely "Wadi el-'Arabah. " Amos' prophecy indicated a complete overrunning of the entire land once controlled by Judah and Israel, from N to S. During the follow­ ing century this prophecy saw fulfillment in the invasions of Assyrian kings, including Tiglath­ pileser III, Shalmaneser V, Sargon II, and Sen­ nacherib. ARABIA. The Arabian Peninsula forms part of the Asiatic continent at its extreme SW corner. It is bounded on the E by the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman, on the S by the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Aden, and on the W by the Red Sea, while

ARABIA the Fertile Crescent of Mesopotamia, Syria, and Israel curves around its northern end. Surrounded as it is on three sides by water, in part it resem­ bles a huge island and is commonly called by its people the "Island of the Arabs" ( Jazira t aJ-'arab). With an area of about 2,600,000 sq km ( 1 ,000,000 sq mi l, or the equivalent of about one third the land surface of the continental United States, Arabia is the world's largest peninsula. The west­ ern coastline stretches some 2,900 km ( 1 ,800 mi ), and at its widest point the peninsula is about 1 ,900 km ( 1 ,200 mi ) across. The peninsula consists of a rocky tableland slop­ ing eastward down toward the Persian Gulf from its backbone formed by the mountain range run­ ning parallel to the W coast. One peak in the SW comer reaches an altitude of over 3,600 m ( 12,000 ft ) . Across the interior of the southern end of the peninsula lies the great desert called Rub' al-Khali, the largest continuous stretch of sandy area on earth, known as the Empty Quarter. To the N of the Nejd or central plateau is the smaller An Nafud Desert region, which culminates in the Syrian Desert. The small streams found along the outer edges of the peninsula and in the high central plateau ( or Nejd) are not numerous, and their flow is only during certain seasons. Job, who evidently lived in what is today the Syrian Desert region, describes the drying up of such "winter torrents. " -Job 6 : 15-20. Though so much of this vast tableland is arid, sufficient rainfall does occur along the western mountain range, the central plateau, and in the S to sustain a considerable population. Here and around the larger oases the fellahin, or peasant farmers, can produce crops of millet, wheat, bar­ ley, and corn, and here date palms ( Ex 15 : 27 ) and fig trees grow. Acacia trees, producing the resin­ ous gum known as gum arabic, and other aromat­ ic trees and plants formed a major part of the ancient Arabian economy, as they do to a lesser extent in modem times, being eclipsed today by the black gold of petroleum.-Ge 2 : 12. Because of a general scarcity of water, animal and bird life is necessarily reduced, yet sheep, goats, camels, wild asses, jackals, falcons, and eagles live there today, as they did in Bible times. ( Eze 27:21 ; 2Ch 17: 11 ; Jg 6 : 5 ; Job 39 : 5 -8, 26, 27; Isa 60: 7 ; 34: 13 ) Some wildlife, such a s the lion, the wild bull, and the ostrich, have now become ex­ tinct in this territory. ( Job 38: 39, 40; 39 :9-18) Arabian horses are renowned for their beauty and strength to this day-Compare Job 39 : 19-25.

140

ARABIA Arabia eventually became

major importance to occur in Arabia was the giv­

the home of many of the post-Flood families listed

ing of the Law covenant at Mount Sinai in the

at Genesis chapter 10. In the Semitic branch, Jok­

southern part of the Sinai Peninsula, where the

tan fathered the heads of some 13 different Arabi­

liberated nation of Israel had congregated. ( Ex

Arabian Tribes.

an tribes ; while three of Aram's descendants, Uz,

19 : 1 , 2 ) Thus, the apostle Paul some 15 centuries

Gether, and Mash, appear to have settled in the

later referred to the event as taking place at "Sinai,

area of N Arabia and the Syrian Desert. ( Ge 10: 23,

a mountain in Arabia. "- Ga 4 : 25.

26-29 ) The tent-dwelling Ishmaelites ranged from

In view of the present state of Arabia in general,

the Sinai Peninsula, across N Arabia and as far as

the picture of perhaps some three million Israel­

Assyria. ( Ge 2 5 : 1 3 - 1 8 ) The Midianites were locat­

ites living for 40 years in the wilderness may

ed mainly in the NW part of Arabia just E of the

seem a near impossibility.

Gulf of 'Aqaba. ( Ge 2 5 : 4 ) Esau's descendants were

major factor, of course, was the miraculous provi­

( Ex 12 : 37, 38) The

based in the mountainous region of Edom to the

sion of food and water assured them by Jehovah.

SE of the Dead Sea. ( Ge 36 : 8, 9, 40-43 ) From the

( De 8 : 2-4; Nu 20 : 7, 8) Although the conditions

Hamitic branch several descendants of Cush, in­

were clearly difficult and the scarcity of water is

cluding Havilah, Sabtah, Raamah and his sons

obviously indicated in the Scriptural account ( Nu

Sheba and Dedan, and Sabteca, seem to have occupied mainly the southern part of the Arabian Peninsula. -Ge 10:7. Ancient Assyrian and Babylonian inscriptions make mention of various tribes of Arabia. Shal­ maneser III lists "Gindibu', from Arabia. " Zabibe and Samsi are mentioned as Arabian queens in the inscriptions of Tiglath-pileser III. Sargon II mentions "Samsi, queen of Arabia ( and ) It'amar the Sabaean. " Other cuneiform inscriptions refer to the Sabai, the Nabaiti, the Qidri, and the Idibaili, the Masai, and the Temai.- Compare Ge 2 5 : 3, 13- 15.

Biblical References.

Hadhramaut, one of the

four major ancient kingdoms of South Arabia, is usually identified with Hazarmaveth of Genesis 10 : 26. The Wadi Hadhramaut, a long valley run­ ning parallel to the S coast of Arabia, was the center of the kingdom with its capital at Shabwa. Other Biblical names occurring as places in Arabia are Dedan, Tema, Dumah, and Buz.-Isa 21 : 1 1 - 14; Jer 2 5 : 23, 24. Abraham skirted around Arabia in migrating

20:4, 5 ), there is, nevertheless, reason to believe that at that time, some 3,500 years in the past, the water supply in Arabia was to some extent supe­ rior to what it is at the present time. The existence of many deep dry wadis, or valleys, which were once riverbeds, gives evidence that at some time in the past there was sufficient rainfall to produce streams of water coursing through them. The disappearance of certain forms of animal life may be due in part to the decrease in the water supply. Yet, basically, Arabia was then just what it is now: an arid land, or steppe. Out of Arabia during the period of the Judges came hordes of camel-riding Midianites, Amalek­ ites, and "Easterners" to ravage the land of Israel. ( Jg 6 : 1 - 6 ) Such razzias, or sudden raids, have always been the principal method of warfare in Arabia. ( 2Ch 2 2 : 1 ) The camel, whose domestica­ tion is believed to have been effected in Arabia, was in use as a mode of transportation at least as early as the time of Abraham. ( Ge 24: 1 -4, 10, 61 , (4 ) Because of the great superiority of the camel over the ass for extended desert travel, its domes­ tication is considered to have accomplished some­

from Ur of the Chaldeans to the land of Canaan.

what of an economic revolution for Arabia, con­

When later obliged to go down to Egypt, he may

tributing to the development of the so-called "Spice Kingdoms" of South Arabia.

have passed through part of Arabia by traversing the northern portion of the Sinai Peninsula ( in­ stead of following the route along the Mediter­ ranean Coast ), as also on his return trip.

( Ge

1 2 : 10; 1 3 : 1 ) The drama of the book of Job has its setting in the land of Uz in northern Arabia ( Job 1 : 1 ), and the Sabean raiders who attacked the property of this "greatest of all the Orientals" were

Camel caravans out of the more fertile S wound along the desert routes that ran parallel to the Red Sea, moving from oasis to oasis and from well to well until reaching the Sinai Peninsula, from which point they could branch off to Egypt or continue up into Palestine or to Damascus. Besides their highly prized spices and aromatic resins,

an Arabian tribe perhaps descended from Joktan.

such as frankincense and myrrh ( Isa 60 : 6 ), they

( Job 1 : 3 ; Ge 10 : 26-28) Job's three "comforters" and Elihu also appear to have come from Arabian

might carry gold and algum wood from Ophir ( l Ki 9 : 28 ; 10 : 1 1 ) and precious gems, as did the queen

sectors. (Job 2 : 11 ; 3 2 : 2 ) Moses spent 40 years in

of Sheba on her visit to King Solomon.

Arabia when sojourning with the Midianite Jeth­

10: 1 - 10,

ro. ( Ex 2 : 15-3 : 1 ; Ac 7 : 29, 30 ) The next event of

Persian Gulf abound with pearl oysters. Since the

15;

( 1Ki

2Ch 9 : 1 -9 , 14) The waters of the

ARAD

141 SW corner of Arabia is separated from Africa by a

bia, that immense land to the E and S of Palestine.

narrow strait of water only about 32 km ( 20 mi )

At times the context and use imply a specific tribe

across, products from Ethiopia ( 2Ch 21 : 16 ), such

or ethnic group. - l Ki 10: 1 5 ; 2Ch 9 : 14; 21 : 16.

as ivory and ebony, could also have been included in the wares of these traveling merchants. -Eze 27: 15. Nabonidus, the Babylonian king whose son Bel­ shazzar was ruling in Babylon at the time of its fall

p

( 5 39 B.c.E. ), s ent ten years in the oasis city of Taima ( Tema ) in the northern part of the central plateau of Arabia.-See TEMA No. 2. During the fifth century B.c.E., Palestine was subject to considerable influence from Arabia, as is seen by the references to "Geshem the Arabian" at Nehemiah 2 : 19 and 6 : 1 -7. The Himyarite Kingdom, which gained control of South Arabia about 115 B.c.E. , had its capital at Zafar ( suggested by some to be the Sephar of Genesis 10:30). To the N the Nabataeans ( possibly descended from Nebaioth of Genesis 2 5 : 1 3 ), with their capital at Petra in the rocky gorges of Edom, became powerful from the fourth century B.C.E. onward.

In

time

they

extended

their control

throughout the S part of the Negeb and

up

through Moab and the region E of the Jordan. During some years of the first century B.c.E. and again in the first century c.E. they ruled over Damascus. Their king Aretas IV ( c. 9 B.c.E.40 c.E. ) is mentioned at 2 Corinthians 1 1 : 3 2 with regard to Paul's escape from Damascus, described at

Acts

9 : 23-25.

Herod

Antipas

married

the

daughter of Aretas IV but divorced her in order to marry Herodias.-Mr 6 : 1 7 ; see ARETAS. Paul says that following his conversion he "went off into Arabia, and . . . came back again to Damascus. " ( Ga 1 : 17 ) Such a journey may have been into the neighboring area of the Syrian Des­ ert, though the term would also allow for its being in any part of the Arabian Peninsula. During the first century B.c. E . , Palmyra to the NE of Damascus began to develop as an Arab

center and in time surpassed Petra qS a trading state. In 270 c . E . , under Queen Zenobia, the Pal­ myrene army occupied Egypt and became a seri­ ous rival to Rome until defeated in 272 c.E.

Language. The language of the peoples of Arabia is a member of the South Semitic group

A number of Arabian tribes were Semitic, de­ scending from Shem through Joktan; others were Hamitic, descending through Ham's son Cush. ( Ge 10:6, 7, 26-30) Some of Abraham's descendants by Hagar and Keturah also came to dwell in Ara­ bia, as the sons of Ishmael who "took up taberna­ cling from Havilah near Shur, which is in front of Egypt, as far as Assyria. " ( Ge 2 5 : 1 -4, 12-18) Esau's offspring, dwelling in the mountainous re­ gion of Seir, also came within the general classifi­ cation of Arabian.-Ge 36 : 1 -43. For the most part the Arabians were a wander­ ing people who led a pastoral life, dwelling in tents. ( Isa 13 : 20 ; Jer 3 : 2 ) Others, however, were traders, and some are mentioned as merchants for Tyre. ( Eze 27: 21 ) God's servants had numerous contacts with them. The Midianite merchants on their way to Egypt to whom Joseph was sold were Arabian, as were the Sabeans from S Arabia who raided Job's cattle and she-asses. ( Ge 37 : 28 ; Job 1 : I , 15 ) During their 40-year trek in the wilder­

ness the Israelites came into calamitous contact with the Baal-worshiping Midianites ( Nu 2 5 : 6 , 14 - 18 ) , and during the period o f the Judges, hordes of camel-riding Arabians regularly raided Israel for seven years, until Judge Gideon severely defeated them.-Jg 6 : 1 - 6 ; 7 : 12-25. Rulers of Arabian kingdoms paid tribute to King Solomon. ( 1 Ki 10 : 15 ; 2Ch 9 : 14 ) The Arabs paid Jehoshaphat a tribute of 7,700 rams and an equal number of he-goats, but they later allied them­ selves with the Philistines against Jehoshaphat's son and successor Jehoram, their marauder bands killing many of his sons. ( 2Ch 17: 11 ; 21 : 16 ; 2 2 : 1 ) Uzziah waged successful warfare against them during his reign. ( 2Ch 2 6 : 1 , 7) Arabian opposers were among those causing difficulty to Nehemiah during the restoration of Jerusalem's walls.-Ne 2 : 19 ; 4 : 7,

8;

6: 1 .

Though nomadic, generally independent, and often quite isolated from the mainstream of activ­

ity of those times, the Arabs came in for prophetic attention and judgment by God. ( Isa 21 : 1 3 ; Jer 2 5 : 17-24 ) Centuries later, some Arabians were

and has remained more stable than the other Semitic languages. It has, therefore, proved help­

perhaps among those becoming members of the

ful in improving the understanding of many ex­ pressions and words in the ancient Hebrew of the

2 : 1 1 , 41 ; see ARABIA.

Bible.

ARJ.\D

ARABIAN

early Christian congregation at Pentecost.-Ac

( A'rad ).

1 . One of the headmen of the tribe of Benjamin

( Ara'bi·an ). The names Arab and Arabian in the Scriptures are used chiefly in a

who

broad sense as applying to an inhabitant of Ar�-

8 : 15, 28.

at

one

time

lived

in

Jerusalem. - l Ch

142

ARAB 2. A city on the southern

border of Canaan, whose king attacked Israel as they ap­ proached Canaan. The Isra­ elites devoted the district to destruction and called it "Hor­ mah," meaning "A Devoting to Destruction. " ( Nu 2 1 : 1 -3 ; 33:40 ) They did not then set­ tle there, however, and evi­ dently some of the inhab­ itants escaped destruction. Hence, the king of Arad is in­ cluded in the list of 31 kings later vanquished in Joshua's whirlwind campaign. (Jos 1 2 : 1 4 ) The Kenites later settled in the wilderness area to the S of Arad. -Jg 1 : 16. Israelite Arad is generally identified with Tel 'Arad, one of the most imposing mounds in the Negeb region. It lies on a somewhat rolling plain about 28 km ( 17 mi ) E of Beer-sheba. Excavations at Tel 'Arad uncovered some 200 Ruins of a fortress at Tel 'Arad. Among the Hebrew ostraca ostraca, about half of them in found near here is one that men tions "the house of Jehovah " Hebrew and the rest in Ar­ amaic. One such Hebrew 2. The son of Kemuel and a grandson of Nahor, potsherd, said to be from the second half of the the latter being Abraham's brother. Aram was, seventh century B.c.E. , reads: "To my lord Elia­ shib: May Jehovah ask for your peace. . . . He therefore, a grandnephew of Abraham and a first cousin once removed of Isaac. Rebekah, the dwells in the house of Jehovah. "-PICTURE, Vol. 1 , daughter of Aram's uncle Bethuel, was Aram's p. 325. Because of the absence of late Canaanite first cousin. Nahor's family did not leave Mesopo­ tamia with Abraham, but years later "the report remains at Tel 'Arad, Y. Aharoni suggests that Canaanite Arad was located at Tell el-Milh ( Tel got through to Abraham" of Nahor's progeny, in­ cluding news of Aram.-Ge 2 2 : 20-23 ; 11 : 27, 31 ; Malhata), 12 km ( 7 mi ) SW of Tel 'Arad. 24:4, 10. ARAH ( A'rah). 3. One of the four "sons of Shemer" ( Shomer) of 1. A son of UIla of the tribe of Asher. - 1 Ch 7 : 30, 39.

2. Head of a family whose members returned to Jerusalem from Babylon with Zerubbabel. ( Ezr 2 : 1, 2, 5 ; Ne 7:6, 7, 10) Father, or forefather, of Shecaniah, the father-in-law of Tobiah the Am­ monite.-Ne 6 : 18.

ARAM

( A'ram ).

1. The last son listed of Shem's five sons. Aram and his four sons, Uz, Hul, Gether, and Mash, constituted 5 of the 70 post-Flood families, and their descendants were the Aramaeans and Syri­ ans.-Ge 10:22, 2 3 ; 1 Ch 1 : 17.

the tribe of Asher, and listed among the "heads of the house of the forefathers, select, valiant, mighty men, heads of the chieftains. " ( 1 Ch 7 : 31, 3 2 , 34, 40 ) Both Aram and his father were born in Egypt, since his grandfather and great­ grandfather were numbered among the offspring of Jacob who 'came into Egypt. '-Ge 46:8, 17. 4 . In the King James Version, Aram occurs at Matthew 1 : 3, 4 and at Luke 3 : 33.-See ARNI ; RAM No. 1 . 5 . The name Aram i s used i n a geographic sense, by itself and in conjunction with other terms, to refer to regions in which the descen­ dants of Aram ( No. 1 ) were concentrated.

ARAM

143

Aram, used. alone, basically applies to Syria and is generally so translated.. (Jg 10 : 6 ; 2Sa 8:6, 1 2 ; 1 5 : 8 ; Ho 12: 12) It included the region from the Lebanon Mountains across to Mesopotamia and from the Taurus Mountains in the N down to Damascus and beyond in the S.-See SYRIA. Aram-naharaim ( Ps 60:Sup) is generally trans­ lated. with the Greek word "Mesopotamia," which is understood to refer to "land between rivers. " The two rivers were the Euphrates and the Tigris. Stephen speaks of Abraham as living in Mesopota­ mia while yet down in Ur of the Chaldeans ( Ac 7 : 2 ), and when sending his servant to seek a wife for Isaac many years later, Abraham told him to go to the city of Nahor in (Upper) Mesopotamia ( Aram-naharaim). (Ge 24: 2-4, 10 ) Balaam of Pe­ thor was also from a mountainous region in the northern part of Mesopotamia.-De 23:4; com­ pare Nu 2 3 : 7 ; see MESOPOTAMIA. Paddan-aram is used. particularly with reference to the area around the city of Haran in Upper Mesopotamia.-Ge 25 : 20 ; 28: 2-7, 10; see PADDAN. The Aramaeans, Semitic descendants of Aram, were to be found throughout all these areas. Addi­ tionally, the name of Uz, one of Aram's four sons, is applied. to the area of the Arabian Desert east of the Promised Land and touching on the borders of Edom. (Job 1 : 1 ; La 4 : 21 ) Aramaic, the language of the Aramaeans, was closely related. to Hebrew and in time became an international language of both trade and diplomacy throughout the regions of the Fertile Crescent. -2Ki 18: 26 ; see ARAMAIC.

velopment of the nation of Israel. Cushan­ rishathaim, a king from Aram-naharaim (Meso­ potamia ), subjugated Israel for eight years until Judge Othniel liberated. them.-Jg 3 : 8 - 10.

Aram -Zobah was an Aramaean kingdom re­ ferred to as an enemy of Saul's rule ( 11171078 B.c.E. ). ( 1Sa 14:47 ) It appears to have been situated to the N of Damascus and exercised do­ minion N as far as Hamath and E to the Euphra­ tes. When David was fighting Israel's enemies he came into conflict with Hadadezer, powerful king of Aram-Zobah, and defeated him. ( 2Sa 8 : 3 , 4 ; l Ch 18: 3 ; compare P s 60 :Sup. ) Subsequent t o this, the Aramaean marauder Rezon moved into power at Damascus, and this city soon became the most prominent Aramaean city ( 1Ki 1 1 : 23-25 ) and "the head of Syria." (lsa 7 : 8 ) As such it manifested active hostility toward Israel throughout the en­ tire history of the northern kingdom.-See DA ­ MASCUS. Aram-maacah is mentioned along with Zobah, Rehob, and Ishtob as among the Aramaean king­ doms from which the Ammonites hired. chariots and horsemen to war against David. The king of Aram-maacah joined these mercenary forces, which David's army soon put to flight. ( l Ch 19: 6-15 ; 2Sa 10:6-14) The kingdom of Maacah probably lay E of the Jordan, with Mount Hermon on its N side.-Jos 1 2 : 5 ; 13 : 11 . Geshur was a small Aramaean kingdom to the E of the Jordan and evidently just below Maacah,

It was doubtless due to Jacob's 20-year residence in Aram with his Ara­ maean father-in-law La­ ban that Deuteronomy 26: 5 speaks of him as a "Syrian" (literally, an "Ar­ amaean" ). Additionally, Jacob's mother Rebekah was an Aramaean, as were his wives Leah and Rachel. The Israelites were therefore closely re­ lated. indeed to the Aramaeans. Aramaean Kingdoms.

Aramaean kingdoms be­ gin to be mentioned. in the Bible record contem­ poraneously with the de-

ARAM

144

ARAMAEAN with its S boundaries extending down to the E side of the Sea of Galilee. Like Maacah, it lay within the territory assigned to the tribe of Manasseh.-De 3: 14; Jos 13: 11 ; see GESHUR No. 1 . By David's conquest of Aramaean kingdoms he extended the boundaries of his kingdom far to the N so that it reached to the Euphrates River, not far from Haran of Paddan-aram. He thus fulfilled Je­ hovah's promise concerning the extent of Israel's inheritance in the Promised Land.-De 1 : 7 ; 11 : 24; Jos 1 :4. For further information concerning Israel's rela­ tions with Aram, see SYRlA.

ARAMAEAN.

See ARAM Nos. 1 and 5 .

ARAMAIC (Ar·a·ma'ic). A n ancient Semitic language having a close relationship to Hebrew and originally spoken by the Aramaeans. (See ARAM No. 5. ) With the passing of time, however, it came to embrace various dialects ( some of them viewed as separate languages) and enjoyed wide use, especially in SW Asia. Aramaic was employed particularly from the second millennium B.c.E. to about 500 c.E. It is one of the three languages in which the Bible was originally written. The Hebrew word 'Ara·mith ' occurs five times and is translated "in the Syrian language" or "in the Aramaic language."-2Ki 18:26; Isa 36: 1 1 ; Da 2:4; Ezr 4:7 (twice). Biblical Aramaic, formerly called Chaldee, is found in Ezra 4:8 to 6 : 18 and 7 : 12-26 ; Jeremiah 10: 11 ; and Daniel 2:4b to 7:28. Aramaic expres­ sions also appear in other parts of the Bible, but many of the attempts of scholars to identify Ara­ maic sources for Hebrew words are simply conjec­ tural. The use of some Aramaic expressions is not surprising, for the Hebrews had close contact with the Aramaeans and with the Aramaic language for a long time. Among the earliest renditions of the Hebrew Scriptures into other languages were the Aramaic Targums, though they were not put into writing until several centuries after the pro­ duction of the Greek Septuagint commenced, about 280 B.c.E. The Language. Aramaic and Hebrew are both classified as being in the Northwest Semi tic family of languages. Though Aramaic differs con­ siderably from Hebrew, it is a cognate language having the same letters in its alphabet with the same names as the Hebrew. Like Hebrew, it is written from right to left, and originally the Ara­ maic script was consonantal. However, the Ara­ maic employed in the Bible was later vowel point­ ed by the Masoretes, just as they vowel pointed

the Hebrew. Aramaic has been influenced by its contact with other languages. Besides containing various Hebrew, Akkadian, and Persian proper names of localities and persons, Biblical Aramaic shows Hebrew influence in religious terms, Akka­ dian influence particularly in political and finan­ cial terms, and Persian influence in such terms as those relating to political and legal matters. Aramaic, in addition to having the same script as Hebrew, bears a similarity to it in verbal, nom­ inal, and pronominal inflections. The verbs have two states, the imperfect (denoting incompleted action) and the perfect ( signifying completed ac­ tion). Aramaic employs singular, dual, and plural nouns and has two genders, the masculine and the feminine. It differs from other Semitic languages by displaying a preference for the vowel sound a, and in other ways, including certain consonantal preferences, such as d for z and t for sh. Basic divisions. Aramaic is generally divided into Western and Eastern groups. However, from a historical standpoint the following four groups have been recognized : Old Aramaic, Official Ara­ maic, Levantine Aramaic, and Eastern Aramaic. It has been suggested that likely various dialects of Aramaic were spoken around and within the Fer­ tile Crescent and Mesopotamia during the sec­ ond millennium B.C.E. A difference between ear­ ly forms of Aramaic and Hebrew may be noted at Genesis 31:47. After Jacob and Laban effected a reconciliation, a heap of stones was set up as a witness between them. Laban called it "Jegar­ sahadutha" in Aramaic (Syrian), while Jacob called it "Galeed" in Hebrew, both expressions meaning "Witness Heap. " Old Aramaic i s a name applied to certain in­ scriptions discovered in northern Syria and said to date from the tenth to the eighth centuries B.c.E. Gradually, however, a new dialect of Aramaic became the lingua franca or the international aux­ iliary language during the time of the Assyrian Empire, supplanting Akkadian as the language used for official governmental correspondence with outlying areas of the empire. In view of its use, this standard form of Aramaic is referred to as Official Aramaic. It continued to be employed during the time Babylon was the World Power (625-539 B.c.E. ) and thereafter, during the time of the Persian Empire ( 5 38-331 B.c.E. ). Especially did it then enjoy wide usage, being the official language of government and business over a wide area, as archaeological discoveries attest. It ap­ pears in dockets on cuneiform tablets ; on ostraca, papyri, seals, coins; in inscriptions on stone, and so forth. These artifacts have been found in such lands as Mesopotamia, Persia, Egypt, Anatolia,

145

ARAMAIC

northern Arabia; in regions as far N as the Ural

much debated. We have no certain way of know­

Mountains ; and to the E as distant as Afghanistan

ing whether he could speak Greek or Latin, but in

and Kurdistan. The use of Official Aramaic contin­

his teaching ministry he regularly used either

ued during the Hellenistic period ( 3 23-30 B.c.E. ) .

Aramaic or the highly Aramaized popular He­

I t seems that i t i s this Official Aramaic that is found in the writings of Ezra, Jeremiah, and Dan­ iel. The Scriptures also give evidence of the fact that Aramaic was a lingua franca of those ancient times. Thus, in the eighth century B.c.E. , appoint­ ed spokesmen for King Hezekiah of Judah ap­ pealed to Assyrian King Sennacherib's represen­ tative Rabshakeh, saying: "Speak, please, to your

brew. When Paul addressed the mob in the Tem­ ple, it is said that he spoke Hebrew ( Acts 21 :40). Scholars generally have taken this to mean Ara­ maic, but it is quite possible that a popular He­ brew was then the common tongue among the Jews. "-BibJicaJ Archaeology, 1963, p. 243. It is possible that Jesus and his early disciples, such as the apostle Peter, at least at times spoke

servants in the Syrian [Aramaean, and hence,

Galilean Aramaic, Peter being told on the night

not speak to us in the Jews' language in the ears

are one of them, for, in fact, your dialect gives you

Aramaic 1 language, for we are listening ; and do of the people that are on the wall. " (Isa 36: 1 1 ; 2Ki

18 : 26 ) The officials of Judah understood Aramaic, or Syrian, but evidently it was not understood by the common people among the Hebrews at that time in Jerusalem. A number of years after the Jews returned from Babylonian exile Ezra the priest read the book of the Law to Jews assembled in Jerusalem, and various Levites explained it to the people, Nehemi­ ah 8:8 stating: "They continued reading aloud from the book, from the law of the true God, it being expounded, and there being a putting of meaning into it ; and they continued giving under­ standing in the reading. " This expounding or in­ terpreting may have involved paraphrasing the Hebrew text into Aramaic, Aramaic possibly hav­ ing been adopted by the Hebrews when in Bab­ ylon. The expounding also, no doubt, involved exposition so that the Jews, even if understanding the Hebrew, would comprehend the deep signif­ icance of what was being read.

What Language Did Jesus Speak?

On this

question there is considerable difference of opin­ ion among scholars.

However, concerning lan­

guages used in Palestine when Jesus Christ was on earth, Professor G. Ernest Wright states: "Various languages were undoubtedly to be heard on the streets of the major cities. Greek and Aramaic

Christ was taken into custody: "Certainly you also away. " ( Mt 26 : 73 ) This may have been said be­ cause the apostle was using Galilean Aramaic at the time, though that is not certain, or he may have been speaking a Galilean Hebrew that dif­ fered dialectally from that employed in Jerusalem or elsewhere in Judea. Earlier, when Jesus came to Nazareth in Galilee and entered the synagogue there, he read from the prophecy of Isaiah, evi­ dently as written in Hebrew, and then said : "To­ day this scripture that you just heard is fulfilled . " Nothing i s said about Jesus' translating this pas­ sage into Aramaic. So it is likely that persons present on that occasion could readily understand Biblical Hebrew. ( Lu 4: 16-21 ) It may also be noted that Acts 6: 1 , referring to a time shortly after Pentecost 33 c.E. , mentions Greek-speaking Jews and Hebrew-speaking Jews in Jerusalem. Professor Harris Birkeland

Jesus,

( The Language of

Oslo, 1954, pp. 10, 1 1 ) points out that Ara­

maic's being the written language of Palestine when Jesus was on earth does not necessarily mean that it was spoken by the masses. Also, the fact that the Elephantine Papyri belonging to a Jewish colony in Egypt were written in Aramaic does not prove that it was the chief or common tongue in their homeland, for Aramaic was then an international literary language. Of course, the Christian Greek Scriptures contain a number of Aramaisms, Jesus using some Aramaic words, for

were evidently the common tongues, and most of

instance. However, as Birkeland argues, perhaps

the urban peoples could probably understand both

Jesus ordinarily spoke the popular Hebrew, while

even in such 'modern' or 'western' cities as Caesa­

occasionally using Aramaic expressions.

rea and Samaria where Greek was the more com­ mon. Roman soldiers and officials might be heard

While it may not be provable, as Birkeland con­ tends, that the common people were illiterate as

conversing in Latin, while orthodox Jews may well

far as Aramaic was concerned, it does seem that

have spoken a late variety of Hebrew with one

when Luke, an educated physician, records that

another, a language that we know to have been

Paul spoke to the Jews 'in Hebrew' and when the apostle said the voice from heaven spoke to him 'in

neither classical Hebrew nor Aramaic, despite its similarities to both. " Commenting further, on the language spoken by Jesus Christ, Professor Wright says: "The language spoken by Jesus has been

Hebrew,' a form of Hebrew was actually meant ( though perhaps not the ancient Hebrew ) and not Aramaic.-Ac 2 2 : 2 ; 26: 14.

ARAM-MAACAH

146

Lending further support to the use of a form of Hebrew in Palestine when Jesus Christ was on earth are early indications that the apostle Mat­ thew first wrote his Gospel account in Hebrew. For instance, Eusebius (of the third and fourth centuries c.E. ) said that "the evangelist Matthew delivered his Gospel in the Hebrew tongue." (Pa­ trologia Graeca, Vol. XXII, col. 941 ) And Jerome ( of the fourth and fifth centuries c.E. ) stated in his work De viris inlustribus ( Concerning Illustrious Men), chapter III : "Matthew, who is also Levi, and who from a publican came to be an apostle, first of all composed a Gospel of Christ in Judaea in the Hebrew language and characters for the benefit of those of the circumcision who had believed . . . . Moreover, the Hebrew itself is preserved to this day in the library at Caesarea, which the mar­ tyr Pamphilus so diligently collected. " (Transla­ tion from the Latin text edited by E. C. Richardson and published in the series "Texte und Untersu­ chungen zur Geschichte der altchristlichen Litera­ tur," Leipzig, 1896, Vol. 14, pp. 8, 9. ) Hence, Jesus Christ as a man on earth could well have used a form of Hebrew and a dialect of Aramaic. -See HEBREW, II.

ARAM-MAACAH.

See ARAM No. 5.

ARAM-NAHARAIM .

See ARAM No. 5.

reference to Ararat as "Urartu. " An inscription of Esar-haddon, another son of Sennacherib and suc­ cessor to the Assyrian throne, says that he defeat­ ed his patricidal brothers' armies at Hanigalbat, in the area of Armenia. On the basis of these inscrip­ tions and the association by Jeremiah of Ararat with the kingdoms of Minni and Ashkenaz, it appears that the land of Ararat was situated in the mountainous region of Lake Van in ancient Ar­ menia, with the headwaters of the Tigris River to the S and the Caucasus Mountains to the N. The name Ararat is specifically applied to the culminating mountain of this region, and it is the traditional resting-place of Noah's ark. There are two conical peaks about 11 km ( 7 mi) apart and separated by a deep depression. The higher of the peaks rises some 5, 165 m ( 16,950 ft) above sea level and is covered with perpetual snow for the last 900 m ( 3 ,000 ft) up to its summit. The lower peak, to the SE, is 3,914 m ( 12,840 ft ) above sea level. The loftier peak is of particularly difficult ascent and was first ascended by Parrot in 1829. Many place-names in the region recall the Biblical account. Mount Ararat itself is called by the Thrks Aghri Dagh ( Mount of the Ark) and by the Per­ sians Koh-i-nuh (Noah's Mountain).-See ARK No. 1 .

ARARAT

ARAUNAH (Arau'nah ) . The Jebusite owner of the threshing floor purchased by King David for building an altar to Jehovah. This action result­ ed as the divinely indicated means of ending a scourge provoked by David's numbering of the people.-2Sa 24 : 16-2 5 ; 1 Ch 21 : 15-28.

Following the Flood, Noah's ark settled on "the mountains of Ararat. " (Ge 8:4) In the reign of King Hezekiah, it was to "the land of Ararat" that Sen­ nacherib's sons, Adrammelech and Sharezer, fled after murdering their father. ( 2Ki 19 : 37 ; Isa 37: 38) Jeremiah foretold that Ararat would be among "the kingdoms" to come up against Babylon at the time of her destruction, in the sixth century B.c.E. (Jer 51 : 27 ) These latter Scriptural references indi­ cate a land N of Assyria. Eusebius, Jerome, and the majority of other early "Christian" writers considered Ararat as equivalent to Armenia, and the Greek Septuagint rendering of Isaiah 37:38 and the Latin Vulgate reading of 2 Kings 19 : 37 so represent it. Numerous Assyrian inscriptions from the reigns of Shalmaneser 1, Ashurnasirpal II, Shalmaneser III, Tiglath-pileser III, and Sargon II in the ninth and eighth centuries B.c. E. make

Araunah apparently offered the place, along with cattle and wood implements for the sacrifice, without charge, but David insisted on paying a price. The record at 2 Samuel 24: 24 shows that David purchased the threshing floor and the cattle for 50 silver shekels ( $ 110). However, the account at 1 Chronicles 21 : 2 5 speaks of David's paying 600 gold shekels ( c. $77,000) for the site. The writer of Second Samuel deals only with the purchase as it relates to the altar location and the materials for the sacrifice then made, and it thus appears that the purchase price referred to by him was restrict­ ed to these things. On the other hand, the writer of First Chronicles discusses matters as relating to the temple later built on the site and associates the purchase with that construction. ( 1 Ch 2 2 : 1-6; 2Ch 3 : 1) Since the entire temple area was very large, it appears that the sum of 600 gold shekels applies to the purchase of this large area rather than to the small portion needed for the altar first built by David.

ARAM-ZOBAH.

See ARAM No. 5.

ARAN (A'ran). A son of Sheik Dishan; descen­ dant of Seir the Horite.-Ge 36: 20, 28; 1 Ch 1 :42. (Ar'a·rat ). The name applied to a re­ gion and also to a mountain range in what is now eastern Thrkey, lying close to the borders of Iran and the U.S.S.R.

147

ARCHAEOLOGY

A natural stone scarp still exists today under the Muslim Dome of the Rock occupying part of

Some Major Sites and Finds .

Archaeology

has served to confirm many historical features of

the original temple site, and this stone may repre­

the Biblical account with regard to these lands and

sent the early threshing floor of Araunah.

to substantiate points once held in question by

In the Chronicles record Araunah is called Or­ nan . - l Ch 2 1 : 18-28 ; 2Ch 3 : l .

Babel, denials of the existence of a Babylonian

ARBA

( Ar'ba ) [Four]. He i s called "the father"

or "the great man" of the Anakim and appears to have been the founder of Kiriath-arba, later called Hebron. (Jos 14: 1 5 ; 1 5 : 1 3 ; 21 : 1 1 ) Some consider Anak to be a name applying to the giant race descended from Arba rather than to be the per­ sonal name of Arba's son and thus view Arba as the actual progenitor of the Anakim. -See ANAK ; ANAKIM.

ARBATHITE

(Ar'bath·ite) [ Of (Belonging to )

Beth-arabah]. One belonging to the wilderness city of Beth-arabah (Jos 1 5 :61 ), a city situated near Jericho in the District of the Jordan Valley. ( Jos 1 8 : 2 1 , 2 2 ) One of David's mighty men of war, Abi-albon, or Abiel, was an Arbathite.-2Sa 2 3 : 8, 31 ; l Ch 1 1 : 10, 32. of

at some unspecified time by Shalman. (Ho 10: 14 )

This place is usually linked with Irbid, located about 29 km ( 18 mi ) SE of the Sea of Galilee, hence in Gilead. ( Ar/bite ). A native of the city of Arab,

located near Hebron in the mountainous region of Judah. Paarai, one of David's mighty men, was an Arbite .-2Sa 2 3 : 8 , 35.

ARCHAEOLOGY.

king named Belshazzar and of an Assyrian king named Sargon ( whose names, up until the nine­ teenth century c.E., were not found in sources independent of the Bible record ) , and other ad­ verse criticisms as to Bible data relating to these lands have all been demonstrated to be without foundation. Contrariwise, a wealth of evidence has been unearthed that harmonizes fully with the Scriptural account.

Babylonia. Excavations in and around the an­ cient city of Babylon have revealed the sites of several ziggurats, or pyramidlike, staged temple­ towers, including the ruined temple of Etemenan­ ki inside Babylon's walls. Records and inscriptions found concerning such temples often contain the words, "Its top shall reach the heavens," and King Nebuchadnezzar is recorded as saying: "I raised

ARB EL, HOUSE OF (Ar'bel ) . The house Arbel ( " Beth-arbel, " AT, lB, RS) was despoiled

ARB ITE

modern critics. Skepticism as regards the Tower of

the summit of the Tower of stages at Etemenanki so that its top rivalled the heavens . " One fragment found N of the temple of Marduk in Babylon relat­ ed the fall of such a ziggurat in these words: "The building of this temple offended the gods. In a night they threw down what had been built. They scattered them abroad, and made strange their speech. The progress they impeded . "

Spade,

(Bible and

by S. L. Caiger, 1938, p. 29 ) The ziggurat

located at Uruk ( Biblical Erech) was found to be built with clay, bricks, and asphalt. -Compare Ge

Biblical archaeology is the

study of the peoples and events of the Bible through the intriguing record buried in the earth. The archaeologist digs up and analyzes rock, ru­ ined walls and buildings, and shattered cities as well as uncovers pottery, clay tablets, written inscriptions, tombs, and other ancient remains, or artifacts, from which he gleans information. Such studies often improve understanding of the cir­ cumstances under which the Bible was written and under which ancient men of faith lived, as

1 1 : 1 -9. Near the Ishtar Gate in Babylon some 300 cu­ neiform tablets were uncovered relating to the period of King Nebuchadnezzar's reign. Among lists of the names of workers and captives then living in Babylon to whom provisions were given appears that of "Yaukin, king of the land of Ya­ hud," that is, "Jehoiachin, the king of the land of Judah," who was taken to Babylon at the time of Nebuchadnezzar's conquest of Jerusalem in 617 B.c.E. He was released from the house of

well as the languages they, and the peoples around them, employed. They have expanded our knowledge of all the regions touched by the Bible: Palestine, Egypt, Persia, Assyria, Babylonia, Asia

detention by Awil-Marduk (Evil-merodach ), Neb­

Minor, Greece, and Rome.

- I Ch 3 : 17, 18.

uchadnezzar's successor, and was given a daily allowance of food. ( 2Ki 2 5 : 27-30 ) Five of Jehoia­ chin's sons are also mentioned on these tablets.

Biblical archaeology is relatively a new science.

Abundant evidence has been found of Babylon's

Only in 1822 did decipherment of the Rosetta Stone unlock Egyptian hieroglyphics. Assyrian cu­

pantheon of gods, including the chief god Marduk,

neiform was decoded more than 20 years later. Systematic excavations were begun in Assyria in 1843 and in Egypt in 1850.

commonly referred to later as Bel, and the god Nebo, both mentioned at Isaiah 46: 1 , 2. Much of the information on Nebuchadnezzar's own inscrip­ tions deals with his vast building program that

ARCHAEOLOGY

148

made Babylon such a magnificent city. ( Compare

ars, Sargon II is now one of the best known of the

Da 4 : 30. ) The name of his successor Awil-Marduk

kings of Assyria.

( called Evil-merodach at 2Ki 25 : 27 ) appears on a vase discovered at Susa ( Elam). Near modem Baghdad excavations in the latter

Nineveh, Assyria's capital, was the site of exca­ vations that unearthed the immense palace of Sennacherib, containing about 70 rooms,

with

half of the 19th century produced numerous clay

sculptured slabs lining over 3,000 m ( nearly 10,-

tablets and cylinders, including the now famous

000 ft ) of the walls. One depicted Judean prisoners

Nabonidus Chronicle. All objections to the record

being led into captivity following the fall of La­ l chish in 732 B.c.E. ( 2Ki 18: 13- 17; 2Ch 3 2 : 9 ; PIc­

at Daniel chapter 5 as to Belshazzar's ruling in Babylon at the time of its fall were dispelled by

TURE, Vol. 1 , p. 9 5 2 ) Qf even greater interest were

this document, which proved that Belshazzar, el­

the annals of Sennac herib found here at Nineveh,

dest son of Nabonidus, was coregent with his

which were recorded on prisms ( clay cylinders ).

father and that in the latter part of his reign Nabonidus entrusted the government of Babylon to his son Belshazzar. Ur, the ancient home of Abraham (Ge 11 : 28-31 ), similarly proved to have been a prominent me­ tropolis with a highly developed civilization. A Sumerian city, it was located on the Euphrates near the Persian Gulf. Excavations there by Sir Leonard Woolley indicate that it was at the height of its power and prestige at the time of Abraham's departure for Canaan ( b. 1943 B.c.E. ). Its ziggurat temple is the best preserved of those found. The royal tombs of Ur yielded an abundance of gold objects and jewelry of very high artistic caliber, also musical instruments such as the harp. ( Com­ pare Ge 4 : 2 1 . ) A small steel ( not merely iron) ax was also found. ( Compare Ge 4 : 2 2 . ) Here, too, thousands of clay tablets revealed much of the details of life nearly 4,000 years in the past. -See UR No. 2. At the site of ancient Sippar on the Euphrates about 32 km ( 20 mi ) from Baghdad, a clay cylin­ der about King Cyrus the conqueror of Babylon was found. This cylinder tells about the ease with which Cyrus captured the city and also outlines his policy of restoring to their native lands the captive peoples residing in Babylon, thus harmo­ nizing with the Biblical account of Cyrus as the prophesied conqueror of Baby Ion and of the resto­ ration of the Jews to Palestine during Cyrus' reign. -Isa 44: 28 ; 4 5 : 1 ; 2Ch 36 : 23.

Assyria.

Near Khorsabad, on a northern trib­

utary of the Tigris River, in 1843 the palace of

On certain prisms Sennacherib describes the As­ syrian campaign against Palestine in Hezekiah's reign ( 732 B . c. E . ), but, notably, the boastful mon­ arch makes no claim of having taken th e city, thus confirming the Bible account. ( See SENNACHERlB. ) The account of Sennacherib's assassination at the hands of his sons is also recorded on an inscription of Esar-haddon, Sennacherib's successor, and the assassination is referred to in an inscription of the following king. ( 2Ki 19 : 37 ) In addition to the men­ tion of King Hezekiah by Sennacherib, the names of Judean Kings Ahaz and Manasseh, and the names of Israelite Kings Omri, Jehu, Jehoash, Menahem, and Hos hea, and also Hazael of Damas­ cus, all appear on cuneiform records of various Assyrian emperors.

Persia.

Near Behisttm, Iran ( ancient Persia ),

King Darius I ( 5 21-486 B.c.E. ; Ezr 6: 1 - 1 5 ) had an immense inscription carved high up on a lime­ stone cliff, describing his unification of the Persian Empire and attributing his success to his god Ahura Mazda.. Of primary value is the fact that the inscription was recorded in three languages, Bab­ ylonian ( Akkadian ), Elamite, and old Persian, thus serving as a key for the deciphering of the Assyro­ Babylonian

cuneiform,

till

then

undeciphered.

Thousands of clay tablets and inscriptions in the Babylonian language can now be read as a result of this work. Shushan, the scene of the events recorded in the book of Esther, was excavated by French archae­ ologists between 1880 and royal

palace

of Xerxes,

1890. ( Es 1 : 2 ) The

covering

about

1

ha

( 2 .5 acres ), was uncovered, revealing the splendor

Assyrian King Sargon II, covering some 10 ha

and magnificence of the Persian kings. The finds

( 2 5 acres ), was discovered, and subsequent ar­

confirmed the exactitude of details set down by the writer of Esther as relating to the administra­

chaeological work there brought this king, men­ tioned at Isaiah 20 : 1 , out of secular obs�urity to a

tion of the Persian kingdom and the construction

position of historical prominence. (PICTURE, Vol. 1 ,

of the palace. The book

p . 960 ) In one o f his annals h e claims to have

Old Testament,

The Mon umen ts ahd the

by 1. M. Price ( 1946, p. 408 ), com­

captured Samaria ( 740 B . c. E . ) . He also records the

ments: "There is no event described in the Old

capture of Ashdod, referred to at Isaiah 20: 1. Once

Testament whose structural surroundings can be

considered nonexistent by many prominent schol-

so vividly and accurately restored from actual

149

ARCHAEOLOGY

excavations as 'Shushan the Palace. ' "-See SHU­

holding a title deed, so that the one possessing the gods was considered to hold the right to the prop­

SHAN. Mari and Nuzi.

The ancient royal city of Mari

erty or the inheritance thereof. This may illustrate

about

the situation involving Rachel's taking her father's

11 km ( 7 mi ) NNW of Abu Kemal in SE Syria, was

teraphim and his great concern for their recovery.

the site of excavations from 19 33 on. An enormous

-Ge 3 1 : 14- 16, 19, 25-35.

palace covering some 6 ha ( 15 acres ) and contain­

Egypt. The closest view given in the Bible of Egypt centers around Joseph's entry there and the

( Tell

Hariri )

near the

Euphrates

River,

ing 300 rooms was discovered, and its archives yielded more than 20,000 clay tablets. The palace

subsequent arrival and sojourn of the entire fami­

complex included not only the royal apartments

ly of Jacob in that land. Archaeological finds show

but also administrative offices and a school for

this picture to be an extremely accurate one, and

scribes. Great mural paintings or frescoes deco­

one that could not reasonably have been thus

rated many of the walls, the bathrooms were

presented by a writer living at a much later time

equipped with tubs, and cake molds were found

( as some critics have tried to say was the case

in the kitchens. The city appears to have been one

with the recorder of that portion of the Genesis

of the most outstanding and brilliant of the period

account ). As the book

in the early second millennium B.CE. The texts on

gins,

the clay tablets included royal decrees, public no­

cerning the writer of the account about Joseph:

New ligh t on Hebrew Ori­

by J. G. Duncan ( 1936, p. 1 74), states con­

tices, accounts, and orders for construction of ca­

"He employs the correct title in use and exactly as

nals, locks, dams, and other irrigation projects, as

it was used at the period referred to, and, where

well as correspondence concerning imports, ex­

there is no Hebrew equivalent, he simply adopts

ports, and foreign affairs. Frequent censuses were

the Egyptian word and transliterates it into He­

taken involving taxation and military enrollment.

brew . " The Egyptian names, the position of Joseph

Religion was prominent, particularly the worship

as Potiphar's house manager, the prison houses,

of Ishtar, the goddess of fertility, whose temple

the titles "the chief of the cupbearers" and "the

was also found. Divination was practiced as in

chief of the bakers, " the importance placed on

Babylon by observation of livers, astronomy, and

dreams by the Egyptians, the practice of Egyptian

similar methods. The city was largely destroyed by Babylonian King Hammurabi. Of particular in­

bakers of carrying baskets of bread on their heads

terest was the appearance of the names of Peleg,

and food administrator accorded Joseph by Pha­

( Ge 40 : 1 , 2, 16, 1 7 ) , the position as prime minister

Serug, Nahor, Terah, and Haran, all listed as cit­

raoh, the manner of inducting him into office,

ies of northern Mesopotamia and reflecting the

the Egyptian detestation of herders of sheep, the

names of the relatives of Abraham.-Ge 1 1 : 17-32.

strong influence of magicians in the Egyptian

Nuzi, an ancient city to the E of the Tigris and SE of Nineveh, excavated during 19 2 5 - 19 3 1 , yield­ ed an inscribed clay map, the oldest yet discov­ ered, as well as evidence that as early as the 15th century B. C E. there was buying and selling on the installment plan there. Some 20,000 clay tab­

court, the settling of the sojourning Israelites in the land of Goshen, the Egyptian burial practices -all these and many other points described in the Bible record are clearly substantiated by the ar­ chaeological evidence produced in Egypt.-Ge 39: 1-47 : 27 ; 50: 1 - 3 .

lets, considered to have been written by Hur­

At Karnak ( ancient Thebes ) , o n the Nile River, a

rian scribes in the Babylonian language, were

vast Egyptian temple contains an inscription on its

unearthed. These contain a wealth of detail re­ garding the legal jurisprudence at that time, in­ volving such things as adoption, marriage con­

S wall confirming the campaign of Egyptian King Shishak ( Sheshonk I ) in Palestine, described at 1 Kings 14: 25, 26 and 2 Chronicles 1 2 : 1 -9 . The

tracts, rights of inheritance, and wills.

Certain

giant relief depicting his victories shows 156 man­

aspects show a relatively close parallel to customs

acled Palestinian prisoners, each representing a

described in the Genesis account concerning the

city or village, the name of which is given in

patriarchs. The practice of a childless couple's adopting a son, whether freeborn or slave, to care

hieroglyphics. Among the names identifiable are those of Rabbith (Jos 19: 20), Taanach, Beth-shean

for them, bury them, and be their heir, shows a

and Megiddo ( where a portion of a stele or in­

similarity to the statement by Abraham concern­ ing his trusted slave Eliezer at Genesis 1 5 : 2. The

scribed pillar of Shishak has been excavated ) ( Jos 17: 11 ) , Shunem ( Jos 19 : 1 8), Rehab ( Jos 1 9 : 2 8 ) ,

selling of birthrights is described, recalling the case of Jacob and Esau. (Ge 2 5 : 29-34 ) The texts

horon (Jos 21 : 22 ) , Aijalon (Jos 21 : 24 ) , Socoh ( Jos

also show that possession of the family gods, often

1 5 : 35 ), and Arad (Jos 1 2 : 14 ) . He even lists the

small clay figurines, was viewed as similar to

"Field

Hapharaim (Jos 19 : 19 ), Gibeon (Jos 18: 2 5 ), Beth­

of Abram" as one of his captures, the

ARCHAEOLOGY

earliest reference to Abraham in Egyptian rec­ ords. Also found in this area was a monument of Merneptah, son of Ramses II, containing a hymn in which the only occurrence of the name Israel in ancient Egyptian texts is to be found. At Tell el-Amarna, about 270 km ( 170 mi ) S of Cairo, a peasant woman accidentally discovered clay tablets that led to the uncovering of many documents in Akkadian from the royal archives of Amenhotep III and his son Akhenaton. The 379 published tablets comprise correspondence to Pharaoh from the vassal princes of the numerous city-kingdoms of Syria and Palestine, including some from the governor of Urusalim ( Jerusalem ), and reveal a picture of warring feuds and in­ trigue completely concordant with the Scriptural description of those times. The "Habiru, " about whom numerous complaints are made in these letters, have been related by some to the He­ brews, but the evidence indicates that they were, rather, diverse nomadic peoples occupying a low social status in the society of that period. -See HEBREW, I (The "Habiru" ).

150

but was continuously occupied down into the lat­ ter part of the sixth century. If-The Archaeology of Palestine, 1971, p. 142. Beth-shan ( Beth-shean), an ancient fortress city that guarded the approach to the Valley of Jezreel from the E, was the site of major excavations that revealed 18 different levels of occupation, requir­ ing digging to a depth of 21 m ( 70 ft ). (DIAGRAM, Vol. I, p. 959 ) The Scriptural account shows that

Elephantine, an island in the Nile to the extreme S of Egypt ( near Aswan) bearing this Greek name, was the site of a Jewish colony following the fall of Jerusalem in 607 B.C.E. A large number of docu­ ments written in Aramaic, mainly on papyrus, were found here in 1903, bearing dates from the fifth century B.c.E. and the reign of the Medo­ Persian Empire. The documents make mention of Sanballat, the governor of Samaria.-Ne 4: 1 . Undoubtedly the most valuable finds produced in Egypt have been the papyrus fragments and portions of Bible books, of both the Hebrew and the Greek Scriptures, dating all the way back to the first century B.c.E. Egypt's dry climate and sandy soil made it an unexcelled storehouse for preserving such papyrus documents.-See MANU­ SCRIPTS OF THE BIBLE. Palestine and Syria. Some 600 datable sites have been excavated in these areas. Much of the information obtained is of a general nature, sup­ porting the Bible record on a broad basis instead of specifically relating to certain details or events. As an example, in the past, efforts were made to discredit the Bible's account of the complete deso­ lation of Judah during the Babylonian exile. The excavations, however, collectively substantiate the Bible. As W. F. Albright states: "There is not a single known case where a town of Judah proper was continuously occupied through the exilic peri­ od. Just to point the contrast, Bethel, which lay just outside the northern boundary of Judah in pre-exilic times, was not destroyed at that time,

Stele on which Merneptah,

son of Ramses II, gloats over conquest of Israel; the only known men tion of

Israel in ancien t Egyptian texts

151 Beth-shan was not among the towns originally occupied by the invading Israelites and that at the time of Saul it was occupied by the Philistines. ( Jos 17: 11 ; Jg 1 : 27 ; 1 Sa 31 : 8- 1 2 ) The excavations in general support this record and indicate a destruc­ tion of Beth-shan sometime after the Israelites' defeat near Shiloh. (Jer 7: 1 2 ) Of particular interest was the discovery of certain Canaanite temples at Beth-shan. First Samuel 31 : 10 states that the Phi­ listines put King Saul's armor "in the house of the Ashtoreth images, and his corpse they fastened on the wall of Beth-shan," while 1 Chronicles 10: 10 says "they put his armor in the house of their god, and his skull they fastened to the house of Dagon. " TWo of the temples unearthed were of the same time period and one gives evidence of being the temple of Ashtoreth, while the other is thought to be that of Dagon, thus harmonizing with the above texts as to the existence of two temples in Beth-shan. Ezion-geber was Solomon's seaport city on the Gulf of 'Aqaba. It is possibly the present-day Tell el-Kheleifeh, which was excavated during 1937- 1940 and produced evidence of a copper­ smelting site, copper slag and bits of copper ore being found on a low mound in that region. How­ ever, the original conclusions of archaeologist Nel­ son Glueck concerning the site were radically revised by him in an article in The Biblical Ar­ chaeologist ( 1965, p. 73 ). His opinion that there had been a blast furnace system of smelting em­ ployed there was based on the finding of what were thought to be "flue-holes" in the principal building excavated . He now has come to the con­ clusion that these holes in the building's walls are the result of "the decay and/or burning of wooden beams laid across the width of the walls for bond­ ing or anchoring purposes. " The building, previ­ ously thought to be a smelter, is now believed to be a storehouse-granary structure. While it is still believed that metallurgical operations did take place here, they are not now considered to have been of the dimensions previously conjectured. This underscores the fact that the meaning as­ cribed to archaeological findings is dependent pri­ marily upon the individual interpretation of the archaeologist, which interpretation is by no means infallible. The Bible itself mentions no copper in­ dustry at Ezion-geber, describing only the casting of copper items at a site in the Jordan Valley.- 1 Ki 7:45, 46. Hazor in Galilee was described as being "the head of all these kingdoms," in Joshua's time. (Jos 11 : 10) Excavations there showed that the city once covered some 60 ha ( 1 50 acres ), with a large population, making it one of the major cities of

ARCHAEOLOGY that region. Solomon fortified the city, and the evidence from that period indicates it may have been a chariot city . - 1 Ki 9 : 15, 19. Jericho has been subjected to excavations dur­ ing three different expeditions ( 1907-1909; 19301936 ; 19 52-1958) and the successive interpreta­ tions of the findings demonstrate again the fact that archaeology, like other fields of human science, is not a source of positively stable infor­ mation. Each of the three expeditions has pro­ duced data, but each has arrived at different conclusions as to the history of the city and partic­ ularly as to the date of its fall before the Israelite conquerors. At any rate, the combined results may be said to present the general picture set forth in the book Biblical Archaeology, by G. E. Wright ( 196 3, p. 78 ), which states: "The city underwent a terrible destruction or a series of destructions during the second millennium B.C., and remained virtually unoccupied for genera­ tions." The destruction was accompanied by in­ tense fire, as is shown by the excavated evidence. -Compare Jos 6 : 20-26. In Jerusalem in 1867 an old water tunnel was discovered, running from the fountain of Gihon back into the hill behind. ( See GIHON No. 2. ) This may illustrate the account of David's capture of the city at 2 Samuel 5 : 6 - 10. In 1909 - 1911 the entire system of tunnels connected with the Gihon spring was cleared. One tunnel, known as the Siloam Thnnel, averaged 1 . 8 m ( 6 ft ) in height and was cut through solid rock for a distance of some 533 m ( 1 ,749 ft) from Gihon to the Pool of Siloam in the Tyropoeon Valley ( within the city ). It thus seems to be the project of King Hezekiah described at 2 Kings 20:20 and 2 Chronicles 3 2 : 30. Of great interest was the ancient inscription found on the tunnel wall in early Hebrew monumental script describing the cutting of the tunnel and its length. This inscription is used for comparison in dating other Hebrew inscriptions found.

Lachish, 44 km ( 27 mi ) WSW of Jerusalem, was a principal fortress protecting the Judean hill country. At Jeremiah 34 : 7 the prophet tells of Nebuchadnezzar's forces fighting against " Jerusa­ lem and against all the cities of Judah that were left remaining, against Lachish and against Aze­ kah ; for they, the fortified cities, were the ones that remained over among the cities of Judah. " Excavations a t Lachish produced evidence o f de­ struction by fire twice within a period of a few years, believed to represent two attacks by the Babylonians ( 618-617 and 609-607 B.C.E. ), after which it lay uninhabited for a long period. 21

In the ashes of the second burning were found ostraca ( pieces of pottery inscribed with

ARCHAEOLOGY

152 to represent correspondence

first these structures were credited t o Solomon'S

shortly before the destruction of the city in Nebu­

time, but later scholars redated them to a later

chadnezzar's final assault. Known as the Lachish

period, perhaps the time of Ahab.

writi ng), believed

Letters, these writings reflect a period of crisis and

The Moabite Stone was one of the earliest dis­

anxiety and appear to have been written from

coveries of importance in the area E of the Jordan.

remaining outposts of Judean troops to Yaosh, a

(PICTURE, Vol . 1, p. 325 ) Found in 1868 at Dhiban,

military commander in Lachish. ( PICTURE, Vol. 1 ,

N of the Arnon Valley, it presents Moabite King

p . 325 ) Letter number I V contains the statement :

Mesha's version of his revolt against Israel. ( Com­

"May YHWH r that is, Jehovah] let my lord hear even now tidings of good . . . . we are watching for the fire signals of Lachish, according to all the signs which my lord gives, because we do not see

pare 2 Ki 1 : 1 ; 3 : 4, 5 . ) In part the inscription says: "1 ( am ) Mesha, son of Chemosh-[ . . . ], king of Moab, the Dibonite . . . As for Omri, king of Israel, he humbled Moab many years ( lit. , days ), for Che­

Azekah. " This passage remarkably expresses the

mosh [the god of Moab] was angry at his land.

situation

And his son followed him and he also said, ' I will

described

at

Jeremiah

34 :7,

quoted

above, and apparently indicates that Azekah had already fallen or at least was failing to send out the fire or smoke signals expected.

humble Moab. ' In my time he spoke ( thus), but I have triumphed over him and over his house, while Israel hath perished for ever! . . . And

Letter number III, written by "Hoshaiah, " in­

Chemosh said to me, 'Go, take Nebo from Israel! '

cludes the following: "May YHWH r that is, Jeho­

So I went by night and fought against i t from the

vah ] cause my lord to hear tidings of peace! . . .

break of dawn until noon, taking it and slaying all

And it has been reported to your servant saying,

. . . And I took from there the [vessels] of Yahweh,

'The commander of the army, Coniah son of Elna­

dragging them before Chemosh. "

than, has come down in order to go into Egypt and

Eastern Texts,

to Hodaviah son of Ahijah and his men he has sent

p. 320) Thus the stone not only mentions the

to obtain r supplies] from him. ' " This portion could

name of King Omri of Israel but also, in the 18th

( Ancien t Near

edited by J. B. Pritchard,

1974,

well represent the fact of Judah's turning to Egypt

line, contains God's name in the form of the Tetra­

for help, as condemned by the prophets. (Isa 31 : 1 ;

grammaton.

Jer 46 : 25, 2 6 ) The names Elnathan and Hoshaiah,

The Moabite Stone also mentions numerous

occurring in the complete text of this letter, are

places referred to in the Bible: Ataroth and Nebo

also found at Jeremiah 36: 12 and Jeremiah 42: 1 . Other names appearing i n the letters also occur in the book of Jeremiah: Gemariah ( 36 : 10), Neriah ( 32 : 1 2 ) , and Jaazaniah ( 35 : 3 ). Whether in any case they represent the same individual or not cannot be said, but the coincidence in itself is notable in view of Jeremiah's being a contemporary of that period. Of special interest is the frequent use of the Tetragrammaton in these letters, thus manifesting that at that time the Jews had no aversion to the use of the divine name. Also of interest is a clay seal impression found that refers to "Gedaliah, who is over the house . " Gedaliah is the name of the governor appointed over Judah by Nebuchad­ nezzar after Jerusalem's fall, and many consider it likely that the seal impression refers to him.-2Ki 2 5 : 22 ; compare Isa 22: 1 5 ; 36 : 3.

( Nu 32: 34, 3 8 ) ; the Arnon, Aroer, Medeba, and Dibon ( Jos 13 : 9 ) ; Bamoth-baal, Beth-baal-meon, Jahaz, and Kiriathaim ( Jos 13: 17-19 ) ; Bezer (Jos 20 : 8 ) ; Horonaim ( Isa 15 : 5 ) ; Beth-diblathaim and Kerioth. ( Jer 48 : 2 2, 24 ) It thus supports the histo­ ricity of all these places. Ras Shamra ( ancient Ugarit), on the N Syrian coast opposite the island of Cyprus, has provided information about worship quite similar to Ca­ naan's, including its gods and goddesses, temples, "sacred" prostitutes, rites, sacrifices, and prayers. A room was found between a temple to Baal and another temple devoted to Dagon that contained a library of hundreds of religious texts considered to date from the 15th and early 14th centuries B.c.E. The mythological poetical texts reveal much about the Canaanite divinities EI, Baal, and Asherah and the degrading form of idolatry that accompanied

Megiddo was a strategic fortress city command­ ing an important pass to the Valley of Jezreel. It

their worship. Merrill F. Unger in his book

ology and the Old Testamen t

Archae­

( 1964, p. 175 ) com­

was rebuilt by Solomon and is mentioned with

ments: "The Ugaritic epic literature has helped to

the

reign.

reveal the depth of depravity which characterized

( 1 Ki 9 : 1 5 - 19 ) Excavations at the site (Tell el­

Canaanite religion. Being a polytheism of an ex­

storage

and

chariot

cities

of

his

Mutesellim ), a 5 .3-ha ( 1 3 acre) mound, uncov­

tremely debased type, Canaanite cultic practice

ered what some scholars ( but not all) think were

was barbarous and thoroughly licentious. " Images

stables capable of caring for some 450 horses. At

of Baal and other gods were also found. ( See GODS

ARCHABOLOGY

153 AND GODDESSES [Canaanite Deities ]. ) A previously

The fiery destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah

unknown type of alphabetic cuneiform writing

and the existence of pits of bitumen ( asphalt ) in

( different from the Akkadian cuneiform) distin­

that region are described in the Bible. ( Ge 14 : 3, 10 ;

guished these texts. It follows the same order as

19: 12-28 ) Many scholars believe that the waters of the Dead Sea may have risen in the past and

Hebrew but adds other letters to make a total of 30. As at Ur, a steel battle-ax was also unearthed. Samaria, the strongly fortified capital of the northern kingdom of Israel, was built on a hill rising some 90 m ( 295 ft ) above the valley floor. Proof of its strength to resist long sieges, such as those described at 2 Kings 6 : 24 -30 in the case of Syria, and 2 Kings 1 7 : 5 in the case of the powerful

extended the southern end of the sea for a consid­ erable distance, thus covering what may have been the sites of these two cities. Explorations show the area to be a burned-out region of oil and

Ligh t From the Ancient Past, by Jack Finegan ( 1959,

asphalt. Concerning the matter, the book

p. 147 ), states: "A careful survey of the literary, geological, and archeological evidence points to

Assyrian army I is evidenced by the remains of

the conclusion that the infamous 'cities of the

sturdy double walls, at some points forming a

valley' (Genesis 19 : 29 ) were in the area which

bulwark 10 m ( 3 3 ft ) wide. The stone masonry

now is submerged . . . and that their ruin was

found on the site, considered as of the time of

accomplished by a great earthquake, probably ac­

Kings Omri, Ahab, and Jehu, is of splendid work­

companied by explosions, lightning, ignition of

manship. What appears to be the palace platform

natural gas, and general conflagration."-See also

measures about 90 m ( 295 ft ) by about 180 m ( 590 ft ). Large quantities of ivory pieces, plaques, and panels were found in the palace area and may relate to Ahab's house of ivory mentioned at 1 Kings 2 2 : 39. ( Compare

Am

6 : 4. ) At the NW

corner of the summit a large cemented pool was

SODOM. Relating to the Christian Greek Scriptures. The use by Jesus of a denarius coin bearing the head of Tiberius Caesar ( Mr 1 2 : 1 5 - 1 7 ) is con­ firmed by the finding of a silver denarius coin bearing the head of Tiberius and put in circulation

found, measuring some 10 m ( 3 3 ft) in length and

about the year 15 c.E. ( PIcruRE, Vol. 2, p. 544)

about 5 m ( 17 ft ) in width. It could be "the pool of

( Compare Lu 3: 1 , 2. ) The fact that Pontius Pilate

Samaria," in which Ahab's chariot was washed of

was then Roman governor of Judea is also demon­

his blood.- 1Ki 2 2 : 38.

strated by a stone slab found at Caesarea bearing

Of interest were 63 potsherds with ink inscrip­ tions

(ostraca ) considered

as dating from the

the Latin names

Pontius Pila tus and Tiberieum.

-See PILATE ; PICTURE, Vol. 2, p. 741.

eighth century B.c.E. Receipts for shipments of

The Acts of Apostles, which gives clear evidence

wine and oil to Samaria from other towns show an

of having been written by Luke, contains numer­

Israelite system of writing numbers by use of vertical, horizontal, and slanted strokes. A typical receipt reads as follows:

ous references to cities and their provinces and to officials of different types and with varying titles, holding office at a particular time-a presentation fraught with possibility of error on the part of the writer. ( Note also Lu 3: 1 , 2 . ) Yet the archaeological

In the tenth year.

evidence produced demonstrates to a remarkable

To Gaddiyau [ p roba bly the steward of the treasu ry].

degree Luke's accuracy . Thus, at Acts 14 : 1 -6, Luke

F rom Azah [ perhaps the vil lage or d i strict sen ding the wine or oil].

Abi - ba'al 2 Ahaz 2

Sheba 1 Meriba'al 1

places Lystra and Derbe within the territory of Lycaonia but implies that Iconium was in anoth­ er territory. Roman writers, including Cicero, re­ ferred to Iconium as being in Lycaonia . However, a monument discovered in 1910 shows that Iconi­ urn was considered to be indeed a city of Phrygia rather than of Lycaonia. Similarly, an inscription discovered at Delphi confirms that Gallio was proconsul of Achaia, like­

These receipts also reveal a frequent use of the

ly in 51-52 c.E. ( Ac 18: 1 2 ) Some 19 inscriptions

name Baal as part of the names, about 7 names

dating from the second century B.c.E. to the third

including this name for every 11 containing some

century c.E. confirm the correctness of Luke's use

form of the name Jehovah, likely indicating the

of the title city rulers ( singular,

infiltration of Baal worship as described in the

as applying to the officials of Thessalonica ( Ac

Bible account.

17:6,

8),

five

of

these

po·li·tarkhes)

inscriptions

referring

ARCHAEOLOGY

specifically to that city. (See CITY RULERS. ) Like­ wise, the reference to Publius as "the principal man" (pro'tos) of Malta ( Ac 28: 7) employs the exact title to be used, as is shown by its appear­ ance on two Maltese inscriptions, one in Latin and one in Greek. Magical texts as well as the temple of Artemis were found at Ephesus (Ac 19 : 19, 27 ); excavations there also unearthed a theater capa­ ble of holding some 25,000 people, and inscrip­ tions referring to "the commissioners of festivals and games," like those who intervened on Paul's behalf, and also to a "recorder, " like the one who quieted the mob on that occasion.-Ac 19 : 29-31. 35, 41 . Some of such findings moved Charles Gore to write of Luke's accuracy in A New Commen tary on Holy Scripture: "It should of course be recog­ nized that modern archceology has almost forced upon critics of St. Luke a verdict of remarkable accuracy in all his allusions to secular facts and events."-Edited by Gore, Goudge, and Guil­ laume, 1929, p. 210. Comparative Value of Archaeology. Ar­ chaeology has produced beneficial information that has aided in the identification ( often tenta­ tive) of Biblical sites, has unearthed written docu­ ments that have contributed to a better under­ standing of the original languages in which the Scriptures were written, and has shed light on the living conditions and activities of ancient peoples and rulers referred to in the Bible. Yet, insofar as archaeology relates to the authenticity and reli­ ability of the Bible, as well as to faith in it, its teachings, and its revelation of God's purposes and promises, it must be said that it is a nonessential supplement and an unrequired confirmation of the truth of God's Word. As the apostle Paul ex­ presses it: "Faith is the assured expectation of things hoped for, the evident demonstration of realities though not beheld. By faith we perceive that the systems of things were put in order by God's word, so that what is beheld has come to be out of things that do not appear. " ( Heb 1 1 : 1 , 3 ) "We are walking by faith, not by sight."-2Co 5 : 7.

This does not mean that Christian faith does not have any basis in what can be seen or that it deals only with intangibles. But it is true that in every period and age there has been ample contempo­ rary evidence surrounding people, as well as with­ in themselves and their own experiences, that could convince them that the Bible is the true source of divine revelation and that it contains nothing that is out of harmony with provable facts. ( Ro 1 : 18-23 ) The knowledge of the past in the light of archaeological discovery is interesting

154

and appreciated, but not vital. The knowledge of the past in the light of the Bible is, alone, essential and solidly reliable. The Bible, with or without archaeology, gives true meaning to the present and illuminates the future. ( Ps 119: 105 ; 2Pe 1 : 19-21 ) It is, in reality, a weak faith that must rely on moldering bricks, broken vases, and crum­ bling walls to bolster it up and serve as a crutch. Uncertain ty underlying conclusions. While archaeological discoveries at times have provided a convenient answer to those who have carped at Bible accounts or criticized the historicity of cer­ tain events, and while such finds have helped to disencumber the minds of sincere persons who have been overly impressed by the arguments of such critics, yet archaeology has not silenced Bible critics nor is it a truly sound foundation for basing one's belief in the Bible record. The conclusions drawn from the majority of the excavations made depend mainly upon the deductive and inductive reasoning of the investigators, who, somewhat like detectives, assemble a case for which they argue. Even in modern times, although detectives may uncover and amass an impressive array of circumstantial and material evidence, any case founded purely upon such evidence while lacking in the testimony of creditable witnesses direct­ ly relating to the matter in question WOUld, if brought to court, be considered very weak. Deci­ sions based solely on such evidence have resulted in gross error and injustice. How much more so must this be the case when 2,000 or 3,000 years intervene between the investigators and the time of the event.

A similar parallel is drawn by archaeologist R. J. C. Atkinson, who says: "One has only to think how difficult would be the task of future archaeologists if they had to reconstruct the ritual, dogma and doctrine of the Christian Churches from the ruins of the church buildings alone, without the aid of any written record or inscription. We thus have the paradoxical situation that archaeology, the only method of investigating man's past in the absence of written records, becomes increasingly less effective as a means of inquiry the more nearly it approaches those aspects of human life which are the more specifically h uman. "-Stone­ henge, London, 1956, p. 167. Complicating the matter further is the fact that, in addition to their obvious inability to bring the ancient past into focus with anything more than approximate accuracy, and in spite of their en­ deavoring to maintain a purely objective view­ point in considering the evidence they unearth, the archaeologists, like other scientists, are none-

ARCHAEOLOGY

155 theless subject t o human failings and personal

Relative worth

of inscriptions.

Thousands

leanings and ambitions, which can stimulate falli­

upon thousands of ancient inscriptions have been

ble reasoning. Pointing up the problem, Professor

found and are being interpreted. Albright states :

W. F. Albright comments: "On the other hand, there is danger in seeking new discoveries and novel points of view at the expense of more solid

earlier work. This is particularly true in fields like

Biblical archaeology and geography, where mas­

tery of tools and of methods of investigation is so arduous that there is always a temptation to ne­

glect sound method, substituting clever combina­

tions and brilliant guesses for slower and more systematic work . " - The

Westminster Historical

Atlas to the Bible, edited by G . E. Wright, 1956, p. 9.

"Written documents form by far the most impor­ tant single body of material discovered by archae­ ologists. Hence it is extremely important to gain a

clear idea of their character and of our ability to interpret them."

( The Westminster Historical Atlas to the Bible, p. 11 ) They may be written on broken

pottery, clay tablets, papyrus, or carved in granite

rock. Whatever the material, the information they

convey must still be weighed and tested as to its

reliability and worth. Error or outright falsehood

can be and frequently has been set down in stone as well as on paper.-See CHRONOLOGY ( Bible Chro­

Dlfferences in dating.

It is important to real­

ize this · when considering the dates offered by

nology and Secular History ) ; SARGON.

As an illustration, the Bible record states that

archaeologists with regard to their finds. Illustrat­

King Sennacherib of Assyria was killed by his two

stang dates the fall of Jericho

ceeded to the throne by another son, Esar-haddon.

ing this, Merrill F. Unger says: "For example, Gar-

Albright subscribes to the date

c. 1400 B.c. . . . ; c.

1290 B.c. . . . ;

Hugues Vincent, the celebrated Palestinian ar­

cheologist, holds to the date 1250 B.C. . . . ; while

11:.

sons, Adrarnmelech and Sharezer, and was suc­

( 2Ki 19 : 36, 37 ) Yet, a Babylonian chronicle stated

that, on the 20th of Tebeth, Sennacherib was killed

by his son in a revolt. Both Berossus, Babylonian

H. Rowley views Rameses II as the Pharaoh of

priest of the third century B.C.E., and Nabonidus,

place under his successor Marniptah [ Memeptah ]

the same account, to the effect that Sennacherib

the Oppression, and the Exodus as having taken

Babylonian king of the sixth century B.c. E . , gave

about 1225 B.c." ( Archaeology and the Old Testa­ ment, p. 164, ftn. 15 ) While arguing on behalf of

ever, in a more recently discovered fragment of

and analysis,

acknowledges

Sennacherib, Esar-haddon clearly states that his

to pick his way among the conflicting dates and

and then took flight. Commenting on this, Phil­

the reliability of modern archaeological process Professor Albright

that "it is still very difficult for the non-specialist conclusions of archaeologists . " - The

Archaeology

of Palestine, p. 253.

It is true that the radiocarbon clock has been

employed, along with other modern methods, for

dating the artifacts found.

However, that this

method is not completely accurate is evidenced in

the following statement by G. Ernest Wright in

The Biblical Archaeologist ( 1955, p. 46 ) : "It may

was assassinated by only one of his sons. How­

the Prism of Esar-haddon, the son who succeeded

brothers ( plural) revolted and killed their father ip Biberfeld, in

Universal Jewish History ( 1948,

Vol. I , p. 27 ), says: "The Babylonian Chronicle,

Nabonid, and Berossus were mistaken; only the Biblical account proved to be correct. It was con­

firmed in all the minor details by the inscription of Esarhaddon and proved to be more accurate re­

garding this event of Babylonian-Assyrian history

than the Babylonian sources themselves. This is a

be noted that the new Carbon 14 method of dating

fact of utmost importance for the evaluation of

from error as had been hoped. . . . Certain runs

Biblical tradition. "

for a number of reasons. At the moment, one can depend upon the results without question only

There is also need for due caution on the part of

virtually identical results

when the date

found in the diverse ancient languages. In some

seems correct from other methods of computa tion [ italics ours ] . " More recently, The New Encyclo­ pcedia Britannica ( Macropoodia, 1976, Vol. 5,

Inscription, the decipherers of the languages have

ancient remains has not turned out to be as free have produced obviously wrong results, probably

when several runs have been made which give and

even contemporary sources not in accord with Problems

in

deciph ering

and

translating.

the Christian as to accepting without question

the interpretation made of the many inscriptions

cases, as with the Rosetta Stone and the Behistun

been given considerable insight into a previously

p. 508 ) stated : "Whatever the cause, . . . it is clear

unknown language by parallel presentations of

tional historians would like to have." -See CHRO­

Yet, it should not be expected that such helps solve

that carbon-14 dates lack the accuracy that tradi­

NOLOGY ( Archaeological Dating ).

that language alongside another known language.

all problems or allow for a full understanding of

ARCHANGEL

the language with all its shades of meaning and idiomatic expressions. Even the understanding of the basic Bible languages, Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek, has progressed considerably in recent times, and these languages are still under study. As to the inspired Word of God, we can rightly expect that the Bible's Author would enable us to obtain the correct understanding of its message through the available translations into the modern languages. This is not the case, however, with the uninspired writings of the pagan nations. Illustrating this need for caution and also mani­ festing again that an objective approach to the problems existing in the deciphering of the an­ cient inscriptions is often not as prominent as one might think, the book The Secret of the Hittites, by C. W . Ceram, contains the following informa­ tion concerning a prominent Assyriologist who worked at decoding the "Hittite" language ( 1956, pp. 106- 109) : "His work is absolutely phenomenal -a brilliant intermingling of wild blunders with remarkable perceptions . . . Some of his errors were supported by arguments so cogent that de­ cades of study were necessary to overcome them. His ingenious reasoning was backed by such a wealth of philological learning that winnowing the chaff from the wheat was no easy affair. " The writer then describes the strong obstinacy of this scholar about any modification of his findings; after many years he finally did agree to make some changes-only to change the very readings that later proved to be the correct ones! In relating the violent dispute, fraught with personal recrimi­ nations, that arose between this scholar and an­ other decipherer of the "Hittite" cuneiform, the author states : "Yet the very fanaticism which brings on such quarrels is a necessary motive force if scholars are to make discoveries." Hence, although time and study have eliminated many errors in the understanding of ancient inscrip­ tions, we do well to realize that further investiga­ tion may likely bring additional corrections. The preeminence of the Bible as the source of reliable knowledge, truthful information, and sure guidance is enhanced by these facts. As a body of written documents, the Bible gives us the clearest picture of man's past, and it has reached us, not by excavation, but through its preservation by its Author, Jehovah God. It is "alive and exerts pow­ er" (Heb 4 : 1 2 ) and is "the word of the living and enduring God." "All flesh is like grass, and all its glory is like a blossom of grass; the grass becomes withered, and the flower falls off, but the saying of Jehovah endures forever. "- l Pe 1 : 23-25.

156

ARCHANGEL. The prefix "arch," meaning "chief" or "principal," implies that there is only one archangel, the chief angel; in the Scriptures, "archangel" is never found in the plural. First Thessalonians 4: 16, in speaking of the preemi­ nence of the archangel and the authority of his office, does so in reference to the resurrected Lord Jesus Christ: "The Lord himself will descend from heaven with a commanding call, with an archan­ gel's voice and with God's trumpet, and those who are dead in union with Christ will rise first." It is, therefore, not without significance that the only name directly associated with the word "archan­ gel" is Michael.-Jude 9; see MICHAEL No. 1 . ARCHELAUS (Ar·che·la'us) [Ruler of the Peo­ pIe]. Son of Herod the Great by his fourth wife, Malthace. Archelaus became king in Judea while young Jesus was down in Egypt with Joseph and Mary. Rather than face his tyrannical rule on their return, Joseph settled his family outside Arche­ laus' jurisdiction, up in Nazareth of Galilee.-Mt 2 : 22, 23.

Archelaus' father Herod the Great willed to him the rulership of Judea, Samaria, and Idumea, which was twice the share given to each of the other two sons, and which included the important cities of Jerusalem, Samaria, Joppa, and Caesa­ rea. After Herod's death, Archelaus endeavored to make his rulers hip more secure by appearing before Augustus in Rome; in spite of opposers to his claim, including his brother and a delegation of Jews, Archelaus was allowed to retain his power, though Augustus made him, not a king, but an ethnarch, a tributary prince ranking higher than a tetrarch. Matthew, however, rightly refers to him as 'reigning,' for the local army had previously proclaimed him king. -Jewish Antiquities, by F. Josephus, XVII, 194, 195 (viii, 2 ). Archelaus was a cruel ruler and very unpopular with the Jews. In quelling a riot, he once had 3,000 of them ruthlessly slain in the temple grounds; he twice deposed the high priest; and in addition, his divorce and remarriage were contrary to Jewish law. Complaints from the Jews and Samaritans to Augustus finally resulted in an investigation and Archelaus' banishment in the ninth or tenth year of his reign. Judea thereafter was under Roman governors.-See HEROD Nos. 1 and 2. ARCHER. A person who uses bow and arrow. The use of the bow and arrow after the Flood enabled man to kill (for food, clothing, and shelter) animals that were too fast and too dangerous to be taken otherwise. With the rise of Nimrod, archers likely were pressed into his service.

ARCHITECTURE

157 I n the 20th century B . C . E . , Abra­

ham's firstborn son Ishmael

( Ge 49 : 2 3 ) Job said of God's seem­

"be­

ing animosity toward him : "His ar­

came an archer" to sustain himself

chers encircle me. " ( Job 16 : 13 ) The

larly, Esau, the grandson of Abra­

'archer, ' comes from

in the wilderness. ( Ge 21 : 20) Simi­

Hebrew word

ham, could handle the bow with

ing "shoot. " ( Ge 49: 2 3 ) The Hebrew

skill. ( Ge 27: 3 ) Monuments testify

word

that from the earliest times Egypt's principal offensive

warriors

rav, here translated ra·vav� mean­

rav also occurs in Proverbs

26 : 10, which reads: "As an archer

were

piercing everything is the one hiring

nian sculptures of archers. In the

passersby. " This proverb highlights

archers, and there are also Babylo­

someone stupid or the one hiring

days of Joshua ( Jos 24: 1 2 ) and Da­

the harm that can be caused when one in a responsible position em­

vid ( 1 Ch 1 2 : 1 , 2 ) , and thereafter,

archers

were

an

important

ploys someone not qualified for a

part

particular assignment.

of Israel's army. ( 2Ch 14 : 8 ; 26: 14) Archers of the Philistines, Syrians,

and

Egyptians

shot

Kings

ARCHIPPUS

Saul,

Ahab, and Josiah respectively. - 1 Sa 31 : 1 - 3 ;

2 0 , 23.

lKi

2 2 : 34,

35 ;

2Ch

Colossian Christians, Paul exhorts

35:

Archippus

Reliefs in Nineveh illustrate As­ bows,

one

long,

one

as

syrian plan of attack seems to have

in

the

a

"fellow

soldier. "

( Col

4: 1 7 ;

Phm 2 ) Both letters, written near

When shooting one arrow they held the rapidity of their fire. The As­

faithfulness

mon he affectionately refers to him

short.

extras in the hand, thus increasing

to

ministry, and in his letter to Phile­

syrian archers in chariots carrying two

( Ar·chip'pus) [ Rul­

er of the Horse ]. In his letter to the

the end of Paul's first imprisonment

in Rome (c. 60-61

Archer of the

been to overwhelm the enemy un-

der a flood of arrows, and then use the sword and spear in pursuit.

c.E. ),

indicate

that Archippus was then living in or

royal Persian guard

near Colossae in Asia Minor.

ARCHITE

( Ar'chite ). Although the term could

refer to a member of an unidentified Canaanite

The Persians have been called the most expert

tribe, it appears more likely that it refers to a

Susa show Median and Persian soldiers equipped

Ataroth, SW of Bethel. (Jos 16: 2 ) A town named

20, Persian boys were taught archery and riding ;

as the source or the remaining evidence of the

backward. Mobility along with freedom of move­

Archite. - 1 Ch 27 : 3 3 ; see HUSHA!.

archers in the world. Reliefs from Persepolis and

with bows and quivers. From the age of 5 until their cavalry were experts even when shooting

ment of the archers was the basic plan of Persian strategy in storming the foe under a hail of ar­

rows.

The Western empires of Greece and Rome did

hot esteem the bow and arrow as highly as did the Eastern nations, though at times archers played a

significant role in theIr victories. This may have been due to the Greek method of drawing the bow

to the body, a less effective style, instead of draw­

well-known family or clan located in the area of 'Ein 'Arik to the W of Bethel is suggested by some

name. Hushai, David's faithful counselor, was an

ARCHITECTURE. building.

The

art

or

science

of

The Bible shows a diversification of

dwelling places and living habits early in human history, during the 1 ,656 years prior to the Flood

of Noah's day. Cain, after the murder of Abel, is spoken of as 'taking up residence' in a certain area,

and there "he engaged in building a city." (Ge

4 : 16, 17) Yet, one of his descendants, Jabal, be­

ing the bow to the cheek or eye as did the Egyp­

came "the founder of those who dwell in tents and

ics seemed to have supplied the skilled bowmen,

sort of tool of copper and iron." ( Ge 4 : 20, 2 2 ) The

and spear.-See ARMs, ARMOR.

of the Flood ; however, constructive ability and the

tians and Persians. Mercenary Cretans and Asiat­

while the Greeks and Romans relied on the sword

Figurative Usage.

Evidently referring to the

unjust treatment of Joseph by his brothers, Jacob said of his son Joseph: "Archers [literally, owners of arrows] kept harassing him and shot at him."

have livestock. " Another became a "forger of every descendants of Cain perished at least by the time

use of tools did not perish with them.

The outstanding building work of that pre-Flood period was done by descendants of Seth: the ark constructed by Noah and his sons. While the basic

158

ARCHITECTURE plans and dimensions were provided by God,

Israelite Architecture.

During the oppres­

some architectural ability must doubtless be at­ tributed to Noah as the human director of works.

sion of the Israelites in Egypt, they did consid­

The ark was 300 cubits long, 50 cubits wide, and

taskmasters. ( Ex 1 : 1 1 - 14 ) Later, in the wilderness

30 cubits high ( 1 33. 5 m x 22. 3 m x 13.4 m; 437 ft

6 in. x 72 ft 1 1 in. x 43 ft 9 in. ). It could have had about 0.9 ha ( 2. 2 acres) of floor space. The three

erable building work as slaves under Egyptian Jehovah gave them precise instructions for the construction of the tabernacle, with panel frames, socket pedestals, bars, and pillars, which also re­

floors plus the wide roof span probably required,

quired considerable architectural ability on their

in addition to the 'compartment' divisions, the use

part. ( Ex 2 5 : 9 , 40 ; 26 : 15-37 ; Heb 8 : 5 ) While the

of some wooden columns and beams to support

majority of those who were doing such work ( and

the weight, as well as to give the structure neces­

who had done building in Egypt) undoubtedly

sary stability. Although the ark was caulked with

died before reaching the Promised Land, a concept

tar, there would also be need for careful fitting of

of building methods and the use of tools was

the timbers to ensure a reasonably watertight

surely carried over by the survivors. ( Compare De

construction. - Ge 6: 13- 16; see ARK No. 1 . Early Post-Flood Construction.

I n the post­

27: 5 . ) The Mosaic Law prescribed at least one requirement for construction. ( De 2 2 : 8 ) The Isra­

Flood era Nimrod is described as a prominent

elites, upon conquering the land, of course, did

builder of several cities.

1 0 : 8- 1 2 ) Another

take over entire cities and villages with their com­

major building project was now put forward, the

pleted constructions, but they also did building themselves. ( Nu 32: 16 ; De 6 : 10, 11 ; 8: 12 ) At the

( Ge

Tower of Babel, disapproved by God. Here, new materials are mentioned, kiln-baked bricks with bitumen serving as mortar. The tower was in­

time of their entry ( 1473 E.C.E. ), Canaan was a

tended to be the highest structure up till that time.-Ge 1 1 : 3, 4.

fications. -Nu 13: 28.

land with numerous walled cities and strong forti­ While it is true that no striking constructions

Abraham, the forefather of the Israelites, doubt­

remain to indicate Israelite originality or ingenu­

less saw fairly advanced styles of architecture in Ur of the Chaldeans. ( Ge 11 : 3 1 ) Excavations there

that they were lacking in such ability. Unlike the

reveal evidences of city streets, two-story houses

pagan nations, they did not erect huge monu­

with brick stairs, and complexes of temples and

ments in honor of political rulers or military he­

ity as to architecture, it does not logically follow

palaces, considered as dating back to the third

roes. The one temple constructed was at Jerusa­

millennium E.c.E. Here, too, is found some of the

lem, although apostasy produced other religious

earliest evidence of the use of the corbel vault or

sites. Nothing remains of the original temple or of

the cantilever arch (formed by building the two sides of a wall closer and closer together until the

its successor. Among the more impressive ruins uncovered are those of the identical city gates of

gap between them can be bridged with a row of

ancient Megiddo, Hazor, and Gezer, thought to

stones or bricks ), as well as of the true curved arch with keystone.

have been built in Solomon's time. ( l Ki 9 : 15 ) In each case the 20-m-long ( 66 ft) external walls were made with carefully drafted stones. Within the gate passage there were three successive pairs

Later, during his stay in Egypt ( Ge 1 2 : 10 ), Abra­ ham may have witnessed some of the architectur­ al splendors of that land. The Step Pyramid of King Djoser at Saqqara is supposed to date from the third millennium B . c.E. and is one of the earliest examples remaining of major construc­ tions using cut stone. ( PICTURE, Vol . 1, p. 530) The Great Pyramid of Khufu, built somewhat later at Giza, has a huge base of 5 . 3 ha ( 1 3 acres ) and was made of some 2 ,300,000 blocks of limestone, each

of jambs or extended piers, thus producing six recessed chambers flanking the passage on either side, in which business might be transacted or from which soldiers could harass any troups at­ tempting to force their way through the gates. ( See GATE, GATEWAY. ) At Megiddo and at Samaria examples of expert masonry have been found, the stones being carefully chiseled, laid, and joined

weighing 2 . 3 metric tons on the average. It was originally 147 m ( 482 ft) high. Not only the size but also the preciSion achieved makes it a project amazing even modern engineers. Several centu­ ries later at Karnak, farther up the Nile, the Egyp­

with fine precision, in some cases so exactly that

tians produced the largest known temple built by man. The roof of its great hall was supported by 134 enormous columns, each some 3 m ( 10 ft ) in diameter, decorated with richly colored reliefs.

On the basis of archaeological investigation it appears that Israelite houses were generally of

even a thin knife blade cannot be inserted be­ tween the joined stones. Undoubtedly the work on the temple built by Solomon was of the same high quality.- 1Ki 5 : 1 7 ; 6 : 7.

very modest construction, some researchers hold­ ing that they were quite crude. Yet the evidence

159

ARCHITECTURE

o n which such opinions are based i s very mea­

3,000 people were on the roof observing when

The Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible

Samson dislodged the two main pillars, causing

ger. As

( Vol. 1 , p. 209 ) comments : "Modem knowledge of

the collapse of the house.-Jg 1 6 : 2 5 -30.

the subject is restricted both by the inattention of

The roofs of smaller bulldings and domestic

ancient writers to matters of architectural interest

dwellings were frequently formed of branches or

and by the scanty survival of the buildings them­

reeds that were bound together and laid across

selves, most of which time and succeeding gen­

the beams and then packed and covered with mud

erations of builders have utterly destroyed. " ( Edit­

or clay, which was then rolled smooth. A slight

ed by G. A. Buttrick, 1962 ) Thus, it is rare to find

slope given to the roof allowed the rain to run off.

more than one or two courses of masonry above

Such roofs are still to be found in the Jordan Valley

the foundation of any ruined building in Palestine.

in present-day dwellings.

It is also logical that the better homes would suffer most at the hands of destroyers and, subsequent­ ly, of those seeking building materials.

The basic type of building in Palestine was of rectangular form; if a dwelling, there was usually a somewhat loose arrangement of small rectan­

Ancient Building Materials and Methods.

gular rooms within. The limited space available

Stone foundations were common from the earliest

within cities, often crowded, determined the size

times. Whereas rough stones might be employed,

and shape of the buildings. If space allowed, there

they were aligned and bonded by the corner­

might be an inner courtyard with all the rooms

stones, which were carefully smoothed and fitted.

opening off it and with only one entranceway

( Compare Ps 118: 2 2 ; Isa 28: 16. ) Clay mortar or

from the street. The same basic rectangular style

plaster inside Israelite stone houses is mentioned

was used not only for the domestic house but also

at Leviticus 14:40-48. If the remainder of the

for the royal house ( palace), the storehouse, the

house was not completed in stone, sun-dried or

house of assembly ( synagogue), the house of God

kiln-baked bricks were frequently used above the

( temple ), and the house of the dead ( tomb ).

( Compare Isa 9 : 10. ) Wood was at

Works of the Kings of Judah and Israel.

times interspersed with the bricks. The materials

foundation.

The only particular construction mentioned as oc­

employed depended principally on what was lo­

curring during King David's reign appears to be

cally available. The lack of wood and stone in Mesopotamia resulted in most constructions' be­

the "house of cedars," built with materials and by workers supplied by Phoenician King Hiram of

ing made of mud brick, whereas in Palestine lime­

Tyre ( l Ch 14: 1 ; 17: 1 ), although it is recorded that

stone or other stones were generally abundant.

David continued building other houses in Jerusa­

An early method of forming an economical wall

lem. ( l Ch 1 5 : 1 ) David also made great prepara­

was that of the wattle and daub. Stakes were

tions for the temple construction to be accom­

driven into

or flexible

plished by his son Solomon, including the hewing

branches were interwoven between them hori­

the

ground

and reeds

of squared stones, the fashioning of iron nails, and

zontally to form a mesh framework upon which

the preparing of copper and of cedar timbers "in

clay could be spread. After the clay had been

great quantity," as well as the setting aside of

thoroughly dried and hardened by the sun, plas­

supplies of gold, silver, precious stones, and mosa­

ter was applied periodically to preserve the walls

ic pebbles. ( l Ch 2 2 : 1 -4; 29 : 1 -5 ) He was also used

from the elements. -See WALLS.

to provide the divinely inspired

"architectural

laying long stones or timbers across the support­

plan" for the entire temple layout and equipment. ( 1 Ch 28: 11 , 19) The Hebrew word for "architectur­

ing walls. Posts or pillars might be introduced to

al plan"

increase the span of the roof, the common "post

( " build " ; 1 Ch 2 2 : 1 1 ) and is elsewhere rendered

The roof of a building was generally formed by

and lintel" method. Since the corbel vault and the curved arch were known from ancient times, it is

"pattern"

( tav·nith') comes from the root ba·nah ' and

"representation. "-Ex

25 :9 ;

1 Ch

28 : 18.

probable that in large buildings these were used to

Under Solomon, Israelite architecture reached

hold up such flat roofs as were capable of support­

its high point. ( 2Ch 1 : 15 ; Ec 2 : 4 - 6 ) Although the

ing considerable weight. In these larger buildings

Phoenician workers of King Hiram were employed

one or two rows of pillars were often used; the

in the cutting of timbers in Lebanon for the temple

wood or stone pillars were set in a stone plinth, or

construction, the record does not support the view

base, and it is suggested by some that the pillars

often advanced that the temple at Jerusalem was

in the house of Dagon to which the Philistines

primarily and essentially the work of Phoenicians.

brought blind Samson were of this type. In addi­

An Israeli-Phoenician named Hiram is mentioned

tion to those gathered within the building, some

as contributing to the immediate construction, but

160

ARCHITECTURE this was mainly in decorative work and metal­

bricks, and enameled tile paintings. Sennacherib's

work, done after the building was erected and

palace at Nineveh was an immense structure of

according to the plans provided by King David.

about 70 rooms, with over 3,000 m ( nearly 10,-

( l Ch 28: 19 ) King Hiram of 'lYre acknowledged

000 ft ) of wall space lined with sculptured slabs.

that there were "skillful men" among the Israelites

( 2Ki 19 : 3 6 ; compare Jon 3 : 2 , 3. ) Sennacherib is

as well. ( l Ki 7 : 13-40; 2Ch 2 : 3, 8- 16; compare 1 Ch

also believed to have built the 48-km ( 30 mi)

28: 20, 21 . ) Solomon himself directed the building

aqueduct that carried water from the Gomer River

of the temple structure. ( l Ki 6 : 1 -38; 2Ch 3 : 1 -4:

to the gardens of Nineveh. At Mari, on the Eu­

22) Additionally, he built the temple courtyard,

phrates in eastern Syria, an enormous 300-room

the House of the Forest of Lebanon, noteworthy

palace complex covered some 6 ha ( 1 5 acres ). The

for its 45 pillars of cedarwood and special illumi­

ruins of ancient Babylon likewise indicate the one­

nation features, the Porch of Pillars, the Porch of

time magnificence of that city with its formidable

the Throne, as well as his own house and the

walls, famous streets, and numerous palaces and

house for Pharaoh's daughter, all constructed of

temples.

expensive stones hewn "according to measures . " - l Ki 7 : 1 - 1 2.

Under Persian rule, Jews in Shushan might have viewed the splendor of the palace of Darius I

Other kings prominent in building were Asa

there, with its interiors beautified by splendidly

( l Ki 15 :23 ), Baasha ( l Ki 1 5 : 1 7 ), Omri ( l Ki 16:23,

colored glazed bricks. (PICTURES, Vol . 2, p. 330 ) At

24), Ahab ( l Ki 2 2 : 39 ), Jehoshaphat ( 2Ch 1 7 : 12 ),

Persepolis the grandeur was perhaps yet more

Uzziah ( 2Ch 2 6 : 6- 10, 1 5 ), Jotham ( 2Ch 27: 3, 4),

impressive ( PICTURES, Vol. 2, p. 329), from the Gate

and Hezekiah ( 2Ki 20 : 20 ) . The tunnel of Siloam

of Xerxes, with its colossal bulls, to the palace and

( 5 3 3 m [ 1 , 749 ft ] in length), attributed to Hezeki­

huge audience halls of Darius and Xerxes, includ­

ah, and the tunnels found at Lachish, Gibeon,

ing the hall of 100 columns. The Persian columns

Gezer, and Megiddo were remarkable engineering

were more graceful and slender than the famed

feats.

Ionic columns of the Greeks. The ratio of height to

Postexilic Building in Palestine.

The post­

diameter of the columns in the Hall of Xerxes was

exilic period seems to have seen only modest

12 to 1 as compared to a ratio of 10 to 1 maximum

construction among the Jews. However, Herod the

for Corinthian columns, and only 6 to 1 for Egyp­

Great (first century B.c.E. ), and his successors, engaged in great architectural projects, including

tian columns. Likewise, the span attained between the columns in Persian buildings was as much as

the reconstruction of the temple at Jerusalem ( Mr

twice that of the Greek buildings, thus creating a

13 : 1 . 2; Lu 21 : 5 ), the harbor at Caesarea, the great

greater sense of spaciousness than found in simi­

viaduct spanning the central part of Jerusalem, as

lar ancient structures.

well as public buildings, theaters, hippodromes,

Grecian

and Roman Styles

and

Methods.

and baths. A most remarkable feat was Herod's

Greek architecture entered its "golden period" in

development of the fortress on the hill of Masada

the seventh century B. C.E. That period lasted

over 400 m ( 1 , 300

ft)

above the Dead Sea. Besides

down to the fourth century B. c.E. Athens became

the fortifications, Herod built an elegant, three­

the site for majestic temples and buildings erected

tiered hanging palace with a terrace and with

in honor of the Greek gods and goddesses. These

bathing pools, as well as another palace with a

buildings included the Parthenon, the Temple of the Wingless Victory, and the Erechtheum; while

Roman bathhouse having heating pipes in the walls, and a sit-down lavatory with flushing sys­

at Corinth the Temple of Apollo and the vast

tem. He equipped the huge rock fortress with a

marketplace ( or

dozen great cisterns able to hold in all almost

style of architecture is generally designated by the

40,000

three main orders of beautiful Greek columns de­

kl ( 10,500,000 gal ) of water. -PIcTURE,

Vol. 2, p. 75 1 . Assyrian, Babylonian, Persian Architecture.

ago·ra / ) were outstanding. The

veloped: the Doric, the Ionic, and the Corinthian.

As a result of the fall of the northern kingdom of

The Romans were much indebted to the Greeks as to architectural style. Roman architecture was

Israel ( 740 B . c.E. ) and the overthrow of the south­

generally more functional than the Greek, while

ern kingdom of Judah ( 607 B.c.E. ), the Jewish

lacking some of its subtle beauty. The Romans also

people became acquainted with the architectural splendors of the Assyrian, Babylonian, and Per­

benefited from the Etruscans, who were noted for their true arch formed with wedge-shaped stones.

sian Empires. The palace of Sargon II at Khorsa­

In the sixth century B.c.E. such true arches were

bad was notable for its regularity and use of

used in a most impressive way in the construction

symmetry, as well as its splendid reliefs, glazed

of the great sewers of Rome. The Roman archi-

161

ARD

tects are to be credited also with the development

Jehovah blasts with the windstorm and hail of his

of the double arch and the dome, both of which

rage, tearing it down and revealing its founda­

they used in producing enormous column-free

tions. ( Eze 13: 10- 16 ) The psalmist assures that

rotundas and spacious halls. The Greek masons

unless Jehovah builds the house, the builders la­

had built majestic structures without the use of mortar or cement because of their surpassing skill and precision i n fitting and joining the marble blocks used. Roman masons made use of a volca­ nic earth combined with lime called pozzolana, a hydraulic cement of great cohesive strength. With pozzolana as mortar, the Romans could extend the span of their arches as well as construct multisto­ ried edifices, including the mammoth four-story Colosseum, built in the first century c.E. , with a seating capacity variously estimated to be from 40,000 to 87,000 persons. Among the more valu­ able Roman constructions were the great military roads and splendid aqueducts built particularly from the third century B.c.E. forward. The apostle Paul made much use of these Roman highways and undoubtedly saw the aqueduct of Emperor Claudius along the Appian Way when traveling to Rome.

Christian Building.

Even as the nation of

Israel was not noted for architectural splendor or pomp, so too the early Christians of spiritual Israel constructed with modesty.

nary ( l965,

Unger's Bible Dictio­

pp. 84, 85 ) comments : "As early as in

the 3rd century buildings erected by them exist­ ed, but they were neither substantial nor costly . " I t was not until the time o f Emperor Constantine,

bor in vain. ( Ps 127: 1 ) Prior to "the great day of Jehovah," those who disregard God will build but will not come to occupy their buildings.

(Zep

1 : 12-14; compare Am 5 : 11 . ) By contrast, God's servants are to "build houses and have occupancy" and "use to the full" the work of their hands.-Isa 6 5 : 17-2 3 ; compare Ec 3 : 3 . In the Christian Greek Scriptures, the impor­ tance of making a cost estimate before beginning construction was referred to by Jesus when he encouraged

his

hearers

to

appreciate exactly

what is involved in becoming his followers. ( Lu 14: 28-30 ) The need for a solid foundation is used in a number of illustrations. ( Mt 7 : 24 -27 ; Lu 6 : 48, 49 ; 1Ti 6 : 17- 19 ; 2Ti 2 : 19 ; Heb 11 : 10 ) Christ Jesus speaks of founding his congregation on a rock­ mass

(pe1tra )

( Mt 16: 1 8 ), and Jesus himself is

shown to be the one foundation, besides which "no man can lay any other" ; yet he is "the stone that the builders rej ected . " ( l Co 3 : 1 1 ; Mt 21 :42 ; Ac 4: 11 ; Ps 118: 22) Because he is the chief corner­ stone, all the other "living stones" of this temple are founded on and aligned with him, with justice as "the measuring line" and righteousness as "the leveling instrument . " ( Eph 2 : 20, 21 ; 1Pe 2 : 4 -8 ; Isa 28: 16, 17) Jesus spoke of the temple of his body as

when encouragement was given to those so in­

being raised up "in three days," although the liter­

clined to enter relations with the political state,

al temple and surrounding buildings at Jerusalem

that nominal Christians began to produce a partic­

in his day had taken 46 years to build and they

ular style of architecture, eventually constructing

still were not finished. ( Joh 2 : 18- 2 2 ) Paul, as "a

some of the most ornate and pompous edifices

wise director of works," admonished concerning

known.

the use of high-quality, noncombustible materi­

Architecture

in

Prophecy

and

Figure.

als in building on Christ as the foundation. ( l Co

There are numerous uses of architectural terms in

3: 10 - 17 ) Love is described as a prime element of

Biblical prophecies and figures. The restoration

building. ( l Co 8 : 1 ; compare Ps 89 : 2. ) John's vision

prophecies deal to a great extent with the building ( or rebuilding ) of God's people and their cities. ( Isa 58: 12; 60: 10; 61 :4; Eze 28 : 2 6 ; 36 : 36 ) Zion is fore­

of the New Jerusalem presents it as a radiant city formed of precious stones with its walls resting on foundation stones inscribed with the names of

told to be built upon stones laid with hard mortar,

"the twelve apostles of the Lamb. " ( Re 2 1 :9 -27 )

with sapphire foundations, ruby battlements, and

God himself is presented as the Great Constructor

gates of fiery glowing stones. ( Isa 54: 1 1 , 1 2 ) Wis­

of all things, hence as not residing in buildings

dom is described as building its own house ( Pr

made by men.-Heb 3 : 4 ; Ac 7 : 48-50 ; 17: 24, 2 5 ;

9 : 1 ) and, along with discernment and knowledge, as being the means for building up a household.

Isa 6 6 : 1 .

( Pr 14: 1 ;

24 : 3 , 4) Jehoiakim is condemned for

ARD

(Ard ) . One of the 'seventy souls of the

building his palace in unrighteousness by failing

house of Jacob who came into Egypt. ' ( Ge 46 : 2 1 ,

to pay the workers, and the Chaldeans are con­

2 7 ) I n the Genesis account he i s called a son of

demned for building a city with the blood and toil of conquered peoples. ( Jer 2 2 : 13- 1 5 ; Hab 2 : 12, 1 3 )

likely that the meaning here is "grandson. " If this

False imagining of peace with God i s compared to

is the case, then he is also probably the same as

the building of a plastered partition wall that

Addar in 1 Chronicles 8: 3.

Benjamin, but in view of Numbers 26:40, it seems

ARDITES

ARDITES

( Ard/ites ) [Of ( Belonging to ) Ard]. A Benjamite family descended from Ard, a son of Bela.-Nu 26:40.

ARDON

(Ar/don ). One of the sons of Caleb the son of Hezron; of the tribe of Judah.- 1 Ch 2: 18.

ARELI

(Are/Ii ), ARELITES ( Are/lites ). The seventh-named son of Gad, who was one of those who came into Egypt with Jacob's family in 1 728 B.c.E. He became family head of the Arelites, who were included in the wilderness census short­ ly before entering the Promised Land.-Ge 46 : 8, 16; Nu 26: 17.

AREOPAGUS (Ar·e·op/a·gus ) [ Hill of Ares; Mars' Hil l ]. A hill to the NW of the towering Athenian Acropolis, separated from it by a shal­ low valley. This rather narrow, barren ridge of limestone is 113 m ( 370 ft) high, and the Acropolis to its SE rises another 43 m ( 141 ft) higher. The approach to Mars' Hill is gentle from the N ; on the S it is abrupt. Crowning this hill at one time were Grecian altars, temple sanctuaries, statues, and the open-air supreme court of the Areopagus. Today all of this is gone, and only a few of the benchlike seats carved in the rock remain.

162

On one of the apostle Paul's visits to Athens, certain Athenians laid hold of him and led him to the Areopagus, saying: "Can we get to know what this new teaching is which is spoken by you? For you are introducing some things that are strange to our ears." ( Ac 17: 19, 20 ) In reply Paul carefully laid one solid fact upon another, building up as he went along, a logical, persuasive, and convincing argument. Paul did not complete his speech, for "when they heard of a resurrection of the dead" mockers began to jeer. However, by the time this interruption came, the apostle had succeeded in splitting his audience three ways in their opinions. While some mocked, and some said they would hear more later, others "became believers, among whom also were Dionysius, a judge of the court of the Areopagus, and a woman named Damaris, and others besides them." ( Ac 17 : 22-34 ) Today a bronze plaque on Mars' Hill commemorating the event contains this speech of the apostle Paul. It cannot be stated for a certainty that Paul spoke on that occasion before the court of the Areopagus, but he did have at least one member of that noted court in his audience.-PlcTURE, Vol. 2, p. 746.

ARETAS ( Are/tas) [ Virtuous; Excellent] . The last of several Arabian kings of this name con­ trolled Damascus when its governor joined a plot of the Jews to do away with Paul. The apostle Paul escaped in a wicker basket lowered from a win­ dow in the city wall.-Ac 9 : 23-25 ; 2Co 11 : 32, 33. Aretas had given his daughter in marriage to Herod Antipas ( see HEROD No. 2 ), who divorced her to marry Herodias--the adulterous affair that John the Baptizer condemned. ( Mt 14: 3, 4 ) Further aggravated by border disputes, Aretas attacked and totally defeated Antipas. Emperor Tiberius then ordered the governor of Syria, Vitelli us, to take Aretas dead or alive. Vitellius, himself no friend of Antipas, mobilized his forces, but Tiberi­ us died in 37 c.E. , and the campaign against Aretas was called off. Tiberius' successor Caligu­ la reversed this foreign policy, installed Herod Agrippa I in place of Antipas, and permitted Are­ tas to rule Damascus. A coin of Damascus bearing an inscription of Aretas is dated in this period.

ARGOB

( Ar/gob) [Clod of Earth ].

1. Possibly one of the men assassinated with

King Pekahiah of Israel in about 778 B.c.E . , by a usurper named Pekah, who was assisted in the crime by 50 Gileadites.-2Ki 15 : 23-25. Greek plaque memorializing Pa ul 's speech on the Areopagus (Ac 1 7:22-31 )

2. A region of Bashan that was conquered while Israel was still E of the Jordan and that became part of the territory of the tribe of Manas­ seh. It appears to have been the seat of the king-

163

dom of Og and is described as having 60 fortified cities besides very many rural towns. ( De 3 :4, 5 , 13, 14 ) This was "the land o f the Rephaim," o r land of giants. Argob lay E of the Sea of Galilee. Although the traditional site for Argob is that of AI-Ledja, a lava-covered area about 32 km ( 20 mi ) S of Da­ mascus, the description in Deuteronomy of an area with rural towns would seem to favor the fertile plain to the W of AI-Ledja probably cen­ tered on the region between Nahr al-Ruqad, Nahr al-'Alan, and Nahal Yarmuk. On this broad table­ land the cities had no natural defenses and would have need for the 'high walls' mentioned in the Scriptures. There are ruins of such great cities studding the entire territory of Bashan. In King Solomon's time Argob was part of one of 12 districts placed under deputies responsible for providing food for the royal household.-1Ki 4 : 7, 13.

ARIDAI ( Ar'i·dai ). One of Haman's ten sons. -Es 9 : 9 , 10; see HAMAN. ARIDATHA

( Ari·da'tha ). One of Haman's ten sons.-Es 9 : 8, 10; see HAMAN.

ARIEH ( Ari'eh ). Perhaps a man assassinated in Samaria in about 778 B.CE. together with King Pekahiah of Israel, by usurper Pekah.-2Ki 15 : 25. ARIEL

( Ar/i·el) [Altar Hearth of God; or, Lion of

God ]. 1. A Moabite whose two sons were killed by Benaiah.-2Sa 2 3 : 20 ; 1 Ch 11 : 22 . 2 . One o f the nine head ones especially used by Ezra in obtaining qualified "ministers for the house of our God . " This was in the spring of 468 B.CE. when about 1 , 500 Israelite males under Ezra were about to depart from the river Ahava for Jerusalem.-Ezr 8: 15-17, 3 1 .

3 . A cryptic name applied t o Jerusalem i n Isa­ iah 29 : 1, 2, 7. Jerusalem was the location of God's temple that had within its precincts the sacrificial altar. Because of this the city was, in effect, God's altar hearth. It was also supposed to be the center of Jehovah's pure worship. However, the message in Isaiah 29 : 1-4 is ominous in content and predicts the destruction due to come to Jerusalem at the hands of the Babylonians in 607 B.CK, when she would become an "altar hearth" in a different sense: as a city running with shed blood and consumed by fire and filled with the bodies of victims of the fiery destruction. The underlying causes for this calamity are stated in verses 9 to 16. Isaiah 29 : 7 , 8, however, shows that the nations

ARISTOBULUS

wreaking such destruction on Jerusalem would fail in their ultimate purpose or goal.

ARIMATHEA

( Ar·i·ma·the'a ) [ from Heb. , meaning "Height" ]. "A city of the Judeans" in the time of Jesus, and the native city of Joseph, the secret disciple who obtained Jesus' corpse for buri­ al. ( Lu 2 3 : 50-53 ; Mt 27: 57-60 ; Mr 15:43-46 ; Joh 19 : 38-42 ) The location of Arimathea is generally considered to be at the site of modem Rentis ( Rantis), about 35 km ( 22 mi ) NW of Jerusalem and about 26 km ( 16 mi ) E of Joppa ( modern Tel Aviv-Yafo ).

ARIOCH

(Ar'i·och ).

1. The king of Ellasar who, in league with Chedorlaomer and two other kings, shared in crushing the rebellion of Sodom, Gomorrah, and their allies and in carrying off Lot and his house­ hold. Abraham then overtook the victors, defeated Arioch and his confederates, and rescued Lot. ( Ge 14: 1 - 16 ; see CHEDORLAOMER. ) The ancient location of Ellasar is not certain. -See ELLASAR. 2. The chief of Nebuchadnezzar's bodyguard, who was under orders to kill all the wise men of Babylon after they had failed to reveal and inter­ pret the king's dream. Upon learning that Daniel was prepared to reveal the dream and give the interpretation, "Arioch, in a hurry, took Daniel in before the king."-Da 2: 12-25.

ARISAI

(Ar'i·sai ). One of Haman's ten sons. -Es 9 :9, 10 ; see HAMAN.

ARISTARCHUS

(Ar ·is·tar'chus ) [ Best ( No­ blest) Ruler]. One of Paul's close associates, a trav­ eling companion and fellow prisoner, a Macedo­ nian from Thessalonica. ( Ac 20:4; 27: 2 ) He is introduced in the account of Paul's third mission­ ary journey; at the height of the Ephesian riot Aristarchus and Gaius were forcibly dragged into the theater. ( Ac 19 : 29 ) He could have been "the brother" who assisted Paul with the contribution for the Judeans that was collected in Macedonia and Greece.-2Co 8: 18-20. Aristarchus accompanied Paul on the voyage to Rome, but how he secured passage is uncertain, perhaps as a slave for Paul. ( Ac 27: 2 ) While in Rome he further assisted and encouraged Paul and for a time shared his prison bonds. Greetings from Aristarchus are conveyed in Paul's letters to the Colossians ( 4 : 10 ) and Philemon ( 23 , 24 ).

ARISTOBULUS

( Aris·tob'u·lus ) [ Best ( No­ blest ) Counselor]. An individual, some of whose household in Rome were sent greetings by Paul. -Ro 16: 10.

ARK

ARK. 1 . Noah's ark was the provision by which fore­ fathers of all mankind survived the global Deluge of 2370-2369 B.c.E. ( See DELUGE; NOAH No. 1 . ) Detailed instructions were given t o Noah by Jeho­ vah as to its size, shape, design for light and ventilation, and materials to be used for its con­ struction.-Ge 6 : 14 - 16.

Design and Size. The ark ( Heb. , te·vah '; Gr. , ki·bo·tos' ) was a rectangular chestlike vessel pre­

sumably having square corners and a flat bottom. It needed no rounded bottom or sharp bow to cut rapidly through the water; it required no steering; its only functions were to be watertight and to stay afloat. A vessel so shaped is very stable, cannot be easily capsized, and contains about one third more storage space than ships of conven­ tional design. There was a door provided in the side of the ark for loading and unloading the cargo. In size the ark was 300 cubits long, 50 cubits wide, and 30 cubits high. Conservatively calculat­ ing the cubit as 44. 5 cm ( 17. 5 in. ) ( some think the ancient cubit was nearer 56 or 61 cm ), the ark measured 133 . 5 m by 22.3 m by 13.4 m (437 ft 6 in. X 72 ft 11 in. X 43 ft 9 in. ), less than half the length of the ocean liner Queen Elizabeth 2. This proportion of length to width (6 to 1 ) is used by modern naval architects. This gave the ark ap­ proximately 40,000 cu m ( 1 ,400,000 cu ft ) in gross volume. It is estimated that such a vessel would have a displacement nearly equal to that of the mighty 269-m ( 883 ft ) Titanic of this 20th centu­ ry. No cargo vessel of ancient times even slightly resembled the ark in its colossal size. Internally strengthened by adding two floors, the three decks thus provided gave a total of about 8,900 sq m ( 96,000 sq ft ) of space. "You will make a tso'har [roof; or, window] for the ark," Noah was told. ( Ge 6 : 16) Just what this was or how it was constructed is not altogether clear. Some scholars think tso'har is related to ligh t and so they translate it "window" ( KJ, Mo), "light" (AS, JP), "a place for light" ( Ro). Others, however, associate tso'har with a later Arabic root meaning "back ( of the hand )," "back ( of a beast )," "deck ( of a ship )," that is, the part away from the ground or water, and for this reason translate it "roof. " (AT, RS, JB) This tso'har, Noah was told, was to be completed "to the extent of a cubit upward. "-Ge 6 : 16. It could be, therefore, that the tso'har provided for adequate light and ventilation, not just a single cubit-square "peephole, " but an opening a cubit in height near the roof and extending around the

164

four sides to give an opening of nearly 140 sq m ( 1 ,500 sq ft ). On the other hand, while still allow­ ing an ample opening for ventilation under the roof or elsewhere, the roof could have had slightly angled sides. Regarding this possibility James F. Armstrong wrote in Vetus Testamen tum ( Leiden, 1960, p. 333 ) : '''Unto a cubit upward you shall finish it' is difficult to understand when sohar is , translated either 'light ( window) or even '( flat ) roof'. If, however, a gable-type roof be postulated, the 'one cubit upward' can refer to the elevation of the crease of the roof above the level of the tops of the walls. In modern architectural terms, the 'one cubit' would be the height of the kingposts be­ tween which the ridgepiece is laid . . . . According to the argument that has been presented, the roof of Noah's ark was conceived as having a four per-cent pitch ( 1 cubit elevation - 25 cubits from wall to ridge), quite adequate to permit the water of the rains to flow off. " =

Of what this huge ark was to be built was made plain by Jehovah: "Make for yourself an ark out of wood of a resinous tree [ literally, trees of gopher]. " (Ge 6 : 14) This resinous wood here prescribed is thought by some to be cypress or a similar tree. In that part of the world what today is called cypress was in abundant supply; it was particularly fa­ vored for shipbuilding by the Phoenicians and by Alexander the Great, as it is even down to the present time; and it is especially resistant to water and decay. Doors and posts made of cypress are reported to have lasted 1 , 100 years. In addition, Noah was told not merely to caulk the seams but to "cover [the ark ] inside and outside with tar." -See BITUMEN. Ample Carrying Capacity. The passenger list of the ark was quite impressive. Besides Noah, his wife, his three sons, and their wives, living creatures "of every sort of flesh, two of each," were to be taken aboard. "Male and female they will be. Of the flying creatures according to their kinds and of the domestic animals according to their kinds, of all moving animals of the ground accord­ ing to their kinds, two of each will go in there to you to preserve them alive." Of the clean beasts and fowls, seven of each kind were to be taken. A great quantity and variety of food for all these creatures, to last for more than a year, also had to be stowed away.-Ge 6 : 18-21 ; 7 : 2, 3.

The "kinds" of animals selected had reference to the clear-cut and unalterable boundaries or limits set by the Creator, within which boundaries crea­ tures are capable of breeding "according to their kinds. " It has been estimated by some that the hundreds of thousands of species of animals today

ARK OF THE COVENANT

165

could be reduced to a comparatively few family "kinds"-the horse kind and the cow kind, to men­ tion but two. The breeding boundaries according to "kind" established by Jehovah were not and could not · be crossed. With this in mind some investigators have said that, had there been as few as 43 "kinds" of mammals, 74 "kinds" of birds, and 10 "kinds" of reptiles in the ark, they could have produced the variety of species known today. Others have been more liberal in estimating that 72 "kinds" of quadrupeds and less than 200 bird "kinds" were all that were required. That the great variety of animal life known today could have come from inbreeding within so few "kinds" fol­ lowing the Flood is proved by the endless variety of humankind-short, tall, fat, thin, with count­ less variations in the color of hair, eyes, and skin -all of whom sprang from the one family of Noah. These estimates may seem too restrictive to some, especially since such sources as The Ency­ clopedia Americana indicate that there are up­ wards of 1 , 300,000 species of animals. ( 1977, Vol. 1, pp. 859-873 ) However, over 60 percent of these are insects. Breaking these figures down further, of the 24,000 amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals, 10,000 are birds, 9,000 are reptiles and amphibians, many of which could have sur­ vived outside the ark, and only 5,000 are mam­ mals, including whales and porpoises, which would have also remained outside the ark. Other researchers estimate that there are only about 290 species of land mammals larger than sheep and about 1 ,360 smaller than rats. ( The Deluge Story in Stone, by B. C. Nelson, 1949, p. 156; The Flood

This ark or chest ( Heb. , te·vah ' ) was made of papyrus and was waterproofed with a coating of bitumen and pitch.-Ex 2 : 2-4, 10, ftn ; 6 : 20. 3. The container made of acacia wood in which the second set of stone tablets of the Law given Moses on Mount Sinai were temporarily kept until the ark of the testimony was constructed some months later. (De 10: 1 -5 ) The Hebrew word 'arohn � rendered "ark" in Deuteronomy 10: 1 -5, is elsewhere rendered "coffin" ( Ge 50: 26 ) and "chest. "-2 Ki 12:9, 10, ftn ; 2Ch 24:8, 10, 1 1 . 4. See AR K O F THE COVENANT.

ARKITE

( Ark'ite ). Descendants of Ham through Canaan and one of the 70 post-Flood families. ( Ge 10: 1 7 ; l Ch 1 : 15 ) They settled along the Mediterranean Coast W of the Lebanon Moun­ tains.

ARK OF THE COVENANT .

The sacred chest located in the Most Holy of the tabernacle and, later, in the temple built by Solomon. The Ark was made at Jehovah's command and according to his design.

Bible writers designate the ark of the covenant in more than 20 different ways. The more com­ mon of these expressions, "the ark of the covenant [ Heb. , 'arohd hab·berith'; Gr. , ki·bo·tos' tes di·a­ the'kes]" (Jos 3 : 6 ; Heb 9 :4) and "the ark of the testimony" ( Ex 25 : 2 2 ), are not peculiar to any certain writer and are used interchangeably.

Claims that remains of the ark have been found are as yet unconfirmed.

Pattern and Design. The first thing Jehovah gave Moses, when instructing him to build the tabernacle, was the pattern and design of the Ark, for indeed it was the central and paramount ob­ ject of the tabernacle and the whole camp of Israel. The chest itself measured 2 . 5 cubits long, 1 . 5 cubits wide, and 1 . 5 cubits high (c. 111 x 67 x 67 cm; 44 x 26 x 26 in. ). It was made of acacia wood, overlaid inside and out with pure gold. An artistic "border of gold" served as a crowning wreath "round about upon it. " The sec­ ond section of the Ark, its cover, was made of solid gold, not just wood overlaid with gold, and was the full length and breadth of the chest. Mounted on this cover were two golden cherubs of ham­ mered workmanship, one at each end of the cover facing each other, with heads bowed and wings extending upward and overspreading the Ark. ( Ex 2 5 : 10, 11, 17-2 2 ; 37:6-9 ) This cover was also known as the "mercy seat" or "propitiatory cover. " -Ex 25 : 17 ; Heb 9 : 5 , ftn ; see PROPITIATORY COVER.

2. The small chest in which Jochebed concealed her three-month-old "good-looking" baby later named Moses, and which was found by Pharaoh's daughter among the reeds by the bank of the Nile.

Long poles were provided for carrying the Ark. They were also made of acacia wood covered with gold and were inserted through two rings of gold on each side of the chest. These poles were not to

in the Ligh t of the Bible, Geology, and Archaeolo­ gy, by A. M. Rehwinkel, 1957, p. 69 ) So, even if estimates are based on these expanded figures, the ark could easily have accommodated a pair of all these animals. Five months after the Deluge began, "the ark came to rest on the mountains of Ararat," not likely, however, atop the uppermost peak ( nearly 5, 165 m; 16,950 ft), but on suitable terrain where everyone aboard lived comfortably for some months more. Finally, after a year and ten days from the time the Deluge began, the door again was opened and all aboard disembarked.-Ge 7: 11 ; 8 : 4, 14.

166

ARK OF THE COVENANT be removed from their rings; hence there was

upon the ark of the testimony . " "In a cloud I shall

never a necessity for bearers of the Ark to touch

appear over the cover. " ( Ex 25 : 22 ; Le 16 : 2 ) Samuel

it. There were four feet, "walking feet, feet bent as

wrote that Jehovah "is sitting upon the cherubs"

if for walking, " located at the corners to raise the

( l Sa 4:4); hence the cherubs served as "the repre­

Ark off the floor, but how high is not disclosed.

sentation of the chariot" of Jehovah. ( l Ch 28 : 18 )

by C. F. Keil

Accordingly, "whenever Moses went into the tent

and F. Delitzsch, 1973, Vol . 1, The Second Book of

of meeting to speak with [ Jehovah], then he would

Moses, p. 167 ) The rings may have been mounted immediately above the feet, if not on the feet themselves.-Ex 25 : 12- 16; Nu 4 : 5 , 1 5 ; l Ki 8 : 8 ;

hear the voice conversing with him from above

( Commen tary on the Old Testament,

lCh 15 : 15.

Inauguration and Use.

Bezalel and the wise­

hearted ones assisting him followed the plans ex­ plicitly, constructing the Ark from the materials contributed by the people. ( Ex 3 5 : 5 , 7, 10, 1 2 ; 37: 1 -9 ) When the tabernacle was completed and set up a year after the Exodus, Moses took the two

the cover that was upon the ark of the testimony, from between the two cherubs ; and he would speak to him. " ( Nu 7 : 89 ) Later, Joshua and High Priest Phinehas also inquired of Jehovah before the Ark. ( Jos 7 : 6 - 10 ; Jg 20 : 27, 28 ) However, only the high priest actually entered the Most Holy and saw the Ark, one day a year, not to communicate with Jehovah, but in carrying out the Atonement Day ceremony.-Le 1 6 : 2 , 3, 13, 1 5 , 1 7 ; Heb 9 : 7.

stone tablets of the Law and put them into the

In other ways the presence of Jehovah as repre­

Ark. ( Deuteronomy 10: 1 - 5 indicates that a tempo­

sented by the Ark brought blessings to Israel. It

rary ark made of acacia wood housed the tablets

was customary when Israel moved camp for the

during only the few months' interval from the time Moses received them in the mountain until

Ark with its overhead cloud to lead the way. ( Nu 10 : 3 3, 34) So, at the crossing of the Jordan, when

they were transferred to the Ark made by Bezal­

the priests carrying the Ark stepped into the riv­

el. ) Next, Moses inserted the poles in the rings of

er's water, Jehovah stopped its flow, allowing

the Ark, laid the cover on, brought it into the tent,

them to pass. (Jos 3 : 1-4 : 18) In the line of march

and put up the screen that was to separate the

around Jericho, the war-equipped forces were fol­

Holy from the Most Holy. Then, as part of the

lowed by seven priests blowing horns, then the

inauguration ceremony, Moses anointed the Ark

Ark, and behind was the rear guard. (Jos 6 : 3- 13 )

and all other furnishings with oil. From then on,

I n contrast t o the victory a t Jericho was the de­ feat suffered when certain rebels presumptuously

move camp, the same dividing screen, together

pushed ahead in an attempt to take the Promised

with additional sealskins and blue cloth, was used

Land contrary to divine instructions, and when

when the priests disassembled the tabernacle to

to cover the Ark to prevent the people from look­ ing upon it 'for the least moment of time, lest they die.'-Ex 40 : 3, 9, 20, 21 ; Nu 3 : 30, 31 ; 4 : 5 , 6, 19, 20; 7 : 9 ; De 10 : 8 ; 31 : 9 ; see TABERNACLE. The Ark served as a holy archive for the safe­ keeping of sacred reminders or testimony, the

"the ark of Jehovah's covenant and Moses did not move away from the midst of the camp. " ( Nu 14:44, 45 ) Even the enemy Philistines recognized the presence of Jehovah when the Ark appeared on the battlefield. In their fright they cried out : "God has come into the camp [ of Israel] !" "Woe to

testimony, or the Ten Commandments. ( Ex 2 5 : 16 )

us, for such a thing as this never occurred before! Woe to us! Who will save us from the hand of this

A "golden jar having the manna and the rod of Aaron that budded" were added to the Ark but

of Egypt with every sort of slaughter in the wil­

principal contents being the two tablets df the

majestic God? This is the God that was the smiter

were later removed sometime before the building of Solomon's temple. ( Heb 9 : 4 ; Ex 16: 32-34; Nu

derness. "- l Sa 4:6-8.

1 7 : 10; l Ki 8 : 9 ; 2Ch 5 : 10) Just before Moses died,

ed when the Philistines captured the Ark and took

he gave a copy of the "book of the law" to the Levitical priests with instructions that it should be kept, not within, but "at the side of the ark of the covenant of Jehovah your God, . . . as a witness there against you."-De 3 1 : 24 - 26 .

Associated with God's presence.

The Ark

Jehovah's presence continued to be demonstrat­ it to Ashdod to sit alongside the image of Dagon. That night, Dagon fell on his face ; the next night he again toppled before the ark of Jehovah and his head and the palms of both of his hands were cut off. During the next

seven months, as the Ark

was associated with God's presence throughout its

circulated among the Philistine cities, the people were plagued with piles, and the city of Ekron was

history. Jehovah promised : "I will present myself to you there and speak with you from above the cover, from between the two cherubs that are

plunged into "a death-dealing confusion," until finally the Ark was returned to Israel with proper offering. - 1 Sa 5 : 1 -6 : 12.

167

The fact that the Ark was associated with the presence of Jehovah demanded that due respect and high regard be given the Ark. Hence, when the Ark set out on the move and when it came to rest, Moses proclaimed words of praise to Jehovah. ( Nu 10:35, 36) High Priest Eli was so shocked to hear that the Philistines had captured the Ark that he lost his balance and fell over backward, break­ ing his neck; also his daughter-in-law in the throes of death lamented, "Glory has gone away from Israel into exile, because the ark of the true God has been captured. " ( 1 Sa 4: 18-2 2 ) King Solo­ mon acknowledged that "the places to which the ark of Jehovah has come are something holy." -2Ch 8: 1 1 . However, the Ark was Not a magic charm . not a magic charm. Its presence alone did not guarantee success; Jehovah's blessings depended on the spiritual standing and faithful obedience of those possessing the Ark. Hence, the Israelites under the leadership of Joshua suffered defeat at Ai because of unfaithfulness, despite the presence of the Ark in their camp. (Jos 7: 1-6) Similarly, Israel's trusting in the presence of the Ark among the very fighting forces did not prevent the Philis­ tines from killing 30,000 Israelites and capturing the Ark. ( 1 Sa 4: 1 - 1 1 ) The return of the Ark from the Philistines was an occasion for great rejoicing, offering of sacrifices, and thanksgiving, yet Jeho­ vah "struck down the people with a great slaugh­ ter. " Why? "Because they had looked upon the ark of Jehovah" in violation of his command. ( l Sa 6 : 11 -21 ; Nu 4:6, 20) Exactly how many died on that occasion is not certain. The Masoretic text reads: "So he struck down among the people sev­ enty men-fifty thousand men." This ambiguous construction might suggest that "fifty thousand men" is an interpolation. The Syriac Peshitta and the Arabic say that "five thousand and seventy men" were struck down. The Targum Jonathan reads: "And he struck down seventy men among the older men of the people, and fifty thousand among the congregation. " The Greek Septuagint says that "seventy men among them, and fifty thousand of the men" were struck down. Josephus mentions only seventy men as being killed.-Jew­ ish An tiquities, VI, 16 (i, 4). Locations Where the Ark Was Kept. The Ark had no permanent resting-place until the erection of Solomon's temple. With the major con­ quest of the land completed (c. 1467 B.c.E. ), it was moved to Shiloh, where it apparently remained ( with the exception of a time when it was at Bethel) until captured by the Philistines. (Jos 18: 1 ; J g 20: 26, 27 ; ISa 3 : 3 ; 6: 1 ) Upon its return to Israelite territory it rested successively at Beth-

ARK OF THE COVENANT

shemesh and Kiriath-jearim, at this latter place for about 70 years.- l Sa 6 : 11-14; 7 : 1 , 2 ; l Ch 13 : 5 , 6. According to the Masoretic text, 1 Samuel 14: 18 indicates that, during a conflict with the Philis­ tines, King Saul had Ahijah the high priest bring the Ark to his campsite. However, the Greek Sep­ tuagint states that Saul said to Ahijah: "'Bring the ephod near! ' ( For he carried the ephod in that day before Israel. )." David's desire to have the Ark brought to Jeru­ salem was a good one, but the method he first used led to disaster. Instead of having it carried by the poles on the shoulders of the Kohathite Levites as instructed, David let it be placed on a wagon. The bulls caused a near upset, and Uzzah was struck down because he reached out to grab hold of the Ark, contrary to God's law.-2Sa 6 : 2- 11 ; lCh 13 : 1-11 ; 15 : 13 ; Nu 4 : 15. The Ark was finally brought to Jerusalem, prop­ erly carried by the Levites ( 1 Ch 1 5 : 2 , 15 ) , and there it remained in a tent during the remainder of David's reign. ( 2Sa 6: 12-19; 11 : 11 ) The priests attempted to take the Ark along when they fled Absalom's rebellion, but David insisted that it remain in Jerusalem, trusting that jehovah would bring them all back safely to it. ( 2Sa 15 : 24, 25, 29 ; l Ki 2 : 26 ) David desired to build a permanent house for the Ark, but Jehovah postponed such construction until Solomon's reign. ( 2 Sa 7 : 2-13; l Ki 8: 20, 21 ; lCh 28: 2, 6; 2Ch 1 :4) On the occa­ sion of the dedication of the temple, the Ark was moved from the tent on Zion into the Most Holy of the temple up on Mount Moriah, where it was placed under the overshadowing wings of two large cherubs. It was the only piece of furniture from the original tabernacle that became part of Solomon's temple. - l Ki 6: 19 ; 8: 1 - 11 ; l Ch 22 : 19; 2Ch 5 : 2- 10 ; 6 : 10, 11 ; see TEMPLE (Solomon's Tem­ ple ) ; CHERUB No. 1 . The only post-Solomonic historical reference to the ark of the covenant, nearly 900 years after it was made, is at 2 Chronicles 35 : 3 where King Josiah, in 642 B.c.E. , commanded that it be re­ turned to the temple. How it had come to be removed is not stated. Josiah came to the throne following some very apostate kings, one of whom had put an image in the house of Jehovah, and possibly one of these wicked kings removed the Ark. ( 2Ch 33: 1, 2, 7) On the other hand, Josiah sponsored extensive repairs of the temple, during which time the Ark might have been kept else­ where for its own protection against damage. ( 2Ch 34: 8-3 5 : 19 ) There is no mention of the Ark's being taken to Babylon. The Ark is not enumerat­ ed among the temple articles carried off. likewise,

168

ARM

there is no mention of its being returned and placed in Zerubbabel's rebuilt temple ; neither was a replacement made for it. When and under what circumstances the Ark disappeared is unknown. -2Ki 2 5 : 13- 17; 2Ch 36 : 18 ; Ezr 1 : 7- 1 1 ; 7 : 12- 19 . Jeremiah foretold a time when the ark o f the covenant would be no more, but that it would not be missed and Jehovah's worshipers would expe­ rience no hardship because of not having it. In­ stead 'Jerusalem itself will be called the throne of Jehovah . '-Jer 3 : 16, 17. In the symbolic book of Revelation, John says that "the ark of his covenant was seen in his temple sanctuary" in heaven. This ark of the cov­ enant has to do with the new covenant of God with men and the appearing of the Ark was an indication that Jehovah was again ruling by means of his Anointed One.-Re 1 1 : 15, 19.

ARM.

A limb of the human body. The Hebrew and Greek terms for "arm" (zeroh 'a '; bra·khFon) are often used figuratively in the Bible to repre­ sent the ability to exert strength or power. ( Ge 49 : 24, ftn; Job 2 2 : 8, ftn ; compare Lu 1 : 51 . ) The "arm" of Jehovah God is immeasurably powerful, able to do marvelous creative works. ( Jer 27 : 5 ; 3 2 : 1 7 ) By his "arm" Jehovah also rules ( Isa 40: 10; Eze 20: 33), saves those in distress ( Ps 44: 3 ; Isa 52: 10 ), delivers his people ( Ex 6:6; Isa 63 : 12 ; Ac 1 3 : 17), supports and cares for them ( De 3 3 : 27; Isa 40: 11 ; Ho 11 : 3 ), judges ( Isa 51 : 5 ), and scatters his ene­ mies ( Ps 89 : 10 ; Lu 1 : 51 ). Breaking the arm repre­ sents shattering one's might. (Job 38: 15 ; Ps 10: 15 ; Jer 48: 25 ) Through Jesus Christ, clothed with authority and power and acting as Judge and Executioner, Jehovah manifests His might, repre­ sented by His "arm."-Isa 5 3 : 1 ; Joh 1 2 : 37, 38.

The arm of flesh, representing human power, is described in the Bible as unreliable and failing the one trusting in it. Jehovah warns his people of the fallacy and disaster of trusting in the human arm. ( 2Ch 3 2 : 8 ; Jer 1 7 : 5 ) He will break the arm of the wicked, which is described as resting oppressively on their victims.-Job 3 5 : 9 ; 38: 1 5 ; Ps 10: 15. In King Nebuchadnezzar's dream image, the breasts and arms of silver represent Medo-Persia, the kingdom succeeding Babylon, the head of gold, as world power.-Da 2 : 32, 39.

ARMAGEDDON.

See HAR-MAGEDON.

ARMONI (Ar·mo/ni) [ Of the Dwelling Tower; Born in the Dwelling Tower ]. One of two sons born to Saul by his concubine Rizpah. To expiate Saul's bloodguilt, seven of his offspring, including Ar­ moni, were given to the Gibeonites, who put them

to death and exposed their corpses on the moun­ tain. Rizpah kept watch, not letting fowl or beast molest them, until David had the bones buried. -2Sa 21 : 5 - 14.

ARMOR.

See ARMS, ARMOR.

ARMOR -BEARER. A military attendant who carried the armor and weapons of a king or other leader, stood by him in danger, and did his bid­ ding. "Armor-bearer" translates the Hebrew ex­ pression no·se" ke·lim ', literally meaning "one car­ rying armor or weapons . " ( lSa 14: 6 ; compare lSa 14: 1 . ) Foes wounded by a prominent warrior might be given the final deathblow by his armor­ bearer. ( 1Sa 14 : 13 ) These attendants were select­ ed from among valiant soldiers, and some were evidently very devoted to their commanders. - lSa 14 :6, 7 ; 31 : 5 . Mortally wounded Abimelech had the attendant bearing his weapons put him to death so that it might not be said, "It was a woman that killed him . " ( Jg 9 : 5 2-54 ) David once served as King Saul's armor-bearer ( 1Sa 16 : 21 ) ; while a later armor-bearer, who refused to put the dying ruler to death, followed Saul in the course of suicide. ( 1Sa 31 : 3-6) Armor-bearers also attended Jona­ than and Joab ( 1 Sa 14: 6-14 ; 2Sa 18: 15 ; 2 3 : 37 ; l Ch 1 1 : 39 ) and chief warriors of various ancient na­ tions, such as the Philistine giant Goliath. - 1 Sa 1 7 : 7, 41 .

ARMS, ARMOR.

Arms and armor are often mentioned in the Bible, but no extensive details on their manufacture and utilization are provided.

While the Hebrew Scriptures in particular tell repeatedly of the use of the literal sword, spear, shield, and other arms, they also consistently em­ phasize the vital necessity and advantage of trust­ ing in Jehovah. (Ge 1 5 : 1 ; Ps 76 : 1 -3 ; 115 : 9- 1 1 ; 119 : 1 14 ; 144: 2 ) Reliance upon Him was evident in David's words to Goliath: "You are coming to me with a sword and with a spear and with a javelin, but I am coming to you with the name of Jehovah of armies, the God of the battle lines of Israel, whom you have taunted. This day Jehovah will surrender you into my hand . . . And all this congregation will know that neither with sword nor with spear does Jehovah save, because to Jehovah belongs the battle. " ( 1Sa 17:45 -47 ) De­ pendence upon Jehovah's spirit and not military force is shown to be essential and effective. (Zec 4 : 6 ) And in confirming his love for his figurative wife, Zion, Jehovah assured: "Any weapon what­ ever that will be formed against you will have no success . . . This is the hereditary possession of the servants of Jehovah. "-Isa 54: 17.

ARMS, ARMOR

169 The Hebrew word keli' may denote a "weapon," but it can also refer to an "article, " "utensil," "in­

strument," 'implement, ' or "vessel. " ( Jg 9 : 54 ; Le

would give himself up voluntarily in harmony with God's will. Thus, when Peter did react and try to put up armed resistance, lopping off the

1 3 : 49 ; Eze 4 : 9 ; Nu 3 5 : 1 6 ; Ec 9 : 18; Le 6 : 2 8 ) In the

ear of Malchus, Jesus ordered him : "Return your

plural form it can refer to "armor," as well as

sword to its place, for all those who take the sword

"goods," "equipment, " "luggage," and "baggage. "

will perish by the sword. " ( Mt 26 : 5 2 ; Joh 18: 10,

( 2Ch 9 : 24 ; G e 31 : 37 ; 45 : 20 ; ISa 10 : 2 2 ; 17: 2 2 ) One

( ne'sheq)

1 1 ) Certainly, Peter's sword and the other one at

comes

hand would have availed little against such a large

meaning "be armed ; be

group of armed men, and by trying to use them,

equipped. " ( l Ki 10: 25 ; lCh 12 : 2 ; 2Ch 1 7 : 1 7 ) The

they would undoubtedly have 'perished by the

other Hebrew word for "armor" from the root

pa·no­

sword . ' ( Mt 26:47 ) More important, such attempt­

meaning "full armament ; complete suit of

ed delivery of Jesus would have failed, being com­

Greek word

pli'a,

na·shaq',

ho'plon

( weapon) is related to

pletely contrary to Jehovah God's purpose. ( Mt

armor. "-Joh 18: 3 ; Lu 1 1 : 22 ; Eph 6 : 1 1 .

Arms ( Offensive ) .

Sword and dagger.

The

Hebrew word che'rev is usually rendered "sword, " but i t may also b e rendered 'dagger,' "chisel," and 'knife.' ( Ge 3 : 24 ; lKi 18 : 28 ; Ex 20: 25 ; Jos 5 : 2 ) In the Hebrew Scriptures the sword is the most fre­ quently mentioned weapon of offense and de­ fense. It had a handle and a metal blade, which

26 : 5 3, 54) As it was, later that day Jesus could plainly state to Pilate: "If my kingdom were part of this world, my attendants would have fought that I should not be delivered up to the Jews. But, as it is, my kingdom is not from this source." -Joh 18: 36.

Spear, lance, javelin, and dart.

Weapons used for

might be made of brass, copper, iron, or steel.

thrusting or hurling, consisting of a shaft fitted

Swords were employed for cutting ( l Sa 1 7 : 5 1 ; l Ki

with a sharp point or head. ( l Sa 18: 11 ; Jg 5 : 8 ; Jos

3 : 24, 2 5 ) and thrusting or running through. ( l Sa

8: 18; Job 41 : 26 ) Various kinds were used by all the

31 : 4 ) Some swords were short, others long, being

nations of antiquity. Precise delineation between

single- or double-edged. Archaeologists separate

them, as designated by different Hebrew words, is

daggers from swords by length, the point of dif­

somewhat uncertain.

ferentiation being about 40 em ( 16 in. ).

In the Hebrew Scriptures,

Generally the sword was suspended on the left

chanith ' )

the

spear (Heb . ,

was apparently the largest o f these four

side from the girdle ( l Sa 2 5 : 1 3 ) and was worn in

weapons, having a long wooden shaft and gener­

a sheath, a leather case or covering for the sword

ally a sharp stone or metal head. In importance it

or the dagger. Second Samuel 20:8 allows for the possibility

that

Joab deliberately

adjusted

his

sword so that it fell from its sheath and then merely held the weapon in his hand instead of sheathing it once again. Unsuspecting Amasa per­ haps thought it had fallen accidentally, and he was unconcerned. That proved fatal. In the Christian Greek Scriptures, the Greek word

ma 'khai·ra

is usually used for the sword

( Mt 26 :47 ) , though

rhomphai'a,

denoting a "long

sword," is also employed. ( Re 6 : 8 ) The fact that two swords were available among the disciples on the night of Jesus' betrayal was not unusual for those times ( Lu 2 2 : 38), and there is evidence that for Galileans in particular it was not uncommon to carry arms. ( See

The Jewish War,

by F. Josephus,

III, 42 [ iii, 2 ]. ) Jesus' words at Luke 2 2 : 36, "Let the one having no sword sell his outer garment and buy one," would not indicate that his disciples were about to enter into a hazardous life. Rather,

ranked second to the sword. The giant Goliath carried a spear with a blade weighing "six hun­ dred shekels of iron" (6.8 kg ; 15 lb) and with a wooden shaft "like the beam of loom workers. " ( 1 Sa 1 7 : 7 ) Some spears had a metal point a t the butt end by which they might be fixed in the ground. Hence, this end, and not just the spear­ head, could be used effectively by a warrior. ( 2Sa 2: 19-23 ) A spear stuck in the earth might denote a king's temporary abode . - l Sa 2 6 : 7. In the Christian Greek Scriptures the spear ( Gr. , is mentioned in John 19 : 34, which says

log'khe)

that after Jesus Christ had died, "one of the sol­ diers jabbed his side with a spear." Since this was a Roman soldier, the Roman pilum was probably used. Such a weapon was about 1 . 8 m (6 ft ) long, with a barbed iron head extending halfway down the length of the wooden shaft. The lance ( Heb. ,

ro'mach),

a weapon with a long

shaft and a sharp point, was used for thrusting.

he desired to have a sword available among his

( Nu 2 5 : 7 , 8) It was a standard weapon of the

followers on that night in order to demonstrate

Hebrews.

clearly that, though they would come into circum­

The javelin ( Heb. ,

ki·dhohn ' ) had a

pointed met­

stances that could easily provoke armed resis­

al head and was usually thrown. It was apparently

tance, he did not intend to resort to the sword but

smaller and lighter than the conventional spear,

ARMS, ARMOR

which would allow for it to be held with out­ stretched arm. ( Jos 8: 18-26 ) The javelin was cus­ tomarily carried not in the hand but on the back. The dart ( Heb. , mas·sa t! ) was evidently a short pointed missile similar to the arrow. ( Job 41 : 26 ) She'lach, the Hebrew word for a missile, comes from the root verb sha·lach ', meaning "send ( out ) ; put out ; thrust out. " ( 2Ch 2 3 : 10; G e 8 : 8, 9 ; Ex 9 : 15 ) The Hebrew word ziq·qim ' denotes "fiery missiles" and is related to zi·qohth', meaning "sparks ; fiery arrows. "-Pr 26 : 18; Isa 50: 1 1 , ftn. The Greek be'los ( missile) comes from the root bal'lo, meaning "throw. " The apostle Paul used this Greek word when he wrote about "burning mis­ siles" that one is able to quench with the large shield of faith. ( Eph 6 : 16 ) Among the Romans, darts were made of hollow reeds, and on the lower part, under the point, there was an iron receptacle that could be filled with burning naphtha. The dart was then shot from a slack bow, as projecting it from a taut bow would put out the fire. Endeav­ oring to extinguish such a missile with water would j ust increase the flame, and the only way to put it out was by covering the destructive projec­ tile with earth.

Bow and arrow. From early times the bow ( Heb. , qe'sheth; Gr. , to'xon) was used in hunting and warfare. ( Ge 21 : 20; 27: 3 ; 48: 22 ; Re 6 : 2 ) It was a standard weapon among the Israelites ( 2Ch 26: 14, 15), those who fought for Egypt (Jer 46 : 8, 9), the Assyrians ( lsa 37: 3 3 ), and the Medo­ Persians.-Jer 50: 14 ; 51 : 11 ; see also ARCHER. The reference to "a bow of copper" is likely to be understood as meaning a wooden bow mounted with copper. ( 2Sa 2 2 : 3 5 ) The expression 'to bend the bow' ( literally, 'to tread the bow' ) refers to stringing the bow. ( Ps 7 : 1 2 ; 37 : 14 ; Jer 50: 14, 29 ) This might be done by firmly planting the foot against the middle of the bow ; or one end of the bow with the string attached might be held to the ground by the foot while the other end was bent to receive the free end of the string. Arrows ( Heb. , chits·tsim ' ) were made of reed shafts or light wood, their bases usually feathered. Arrowheads were at first made of flint or bone and later of metal. Sometimes arrows were barbed, were dipped in poison (Job 6:4), or were dressed with combustible material. ( Ps 7: 13) In the case of an incendiary arrow, oil-soaked tow was placed into holes along the edge of its metal head, to be ignited when the arrow was used. Thirty arrows were commonly placed in a leath­ er case or quiver. Assyrian reliefs show that the quivers carried on chariots held 50 arrows. -Compare Isa 22:6.

1 70

Sling. From ancient times the sling ( Heb. , qe'la ' ) has been the weapon of shepherds ( lSa 17:40 ) and warriors. ( 2Ch 26: 14) It was a leather thong or was a band woven of such materials as animal sinews, rushes, or hair. "The hollow of the sling," a widened center part, held the projectile. ( 1Sa 25 : 29 ) One end of the sling might be tied to the hand or wrist while the other was held in the hand, to be freed when the sling was swung. The load­ ed sling was whirled overhead, perhaps several times, and then one end was suddenly released, sending the missile forward with considerable force and speed. Smooth, round stones were espe­ cially desired for slinging, though other projectiles were also used. ( l Sa 17:40) Slingers were a regu­ lar part of the armies of Judah ( 2Ch 26: 14) and Israel.-2Ki 3 : 25.

War club, handstave, and battle-ax. The "war club" was evidently a heavy club or mace, some­ times studded with metal. (Pr 25 : 18 ) The 'hand­ stave' was a wooden staff, perhaps tipped with a metal point, that was used as a weapon. ( Eze 39 : 9 ) The battle-ax was a weapon usually having a relatively short wooden or metal handle and a stone or metal head with a sharp blade. There is an allusion to the battle-ax in figurative speech at Psalm 3 5 : 3 , where Jehovah is asked by David to "draw spear and double ax to meet those pursuing me. " Armor ( Defensive ). I n order t o protect his body from the offensive weapons of the enemy, a soldier employed various kinds of shields and per­ sonal armor.

Shield. A broad piece of defensive armor used by all ancient nations. It was equipped with an inside handle and was carried by the warrior during battle, usually on the left arm or in the left hand, although during the march it may have been hung from a shoulder strap. Isaiah 2 2 : 6 indicates that some may have been provided with a cover that was removed at time of combat. In peacetime, shields were often placed in arsenals. -Ca 4:4. Shields used in ancient times were often made of wood covered with leather, and such shields could be burned. ( Eze 39: 9 ) Whereas wooden and leather shields were in general use, it appears that metal shields were less common, being used espe­ cially by leaders, royal guards, or possibly for ceremonial purposes. ( 2Sa 8 : 7 ; lKi 14: 27, 28) Shields were oiled to make them pliable and mois­ ture resistant, to keep the metal from rusting, or to make them smooth and slippery. ( 2Sa 1 : 21 ) The leather shield was often decked with a heavy

ARMS, ARMOR

171 center boss ( a knob o r stud) o f metal, which gave

times mentioned with the lance or spear as a form

added protection. -Job 1 5 : 26.

of reference to weapons in general. - 1 Ch 1 2 : 8, 34 ;

The "large shield" ( Heb. ,

tsin-nah ' )

was carried

2Ch 11 : 12. The smaller "shield" or "buckler" ( Heb. ,

by the heavily armed infantry ( 2Ch 14 : 8 ) and sometimes by a shield bearer. ( l Sa 1 7 : 7, 41 ) It was

ghent )

ma­

was customarily carried by archers and is

either oval or else rectangular like a door. Ap­

usually associated with light weapons such as the

parently a similar "large shield" is designated at

bow. For instance, it was carried by Benjaminite

thy·re·os' ( from tsin·nah' was large

bowmen of Judean King Asa's military force. ( 2Ch

enough to cover the entire body. ( Ps 5 : 12 ) It was

more common than the large shield, probably

Ephesians 6 : 16 by the Greek word

thy'ra,

meaning "door"). The

14: 8 ) The smaller shield was usually round and

on occasion used to set up solid-front battle lines

being used chiefly in hand-to-hand fighting. That

with lances protruding. The large shield is some-

the Hebrew

tsin·nah'

and

ma·ghen' differed

con­

siderably in size seems to be indicated by the gold shields Solomon made, the large shield being overlaid with four times as much gold as the smaller shield, or buckler. ( l Ki 10 : 16, 1 7 ; 2Ch 9 : 15, 16 )

Ma-ghen',

like

tsin·nah',

seems to be used as

part of a formula for weapons of war.-2Ch 14 : 8 ; 17 : 1 7 ; 3 2 : 5 . The Hebrew word

she 'Jet,

rendered 'circular

shield, ' occurs seven times in the Hebrew Scrip­ tures and is evidently similar to the more common

ma·ghen ' ( shield ), since it is used in conjunction with ma·ghen ' in The Song of Solomon 4 : 4. Helmet. A military headgear designed to protect a fighter during battle and a very basic part of defensive armor. The Hebrew word for "helmet" is

kob-va " ( alternately qoh·va " ), while the Greek pe·ri·kepha·Jai'a, literally meaning "around

term is

the head. "- lSa 1 7 : 5 , 3 8 ; Eph 6 : 1 7 . Originally,

Israelite

helmets

were

probably

made of leather. Later these were covered with copper or iron and were worn over woolen, felt, or leather bonnets. Copper helmets were used in Israel as early as the days of King Saul. ( 1 Sa 17: 38) While helmets may at first have been reserVed for kings and other leaders, later they were in general use, Uzziah furnishing his entire army with them. -2Ch 26 : 14. The Philistines possessed metal helmets ; Goli­ ath wore one of copper. ( l Sa 17 : 5 ) Ezekiel men­ tioned helmets in connection with Persians, Ethio­ pians, and others.-Eze 27: 10 ; 38: 5 .

Coat of mail.

A coat worn for protection during

battle. The coat of mail ( Heb . ,

yan ' ) consisted

shir-yohn ' or shir­

of a cloth or leather cloak that had

hundreds of small adjoining pieces of metal ( some­ what like fish scales ) attached to its surface. Often it covered the breast, back, and shoulders, though it sometimes reached to the knees or even the ankles. - 1 Sa 1 7 : 5 . Among the Hebrews the coat o f mail was fre­ quently made of leather covered with metal scales or plates. The wearer enjoyed considerable pro­ Roman legionnaire with large shield

tection

thereby,

but,

nonetheless,

would

be

ARMY

172

vulnerable where the scales were connected or

the "good news" t o others, and doing s o despite

where the coat of mail adjoined other parts of the

hardships, can help him to endure faithfully.

armor. Thus, King Ahab was mortally wounded by a bowman who "got to strike the king of Israel between the appendages and the coat of mail. " - l Ki 2 2 : 34 -37.

Girdle.

A prominent part of the spiritual armor is "the large shield of faith. " Like a large shield covering most of the body, faith in Jehovah God and his ability to fulfill his promises will enable a Chris­

The military girdle of ancient times was

tian to "quench all the wicked one's burning mis­

a leather belt worn around the waist or hips. It

siles . " ( Eph 6 : 1 6 ; compare Ps 91 :4. ) Faith will help

varied in width from 5 to 15 cm (2 to 6 in. ) and

a Christian withstand attacks by wicked spirits,

was often studded with plates of iron, silver, or

resist temptations to immorality, shun materialis­

gold. The warrior's sword was suspended from it,

tic desires, and not give in to fear, doubt, or

and at times the belt was supported by a shoulder

excessive grief. -Ge 39 : 7- 1 2 ; Heb 1 1 : 15 ; 1 3 : 6 ; Jas

strap. ( 1 Sa 18:4; 2Sa 20 : 8 ) Whereas a loosened

1 : 6 ; lTh 4: 13.

girdle denoted leisure ( l Ki 20 : 1 1 ), girding up the loins or hips indicated readiness for action or bat­ tle.�Ex 1 2 : 1 1 ; l Ki 18:46 ; lPe 1 : 13, ftn.

Greaves. Armor consisting of thin plates of met­

As a helmet protects a soldier's head, so "the helmet of salvation" safeguards the Christian'S mental powers from ungodly influences. ( Eph 6 : 1 7 ) Having on "as a helmet the hope of salva­

al, covering the leg between the ankle and the

tion" means looking "intently toward the payment

knee. The only Biblical reference to them is at

of the reward, " as Moses did.- 1Th 5 : 8 ; Heb

1 Samuel 17:6, where it is shown that the giant Philistine warrior Goliath from Gath had "greaves [Heb . ,

1 1 : 26. "The sword of the spirit, that is, God's word" is

of copper above his feet. " The

indispensable to the Christian in warding off false

Israelites may also have used greaves to some

teachings and traditions of men and in teaching

mits·chath ' ]

extent.

the truth and 'overturning strongly entrenched

Spiritual Armor.

Although true Christians

do not share in fleshly warfare, they are engaged in a battle and are likened to soldiers. ( Php 2 : 25 ; 2Ti 2 : 3 ; Phm 2 ) A Christian has a wrestling "against the governments [ not made up of flesh­ and-blood

humans ] ,

against

the

authorities,

against the world rulers of this darkness, against the wicked spirit forces in the heavenly places. " ( Eph 6 : 1 2 ) Since physical weapons and armor would be of no value in a battle against superhu­ man spirits, Christians must "take up the complete suit of armor from God. "-Eph 6: 13. Paul advises Christians to have their "loins gird­ ed about with truth. " ( Eph 6 : 14 ) Just as a girdle can provide support and protection for the loins, an unbreakable attachment to divine truth can strengthen a Christian in his determination to remain firm despite trials. Next, a Christian must put on "the breastplate of righteousness . " ( Eph 6 : 14 ) A literal breastplate served to protect vital organs, especially the heart. The need of righteousness as a protective breast­ plate for the figurative heart is especially evident because of the heart's sinful inclination.-Ge 8 : 21 ; Jer 17:9.

ARMY.

A large body of men organized and

trained for warfare on land. The common Hebrew term for "army"

( tsa,va " )

is usually used with

reference to human armed forces ( Nu 1 : 3 ), but it can also denote spirit creatures in the heavens ( 1 Ki 22: 19 ) and physical heavenly bodies. 4 : 19 ) The Hebrew

cha'yiJ,

( De

evidently from a root

meaning "endure" ( Job 20 : 21 ), is used to refer to a "military force" and a "combat force" ( 2Sa 8 : 9 ; l Ch 20: 1 ), but it also means "ability; vital energy; capableness ; resources ; wealth. " ( l Ch 9 : 1 3 ; De 3 3 : 11 ; Pr 31 : 29 ; Isa 8:4; Eze 28:4) The Hebrew

gedhudh' denotes

a "marauder band" or "troops. "

( 2Sa 2 2 : 30 ; 2Ch 2 5 : 9 ) O f the four Greek terms referring to an army in the Scriptures, three

( stra­ ti·a � stra 1teu·ma, and stra·tope·don) come from the Greek root stra·tos', basically referring to an en­

camped army, as opposed to one formed into battle lines.

pe'don

Stra·tope·don,

containing the element

( ground ; earth ), is appropriately rendered

'encamped army.' ( Lu 21 : 20 ) The Greek term

rem·bo·le' ( from pa·ra l [ beside]

and

bal'lo

pa­

[throw] )

literally refers to the distribution or arranging of soldiers in battle order. It can mean "army," "sol­

Part of the spiritual armor is to have the feet "shod with the equipment of the good news of peace." ( Eph 6 : 15 ) The Greek word

he·toi·ma·si'a,

translated "equipment," has the basic meaning "readiness. " (See

things. '-Eph 6 : 1 7 ; 2Co 10:4, 5.

In t; NIV; TEV )

diers' quarters, " or "camp. "-Heb 1 1 : 34 ; Ac 21 : 34; Re 20 :9. From the time of Abraham, Jehovah's pre­ Christian servants engaged in armed warfare. Af­

A Christian's

ter the Elamite Chedorlaomer and his allies car­

always being equipped and ready to make known

ried off Abraham's nephew Lot and his household,

1 73

Abraham mustered his army of "trained men, three hundred and eighteen slaves," and with his neighboring confederates went in pursuit up to Dan, about 200 km ( 120 mi ) NNE. He then di­ vided the forces and attacked by night, a strat­ egy repeatedly employed in Biblical times. -Ge 14: 13-16. Israelite. The nation of Israel, over 400 years later, left Egypt in great haste, but in well­ organized "battle formation," possibly like a five­ part army composed of a main body with van­ guard, rear guard, and two wings. ( Ex 6 : 26 ; 13: 18) The Egyptian army in pursuit consisted of "six hundred chosen chariots and all the other chariots of Egypt. " Each chariot usually carried three men, one to manage the horses and two to fight, likely archers, since the bow was the principal offensive weapon of the Egyptians. The cavalry accompa­ nied them. ( Ex 14: 7, 9, 17) According to Josephus (Jewish Antiquities, II, 324 [ xv, 3 ]), the Hebrews were "pursued by 600 chariots along with 50,000 horsemen and heavy infantry to the number of 200,000."-See ADJUTANT. Soon after the Exodus the Israelites engaged in their first military combat as a freed people. The Amalekites attacked them at Rephidim, in the region of Mount Sinai. At Moses' direction, Joshua quickly assembled a fighting force. The battle lasted the major part of the day, and in spite of their inexperience in the art of warfare, Jehovah gave Israel the victory.-Ex 17:8- 14. About a year after the Exodus, a count was taken of those eligible for service in the army, males 20 years old and upward. The census to­ taled 603,550. ( Nu 1 : 1-3, 45, 46 ) A similar count toward the end of the wilderness journey showed that the army strength had dropped slightly to 601 ,730. ( Nu 26 : 2, 51 ) The Levites were exempt from army duty, hence not included in these figures but were numbered separately.-Nu 1 :47-49 ; 3 : 14-39 ; 26:57, 62. Exemptions. Besides the tribe of Levi, the fol­ lowing exemptions from military service were granted: ( 1 ) the man who "has built a new house and has not inaugurated it" ; ( 2 ) "the man that has planted a vineyard and not begun to use it" ; ( 3 ) "the man that has become engaged to a wom­ an and has not taken her" ; (4) the one who mar­ ries "should not go out into the army, [but] . . . should continue exempt at his house for one year" ; ( 5 ) "the man that is fearful and fainthearted. "-De 20: 5-8; 24:5. Army arrangements after conquest of Canaan.

After the general settlement in Canaan there was little need for a large standing army ; border skir-

ARMY

mishes were usually handled by the local tribes involved. When it was necessary to assemble a larger unified fighting force from several tribes, Jehovah raised up Judges to take command. The call to arms was accomplished in different ways: trumpet signals, messengers, or tokens were sent to stir the fighting men to action.-Nu 10:9; Jg 3 : 27 ; 6 : 3 5 ; 19 : 29 ; l Sa 11 : 7. Warriors appear to have furnished their own weapons: swords, spears, lances, darts, slings, bows, and arrows. The men generally were re­ sponsible for their own foodstuffs; hence Jesse sent provisions for his sons in Saul's army. ( lSa 17: 17, 18) There is one case, however, when 10 percent of the volunteers were set aside to procure provisions for the rest.-Jg 20: 10. Jehovah's presence in Israel's camp called for sanctity, ceremonial cleanness on the part of the soldiers. ( De 23:9-14) As sexual intercourse made a man unclean until the next day, under the Law, both David and Uriah carefully avoided sex re­ lations while on active duty. ( Le 15: 16-18; lSa 21 : 1-6; 2 Sa 11 :6- 11 ) The armies of pagan nations often raped the women of conquered cities, but not so the victorious soldiers of Israel. Nor were they permitted for a month to marry a captive woman. -De 21 : 10- 13. Israel's ultimate victories depended on Jehovah, yet good handling of the army was necessary. This responsibility rested on appointed officers and chiefs over thousands and over hundreds. Priests were assigned to encourage and to give direction and purpose to the campaigns. ( Nu 31 :6, 14 ; De 20: 2-4, 9 ) During the days of the Judges, the one whom Jehovah raised up led the army personally into battle. The judge also planned the tactics and strategy. He deployed his forces in various ways: division into units ( usually three ), attack by surprise, ambush, frontal assault, secur­ ing river fords, and so forth.-Jos 8:9-2 2 ; 10:9; 11 : 7; Jg 3 : 28; 4: 13, 14; 7 : 16; 9:43; 12:5. Under the monarchy. Not satisfied with the theocratic arrangement under the Judges, the people wanted to be "like all the nations," having a king to go out before them and fight their battles. ( lSa 8 : 20) Samuel, however, warned them that such a king would not fight single-handed ; he would take their sons "and put them as his in his chariots and among his horsemen, and some will have to run before his chariots. " ( 1Sa 8: 11 , 12; see RUNNERS. ) The king was commander in chief, with the chief of the army second in authority.-1Sa 14: 50. The size and strength of Saul's army varied according to the demands. On one occasion he

ARMY

selected 3,000 men, 1 ,000 of whom were under the command of his son Jonathan. ( lSa 13 : 2 ) For another exploit 330,000 were assembled. ( lSa 1 1 : 8 ) But compared with the highly mechanized armies of the Philistines, who, according to the Masoretic text, were capable of mustering 30,000 chariots, 6,000 horsemen, and "people like the grains of sand . . . for multitude," as they did at Michmash, Israel appeared ill equipped. "It hap­ pened on the day of battle that not a sword or a spear was found in the hand of any of the people," except Saul and Jonathan.-1Sa 13:5, 22. During the reign of David the army of Israel was greatly improved, both in size and efficiency. There were well over 300,000 men equipped for war that came to Hebron and turned the king­ ship of Saul over to David. ( l Ch 12: 23-38 ) Non­ Israelites also served in David's army.-2Sa 15: 18; 20:7. David retained many of the older organizational plans of the army, such as holding the position of commander in chief himself, appointing field com­ manders like Joab, Abner, and Amasa, and having under them the heads over thousands and over hundreds. ( 2Sa 18: 1 ; l Ki 2 : 32 ; l Ch 13: 1 ; 18: 15) However, David instituted some novel plans of his own. A system of monthly rotation provided 12 groups of 24,000 (a total of 288,000 ), so that a soldier normally served only one month a year. ( l Ch 27: 1 - 15 ) This does not mean that all 24,000 for one month came from the same tribe, but, rather, each tribe furnished its share of the monthly quota throughout the year. Cavalry and chariot units. Chariots, mobile firing platforms, were highly prized by the Bab­ ylonians, Assyrians, and Egyptians for their speed and maneuverability. They thus became fitting symbols of military power of the leading world empires. Under David, Israel's greatest military commander, the army in its entirety was com­ posed of the foot soldier with his hand weapons -sword, spear, bow, or sling. David must have remembered that Jehovah counseled against rely­ ing on the horse for victory ( De 17 : 16 ; 20: 1 ), that Pharaoh's horses and chariots were "pitched into the sea" by Jehovah ( Ex 15 : 1 , 4), and that Jehovah opened the floodgates of heaven on Sisera's "nine hundred war chariots with iron scythes" so that "the torrent of Kishon washed" the enemy away. -Jg 4 : 3 ; 5 : 21 . Therefore, a s Joshua hamstrung captured hors­ es and burned enemy chariots, David did the same with horses seized from Hadadezer, king of Zobah. He hamstrung all except a hundred of the many horses captured from the king of Zobah. (Jos

174

1 1 : 6-9; 2Sa 8:4) In a song David explained how his enemies concerned themselves with chariots and horses, "but, as for us, concerning the name of Jehovah our God we shall make mention. " "The horse is a deception for salvation. " (Ps 20 : 7 ; 33 : 17 ) A s the proverb says: "The horse i s something prepared for the day of battle, but salvation be­ longs to Jehovah. "-Pr 21 : 3 1 . With the rule of Solomon a new chapter was written in the annals of Israel's army. His reign was comparatively peaceful, yet he multiplied horses and chariots. ( See CHARIOT. ) For the most part these horses were purchased and imported from Egypt. Whole cities had to be built through­ out the territory to accommodate these new mili­ tary divisions. ( l Ki 4:26; 9: 19 ; 10 : 26, 29 ; 2Ch 1 : 14-17) However, Jehovah never blessed this in­ novation of Solomon, and with his death and the dividing of the kingdom came the decline in Isra­ el's army. As Isaiah later wrote: "Woe to those going down to Egypt for assistance, those who rely on mere horses, and who put their trust in war chariots, because they are numerous, and in steeds, because they are very mighty, but who have not looked to the Holy One of Israel and have not searched for Jehovah himself. "-Isa 31 : 1 . During the divided kingdom. Following the division of the kingdom there was constant hostil­ ity between Judah and Israel. ( lKi 12 : 19, 21 ) Re­ hoboam's successor Abijah had only 400,000 men in his army when Jeroboam came against him with 800,000. In spite of being outnumbered two to one, the southern kingdom proved successful "because they leaned upon Jehovah. " Israel lost 500,000 men.-2Ch 13: 3-18. In addition to intertribal strife, there was the external antagonism from the pagan nations round about. Israel was obliged to maintain a standing army because of provocative foreign re­ lations with Syria to the north. ( 2Ki 13:4-7) Judah also had to resist the advances of pagan armies. On one occasion Egypt invaded Judah and took away much booty. ( l Ki 14: 25 -27) At another time Ethiopia came against Judah with an army of 1 ,000,000 men and 300 chariots. King Asa's forces were only 580,000, but when he "began to call to Jehovah his God," "Jehovah defeated the Ethiopi­ ans," and not a single one was left alive.-2Ch 14: 8-13. Again, when Moab, Ammon, and the Ammonim came up against Jehoshaphat, although he had a force numbering 1 , 160,000, Jehoshaphat "set his face to search for Jehovah," who assured him, "The battle is not yours, but God's. " ( 2Ch 17: 12-19 ; 20: 1 -3, 15 ) Military history was made on that

175

occasion, for a chorus of trained voices "went out ahead of the armed men," singing, "Give praise to Jehovah. " In confusion the enemy forces de­ stroyed each other.-2Ch 20: 21-23. Roman. The Roman army, estimated to num­ ber 300,000 during Augustus' reign, was orga­ nized quite differently from those of former em­ pires. The principal part of the Roman military establishment was the legion. It was a large inde­ pendent unit, a complete army in itself, rather than a specialized portion of a greater force. Some­ times legions fought together, merging their re­ sources and strength under a central command, as when four legions combined under Titus for the siege of Jerusalem, 70 c.E. But usually the le­ gion stood alone with its individual commission of duty. Supplementing the legionnaires were non­ citizens from all parts of the empire who made up the auxilia, often volunteers from the local district. Auxiliaries, backed up by the legions, were sta­ tioned along the borders. Upon honorable dis­ charge one in the a uxilia was granted Roman citizenship. The number of legions varied at different times, from 25 or less to as many as 33. Likewise the number of soldiers comprising the legion fluctuat­ ed from about 4,000 to 6,000; in the first century the force usually numbered 6,000. For this rea­ son "legion" as used in the Scriptures apparently means an indefinite, large number. ( Mt 26:53; Mr 5:9; Lu 8:30) Each legion had its own commander, responsible solely to the emperor, and under him were six tribunes, called chiliarchs (military com­ manders, NW).-Mr 6 : 21 ; Joh 18: 12; Ac 21 : 32-23 : 2 2 ; 2 5 : 23 ; see M I LITARY COMMANDER. The legion was divided into ten cohorts, or bands. Thus the Scriptures speak of "the Italian band" and "the band of Augustus. " ( Ac 10: 1 ; 27: 1 ; see AUGUSTUS, BAND OF. ) When Herod Agrippa died, 44 c.E., there were five cohorts in Caesarea. Further subdivided, the legion had 60 centuries, usually 100 men each, under the leadership of a centurion ( army officer, NW). These officers were especially valuable, having the responsibility of training soldiers. ( Mt 8:5-13; 27: 54; Ac 10: 1 ; 21 : 32; 22: 25, 26 ; 23: 17, 2 3 ; 24:23; 27: 1 , 6, 11, 31, 43 ; see ARMY OFFICER. ) In each legion there were ten officers of special rank who acted as body guards­ men, couriers, and sometimes as executioners. -Mr 6 : 27. The Roman legions had their various staTJ.dards and ensigns bearing images of eagles or some animals ; later small statues of the emperor were added. These banners had religious significance, were considered sacred and holy to the point of

ARMY

being worshiped, and were guarded at the cost of human life. It was for such reasons that the Jews violently opposed their presence in Jerusalem. Those Known as Early Christians. Early Christians refused to serve in the Roman army, in both the legions and auxilia, considering such service as wholly incompatible with the teachings of Christianity. Says Justin Martyr, of the second century c.E., in his "Dialogue With TIypho, a Jew" (CX): "We who were filled with war, and mutu­ al slaughter, and every wickedness, have each through the whole earth changed our warlike weapons,-our swords into ploughshares, and our spears into implements of tillage. " ( The Ante­ Nicene Fa thers, Vol. I, p. 254) In his treatise "The Chaplet, or De Corona" ( XI ), when discussing "whether warfare is proper at all for Christians," Tertullian (c. 200 c.E. ) argued from Scripture the unlawfulness even of a military life itself, conclud­ ing, "1 banish from us the military life. " The Ante-Nicene Fathers, 1957, Vol. III, pp. 99, 100. "A careful review of all the information available goes to show that, until the time of Marcus Aure­ lius [ 121- 180 c.E. ], no Christian became a soldier; and no soldier, after becoming a Christian, re­ mained in military service. " ( The Rise of Chris­ tianity, by E. W. Barnes, 1947, p. 333) "It will be seen presently that the evidence for the existence of a single Christian soldier between 60 and about 165 A.D. is exceedingly slight; . . . up to the reign of Marcus Aurelius at least, no Christian would become a soldier after his baptism." ( The Early Church and the World, by C. J. Cadoux, 1955, pp. 275, 276 ) "In the second century, Christianity . . . had affirmed the incompatibility of military service with Christianity. " (A Short History of Rome, by G. Ferrero and C. Barbagallo, 1919, p. 382 ) "The behavior of the Christians was very different from that of the Romans . . . . Since Christ had preached peace, they refused to become sol­ diers." ( Our World Through the Ages, by N. Platt and M. J. Drummond, 1961 , p. 125 ) "The first Christians thought it was wrong to fight, and would not serve in the army even when the Em­ pire needed soldiers. " ( The New World 's Founda­ tions in the Old, by R. and W. M. West, 1929, p. 131 ) "The Christians . . . shrank from public office and military service." ( "Persecution of the Christians in Gaul, A.D. 177," by F. P. G. Guizot in The Grea t Events by Famous Historians, edited by R. Johnson, 1905, Vol. III, p. 246 ) "While they [the Christians] inculcated the maxims of passive obe­ dience, they refused to take any active part in the civil administration or the military defence of the empire . . . . It was impossible that the Christians, -

ARMY OFFICER

without renouncing a more sacred duty, could assume the character of soldiers, of magistrates, or of princes. " - The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, by Edward Gibbon, Vol. I, p. 416. Heavenly. Heavenly armies, in the sense of well-organized multitudes, refer not only to the physical stars but more frequently to the mighty hosts of angelic spirit creatures under the su­ preme command of Jehovah God. (Ge 2 : 1 ; Ne 9 : 6 ) The expression "Jehovah of armies" occurs 283 times in the Hebrew Scriptures, first at 1 Samuel 1 : 3, and twice its equivalent is found in the Greek Scriptures. ( Ro 9 : 29 ; Jas 5 :4; see JEHOVAH OF AR­ MIES. ) In discussing the angelic warriors, such mil­ itary terms are used as "legions," "war chariots," "horsemen," and so forth. ( 2Ki 2 : 1 1 , 1 2 ; 6: 17; Mt 26 : 5 3 ) In size, the camp of Jehovah's invisible armies includes "tens of thousands, thousands over and over again," of war chariots. ( Ps 68: 17) As a fighting force, they are invincible. "The prince of the army of Jehovah" with drawn sword appeared to Joshua and gave instructions on how Jericho would be captured. ( Jos 5 : 13- 1 5 ) One an­ gel of these heavenly armies slew 185,000 Assyri­ ans in a single night. ( 2Ki 19 : 3 5 ) When war broke out in heaven Michael and his angels hurled Satan and his demons down to the vicinity of the earth. ( Re 1 2 : 7-9, 1 2 ) Furthermore, there will be no escape when "the armies . . . in heaven" follow the "King of kings and Lord of lords" as he brings destruction upon "the wild beast and the kings of the earth and their armies. " ( Re 19 : 14, 16, 19, 21 ) At the same time, however, this mighty invisible army of Jehovah gives protection to his faithful servants on earth.-2Ki 6: 17; Ps 34: 7 ; 91 : 1 1 ; Da 6:22; Mt 18: 10; Ac 12 : 7- 10; Heb 1 : 13, 14. See also ARMS , ARMOR; SOLDIER ; WAR.

ARMY OFFICER. This translates the Greek terms he·ka·ton-tar'khes (or he·k a·ton'tar·khos) and ken-ty·ri'on, and it designates an officer in com­

mand of a hundred soldiers, a centurion. The Roman legion, regardless of its size, was always divided into 60 centuries, each under the com­ mand of a centurion. If the legion shrank below 6,000, still one sixtieth, even when less than 100, was under a centurion. These army officers were nominated by tribunes and were approved by higher government authorities. The office of cen­ turion was the highest rank the common soldier could reach, though there were opportunities for some advancement within the ranks of the centu­ rions themselves. The centurions were keymen and served a most important function in the legion. While they were

176

under the authority of the tribunes and responsi­ ble to carry out their orders, the army officer was the real and immediate head of the soldiers. He drilled the soldiers ; worked with them; inspected their arms, supplies, and food ; regulated their conduct. He was the disciplinarian who supervised scourgings and capital punishment, the one who authorized punishment of his troops. The readi­ ness and efficiency of the Roman army, for the most part, depended more on centurions than on anyone else; they were, generally speaking, the most experienced and valuable men in the Roman army.-See ARMY. Army officers appear in the Christian Greek Scripture narratives on several occasions. The army officer from Capemaum who sought Jesus' healing power on behalf of his slave was com­ mended by the Master for his exemplary faith. ( Mt 8 : 5 - 13 ) The statement of the Jews, "He loves our nation and he himself built the synagogue for us" ; the centurion's acknowledgment that "I am not fit to have you come in under my roof" ; and Jesus' comment, "Not even in Israel have I found so great a faith," all indicate that the army officer was a Gentile. If he was a Roman, this was all the more remarkable, for Romans were not noted for their compassion toward slaves.-Lu 7: 1 -9. An army officer headed the four soldiers who put Jesus to death. ( Joh 19 : 23 ) This centurion likely had been present when the claim of divine Sonship was discussed before Pilate. (Joh 19 : 7 ) Observing this trial and the other circumstances surrounding the impalement, as well as the mi­ raculous phenomena accompanying Jesus' death, "the army officer began to glorify God," saying, "Really this man was righteous," "Certainly this was God's Son." ( Lu 23 :47 ; Mt 27: 54 ) Undoubtedly it was of him that Pilate inquired whether Jesus was dead before giving the body over for burial. -Mr 15:44, 45. Cornelius, a centurion of the Italian band, sta­ tioned in Caesarea, was the first uncircumcised Gentile to become a Christian. (Ac 10: 1 -48 ) The fact that he had his own house and attendant soldiers indicates that officers of this rank were allowed to live detached from the regular troops. -See CORNEUUS. Army officers stationed in the Tower of Antonia, together with their soldiers and the military com­ mander, rushed down to the adjoining temple grounds and rescued Paul from a mob, about 56 c.E. ( Ac 21 : 3 2 ) Later, Paul escaped scourging on the order of the military commander by dis­ closing to an attending army officer that he was a Roman citizen. ( Ac 2 2 : 25, 26 ) Upon learning of a

ARNON, TORRENT VALLEY OF

1 77

plot against his life, Paul called an army officer to lead his nephew to the military commander with this report. In turn, two army officers were or­ dered to ready a force of 470 soldiers, cavalry, and spearmen to ensure Paul's safe conduct out of Jerusalem.-Ac 2 3 : 17, 23. Julius, an army officer of the band of Augus­ tus (see AUGUSTUS, BAND OF), was responsible for Paul's passage from Adramyttium to Rome. He treated Paul with kindness, though at first ignor­ ing the apostle's advice. Eventually, however, this centurion learned to respect Paul's jUdgment, and he was instrumental in saving the apostle's life. -Ac 27: 1 , 6, 1 1 , 3 1 , 43.

ARNAN (Ar'nan). A name appearing in a list of King David's descendants. Arnan lived after the return from Babylonian exile. - 1 Ch 3 : 1 , 2 1 . ARNI (Ar'ni ). A person named i n the human ancestry of Jesus Christ. A variant of the Greek equivalent of the Hebrew name Ram; in the Greek Septuagin t, the Hebrew name Ram is rendered Aram.-Lu 3 : 3 3 ; 1 Ch 2 : 10; see RAM No. 1 .

ARNON, TORRENT VALLEY OF ( Ar'non). About halfway down the eastern side of the Dead Sea the deep gorge of the Arnon Valley cuts through the high plateau region. This torrent, the Wadi Mujib (Nahal Arnon) , is fed by numerous tributaries (Nu 21 : 14 ) and, after the Jordan, is the only important stream emptying into the Dead Sea. The sheer red and yellow sandstone cliffs drop down abruptly to flank the sides of the nar­ row valley with its small perennial stream of limpid waters, replete with fish. Alongside grow willows, oleanders, and other vegetation in abun­ dance. Where the stream leaves the steep chasm walls to enter the flat shore of the Dead Sea its size varies from 12 to 30 m (40 to 100 ft) in width, with a flow of from 0. 3 to 1 . 2 m ( 1 to 4 ft ) in depth. The formidable canyon, which, at the top, mea­ sures some 3 km (2 mi ) in width and is nearly 520 m ( 1 ,700 ft) deep, was crossed by only a few passages ( Isa 16 : 2 ) and hence became an obvious natural boundary. At the time of the Israelite conquest it separated the Amorites on the N from the Moabites on the S ( Nu 21 : 13 ) , but Jephthah's

View toward the north across the torren t valley of Arnon

1 78

AROD message to the Ammonites shows that the side to the N had once been under Ammonite control and had been invaded by the Amorites prior to Israel's arrival. ( Jg 1 1 : 12-27 ) Israel, having skirted the territory of Moab, reached the Arnon, probably at its upper reaches. Attacked by Sihon, the Amorite king, Israel gained the victory and took possession of the land from the Arnon up to the Jabbok. ( Nu 2 1 : 21-24; De 2 : 24-36 ; see JABBOK, TORRENT VALLEY OF. ) This first conquest thereafter became the ter­ ritory of the tribes of Reuben and Gad. -De 3: 16; Jos 12: 1 , 2 ; 13:8, 9, 15-28. Because of Jehu's failure to walk strictly accord­ ing to Jehovah's law, this region was later overrun by the invading forces of Hazael of Syria. ( 2Ki 10: 32, 33) The Arnon is referred to on line 26 of the famed Moabite Stone, King Mesha of Moab there boasting that he had constructed a high­ way through the valley. Archaeological discover­ ies give evidence of a number of forts and bridges in the area testifying to the strategic importance of the Arnon. Its name figures in prophecies di­ rected against Moab.-Isa 16: 2 ; Jer 48: 20.

AROD

(Ar'od ), ARODI (Ar·o'di ), ARODITES ( Ar'od·ites). Sixth-named son of Gad and one of the souls who came into Egypt with Jacob's family in 1728 B.c.E. He became family head of the Arodites included in the wilderness census of 1473 B.c.E.-Ge 46 :8, 16 ; Nu 26: 17.

AROER (Aro'er ) [ Juniper Tree]. 1 . A city located on the N rim of the deep gorge forming the torrent valley of the Arnon. At the time of the conquest by Israel (c. 1474 B.c.E. ) it was the southernmost city of the Amorite king­ dom. ( De 2 : 36 ; 4:47, 48 ; Jos 12 : 2 ) Thereafter it passed to the tribe of Reuben, although the tribe of Gad is mentioned as building ( probably, repair­ ing ) the city. (Nu 32: 33, 34 ; De 3 : 12; Jos 13 :8, 9, 15, 16; lCh 5 : 8) It marked the southern boundary of Israel E of the Jordan and so corresponded to Beer-sheba, a major southern city W of the Jor­ dan. After some 300 years of Israelite occupation, the Ammonites pressed a claim for the region lying between the Arnon and the Jabbok, but Judge Jephthah refuted their claim by showing that Is­ rael had taken the land, including Aroer, from the Amorites.-Jg 11 : 13, 22, 26. This city of Aroer appears to have been the starting point for the census ordered by King David, which thereafter swung N to Dan-jaan and looped over to Tyre and Sidon and then S to Beer-sheba in the Negeb. ( 2Sa 24:4-8) The men­ tion of "the city that is in the middle of the torrent

valley" coincides with similar references at Deu­ teronomy 2 : 36 and Joshua 13:9, 16. This unnamed city is considered by some to correspond to Khir­ bet el-Medeiyineh, about 11 km (7 mi ) SE of Aroer. During the reign of King Jehu of Israel (c. 904877 B. C. E. ), King Hazael of Syria overran the terri­ tories of Gad and Reuben, as far S as Aroer on the Arnon. ( 2Ki 10: 3 3 ) Perhaps during this time, Mo­ abite King Mesha fortified the city and built his road by the Amon, as related on line 26 of the Moabite Stone. At the time of Jeremiah's prophecy against Moab the city was under Moabite control. -Jer 48: 19. The site of the ancient city is identified with Khirbet 'Ara'ir, about 23 km ( 14 mi) E of the Dead Sea, about 6 km ( 3 . 5 mi ) SSE of Dibon, and close by the King's Highway, the main N-S route on that side of the Jordan. The ruins contain evidenc­ es of an ancient fortress, which, from its vantage point on the edge of the impressive gorge, could likely control the passages over the Arnon. 2 . A town of the territory of Gad, described as "in front of Rabbah" ( modem 'Amman), the chief city of the Ammonites. ( Jos 13 : 24, 25 ) It is possi­ bly the Aroer mentioned in the description of Jephthah's conquest over the Ammonites at Judges 11 : 33. The location of the place is uncertain since the expression "in front of" is not particularly restrictive, though often considered as meaning "to the east of." 3. A town in the southern part of the territory of JUdah. After David's victory over the Amalek­ ite raiders he distributed portions of the spoil to the older men of the city. ( 1 Sa 30: 26, 28) It is identified with Khirbet 'Ar'arah ( Horvat 'Aro'er), about 17 km ( 1 1 mi) SE of Beer-sheba, where the ruins of a fort remain. Some scholars believe that it may be the same place as the "Adadah" of Joshua 1 5 : 22, the Hebrew letter da1leth ( ' ) being substituted for rehsh ( '1 ) in both instances. The reference to "the cities of Aroer" at Isaiah 1 7 : 2 could apply to either of the first two cities here considered. The prophecy primarily deals with Damascus, and in view of the Syrian con­ quest of Israel reaching as far as Aroer on the Amon, the expression may refer to this southern­ most point of their extension of power E of the Jordan.-2Ki 10: 33.

AROERITE

(Aro'er·ite) [ Of ( Belonging to) Aro­ er]. An inhabitant of one of the cities named Aroer. At 1 Chronicles 1 1 : 44 Hotham, the father of two of David's mighty men named Shama and Jeiel, is referred to as an Aroerite. His sons' asso­ ciation with David may place their father's home city in the territory of Judah.-See AROER No. 3.

179

ARPACHSHAD (Ar ·pach/shad ). A son of Shem. He was born two years after the Flood, that is, about 2368 B. c.E. , and died 438 years later. He was an ancestor of the Hebrews through his grandson Eber. ( Ge 10:22, 24; 11 : 10- 13 ; 1 Ch 1 : 17-27 ) He is shown to be the father of Shelah, although Luke's account ( 3 : 35, 3 6 ), by the inclu­ sion of Cainan, apparently would make him She­ lah's grandfather; but see CAlNAN No. 2.-Ge 10: 24; 11 : 12 ; 1 Ch 1 : 24. ARPAD (Ar/pad ). A royal city of N Syria al­ ways associated in the Bible with the city of Ha­ math. Arpad has been identified with Tell Erfad ( Tell Rif'at) about 30 km ( 19 mi ) NNW of Aleppo. Situated on the road leading S to Hamath and Damascus, it came under frequent attack from the Assyrians and was eventually conquered by Tiglath-pileser III and later by Sargon II. Thus Sargon's son, Sennacherib, when threatening Je­ rusalem in 732 B.c.E., had his spokesman Rabsha­ keh refer to the fate of Arpad as an evidence of the inability of the gods of the nations to resist As­ syria's mighty power. ( 2Ki 18:34; 19 : 12, 1 3 ; Isa 36: 19 ; 37: 12, 1 3 ) The prophet Isaiah had earlier foretold such boasting. ( Isa 10: 9 ) Later Jeremiah prophesied that Hamath and Arpad would become ashamed and disintegrate before "a bad report," evidently concerning the conquests of Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar.-Jer 49 : 23. ARROW.

See ARMS, ARMOR.

ARROW SNAKE [Heb. , qippohz' j. A snake evidently so called from its darting and springing on its prey, in the manner of the rattlesnake. The Hebrew root from which the name is derived seems to be related to an Arabic root verb mean­ ing "jump" or "leap." The arrow snake is men­ tioned in the prophecy of Isaiah ( 34 : 15 ) as one of the creatures to inhabit Edom. This would empha­ size the fact that Edom was to become such a desolate ruin that it would become a safe place for the arrow snake to 'make its nest and lay eggs and hatch them and gather them together under its shadow. ' Most snakes lay eggs, and this text may refer to the practice of some snakes of coiling around their eggs. Says H. W. Parker's book Snakes: A Natural History ( 1977, p. 55 ) : "The 'brooding' habit and coiled body give a measure of temperature control as well as protection because the mother can cover or uncover her eggs at will as the weather varies and so ensure a more uni­ form, and probably higher, temperature ; at the same time coiling reduces the exposed surfaces. " Samuel Bochart ( 1599 - 1667 ), i n his work Hiero­ zoicon ( Leipzig, 1 796, Vol. 3, Part II, Book III,

ART

chap. XI, pp. 194-204 ), made a detailed study of the Hebrew word qippohz' and concluded that it refers to the snake called in Greek a·kon·ti'as and in Latin jaculus-the arrow snake. However, mod­ ern lexicographers are not in agreement regard­ ing the meaning of this Hebrew word.

ART. Art, as it relates to painting, sculpture, and design, receives relatively little attention in the Bible. Yet man's life began, not in a barren field, but in a garden, a paradise with trees not only "good for food" but also "desirable to one's sight." (Ge 2 : 9 ) Man was made to appreciate beau­ ty, and the unsurpassed beauty, artistry, and de­ sign manifest in creation-flowers, trees, moun­ tains, valleys, lakes, waterfalls, birds, animals, as well as the human form itself-evoke praise for their divine Creator. ( Ps 139 : 14; Ec 3 : 11 ; Ca 2 : 1 -3, 9, 13, 14; 4: 1-5, 12- 15; 5 : 1 1 - 1 5 ; Ro 1 : 20 ) Art, as here discussed, implies, basically, the representa­ tion of such things by use of various materials and the use of different forms and expression. Already in Abraham's time the Bible makes mention of gifts of "a gold nose ring," golden bracelets, and other articles of silver and gold, bestowed on Rebekah. ( Ge 24: 22, 5 3 ) The Royal Tombs of Ur, in which city Abraham once lived, have yielded many exquisite ornaments of high artistic skill. However, many of the art objects recovered through archaeological explorations in the lands of Iraq, Israel, Egypt, and adjacent re­ gions bear some relation to the idolatrous pagan religions or the proud political rulers, thus indicat­ ing an early perversion of the use of art. Variety of Materials. Glass appears to have been produced as far back as the second millen­ nium B.c.E. by the Egyptians and perhaps the Phoenicians. Yet, evidently it originated in Meso­ potamia, where pieces of well-made glass have been found, believed to date from as early as the third millennium B.C.E. Job ( c. 1600 B.c.E. ) spoke of glass as being very precious. ( Job 28: 17) Though opaque, it was used in making animal figurines, perfume boxes, necklaces, and other jewelry. The Romans were among the first to produce transparent glass. -Compare Re 4 : 6 ; see GLAss. The ancient artists worked with a considerable variety of materials, including clay, terra-cotta, wood, bronze or copper, iron, gold, silver, precious and semiprecious gems, glass, ivory, limestone, and marble. -See SEAL. Hebrew Art. There is little material evidence remaining to present any clear picture of Hebrew art, yet art appreciation is manifest in the Bi­ ble record. On coming out of Egypt, the people

ART brought with them gold and silver articles ob­ tained from the Egyptians. ( Ex 12:35) They gladly contributed such items for the decoration of the tabernacle in the wilderness. ( Ex 3 5 : 21-24) The work of producing the tabernacle with its decora­ tions and equipment gave outlet for their artistic ability in woodworking, metalworking, embroi­ dery, and jewelwork, Bezalel and Oholiab particu­ larly taking the lead and instructing. It is notable that credit for their artistic ability is given to Jehovah.-Ex 35 : 30-3 5 ; 36: 1 , 2 . Prior t o the tabernacle work, Aaron had em­ ployed artistic ability for a perverse use in using a graving tool to make a molten image of a calf for worship. ( Ex 3 2 : 3, 4 ) Moses (or someone assigned by him) also showed such ability, though proper­ ly, when making the serpent of copper at a later time. ( Nu 21 :9 ) However, the provisions in the Law forbidding the making of images for wor­ ship, while not prohibiting all representational art, doubtless exercised a restrictive influence on painting or sculpturing among the Hebrews. ( Ex 20 :4, 5 ) In view of the gross idolatry so prevalent in all nations and the widespread use of art to foster such idolatry, it is evident that paintings or carvings of figures, human or animal, would be viewed as suspect by those keeping the Law pro­ visions and by those charged with enforcing it. (De 4: 15-19 ; 7: 25, 26 ) Even the cherubs of the tabernacle were covered over with a cloth when being transported and thus were hidden from the gaze of the populace ( Nu 4:5, 6, 19, 20 ), while those of the later temple were seen only by the high priest on one day a year. ( 1 Ki 6 : 23-28 ; Heb 9 : 6, 7) Additionally, after their entry and estab­ lishment in the Promised Land, the basically agri­ cultural life of the Israelites was seldom such that it allowed for the leisure time and funds necessary for extensive artwork. During the period of the Judges the only art­ work indicated was involved in apostate religious practices.-Jg 2 : 13 ; 6 : 2 5 ; 8 : 24 -27; 1 7 : 3-6 ; 18: 14. Artwork under the monarchy. While the an­ cient nation of Israel is not renowned today for its works of art, yet the evidence indicates that, when occasion arose, they were able to produce work of artistic quality that gained wide attention and admiration. The prophet Ezekiel depicts the man­ ner in which Jehovah adorned and beautified Je­ rusalem so that " 'a name began to go forth among the nations because of your prettiness, for it was perfect because of my splendor that I placed upon you, ' is the utterance of the Sovereign Lord Jeho­ vah." (Eze 16 :8-14) However, the succeeding vers­ es ( 15-18, 2 5 ) show that such prettiness was put

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to a perverted use, as Jerusalem prostituted her­ self with the surrounding political nations. Jeremi­ ah, too, describes those looking on Jerusalem after her fall to Babylon as saying: "Is this the city of which they used to say, 'It is the perfection of prettiness, an exultation for all the earth'?" (La 2 : 15 ; compare Ps 48: 2 ; 50 : 2 ; Isa 52: 1 . ) The temple built by Solomon was evidently an artistic work of consummate beauty and is called a "house of holiness and beauty. "-Isa 64: 11 ; 60: 13. In dealing with the construction of the temple in King Solomon's time, much comment has been made in reference works about the assumed lack of artistic skill on the part of the Israelites, to the point of giving practically all the credit to the Phoenicians. The record, however, shows that Sol­ omon requested only one Phoenician artisan, aside from the lumbermen employed in King Hiram's own forests of Lebanon and the stone quarriers. ( 1 Ki 5 :6, 18; 2Ch 2 : 7-10) This artisan, also named Hiram, was an Israeli-Phoenician skilled in work­ ing with precious metals, weaving, and engraving. Yet, the record refers to Solomon's own skilled men, and King Hiram likewise spoke of these and the skilled men of Solomon's father David. ( 2Ch 2 : 13, 14 ) The architectural plan of the temple and of all its features was delivered to Solomon by David, providing "insight for the entire thing in writing from the hand of Jehovah . . . , even for all the works of the architectural plan." ( 1 Ch 28: 1 1 - 19 ) By contrast, unfaithful King Ahaz did become enamored with the pagan altar at Damas­ cus and sent "the design of the altar qnd �ts pat­ tern" to priest Urijah to have a copy of it made. -2Ki 16: 1 - 12 . King Solomon also made a great ivory throne, overlaid with gold, of unique design, with figures of lions standing by the armrests and lining the six steps of approach. ( 1 Ki 10: 18-20 ) The exten­ sive use of ivory in the royal palace is indicated at Psalm 45:8. In the northern kingdom of Israel, with its capital at Samaria, ivory carving in furni­ ture, paneling, and art objects was apparently popular in the days of King Ahab and thereafter. ( 1 Ki 2 2 : 39 ; Am 3 : 12, 1 5 ; 6:4) Archaeological exca­ vations turned up large quantities of ivory pieces, plaques, and panels in what is believed to have been the palace area. Inlaid work of gold, lapis lazuli, and glass occur in some pieces. In Megid­ do some 400 ivory pieces were found, including beautifully carved panels, ivory inlaid boxes, and gaming boards, estimated as dating from about the 1 2th century B.c.E. In a vision, Ezekiel saw carved representations of reptiles, animals, and idols on a wall of the

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temple area in apostate Jerusalem ( Eze 8: 10 ), and symbolic Oholibah ( representing unfaithful Jeru­ salem) is spoken of as seeing images of Chaldeans carved on a wall and painted with vermilion, a bright-red pigment.-Eze 2 3 : 14 ; compare Jer 2 2 : 14. Relationship to Christianity. Paul was a witness of the artistic splendor of Athens, devel­ oped around the worship of the Grecian gods and goddesses, and he showed an audience there how illogical it was that humans, owing their life and existence to the true God and Creator, should imagine that "the Divine Being is like gold or silver or stone, like something sculptured by the art and contrivance of man . " (Ac 17:29 ) He thus demon­ strated again that artistic beauty, no matter how impressive or attractive, does not of itself recom­ mend any religion as being true worship. - Com­ pare Joh 4: 23, 24.

There is no record or existing evidence of art­ work among the Christians of the first century c.E. It is only during the second and third centu­ ries c.E. that some paintings and sculptures ap­ pear in the catacombs attributed to nominal Christians. After the union of Church and State in the fourth century, however, art began to be given a prominence that in time equaled that of the pagan religions and was often related to or in direct imitation of such religions, in both its sym­ bolisms and its forms. Louis Reau, who held the chair of the History of Art of the Middle Ages at the Sorbonne University of France, demonstrates in his work Iconographie de l'art chretien ( Paris, 1955, Vol. I, p. 10) that such paganism has long been recognized by historians of art and that the responsibility for it is to be placed not merely on the artists but on the policies that were followed by the church itself. He points out ( p. 50) that instead of really converting the pagans from their old practices and forms of worship, the church chose to respect "the ancestral customs and con­ tinue them under another name. " Thus, it is not surprising to find the signs of the zodiac, so prominent in ancient Babylon, displayed on cathedrals such as that of Notre Dame in Paris, where they appear on the left doorway and sur­ round Mary in the huge centrally located rose window. ( Compare Isa 47: 12- 15. ) Similarly, a guidebook to the cathedral at Auxerre, also in France, states that in the central entrance to the cathedral, "the sculptor there mixed certain pagan heroes: an Eros [Greek god of love) nude and sleeping . . . a Hercules and a Satyr [one of the Greeks' semihuman demigods ] ! The register at

ARTAXERXES

the lower right represents the parable of the Prod­ igal Son. " Similarly at the entrance of Saint Peter's Cathe­ dral in Rome appear not only the figure of Christ and the "Virgin" but also that of Ganymede "car­ ried off by the eagle" to become cupbearer of Zeus, king of the gods, and "Leda [who bore Castor and Pollux) fertilized by the swan" Zeus. Commenting further on such pagan influence, Reau asks: "But what is one to say then of the Final Judgment of the Sistine Chapel, the principal chapel of the Vatican, where one sees the nude Christ of Michel­ angelo lance the lightning like a thundering Ju­ piter [ the Roman father of the gods) and the Damned cross the Styx [the river over which the Greeks believed the dead were ferried) in Charon's barque?" As he states: "An example that came from so high [that is, approved by the papacy ] could not fail to be followed. " A s has been seen, art was not given major attention by fleshly Israel and is virtually absent from the record of the early congregation of spiri­ tual Israel of the first century c.E. It is, rather, in the field of literature that they surpassed all other peoples, being used by God to produce a work of superb beauty, not only in form but primarily in content: the Bible. Their inspired writings are "as apples of gold in silver carvings," with crystal­ clear truths of such brilliance as to rival the finest gems, and word pictures that convey visions and scenes of a grandeur and loveliness beyond the ability of human artists to portray.-Pr 25 : 11 ; 3 : 13-15 ; 4 : 7-9 ; 8:9, 10.

ARTAXERXES

( Ar-ta·xerx'es ). A name or ti­ tle applied in the Bible to two Persian kings.

1 . The Persian ruler who caused the building of Jehovah's temple at Jerusalem to be stopped. ( Ezr 4 : 7-24 ) Between the reigns of Cyrus the Great, who allowed the Jews to return to Jerusalem ( 537 B.c.E. ), and of Darius the Great, who in 520 B. C.E. removed the ban imposed on the tem­ ple construction, possibly three kings ruled: Cam­ byses II, his brother Bardiya ( or possibly a Magian known as Gaumata who is said to have pretended to be Bardiya and ruled for seven months), and Nidintu-Bel ( who was defeated and killed by Dari­ us after just two months) . Cambyses is evident­ ly represented by the "Ahasuerus" mentioned at Ezra 4 : 6 to whom the first protest was made by the opposers of the temple reconstruction. There­ fore, beginning with Ezra 4 : 7, the ruler referred to as "Artaxerxes" is either Bardiya or Gaurnata, whose rule lasted but seven months ( 5 22 B.c.E. ).

The people of the cities of Samaria wrote a letter against the Jews to this Persian king. ( Ezr 4 : 7 )

ARTEMAS

This was while the Jews were busy building the temple. ( Ezr 4: 1 -3 ) In order to achieve their goal, the adversaries of the Jews resorted to lies, stating that the Jews were then rebuilding the city of Jerusalem, including its walls. ( Ezr 4 : 11-16) As a result of these false accusations, "the work on the house of God" came to a halt.-Ezr 4: 24. 2. Artaxerxes Longimanus, the son of Xerxes I, is the king referred to at Ezra 7: 1-28 and Nehemi­ ah 2 : 1-18; 13:6. Whereas most reference works give his accession year as 465 B.C.E. , there is sound reason for placing it in 475 B.c.E.-See PERSIA, PERSIANS (The Reigns of Xerxes and of Artaxerxes ). Artaxerxes Longimanus extended permission to Ezra the priest and also to Nehemiah to make trips to Jerusalem. ( Ezr 7: 1-7 ; Ne 2: 1 , 7, 8) Ancient historians credit him with a generally benign and generous personality. This coincides with his ac­ tions during the seventh year of his reign (468 B.C.E. ), when Longimanus granted Ezra "all his request" in a decree that provided for silver, gold, and vessels for temple use, as well as provi­ sions of wheat, wine, oil, and salt. ( Ezr 7:6, 12-2 3 ; 8 : 2 5 -27 ) This generous contribution may explain why Artaxerxes is included along with Cyrus and Darius at Ezra 6 : 14 as one of those whose orders contributed to the 'building and finishing' of the temple, although the actual construction had been completed 47 years previous, in 515 B.c.E. The king's decree even authorized Ezra to appoint magistrates and judges to teach God's law ( as well as that of the king) and to use capital punishment against violators where necessary.-Ezr 7: 25, 26. During the 20th year of his reign (455 B.c.E. ), Artaxerxes Longimanus granted permission to Nehemiah to return to Jerusalem to rebuild the walls and gates of the city. ( Ne 2: 1-8) Because this is referred to at Daniel 9: 25 as relating to the time of the promised coming of the Messiah, the date of Artaxerxes' 20th year is very important. Nehemiah 13 : 6 refers to "the thirty-second year of Artaxerxes," that is, 443 B.c.E., when Nehemi­ ah returned for a time to the court of this king.

182 bow and arrows, this Artemis is depicted as pur­ suing game, especially stags. Although the Greeks identified the Ephesian Artemis with their own Artemis, the Artemis of Ephesus, who was wor­ shiped in cities throughout Asia Minor, has little in common with the Greek deity of classical mythol­ ogy. (Ac 19 : 27) The Ephesian Artemis was a fer­ tility goddess represented as having multiple breasts, a turreted crown, and a kind of nimbus behind her head. The mummylike lower half of her body was decorated with various symbols and animals. The Artemis worshiped at Ephesus has been closely connected with prominent goddesses of other peoples, and it has been suggested that they have a common origin. A Dictionary of the Bible ( Vol. I, p. 605 ) observes: "Artemis presents such close analogies with the Phrygian Cybele, and with other feminine envisagements of the divine power in Asiatic countries, like the Cappadocian Ma, the Phamician Astarte or Ashtaroth, the Syr­ ian Atargatis and Mylitta, as to suggest that these

ARTEMAS ( Arlte·mas ). A companion whom Paul considered sending to Titus in Crete (Tit 3: 12), perhaps as a replacement in order that Titus might join Paul in Nicopolis. Since Paul's choice was to be between Artemas and Tychicus, Arte­ mas was evidently well esteemed, as is indicated by Paul's remarks about Tychicus at Ephesians 6 : 2 1 , 22. ARTEMIS

(Arlte·mis ). A Greek virgin goddess of hunting is known as Artemis ; she was identi­ fied by the Romans with Diana. Equipped with

Ephesian Artemis, the fertility goddess; griffins surround the head, and signs of the zodiac appear below a garland around the neck

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are all mere varieties of one ultimate religious conception, presenting in different countries cer­ tain differences, due to varying development ac­ cording to local circumstances and national char­ acter."-Edited by J. Hastings, 1904. The ancients ranked the temple of Artemis at Ephesus as one of the seven wonders of the world. It was an imposing structure made of cedar, cy­ press, white marble, and gold. For the great festivals held in the month of Artemision ( March-April ) visitors numbering hundreds of thousands arrived at Ephesus from all of Asia Minor. One feature of the celebration was the religious procession, with the image of Arte­ mis being paraded about the city in a most jubi­ lant manner. The making of silver shrines of Artemis proved to be a profitable enterprise for Demetrius and other Ephesian silversmiths. Therefore, when the apostle Paul's preaching in Ephesus caused a con­ siderable number of persons to forsake the un­ clean worship of this goddess, Demetrius stirred up the other craftsmen, telling them that not only did Paul's preaching pose a threat to their financial security but also the danger existed that the wor­ ship of the great goddess Artemis would come to nothing. This culminated in a riot that was finally dispersed by the city recorder.-Ac 19 : 23-41 ; see

EPHESUS. ARUBBOTH

( Arub'both) [ Windows ]. A town that served as an administrative center under one of the 12 deputies assigned by King Solomon to provide food for the royal household. The son of Hesed functioned there, having oversight over Socoh and the land of Hepher. ( l Ki 4 : 7, 10 ) Arub­ both is presently identified with modern 'Arraba, situated near Dothan and about 14 km (9 mi ) N of Samaria, hence in the territory of Manasseh.

ARUMAH ( Aru'mah ) [ Height; Exalted Place ]. A town in the territory of Ephraim in which Abimelech, the son of Jerubbaal, resided and from which he launched his attack on the Shechemites. ( Jg 9:41 ) It is tentatively identified with Khirbet el-'Ormah ( Horvat el-'Urmeh), about 8 km ( 5 mi) SE of Shechem. Some suggest that it is the same as the Rumah referred to at 2 Kings 2 3 : 36. -See R UMAH .

ARVAD ( Ar'vad ). In Ezekiel's prophetic dirge concerning Tyre reference is made to men from Arvad who served as skilled rowers in Tyre's navy and as valorous warriors in her army. ( Eze 27:8, 11 ) Arvad is identified with the small rocky island today known as Arwad, lying about 3 km ( 2 mi ) off the coast of northern Syria, about 186 km

ASA

( 116 mi ) NNE of Tyre. The inhabitants were de­ scendants of Canaan.-Ge 10: 15, 18.

ARVADITE (Ar'vad·ite) [ Of ( Belonging to) Ar­ vad]. A member of the family descended from Ham through Canaan and that evidently inhabit­ ed Arvad, an island just off the northern coast of Syria. (Ge 10 :6, 15, 18; lCh 1 : 16 ) The only other mention of them is Ezekiel's reference to Arvad­ ites as being skilled sailors and valiant soldiers for Tyre.-Eze 27:8, 1 1 . ARZA ( Ar'za). Steward of the household of Elah, king of Israel (c. 952 B.c.E. ), in whose house in Tirzah the king was "drinking himself drunk" when assassinated by Zimri.-1Ki 16:9, 10. ASA ( A'sa ). 1. The third king of Judah following the divi­ sion of the nation into two kingdoms. Asa was the son of Abijam ( Abijah) and the grandson of Reho­ boam. He reigned for 41 years (977-937 B.c.E. ). - l Ki 15: 8- 10. Asa's Zeal for Pure Worship. Judah and Benjamin had become steeped in apostasy during the 20 years following the split of the nation into two kingdoms. "Like David his forefather," Asa demonstrated a zeal for pure worship and coura­ geously set about cleaning the male temple pros­ titutes and the idols out of the land. He removed his grandmother, Maacah, from her position as a sort of 'first lady' of the land because of her mak­ ing "a horrible idol" to the sacred pole, or Asherah, and he burned the religious idol.-1Ki 15: 11-13.

The record at 2 Chronicles 14: 2-5 states that Asa "removed the foreign altars and the high places and broke up the sacred pillars and cut down the sacred poles. " However, 1 Kings 15: 14 and 2 Chronicles 15: 17 indicate that "the high places he did not remove. " It may be, therefore, that the high places referred to in the earlier Chronicles account were those of the adopted pa­ gan worship that infected Judah, while the Kings account refers to high places at which the people engaged in worship of Jehovah. Even after the setting up of the tabernacle and the later estab­ lishment of the temple, occasional sacrificing was done to Jehovah on high places, which was accept­ able to him under special circumstances, as in the cases of Samuel, David, and Elijah. ( 1 Sa 9 : 11-19; 1Ch 2 1 : 26-30; 1Ki 18: 30-39 ) Nevertheless, the regular approved place for sacrifice was that au­ thorized by Jehovah. ( Nu 33 : 52 ; De 1 2 : 2-14; Jos 2 2 : 29 ) Improper modes of high-place worship may have continued in spite of the removal of the pagan high places, perhaps because the king did not pursue their elimination with the same vigor

ASA

as he did the removal of the pagan sites. Or Asa may have effected a complete removal of all high places; but if so, such cropped up again in due time and had not been removed by the time of the conclusion of his reign, allowing for their being smashed by his successor Jehoshaphat. Asa's zeal for right worship brought blessings of peace from Jehovah during the first ten years of his reign. ( 2Ch 14: 1 , 6 ) Later Judah was subjected to attack by a force of a million warriors under Zerah the Ethiopian. Though greatly outnum­ bered, Asa went out to meet the invasion at Mare­ shah about 38 km ( 23 mi ) WSW of Jerusalem in the Judean lowlands. His fervent prayer before the battle was joined acknowledged God's power to deliver and pleaded for Jehovah's help, saying: "Upon you we do lean, and in your name we have come against this crowd. 0 Jehovah, you are our God. Do not let mortal man retain strength against you." Total victory resulted. -2Ch 14 :8-15. Asa is thereafter met by the prophet Azariah, who reminds him: "Jehovah is with you as long as you prove to be with him," and "if you leave him he will leave you." He calls to mind the destructive strife the nation experienced when alienated from Jehovah and urges Asa to continue his activity courageously on behalf of pure worship. ( 2Ch 1 5 : 1 -7 ) Asa's ready response and strengthening of the nation in true service to Jehovah results in a great number of persons from the northern king­ dom abandoning that region to join in a grand assembly at Jerusalem in Asa's 15th year of rule ( 963 B.CE. ), at which assembly a covenant is made declaring the people's determination to seek Jehovah and providing the death penalty for those not keeping this covenant. -2Ch 1 5 : 8- 15. Intrigue and Warfare Against Baasha. King Baasha of Israel set out to block the path of any inclining toward a return to Judah by fortifying the frontier city of Ramah, located on the main road to Jerusalem and only a short distance N of that city. Asa, by some process of human reason­ ing or because of heeding bad counsel, now failed to rely solely on Jehovah and resorted to diploma­ cy and conspiratorial maneuvering to remove this threat. He took the temple treasures and those from the royal house and sent them as a bribe to King Ben-hadad I of Syria to induce him to divert Baasha's attention through an attack on Israel's northern frontier. Ben-hadad I accepted, and his raid on Israelite cities in the N disrupted Baasha's building work and brought a withdrawal of his forces from Ramah. Asa now conscripted all the available manpower from the entire kingdom of

1 84

Judah and carried off all Baasha's supplies of building materials, using them to build up the cities of Geba and Mizpah. - 1 Ki 1 5 : 16-22; 2Ch 16 : 1-6. For this, Asa was confronted by Hanani the seer, who pointed out Asa's inconsistency in not leaning upon the God who had delivered him from the vast Ethiopian force, reminding Asa that "as regards Jehovah, his eyes are roving about through all the earth to show his strength in behalf of those whose heart is complete toward him." For his foolishness, Asa would now face continued warfare. Resenting correction, Asa un­ justly jailed Hanani and showed himself oppres­ sive to others of the people.-2Ch 16 : 7 - 1 1 . The statement at 2 Chronicles 16: 1 that Baasha came up against Judah "in the thirty-sixth year of the reign of Asa" has caused some question, since Baasha's rule, beginning in the third year of Asa and lasting only 24 years, had terminated about 10 years prior to Asa's 36th year of rule. ( 1 Ki 1 5 : 3 3 ) While some suggest a scribal error and believe the reference is to the 16th or the 26th year of Asa's reign, the assumption of such error is not required to harmonize the accounts. Jewish commentators quote the Seder Olam, which sug­ gests that the 36th year was reckoned from the existence of the separate kingdom of Judah ( 997 B.CE. ) and corresponded to the 16th year of Asa (Rehoboam ruling 17 years, Abijah 3 years, and Asa now in his 16th year). ( Soncino Books of the Bible, London, 195 2, ftn on 2Ch 16: 1 ) This was also the view of Archbishop Ussher. So, too, the apparent difference between the statement at 2 Chronicles 1 5 : 19 to the effect that, as for "war, it did not occur down to the thirty-fifth [ actually, the fifteenth] year of Asa's reign," and the statement at 1 Kings 1 5 : 16 to the effect that "warfare itself took place between Asa and Baasha the king of Israel all their days," may be explained in that once conflicts began between the two kings they were thereafter continuous, even as Hanani had foretold.-2Ch 16 : 9 . Illness and Death. Asa's last three years brought suffering due to an illness of the feet ( perhaps gout), and he unwisely sought physical healing over spiritual healing. At his death he was given an honorable burial in his personally pre­ pared tomb in the City of David.- 1Ki 1 5 : 23 , 24; 2Ch 16: 12-14.

Despite the lack of wisdom and spiritual insight he manifested at times, Asa's good qualities and freedom from apostasy evidently outweighed his errors, and he is viewed as one of the faithful

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kings of the line of Judah. ( 2Ch 1 5 : 17) The 41 -year reign of Asa touched or covered the reigns of eight kings of Israel: Jeroboam, Nadab, Baasha, Elah, Zimri, Omri, Tibni ( who ruled a segment of Israel in opposition to Omri ), and Ahab. ( 1 Ki 15:9, 25, 33; 16 : 8, 15, 16, 21, 23, 29 ) Upon Asa's death his son Jehoshaphat became king.- 1Ki 1 5 : 24. 2. A son of the Levite Elkanah and the father of Berechiah, who is listed as dwelling in "the settle­ ments of the Netophathites" following the return from the Babylonian exile. - 1 Ch 9: 16.

ASAHEL ( As'a·hel) [ God Has Made]. 1 . A son of David's sister or half sister Zeruiah and the brother of Abishai and Joab ; hence, Da­ vid's nephew. ( 1 Ch 2 : 15, 16) Honored as among the 30 outstanding warriors under David, Asahel was particularly noted for his fleetness, "like one of the gazelles that are in the open field. " ( 2Sa 2: 18; 2 3 : 24) This proved to be his undoing. Fol­ lowing the test struggle at the Pool of Gibeon and the subsequent rout of the Israelite forces under Abner, Asahel doggedly pursued the fleeing Ab­ ner. After pleading twice with Asahel to desist, the powerful Abner rammed the butt end of his spear through Asahel's abdomen, and Asahel died on the spot. Though Asahel's brother Joab finally called off the Judean forces in response to Abner's remonstrations, Asahel's death caused bitterness within Joab so that at a later opportunity he craftily maneuvered into position to put Abner to death by the sword.-2Sa 2: 12-28 ; 3: 22-27. At 1 Chronicles 27 : 7 Asahel is listed as a divi­ sional commander of the month-by-month ar­ rangement of troops. Since Asahel died before David became king over all Israel, his mention here may be rather with reference to his house, represented in his son Zebadiah, who is referred to in the text as Asahel's successor. A further suggestion is that given by The Interpreter's Dic­ tionary of the BibJe (edited by G. A. Buttrick, 1962, Vol. 1, p. 244): "It is possible that we may have here the prototype of the Davidic militia, orga­ nized early in the Judean rule of the king, and that this original list has been brought up to date by the inclusion of Zebadiah, son and successor of Asahel in this command. "-Compare lCh 12. 2 . One of the Levites assigned to teach the Law throughout Judah, beginning in the third year of Jehoshaphat's reign (934 B.C.E. ).-2Ch 17:7, 8; compare De 33:8- 10. 3. A commissioner serving at the temple dur­ ing Hezekiah's reign ( 745-717 B.c.E. ) in con­ nection with the contributions and tithes. -2Ch 31 : 13.

ASAPH 4. The father of a certain Jonathan, a contem­ porary of Ezra.-Ezr 10: 1 5 ; see JAHZElAH.

ASAIAH (Asai'ah) [Jah Has Made ]. 1 . A descendant of Merari, Levi's third son, and a head of a paternal house. He was one of the chief men among the Levites who formed part of the group of 862 chosen to share in bringing up the ark of the covenant to Jerusalem at the time of David's second ( and successful) attempt.- 1 Ch 6:29, 30; 15:4- 12. 2. A chieftain of the tribe of Simeon in the days of King Hezekiah ( 745-717 B.C.E. ). He was among those Simeonites who took part in conquering a rich valley in the area of Gedor, till then occupied by Hamites and the Meunim. - 1 Ch 4: 36-41 . 3 . Called "the king's servant," he was one of a commission of five, headed by Hilkiah, whom King Josiah sent to the prophetess Huldah to in­ quire of Jehovah about the meaning of the recent­ ly discovered book of the Law ( in 642 B.c.E. ). -2Ki 2 2 : 3, 8, 12- 14; 2Ch 34: 20, 21. 4 . The firstborn of the Shilonites ( l Ch 9 : 1 -3, 5 ), listed among those returning from Baby Ion after the exile. At Nehemiah 11 : 5 mention is made of Maaseiah as a "Shelanite" descendant of Judah, and because of the similar meaning of the names ( Maaseiah meaning "Work of Jehovah" ) some con­ sider them to be the same and descended from Shelah, the youngest son of Judah by the daugh­ ter of Shua the Canaanite.-Ge 38: 2, 5 ; see MAA­ SElAH No. 17. ASAPH ( A'saph ) [ He [ God ] Has Gathered ]. 1 . A son of Levi through Gershom. ( 1 Ch 6 : 39, 43 ) During King David's reign ( 1077- 1038 B.C.E. ) Asaph was appointed by the Levites as a chief singer and player of cymbals, accompanying the Ark as it was brought up from Obed-edom's home to "the City of David. " ( 1Ch 1 5 : 17, 19, 25-29 ) Thereafter Asaph, along with Heman and Ethan, served before the tabernacle in directing the mu­ sic and singing. ( 1Ch 6 : 31 -44) Like Heman and Jeduthun (apparently the same as Ethan), Asaph is called a "visionary, " who did "prophesying with the harp."- l Ch 2 5 : 1 - 6 ; 2Ch 29 : 30 ; 3 5 : 15. Asaph's sons continued to form a special group in the orchestral and choral arrangements, taking a prominent part at the time of the temple's inau­ guration and the bringing up of the Ark from Zion to the temple location ( 2Ch 5 : 1 2 ) ; at the time of King Hezekiah's reforms ( 2Ch 29 : 13- 15 ) ; and at the time of the great Passover celebrated during King Josiah's reign. ( 2Ch 35: 15, 16) Some of his descendants were also among the first group

ASAREL

returning to Jerusalem from Babylonian exile. -Ezr 2 : 1 , 41 ; Ne 7 : 44. The superscriptions for Psalms 50 and 73 to 83 credit these songs to Asaph. However, it seems likely that the name is there used as referring to the house of which he was paternal head, since some of the psalms ( Ps 79, 80 ) evidently describe events later than Asaph's day. 2. A descendant of Levi's son Kohath. His de­ scendants were gatekeepers in the tabernacle ser­ vice in King David's time.- 1Ch 26 : 1 ; Nu 16: 1 . 3 . Among the officials of King Hezekiah ( 745-717 E.c.E. ) is mentioned "Joah the son of Asaph the recorder. " ( 2Ki 18: 18, 37 ; Isa 36 : 3, 22) While John Kitto's CyclopCEdia of Biblical Litera­ ture ( 1880, Vol. I, p. 233 ) applies the term "record­ er" to Asaph, most scholars view it as applying to Joah (thus, Joah ben Asaph, the recorder). Since the term "son" is often used in the sense of "de­ scendant," some suggest that this Asaph is the same as No. 1 . 4 . "The keeper o f the park" for King Artaxerxes at the time of Nehemiah's return to Jerusalem (455 E.C.E. ). ( Ne 2 : 8 ) The park was a wooded area, perhaps in Lebanon, which was also under Persian control. The park keeper's Hebrew name may indicate that he was a Jew occupying this official position, even as Nehemiah had served in the relatively important position of the king's cup­ bearer.-Ne 1 : 11.

ASAREL ( As'a·rel). One of four sons of Jehalle­ leI of the tribe of Judah.-1Ch 4: 16. ASCENSION. The return of Jesus Christ to heaven 40 days after his resurrection. The scene of Jesus' ascension was the Mount of Olives ( Ac 1 : 9, 12), near the town of Bethany ( Lu 24: 50), which town lies on the eastern side of the Mount of Olives. Those witnessing the ascension were a limited group, his faithful apostles. ( Ac 1 : 2, 1 1 - 1 3 ) The record states that "while they were looking on, he was lifted up and a cloud caught him up from their vision . " They continued looking into the sky until advised otherwise by the angels, who informed them: "This Jesus who was re­ ceived up from you into the sky will come thus in the same manner as you have beheld him going into the sky. "-Ac 1 :9- 1 1 . I t is t o be noted that the angels referred t o the "manner" ( Gr., tro'pos) not the form ( Gr. , mor­ phe/ ) in which Jesus departed. As the cloud caught him up, he became invisible to human eyes. The Acts account shows that his ascension was without ostentation or fanfare, discerned by only a few faithful followers and that for only the initial part of the ascension. The manner of his

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ascension was such that it would qualify the apos­ tles to serve as witnesses of that fact, even as they were of Jesus' resurrection. (Ac 1 : 3) Thus, he did not simply 'disappear' from them, as he did earlier from the two disciples at Emmaus, or as the angel who had appeared to Gideon "vanished from his sight." ( Lu 24: 31 ; Jg 6 : 2 1 , 22) To an extent, his ascension was more like that of the angel who appeared to Manoah and his wife. He had them prepare a sacrifice, and "as the flame ascended from off the altar heavenward, then Jehovah's angel ascended in the flame of the altar while Manoah and his wife were looking on."-Jg 13 : 20. Since Acts 1 : 3-9 shows that Jesus' ascension took place 40 days from the time of his resurrec­ tion, there is a time lapse between the events recorded at Luke 24: 1-49 as occurring on Jesus' resurrection day and the ascension of Jesus as described in verse 51 of that chapter. It may also be noted that the words "and began to be borne up to heaven," appearing in that verse, are lacking in some ancient manuscripts and are therefore omit­ ted in some modern translations (NE, AT). They do appear, however, in the Bodmer Papyrus ( P75 ), the Alexandrine Manuscript, the Vatican Manu­ script No. 1209, and other ancient manuscripts. Effect on Disciples. Up until the day of Je­ sus' ascension it appears that the disciples still thought in terms of an earthly kingdom ruled by him, as is seen by their statement at Acts 1 : 6 . By beginning his ascension in a visible way and al­ lowing his disciples to witness the initial portion of it, Jesus thus made obvious to them that his King­ dom was heavenly and that, different from David who "did not ascend to the heavens, " Jesus' posi­ tion from then onward would be at 'God's right hand,' as Peter boldly testified on the day of Pen­ tecost.-Ac 2 : 32-36.

Such action likewise should call to their mind Jesus' many previous statements pointing to such a heavenly position and help his disciples to un­ derstand these. He had shocked some by saying: "What, therefore, if you should behold the Son of man ascending to where he was before?" ( Joh 6 : 6 2 ) ; and he told the Jews: "You are from the realms below; I am from the realms above. " (Joh 8 : 2 3 ) On the night of his final meeting with his apostles, he told them he was 'going his way to the Father to prepare a place for them' (Joh 14: 2, 28 ); while among them on his last night of life as a human, he reported to his Father that he had 'finished the work on earth' assigned to him and prayed, saying: "Glorify me alongside yourself with the glory that I had alongside you before the world was," saying also, "I am coming to you . "

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(Joh 17:4, 5 , 11 ) When arrested, he gave similar indication before the Sanhedrin. (Mt 26 :64) After his resurrect�on he told Mary Magdalene: "Stop clinging to me. For I have not yet ascended to the Father. But be on your way to my brothers and say to them, 'I am ascending to my Father and your Father and to my God and your God. ' " (Joh 20: 17) Yet, despite all of this, it is evident that the significance of these statements was brought home to the disciples only at the occasion of the ascension. Later, Stephen was given a vision of Jesus at God's right hand (Ac 7 : 55, 56), and Paul experienced the effect of Jesus' heavenly glory. -Ac;, 9 : 3-5. Tile Inauguration of a 'New and Living Way.'

While Jesus began his ascent in a physical form, thus being visible to his watching disciples, there is no basis for assuming that he continued to retain a material form after the cloud interposed itself. The apostle Peter states that Jesus died in the flesh but was resurrected "in the spirit. " ( lPe 3: 18) Paul declares the rule that "flesh and blood cannot inherit God's kingdom." ( l Co 15 : 50; com­ pare also Jesus' statement at Joh 12: 23, 24 with lCo 1 5 : 35-45. ) Paul likens Jesus' ascent to God's presence in the heavens to the entry of the high priest into the Most Holy compartment of the tabernacle on the Day of Atonement and specifies that on such occasion the high priest carried only the blood (not the flesh) of the sa.crificial victims. ( Heb 9 : 7, 1 1 , 12, 24 -26 ) Paul then compares the curtain, which separated the first compartment from the Most Holy compartment, to Christ's flesh. The high priest in passipg into the Most Holy, into God's typical presence, did not carry the curtain with him but passed through that barrier and beyond it, so that it was behind him. Thus, Paul states that "we have boldnes� for the way of entry into the holy place by the blood of Jesus, which he inaugurated for us as a n�w and living way through the curtain, that is, his flesh. "-Heb 9 : 3, 24; 10: 10, 19, 20 ; compare Joh 6:51 ; Heb 6 : 19, 20. Jesus' ascension to heaven to present the ran­ soming value of his lifeblood to Jehovah inaugu­ rated "a new and living way" of approach to God in prayer. That it also opened the way to heavenly life harmonizes with Jesus' own statement to the effect that, prior thereto, "no man has ascended into heaven but he that descended from heaven, the Son of man. " (Joh 3 : 13 ) Thus, neither Enoch nor Elijah inaugurated this way, any more than David had. (Ge 5 : 24 ; 2Ki 2: 11 ; Ac 2 : 34) As Paul states: "The holy spirit makes it plain that the way into the holy place had not yet been made mani­ fest while the first tent was standing. "-Heb 9:8; see EWAH No. 1 ; ENOCH No. 2.

ASCENSION

Some raise objec­ tions to the account of the ascension, saying that it conveys the primitive concept that heaven is "up" from the earth, thus manifesting ignorance of the structure of the universe and of the earth's rotation. However, to satisfy such critics would, in effect, require the virtual elimination of the words "up," "above," and so forth, from human language. Even in this space age, we still read of astro­ nauts making an "ascent" to a " 184 -mile-high or­ bit" above the earth ( The New York Times, June 19, 1983 ), whereas we know that technically they moved out or away from the earth's surface that distance. Interestingly, the account of the angelic delegation that chorused the announcement of Jesus' birth reports that, when their mission was completed, "the angels . . . departed from them into heaven. " ( Lu 2: 15 ; compare Ac 12: 10. ) Thus Jesus' ascension, while beginning with an upward movement, from the viewpoint of his disciples, may have thereafter taken any direction required to bring him into his Father's heavenly presence. It was an ascension not only as to direction but, more important, as to the sphere of activity and level of existence in the spirit realm and in the lofty presence of the Most High God, a realm not governed by human dimensions or directions. -Compare Heb 2 : 7, 9. Why Essential. Jesus' ascension to the heav­ enly realm was essential for several reasons or purposes. He had stated that it was necessary for him to 'go his way' in order that he might send God's holy spirit as helper to his disciples. (Joh 16 : 7-14) The outpouring of that spirit by Jesus on the day of Pentecost was to the disciples an evi­ dent demonstration of the fact of Jesus' having reached God's presence and that he had presented the value of his ransom sacrifice to Him. (Ac 2:33, 38) This presentation of the value of his lifeblood also made such ascension vital, for it was not to be made on earth, in the Most Holy of the temple in Jerusalem, but only in " heaven itself . . . before the person of God." (Heb 9 : 24 ) It was also made n�c­ essary by Jesus' being appointed and glorified as the "great high priest who has passed through the heavens. " (Heb 4: 14; 5: 1-6 ) Paul explains that "if, now, he were upon earth, he would not be a priest, " but that, having "sat down at the right hand of the throne of the Majesty in the heavens," Jesus has now "obtained a more excellent public service, so that he is also the mediator of a corre­ spondingly better covenant. " (Heb 8: 1-6) Because of this, Christians subject to inherited sin are comforted in knowing they "have a helper with the Father, Jesus Christ, a righteous one. "- lJo 2: 1 ; Ro 8 : 34; Heb 7: 25. Correctness of the Term.

ASCENTS

Finally, the ascension was necessary for Jesus' administration of the Kingdom to which he be­ came heir, with "angels and authorities and pow­ ers . . . made subject to him." ( 1 Pe 3 : 2 2 ; Php 2 : 6- 1 1 ; l Co 15 : 2 5 ; Heb 10 : 12, 13; compare Da 7 : 14. ) Having "conquered the world" (Joh 16 : 33 ), Jesus took part in fulfilling the prophecy at Psalm 68: 18, 'ascending on high and carrying away cap­ tives: the significance of which Paul explains at Ephesians 4:8- 12.

ASCENTS . The Hebrew expression Shir ham­ ma·'a1ohth ', forming the superscription for 15 psalms (Ps 120- 1 34 ), is variously translated as "A Song of degrees" (KJ), "A gradual canticle" (Dy, Ps 119-133 ), "A Song of the Stairsteps" ( NW ftn on Ps 120:Sup), "A Song of [ or, "for the " ] Ascents" ( AT, RS). Four of these psalms are attributed to David and one to Solomon. The exact meaning of the superscription is a subject of discussion. At one time Jewish tradition ( Mishnah, Middot 2 : 5 ) held that these 15 songs were sung by the Levites in ascending the 15 steps from the Court of Women to the Court of Israel at the temple in Jerusalem, but this view is generally discounted today. Some suggest that the phrase refers to the exalted contents of these psalms, though there seems to be little reason thus to elevate them above the other inspired psalms. Most commenta­ tors believe the title derives from the use of these psalms by the Israelite worshipers when traveling or ascending to the lofty city of Jerusalem situated high in the mountains of Judah as they joyfully attended the three great annual festivals there. (De 12:5-7 ; 16: 16; Ps 42 :4; Isa 30 :29) The word ma· 'a1ah is used in a similar way at Ezra 7 : 9 when referring to the "going up" of the Israelites from Babylon to Jerusalem after the exile. The expres­ sions in Psalm 122: 1-4 lend themselves well to this view, while the content of the other psalms of this group is of such varied nature as to leave the matter still uncertain. '

ASENAPPAR ( As'e·nap·par ). This name ap­ pears in a portion of the book of Ezra (4: 10 ) recorded in Aramaic and is evidently a clipped rendering of the name of the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal and, like the Persian, which has no letter 1, substitutes an r for the final l. The inhab­ itants of Susa (capital of Elam) were transplant­ ed to Samaria by Asenappar. ( Compare 2Ki 17: 24 -28. ) History shows Ashurbanipal to be the only Assyrian king in position to carry out such action as regards the inhabitants of Elam. Ashurbanipal was the son of Esar-haddon ( Ezr 4 : 2 ) and grandson of Sennacherib. He was a con-

188

temporary of King Manasseh of Judah ( 716662 B.c.E. ), whose name is found on a prism of Ashurbanipal listing some 20 kings as tributaries of Assyria. (Compare 2Ch 33: 10-13. ) Under him, Assyria reached its greatest heights. Apparently appointed as crown prince three or four years earlier, Ashurbanipal took the throne of Assyr­ ia upon his father's death, while his brother, Shamash-shum-u-kin, was the king of Babylon. Ashurbanipal quelled an uprising in Egypt, con­ quering and ravaging the city of Thebes ( No­ amon; compare Na 3 : 8- 10). Later he was engaged in a lengthy conflict with his brother, the king of Babylon, and after subduing Babylon, destroyed Susa, the capital of Elam. It is this conquest that is the historical basis for relating him to Asenappar of Ezra 4:9, 10. Ashurbanipal is best known, however, for his literary interests, a unique trait among the formi­ dable Assyrian monarchs. Beginning in 1845 c.E., excavations revealed a great library formed by Ashurbanipal at Nineveh, containing some 22,000 clay tablets and texts. In addition to incantations, prayers, and hymns, the thousands of cuneiform writings include treatises on history, geography, astronomy, mathematical tables, medicine, gram­ mar, as well as business documents involving con­ tracts, sales, and loans. They are viewed as a valuable source of information about Assyria.

ASENATH ( As'e·nath ). The daughter of the Egyptian priest Potiphera of On, given by Pharaoh to Joseph as his wife. She became the mother of Manasseh and Ephraim.-Ge 41 :45, 50-52 ; 46 : 20. ASH . 1 . The name of a tree (Heb. , tidhhar' ) that occurs twice in the Hebrew Scriptures, at Isaiah 41 : 19 and 60 : 13 . In the first text it is included among trees such as the juniper and cypress, which are to flourish in the desert plain under foretold paradisaic conditions, and in the latter text it is included among the same trees as part of the "glory of Lebanon. " The identification of this tree is conjectural, but there is some evidence that favors the ash tree.-See Theo1ogische Litera tur­ zeitung, Leipzig, 1926, p. 216. Two varieties of ash, Fraxinus ornus and Fraxi­ nus oxycarpa, are found along rivers and streams in the mountains of Lebanon and the upper ex­ tremity of Palestine, though not throughout Pales­ tine generally. This tree qualifies as part of the "glory of Lebanon," for it is a large tree growing up to 15 m ( 50 ft) high. It has light-green foliage and ash-colored branchlets. Although of the same

ASHDOD

189

family botanically as the olive, the ash differs from the olive in that it sheds its leaves each fall.

2. See ASH CONSTEllATION. (A'shan) [possibly, SmokeJ. A city in the Shephelah or lowland region of Judah. Origi­ nally assigned to Judah, it was thereafter given to Simeon, because Judah's territory was overly large. (Jos 1 5:42 ; 19:7, 9 ; 1 Ch 4 : 3 2 ) From them it passed to the Levite family of the Kohathites. ( 1 Ch 6: 54, 59 ) First Samuel 30:30 refers to "Borashan" as one of the cities in that general region to which David sent spoils after his victory over the Amal­ ekites, and this is thought by some to be the same as Ashan. At Joshua 21 : 16 the list of cities given to the Kohathites, corresponding to that at 1 Chroni­ cles 6 : 59, is presented, but "Ain" appears in the Joshua list in place of Ashan. The Soncino Books of the Bible ( London, 1950), commenting on the text, suggests that the full name of the city may have been Ain-ashan.

ASHAN

Many identify Ashan with Khirbet 'Asan, locat­ ed about 2 . 5 km ( 1 . 5 mi ) NW of modern Beer­ sheba, alongside the Nahal 'Ashan. Yohanan Aharoni suggests identifying Ashan with Tel Bet Mirsham, 25 km ( 16' mi ) NNE of Beer-sheba.

ASHARELAH (Ash·a·re'lah ). A son of Asaph serving in the service groups of musicians and singers at the house of Jehovah in the time of David. ( 1 Ch 25: 1, 2) It is probable that Jesharelah of verse 14 is ? variation of his name. (Ash·be'a) [Let Me Make One Swear (Take an Oath ) ]. The house of Ashbea descended from Judah's son Shelah and was noted for its production of fine fabric. ( 1 Ch 4:21 ) The Tar­ gums add that their linen was made for kings and priests.

ASHBEA

(Ash'bel ), ASHBELITES (Ash'bel­ ites ). Ashbel was a son of Benjamin, listed third at Genesis 46: 21 , but second at 1 Chronicles 8: 1. In 1728 B.c.E. he came into Egypt with Jacob's fam­ ily. He appears to be called Jediael at 1 Chronicles 7:6, 10. The Ashbelites, his descendants, were registered in the census taken on the desert plains of Moab about 1473 B.C.E.-Nu 26: 38.

ASHBEL

The fact that the Hebrew words 'A sh and 'A 'yish as well as other terms are used in association with sun, stars, and heaven in both cases indicates that they refer to some celestial constellation. (See Job 9 : 7-9 ; 38: 32, 33. ) It is impossible at present to specify which constellation they refer to and hence it is safer to transliterate the name (as in opr heading) rather than to translate the Hebrew with specific names

ASH CONSTELLATION.

such as "Arcturus" ( Gr. , Ar·ktou'ros, literally meaning "Guardiap of the Bear" ) (KJ), or "Bear"

(RS). The fact that Job 38:32 refers to Ash "alongside its sons" strengthens the basis for believing that a constellation is involved. Ursa Major (the Great Bear) is the constellation most often suggested, having seven main stars in it that could be "its sons." The important point in the text is, not the precise identification of the constellation, but the question there raised: "Can you conduct them?" Jehovah God thus impresses upon Job the wisdom anq power of the Creator, inasmuch as it is utterly impossible for man to govern the movements of these immense stellar bodies. ( Ash'dod) . One of the five principal cities of the Philistines under their "axis lords" and evidently the religious center of Philistia with its worship of the false god pagon. The other cities were Gath, Gaza, Ashkelon, and Ekron. ( Jos 13 : 3 ) Ashdod is identified with Esdud (Tel Ashdod ) aboJ.lt 6 km ( 3.5 mi ) SSE of, and inland from, modern Ashdod on the coast.

ASHDOD

It is first mentioned at Joshua 1 1 : 22 as the residing place, along with Gaza and Gath, of the remnant of the giantlike Anakim. Due to the emi­ nence on which it was built and its position on the military road running along the coast from Egypt through Palestine, Ashdod occupied a strategic location militarily. At the time of the Israelite conquest it was assigned, along with its suburban villages, to Judah (Jos 1 5 : 46, 47 ) ; but evidently its residents are included among "the inhabitants of the low plain" who could not be dispossessed "be­ cause tpey had war charipts with iron scythes. " -Jg 1 : 19. The Philistine cities seem to have been at the peak of their power during the time of King Saul. Before Saul's kingship the Philistines inflicted a severe defeat upon the Israelites at Ebenezer and caPtured the ark of the covenant, which they then transported to Ashdod and placed in the temple of Dagon, alongside the image of their god. After two humiliations miraculously executed on Da­ gon's image, the Ashdodites began to experience a plague of piles of such gravity as to create panic among them. A conference of Philistine axis lords brought a transfer of the Ark to the city of Gath, with a resulting extension of the plague there. Within seven months the Ark was on its way back to Israel, accompanied by an offering in gold. -lSa 5: 1-6: 1$; see PHIUSTIA, PHIUSTINFS. Although King David administered several de­ feats to the Philistines, their principal cities evi­ dently remained independent until the time of

ASHDODITE

King Uzziah (829-778 B.C.E. ). Uzziah is described as the maker of "engines of war" ( 2Ch 26: 15 ), and 2 Chronicles 26 : 6 tells us that Uzziah "proceeded to go out and fight against the Philistines and break through the wall of Gath and the wall of Jabneh and the wall of Ashdod, after which he built cities in Ashdod territory and among the Philistines. " Evidently the territory of Ashdod did not re­ main under Judean control, for in later periods inscriptions show Assyrian King Sargon II as de­ posing the local king Azuri and installing Ahimiti in his place. A revolt caused Sargon to cam­ paign against Philistia, conquering Gath, "Asdu­ du" (Ashdod ), and "Asdudimmu" ( Ashdod-by-the­ Sea, evidently a separate place located on the seacoast ). This may be the campaign referred to at Isaiah 20: 1 and a partial fulfillment of the prophecy at Amos 1 : 8. In the following century Herodotus (II, 157) records that Ashdod ( Azotus) was subjected to a siege lasting 29 years laid against the city by Pharaoh Psamtik (Psammeti­ chus). A stone prism of Sennacherib of Assyria says that "Mitinti from Ashdod" brought him sump­ tuous gifts and kissed his feet, and it adds con­ cerning King Hezekiah of Judah ( 745-717 B.C.E. ) : "His towns which I had plundered, I took away from his country and gave them (over) to Mitinti, king of Ashdod. " (Ancient Near Eastern Texts, edited by J. B. Pritchard, 1974, pp. 287, 288 ) Ashdod seems to have been in a weakened state by the time of Jeremiah ( after 647 B.c.E. ) so that he spoke of "the remnant of Ashdod. " ( Jer 2 5 : 20 ) Nebuchadnezzar, whose rule began i n 624 B.C.E., makes mention of the king of Ashdod as one of the prisoners at the Babylonian court.- Compare Zep 2 :4. In the postexilic period Ashdod was still a focal point of opposition to the Israelites ( Ne 4:7), and Nehemiah severely reprimanded those Jews who had married Ashdodite wives, resulting in sons who were "speaking Ashdodite, and there were none of them knowing how to speak Jewish. " ( Ne 13: 23, 24) During the Maccabean period idolatrous Ashdod (called Azotus ) came under attack by Ju­ das Maccabaeus about 163 B.c.E. and later by Judas' brother Jonathan about 148 B.c.E. , the temple of Dagon being burned down in this sec­ ond attack. - 1 Maccabees 5 : 68; 10:84. It is noteworthy that the prophecy of Zechariah pointed to the time when Ashdod would be over­ taken by foreigners. Evidently because the native Philistine population and rulership would be no more, the prophetic word was: "An illegitimate

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son will actually seat himself in Ashdod. "-Zec 9: 6. The city was rebuilt by the Romans about the year 55 B.c.E. and was generally known by its Greek name Azotus. Philip the evangelist passed through Ashdod in his preaching tour recorded at Acts 8:40. (Ash'dod·ite) [ Of (Belonging to) Ashdod ]. An inhabitant of the Philistine city of Ashdod. ( Jos 13 : 3 ) Like the other Philistines, the Ashdodites were descendants of Ham through Mizraim and Casluhim, reaching Canaan appar­ ently from the island of Crete. - Ge 10:6, 13, 14; Am 9 : 7; see AsHDOD; PHIUSTIA, PHIUSTINES.

ASHDODITE

At Nehemiah 1 3 : 24 the term uAshdodite" is also applied to their language. In view of the absence of any record of their speech, it cannot be deter­ mined whether they were still speaking the an­ cient Philistine language or a dialect resulting from centuries of foreign domination.

ASHER

(Ashier) [Happy; Happiness ].

1. The eighth son of Jacob and second of two

sons through Zilpah, Leah's maidservant. (Ge 35: 26 ) Thus Asher's only full brother was Gad. Ash­ er's four sons and one daughter are listed at 1 Chronicles 7: 30, though his wife is not named. He was not prominent among the 12 sons of Jacob. However, in his father's deathbed prophecy, Ash­ er was promised a life blessed with an abundance of rich foods (Ge 49: 20), and the history of his descendants demonstrates the fulfillment of this prediction.

2. The name applies as well to the tribe de­ scended from Asher. A year after the Exodus from Egypt the tribe's adult male descendants num­ bered 41 ,500 ( Nu 1 :41 ) and, about 39 years later, had increased to 53,400, making it the fifth most populous tribe. (Nu 26:47 ) In the camp of Israel, Asher occupied a position N of the tabernacle, with the tribes of Dan and Naphtali.-Nu 2 : 25 -30. Prior to entry into Canaan, Moses' prophetic blessing again predicted a prosperous portion for Asher. The tribe was figuratively to 'dip its foot in oil. ' ( De 3 3 : 24, 25; compare Job 29 :6. ) Their allot­ ment of territory stretched along the Mediter­ ranean coastal plains from below the town of Dar, S of Mount Carmel, on up to the N boundary of Palestine at Sidon. (Jos 17: 7- 11 ; 19 : 24 -31 ) This included some of the most fertile land in all Isra­ el, where olive trees would provide abundant oil, while other fruits would provide dainties fit to grace a royal table. ( Ge 49: 20; De 33 : 24) The territories of Zebulun and Naphtali lay along Ash­ er's E boundary, with Manasseh and Issachar to the S and SE.

191

ASHHUR

Asher is named in Joshua 1 7 : 7 as being on the

might even include the ashes of humans once

boundary of the tribe of Manasseh. Asher is also

sacrificed in false religious rites. -Jer 3 2 : 35.

referred to in this same account at verse 10, where it clearly refers to the tribal territory of Asher.

tured cities, so that 'reducing a place to ashes' was

ASHERAH.

See SACRED POLE.

ASHERITE

( Ashler·ite)

[Of

In Biblical times it was customary to burn cap­ indicative of its complete destruction, as is shown

( Belonging

to )

Asher]. A descendant of Asher, Jacob's second son by Leah's maidservant Zilpah ( Ge 30 : 1 2, 1 3 ) ; a member of the tribe of Asher.-Jg 1 : 3 1 , 3 2 ; see ASHER.

ASHES. The term often employed in the Scrip­ tures for the residue from the burning of materi­ als, frequently having symbolic or figurative con­ notations. The word "ashes" renders two Hebrew

in the cases of Tyre, Sodom, and Gomorrah. -Eze 28: 18; 2Pe 2 : 6. Ashes also served as a figure of what was insig­ nificant or valueless, Abraham acknowledging be­ fore Jehovah, for instance, "I am dust and ashes . " ( Ge 18 : 27 ; see also I s a 44 : 20; Job 30: 19. ) And Job likened the sayings of his false comforters to "proverbs of ashes. " -Job 1 3 : 12. It was a practice in Biblical days to sit in ashes or to scatter them upon oneself in symbol of

words. One ( 'epher; Nu 19 : 9 ) is also translat­ ed "powder . " ( Mal 4 : 3 ) De Ish en, besides denot­ ing "fatty ashes," may also refer to "fatness . " ( Le 1 : 16 ; 1sa 55 : 2 ) The Greek noun spo·dos' means "ashes" ( Mt 1 1 : 2 1 ) , while the verb tephro'o means

mourning, humiliation, and repentance. (Es 4 : 1 -3 ; Jer 6 : 26 ; 2Sa 13 : 19 ) Deep misery and affliction are figuratively linked with the 'eating of ashes' ( Ps

"reduce to ashes . " ( 2Pe 2 : 6 ) The residue from

Sackcloth and ashes were sometimes associated with fasting, weeping, or sorrow. (Es 4 : 3 ; Isa 58 : 5 ;

burning could also be referred to as dust ( 'aphar/ ). -Nu 19 : 1 7 ; 2Ki 23 :4. Each day a Levitical priest removed the fatty ashes ( de'shen ) resulting from the burning of ani­ mal sacrifices upon the altar and took them "out to a clean place outside the camp. " ( Le 6:9- 1 1 ) Ac­ cording to Numbers chapter 19, a sound red cow without defect and upon which no yoke had come was also slaughtered and burned outside the camp. The ashes of this "sin offering" were depos­ ited in a clean place outside the camp (Nu 19 : 9 ) and thus a portion was available for mixing with water to be sprinkled on unclean persons or things to purify them. ( Nu 19 : 17 ) The apostle Paul re­ ferred to the figurative cleansing of the flesh by "the ashes [ Gr., spo·dos'] of a heifer" to highlight the far greater cleansing of "consciences from dead works" possible through "the blood of the Christ. "-Heb 9: 13, 14. Jeremiah 31 : 40 refers to "the low plain of the carcasses and of the fatty ashes [ wehad·de'shen)," apparently a part of the valley of the son of Hinnom. Until relatively recent times a mound of ashes near the Kidron Valley was a familiar land­ mark. It is said to have been about 150 m long, 60 m wide, and 18 m deep ( 490 x 200 x 60 ft) and is considered by some to relate to the place men­ tioned by Jeremiah. A part of the valley of the son of Hinnom could have been set aside for the dis­ posal of ashes left after burning sacrifices ( Le 4: 1 2 ) , before Josiah made Topheth in the valley unfit for worship. ( 2Ki 2 3 : 1 0 ) But animal carcasses and the dead bodies of vile criminals might also have been cast into the valley, and a mound there

102 : 9 ) , and afflicted Job sat "in among the ashes." -Job 2 : 8.

Eze 27 : 30, 31 ; Da 9 : 3 ) A national example of humiliation and repentance is furnished in the case of Nineveh in Jonah's day, even her king covering himself with sackcloth and sitting down in the ashes. ( Jon 3: 5, 6) Repenting in sackcloth and ashes was a circumstance referred to by Jesus Christ ( Mt 11 : 2 1 ), and in answering Jehovah, Job contritely declared : "I do repent in dust and ash­ eS. "-Job 42:6. During the 70-year desolation of Judah, the Jews in Babylon mourned over the desolation of Zion or Jerusalem and its temple. But through Isaiah assurance had been given that under the power of Jehovah's spirit there would be action "to assign to those mourning over Zion, to give them a headdress instead of ashes . " Jesus Christ applied the passage of Isaiah 61 : 1 - 3 to himself as the Messianic Liberator who would be instrumental in relieving greater spiritual desolation and mourn­ ing . ( Lu 4: 16-21 ) It was also foretold that the wicked would become like pulverized, powdery ashes to the righteous, for Malachi wrote : '' 'And you people will certainly tread down the wicked ones, for they will become as powder [ epher] under the soles of your feet in the day on which I am acting: Jehovah of armies has said. "-Mal 4 : 3. '

ASH-HEAPS, GATE OF THE .

See

GATE,

GATEWAY.

ASHHUR

(Ashlhur) [ possibly, Blackness). Ac­ cording to the Masoretic text, the son of Hezron, born after his father's death; the great-grandson of Judah. ( l Ch 2 : 4, 5 , 24; see HEZRON No. 2. ) By his

ASHIMA

192

two wives he fathered seven sons. ( 1 Ch 4: 5-7 ) He is also said to be the father of Tekoa, which ap­ pears to mean that he was the founder of the town by that name.

( Zep 2: 4-7) Finally, about 518 B.C. E., Zechariah proclaimed doom for Ashkelon in connection with the time of Tyre's desolation ( 3 32 B.C.E. ).-Zec 9 : 3-5.

ASHIMA (Ashi'ma ). A deity worshiped by the people from Hamath whom the king of Assyria settled in Samaria after his taking the Israelites into captivity. ( 2Ki 1 7 : 24, 30) Ashima, according to the Babylonian Talmud (Sanhedrin 63b), was represented as a hairless he-goat, and for this reason some have identified Ashima with Pan, a pastoral god of fertility. Another suggestion is that the name Ashima may be a deliberate alter­ ation of "Asherah" ( the Canaanite fertility god­ dess ) to combine it with the Hebrew word 'a·sham ' ( "guilt" ; Ge 26: 10). However, nothing can be stat­ ed with any certainty aside from what is con­ tained in the Bible.

ASHKELONITE ( Ash'ke·lon·ite) [Of (Belong­ ing to) Ashkelon ]. A resident of the Philistine city of Ashkelon. -Jos 13: 3.

ASHKELON (Ash'ke·lon) [possibly, Place of Weighing Out (Paying )]. A seaport on the Mediter­ ranean and one of the five principal Philistine cities. ( Jos 13 : 3 ) It is identified with 'Asqalan (Tel Ashqelon ) located about 19 km ( 12 mi) NNE of Gaza. The city was situated in a naturally formed rocky amphitheater, the concave part facing to­ ward the Mediterranean. The countryside is fer­ tile, producing apples, figs, and the small onion known as the scallion, which apparently derives its name from that of the Philistine city. Ashkelon was assigned to the tribe of Judah and was captured by them, but it apparently did not remain subject to them for long. (Jg 1 : 18, 19 ) It was a Philistine city in the time of Samson and of Samuel. (Jg 14: 19; 1Sa 6 : 1 7 ) David mentions it in his lament over the death of Saul and Jonathan. ( 2 Sa 1 : 20) In King Uzziah's conquest of Philistine cities, Ashkelon is not listed as among those taken. -2Ch 26:6. In the prophecy of Amos (c. 804 B.CE. ) predic­ tion was made of defeat for the ruler of Ashkelon. ( Am 1 : 8) Secular history shows that in the suc­ ceeding century Tiglath-pileser III of Assyria made AsqaJuna (Ashkelon) a vassal city. Jeremiah ( after 647 B.CE. ) uttered two prophecies involving Ashkelon. While Jeremiah 47: 2-7 could have seen some fulfillment when Nebuchadnezzar sacked the city early in his reign (c. 624 B.CE. ), the prophecy at Jeremiah 2 5 : 17-20, 28, 29 clearly indicates a fulfillment subsequent to the fall of Jerusalem in 607 B.CE. Zephaniah's prophecy ( written before 648 B.CE. ) also foretold a coming desolation for Ashkelon, along with other Phi­ listine cities, after which the remnant of Judah would eventually occupy "the houses of Ashkelon. "

ASHKENAZ (Ash'ke·naz ). 1. The first named of three sons of Gomer, the son of Japheth.-Ge 10: 3 ; l Ch 1 : 6. In Jewish writings of medieval times ( and even thereafter ) the term "Ashkenaz" was applied to the Teutonic race, and more specifically to Germa­ ny. Thus, even today Jews from Germanic coun­ tries are referred to as Ashkenazim in contrast to the Sephardim, Jews from Spain and Portugal. 2. Jeremiah 51 : 27 mentions a kingdom of Ash­ kenaz as allying itself with the kingdoms of Ararat and Minni against Babylon at the time of her downfall ( 539 B.CE. ). Since Ararat is believed to have been located in the region of Lake Van in Armenia, and Minni (referred to as "Mannai" in Assyrian inscriptions ) is considered to have been SE of Lake Van, it is likely that the kingdom of Ashkenaz lay near these regions, probably some­ what to the N in the area between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea. The name Ashkenaz is considered by archaeol­ ogists as equivalent to the Assyrian Ashguzai, which term was evidently applied to the ancient Scythians of the Black Sea and Caspian Sea area. Cuneiform tablets record an alliance between this tribe and the Mannai ( Minni ) in a revolt against Assyria in the seventh century B.c.E. ASHNAH (Ash'nah ). 1. A town of Judah in the Shephelah mentioned among other cities, including Eshtaol and Zorah. (Jos 1 5 : 3 3 ) A tentative identification is the village of 'Aslin, between Eshtaol and Zorah, near the edge of the Judean coastal plain. 2. A second town of Judah, listed among nine cities and evidently farther to the S than the first Ashnah. (Jos 15 :43 ) The identification is uncer­ tain; a suggested site is Idhna, located about mid­ way between Hebron and Lachish, and about 8 km ( 5 mi) ESE of Mareshah, which appears in the same list. ASHPENAZ (Ash'pe·naz ). The name of the chief court official in Babylon during Nebuchad­ nezzar's reign. ( Da 1 : 3 ) Evidently he headed the corps of eunuchs but was not necessarily himself a eunuch. One of his duties was the training of youths to serve as pages of the monarch.

ASIA

193

ASHTAROTH

( Ash'ta·roth ). A city in the re­

gion of Bashan, generally identified today with Tell 'Ashtarah about 32 km ( 20 mi ) E of the Sea of Galilee. The low hill there is surrounded by a well-watered plain. Its name may indicate that it was a center of worship of the goddess Ashtoreth. Biblical references to it are principally with re­

served.-See CANAAN, CANAANITE No. 2 ( Conquest of Canaan by Israel ). The worship of Ashtoreth possibly existed in Canaan as early as Abraham'S time, for one of the cities there was called "Ashteroth-karnaim. " ( Ge 14 : 5 ) Also mentioned in Scripture is the city of Ashtaroth, the dwelling place of the giant King Og

gard to giant King Og of Bashan, who is spoken of

of Bashan. Its name would indicate that this city

as reigning "in Ashtaroth, in Edrei . " ( De 1 : 4; Jos

may have been a center of Ashtoreth worship.

9: 10 ; 1 2 : 4 ; 1 3 : 12 ) The conquered territory of Og's

-De 1 :4 ; Jos 9 : 10 ; 1 2 :4.

kingdom was originally assigned to the Machir­ ites of the tribe of Manasseh, but Ashtaroth later passed to the Gershonites as a Levite city. ( Jos 1 3 : 29-31 ; l Ch 6 : 71 ) At Joshua 21 : 27, which corre­ sponds with the account at 1 Chronicles 6 : 7 1 , the city is called Beeshterah. and in the Amarna Tablets.

( Ashtoreth ) first

mon's apostatizing toward the latter part of his reign. At that time Israelites began worshiping the Ashtoreth of the Sidonians. ( 1Ki 1 1 : 5 , 3 3 ) The connection with King Josiah's tearing down the high places that Solomon had built to Ashtoreth

(Ash'te·rath·ite)

[ Of

( Be­

longing to ) Ashtaroth ]. An inhabitant of Ashta'" roth. Only Uzzia, one of David's mighty men, is so designated.- 1 Ch 1 1 :44.

ASHTEROTH-KARNAIM

'ash-to'reth

only other occurrence of the singular form is in

The city is referred to in Assyrian inscriptions

ASHTERATHITE

The singular form

appears in the Bible with reference to King Solo­

(Ash'te ·roth-kar­

and other deities. ( 2Ki 2 3 : 13 ) The plural

rohth '

'ash-ta­ AT)

( "Ashtoreth images , " NW; "Ashtarts, "

probably refers to the images or manifestations of this pagan goddess. -Jg 2 : 13 ; 10 : 6 ; ISa 7 : 3 , 4.

ASHURBANIPAL.

See ASENAPPAR.

na'im). The site of the defeat of the Rephaim

ASHURITE

by Chedorlaomer, king of Elam. ( Ge 14 : 5 ) Some

the kingship of Ish-bosheth, Saul's son. At 2 Sam­

have supposed it to be the full name for Ashtaroth

uel 2 : 9 they are listed between Gilead and Jezreel.

and that the addition of "karnaim" (horns) refers

The Latin

to the two horns of the crescent moon symbolizing

"Geshurites," while the Targums say "Asherites. "

(Ash'ur·ite ). A people subject to

Vulgate

and Syriac

Peshitta

here read

the goddess Astarte or to twin peaks adjacent to

( Compare J g 1 : 32 . ) The name Asshurim i s used at

the town. However, it is also suggested that the

Genesis 25 : 3, but there refers to Arabian descen­

name means "Ashteroth Near Karnaim" and that

dants of Abraham through Dedan.-See CYPRESS.

it thus refers to the city of Ashtaroth with Kar­ naim being mentioned as a separate but adja­ cent town. Karnaim is considered to be located at Sheikh Sa'ad, which lies in the vicinity of the generally accepted site of Ashtaroth (Tell 'Ash­

ASHVATH

(Ash'vath). A man of the tribe of

Asher, house of Japhlet .- 1Ch 7 : 3 3 .

ASIA.

In the Christian Greek Scriptures the

term "Asia" is used as referring to the Roman

tarah ).-See AsHTAROTH.

province occupying the western part of Asia Mi­

ASHTORETH

nor, not to the continent of Asia.

(Ash'to·reth ). A goddess of the

Canaanites, considered to be the wife of Baal. Ashtoreth is often represented as a nude female with rudely exaggerated sex organs. The worship of this goddess was widespread among various peoples of antiquity, and the name Ashtoreth was common in one form or another. The Greek name is Astarte. Among the Philistines, Ashtoreth was evidently viewed as a goddess of war, as is indi­

The Roman Province of Asia.

The Roman

province of Asia included the older countries of Mysia, Lydia, Caria, and, at times, part of Phrygia, as well as the adjacent islands. It was thus bound­ ed by the Aegean Sea and the provinces of Bi­ thynia, Galatia (which embraced part of Phrygia ), and Lycia. The precise borders, however, are dif­ ficult to define because of repeated shifting.

cated by the fact that the armor of defeated King

Initially, the capital was located at Pergamum in

Saul was placed in the temple of the Ashtoreth

Mysia, but during the reign of Augustus it was

images. ( 1 Sa 3 1 : 10 ) Chiefly, however, Ashtoreth

transferred to Ephesus, farther to the south. In the

was apparently a fertility goddess.

The most

year 27 B.c.E., the province was made senatorial

prominent part of her worship consisted of sex

and was thereafter governed by a proconsul. ( Ac

orgies in the temples or high places devoted to

19 : 38 ) It was also divided into 9 judicial districts

Baal worship, where male and female prostitutes

and subdivided into 44 city districts.

ASIA

194

Luke, in describing the regions from which the Miletus in Caria, part of the province of Asia, to Jews had come to Jerusalem at the time of Pente­ which point he invited "the older men" of the cost in the year 33 c.E. , lists Asia along with the Ephesian congregation to come for a meeting with provinces of Cappadocia, Pontus, and Pamphyl­ him.-Ac 20: 15- 18. ia. (Ac 2:9, 10; compare 1 Pe 1 : 1 . ) He there lists When traveling to Rome for his first trial Phrygia apart from Asia, as he does again at Acts ( c. 60/61 c.E. ), which resulted from a mob action 16:6. Pliny the Elder, Roman author of the first at Jerusalem instigated by "Jews from Asia" (Ac century c.E. , did likewise. ( Natural History, V, 21 : 27, 28; 24: 18, 19 ; compare 6:9), Paul initially XXVIlI, 102 ) The account at Acts 16:6, 7 states that embarked on a ship that was going to "places Paul was "forbidden by the holy spirit to speak the along the coast of the district of Asia," but he then word in the district of Asia" when traveling west­ transferred to another ship at Myra in the neigh­ ward on his second missionary tour (c. 49boring province of Lycia. -Ac 27: 2-6. 52 c.E. ). He therefore moved through Phrygia and Paul's words at 2 Timothy 1: 15, evidently writ­ Galatia northward toward the province of Bithyn­ ten from Rome about the year 65 c.E., may indi­ ia, but he was again diverted westward through cate that the strong persecution then beginning to Mysia to the seaport of 'froas, the natural point for embarking to Macedonia. Here Paul received his rage against the Christians on the part of the vision inviting him to "step over into Macedonia Roman authorities had now caused many of the and help us. " (Ac 16 :9) So, whereas Paul actually Christian 'men of Asia' to shun association with passed through the northern part of the province the imprisoned apostle Paul, turning away from of Asia, he did not spend time there until his Paul at a critical time. The expression "all the men return trip after completing his work in Macedonia in the district of Asia" does not imply a total and Achaia. He then spent a short time in Ephe­ turning away of all Christians in Asia, because sus, preaching in the synagogue and, at his depar­ Paul immediately thereafter commended One­ siphorus, who was evidently a resident of Ephe­ ture, promised to return.-Ac 18: 19-21. During his third journey (c. 52-56 c.E. ) Paul sus.-2Ti 1 : 16-18; 4: 19. A continuation of Christian faith is also manifest spent over two years in Ephesus, with the result that "all those inhabiting the district of Asia heard in the Revelation and the seven messages sent by the word of the Lord, both Jews and Greeks. " (Ac John to seven congregations in prominent cities of 19 : 1 - 10, 22) It was evidently at this time (c. 55 c.E. ), in Ephesus, that Paul wrote his first letter N IA to the Corinthians, to GO � G A L A T I A N whom he sent greet­ \. �\\ ings from "the con­ �� P 0 N T U S gregations of Asia," thereby indicating good progress. ( 1 Co G A L A T I A 16: 19 ) When he wrote his second letter to CAPPADOCIA the Corinthians later � c:,\ c,\.� �GALATIAN from Macedonia, he tk. . P HRYGIA � h. �\�\� made reference to the � y yet other names. ( Lu 1 : 3 1 ; Isa 7 : 14 ) For example, Isaiah 9 : 6 said concerning this one: "His name will be called Wonderful Counselor, Mighty God, Eternal Father, Prince of Peace. " Yet none of these names were given to Mary's firstborn as personal names, neither when he was a babe nor after he took up his ministry. Rather, they were all pro­ phetic title-names by which Messiah would be identified. Jesus lived up to the meaning of these names in every respect, and that is the sense in which they were prophetically given, to show his qualities and the good offices he would perform toward all those accepting him as Messiah. So also with his title Immanuel. He measured up to and fulfilled its meaning. Worshipers of Jehovah have always desired God to be with them, on their side, backing them up in their undertakings, and often he reassures them that he is, sometimes giving them visible signs to this effect. (Ge 28: 10-20; Ex 3 : 1 2 ; Jos 1 : 5 , 9 ; 5 : 13-6 : 2 ; P s 46 : 5 -7; Jer 1 : 19 ) I f today the personal identity of Immanuel in the days of Ahaz remains uncertain, it may be that Jehovah so directed in order not to distract the attention of later generations from the Greater Irrunanuel, when he put in his appearance as a sign from heaven. With the coming of his beloved Son to earth as the promised Messianic "seed" ( Ge 3 : 1 5 )

1189

and rightful heir to the throne of David, jehovah was furnishing his greatest sign that he had not forsaken mankind or his Kingdom covenant. The title-name Immanuel, therefore, was particularly appropriate to Christ, for his presence was indeed a sign from heaven. And with this foremost rep­ resentative of Jehovah among mankind, Matthew under inspiration could truly say, "With Us Is God . "

IMMER

( 1m/mer ).

1. A descendant of Aaron designated head of the 16th priestly division in David's time. ( l Ch 24 : 1 , 6, 14 ) Apparently 1 ,052 of his descen­ dants returned with Zerubbabel from Babylon in 5 37 B.C.E. ( Ezr 2 : 37; Ne 7:40 ) TWo of "the sons of Immer" were among those putting away their foreign wives in Ezra's time.-Ezr 10: 20, 44. 2. Father of Meshillemith ( or Meshillemoth) ; possibly the same a s No. 1 .- 1Ch 9 : 12; N e 11 : 13.

3 . Father of the priest Pashhur, an opposer of Jeremiah who had the prophet put in stocks. Jeremiah prophesied that Pashhur and all his house would be taken to Babylon. (Jer 20: 1 , 2, 6 ) I f the designation "the son o f Immer" i s to be understood as denoting a descendant rather than an actual son, this Immer may be No. 1 .

4. Father of Zadok, one who shared i n repair­ ing Jerusalem's wall. ( Ne 3 : 29 ) This Immer may, however, be the same as No. 1 , if the designation "the son of Immer" is to be regarded as meaning a descendant. 5 . Seemingly a place in Babylonia from which certain priests returned who were unable to prove their genealogy.-Ezr 2 : 59 ; Ne 7:61 .

IMMERSION .

See BAITISM.

IMMORT ALITY. The Greek word a·tha·na­ si'a is formed by the negative prefix a followed by a form of the word for "death" ( tha'na·tos). Thus, the basic meaning is "deathlessness," and refers to the quality of life that is enjoyed, its endless­ ness and indestructibility. ( lCo 1 5 : 53, 54, ftn; 1 Ti 6: 16, fin) The Greek word aphthar·si'a, meaning "incorruption, " refers to that which cannot decay or be corrupted, that which is imperishable.-Ro 2 : 7 ; l Co 15 : 42, 50, 5 3 ; Eph 6 : 24 ; 2Ti 1 : 10. The expressions "immortal" or "immortality" do not occur in the Hebrew Scriptures, which do show, however, that Jehovah God, as the Source of all life, is not subject to death, hence, is immor­ tal. ( Ps 36: 7, 9; 90: 1 , 2; Hab 1 : 12 ) This fact is also emphatically stated by the Christian apostle Paul in referring to God as "the King of eternity, incor­ ruptible."-lTi 1 : 17.

IMMORTALITY

As the article SOUL shows, the Hebrew Scrip­ tures also make plain that man is not inherently immortal. References to the human soul ( Heb. , ne'phesh ) as dying, heading for the grave, and being destroyed are numerous. ( Ge 1 7 : 14 ; Jos 10 : 3 2 ; Job 3 3 : 22; Ps 2 2 : 29 ; 78 : 50; Eze 18:4, 20 ) The Christian Greek Scriptures, of course, are in harmony and likewise contain references to the death of the soul ( Gr., psykhe/ ). ( Mt 26 : 38; Mr 3 : 4; Ac 3 : 23 ; Jas 5 : 20; Re 8 : 9 ; 16 : 3 ) Therefore the Christian Greek Scriptures do not dispute or alter the inspired teaching of the Hebrew Scriptures that man, the human soul, is mortal, subject to death. The Christian Greek Scriptures, however, do contain the revelation of God's purpose to grant immortality to certain of his servants. How can Jesus be "the one alone having immortality"?

The first one described in the Bible as rewarded with the gifi of immortality is Jesus Christ. That he did not possess immortality before his resur­ rection by God is seen from the inspired apostle's words at Romans 6 : 9 : "Christ, now that he has been raised up from the dead, dies no more; death is master over him no more. " ( Compare Re 1 : 17, 18. ) For this reason, when describing him as "the King of those who rule as kings and Lord of those who rule as lords," 1 Timothy 6 : 15, 16 shows that Jesus is distinct from all such other kings and lords in that he is "the one alone having immortality. " The other kings and lords, because of being mortal, die, even as did also the high priests of Israel. The glorified Jesus, God's ap­ pointed High Priest after the order of Melchize­ dek, however, has "an indestructible life. "-Heb 7 : 15- 17, 23-25. The word "indestructible" here translates the Greek term a·ka·ta'lytos, meaning, literally, "in­ dissoluble. " ( Heb 7 : 16, fin) The word is a com­ pound of the negative prefix a joined to other words relating to a "loosening down," as in Je­ sus' statement regarding the loosening down or throwing down of the stones of the temple at Jerusalem ( Mt 24: 1 , 2 ) , as well as in Paul's refer­ ence to the loosening down of the earthly "tent" of Christians, that is, the dissolving of their earthly life in human bodies. ( 2Co 5 : 1 ) Thus, the immor­ tal life granted Jesus upon his resurrection is not merely endless but is beyond deterioration or dissolution and is beyond destruction. Kingdom Heirs Granted Immortality. For the anointed Christians called to reign with Christ in the heavens ( lPe 1 : 3, 4 ), the promise is that

IMNA

they share with Christ in the likeness of his res­ urrection. ( Ro 6 : 5 ) Thus, as in the case of their Lord and Head, the anointed members of the Christian congregation who die faithful receive a resurrection to immortal spirit life, so that "this which is mortal puts on immortality. " ( l Co 1 5 : 50-54) As with Jesus, immortality in their case does not mean simply everlasting life, or mere freedom from death. That they, too, are granted "the power of an indestructible life" as fellow heirs with Christ is seen from the apostle Paul's association of incorruptibility with the immortal­ ity they attain. ( lCo 15:42-49 ) Over them "the second death has no authority. "-Re 20: 6 ; see INCORRUPTION.

This grant of immortality to the Kingdom heirs is all the more remarkable, in view of the fact that even God's angels are shown to be mortal, despite their possessing spirit bodies, not carnal ones. Angelic mortality is evident in view of the judg­ ment of death entered against the spirit son who became God's Adversary, or Satan, and also against those other angels who followed that sa­ tanic course and "did not keep their original posi­ tion but forsook their own proper dwelling place. " (Jude 6; Mt 25 :41 ; Re 20: 10, 14) So the grant of "indestructible life" (Heb 7: 16) or "indissoluble life" to those Christians who gain the privilege of reigning with God's Son in the heavenly King­ dom marvelously demonstrates God's confidence in them.-See HEAVEN ( The way to heavenly life); LIFE.

IMNA (Im'na) [ [ God ] Has Held Back (With­ held )]. Son of Helem ; a valiant, mighty man and head of a paternal house of the tribe of Asher. -l Ch 7 : 35, 40. IM NAH (Im'nah) [ May [God] Appoint ( or, Number) ; [God ] Has Appointed ( or, Numbered )]. 1 . First-named son of Asher and forefather of the Irrmites.-Ge 46 : 17 ; Nu 26 :44; lCh 7 : 30. 2. The Levite whose son Kore was the gate­ keeper to the east in temple service, in charge of the voluntary offerings of Jehovah, in Hezekiah's time.-2Ch 31 : 14. IMNITES ( Im'nites ) [Of (Belonging to) Im­ nah ]. A family of the tribe of Asher descended from Irrmah.-Nu 26:44. IMPALEMENT ( im·pale'ment). In the literal sense, the fastening of a victim either dead or alive to a stake, or pole. The execution of Jesus Christ is the best-known case. ( Lu 24 : 20 ; Joh 19 : 14 - 16 ; Ac 2: 23, 36 ) Impalements by nations in

1 190

ancient times were carried out in a variety of ways. The Assyrians, noted for their savage warfare, impaled captives by hanging their nude bodies atop pointed stakes that were run up through the abdomens into the chest cavities of the victims. Several reliefs have been found on monuments, one such depicting the Assyrian assault and con­ quest of Lachish, on which this method of impale­ ment is shown.-2Ki 19 : 8 ; PICTURE, Vol. 1 , p. 958. The Persians also used impalement as a form of punishment. Some say the Persians customarily first beheaded or flayed those they impaled. Dari­ us the Great forbade interference with the re­ building of the Jerusalem temple, and any viola­ tor of that decree was to be impaled ( literally, raised up ) on a timber pulled out of his own house. ( Ezr 6: 1 1 ) During the reign of Darius' son, Ahasuerus ( Xerxes I ), two of the palace doorkeep­ ers were hanged, or impaled, on a stake, the usual punishment meted out to traitors by the Persians. ( Es 2: 21-23) Haman and his ten sons were simi­ larly hanged on a stake. ( Es 5 : 14; 6:4; 7 :9 , 10; 9 : 10, 13, 14, 25 ) Herodotus (III, 125, 159 ; IV, 43) also cites other examples of Persian impalements. It was Jewish law that those guilty of such heinous crimes as blasphemy or idolatry were first killed by stoning, by beheading, or by some other method, and then their dead bodies were exposed on stakes, or trees, as warning examples to others. ( De 21 : 22, 2 3 ; Jos 8 : 29 ; 10: 2 6 ; 2Sa 21 : 6 , 9 ) The Egyptians may also have first killed their criminals before fastening them to stakes, as is indicated by Joseph's prophetic words to Pha­ raoh's chief baker: "Pharaoh will lift up your head from off you and will certainly hang you upon a stake. "-Ge 40 : 19 , 2 2 ; 41 : 13. The Greeks and Romans, it is said, adopted the practice of impalement from the Phoenicians, and not until the days of Constantine was it abolished in the empire. Very seldom was a Roman citizen impaled, for this was a punishment usually given slaves and criminals of the lowest sort. Impale­ ment was looked upon by both Jews and Romans as a symbol of humiliation and shame, reserved for those accursed.-De 21 :23 ; Ga 3 : 1 3 ; Php 2 : 8. In the first century, if the Jews had the right to impale a person for religious reasons (a point on which there is some doubt ), it is quite certain they could not do so for civil offenses ; only a Roman official like Pontius Pilate had such author­ ity. (Joh 18: 31 ; 19 : 10 ) Nevertheless, the Jews, and especially their chief priests and rulers, bore the prime responsibility for Christ's impalement. -Mr 15 : 1 - 1 5 ; Ac 2 : 36 ; 4: 10; 5 : 30; lCo 2 : 8. The Romans sometimes tied the victim to the

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stake, in which case he might live for several days before his physical endurance was overcome by the torture of pain, thirst, hunger, and exposure to the sun. As in the case of Jesus, nailing the hands ( and likely the feet also ) of the accused to a stake was customary among the Romans. (Joh 20: 2 5, 27; Lu 24: 39 ; Ps 2 2 : 16, ftn ; Col 2 : 14) Since the wrists have always been considered by anato­ mists as part of the hands, some medical men think the nails were driven between the small bones of the wrists to prevent the stripping out that could have occurred if they had been driven through the palms. (See The Journal of the American Medical Associa tion, March 2 1 , 1986, p. 1460. ) This would be consistent with the Bible's own use of the word "hand" to include the wrist in such texts as Genesis 24 :47, where bracelets are said to be worn on the "hands, " and Judges 15: 14, where reference is made to fetters that were on Samson's "hands. " The record does not say whether the evildoers impaled alongside Jesus were nailed or simply tied to the stakes. If only tied, this might explain why, when Jesus was found dead, they were still alive and had to have their legs broken. (Joh 19 : 3 2, 3 3 ) Death by suffocation soon followed the breaking of their legs, since, as some think, this would have prevented the raising of the body to ease tension of chest muscles. Of course, this is not a conclusive point on why the evildoers out­ lived Jesus, for they had not experienced the mental and physical torture inflicted on Jesus. He had previously undergone an all-night ordeal at the hands of his enemies, in addition to being beaten by the Roman soldiers, perhaps to the point that he could not carry his own torture stake, as was the custom.-Mr 14: 32-15 : 2 1 ; Lu 2 2 : 39-23: 26. What does the original Greek reveal as to th e shape of the instrum en t on which Jesus was put to death ?

Most Bible translations say Christ was "cruci­ fied" rather than "impaled." This is because of the common belief that the torture instrument upon which he was hung was a "cross" made of two pieces of wood instead of a single pale, or stake. Tradition, not the Scriptures, also says that the condemned man carried only the crossbeam of the cross, called the patibulum, or an tenna, in­ stead of both parts. In this way some try to avoid the predicament of having too much weight for one man to drag or carry to Golgotha.

IMPALEMENT

Yet, what did the Bible writers themselves say about these matters? They used the Greek noun stau·ros' 27 times and the verbs stau·ro'o 46 times, syn-sta u·ro'o (the prefix syn, meaning "with" ) 5 times, and a·na·stau·ro'o ( a·na ', meaning "again" ) once. They also used the Greek word xy'lon, meaning "wood," 5 times to refer to the torture instrument upon which Jesus was nailed. Stau·ros' in both the classical Greek and Koine carries no thought of a "cross" made of two tim­ bers. It means only an upright stake, pale, pile, or pole, as might be used for a fence, stockade, or palisade. Says Douglas' New Bible Dictionary of 1985 under "Cross," page 253: "The Gk. word for 'cross' ( sta uros; verb stauroo . . . ) means primarily an upright stake or beam, and secondarily a stake used as an instrument for punishment and execu­ tion." The fact that Luke, Peter, and Paul also used xy'lon as a synonym for sta u·ros' gives added evidence that Jesus was impaled on an upright stake without a crossbeam, for that is what xy'lon in this special sense means. (Ac 5 : 30; 10 : 39 ; 1 3 : 29; Ga 3 : 13 ; IPe 2 : 24) Xy'lon also occurs i n the Greek Septuagin t at Ezra 6 : 11 , where it speaks of a single beam or timber on which a lawbreaker was to be impaled. The New World Translation, therefore, faithful­ ly conveys to the reader this basic idea of the Greek text by rendering stau·ros' as "torture stake," and the verb stau·ro'o as "impale," that is, to fasten on a stake, or pole. In this way there is no confusion of stau·ros' with the traditional eccle­ siastical crosses. (See TORTURE STAKE. ) The matter of one man like Simon of Cyrene bearing a torture stake, as the Scriptures say, is perfectly reason­ able, for if it was 15 cm (6 in. ) in diameter and 3 . 5 m ( 11 ft) long, it probably weighed little more than 45 kg ( 100 lb).-Mr 1 5 : 2 1 . Note what W . E. Vine says o n this subject: "STAUROS ( aTcxuQOt; ) denotes, primarily, an up­ right pale or stake. On such malefactors were nailed for execution. Both the noun and the verb stauroo, to fasten to a stake or pale, are originally to be distinguished from the ecclesiastical form of a two beamed cross. " Greek scholar Vine then mentions the Chaldean origin of the two-piece cross and how it was adopted from the pagans by Christendom in the third century C.E. as a symbol of Christ's impalement.- Vine 's Expository Dic­ tionary of Old and New Testament Words, 1981 , Vol. 1 , p. 256. Significant is this comment in the book The Cross in Ritual, Architecture, and Art: " It is

IMPARTIALITY

strange, yet unquestionably a fact, that in ages long before the birth of Christ, and since then in lands untouched by the teaching of the Church, the Cross has been used as a sacred symbol. . . . The Greek Bacchus, the Tyrian Tamrnuz, the Chaldean Bel, and the Norse Odin, were all symbolised to their votaries by a cruciform de­ vice."-By G. S. Tyack, London, 1900, p. 1 . The book Th e Non-Christian Cross, b y J . D . Par­ sons ( London, 1896 ), adds : "There is not a single sentence in any of the numerous writings form­ ing the New Testament, which, in the original Greek, bears even indirect evidence to the effect that the stauros used in the case of Jesus was other than an ordinary stauros; much less to the effect that it consisted, not of one piece of timber, but of two pieces nailed together in the form of a cross . . . . It is not a little misleading upon the part of our teachers to translate the word stauros as 'cross' when rendering the Greek documents of the Church into our native tongue, and to support that action by putting 'cross' in our lexicons as the meaning of stauros without carefully explaining that that was at any rate not the primary mean­ ing of the word in the days of the Apostles, did not become its primary signification till long af­ terwards, and became so then, if at all, only because, despite the absence of corroborative ev­ idence, it was for some reason or other assumed that the particular stauros upon which Jesus was executed had that particular shape. "-Pp. 23, 24; see also The Companion Bible, 1974, Appendix No. 162. Figurative Usage. Not only do the Scriptures bear thorough witness concerning the physical impalement of the Lord Jesus Christ ( l Co 1 : 13, 23; 2 : 2 ; 2Co 13:4; Re 11 :8) but they also speak of impalement in a figurative, metaphoric sense, as at Galatians 2 : 20. Christians have put their old personality to death through faith in the impaled Christ. (Ro 6 : 6 ; Col 3 : 5 , 9, 10) "Moreover, those who belong to Christ Jesus impaled the flesh together with its passions and desires," Paul writes, adding that through Christ "the world has been impaled to me and I to the world. "-Ga 5 : 24; 6 : 14. Apostates in effect "impale the Son of God afresh for themselves and expose him to pub­ lic shame," doing so by their Judaslike rebellion against God's arrangement for salvation.-Heb 6 :4-6. IMPARTIALITY. Freedom from bias or fa­ voritism; fairness. Impartiality is a matter of not letting position, ability to speak well, wealth, a

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bribe, or, on the other hand, sentimentality for a poor or otherwise disadvantaged person sway one's judgment or actions in favor of the individ­ ual. Impartiality sees that all are treated in har­ mony with what is fair and just, according to what each deserves and needs.-Pr 3 : 27. The Hebrew expression na·sa ,1 pa·nim', ren­ dered 'treat with partiality,' literally means "lift up the face." (Le 19 : 1 5 ) An Oriental way of greet­ ing was to bow humbly and turn one's face to the ground. As a sign of acknowledgment and recog­ nition, the one greeted lifted up, or raised, the face of the one who had bowed. ( Compare Ge 3 2 : 20, where "give a kindly reception" renders the Hebrew phrase literally meaning "lift up the face. ") The expression came to be used dispar­ agingly when referring to corrupt preferential treatment. The Hebrew phrase na ·khar' pa·nim' ( rendered "be partial," but literally meaning "rec­ ognize the face") was similarly used. ( De 1 : 17; 16 : 19 ) The Greek expression lam·ba 'no pro ISO pan ('show partiality' ; literally, "take or accept the face" ) is modeled on the Hebrew. ( Lu 20: 21 ; com­ pare Int. ) Compounded forms of these two verbs are rendered "partiality; favoritism" (Ro 2 : 11 ; Jas 2 : 1 ), 'show favoritism' ( Jas 2: 9 ), and "partial" ( Ac 10: 34).-Compare In t. Jehovah Impartial. Jehovah says that he "treats none with partiality nor accepts a bribe. " ( De 10 : 17 ; 2Ch 19 : 7 ) The apostle Peter said, when God sent him to declare the good news to the uncircumcised Gentile Cornelius : "For a certainty I perceive that God is not partial, but in every nation the man that fears him and works righ­ teousness is acceptable to him. "-Ac 10 : 34, 3 5 ; Ro 2 : 10, 11 . Jehovah, the Creator and Supreme One, cannot be challenged on his decisions and actions. He can do as he pleases with what he has created and does not owe anyone anything. ( Ro 9 : 20-24; 11 : 33-36 ; Job 40: 2 ) He deals with individuals or groups, even nations, according to his purpose and his own appointed time. (Ac 17: 26, 31 ) Nevertheless, God is impartial. He rewards each person, not according to his outward appearance or possessions, but according to what he is and what he does. ( 1 Sa 16 : 7 ; Ps 62: 12; Pr 24: 1 2 ) His Son Jesus Christ follows the same impartial course.-Mt 16 :27. Not partial toward Israel. Some persons have held that Jehovah dealt partially by using and favoring Israel as his people of ancient times. However, an honest examination of his dealings wi th Israel will reveal that such a charge is erro­ neous. Jehovah chose and dealt with Israel, not

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because of their greatness and numbers, but be­ cause of his love and appreciation for the faith and loyalty of his friend Abraham, their forefa­ ther. ( Jas 2 : 23 ) Also, he was long-suffering to­ ward them because he had placed his name upon them. ( De 7 : 7- 1 1 ; Eze 3 6 : 2 2 ; De 29: 13 ; P s 105 :8-10) While obedient, Israel was blessed above the nations not having the Law. When Israel was disobedient, God was patient and mer­ ciful, but he punished them, nevertheless. And though their position was a favored one, they were under weightier responsibility before God because of bearing God's name and because they were under the Law. For the Law carried curses against the one breaking it. It is written: "Cursed is the one who will not put the words of this law in force by doing them . " (De 27: 26 ) The Jews, by violating the Law, came under this curse, which was in addition to their condemnation as off­ spring of sinful Adam. (Ro 5 : 1 2 ) Therefore, to redeem the Jews from this special disability, Christ not only had to die but also had to die on a torture stake, as the apostle Paul argues at Gala­ tians 3: 10- 13. Thus, God exercised no partiality toward Israel. God was using Israel with the blessing of all nations in view. ( Ga 3 : 14) By this means God was actually working toward the benefit of people of all nations in his due time. In harmony with this, the apostle remarks : "Is he the God of the Jews only? Is he not also of people of the nations? Yes, of people of the nations also, if truly God is one, who will declare circumcised people righteous as a result of faith and uncircumcised people righ­ teous by means of their faith. " ( Ro 3 : 29, 30) Furthermore, in the ancient Jewish common­ wealth, men from other nations could come under God's favor and blessing by worshiping Jehovah the God of Israel and keeping his law, as did the Gibeonites, the Nethinim ( meaning "Given Ones"), and many alien residents.-Jos 9 : 3 , 27; 1 Ki 8:41-43 ; Ezr 8 : 20; Nu 9 : 14. Although patient and merciful, repeatedly re­ ceiving Israel back when they repented, Jehovah finally cast them off as his name people. ( Lu 1 3 : 3 5 ; Ro 1 1 : 20-22) The apostle's statement ap­ plies here: "He will render to each one according to his works: . . . wrath and anger, tribulation and distress, upon the soul of every man who works what is injurious, of the Jew first and also of the Greek; but glory and honor and peace for every­ one who works what is good, for the Jew first and also for the Greek. For there is no partiality with God. "-Ro 2 : 6 - 1 1 .

IMPARTIALITY

So, while a superficial, short-range view of God's dealings might appear to reveal partiality, the deeper, long-range view brings to light mar­ velous impartiality and justice beyond anything man could have conceived. How finely he worked out matters so that all mankind would have op­ portunity to receive his favor and lifel-Isa 5 5 : 8- 1 1 ; Ro 11 : 33. Not partial toward David. As Jehovah told Moses, he is a God who will by no means give exemption from punishment for wrongdoing. ( Ex 34: 6 , 7 ; Col 3 : 2 5 ) Even in the case of his beloved servant David, with whom Jehovah had made a covenant for the kingdom, God made no excep­ tion. He punished David severely for his sins. After David's sin against God in the affair involv­ ing Bath-sheba and her husband Uriah, Jehovah told him: "Here I am raising up against you ca­ lamity out of your own house; and I will take your wives under your own eyes and give them to your fellowman, and he will certainly lie down with your wives under the eyes of this sun. Whereas you yourself acted in secret, I, for my part, shall do this thing in front of all Israel and in front of the sun. "-2Sa 12: 1 1 , 12. The Bible account reveals that David indeed suffered much trouble from his own family. ( 2 Sa chaps 13- 18; 1Ki 1 ) While God did not put him to death, out of respect for the kingdom covenant He had made with David ( 2Sa 7: 1 1 - 16 ), David did suffer very great sorrows. As an earlier servant of God, Elihu, had said: "There is One who has not shown partiality to princes. " ( Job 34 : 19 ) However, based on the coming sacrifice of Jesus Christ, God could forgive the repentant David and yet main­ tain His own justice and righteousness. ( Ro 3 : 25, 26) Through the sacrifice of his Son, God has a just and impartial basis on which to undo the death of Uriah and others, so that, ultimately, none suffer unjustly. -Ac 1 7 : 3 1 . Counsel t o Judges. Jehovah gave strong counsel to the judges in Israel as to impartiality. Judges were under the strict command: "You must not be partial in judgment. " (De 1 : 17 ; 16: 19; Pr 18: 5 ; 24: 2 3 ) They were not to show partiality to a poor man merely because of his poorness, out of sentimentality or out of prejudice against the wealthy. Neither were they to favor a rich man because of his wealth, perhaps catering to him for favor, for a bribe, or through fear of his power or influence. (Le 19 : 1 5 ) God eventually condemned the unfaithful Levitical priesthood in Israel for violation of his law and, as he particularly pointed out, for showing partiality, since they acted as judges in the land. -Mal 2 : 8, 9.

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IMRAH In the Christian Congregation. In the Chris­ tian congregation impartiality is a law ; the show­ ing of favoritism is a sin. ( Jas 2:9) Those guilty of acts of favoritism become "judges rendering wick­ ed decisions. " (Jas 2 : 1-4) Such persons do not have the wisdom from above, which is free from partial distinctions. ( Jas 3: 17) Those in responsi­ ble positions in the congregation are under the serious obligation the apostle Paul placed on Tim­ othy, an overseer: "I solemnly charge you before God and Christ Jesus and the chosen angels to keep these things without prejudgment, doing nothing according to a biased leaning. " This would apply especially when judicial hearings are being conducted in the congregation.-1 Ti 5 : 19 -2 1 . 'Admiring person alities

for

own

benefit. '

Violation of the principle of impartiality can result in the severest condemnation. Jesus' half brother Jude describes men who are "murmurers, com­ plainers about their lot in life, proceeding accord­ ing to their own desires, and their mouths speak swelling things, while they are admiring person­ alities for the sake of their own benefit. " (Jude 16) These men are called "the ones that make separa­ tions, animalistic men, not having spirituality. " (Jude 19 ) Such ones may sway others b y their swelling words and their admiration of personali­ ties, like the ones Paul describes who "slyly work their way into households and lead as their cap­ tives weak women loaded down with sins, led by various desires. " ( 2Ti 3 : 6 ) Destruction awaits them. -Jude 12, 13. NWorth y o f double honor"-How? In view of these things, how can those in the Christian con­ gregation reckon the older men who preside in a fine way "worthy of double honor, especially those who work hard in speaking and teaching"? ( 1 Ti 5: 17) This is, not because of the personaIities of these men or their ability, but because of their diligence and hard work at the extra responsibili­ ties placed upon them. God's arrangements and appointments are to be respected. Such men should receive special cooperation and support in getting the work of God's congregation accom­ plished. ( Heb 13 : 7, 17) James the half brother of Jesus points out that teachers in the congregation are under weighty responsibility to God, receiv­ ing heavier judgment. (Jas 3 : 1 ) Therefore they deserve to be heard, obeyed, and given honor. For a similar reason the wife should honor and re­ spect her husband, who is charged by God with responsibility for the household and is judged by Him accordingly. (Eph 5 : 21-24, 33) Such respect

for men placed in responsible positions by God's arrangement is not partiality. Respect for rulers. Christians are also told to respect rulers of human governments. This is not because of the personal qualities of these men, some of whom may be corrupt, nor is it because they may be in position to grant special favors. Christians respect rulers because God commands it ; also because of the position of responsibility the office stands for. The apostle says: "Let every soul be in subjection to the superior authorities, for there is no authority except by God; the exist­ ing authorities stand placed in their relative po­ sitions by God. Therefore he who opposes the authority has taken a stand against the arrange­ ment of God. " (Ro 13: 1 , 2) These men, if they misuse their authority, must answer to God. The honor, or respect, due the office is rendered to the one filling that office by the Christian according to the rule: "Render to all their dues, to him who calls for the tax, the tax ; to him who calls for the tribute, the tribute; to him who calls for fear, such fear ; to him who calls for honor, such honor. " ( Ro 1 3 : 7 ) The honor rendered in this particular re­ spect by the Christian above that accorded to ordinary citizens is not a showing of partiality. IMRAH ( Im'rah) (He Rebels ]. Son of Zophah ; a paternal head and also a head of chieftains of the tribe of Asher, a valiant, mighty man.-1Ch 7 : 36, 40. IMRI (Im'ri ) [ shortened form of Amariah, meaning "Jehovah Has Said"]. 1. Son of Bani of the tribe of Judah through Perez.- 1Ch 9 : 4. 2 . Father of the Zaccur who shared in rebuild­ ing the wall of Jerusalem.-Ne 3 : 2. INAUGURATION ( in·au·gu·ra'tion). An initia­ tion, with solemn ceremonies, of a structure, an arrangement, or a place. "Inaugurate" is trans­ lated from the Hebrew verb cha·nakhl ( noun form, chanuk-kah' ) and from the Greek verb en­ kai·nFzo, which primarily means "make new, or innovate, " as by dedication. The Hebrew word ne1zer, the holy sign of dedication, is considered under the subject DEDICATION. When the Mosaic Law covenant was put into operation, it was solemnly initiated by suitable ceremonies involving animal sacrifices and the sprinkling of blood on the altar, on the book, and on the people. This event was referred to by the apostle Paul as the act of inaugurating that cove­ nant.-Ex 24:4-8; Heb 9: 18-20. By Paul's words "neither was the former cove-

1195

nant inaugurated [ form of Gr. en·kai·ni'zo] without blood" (Heb 9 : 18), he indicates that the new cov­ enant was similarly put into effect-inaugurated by Jesus' death, resurrection, and ascension into heaven, where Jesus presented the value of his human life and from where he thereafter poured out holy spirit upon his disciples. Since Jesus Christ was resurrected in the spirit, he could actually enter into the real "holy place," the heav­ ens of Jehovah's presence, and with his ransom sacrifice make it possible for his anointed follow­ ers to enter also into heaven. Thus it could be said that he began, innovated, or inaugurated the way into the heavens, which provision would thereaf­ ter be used by others.-Heb 10 : 19, 20. We also read of solemn ceremonies involving the offerings by the tribal chieftains at the inau­ guration of the tabernacle altar in the wilderness. ( Nu 7: 10, 1 1 , 84 -88) There was a special assembly for the inauguration of Solomon'S temple and its great sacrificial altar.-1Ki 8:63; 2Ch 7:5, 9. When the temple was rebuilt under Zerubbabel following the Babylonian exile, there were solemn initiation ceremonies in which hundreds of ani­ mals were sacrificed. ( Ezr 6 : 16, 17) Later, the walls around the rebuilt Jerusalem were restored under the direction of Nehemiah, and again an elaborate inauguration festival was held, with two large thanksgiving choirs participating in the praising of Jehovah.-Ne 1 2 : 27-43. In addition to these impressive national cere­ monies of inauguration, we read of a man inaugu­ rating, or initiating, his house ( De 20: 5 ), and the superscription of Psalm 30, ascribed to David, designates it as "A song of inauguration of the house. " When Nebuchadnezzar completed the erection of the huge image of gold on the Plain of Dura, he called together all the satraps, prefects, gover­ nors, counselors, treasurers, judges, police magis­ trates, and all administrators of the jurisdictional districts for the impressive ceremonies of inaugu­ ration. Nebuchadnezzar thus hoped to unite all his subjects in worship. The three young Hebrews present at this affair refused to compromise their worship of Jehovah by participating in this na­ tional religion. -Da 3 : 1 -30. To this day the Jews annually celebrate what they call Hanukkah in the month of December. This is in remembrance of the inauguration ( Heb. , chanuk-kah') festival that followed the cleansing of the temple by Judas Maccabaeus in 165 B.C.E. after it had been polluted by Antiochus IV Epiph­ anes.-Joh 10: 22 ; see FESTIVAL OF DEDICATION.

INCENSE

INCENSE. A compound of aromatic gums and balsams that will burn slowly, giving off a fra­ grant aroma. The Hebrew words qeto'reth and qetohrah ' are from the root qa·tar', meaning "make sacrificial smoke. " The equivalent in the Christian Greek Scriptures is thymi'a·ma. The sacred incense prescribed for use in the wilderness tabernacle was made of costly materi­ als that the congregation contributed. ( Ex 25 : 1, 2, 6 ; 35 :4, 5, 8, 27-29 ) In giving the divine formula for this fourfold mixture, Jehovah said to Moses: "Take to yourself perfumes: stacte drops and ony­ cha and perfumed galbanum and pure frankin­ cense. There should be the same portion of each. And you must make it into an incense, a spice mixture, the work of an ointment maker, salted, pure, something holy. And you must pound some of it into fine powder and put some of it before the Testimony in the tent of meeting, where I shall present myself to you. It should be most holy to you people. " Then, to impress upon them the exclusiveness and holiness of the incense, Jeho­ vah added: "Whoever makes any like it to enjoy its smell must be cut off from his people. "-Ex 30: 34 -38 ; 37 : 29. At a later time the rabbinic Jews added other ingredients to the temple incense, Josephus say­ ing it was made of 13 sweet-smelling spices. ( The Jewish War, V, 218 [ v, 5 ] ) According to Maimon­ ides, some of these extra items included amber, cassia, cinnamon, myrrh, saffron, and spikenard. At the W end of the Holy compartment of the tabernacle, next to the curtain dividing it off from the Most Holy, was located "the altar of incense. " ( Ex 30 : 1 ; 37 : 2 5 ; 40: 5 , 2 6 , 27 ) There was also a similar incense altar in Solomon's temple. ( l Ch 28: 18; 2Ch 2 : 4 ) Upon these altars, every morning and evening the sacred incense was burned. ( Ex 30:7, 8; 2Ch 13: 1 1 ) Once a year on the Day of Atonement coals from the altar were taken in a censer, or fire holder, together with two handfuls of incense, into the Most Holy, where the incense was made to smoke before the mercy seat of the ark of the testimony.-Le 16: 12, 13. High Priest Aaron initially offered the incense upon the altar. (Ex 30: 7) However, his son Eleazar was given oversight of the incense and other tabernacle items. ( Nu 4 : 16) It appears that the burning of incense, except on the Day of Atone­ ment, was not restricted to the high priest, as underpriest Zechariah ( father of John the BaptiZ­ er ) is mentioned as handling this service. ( Lu 1 :8- 1 1 ) Soon after the tabernacle service began to function, Aaron's two sons Nadab and Abihu were struck dead by Jehovah for attempting to

I NC ENSE, ALTAR OF

offer up incense with "illegitimate fire. " ( Le 10: 1 , 2 ; compare E x 30: 9 ; see ABIHU. ) Later, Korah and 250 others, all Levites but not of the priestly line, rebelled against the Aaronic priesthood. As a test they were instructed by Moses to take fire holders and burn incense at the tabernacle entrance so that Jehovah might indicate whether he accepted them as his priests. The group perished while in the act, their fire holders in hand. (Nu 16:6, 7, 16-18, 35 -40) So, too, King Uzziah was stricken with leprosy when he presumptuously attempted to burn incense in the temple.-2Ch 26: 16-21 . As time went on, the nation of Israel became so negligent in the prescribed worship of Jehovah that they closed the temple and burned incense on other altars. ( 2Ch 29 : 7 ; 30: 14) Worse than that, they burned incense to other gods before whom they prostituted themselves, and in other ways they desecrated the holy incense, all of which was detestable in Jehovah's sight.-Eze 8 : 10, 1 1 ; 16: 17, 18; 23: 36, 41 ; Isa 1 : 13. Significance. The Law covenant had a shad­ ow of better things to come ( Heb 10: 1 ), and it seems that the burning of incense under that arrangement represented the acceptable prayers of God's faithful servants. The psalmist declared, "May my prayer be prepared as incense before you [Jehovah ]." (Ps 141 : 2 ) Likewise, the highly symbolic book of Revelation describes those around God's heavenly throne as having "golden bowls that were full of incense, and the incense means the prayers of the holy ones. " "A large quantity of incense was given him [an angel] to offer it with the prayers of all the holy ones upon the golden altar that was before the throne. " ( Re 5:8; 8:3, 4) In several respects the burning in­ cense served as a fitting symbol of the prayers of the holy ones that are "offered up" ( Heb 5 : 7 ) night and day ( 1Th 3 : 10), and are pleasant to Jehovah. -Pr 15 :8. Incense, of course, could not make the prayers of false worshipers acceptable to God. ( Pr 28 : 9 ; M r 12 : 40) O n the other hand, the prayers o f a righteous one are effectual. (Jas 5: 16) So, too, when a plague from God broke out, Aaron quickly "put the incense on and began making atonement for the people. "-Nu 16:46-48. Not Burned by Christians. Though incense is burned today in certain religions of Christen­ dom, as also in Buddhist temples, we find no basis in Scripture for such practice by Christians. Cen­ sers are not listed among church vessels for the first four centuries of the Common Era, and not until Gregory the Great (latter part of the sixth century ) is there clear evidence of incense being

1196

used in church services. Obviously, this is because with the coming of Christ and the nailing of the Law covenant and its regulations to the torture stake ( Col 2: 14 ), and especially after the temple and its Aaronic priesthood were completely re­ moved, the burning of incense in the worship of God ceased. No authorization for its use in the Christian congregation was given, and early Christians, like the Jews, never individually burned incense for religious purposes. Early Christians also refused to burn incense in honor of the emperor, even though it cost them their lives. As Daniel P. Mannix observes : "Very few of the Christians recanted, although an altar with a fire burning on it was generally kept in the arena for their convenience. All a prisoner had to do was scatter a pinch of incense on the flame and he was given a Certificate of Sacrifice and turned free. It was also carefully explained to him that he was not worshiping the emperor; merely ac­ knowledging the divine character of the emperor as head of the Roman state. Still, almost no Chris­ tians availed themselves of the chance to escape." - Those About to Die, 1958, p. 137. Tertullian ( second and third centuries c.E. ) says that Christians would not even engage in the incense trade. ( On Idola try, chap. XI ) This, how­ ever, is not the case with the incense merchants doing business with symbolic Babylon the Great. -Re 1 8 : 1 1 , 13. INCENSE, ALTAR OF .

See ALTAR .

INCEST. See CRIME AND PUNISHMENT (Major crimes under the Law ). INCORRUPTION. The quality of a body that is not subject to decay, ruin, or destruction. Direct references to incorruption are found only in the Christian Greek Scriptures. There the word translates the Greek aphthar·sFa, formed of the negative prefix a and a form of phtheFro. This latter word means "corrupt" ( 2Co 7 : 2 ) or "spoil" ( l Co 15 : 3 3 ), hence to bring to a lower or inferior state; also "put to death" or "destroy." ( 2Pe 2: 1 2 ) The adjective form a ph thar·tos ( incorruptible) is also used. Corruption and Corruptibility. In consider­ ing incorruption, it is helpful to analyze first the use of the Greek terms for corruption and cor­ ruptibility. Keep in mind that there is a difference between a thing's being corrupt and its being corrupt ible, that is, capable of being corrupted. Corruption and corruptibility may relate both to things material and to things not material. The crown that Greek athletes sought was corruptible

1197

-subject to decay, deterioration, or disintegra­ tion. ( l Co 9 : 2 5 ) Even gold (dissoluble in aqua regia ) and silver are corruptible. ( l Pe 1 : 18; com­ pare Jas 5 : 3. ) Boats can be "wrecked" or, literally, "corrupted through" ( from the intensive form di­ aph thei'ro), suffering breakdown of their struc­ tural form. ( Re 8 : 9 ) The same Greek word is used with respect to the "ruining" of the earth. ( Re 1 1 : 18) Man, the fleshly creature, is corruptible ( Ro 1 : 2 3 ) ; in his imperfect state his body is subject to d amaging diseases and eventually to dissolution in death, the body breaking down in decay. ( Ac 13 : 36 ) As regards things not material, good hab­ its can be corrupted, or spoiled, by bad associa­ tions ( lCo 15 : 33 ) ; men may become mentally corrupted, turned away from sincerity, chastity, and truth ( 2Co 11 : 3 ; 1Ti 6 : 5 ; 2Ti 3 : 8 ), this result­ ing in moral decay, a corrupting of the individu­ a l 's t>ersonality.-Eph 4 : 2 2 ; Jude 10. Even perfect human bodies are corruptible, that is, they are not beyond ruin or destruction. For this reason, the apostle Paul could say that the resurrected Jesus was thereafter "destined no more to return to corruption " (Ac 13 : 34), that is, never to return to life in a corruptible human body. Only God's action prevented the fleshly body of his Son's earthly existence from seeing corruption in the grave. (Ac 2 : 31 ; 13: 35-37 ) That body, however, was not preserved for the use of the resurrected Jesus, since the apostle Peter states that Jesus was "put to death in the flesh, but . . . made alive in the spirit. " ( lPe 3 : 18 ) It thus seems evident that God disposed of that body miraculously, thereby not letting it see ruinous decay.-See BODY (Christ's Body of Flesh ). Angels, though spirit creatures, are shown to have corruptible bodies, inasmuch as they are declared to be subject to destruction.-Mt 25 :41 ; 2Pe 2 : 4 ; compare Lu 4: 33, 34. Human enslavem ent to corruption. While Adam, even in his perfection, had a corruptible body, it was only because of his rebellion against God that he came into "enslavement to corrup­ tion" and passed this condition on to all of his offspring, the human race. (Ro 8 : 20-2 2 ) This en­ slavement to corruption results from sin or trans­ gression ( Ro 5: 12) and produces bodily imperfec­ tion that leads to degradation, disease, aging, and death. For this reason, the one 'sowing with a view to the flesh reaps corruption from his flesh' and does not gain the everlasting life promised those who sow with a view to the spirit.-Ga 6 : 8 ; compare 2Pe 2 : 1 2 , 18, 19. Attainment of Incorruption by Christians.

As noted, the Hebrew Scriptures make no di­ rect reference to incorruption, and they regu-

INCORRUPTION

larly stress the mortality of the human soul. Thus, the apostle says of Christ Jesus that he " has shed light upon life and incorruption through the good news. " ( 2Ti 1 : 10) Through Jesus, God revealed the sacred secret of his purpose to grant to anointed Christians the privilege of reigning with his Son in the heavens. ( Lu 12 : 3 2 ; Joh 14 : 2, 3 ; compare Eph 1 : 9 - 11 . ) B y resurrecting their Savior Jesus Christ from the dead, God has given such Christians the living hope of "an incorruptible and undefiled and unfading inheritance . . . reserved in the heavens. " ( l Pe 1 : 3, 4, 18, 19 ; compare 1 Co 9 : 25. ) Such ones are born again while yet in the flesh, that is, granted the position of spiritual sons of God, born of "incorruptible reproductive seed, through the word of the living and enduring God . "-lPe 1 : 2 3 ; compare lJo 3 : 1 , 9. Though dealt with by God as his spiritual sons and although having the promise of an incorrupt­ ible inheritance, these Christians called to the heavenly Kingdom do not possess immortality or incorruption while yet on earth in the flesh. This is seen from the fact that they are "seeking glory and honor and incorruptibleness by endurance in work that is good. " ( Ro 2 :6, 7 ) The "incorruptible­ ness" sought evidently does not mean mere­ ly freedom from moral corruption. By follow­ ing Christ's example and by faith in his ransom sacrifice, these Christians have already "escaped from the corruption that is in the world through lust" ( 2Pe 1 : 3, 4 ) ; they are "loving our Lord Jesus Christ in incorruptness" and 'showing incorrupt­ ness in their teaching. ' (Eph 6 : 24; Tit 2 : 7, 8) The incorruptibleness ( along with glory and honor ) they seek by faithful endurance relates to their glorification at the time of their resurrection as actual spirit sons of God, and this is evident from Paul's first letter to the Corinthians. Raised to

Immortality and

Incorruption.

Christ Jesus entered into immortality upon his resurrection from the dead, thereafter possess­ ing "an indestructible life. " ( lTi 6 : 15, 16; Heb 7 : 1 5 - 1 7 ) As the "exact representation of [the] very being" of his Father, who is the incorruptible God ( Heb 1 : 3 ; 1Ti 1 : 1 7 ), the resurrected Jesus also enjoys incorruptibility. United with Jesus in the likeness of his resur­ rection, his joint heirs also are resurrected not merely to everlasting life as spirit creatures but to immortality and incorruption. Having lived, served faithfully, and died in corruptible human bodies, they now receive incorruptible spirit bod­ ies, as Paul clearly states at 1 Corinthians 15 : 42-54. Immortality therefore evidently refers to the quality of the life they enjoy, its endlessness

INDIA

and indestructibility, whereas incorruption ap­ parently relates to the organism or body that God gives them, one that is inherently beyond decay, ruin, or destruction. It therefore appears that God grants them the power to be self-sustaining, not dependent upon outside sources of energy as are his other creatures, fleshly and spirit. This is a stirring evidence of God's confidence in them. Such independent and indestructible existence, however, does not remove them from God's con­ trol; and they, like their Head Christ Jesus, con­ tinue subject to their Father's will and directions. - l Co 15 : 23-28 ; see IMMORTALITY ; SOUL . INDIA (In'di·a). The exact area designated by the Bible name "India" is uncertain. ( Es 8:9 ) Scholars generally suggest that it denotes the area drained by the Indus River and its tribu­ taries, that is, the Punjab region and perhaps also Sind. The testimony of the historian Herodotus (III, 88, 94; IV, 44 ) indicates that "India" first became a part of the Persian Empire during the rule of Darius Hystaspis ( 521-486 B.C.E. ). In the time of Ahasuerus (considered to be Xerxes I, son of Darius Hystaspis ), India was the eastern limit of the empire.-Es 1 : 1 . Likely the Indus Valley was settled not long after the language of Babel's builders was con­ fused. A comparison of the ancient civilization of the Indus Valley with that of Mesopotamia re­ veals the erection of structures like the ziggurat platforms of Mesopotamia, sculptures of the hu­ man figure with heads having the masklike fea­ tures typical of ancient Mesopotamian sculpture, and pictographic signs that bear a resemblance to early Mesopotamian forms. Assyriologist Samu­ el N. Kramer has suggested that the Indus Valley was settled by a people who fled from Mesopota­ mia when the Sumerians took control of the area. INDUSTRIOUSNESS. Steady and persever­ ing activity; painstaking effort ; diligence; zeal. Commonly the term implies lawful and useful labor. It is the opposite of slothfulness or idleness. The Hebrew and Greek words in the Bible that are sometimes translated "industrious" or "indus­ triousness" are more often rendered "earnest" or "earnestness," and other forms of such words are frequently translated "endeavor" or "do [one's] utmost. " Christians are admonished not to slack their hands or become weary in well doing. Paul said: "We desire each one of you to show the same industriousness [literally, "speed up" ] so as to have the full assurance of the hope down to the end, in order that you may not become sluggish,

1198

but be imitators of those who through faith and patience inherit the promises. " (Heb 6 : 11, 1 2 ; compare P r 10 :4; 12 : 24; 18:9. ) Jesus Christ told his disciples: "Exert yourselves vigorously to get in through the narrow door, because many, I tell you, will seek to get in but will not be able." ( Lu 1 3 : 24) Paul himself was an example of such rigor­ ous exertion. (Col i : 29 ; 2Th 3: 7 -9 ) Jehovah and his Son are, of course, the foremost examples of industriousness.-Joh 5 : 17; Isa 40: 26. To prevent their being inactive or unfruitful, Christians must 'contribute in response [ to God's promises ] all earnest effort' in supplying to their faith virtue, knowledge, self-control, endurance, godly devotion, brotherly affection, and love. ( 2Pe 1 :4-8) This calls for the constant application of industrious perseverance ( 2Ti 2: 1 5 ; Heb 4: 1 1 ) and unflagging attention. ( Heb 2 : 1 ) Much of the strength for this comes through the help of Jeho­ vah's spirit. What could more strongly express the need for industriousness than the apostle Paul 's counsel : "Do not loiter at your business. Be aglow with the spirit. Slave for JehOVah"? This requirement of industriousness applies to all ministers ( " let us be at this ministry"), but with special force to those in positions in which they preside over meetings and activities in the con­ gregation, for " he that presides, let him do it in real earnest. "-Ro 12:7, 8, 11. In the Christian congregation, needy ones re­ ceiving material help from the congregation must be industrious ones. The Scriptural rule is : " If anyone does not want to work, neither let him eat." The exhortation to those not working is that they get busy, "that by working with quietness they should eat food they themselves earn." ( 2Th 3: 10- 1 2 ) A professed Christian who refuses or neglects to provide for his household "has dis­ owned the faith and is worse than a person with­ out faith. " ( lTi 5 :8) Even widows who were needy, before being put on the congregation's list for regular provision of material assistance, had to have a record of Christian activity, having "diligently followed every good work."-1Ti 5 : 9, 10. Rewards of Industriousness. Rich rewards come to the industrious person both now and in the future. "The hand of the diligent one is what will make one rich . " (Pr 10 :4) "The hand of the diligent ones is the one that will rule. " ( Pr 1 2 : 24) Their soul "will be made fat. " ( Pr 13:4) The indus­ trious wife is one whose "sons have risen up and proceeded to pronounce her happy; her owner rises up, and he praises her. " Of her, it is pro-

1 199

INHERITANCE

claimed: "Give her of the fruitage of her hands, and let her works praise her even in the gates. " ( Pr 31 : 28, 31 ) Above all, the spiritual brothers of Christ are told : "Do your utmost to make the calling and choosing of you sure for yourselves; for if you keep on doing these things you will by no means ever fail. In fact, thus there will be richly supplied to you the entrance into the ever­ lasting kingdom of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ. "-2Pe 1 : 10, 1 1 . INGATHERING, FESTIVAL O F .

See FES­

TIV AL OF BOOTHS.

INHE RITANCE . Any property passing at the owner's death to the heir or to those entitled to succeed ; anything received from progenitors or predecessors as if by succession. The principal Hebrew verb used is na·ch al ( noun, na·chalah '). It involves getting or giving an inheritance or he­ reditary possession, usually as a result of succes­ sion. ( Nu 26 : 5 5 ; Eze 46 : 18 ) The verb ya·rash ' is used at times in the sense "succeed as heir," but more often, "take possession" apart from succes­ sion. ( Ge 15: 3 ; Le 20 : 24 ) It also has the meaning "dispossess; drive away," involving military ac­ tion. ( De 2: 1 2 ; 31 : 3 ) The Greek words having to do with inheritance are related to kle'ros, which originally meant " lot" but came to mean "share" and finally "inheritance. "-Mt 27 : 3 5 ; Ac 1 : 17; 26 : 18. In Israel the inheritance applied primarily to land possessions, although it was used with re­ spect to movable property as well. The Bible speaks of the inheritance of things of a spiritual nature also. Spirit-begotten Christians are called "heirs indeed of God, but joint heirs with Christ." They look forward, if they remain faithful, to "the everlasting inheritance. "-Ro 8: 1 7 ; Heb 9 : 15 . Patriarchal Period. The faithful Hebrew pa­ triarchs Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob possessed no land, except for the field with the cave used as a burial place and the field near Shechem pur­ chased by Jacob. (Ge 2 3 : 19, 20; 3 3 : 19 ) Concern­ ing Abraham's residence in Canaan, the Christian martyr Stephen said : "Yet he did not give him any inheritable possession in it, no, not a footbreadth; but he promised to give it to him as a possession, and after him to his seed, while as yet he had no child. " (Ac 7 : 5 ) The material inheritance that these men passed on consisted of their cattle and their movable goods. The firstborn son inherited a double portion (two parts) of the property as compared with that allotted to other sons. In the case of the patriarch Job, his daughters received '

an inheritance in among their brothers. It is not stated whether this included land inheritance. -Job 4 2 : 15. The father could transfer the birthright if he had a good reason, giving the firstborn's inheri­ tance to a younger son. In the instances of this noted in the Bible, it was not through whim or favoritism, but there was a basis on which the father determined to make the change in the birthright inheritance. Ishmael, as Abraham's oldest son, was prospective heir for about 14 years. (Ge 16: 16; 17: 18-21 ; 21 : 5 ) But at Sarah's request and with Jehovah's approval, Abraham dismissed Ishmael, then about 19 years of age. Isaac then possessed the firstborn's right and later received everything that Abraham had, with the exception of gifts that Abraham gave to sons later born to him by Keturah. (Ge 21 :8-13; 2 5 : 5 , 6) Reuben the firstborn of Jacob lost his birthright inheritance by reason of fornication with his father's concubine. (Ge 49 :3, 4; 1 Ch 5 : 1, 2 ) Jacob gave the greater blessing to Ephra­ im, Joseph's younger son, rather than to Manas­ seh, the older. -Ge 48: 13-19. Concubinage was legal. In fact, in the Bible the concubine is sometimes designated "wife," and the man with whom she lives, "husband. " Her father is called his father-in-law, and he is called her father's son-in-law. ( Ge 16: 3 ; Jg 19 : 3-5) The sons of concubines were legitimate and therefore had an inheritance status equal to that of the sons of a regular wife. Before Abraham had any children, he spoke of his slave Eliezer as the prospective heir of his goods but was told by Jehovah that he would have a child as heir.-Ge 1 5 : 1 -4. Period of the Law . Under the Law a father was prevented from constituting the son of a better-loved wife his firstborn at the expense of his actual firstborn from a wife less loved. He had to give to the firstborn a double portion of every­ thing that he owned. ( De 21 : 1 5 - 1 7 ) When there were no sons, the inheritance went to the daugh­ ters. (Nu 27 :6-8; Jos 1 7 : 3- 6 ) However, daughters who inherited land were required to marry only in the family of their father's tribe, in order to prevent the circulation of their inheritance from tribe to tribe. ( Nu 36:6-9 ) If there were no chil­ dren, the order of passing on the inheritance was to ( 1 ) brothers of the deceased, ( 2 ) his father's brothers, ( 3 ) the closest blood relation. ( Nu 27:9 - 1 1 ) A wife received no inheritance from her husband. If there were no children, the wife was considered to be the owner of the land until it was

INHE RITANCE

redeemed by the one having the right of repur­ chase. In such case the wife was repurchased along with the property. ( Ru 4: 1 - 1 2 ) Under the law of brother-in-law marriage, the first child born to the woman by the repurchaser became heir of the deceased husband and carried on his name.-De 25 : 5, 6 . Hereditary lands. The inheritance of the sons of Israel was given to them by Jehovah, who outlined the boundaries of the land to Moses. ( Nu 34 : 1 - 1 2 ; Jos 1 : 4) The sons of Gad, the sons of Reuben, and half of the tribe of Manasseh were granted their allotment of territory by Moses. (Nu 3 2 : 3 3 ; Jos 14: 3 ) The rest of the tribes received their inheritance by lot at the direction of Joshua and Eleazar. (Jos 14: 1 , 2 ) In harmony with Jacob's prophecy at Genesis 49 : 5 , 7, Simeon and Levi were not given a separate section of territory as inheritance. Simeon's territory consisted of land (along with enclave cities) inside the territory of Judah ( Jos 19 : 1-9 ), while Levi was granted 48 cit­ ies throughout the entire territory of Israel. Since the Levites received the appointment to special service at the sanctuary, Jehovah was said to be their inheritance. They received the tithe as their portion or inheritance in return for their service. ( Nu 18: 20, 2 1 ; 3 5 : 6, 7) Families were given as­ signments within the territory of their tribe. As families would increase and sons would inherit, the land would be progressively divided up into smaller and smaller parcels. Since land was kept in the possession of the same family from generation to generation, it could not be sold in perpetuity. The sale of land was, in effect, only the leasing of it for the value of crops it would produce, the purchase price being on a graduated scale according to the num­ ber of years until the next Jubilee, at which time all land possession would revert to the original owner if it had not been repurchased or redeemed prior to the Jubilee. ( Le 2 5 : 13, 15, 23, 24) This regulation included houses in unwalled cities, which were regarded as part of the open field. As for a house in a walled city, the right of repur­ chase remained only for one year from the time of sale, at which time it became the property of the buyer. In the case of houses in Levite cities, the right of repurchase continued to time indef­ inite because the Levites had no inheritance of land.-Le 25 : 29-34. The inviolability of the hereditary possession is illustrated in the case of Naboth's vineyard. Na­ both refused either to sell it to the king or to exchange it for another vineyard; the crown did not have the right of eminent domain. ( 1 Ki 2 1 : 2-6) A person could, however, devote a part of

1200 his inheritance to Jehovah for the sanctuary. If so, it could not be redeemed, but it remained the property of the sanctuary and its priesthood. If a man wished to sanctify part of his property for the temporary use of the sanctuary, he could do so ; and if he later wished to redeem it, he could do this by adding a fifth of its valuation. This doubtless protected the sanctuary treasury from loss and also created greater respect for the sanc­ tuary and that which was offered in the worship of Jehovah. If the sanctified field was sold to another man, then in the Jubilee it would be as a field devoted and would not be returned to the original owner but would remain the property of the sanctuary and its priesthood.-Le 27: 15-21, 28; see SANCTIFICATION (Sanctifying of Land ). From the foregoing it can be seen that wills had no place in Hebrew terminology or practice, the laws of inheritance obviating any necessity of such a document. Even movable property was disposed of by its owner during his lifetime or by the laws of inheritance at the time of his death. In Jesus' illustration of the prodigal son, the younger son, on request, received his share of the property before his father'S death.-Lu 1 5 : 12. Benefits o f hereditary laws. The laws gov­ erning the hereditary possessions and the divid­ ing of them into smaller portions as the popula­ tion increased were in themselves a contributing factor to greater family unity. In a land such as Israel, consisting of much hill country, as in Ju­ dea, this was advantageous in that it caused the Israelites to make the optimum use of the land, even terracing hillsides, resulting in clothing the land with beauty and greenery, the olive, the fig tree, the palm, and the vine, providing food for a great population. The fact that every man was a possessor of land created a greater love for the soil on which he lived, promoted industriousness, and, along with the Jubilee regulation, restored the nation to its original theocratic status every 50th year. This helped maintain a balanced econ­ omy. However, as with other features of the Law, abuses eventually crept in. As Jehovah had told Israel, he was the real Owner of the land. They were alien residents and settlers from his standpoint. Therefore, he was able to put them out of the land at any time he saw fit. ( Le 25 : 23 ) Because of their many viola­ tions of God's law, they were sent into exile for 70 years under the power of Baby Ion and re­ mained under Gentile domination even after their restoration in 537 B.c.E. Finally, in 70 c .E . , the Romans took them completely off the land, selling thousands into slavery. Even their genealogical records were lost or destroyed.

1201

I NSECTS

Jesus Christ, as the son of David, inherits the throne of David. ( Isa 9 : 7 ; Lu 1 : 3 2 ) As the Son of God, he inherits heavenly kingship through the covenant Jehovah made with him. (Ps 110:4; Lu 2 2 : 28-30 ) Christ, therefore, inherits the nations, to break to pieces all opposers and to rule forever. -Ps 2 :6-9. The anointed members of the Christian congre­ gation are spoken of as having a heavenly inheri­ tance, sharing Jesus' inheritance as his "broth­ ers . " ( Eph 1 : 14; Cal l : 1 2 ; 1 Pe 1 :4, 5 ) This includes the earth.-Mt 5 : 5 . Because God redeemed Israel out of Egypt, they became his possession or "inheritance. " ( De 32:9; Ps 33: 12; 74: 2 ; Mic 7 : 14) They foreshadowed the "nation" of spiritual Israel, whom God considers his "inheritance" because he possesses them, hav­ ing purchased them by means of the blood of his only-begotten Son, Jesus Christ.- 1 Pe 2 : 9 ; 5 : 2, 3 ; Ac 20 : 28. Jesus Christ pointed out that persons who give up valuable things for the sake of his name and for the sake of the good news "will inherit ever­ lasting life. "-Mt 19 : 29; Mr 10: 29, 30 ; see BIRTH­ Christian Inheritance.

RIGHT; BROTHER-IN-LAW FIRSTLING.

MARRlAGE ;

FIRSTBORN,

INK. The Hebrew word deyoh ', found only at Jeremiah 36: 18, may possibly be an Egyptian loanword. In the Christian Greek Scriptures, me'lan occurs only three times ( 2Co 3 : 3 ; 2Jo 12; 3Jo 1 3 ) and is the neuter form of the masculine adjective me/las, meaning "black."-Mt 5 : 36 ; Re 6 : 5, 12. Generally spea.\ing, inks were made of a pig­ ment or coloring material dispersed in a medium containing gum, glue, or varnish that acted both as a carrying agent, or vehicle, and as a binder to hold the pigment on the surface to which it was applied. The oldest ink formulas, and the oldest specimens found, show that the pigment was a carbonaceous black, either in the form of amor­ phous soot obtained from burning oil or wood, or a crystalline charcoal from animal or vegetable sources. The pigments of red inks were iron ox­ ides. Certain tinctures were also used by the ancients. Josephus says the copy of the Law sent to Ptolemy Philadelphus was written in gold let­ ters. ( Jewish An tiquities, XII, 89 [ ii, 1 1 ] ) If vege­ table juices or dyes were ever used in inks, they long ago disappeared because of their perishable nature. To make the best inks, much time was required to grind and disperse the pigments in their vehi­ cles. The inks were then usually stored as dried

cakes or bars, which were moistened sufficiently by the scribe as he applied the ink to his brush or reed. The Chinese inks long enjoyed the reputation of having the deepest tone and being the most dura­ ble. Documents written in some of these inks can be soaked in water for several weeks without washing out. On the other hand, inks were also made so they could be erased with a wet sponge or damp cloth. This may have been the basis for Jehovah's saying, in a symbolic way, " Whoever has sinned against me, I shall wipe him out of my book. "-Ex 3 2 : 3 3 ; see also Nu 5 : 23 ; Ps 109 : 13, 14. INKHORN.

See SECRETARY'S INKHORN.

INN. In Greek, pan-do·khei'on, literally mean­ ing "a place where all are received or taken in, " that is, where travelers could find accommoda­ tions for themselves and their animals. Perhaps ancient Middle Eastern inns resembled those built there in more recent times. These commonly con­ sist of a walled square with only one entrance. Along the walls on a raised platform there are unfurnished rooms for sheltering travelers and goods, entrance being gained from the inner courtyard. The animals are left in the large court, which often has a centrally situated well. Inn­ keepers of ancient times furnished a few neces­ sary provisions to travelers and cared for persons left in their charge, receiving compensation for their services. -Lu 10: 33-35. INSECTS. In the adult stage, these inverte­ brates are distinguished by a body consisting of three segments, head, thorax, and abdomen, with six legs, a pair of feelers, and generally two or four wings. The picturesque language of the Bible refers to insects as 'going on all fours. ' Obviously Moses was familiar with the fact that insects have six legs. So the reference is undoubtedly to their mode of travel rather than to the number of their legs. There are winged insects, including the bees, flies, and wasps, that walk with their six legs in the manner offour-Iegged animals. Other insects, such as the locusts, are equipped with two leaper legs and thus literally use the other four legs for crawling.-Le 11 : 20-23. The more than 800,000 known varieties of in­ sects present a panorama of contrast. While some are somberly colored, others are arrayed in bright hues and with beautiful designs. All the shades of the rainbow are represented. In size, insects vary from beetles that are small enough to get through the eye of a needle to curious "walking sticks" that

1202

INSIGHT

measure more than 30 cm ( 1 ft ) in length. Among the insects can be found organized communities, builders, agriculturists, manufacturers, long­ distance fliers, expert jumpers, swimmers, and burrowers. Through study and observation, man can learn much from the insects, most important­ ly that they are God's creations, endowed with instinctive wisdom, not by chance, but by the Source of all wisdom, Jehovah. -Job 1 2 : 7-9. Although many are inclined to view insects as pests that damage crops and man's possessions as well as spread disease, actually only a very small percentage of insects can be designated as harm­ ful under present circumstances. The majority can be classified either as neutral or as directly or indirectly beneficial to man. Insects stand in an important relationship to plants. It has been estimated that 85 percent of flowering plants are either completely or partly dependent on insect pollination. Insects also play a beneficial role as soil builders and scavengers. Dyes and shellac are produced from scale insects. In the Middle East, insects, such as locusts, have for centuries been used as an item of the diet. Were it not for the existence of insects, honey and silk would be unknown. Insects indeed occupy an important place in relation to the rest of the earthly creation. Ob­ served Carl D. Duncan, professor of entomology and botany: "It is not too much to say that insects determine the character of man's world to a far greater extent than he does himself, and that if they were suddenly to disappear completely the world would be changed so extensively that it is extremely doubtful that man would be able to maintain any sort of organized society whatever. " -Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institu tion, 1947, p. 346. INSIG HT. Essentially, insight is the ability to see into a situation. To act with insight is to act with prudence, discretion. According to Wilson's Old Testament Word Studies, the Hebrew verb sa·khal' means "to look at ; to be prudent, circum­ spect; to act prudently, to be intelligent. " ( 1978, p. 461 ) Thus, sa·khal' is rendered 'have insight' ( Ps 14 : 2 ), 'act with discretion' (Pr 10: 19 ), "act pru­ dently" ( l Sa 18 : 5 ), 'have success' (Pr 17: 8), 'cause to show insight' ( Pr 1 6 : 2 3 ) . The noun se'khel is translated "insight" ( Ps 111 : 10 ) and "discretion. " -lSa 25 : 3 . Insight is closely related to understanding, but there is a fine distinction between the two terms. Says the Theological Wordbook of the Old Testa­ ment: "While bin [ understanding] indicates 'dis-

tinguishing between,' [ sa·kha1' ] relates to an in­ telligent knowledge of the reason. There is the process of thinking through a complex arrange­ ment of thoughts resulting in a wise dealing and use of good practical common sense. Another end result is the emphasis upon being successful. " -Edited by R . 1 . Harris, 1980, Vol. 2 , p . 877; see UNDERSTANDING.

In the Greek Scriptures, the verb sy-ni'e·mi is translated 'has insight' at Romans 3 : 11 , where the apostle Paul quotes from Psalm 14: 2 . Sy-ru'e·mi is also rendered "get the sense of" (M t 13: 13- 15), 'grasp' (Mt 16 : 1 2), "understand" (Ac 28 : 26 ), and 'perceive' (Eph 5 : 17). Jehovah God gives insight to his servants by providing them with counsel and advice that they can use to direct their steps and control their actions. (Ps 3 2 : 8 ; compare Da 9 : 22. ) He provides such wise guidance by means of his Word. To gain insight, though, a person must do more than read the Bible. He must appreciate it so as to be moti­ vated to do all that God directs. (Jos 1 : 7, 8; 1Ki 2 : 3 ) Needed also is the help of God's spirit. (Ne 9 : 20; compare 1Ch 28: 12, 19. ) Once acquired, insight must be safeguarded. One can lose it by turning from God's ways.-Ps 36: 1-3 ; Pr 2 1 : 16. Insight can be displayed in various ways, re­ sulting in blessings both to the one who has it and to others. The psalmist pronounces happy the one "acting with consideration [with insight] toward the lowly one. " (Ps 41 : 1 ) A wife who is "discreet" ( showing insight) is described as a blessing from Jehovah. ( Pr 19 : 14 ) Insight, looking beyond the obvious, enables one to guard his mouth (Pr 10 : 19 ; 16: 23 ) and to know when to keep silent. (Am 5 : 13 ) It also helps one to avoid anger and overlook transgression. ( Pr 19 : 11 ) One who has insight accepts correction. (Ps 2 : 10) According to Prov­ erbs 21 : 1 1 , when a wise person obtains insight -that is, when he carefully considers available information and as a result acquires a clearer picture of a matter-he "gets knowledge," that is, he knows what to do regarding the matter, what conclusions to draw, what counsel to give. INSPECTION GATE.

See GATE, GATEWAY.

INSPIRATION . The quality or state of be­ ing moved by or produced under the direction of a spirit from a superhuman source. When that source is Jehovah, the result is a pronounce­ ment or writings that are truly the word of God. The apostle Paul stated at 2 Timothy 3: 16: "All Scripture is inspired of God. " The phrase "in­ spired of God" translates the compound Greek

1203 word the·o'pneu·stos, meaning, literally, "God­ breathed" or "breathed by God." This is the only occurrence of this Greek term in the Scriptures. Its use here clearly identifies God as the Source and Producer of the Sacred Scriptures, the Bible. Their being "God-breathed" finds some parallel in the expression found in the Hebrew Scriptures at Psalm 3 3 : 6 : " By the word of Jehovah the heavens themselves were made, and by the spirit [ or breath] of his mouth all their army." Results From the Operation of God's Spirit.

The means or agency for the inspiration of "all Scripture" was God's holy spirit, or active force. (See SPIRIT. ) That holy spirit operated toward or upon men to move them and guide them in setting down God's message. Thus, the apostle Peter says of Bible prophecy: "You know this first, that no prophecy of Scripture springs from any private interpretation. For prophecy was at no time brought by man's will, but men spoke from God as they were borne along by holy spirit. " ( 2Pe 1 : 20, 21 ) The evidence shows that God's spirit operated on the minds and hearts of all the Bible writers to carry them along to the goal purposed by God. King David said: "The spirit of Jehovah it was that spoke by me, and his word was upon my tongue. " ( 2Sa 23 : 2 ) When Jesus quoted Psalm 110, he said that David had written it "by inspiration [ literally, in spirit ]. " ( Mt 22:43 ) The parallel passage in Mark 1 2 : 36 reads "by the holy spirit. " Even as Jehovah's spirit moved men or quali­ fied them to perform other divine assignments -the making of priestly garments and equip­ ment for the tabernacle (Ex 28: 3 ; 3 5 : 30-3 5 ) , car­ rying the load of administration (De 34 : 9 ), lead­ ing military forces ( Jg 3:9, 10; 6 : 33, 34 )-so it enabled men to record the Scriptures. By means of that spirit, they could be given wisdom, under­ standing, knowledge, counsel, and power, beyond what was normal and according to their particu­ lar need. (Isa 1 1 : 2 ; Mic 3 : 8 ; lCo 12:7, 8) David is stated to have received the architectural plan of the temple "by inspiration [literally, by the spir­ it]. " ( l Ch 28: 1 2 ) Jesus assured his apostles that God's spirit would help them, teaching, guiding, and recalling to their minds the things they had heard from him, as well as revealing to them future things. (Joh 14 : 26 ; 16 : 13 ) This assured the truthfulness and accuracy of their Gospel accounts, including many lengthy quotations of Jesus' speeches, even though John's Gospel ac­ count, for example, was written scores of years after the death of Jesus.

INSPI RATION

The Bible writers, therefore, came under Jehovah's "hand," or guiding and controlling power. ( 2Ki 3 : 15, 16 ; Eze 3 : 14, 22) Even as Jehovah's "hand" could cause his servants to speak or to keep silent at appointed times (Eze 3 :4, 26, 27 ; 3 3 : 2 2 ) , so it could stimulate writing or act as a restraining force; it could prompt the writer to deal with certain matters or restrict him from including other material. The end product WOUld, in every case, be that which Jehovah desired. Controlled by Hth e hand of Jehovah. H

How Writers

Received

Divine

Direction.

As the apostle states, God spoke "in many ways" to his servants in pre-Christian times. (Heb 1 : 1 , 2 ) In at least one case, that of the Ten Com­ mandments, or Decalogue, the information was divinely supplied in written form, merely requir­ ing copying into the scrolls or other material used by Moses. ( Ex 31 : 18 ; De 10: 1-5 ) In other cases, information was transmitted by verbal dictation, word for word. When presenting the large body of laws and statutes of God's covenant with Israel, Jehovah instructed Moses: "Write down for your­ self these words. " (Ex 34 : 27 ) The prophets also were often given specific messages to deliver, and these were then recorded, forming part of the Scriptures. - 1 Ki 22: 14; Jer 1 : 7; 2 : 1 ; 11 : 1 - 5 ; Eze 3 :4 ; 1 1 : 5. Among still other methods used for conveying information to the Bible writers were dreams and visions. Dreams, or night visions as they were sometimes called, evidently superimposed a pic­ ture of God's message or purpose on the mind of the sleeping person. (Da 2: 19 ; 7: 1 ) Visions given while the person was conscious were an even more frequently used vehicle of communication of God's thoughts to the mind of the writer, the revelation being impressed pictorially upon the conscious mind. (Eze 1 : 1 ; Da 8: 1 ; Re 9 : 1 7 ) Some visions were received when the person had fallen into a trance. Though conscious, the person ap­ parently was so absorbed by the vision received during the trance as to be oblivious to all else around him.-Ac 10:9-17; 11 : 5- 10; 22: 1 7-21 ; see VISION. Angelic messengers were used on many occa­ sions to transmit the divine messages. ( Heb 2 : 2 ) Such messengers played a larger part i n the transmission of information than is at times ap­ parent. Thus, whereas the Law given to Moses is presented as spoken by God, both Stephen and Paul show that God used his angels in transmit­ ting that legal code. (Ac 7 : 5 3 ; Ga 3 : 19 ) Since the angels spoke in Jehovah's name, the message they presented could therefore properly be called

1204

INSPIRATION

"the word of Jehovah. "-Ge 2 2 : 11, 12, 15-18; Zee 1 : 7, 9. No matter what the particular means employed for the transmission of the messages, all parts of the Scriptures would be of the same quality, all of them being inspired, or "God-breathed. " Is the fact that Bible writers showed individuality in expression consisten t with the Bible's being inspired by God ?

The evidence indicates, however, that the men used by God to record the Scriptures were not merely automatons, simply recording dictated material. We read concerning the apostle John that the "God-breathed" Revelation was present­ ed to him through God's angel "in signs" and that John then "bore witness to the word God gave and to the witness Jesus Christ gave, even to all the things he saw." ( Re 1 : 1 , 2 ) It was "by inspira­ tion [ literally, "in spirit"]" that John "came to be in the Lord's day" and he was told: "What you see write in a scroll. " ( Re 1 : 10, 1 1 ) So, God apparently saw good to allow Bible writers to use their men­ tal faculties in selecting words and expressions to describe the visions they saw ( Hab 2 : 2 ), while always exercising sufficient control and guidance over them so that the end product would be not only accurate and true but also such as suited Jehovah's purpose. ( Pr 30 :5, 6) That personal effort on the part of the writer was involved is shown by the statement at Ecclesiastes 1 2 :9, 10, there being a pondering, searching, and arrang­ ing in order to present properly "delightful words and the writing of correct words of truth. "-Com­ pare Lu 1 : 1 -4. This doubtless explains why there are different styles of writing as well as expressions that ap­ parently reflect the background of the individual writers. The natural qualifications of the writers may have been a factor in God's selection of them for their particular assignment; he may also have prepared them prior thereto to serve his particu­ lar purpose. As evidence of this individuality of expression, Matthew, who had been a tax collector, makes numerous particularly specific references to num­ bers and money values. ( Mt 1 7 : 27 ; 26 : 15 ; 27: 3 ) Luke, "the beloved physician" (Col 4: 14), on the other hand, uses distinctive expressions that re­ flect his medical background. -Lu 4:38; 5 : 1 2 ; 16: 20.

Even where the writer speaks of receiving "the word of Jehovah" or a certain "pronouncement," it may be that this was transmitted, not word for word, but by giving the writer a mental picture of God's purpose, one that the writer would thereaf­ ter express in words. This is perhaps indicated by the writers' speaking at times of 'seeing ' ( rather than 'hearing ' ) "the pronouncement" or "the word of Jehovah. "-Isa 1 3 : 1 ; Mic 1 : 1 ; Hab 1 : 1 ; 2 : 1 , 2. The men used to write the Scriptures therefore cooperated with the operation of Jehovah's holy spirit. They were willing and submissive to God's guidance (Isa 50:4, 5 ), eager to know God's will and leqding. (lsa 2 6 : 9 ) In many cases they had certain goals in mind ( Lu 1 : 1-4 ) or were respond­ ing to an evident need ( lCo 1 : 10, 1 1 ; 5: 1 ; 7 : 1 ), and God directed them so that what they wrote coincided with and fulfilled his purpose. (Pr 16 : 9 ) A s spiritual men, their hearts and minds were attuned to God's will, they 'had the mind of Christ' and so were not setting down mere human wisdom nor a "vision of their own heart," as false prophets did.- 1Co 2: 13-16; Jer 23 : 16; Eze 13 : 2 , 3, 17. It can be seen that the holy spirit would, in­ deed, have "varieties of operations" toward or upon these Bible writers. ( l Co 12 : 6 ) A consider­ able portion of the information was humanly ac­ cessible to them, sometimes already existing in written form, as in the case of geneplogies and certain historical accounts. ( Lu 1 : 3 ; 3: 23-38; Nu 21 : 14, 15; lKi 14: 19, 29 ; 2Ki 15 : 3 1 ; 24: � ; see BOOK. ) Here God's spirit would operate to prevent inaccuracy or error from intruding into the Divine Record and also to guide in the selection of mate­ rial to be included. Obviously, not everything stated by other persons and thereafter included in the Bible was inspired of God, but the selection of the material to be part of the Holy Scriptures and the accura te recording of it were under the direction of holy spirit. ( See Ge 3 :4, 5; Job 42: 3 ; M t 16: 21-23. ) In this way God has preserved i n his inspired Word a record demonstrating what happens when people listen to him and work in harmony with his purpose, as well as t1!e outcome when they think, speak, and act in ways that show disregard for God or ignorance of his righ­ teous ways. On the other hand, the information concerning the prehuman history of the earth (Ge 1 : 1 -26), heavenly events and activities (Job 1 : 6-12 and other texts), and prophecies, as well as revelations of God's purposes and of doctrines, was not humanly obtainable and would need to be transmitted supernaturally by God's spirit. As to wise sayings and counsel, even though the

1205

writer may have learned much from his personal experience in life and even more from his own study and application of those parts of the Scrip­ tures already recorded, the operation of God's spirit would still be required to ensure the infor­ mation's qualifying as part of the Word of God that is "alive and exerts power . . . and is able to discern thoughts and intentions of the heart. " -Heb 4: 12. This may be seen by the expressions the apos­ tle Paul makes in his first letter to the Corinthians. In giving counsel on marriage and singleness he says at one point: "But to the others I say, yes, I, not the Lord . . . " Again: "Now concerning virgins I have no command from the Lord, but I give my opinion. " And finally, regarding a widowed wom­ an, he states: "But she is happier if she remains as she is, according to my opinion. I certainly think I also have God's spirit. " ( l Co 7 : 12, 25, 40 ) The evident meaning of Paul's statements is that he could quote no direct teaching by the Lord Jesus on certain points. Hence Paul gave his personal opinion as a spirit-filled apostle. His counsel, how­ ever, was "God-breathed" and so came to form part of the Sacred Scriptures, having equal au­ thority with the rest of those Scriptures. There is clearly a distinction between the in­ spired writings of the Bible and other writings that, while manifesting a measure of the spirit's direction and guidance, are not properly classed with the Sacred Scriptures. As has been shown, in addition to the canonical books of the Hebrew Scriptures, there were other writings, such as official records concerning the kings of Judah and Israel, and these, in many cases, may have been drawn up by men devoted to God. They were even used in research done by those writers who were inspired to write part of the Sacred Scrip­ tures. So, too, in apostolic times. In addition to the letters included in the Bible canon, there were doubtless many other letters written by the apos­ tles and older men to the numerous congrega­ tions during the course of the years. While the writers were spirit-guided men, still God did not place his seal of guarantee distinguishing any such additional writings as part of the inerrant Word of God. The Hebrew noncanonical writings may have contained some error, and even the noncanonical writings of the apostles may have reflected to some degree the incomplete under­ standing that existed in the early years of the Christian congregation. ( Compare Ac 1 5 : 1-32; Ga 2 : 1 1 - 14; Eph 4: 1 1 - 16. ) However, even as God by his spirit, or active force, granted to certain Chris­ tians the "discernment of inspired utterances," he

INSPIRATION

could also guide the governing body of the Chris­ tian congregation in discerning which inspired writings were to be included in the canon of the Sacred Scriptures.- 1 Co 1 2 : 10; see CANON. Recognition of Scriptures as Inspired. The evidence is clear that all the Sacred Scriptures, as progressively added to the Bible canon, were con­ sistently recognized by God's servants, including Jesus and his apostles, as inspired. By "inspira­ tion" is meant, not a mere heightening of the intellect and emotions to a higher degree of ac­ complishment or sensitivity ( as is often said of secular artists or poets ), but the production of writings that are inerrant and that have the same authority as if written by God himself. For this reason the prophets who contributed to the writ­ ing of the Hebrew Scriptures ceaselessly credited their messages to God, with the pronouncement, "This is what Jehovah has said," doing so over 300 times. ( Isa 37 : 3 3 ; Jer 2 : 2 ; Na 1 : 12 ) Jesus and his apostles confidently quoted the Hebrew Scrip­ tures as God's own word spoken through the assigned writers, hence as certain of fulfillment and as the final authority in any controversy. ( Mt 4 : 4 - 10 ; 19 : 3- 6 ; Lu 24:44 -48 ; Joh 13: 18; Ac 1 3 : 33-3 5 ; lCo 1 5 : 3 , 4; IPe 1 : 16 ; 2 : 6 -9 ) They contained "the sacred pronouncements of God . " ( Ro 3 : 1 , 2 ; Heb 5 : 12 ) After explaining i n Hebrews 1 : 1 that God spoke to Israel through the prophets, Paul goes on to quote from several books of the Hebrew Scriptures, presenting the texts as though spoken personally by Jehovah God him­ self. (Heb 1 :5 - 13 ) Compare similar references to the holy spirit at Acts 1 : 16 ; 28 : 2 5 ; Hebrews 3 : 7 ; 10: 15- 17.

Showing his full faith in the inerrancy of the Sacred Writings, Jesus said that "the Scripture cannot be nullified" ( Joh 10: 34, 3 5 ) and that "sooner would heaven and earth pass away than for one smallest letter or one particle of a letter to pass away from the Law by any means and not all things take place." ( Mt 5 : 18) He told the Saddu­ cees that they were in error regarding the resur­ rection because "you know neither the Scriptures nor the power of God . " ( Mt 2 2 : 29 -32 ; Mr 12 : 24 ) H e was willing t o submit t o arrest and death itself because of knowing that this was in fulfillment of the written Word of God, the Sacred Scriptures. -Mt 26 : 54 ; Mr 14: 27, 49. These statements, of course, apply to the pre­ Christian Hebrew Scriptures. That the Christian Greek Scriptures were likewise presented and ac­ cepted as inspired is also clear ( l eo 14:37 ; Ga 1 :8, 1 1 , 1 2 ; ITh 2 : 13), the apostle Peter in one state­ ment including Paul's letters with the rest of the

1206

INSPIRATION

Scriptures. ( 2Pe 3: 15, 16 ) Thus the entire body of the Scriptures comprise the unified and harmoni­ ous written Word of God.-Eph 6 : 17. Authority o f Copies and Translations. Ab­ solute inerrancy is therefore to be attributed to the written Word of God. This is true of the original writings, none of which are known to exist today. The copies of those original writings and the translations made in many languages cannot lay claim to absolute accuracy. There is solid evidence and sound reason for believing, however, that the available manuscripts of the Sacred Scriptures do provide copies of the written Word of God in nearly exact form, the points in question having little bearing on the sense of the message conveyed. God's own purpose in preparing the Sacred Scriptures and the inspired declaration that "the saying of Jehovah endures forever" give assurance that Jehovah God has preserved the internal integrity of the Scriptures through the centuries.-1Pe 1 : 25 . What accoun ts for differences in wording of quotations made from the Hebrew Scriptures in the Christian Greek Scriptures?

In a number of cases the writers of the Chris­ tian Greek Scriptures evidently made use of the Greek Septuagin t translation when quoting from the Hebrew Scriptures. At times the rendering of the Septuagin t, as quoted by them, differs some­ what from the reading of the Hebrew Scriptures as now known (most translations today being based on the Hebrew Masoretic text dating back to about the tenth century c.E. ). As an example, Paul's quotation of Psalm 40 : 6 contains the ex­ pression " but you prepared a body for me, " an expression found in the Septuagin t. ( Heb 10: 5 , 6 ) The available Hebrew manuscripts o f Psalm 40 :6 have, in place of that expression, the words "these ears of mine you opened up. " Whether the origi­ nal Hebrew text contained the phrase found in the Septuagin t cannot be stated with certainty. Whatever the case, God's spirit guided Paul in his quotation, and therefore these words have divine authorization. This does not mean that the entire Septuagin t translation is to be viewed as inspired; but those portions quoted by the inspired Chris­ tian writers did become an integral part of God's Word. In a few cases the quotations made by Paul and others differ from both the Hebrew and Greek texts as found in available manuscripts. The dif-

ferences are minor, however, and upon examina­ tion are seen to be the result of paraphrasing, epitomizing, the use of synonymous terms, or the addition of explanatory words or phrases. Genesis 2 : 7, for instance, says "the man came to be a living soul," whereas Paul in quoting this portion said : "It is even so written: 'The first man Adam became a living soul.' " ( l Co 15:45 ) His addition of the words "first" and "Adam" served to emphasize the contrast he was making between Adam and Christ. The insertion was fully in accord with the facts recorded in the Scriptures and in no way perverted the sense or content of the text quoted. Those to whom Paul wrote had copies (or transla­ tions ) of the Hebrew Scriptures older than those we have today and could investigate his quota­ tions, in a way similar to that of the people of Beroea. (Ac 17 : 10, 11 ) The inclusion of these writ­ ings in the canon of the Sacred Scriptures by the Christian congregation of the first century gives evidence of their acceptance of such quotations as part of the inspired Word of God. -Compare also Zec 1 3 : 7 with Mt 26 : 3 1 . "Inspired

Expressions" -True

and

False.

The Greek word pneu1ma (spirit) is used in a special manner in some apostolic writings. At 2 Thessalonians 2 : 2, for example, the apostle Paul urges his Thessalonian brothers not to get excited or shaken from their reason "either through an inspired expression [ literally, "spirit" ] or through a verbal message or through a letter as though from us, to the effect that the day of Jehovah is here . " It is clear that Paul uses the word pneu'ma ( spirit) in connection with means of communica­ tion, such as the "verbal message" or "letter. " For this reason Lange's Commentary on the Holy Scriptures (p. 126 ) says on this text: "By this the Apostle intends a spiritual suggestion, pretended prediction, utterance of a prophet. " (Translated and edited by P. Schaff, 1976 ) Vincent' s Word Studies in the New Testamen t states: "By spirit. By prophetic utterances of individuals in Chris­ tian assemblies, claiming the authority of divine revelations. " ( l957, Vol. IV, p. 63 ) Thus, while some translations simply render pneu'ma in this and similar cases as "spirit," other translations read "message of the Spirit" (AT), "prediction" ( JB), "inspiration" ( D'Ostervald; Segond [French] ), "inspired expression" ( NW). Paul's words make it clear that there are true "inspired expressions" and false ones. He refers to both kinds at 1 Timothy 4 : 1 when saying that "the inspired utterance [ from Jehovah's holy spir­ it ] says definitely that in later periods of time some will fall away from the faith, paying atten­ tion to misleading inspired utterances and teach-

1207

ings of demons." This identifies the source of the false "inspired utterances" as the demons. This is supported by the vision given the apostle John in which he saw "three unclean inspired expres­ sions, " froglike in appearance, proceeding from the mouths of the dragon, the wild beast, and the false prophet, and which expressions he specif­ ically states are "inspired by demons," serving to gather earth's kings to the war at Har-Magedon. -Re 16: 13- 16. With good reason, then, John urged Christians to "test the inspired expressions to see whether they originate with God . " ( Uo 4: 1-3 ; compare Re 2 2 : 6. ) He then went on to show that God's true inspired expressions were coming through the genuine Christian congregation, not through un­ christian worldly sources. John's statement was, of course, inspired by Jehovah God, but even aside from this, John's letter had laid a solid foundation for making the straightforward state­ ment: "He that gains the knowledge of God listens to us; he that does not originate with God does not listen to us. This is how we take note of the inspired expression of truth and the inspired ex­ pression of error. " ( Uo 4 : 6 ) Far from being mere dogmatism, John had shown that he and other true Christians were manifesting the fruits of God's spirit, primarily love, and were proving by their right conduct and truthful speech that they were indeed "walking in the light" in union with God.-lJo 1 : 5-7; 2 : 3-6, 9 - 1 1 , 15-17, 29 ; 3 : 1 , 2, 6, 9 - 18, 23, 24; contrast Tit 1 : 16. INSTALLATION (in-staHa'tion). The induc­ tion of the priesthood into office. The Hebrew word for "installation" ( mil·lu·'im ' ) literally means "a filling," that is, a filling of the hand with power, an empowering. ( Ex 29 : 22 , ftn; compare Eze 43 : 26, ftn; see FILL HAND WIlli POWER. ) The same term is used for the "setting" of jewels.- 1Ch 29 : 2 . Aaron and his sons were taken from the Ko­ hathite family of the tribe of Levi to serve as the priesthood for Israel. (Ex 6 : 16, 18, 20; 28: 1 ) Their installation occupied seven days, apparently fall­ ing on Nisan 1 -7, 1512 B.c. E., while Israel was encamped at the foot of Mount Sinai in the Arabi­ an Peninsula. ( Ex 40: 2 , 12, 17) The tent of meet­ ing had just been completed and set up on the first day of the month; the priestly family had been chosen by Jehovah; and now Moses, the brother of Aaron, as mediator of the Law cove­ nant, was commanded to perform the ceremony of their sanctification and installation. Instruc­ tions for the procedure are given in Exodus chap-

INSTALLATION

ter 29, and the record of Moses' carrying out the ceremony is in Leviticus chapter 8. On this first day, with Jehovah's presence rep­ resented by the pillar of cloud above the taberna­ cle ( Ex 40 :33-38 ), Moses assembled all the sacrifi­ cial items : the bull, the two rams, the basket of unfermented cakes, the anointing oil, and the priestly garments. As instructed, he called the congregation of Israel, which likely meant the older men as representatives of the entire congre­ gation, to gather at the entrance of the tent of meeting, outside the curtain that surrounded the courtyard. Since they evidently could observe what took place in the courtyard , the gateway screen, 20 cubits (8.9 m ; 29 ft ) wide, was prob­ ably removed.-Le 8 : 1-5; Ex 27: 16. Moses washed Aaron and Aaron's sons Nadab, Abihu, Eleazar, and Ithamar (or, he commanded them to wash themselves) at the copper basin in the courtyard and put upon Aaron the glorious garments of the high priest. ( Nu 3 : 2, 3 ) Now clothed in beautiful apparel, Aaron was invested with the garments representing the qualities and responsibilities of his office. Moses then anointed the tabernacle, all its furnishings and utensils, and the altar of burnt offering, as well as the basin and the utensils used in connection with them. This sanctified them, set them aside for the exclusive use and service of God for which they would now be employed . Finally Moses anointed Aaron by pouring the oil upon his head.-Le 8 : 6 - 1 2 ; Ex 30: 22-33; Ps 133 : 2. Bull of the Sin Offering. Following this, Mo­ ses clothed Aaron's sons, after which he caused Aaron and his sons to lay their hands on the head of the bull of the sin offering, their action signify­ ing their acknowledgment of the offering as being for them, the priestly house. After slaughtering the bull, Moses put some of the blood on the altar and poured the rest out at the base of the altar, thus symbolizing cleansing from the defilement brought because of the sinful nature of the priests who officiated at the altar. The blood being put on the horns of the altar evidently signified that the power of the sacrificial arrangement lay in the shed blood of the sacrifice. (Heb 9 : 2 2 ) The sprin­ kling of the altar was likewise required in connec­ tion with other offerings. ( Le 1 : 5, 11 ; 3 : 2 ; 4:6; 16: 18) Notice, however, that this being 'ordina­ tion day' for the priesthood and not the national atonement day for sins, the bull's blood was not taken into the Most Holy. ( See Le 16 : 14. ) As with other sin offerings, the fat upon the intestines, the appendage of the liver, and the two kidneys with their fat were placed on the altar. ( Le 4:8-10, 20,

INSTRUCTION

26, 31 ) The rest of the bull, with its skin and dung, was taken outside the camp to be burned. -Le 8: 13-17. Sacrificial Rams. Then Aaron and his sons laid hands on the ram of the burnt offering, and it was slaughtered, some of its blood being sprin­ kled upon the altar. The ram was then cut into parts, washed, and burned on the altar; but this did not include the dung and the skin. ( Le 7 : 8 ) As this ram of the burnt offering was offered up completely, nothing being retained for consump­ tion by any human, so these priests were com­ pletely sanctified to Jehovah's holy, priestly ser­ vice.-Le 8: 18-21 ; compare Le 1 : 3-9. The other ram, "the ram of the installation, " after having the priests' hands laid upon it, was slaughtered. Here the blood was used differently. Some of it was put on the right earlobe, right thumb, and right big toe of Aaron and his sons; so the faculties represented by these body members were to be used fully in connection with the sacrificial feature of their ministry. The rest of the blood Moses sprinkled upon the altar.-Le 8 : 2 2-24. The fat around the ram's organs, before being offered in the usual way, was placed, along with one of each of the three kinds of unfermented cakes taken from the basket, on the right leg of the ram. All of this was now put on the palms of Aaron and his sons and was waved before Jeho­ vah by Moses, who evidently put his hands under the priests' hands to do so. This signified that their hands were 'filled with power, ' that is, filled with sacrificial gifts and fully equipped and em­ powered for sacrificial duty. They were shown to be authorized not only to offer the fat portions on the altar but also to receive the gifts provided for their sustenance as Jehovah's abundant arrange­ ment for his priesthood. The part of the ram waved, the right leg, usually went to the officiat­ ing priest as his portion. (Le 7: 32-34 ; Nu 18: 18 ) In this instance, it was all burned on the altar. Thus it was both presented ( waved) before Jehovah and actually offered, acknowledging all of it as his bestowal upon the priesthood.-Le 8: 25 -28. Moses, acting in a priestly capacity during the installation service, now received the breast from the installation ram as his own portion, after presenting it as a wave offering.-Le 8 : 29 ; see also Ex 29 : 26-28. Some of the ram's blood with the anointing oil ( apparently mixed ) was spattered upon Aaron, his sons, and their garments, to sanctify them. This also identified them with the sacrificial of-

1208 fice, as directed by God's spirit. There is no men­ tion of Aaron's sons being anointed by pouring oil over the head, as Aaron had been.-Le 8: 30. At the entrance of the tent of meeting, Aaron and his sons were to boil the portion of the ram's flesh that had not been burned on the altar or given to Moses. They would eat it, along with the cakes remaining in the basket, but any of this food left over was to be burned the next morning. This emphasized the cleanness and also stressed the completeness of their sanctification and ser­ vice (because what was eaten was free from any putrefaction or staleness, and remainders were completely disposed of). It is notable also that no leaven was in the cakes. -Le 8:31, 3 2 ; Ex 29 : 31 -34. Completion of the Installation. The instal­ lation took seven days, before the end of which the priesthood could not officiate in the fullest sense. On each of the days, a bull was sacrificed as a sin offering to purify the altar. During the entire seven days, day and night, the newly or­ dained priests had to man posts of duty at the entrance of the tent of meeting, keeping "the obligatory watch of Jehovah," that they might not die.-Le 8 : 33-36 ; Ex 29 : 35 -42. On the eighth day, fully equipped and installed in office, the priesthood officiated (without Mo­ ses' assistance) for the first time, performing an atonement service for the nation of Israel, espe­ cially in need of cleansing not only because of their natural sinfulness but also because of their recent disobedience in connection with the golden calf, which had brought Jehovah's displeasure. ( Le 9: 1 - 7 ; Ex 32: 1 -10) At the conclusion of this first service by the newly installed priesthood, Jehovah manifested his approval and confirma­ tion of them in office by sending miraculous fire, doubtless from the pillar of cloud above the taber­ nacle, devouring the remainder of the sacrifice on the altar.-Le 9: 23, 24. The Bible gives no record of an installation ceremony for the successors of Aaron. Evidently the one installation service was sufficient to place the Aaronic house and all its male offspring in their priestly office once and for all, to continue to time indefinite, down until the installation in of­ fice of the true and everlasting high priest Jesus Christ.-Heb 7: 12, 17; 9 : 1 1 , 12; see HIGH PRIEST; PRIEST. INSTRUCTION. Direction or teaching that calls for compliance. The Hebrew verb ya·rahl means "instruct; direct; teach. " The Hebrew term le'qach (instruction) basically means Ita taking."

1209 ( De 3 2 : 2 ; compare Jer 9 : 20, where the related verb occurs in the expression "may your ear take the word of his mouth. " ) The same term is ren­ dered "persuasiveness" in Proverbs 16 : 2 1 . The Greek pai·deu'o means "instruct ; chastise; disci­ pline," and the Greek ka·te·khe'o means "teach orally; instruct. " Jehovah i s the "Grand Instructor" of his people ( Isa 30: 20), and those who receive his instruction are under obligation to act in harmony with it -they " will walk in his paths" and "will have to beat their swords into plowshares and their spears into pruning shears." (Isa 2 : 2, 3; Mic 4: 2, 3 ) Appreciating the value of Jehovah's instruc­ tion and having a desire to comply with it, his servants pray: "Instruct me, 0 Jehovah, about your way. I shall walk in your truth. Unify my heart to fear your name."-Ps 86 : 11 ; 27: 1 1 ; 119 : 33. In ancient Israel, Jehovah assigned the priests as instructors of his people. Emphasizing the im­ portance of compliance with instruction received through this channel, Moses said: "You must do in accordance with the word that they will hand down to you from that place which Jehovah will choose ; and you must be careful to do according to all that they instruct you. In accordance with the law that they will point out to you, and according to the judicial decision that they will say to you, you should do. You must not turn aside from the word that they will hand down to you, to the right or to the left. " ( De 17: 10, 11 ; 24: 8 ) To those in the Christian congregation, the apostle Paul wrote: "All the things that were written aforetime were written for our instruc­ tion, that through our endurance and through the comfort from the Scriptures we might have hope." (Ro 15:4) We do well, therefore, to search out the commandments, take note of the underlying principles, and learn well the lessons that are set forth throughout God's inspired Word and then comply with these in our own lives.-See PUBUC INSTRUCTOR. Instruction can be received even from the do­ mestic animals and from the earth, as stated at Job 1 2 : 7- 10. ( Pr 6 : 6 ) In these, wise persons will see evidence of the handiwork of God and of the fact that all life is dependent upon God. Humans who fail to act in harmony with this abundant evidence are, as the apostle Paul wrote, "inexcus­ able." -Ro 1 : 20. Those who became disciples of Jesus Christ addressed him as Instructor, thus acknowledging his authority and their responsibility to comply

INTEGRITY

with his directions. (Lu 5 : 5 ; 9 : 3 3 ) A group of ten leprous men who implored Jesus for mercy like­ wise addressed him in this manner.-Lu 17: 13. Although instruction calls for compliance and is not merely for enterta�nment, it can be imparted in a refreshing way. Jehovah directed Moses to teach Israel a song in which he said: "My instruc­ tion will drip as the rain, my saying will trickle as the dew, as gentle rains upon grass. " ( De 3 2 : 2 ) To the Christian overseer Timothy, Paul wrote about "instructing with mildness those not favorably disposed; as perhaps God may give them repen­ tance leading to an accurate knowledge of truth." ( 2Ti 2 : 25 ) Instruction can, however, involve dis­ cipline in the form of chastisement. Such disci­ pline is not always easy to take, but when one responds to it, it will yield "peaceable fruit, name­ ly, righteousness. "-Heb 12 : 7- 1 1 . Not all instruction is given b y one whose moti­ vation is proper, nor is the objective necessarily beneficial for the one who receives it. "Moses was instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians," but at the age of 40 he openly identified himself with the Hebrews and left behind what could have been his inheritance in the royal courts of Egypt. (Ac 7 : 2 2 ) Isaiah spoke of prophets in Israel who gave false instruction, and Micah wrote re­ garding priests who instructed "just for a price. " (Mic 3 : 11 ; Isa 9: 15 ) Some persons foolishly turned to molten statues for instruction. (Hab 2 : 18) The soldiers who had been guarding Jesus' tomb were willing, after they had been bribed, to comply with the instruction given them to lie regarding what had happened to Jesus' body.-Mt 28: 12-15.

INSTRUMENT. See STRINGED INSTRUMENT; LEv­ EUNG INSTRUMENT. INTEG RITY.

Moral soundness, completeness, one's being blameless and faultless. The Hebrew terms relating to integrity ( tom, tum·mah � tam, ta·mim/ ) have the root meaning of that which is "complete" or "whole. " ( Compare Le 2 5 : 30; Jos 10: 1 3 ; Pr 1 : 12 . ) Ta·mim / is used several times to refer to physical completeness, or sound­ ness, and freedom from impairment, for example, regarding sacrificial animals. ( Ex 1 2 : 5 ; 29 : 1 ; Le 3 : 6 ) But more frequently these terms describe moral soundness or blamelessness. When applied to God, ta·miml may properly be translated "perfect," as in describing Jehovah's activity and works, his way, knowledge, and law. ( De 32:4; Job 36:4; 37: 16; Ps 18:30; 19 : 7 ) All these divine qualities and expressions manifest such unmatchable completeness and fullness, are

INTEGRITY

so sound and free from defect, or fault, that they clearly identify their Source as the one true God. -Ro 1 : 20 ; see PERFECTION. Significance of Human Integrity. In a few cases the Hebrew tom conveys simply the idea of honest motive, innocence as to wrong intention. ( Compare Ge 20: 5, 6; 2Sa 15 : 11 . ) But mainly these related Hebrew terms describe unswerving devotion to righteousness. Biblical usage and ex­ amples emphasize unbreakable devotion to a per­ son, Jehovah God, and to his expressed will and purpose as the course of vital importance. In volved in the supreme issue. The first hu­ man pair were given the opportunity to manifest integrity in Eden. The restriction regarding the tree of knowledge put to the test their devotion to their Creator. Under the pressure of outside influ­ ence from God's Adversary and his appeal to selfishness, they gave way to disobedience. Their shame, their reluctance to face their Creator, and their lack of candor in responding to his questions all gave evidence of their lack of integrity. ( Com­ pare Ps 119: 1 , 80. ) Obviously, however, they were not the first to break integrity, since the spirit creature who led them into a rebellious course had already done so.-Ge 3 : 1- 19 ; compare his course with the dirge pronounced against the king of Tyre at Eze 28: 12- 1 5 ; see SATAN.

Satan's rebellion, visibly initiated in Eden, pro­ duced an issue of universal importance-that of the rightfulness of God's sovereignty over all his creatures, his right to require full obedience of them. Since the issue was not one of superiority of power but, rather, was a moral issue, it could not be settled merely by the exercise of power, as by God's immediately crushing Satan and the human pair out of existence. This fact is an aid in understanding why wickedness and its author, Satan, have been allowed to continue so long. (See WICKEDNESS. ) Since God's Adversary first drew upon humans for support and endorsement of his rebel course (the earliest evidence for any siding with Satan on the part of spirit sons of God not appearing until sometime prior to the Flood; Ge 6 : 1-5; compare 2Pe 2 :4, 5 ), this made the ques­ tion of man's integrity to God's sovereign will an essential part of the overall issue ( though Jeho­ vah's sovereignty is not itself dependent on the integrity of his creatures ). Proof of this is seen in the case of Job. Job. Job, who evidently lived in the period between the death of Joseph and the time of Moses, is described as a man who had "proved to be blameless [Heb. , tam] and upright, and fearing

1210 God and turning aside from bad." (Job 1 : 1 ; see JOB. ) That human integrity forms part of the issue between Jehovah God and Satan is clear from God's questioning his Adversary about Job when Satan appeared during an angelic assembly in the courts of heaven. Satan imputed false motive to Job's worship of God, alleging that Job served not out of pure devotion but for selfish benefits. He thereby placed in question Job's integrity to God. Permitted to divest Job of his vast possessions and even of his children, Satan failed to crack Job's integrity. (Job 1 :6-2 : 3 ) He then claimed that Job was selfishly willing to endure the loss of possessions and children as long as he could save his own skin. (Job 2 :4, 5 ) Thereafter stricken with a painful, consuming disease and subjected to dissuasion from his own wife as well as to dispar­ aging criticism and slurs from companions who misrepresented God's standards and purposes (Job 2 : 6-13; 22: 1 , 5 - 1 1 ), Job's response was that he would not deny having been a man of integri­ ty. "Until I expire I shall not take away my integ­ rity from myself ! On my justness I have laid hold, and I shall not let it go ; my heart will not taunt me for any of my days. " (Job 27 :5, 6) His main­ taining integrity demonstrated that God's Adver­ sary was a liar. Satan's challenging statements in Job's case show he held the position that all persons could be drawn away from God's side, that none served out of a purely unselfish motive. Thus humans, as well as God's spirit sons, have the remarkable privilege of contributing to the vindication and sanctification of God's name and demonstrating their support of Jehovah's sovereignty, doing so by a course of integrity. The ones "blameless in their way are a pleasure" to Jehovah. -Pr 11 : 20; contrast this with the false view advanced by Eliphaz at Job 22: 1 -3. Basis for divine judgment. Having a favor­ able judgment from God is dependent on the creature's integrity-keeping course. (Ps 18: 23-2 5 ) As King David wrote: "Jehovah himself will pass sentence on the peoples. Judge me, 0 JehOVah, according to my righteousness and according to my integrity in me. Please, may the badness of wicked ones come to an end, and may you estab­ lish the righteous one. " (Ps 7:8, 9; compare Pr 2 : 2 1 , 22. ) Suffering Job expressed the confidence that "[ Jehovah] will weigh me in accurate scales and God will get to know my integrity." (Job 31 : 6 ) Job thereafter lists about a dozen examples from actual life that, if true of him, would have demon­ strated a lack of integrity.-Job 31 : 7-40.

1211

INTEGRITY

1 2 : 4 ; compare Jer 20: 7 ) or made the object of their bitter speech ( Ps 64: 3, 4 ), hatred, and violent persecution ( Pr 29: 10; Am 5: 10), whether i n sickness or in distressful

laughingstock by opposers ( Job

What does integrity keeping include in the case of imperfect h uman s ? Since a l l men are imperfect and unable t o mea­ sure up perfectly to God's standards, it is evident that their integrity does not mean perfection of action or of speech. Rather, the Scriptures show it means wholeness or completeness of heart devo­ tion. David, through weakness, committed sever­ al serious wrongs, but he, nevertheless, 'walked with integrity of heart' ( l Ki

9 :4 ),

for he accepted

reproof and corrected his way. He thereby proved that his heart still retained genuine love for Jeho­ vah God. ( Ps

26: 1 -3 , 6, 8, 11 )

As David later told

his son Solomon: "Know the God of your father and serve him with a complete heart and with a delightful soul; for all hearts Jehovah is search­ ing, and every inclination of the thoughts he is discerning. " Solomon's heart, however, did not "prove to be complete with Jehovah his God like the heart of David his father."- lCh

11 :4;

1 Ki

the word "complete" in these two texts is

from another Hebrew term,

11: 1 ;

28: 9 ;

l Ki

sha·lem ',

as at Pr

1 5 : 14.

adversity, a person must 'hold fast his integrity' as did Job, no matter what the cost. -Job

2 : 3.

Such an integrity-keeping course is possible, not by the individual's personal moral strength, but only through deep faith and trust in Jehovah and His saving power. ( Ps

2 5 : 21 )

God's promise is

that he will be a "shield" and "stronghold," guard­ ing the way of those walking in integrity. ( Pr

2 : 6-8; 10 :29 ;

Ps

41 : 1 2 )

Their constant concern

for gaining Jehovah's approval brings stability to their lives, enabling them to follow a straight

26: 1 -3 ;

course to their goal. (Ps

1 1 : 5 ; 28: 18 )

Pr

Though, as Job perplexedly observed, the blame­ less may suffer because of the rule of the wicked and may die along with the wicked, Jehovah assures that he is aware of the life of the faultless person and guarantees that such a person's inher­ itance will continue, his future will be peaceful, and he will come into the possession of good. (Job

9 : 20-2 2 ;

Ps

37: 18, 19, 37; 84 : 11 ;

Pr

28: 10)

As in

Job's case, it is being a man of integrity, rather than one's wealth, that makes one a person of

Integrity is therefore not restricted to any one aspect of human conduct ; it does not apply just to

genuine worth, meriting respect. ( Pr

19: 1 ; 28: 6 )

Children privileged t o have such a person for a

matters obviously "religious. " For God's servant it

parent are to be counted happy ( Pr

is a way of life in which the individual 'walks,'

ing a splendid legacy in their father's life exam­

20 : 7 ),

receiv­

constantly searching to know Jehovah's will. ( Ps

ple, enjoying a share in his good name and the

1 19 : 1-3)

respect he gained.

David shepherded the nation of Israel

"according to the integrity of his heart, " both in matters directly relating to Jehovah's worship and in his conduct of governmental affairs. He also desired that those around him and those acting as his ministers likewise be persons of integrity, "walking in a faultless way . " ( Ps

101 : 2-7)

78:72 ;

One 'proves himself faultless' before God

over a period of time, as did Noah, Abraham, and others.-Ge

6 : 9 ; 17: 1 ;

2 Sa

2 2 : 24.

In addition to the examples of Job and David, the Hebrew Scriptures are replete with other ex­ amples of men of integrity. Abraham showed upswerving loyalty to God in his willingness to sacrifice his son Isaac. (Ge

22: 1 - 1 2 )

Daniel and his

three companions provide sterling illustrations of integrity under test, in youth and in later life. ( Da

1 : 8-17; 3 : 13-2 3 ; 6 :4-23)

At Hebrews chapter

11,

the apostle Paul lists a long line o f men of pre­

Integrity requires uncompromising loyalty to

Christian times who through faith displayed in­

God and adherence to righteousness, not merely

tegrity under a wide variety of difficult circum­ stances.-Note particularly vss 33-38.

under favorable conditions or circumstances, but under all conditions and at all times. After stress­

Integrity in the Christian Greek Scriptures.

ing that only the integrity-keeper, "speaking the truth in his heart," is acceptable to Jehovah, the

Whereas no exact word for "integrity" appears in the Christian Greek Scriptures, the idea pervades

psalmist says of such a one that "he has sworn to

this entire portion of the Bible. God's Son, Jesus

what is bad for himself, and yet he does not alter," that is, even if something he has solemnly

Christ, gave the finest example of integrity and of supreme trust in his heavenly Father's strength

agreed to turns out to be apparently against his

and care. He thereby was "made perfect" for his

personal interests, he still stays true to his agree­

of the heavenly Kingdom, one greater than Da­

Integrity, then, is most evident when the individ­

vid's. ( Heb 5 : 7-9 ; 4 : 1 5 ; 7 : 26-28; Ac 2 : 34, 35 ) Integrity is embraced in the commandment Jesus singled out as the greatest of all-loving Jehovah

( Ps

1 5 : 1 -5 ;

contrast Ro

1 :31,

position as High Priest, as well as Anointed King

1 : 10. )

ment.

I Ti

ual's devotion is under test and he is pressured to abandon his righteous course. Though made a

INTEREST

God with one's whole heart, mind, soul, and strength. ( Mt 2 2 : 36-38 ) His injunction that "you must accordingly be perfect, as your heavenly Father is perfect" ( Mt 5 : 48) also stressed a com­ pleteness of one's devotion to righteousness. (The Greek terms for perfection convey the idea of that which has been 'brought to completion' and so are somewhat similar in meaning to the Hebrew terms already discussed. ) Jesus' teachings emphasized purity of heart, singleness of outlook and intent, freedom from hypocrisy-all these being qualities that charac­ terize integrity. (Mt 5 : 8 ; 6: 1-6, 16-18, 22, 23; Lu 1 1 : 34-36 ) The apostle Paul showed the same con­ cern as had David and earlier servants of God for proving blameless and faultless. He was free from any charge of corruption or deviousness in his ministry and in all his dealings with others.-2Co 4: 1, 2; 6:3-10; 8 : 20, 21 ; 1 Th 1 : 3-6. Perseverance in a God-given commission in the face of opposition, and endurance of privations, persecu tion, and suffering for adhering to a course of godly devotion, also marked Paul and other early Christians as persons of integrity. -Ac 5 : 27-41 ; 2Co 11 : 23-27. INTEREST. The price or rate paid by a debtor for the use of what he borrows. Already in the second millennium B.c. E., Bab­ ylon had a fully developed loan system. The Code of Hammurabi indicates a 20-percent inter­ est rate on money and grain, and it stipulates that a merchant charging a higher rate would forfeit the amount lent. By contrast God's law to Israel prohibited making loans on interest to needy fel­ low Israelites. No one was to profit from another's financial reverses. ( Ex 2 2 : 2 5 ; Le 25 :36, 37 ; De 2 3 : 19 ) And Proverbs 28 : 8 indicates that for­ tunes acquired from interest wrongfully collect­ ed would eventually become the possession of "the one showing favor to the lowly ones. " Foreigners, however, could b e charged interest by the Israelites. ( De 23 : 20 ) Jewish commenta­ tors understand this to apply, not to cases of need, but to business loans. ( The Pentateuch and Haftorahs, edited by J. H. Hertz, London, 1972, p. 849 ) Usually foreigners were in Israel only temporarily, often as merchants, and could rea­ sonably be expected to pay interest, particularly since they would also be lending to others on interest. Whereas upright Israelites obeyed God's law about making interest-free loans ( Ps 15 : 5 ; Eze 1 8 : 5 , 8, 17 ), lending on interest apparently be­ came common and brought hardships on needy

1212

debtors. ( Ne 5 : 1 - 11 ; Isa 24 : 2 ; Eze 18 : 13 ; 22: 1 2 ) Jesus Christ, though, upheld God's law i n this regard and gave it an even broader application, saying: "Continue . . . to lend without interest, not hoping for anything back . " ( Lu 6 : 34, 35 ) It would therefore be improper to withhold assistance from a person who because of continued adversi­ ty and through no fault of his own might be unable to repay a debt. But when the loan is not needed to relieve poverty, there would be no objection to a person's charging interest on a loan. Jesus himself, by having the wicked slave in one of his illustrations censured for failing to deposit his master's money with the bankers so as to draw interest, implied that receiving interest from invested capital is proper.-Mt 25: 26, 27 ; Lu 19 : 2 2, 23. INTERPRETATION . In the Bible an inter­ preter may be either of two kinds. He may be a translator, one who conveys the meaning of words spoken or written in one language to per­ sons reading or speaking another, and he can do this either orally or in writing. On the other hand, an interpreter may be one who explains Bible prophecy by giving others the meaning, signif­ icance, and understanding of prophetic dreams, visions, and messages of divine origin. Translation. The confusion of man's lan­ guage during the building of the Tower of Babel resulted in the human family's suddenly becom­ ing a multilingual race. This, in turn, gave rise to a new profession, that of interpreter or translator. (Ge 11 : 1-9 ) Some five centuries later, in order to conceal his identity as their brother, Joseph em­ ployed a translator to interpret for him when speaking to his Hebrew brothers in the Egyptian language. (Ge 42 : 2 3 ) A form of the Hebrew word lits ( deride; scorn) is rendered "interpreter" in this text. The same word is sometimes rendered 'spokesman' when referring to an envoy versed in a foreign language, as were "the spokesmen of the princes of Babylon" sent to converse with King Hezekiah of Judah.-2Ch 32 : 31 . The gift of speaking in foreign tongues was one of the manifestations of God's outpoured holy spirit upon the faithful disciples of Christ on Pen­ tecost 33 c.E. However, this was no duplication of what occurred on the Plains of Shinar 22 centu­ ries earlier. For, instead of replacing their original language with a new one, these disciples retained their mother tongue and at the same time were enabled to speak in the tongues of foreign­ language groups about the magnificent things of God. (Ac 2 : 1-11 ) Along with this ability to speak in different tongues, other miraculous gifts of the

1213 spInt were bestowed o n members o f the ear­ ly Christian congregation, including the gift of translating from one language to another. Chris­ tians were also given instruction on the proper use of this gift.-1Co 1 2 : 4 - 10, 27-30; 14: 5 , 13-28. The most remarkable example of translation from one language to another is the rendering of the Bible into many, many tongues, a monumen­ tal task that has consumed centuries of time. Today this Book, the whole or in part, appears in well over 1 ,800 languages. However, none of such translations or their translators were inspired. Historically, such translation work dates back to the third century B.c.E. when work on the Greek Septuagint was begun in which the inspired Holy Scriptures in Hebrew and Aramaic, the 39 bqoks as they are now reckoned, were rendered into the common Greek, or Koine, the international lan­ guage of that time. Bible writers of the 27 books that make llP the Christian Greek Scriptures, which books complet­ ed the Bible's canon, often quoted from the Hebr�w Scriptures. Apparently they sometimes used the Greek Septuagin t instead of personally translating from the Hebrew text of the Scrip­ tures. ( Compare Ps 40 :6 [ 39 : 7, LXX ] with Heb 10: 5 . ) They also made their own rather free translations, however, as is seen by comparing Hosea 2 : 23 with Romans 9 : 25 . An example of where they paraphrased, inst�ad of making a literal translation, may be noted by comparing Deuteronomy 30: 1 1 - 14 with Romans 10:6-8. These Bible writers often translated the n;3.mes of persons, titles, places, and expressions for the benefit of their readers. They gave the meaning of such names as Cephas, Barnabas, Tabitha, Bar­ Jesus, and Melchizedek ( Joh 1 :42 ; Ac 4 : 36 ; 9 : 36 ; 13:6, 8; Heb 7 : 1, 2 ) ; also the meaning o f the titles Immanuel, Rabbi, and Messiah ( Mt 1 : 23; Joh 1 : 38, 41 ) ; the meaning of places like Golgotha, Siloam, and Salem ( Mr 1 5 : 2? ; Joh 9 : 7 ; Heb 7 : 2 ) ; and translations o f the terms 'TaFi·tha cu 'mi" and "E'li, E'li, la'ma sa·bach·tha 'ni ?"-Mr 5 : 41 ; 15 : 34. Matthew first wrote his Gospel account in He­ brew, according to the ancient testimony of Je­ rome, Eusebius Pamphili, Origen, Irenaeus, and Papias. Who translated this Gospel later into Greek is not known. If Matthew did so hirpself, as some think, then it is the only known inspired . translation of Scripture. In classical Greek the word her·me·neu 'o often means "explain, interpret. " In the Christiaq Greek Scriptures it has the meaning "translate. " ( Joh 1 :42 ; 9 : 7 ; Heb 7 : 2 ) It is similar to the name of the Greek god Hermes ( Mercury ), regarded by an-

INTERPRETATION

cient mythologists not only as the messenger, envoy, and interpreter for the gods but also the patron of writers, speakers, and translators. The pagans in Lystra called Paul " Hermes , since he was the one taking the lead in speaking � " ( Ac 14: 1 2 ) The prefix me·ta ' implies "a change," and so, added to her·me·neu 'o, the word me·ther·me­ neu'o·mai results, a word tpat also occurs several times in the Bible. It means "change or translate from one language to another," and is always in the passive voice, as "when translated. "-Mt 1 : 23. Interpretation of Prophecy.

Di·er·me·neu'o

is a strengthened and intensified form of her·me­ neu 'o. It is usually used in reference to translating languages ( Ac 9 : 36 ; l Co 12 : 30), but it also signi­ fies "explain fully ; interpret fully. " Di·er·rpe·neu'o was therefore the word Luke used in relating how Jesus on the road to Emmaus with two of his disciples commenced with the writings of Moses and the prophets and "interpreted to them things pertaining to himself in all the Scriptures. " The two disciples were later telling others of the expe­ rience, how Jesus was "fully opening up the Scrip­ tures" to them. -Lu 24: 13-15, 25-32. Dy-ser·me'neu·tos has an opposite meaning. It was used by Paul and is found only at Hebrews 5 : 1 1 , meaning "hard to interpret, " that is, "hard to be explained. " -See In t. Another Greek word rendered "interpretation" is epi'ly·sis, from the verb literally meaning "loos­ en up or release" ( hence, explain or solve ) . True prophecy does not find its source in the expressed opinions or interpretations of men but, rather, originates with God. Hence Peter writes: "No prophecy of Scripture springs from any private interpretation [epi·Jy'se ·os ] . . . but men spoke from God as they were borne along by holy spirit. " ( 2Pe 1 : 20, 21 ) Thus, the Bible prophecies were never the product of astute deductions and predictions by men based on their personal analysis of human events or trends. The meaning of some prophecies was obvious, hence requiring no interpretation, as when the prophet was used to foretell that the Judeans would 'go into captivity to the king of Babylon for seventy years' or that Babylon would become 'a desolate waste. ' The time of the fulfillment, of course, was not always known, though in some cases this, too, was explicitly stated. Many proph­ ecies or particular features of the prophecies, however, were only partially understood at the time of their being given, the full understand­ ing or interpretation awaiting God's due time for their being made clear. This was true with some of the prophecies of Daniel and with regard

1214

INTERPRETER

to the Messiah and the sacred secret involving him. -Da 12 :4, 8-10; lPe 1 : 10- 12. All of Egypt's magic-practicing priests and wise men were helpless when it came to interpreting Pharaoh's God-sent dreams. "There was no inter­ preter of them for Pharaoh. " (Ge 41 : 1 -8) It was then brought to Pharaoh's attention that Joseph had successfully interpreted the dreams of Pha­ raoh's chief cupbearer and chief baker. ( Ge 40: 5 - 2 2 ; 41 : 9 - 1 3 ) However, in that connection Joseph had taken no credit to himself but had called their attention to Jehovah as the Interpret­ er of dreams, saying, "Do not interpretations be­ long to God?" (Ge 40: 8 ) So when called before Pharaoh to interpret the king's dream, Joseph declared: "I need not be considered! God will announce welfare to Pharaoh. " ( Ge 41 : 14 - 16 ) Af­ ter hearing the interpretation, even Pharaoh ac­ knowledged Joseph to be "one in whom the spirit of God" was found, for "God has caused you [Joseph] to know all this. "-Ge 41 : 38, 39. Similarly, Daniel was used by God to make known the interpretation of Nebuchadnezzar's dreams. After first praying to God for under­ standing of the secret and getting the answer in a night vision, Daniel was brought before the king both to recall the forgotten dream and then to give the interpretation. (Da 2 : 14 -26 ) By way of an introduction, Daniel reminded the king that all his wise men, conjurers, magic-practicing priests, and astrologers were unable to interpret the dream. "However," Daniel continued, "there exists a God in the heavens who is a Revealer of secrets, . . . as for me, it is not through any wisdom that exists in me more than in any others alive that this secret is revealed to me, except to the intent that the interpretation may be made known to the king. "-Da 2 : 27-30. On a second occasion, when all the magic­ practicing priests, conjurers, Chaldeans, and as­ trologers were unable to interpret the king's dream concerning the great tree that was cut down, Daniel was again called in, and again the divine origin of the prophecy was emphasized. In virtual acknowledgment of this fact, the king said to Daniel: "I myself well know that the spirit of the holy gods is in you," and "you are competent, because the spirit of holy gods is in you."-Da 4:4- 18, 24. Years later, on the very night in which Babylon fell to the Medes and Persians, this aging servant of Jehovah, Daniel, was once again called upon to interpret a divine message for a king. This time a mysterious hand had written MENE, MENE, TEKEL, PARSIN on the palace wall during Bel-

shazzar's feast. All the wise men of Babylon proved unable to interpret the cryptic writing. The queen mother then recalled that Daniel was still available, the one "in whom there is the spirit of holy gods," as well as "illumination and insight and wisdom like the wisdom of gods. " In inter­ preting the writing, which was really a prophecy in itself, Daniel once again magnified Jehovah as the God of true prophecy.-Da 5 : 1 , 5-28. INTERPRETER.

See INTERPRETATION.

INTESTINES. The bowels or entrails. The Hebrew word qe/rev is used to describe the "inte­ rior parts," "inward parts," or "intestines" of men and of animals. (Ex 1 2 : 9 ; 29 : 13 ; Ps 5 :9) It denotes that which is "inside" and is often used as a preposition, with the meaning "within; in the midst of. "-Ge 25 : 2 2 ; De 17: 20. Another term that refers to the internal or­ gans is the Hebrew me·'eh'. Always occurring in the plural (me·'im /), it is used for "intestines" in 2 Samuel 20: 10 and 2 Chronicles 21 : 15, 18, 19. The word may denote the "inward parts" of a creature, as in the account of the large fish that swallowed Jonah. There it occurs twice and is shown in parallel with the "belly" of the large fish. (Jon 1 : 17 ; 2 : 1 , 2) The reproductive system of humans may also be referred to by this Hebrew term. ( Ge 15:4; Ru 1 : 1 1 ) Because of the evident link between the emotions and internal organs, the intestines, or bowels, were considered the seat of the deepest emotions.-Compare Isa 63 : 15; Jer 4: 19 ; 31 : 20. Physical food is assimilated by the intestines. This fact was metaphorically used to represent mental or spiritual digestion when, in vision, Eze­ kiel was told to eat a scroll, filling his intestines ( Heb., me · 'im /) with it. Ezekiel was to gain spiri­ tual strength by meditating upon and storing in his memory the words written in the scroll. He was thereby nourished spiritually and provided with a message to speak.-Eze 3: 1-6; compare Re 10:8-10. In the Christian Greek Scriptures, the word spJag'khna, which literally means "intestines," is used once to refer to the literal intestines. (Ac 1 : 18) Elsewhere it is metaphorically used to de­ note "tender affections" and "tender compas­ sions."-2Co 6: 12; Php 1 : 8 ; 2: 1 ; Col 3: 12; 110 3 : 17. INTOXICATION.

See DRUNKENNESS.

lOB . Third-named son of Issachar. (Ge 46 : 1 3 ) At Numbers 26:24 and 1 Chronicles 7: 1 , the name appears as Jashub.

1215

IRON

IPHDEIAH (Iphde'iah ) [May Jah Redeem; Jah Has Redeemed ]. Son of Shashak; a headman of the tribe of Benjami n.-1Ch 8: 1 , 25, 28.

of Ir-nahash is uncertain. Some scholars favor as a possible identification Deir Nahhas, about 20 km ( 12 mi ) WNW of Hebron.

IPHTAH (lph'tah) [ shortened form of Iphtah­ ell. A city of Judah in the Shephelah. (Jos 15 : 20, 33, 43 ) Tarqumiya, about 10 km (6 mi ) WNW of Hebron, has been suggested as a possible location.

IRON. One of the oldest metals known to man. Today it is rated the most abundant, most useful, and cheapest of all metals. It is the fourth most plentiful element in the crust of the earth, while the earth's core is said to be nearly 90 percent iron. The Bible record reveals that it was used in the making of tools, nails, gates, weapons, fetters, instruments for writing, and even false gods. Pure iron in commerce is uncommon. Pig iron contains about 3 percent carbon plus small amounts of other elements. Wrought iron has much less carbon. (Job 40: 18) The many varieties of steel are simply iron alloyed with carbon and other additives to give them special characteris­ tics. "Steel" in the King James Version, however, is a mistranslation for "copper. " ( 2Sa 22 : 3 5 ; Job 20 : 24 ; Ps 18:34; Jer 15 : 12 ) Because of the crude furnaces and smelting methods, the iron in Bible times was never totally purified but was an alloy of carbon and other elements. TUbal-cain of the fourth millennium B.c.E. was the first person known to forge and work with iron.-Ge 4: 22. Meteoric iron was one type used at an early time by man. In Egyptian tombs iron beads have been found that have proved to be meteoric in composition. But man was not limited to that source of supply. He mined iron oxides and sul­ fides and smelted the same, notwithstanding the high temperatures needed to melt iron. ( Job 28: 2; Eze 22:20; see REF1NE, REF1NER. ) However, its use was quite limited compared with copper and bronze, which could be worked cold. Neverthe­ less, iron doubtless was especially valued because of its great strength and utility. Iron was included among the spoils of war highly esteemed by the Israelites. (Nu 31 : 22; Jos 6 : 19, 24 ; 22:8) But more than captured iron was to be their portion. Mo­ ses promised that upon reaching Palestine, they would find iron deposits, and so it proved to be. ( De 8:9) Other sources of iron mentioned in the Bible included Thrshish, as well as "Vedan and Javan from Uzal."-Eze 27 : 12, 19. In their conquest of the Promised Land, the Israelites were confronted with war chariots equipped with iron scythes. ( Jos 17: 16, 18; Jg 1 : 19 ) At one point during Saul's reign, "there was not a smith [metalworker] to be found in all the land of Israel . " Because of a ban imposed by the Philistines, only the king and his son Jonathan had a sword ; Israel was forced to take all metal

IPHTAH-EL (Iph'tah-el) [ May God Open; God Has Opened ] . A valley on the boundary between the tribes of Zebulun and Asher. (Jos 19: 10, 14, 24, 27 ) Various places NW of Nazareth have been proposed, but the exact location is uncertain. IR [Full-Grown Ass ]. 'Father' of Shuppim and Huppim ( 1 Ch 7: 12 ) ; probably the same as the Benjamite Iri . - 1 Ch 7:7. IRA

(I'ra ) [ Full-Grown Ass ].

1 . A Jairite listed among King David's leading

officers as "a priest of David. " ( 2Sa 20:26 ) Ira perhaps was a descendant of the Jair mentioned at Numbers 32:41, and therefore, in this case the designation "priest" may signify "chief minister," "prince." There is no Biblical evidence that the Jairites were Levites. However, if the reading of the Syriac Peshitta is correct, Ira may have been a priest from the Levite city of Jattir (Jathir). -Compare 2Sa 8 : 18; lCh 6 : 57 ; 18: 17. 2. Son of Ikkesh the Tekoite; one of the mighty men of King David's military forces.-2Sa 23:24, 26 ; lCh 1 1 : 26, 28. 3. An Ithrite; another of King David's mighty men.-2 Sa 2 3 : 38 ; l Ch 11 : 40. IRAD (I'rad ). Grandson of Cain; forefather of the bigamist Lamech, and of Jabal and TUbal­ cain.-Ge 4: 17-23. IRAM (I'ram) [ possibly from a root meaning "full-grown ass" ]. A sheik or chieftain of Esau (Edom ).-Ge 36:43; 1 Ch 1 : 54. IRI (l'ri ) [ possibly from a root meaning "full­ grown ass" ]. Son of Bela ; a paternal head and valiant, mighty man of Benjamin. ( lCh 7 : 7 ) Iri is probably the same as the Ir of 1 Chronicles 7: 12. IRIJAH (I·ri'jah) [Jah Sees ]. "Son of Shelemiah the son of Hananiah" ; the officer in charge of the Gate of Benjamin in Jerusalem who arrested Jer­ emiah on the false charge of intending to desert to the Babylonians. -Jer 37: 13, 14. IR-NAHASH (Ir-na'hash) [ City of Nahash ]. Seemingly a place fathered, or founded, by the Judean Tehinnah. ( 1 Ch 4: 1 , 1 2 ) The exact location

IRPEEL

tools down to the Philistines to have them sharp­ ened.- 1Sa 1 3 : 19-22. Later, however, King David gathered together huge quantities of iron for use in the temple construction. Under Solomon's reign there was contributed "iron worth a hundred thousand tal­ ents," or, according to many translations, Ita hun­ dred thousand talents of iron. " ( l eh 22: 14, 16 ; 29 :2, 7) If the reference is to the value of the iron and if the talents were silver, then the iron was worth $660,600,000. If the reference is to the weigh t of the iron, then it amounted to about 3,420 metric tons ( 3,770 tons ). Figurative Usage. The iron furnace is a symbol of hard and hot oppression (De 4: 20 ; 1 Ki 8 : 51 ; Jer 1 1 :4); iron yokes, unbreakable bondage. ( De 28 :48 ; Jer 28: 13, 14) In a figurative sense iron symbolizes hardness (Le 26 : 19 ; De 28: 2 3 ), stub­ bornness ( Isa 48: 4 ; Jer 6 : 28), strength (Jer 1 : 18 ; Da 7 : 7 ; Re 9:9), kingly power, and judicial author­ ity ( Ps 2 : 9 ; Re 2 : 27 ; 12 : 5 ; 19 : 1 5 ). IRPEEL (Ir'pe·el ) [May God Heal; God Has Healed ]. A city of Benjamin. (Jos 18:21, 27 ) Some suggest as a possible identification Rafat, a village about 10 km (6 mil NW of Jerusalem. IR-SHEMESH ( Ir-she'mesh) [ City of the Sun ] . A town o n the boundary o f Dan, listed between Eshtaol and Shaalabbin in Joshua 19 :41 , 42. It is possibly the same as Beth-shemesh of Joshua 15 : 10. If so, then it was later occupied by the tribe of Judah and assigned from that tribe as one of the 48 Levite cities. -Jos 21 : 16 ; l Ch 6 : 59 ; Nu 35 :6, 7; see BETH-SHEMESH No. 1 . IRU ( I'ru ) [possibly from a root meaning "full­ grown ass" ]. The first-named son of Caleb the spy ; of Judah's tribe. ( lCh 4: 1 5 ) Some scholars think that the name was really Ir and that the "u" was only the Hebrew conjunction and. ISAAC (I'saac) [Laughter]. The only son of Abraham by his wife Sarah. Hence, a vital link in the line of descent leading to Christ. ( lCh 1 : 28, 34; Mt 1 : 1 , 2; Lu 3 : 34 ) Isaac was weaned at about 5, was as good as offered up as a sacrifice at perhaps 25, was married at 40, became father to twin sons at 60, and died at the age of 180.-Ge 21 :2-8; 2 2 : 2 ; 25 :20, 26; 3 5 : 28. The birth of Isaac was under the most unusual circumstances. Both his father and his mother were very old, his mother long before having stopped menstruating. ( Ge 18: 11 ) So when God told Abraham that Sarah would give birth to a son, he laughed over the prospect, saying: "Will a man a hundred years old have a child born, and

1 2 16

will Sarah, yes, will a woman ninety years old give birth?" (Ge 1 7 : 1 7 ) Upon learning what was to take place, Sarah laughed too. (See LAUGHTER. ) Then, "at the appointed time" the following year, the child was born, proving that nothing is "too extraordinary for Jehovah." ( Ge 18:9-15) Sarah then exclaimed : "God has prepared laughter for me," adding, "everybody hearing of it will laugh at me. " And so, just as Jehovah had said, the boy was appropriately named Isaac, meaning "Laugh­ ter. "-Ge 21 : 1-7; 1 7 : 19. Being of Abraham's household and heir to the promises, Isaac was properly circumcised on the eighth day.-Ge 17:9-14, 19 ; 21 :4; Ac 7 : 8 ; Ga 4 : 28. How old was Isaac when he was weaned ?

The day Isaac was weaned, Abraham prepared a big feast. Apparently on that occasion Sarah noticed Ishmael "poking fun" at his younger half brother Isaac. ( Ge 21 :8, 9) Some translations (JE, Mo, RS) say that Ishmael was only "playing" with Isaac, that is, in the sense of child's play. How­ ever, the Hebrew word tsa·chaql can also have an offensive connotation. Thus, when this same word occurs in other texts (Ge 19: 14 ; 39 : 14, 17), these translations render it "jesting" or "joking" and "insult. " Certain Targums, as well as the Syriac Peshitta, at Genesis 21 :9, give Ishmael's remarks the sense of "deriding. " Concerning tsa·chaql, Cook's Com ­ men tary says: "It probably means in this passage, as it has generally been understood, 'mocking laughter. ' As Abraham had laughed for joy con­ cerning Isaac, and Sarah had laughed incredu­ lously, so now Ishmael laughed in derision, and probably in a persecuting and tyrannical spirit. " Deciding the matter, the inspired apostle Paul clearly shows that Ishmael's treatment of Isaac was affliction, persecu tion, not childlike play. ( Ga 4 : 29 ) Certain commentators, in view of Sarah's insistence, in the next verse (Ge 21 : 10), that "the son of this slave girl is not going to be an heir with my son, with Isaac," suggest that Ishmael ( 14 years Isaac's senior) perhaps quarreled and taunted Isaac with regard to heirship. Jehovah had told Abraham that as alien resi­ dents his seed would be afflicted for 400 years, which affliction ended with Israel's deliverance out of Egypt in 1513 B.C.E. ( Ge 1 5 : 13 ; Ac 7 : 6 ) Four hundred years prior thereto would mark 1913 B.C.E. as the beginning of that affliction.

1217 Consequently, this also fixes 1913 as the year Isaac was weaned, since timewise the two events, his being weaned and his being mistreated by Ishmael, are closely associated in the account. This means that Isaac was about five years old when weaned, having been born in 1918 B.C.E. Incidentally, his birth marked the beginning of the 450 years mentioned in Acts 13: 17-20, which time period ended about 1467 B.C.E. when Josh­ ua's campaign in Canaan concluded and the land was distributed to the various tribes. Today, when so many women in the Western world refuse to nurse their babies, or nurse them for only six to nine months, a five-year · period may seem inconceivably long. But Dr. D. B. Jel­ liffe reports that in many parts of the world children are not weaned until they are one and a half to two years old, and in Arabia it is custom­ ary for a mother to nurse her young anywhere from 13 to 32 months. Medically speaking, nurs­ ing, or lactation, may normally be continued un­ til the next pregnancy is some few months ad­ vanced. -Infant Nutrition in the Subtropics and Tropics, Geneva, 1968, p. 38. In the Middle Ages in Europe the average age for weaning was two years, and in the time of the Maccabees ( first and second century B.C.E. ) wom­ en nursed their sons for three years. ( 2 Maccabees 7:27 ) Four thousand years ago when people lived an unrushed life, and there was not the present­ day pressure or necessity to telescope so much into the shortened life span, it is easy to under­ stand why Sarah could have nursed Isaac for five years. Besides, he was Sarah's only child after many years of barrenness. Willing to Be Sacrificed. After Isaac was weaned, nothing further is said of his childhood. The next notice we have of him is when God said to his father Abraham: " Take , please, your son, your only son whom you so love, Isaac, and make a trip to the land of Moriah and there offer him up as a burnt offering. " ( Ge 22: 1 , 2 ) After a three­ day journey they came to the place selected by God. Isaac carried the wood ; his father, the fire and the slaughtering knife. "But where is the sheep for the burnt offering?" Isaac asked. "God will provide himself the sheep" was the answer. -Ge 22: 3-8, 14. Reaching the site, they built an altar and laid the wood in place. Then Isaac was bound hand and foot and put atop the wood. As Abraham raised the knife, Jehovah's angel stayed his hand. Abraham's faith had not been misplaced; Jeho­ vah provided a ram, there caught in the mountain thicket, that could be offered up for a burnt offer-

ISAAC ing in the place of and as a substitute for Isaac. ( Ge 2 2 : 9 - 14) Thus Abraham, reckoning "that God was able to raise him up even from the dead," did "in an illustrative way" receive Isaac back from the dead.-Heb 11 : 17- 19. This dramatic episode proved the faith and obedience not only of Abraham but also of his son Isaac. Jewish tradition, recorded by Josephus, says that Isaac was 25 years old at the time. At any rate, he was old enough and strong enough to carry a considerable quantity of wood up a moun­ tain. So, he could have resisted his 125-year-old father when the time came to bind him if he had chosen to be rebellious against Jehovah's com­ mandments. (Jewish An tiquities, 1, 227 [ xiii, 2 ] ) Instead, Isaac submissively let his father proceed to offer him as a sacrifice in harmony with God's will. For this demonstration of Abraham's faith, Jehovah then repeated and enlarged upon his covenant with Abraham, which covenant was transferred by God to Isaac after the death of Isaac's father.-Ge 22: 15 - 18 ; 26: 1 -5 ; Ro 9 : 7 ; Jas 2:21. More important, a great prophetic picture was there enacted, portraying how Christ Jesus, the Greater Isaac, would in due time willingly lay down his human life as the Lamb of God for mankind's salvation. -Joh 1 : 29, 36; 3 : 16. Marriage and Family. After the death of Isaac's mother his father concluded it was time the son got married. Abraham, however, was determined that Isaac would not marry a pagan Canaanite. So, under the patriarchal arrange­ ment, Abraham sent his trusted household ser­ vant back to the relatives in Mesopotamia to pick a woman of Semitic origin who also worshiped Abraham's God Jehovah.-Ge 24: 1-9. The mission was bound to succeed, for from the very outset the whole matter of choice was placed in the hands of Jehovah. As it turned out, Isaac's cousin Rebekah proved to be God's choice, and she, in tum, willingly left her relatives and family to accompany the caravan back to the land of the Negeb where Isaac lived. The account tells of the meeting of the two for the. first time and then says: "After that Isaac brought her into the tent of Sarah his mother. Thus he took Rebekah and she became his wife; and he fell in love with her, and Isaac found comfort after the loss of his mother. " (Ge 24: 10-67) Isaac being 40, the marriage took place in 1878 B.C.E.-Ge 25 : 20. From the history of Isaac we learn that Rebekah continued barren for 20 years. This afforded Isaac the opportunity to show whether he, like his father, had faith in Jehovah's promise to bless all

1218

ISAIAH the families of the earth through a seed yet un­ born, and this he did by continually entreating Jehovah for a son. (Ge 25: 19-21 ) As in his own case, it was again demonstrated that the seed of promise would come, not through the natural course of events, but only through Jehovah's intervening power. ( Jos 24 : 3, 4) Finally, in 1858 B.c.E. , when Isaac was 60 years old, he was given the double blessing of twins, Esau and Jacob. - Ge 25: 22-26. Because of a famine, Isaac moved his family to Gerar in Philistine territory, being told by God not to go down to Egypt. It was on this occasion that Jehovah confirmed his purpose to carry out the Abrahamic promise through Isaac, repeating its terms: "I will multiply your seed like the stars of the heavens and I will give to your seed all these lands; and by means of your seed all nations of the earth will certainly bless themselves." -Ge 26 : 1- 6 ; Ps 105 :8, 9. In this not too friendly Philistine country, Isaac, like his father Abraham, used strategy by claim­ ing his wife was his sister. After a time, Jehovah's blessing on Isaac became a source of envy to the Philistines, making it necessary for him to move, first to the torrent valley of Gerar, and then to Beer-sheba, on the edge of the arid Negeb region. While here, the formerly hostile Philistines came seeking "an oath of obligation," or a treaty of peace, with Isaac, for as they acknowledged, "You now are the blessed of Jehovah. " At this place his men struck water and Isaac called it Shibah. "That is why the name of the city is Beer-sheba [ meaning " Well of the Oath; or, Well of Seven" ], down to this day."-Ge 26 : 7-3 3 ; see BEER-SHEBA. Isaac had always been fond of Esau, because he was the outdoor type, a hunter and a man of the field, and this meant game in Isaac's mouth. ( Ge 2 5 : 28 ) So, with failing eyesight and a feeling he did not have long to live, Isaac prepared to give Esau the firstborn's blessing. (Ge 27: 1-4) Wheth­ er he was unaware that Esau had sold his birth­ right to his brother Jacob and whether he failed to remember the divine decree, given before the two boys' birth, that "the older will serve the younger," is not known. ( Ge 2 5 : 23, 29-34 ) What­ ever the case, Jehovah remembered, and so did Rebekah, who quickly arranged things so that Jacob received the blessing. When Isaac learned of the ruse that had been used to accomplish this, he refused to change what was unmistakably Jehovah's will in the matter. Isaac also prophesied that Esau and his descendants would reside far away from the fertile fields, would live by the sword, and would finally break the yoke of servi-

tude to Jacob from off their necks.- Ge 27 : 5 -40; Ro 9: 10- 13 ; see ESAU. Subsequently, Isaac sent Jacob to Paddan-aram to make sure he did not marry a Canaanitess, as his brother Esau had done to the vexation of his parents. When Jacob returned many years lat­ er, Isaac was residing at Kiriath-arba, that is, Hebron, in the hill country. It was here in 1738 B.CE . , the year before his grandson Joseph was made prime minister of Egypt, that Isaac died at the age of 180, "old and satisfied with days. " Isaac was buried in the cave of Machpelah where his parents and his wife were buried, and where later his son Jacob would be buried.-Ge 2 6 : 34, 35; 27:46; 28: 1 - 5 ; 3 5 : 27-29 ; 49 : 29 -32. Significance of Other References to Isaac . Throughout the Bible, Isaac is mentioned dozens of times in the familiar expression "Abraham; Isaac and Jacob. " Sometimes the point being made is in reference to Jehovah as the God these patriarchs worshiped and served. ( Ex 3 : 6, 16; 4: 5 ; M t 2 2 : 3 2 ; Ac 3: 13 ) At other times the reference is to the covenant Jehovah made with them. ( Ex 2 : 24; De 29 : 13 ; 2Ki 13 : 2 3 ) Jesus also used this expression in an illustrative way. ( Mt 8: 11 ) In one instance Isaac, the patriarchal forefather, is men­ tioned in a Hebraic parallelism along with his descendants, the nation of Israel.-Am 7:9, 16. Isaac as the seed of Abraham was pictorial of Christ, through whom everlasting blessings come. As it is written: "Now the promises were spoken to Abraham and to his seed. It says, not: 'And to seeds, ' as in the case of many such, but as in the case of one: 'And to your seed,' who is Christ." And by extension, Isaac was also pictorial of those who "belong to Christ," who "are really Abraham'S seed, heirs with reference to a prom­ ise." ( Ga 3 : 16, 29 ) Furthermore, the two boys, Isaac and Ishmael, together with their mothers, "stand as a symbolic drama." Whereas natural Israel (like Ishmael ) "was actually born in the manner of flesh," these making up spiritual Israel "are children belonging to the promise the same as Isaac was."-Ga 4 : 21 - 3 1 . Isaac i s also numbered among the "so great a cloud of witnesses surrounding us," for he too was among those "awaiting the city having real foun­ dations, the builder and maker of which city is God . "-Heb 1 2 : 1 ; 11 :9, 10, 13-16, 20.

ISAIAH

(I·sa'iah ) [ Salvation of Jehovah]. A prophet, the son of Amoz ( not the prophet Amos) . He served Judah and Jerusalem i n the days of Kings Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah of Judah. ( Isa 1 : 1 ) Kings Pekah and Hoshea were

1219

ISAIAH

ruling in the northern kingdom of Israel, which

Another son of Isaiah was named prior to con­

ended in 740 B.c. E . , during the time of Isaiah's

ception, and the name was written on a tablet

prophetic service. Contemporary prophets were

and attested to by reliable witnesses. Apparently

Micah, Hosea, and Oded. Isaiah evidently began

the matter was kept secret until after the birth of

his prophesying later than Hosea did and before

the son, when the witnesses could come forward

Micah began.-2Ch 28 : 9 ; Ho 1 : 1 ; Mic 1 : 1 .

and testify to the prophet's foretelling of the

During Isaiah's prophetic service to Judah, es­ pecially in the days of King Ahaz, the kingdom was in a deplorable moral state. It was full of revolt on the part of both princes and people, and in Jehovah's eyes the nation was sick in the heart and in the head. The rulers were called "dictators of Sodom" and the people likened to "people of Gomorrah. " ( Isa 1 : 2- 10 ) Isaiah was told in ad­ vance that their ears would be unresponsive. Je­ hovah said that this situation would continue until the nation would come to ruin and that only "a tenth," "a holy seed," would be left like the stump of a massive tree. Isaiah's prophetic work must have comforted and strengthened the faith of that small number, even though the rest of the nation refused to take heed.-Isa 6 : 1 - 13. Though concentrating on Judah, Isaiah also ut­ tered prophecies concerning Israel and the na­ tions round about, as they had a bearing on Judah's situation and history. He enjoyed a long term in the prophetic office, starting in about 778 B . c . E . , when King Uzziah died, or possibly earlier, and continuing until sometime after the 14th year of Hezekiah's reign ( 732 B.C.E. ).-Isa 36 : 1 , 2 ; 37 : 37, 38.

Isaiah's Family.

Isaiah was married.

His

wife is called "the prophetess" ( Isa 8 : 3 ), which seems to mean more than merely the wife of a prophet. Evidently, like Deborah of the time of the Judges and like Huldah during Josiah's reign, she had a prophetic assignment from Jehovah. -Jg 4:4; 2Ki 2 2 : 14. The Bible names two sons of Isaiah, given to him as "signs and as miracles in IsraeL" ( Isa 8: 18) Shear-jashub was old enough in the days of Ahaz to accompany his father when Isaiah delivered a message to that king. The name Shear-jashub means "A Mere Remnant ( Those Remaining Over)

Will Return." This name was prophetic in that, just as certainly as a son born to Isaiah was given that name, so the kingdom of Judah would in time be overthrown and only a mere remnant would return after a period of exile. ( Isa 7 : 3 ; 10 : 20-2 3 ) This return o f a small remnant took place in 537 B.C.E. when King Cyrus of Persia issued a decree liberating them from Babylon after an exile of 70 years.-2Ch 36 : 22, 2 3 ; Ezr 1 : 1 ; 2 : 1 , 2.

birth, thereby proving the matter to have pro­ phetic significance. The name given to the boy by God's command was Maher-shalal-hash-baz,

meaning "Hurry, 0 Spoil! He Has Made Haste to the Plunder; or, Hurrying to the Spoil, He Has Made Haste to the Plunder. " It was said that before this son would know how to call out, "My father!" and "My mother! " the threat to Judah existing from the conspiracy of Syria and the ten-tribe kingdom of Israel would be removed. -Isa 8 : 1-4. The prophecy indicated that relief would come to Judah soon; relief did come when Assyria interfered with the campaign against Judah by King Rezin of Syria and King Pekah of Israel. The Assyrians captured Damascus and, later, in 740 B.C.E., despoiled and destroyed the kingdom of Israel, fully carrying out the prophetic meaning of the boy's name. ( 2Ki 16 : 5 -9 ; 1 7 : 1 - 6 ) However, instead of trusting in Jehovah, King Ahaz tried to stave off the threat made by Syria and Israel, resorting to bribery of the king of Assyria to gain his protection. Because of this, Jehovah allowed Assyria to become a great threat to Judah and actually to flood into the land right up to Jerusa­ lem itself, as Isaiah had wamed.-Isa 7 : 17-20. Isaiah spoke many times of "signs" that Jehovah would give, among them being his two sons and, in one instance, Isaiah himself. Jehovah com­ manded him to walk about naked and barefoot for three years as a sign and a portent against Egypt and against Ethiopia, signifying that they would be led captive by the king of Assyria.-Isa 20: 1 - 6 ; compare Isa 7 : 11 , 14 ; 19 : 20; 37 : 30; 38 :7, 2 2 ; 55 : 13 ; 66: 19 .

Prophecies of Exile and Restoration. Isa­ iah was also privileged to foretell that Assyria would not be the nation to dethrone the kings of Judah and destroy Jerusalem, but that this would be done by Babylon. ( Isa 39 : 6, 7) At the time when Assyria flooded Judah "up to the neck," Isaiah delivered the comforting message to King Hezekiah that the Assyrian forces would not be able to enter the city. ( Isa 8 : 7 , 8 ) Jehovah backed up His word by sending an angel to destroy 185 ,000 of the Assyrian army's mighty men and leaders, thus delivering Jerusalem. -2Ch 3 2 : 2 1 . The thing that undoubtedly gave Isaiah the greatest joy was the privilege accorded him by

ISAIAH, BOOK OF Jehovah to speak and to write many prophecies of restoration of his beloved Jerusalem. Although Jehovah would allow the people to go into exile to Babylon because of rebellion and revolt against him, God would in time judge Babylon because she acted out of malice and intended to hold God's people in captivity forever. A number of Isaiah's prophecies are devoted to God's judgment on Babylon and the desolate ruin she would become, never to be rebuilt. -Isa 45 : 1, 2; chaps 13, 14, 46-48. The restoration prophecies that are found throughout the book of Isaiah glorify Jehovah's undeserved kindness and mercy toward his peo­ ple and toward all mankind. They foretell the time when Jerusalem would be elevated to a new position with Jehovah, a glory that would be seen by all nations, and when she would be a blessing to all nations. Jerusalem was indeed restored and rebuilt and was blessed by the presence of the Messiah, who "shed light upon life and incorrup­ tion through the good news. " ( 2Ti 1 : 10 ) Jerusa­ lem's restoration also had a greater and grand­ er fulfillment to come.-Ro 1 5 : 4 ; lCo 10: 11 ; Ga 4 : 2 5 , 26. Effects of Isaiah's Work. Isaiah wrote not only the Bible book bearing his name but also evidently at least one historical book, the affairs of King Uzziah, which no doubt formed part of the official records of the nation. ( 2Ch 26 : 2 2 ) In faith­ fully carrying out the prophetic work assigned to him by Jehovah, he had a strong influence on the nation's history, particularly as a result of his counseling and guiding righteous King Hezekiah. Many of Isaiah's prophecies also have a larger fulfillment in the Messiah and his Kingdom. Isa­ iah's book is quoted or referred to many times in the Christian Greek Scriptures. In many instances the Christian writers make application of Isaiah's prophecies to Jesus Christ or point to a fulfillment of his prophecies in their day.

ISAIAH, BOOK OF. The book of Isaiah out­ standingly magnifies Jehovah as "the Holy One of Israel," applying this expression to him a total of 25 times. Also, it points with unmistakable clari­ ty to the Messiah, or Anointed One, of Jehovah through whom deliverance would come to the people of God. The very first verse of the book of Isaiah iden­ tifies its contents as "the vision of Isaiah the son of Amoz that he visioned concerning Judah and Jerusalem. " So, although the book contains pro­ phetic utterances concerning many nations, they are not to be viewed as a collection of disconnect-

1220 ed pronouncements concerning these nations. Rather, these are a series of prophecies that had a direct effect on Judah and Jerusalem. Historical Background. Isaiah 1 : 1 informs us that Isaiah visioned these things in the days of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings of Judah. This was a period of severe international tension and one in which false religious attitudes had a profound effect on the people of Judah. Near the beginning of Isaiah's career King U zziah died a leper because of his presumptuousness in taking over priestly duties. ( 2Ch 26 : 16, 19-21 ) It is re­ ported that during the reign of Uzziah's son Jo­ tham, while the king did what was right, "the people were yet acting ruinously. "-2Ch 27 : 2 ; 2Ki 15 : 34. Next came King Ahaz, who for 16 years set a bad example for the nation, carrying on Baal worship with its rites of human sacrifice. There was "great unfaithfulness toward Jehovah. " (2Ch 28: 1-4, 19 ) It was at this time that the allied kings of Syria and Israel besieged Jerusalem so that Ahaz, ignoring the counsel of Isaiah the prophet, sent to Tiglath-pileser III, the king of Assyria, for military assistance. ( 2Ki 16: 5 - 8 ; Isa 7: 1 - 12 ) By this Ahaz 'made flesh his arm, his heart turning away from Jehovah.' (Jer 17: 5 ) Assyria agreed to an alliance, but, of course, was interested mainly in expanding its own power. The Assyrian army captured Damascus of Syria and apparently took into exile those inhabitants of religiously apostate Israel that lived E of the Jordan.-1Ch 5 : 26. Later, when Samaria failed to pay tribute, it too was besieged and its inhabitants were deported. ( 2Ki 16:9; 17:4-6; 18:9- 1 2 ) This ended the ten­ tribe kingdom and left Judah surrounded on all sides by Gentile nations. Later Assyrian rulers kept up military operations in the W, assaulting cities of Judah and of surrounding nations. Sen­ nacherib even demanded the capitulation of Jeru­ salem itself. But under the kingship of Hezekiah the situation there had changed. Hezekiah trusted in Jehovah, and Jehovah proved to be with him. -2Ki 1 8 : 5 -7 ; Isa chaps 36, 37. Isaiah undertook his service as a prophet dur­ ing the reign of Uzziah, who began to rule in 829 B.c.E., and he continued as such into the time of Hezekiah's reign, which concluded by about 717 B.c.E. Isaiah, chapter 6, verse 1, refers to "the year that King Uzziah died" ( c. 778 B.C.E. ) as the time when Isaiah received the commission from Jehovah that is recorded in that chapter ; though it may be that he had recorded the preceding information before that. Then in chapter 36, verse 1, reference is made to "the fourteenth year

1 221

ISAIAH, BOOK OF

says that Pekah the king of Is­ rael came against Jerusalem to war in the days of King Ahaz. Although Ahaz ruled from 761 to 746 B.C.E., Pekah's kingship ended by about 758 B.c.E. ; so the incident must have occurred before that year. Further, Isaiah 14 : 28 dates a pronouncement concerning Philistia "in the year that King Ahaz died," which would be 746 B.c.E. These ref­ erences assist in fixing the events in the book of Isaiah in the stream of time.

Isaiah 37:24-40:2 as it appears in the Dead Sea Scrol1. What is now numbered chapter 40 is here shown beginning on the last line of the column in which chapter 39 concludes

of King Hezekiah" ( 732 B.c.E. ), when Sennacherib sent an army against Jerusalem and was turned back. In addition to giving the account of the threatened siege and the delivery of Jerusalem, Isaiah tells of Sennacherib's return to Nineveh and his assassination. ( Isa 37 : 36 -38) If this bit of historical information was written by Isaiah and was not an insertion by a later hand, it may show that Isaiah prophesied for some time after Heze­ kiah's 14th year. The Assyrian and Babylonian chronological records ( though their reliability is questionable ) seem to indicate that Sennacherib ruled some 20 years after his campaign against Jerusalem. Jewish tradition, which can also be unreliable, says that Isaiah was sawn asunder at King Manasseh's order. ( Whether Paul has refer­ ence to this at Hebrews 1 1 : 37, as some believe, has not been proved. )-Isa 1 : 1 . There are also a few other references that help to date the contents of specific portions of the book of Isaiah. For example, chapter 7, verse 1 ,

Unity of Writership. Cer­ tain Bible critics in modern times have contended that the book of Isaiah was not all writ­ ten by Isaiah. Some claim that chapters 40 through 66 were written by an unidentified per­ son who lived about the time of the end of the Jews' Babylonian exile. Other critics pare off addi­ tional portions of the book, the­ orizing that someone other than Isaiah must have written them. But the Bible itself does not agree with these contentions.

Inspired writers of the Christian Greek Scrip­ tures credited both the material now designated chapters 1 to 39 and chapters 40 to 66 to "Isaiah the prophet. " They never intimated that there were two persons who bore this name or that the name of the writer of part of the book was un­ known. ( For examples compare Mt 3 : 3 and 4: 14- 16 with Isa 40: 3 and 9: 1, 2; also Joh 1 2 : 38-41 with Isa 5 3 : 1 and 6 : 1 , 10. ) In addition to this, there are numerous other places where the Chris­ tian Greek Scripture writers specifically credit material quoted from the latter part of the book of Isaiah, not to an unidentified writer, but to "Isa­ iah the prophet. " ( Compare Mt 12: 17-21 with Isa 42 : 1-4; Ro 10: 16 with Isa 5 3 : 1 . ) Jesus Christ him­ self, when he read from "the scroll of the prophet Isaiah" at the synagogue in Nazareth, was read­ ing from Isaiah 61 : 1 , 2 .-Lu 4 : 17-19. Furthermore, the Dead Sea Scroll of Isaiah (IQIsa, believed to have been copied toward the end of the second century B.C.E. ) contains evi­ dence that the copyist who penned it knew nothing of any supposed division in the prophecy at the close of chapter 39. He began the 40th

1222

ISAIAH, BOOK OF

chapter on the last line of the column of writing that contains chapter 39. The entire book of Isaiah has been passed down through the centuries as a single work, not as two or more. The continuity from chapter 39 to chap­ ter 40 is evident in what is recorded at Isaiah 39 : 6, 7, which is an obvious transition to what follows. Those who would. credit the book to more than one writer do not feel that it was possible for Isaiah to have foretold nearly two centuries in advance that a ruler named Cyrus would liberate

the exiled Jews; consequently they speculate that this was written at a later time, at least after Cyrus began his conquests. ( Isa 44: 28; 45: 1 ) But they fail to grasp the import of this entire por­ tion of the book, because the material specifically deals with foreknowledge, with the ability of God to tell in advance what would happen to his people. Nearly 200 years in advance this prophe­ cy recorded the name of one not yet born who would conquer Babylon and liberate the Jews. Its fulfillment would definitely prove that it was of divine origin. It was not Isaiah's estimate of the

H I G H LIG HTS OF I SAIAH Pro p h e c i es t o s t i m ulate J ehovah's servants to fear h i m , n o t t h e sur ro u n d i n g n a t i o n s , a n d to look t o h i m , t h e t r u e God, f o r del ivera nce, w i t h f u l l confidence i n h i s prom i ses of salvatio n a n d restorat ion Directed t o J ud a h a n d Jerusalem by Isaiah d u ring the years lead i n g u p t o Sennacherib's u ns u ccess f u l efforts a g a i n st J e ru s a l e m in 732 B.C. E . , and possi b ly some t i m e a f terward

Assyria's y o k e t o d e p a r t , Ph i l istine r o o t t o d ie b y fam­ ine, Moab t o be desol a t e d , and Damascus to be re­ d u ced to ruin Egyptians and E t h iopians to be h u m i l i ated by Assyria n s a n d taken into e x i l e E l a m a n d Media to share i n bri n g i n g about Babylo n's fall Tyre to be bro u g h t l o w , forgotten for

The guilt of J ud a h and Jerusa l e m ; Isaiah's commis­ sion ( 1 : 1 -6 : 1 3 ) J ehovah does n o t look favorably u po n t h e sacrifices o f people g u i lty o f oppression, i nj u stice, a n d bloodshed Though j ud g m e n t i s t o b e executed on faith less ones, i n t i m e t h e m o u n t a i n o f Jehovah's house will be ex­ alted and many people will turn t o h i m For J u d ah's d isobed ience, J e h ovah to remove essentials for susta i n i n g l i fe ( bread and water ) and t h e basis for soc ial sta b i l i ty Arrogant wo m e n , decked out in f i n e ry, to be forced t o w e a r t h e a t t i re of captives Israel, a s a vi neyard, has failed t o produce fruits of j ustice a n d righteousnes s I sa i a h 's l i p s a r e cleansed; he w i l l i n g ly responds to com­ m i ssion a s prophet, t o go to u n res ponsive people

Threatened enemy invasions a n d prom ise of relief ( 7 : 1 - 1 2 : 6) Syro- I s rael i t e effort to d e t h ro n e Ahaz to fa i l ; confirma­ tory s i g n o f � m m a n u e l's birth given I saiah's son M aher-s h a l a l - h ash-baz to serve as sign t h a t Dam asc u s a n d Samaria will be ravaged by As­ syria before the boy can say "My father!" and " M y mother!" Last i n g relief t o come by means o f t h e Prince o f Peace Assyria, rod of J e h ovah's anger, to be pun i s h e d for i n ­ s o l e n c e ; J e ru s a l e m t o be d e l ivered Twig out of s t u m p of Jesse to become a r u l e r having God's s p i ri t , to r u l e i n j u stice

Pronouncements of i n ternational desolations ( 1 3 : 1 - 23: 1 8) Babylon to be desolated. her " k i n g" b ro u g h t down t o S h eo l

70

years

Forecast of salvation by Jehovah ( 2 4 : 1 -3 5 : 1 0) Jehovah to make a g reat banquet for a l l peoples and to swa l l ow u p death f o rever Salvation b y J ehovah to be t h e s u bject of a song A king to reign for rig hteousness, and pri nces t o r u l e f o r j u s t i c e ; p e a c e a n d security to t i m e i n definite E d o m to b e desolated; Zion t o rejoice over h e r own restorati o n

Je hovah provides del iverance f r o m Assyri a ; Babylo­ nian exile foretold (36: 1 -3 9 : 8 ) Assyri a n s invade J u d a h ; J ehovah saves Jerusalem i n a n swer to H ezekiah's p rayer; 1 85,000 Assyrians s l a i n H e z e k i a h shows treasures t o B a b y l o n i a n delegation ; I sa i ah annou nces c o m i n g exile to Babylon

Release from Babylon by the true God, restoration of Zion, Mess iah to come (40: 1 -66: 24) J erusalem to be restored b y the A l l-Wise, All-Po werfu l C reator Restoration of h i s people will vind icate J e h ovah a s the o n l y God, t h e one who al one can foretell t h e f u t u re, to the shame of l ifeless gods f a s h i oned by men Babylon's fall to Cyrus to pave way for reb u i l d i n g Jeru­ salem Devastated Zion t o b e made l i ke t h e garden of Je hovah J ehovah's servan t , the Mes s i a h , t o die for t ransgres­ sions of o t h e rs Barren Zion to have many sons, and no weapon to s ucceed against her Je hova h i nvites h i s peo ple to rejoice i n creati o n of n ew heaven s a n d new eart h , b u t wicked transgres­ sors have no share

1223

future, but, as he himself wrote, "this is what Jehovah has said . " (Isa 45 : 1 ) Ascribing the writing of this portion of Isaiah to a writ­ er in Cyrus' time would still not solve the problem for the critics. Why not? Because this portion of the book also foretold in detail events in the earthly life and ministry of the Messiah, Jesus Christ-things even farther in the future. The fulfillment of these prophecies seals the proph­ ecy of Isaiah as divinely inspired and not a collection of the works of impostors. Those who deny that Isaiah wrote chapters 40 through 66 usually, for like reasons, deny that he wrote chapter 13, con­ cerning the fall of Babylon. Yet chapter 13 is introduced with the words: "The pronouncement against Babylon that Isaiah the son of Amoz saw in vision . " Ob­ viously, this is the same "Isaiah the son of Amoz" whose name appears in the opening verse of chapter 1 . Interrelationships. Isaiah's writings are extensively inter­ woven with many other parts of the Bible. A century or more af­ ter Isaiah's time, Jeremiah wrote the record found in the books of Kings, and it is interesting to ob­ serve that what is recorded at 2 Kings 18: 13 to 20: 19 is essen­ tially the same as that found in Isaiah chapters 36 to 39. Not only do other prophets cover matters similar to those considered by Isaiah but there are numerous specific references made to the writings of Isaiah themselves by other Bible writers. Among the most outstand­ ing and most frequently quot­ ed prophecies from the book of Isaiah are those foretelling de­ tails concerning the Messiah. As shown in the accompanying chart, many of these are specif­ ically quoted and applied by the inspired writers of the Christian

ISAIAH, BOOK OF

Some Prophecies Applying to J esus Ch rist Isaiah Text 7:14

Christian Scri ptures

9 : 7 ; 1 1 : 1 -5 , 1 0

Born from a m a i d e n , a virg i n g i r l

Off s p r i n g of David s o n of J esse

Mt 1 :22, 23

4 0 : 3-5

I n c o n nection with h i s com i n g , a n no u n c e m e n t was m a d e : " C l e a r u p t h e w a y o f Jehov a h , y o u peo ple !"

M t 3 : 1 -3 ; M r 1 : 1 -4 ; L u 3 : 3-6; J oh 1 : 2 3

61 : 1 , 2 9:1, 2

42 : 1 -4 53:4, 5 53 : 1

53: 1 2

8 : 1 4, 1 5; 28: 1 6

Lu 1 :32, 33; R 0 1 5:8, 1 2

Anoin ted b y J e h ovah to tell good news to meek ones

Lu 4 : 1 7- 2 1

M a de God's j u s t i ce c l e a r ; d i d not c r u s h t h o se w h o we re l i ke a b r u ised reed

M t 1 2 : 1 0- 2 1

B ro u g h t l i g h t t o G a l i l e e

M t 4 : 1 3- 1 6

Carried s i c k nesses of others; because of h i s wounds others were healed

M t 8 : 1 6, 1 7; 1 Pe 2 :24

N o t bel ieved i n

Joh 1 2:37, 38

R ejected, stone o f s t u m b l i n g , b u t b e c a m e f o u n d a t i o n cornerstone

1 Pe 2 : 6-8

Reckoned with lawles s ones

Lu 2 2 : 37

Other I n stances in Which Events Fulfill ing Isai a h's PropheCies Are N oted , b u t Where the Writer Makes No Reference to Isaiah

Isaiah Text

C h ri s t i a n Scriptu res

50:6

Was i n s u l te d , slapped , s p i t o n

53:7

Q u i et a n d u n com p l a i n i n g before a c c u s e rs Bu ried in a rich man's g rave

53:9

S a c rificial death, t o open t h e way for many to a righteous stand i n g with God

53:8, 1 1

Mt 2 6 : 6 7 ; M r 1 4 :65

M t 2 7 : 1 2- 1 4 ; A c 8 : 2 8 , 32-35

M t 2 7 : 5 7-60 Ro 4:25

Other Prop hecies Fu lfi l led A Few of the Many Events Prior to t h e F i rst Ce ntury C . E. That F u l f i l led Prophecies of Isaiah

Isaiah Text Je rusalem destroye d ; e x i l e to B a b y l o n 1 : 2 6-30 ; 2 4 : 1 -6 ; 39 : 6 , 7

43: 1 4 ; 4 4 : 2 6-28

2 3 : 1 , 8, 1 3, 1 4

Release from e x i l e ; J e rusa l e m resto re d ; Cyrus a n instrument used by J e hovah t o a cc o m p l i s h t h i s

M ai n l a n d c i ty o f Tyre destroyed b y C ha l d e a n s u nd e r N e b u c had nezzar

Larger Fu l fi l l ments N ow and in the Future It is obvious, from a read ing of the Bible, t ha t many o f Isaiah's prophec ies have more than one f u l f i l l ment and t hat a great port ion of the book i s f i nd i n g and is yet to find its f i n a l , major f u l f i l lment . In the book o f Reve l ation alone are many quotations o r a l l usions to I sai ah's propheCies, some of which are here l i sted :

Revelation

Isaiah Text 2 1 :9 40 : 1 0

4 7 : 5 , 7-9 48:20 6 0 : 1 , 3, 5 , 1 1 66:22

Babylon has falle n ! J e h ovah i s c o m i n g w i t h h i s reward

Babylon, a harlot a n d m i st ress of k i n g d o m s , s u ffers c a l a m i t y G o d ' s people c o m m a n ded to get o u t o f Babylon

New J e rusalem l i k ened to a n c i e n t J e r u s a l e m in i ts res tored state

J e h ova h c reates new heave n ( s ) and a new earth

1 8: 2

22: 1 2 1 7: 1 , 2, 1 8; 18:7 18:4

2 1 : 1 1 , 24-26 21 : 1

ISCAH

Greek Scriptures. It is of interest to observe that Jesus Christ and his apostles quoted most fre­ quently from Isaiah to make clear the identifica­ tion of the Messiah. This is by no means the full extent to which other inspired Bible writers quoted from the prophecy of Isaiah, but it highlights some of the prophecies for which Isaiah is most widely noted. These prophecies, along with all the rest of the book, magnify Jehovah, the Holy One of Israel, as the One who provides this salvation for his people through his anointed Son. ISCAH ( Is'cah ). Daughter of Abraham's broth­ er Haran, and sister of Lot. She was born before her uncle Abraham and the household left Ur of the Chaldees.-Ge 11 : 27-3 1 . ISCARIOT (Is· car'i· ot ) [from Heb. , possibly, Man From Kerioth]. The designation for the trai­ tor apostle Judas (and his father Simon) that sets him apart from the other apostle also named Judas. (Mt 10:4; Lu 6 : 16; Joh 6 : 71 ) If "Iscariot" means, as is most commonly thought, "Man From Kerioth," then it likely identifies Simon and his son as being from the Judean town of Kerioth­ hezron. -Jos 1 5 : 2 5 ; see JUDAS No. 4. ISHBAH ( Ish'bah) [May He Still (Calm) ]. A descendant of Judah; father of Eshtemoa. - 1 Ch 4: 1 , 17. ISHBAK (Ish'bak ). The fifth listed of the six sons that Keturah bore to Abraham, which sons Abraham sent away with gifts but without a share of his inheritance.-Ge 25: 1, 2, 5, 6 ; 1Ch 1 : 32. ISHBI-BENOB ( lsh'bi-be'nob ). One of four Rephaim (the giant race of Canaanites ) who were prominent during the last wars with Israel in David's reign. Ishbi-benob carried a copper spear weighing 300 shekels ( 3 .4 kg; 7.5 lb) and was on the verge of killing David when fast-acting Abishai himself put the giant to death. -2Sa 2 1 : 15- 17, 22. ISH-BOSHETH ( Ish-bo'sheth) [meaning "Man of Shame"]. Youngest of Saul's four sons and his successor to the throne. From the genealogical listings it appears that his name was also Eshbaal, meaning "Man of Baal. " ( l Ch 8:33; 9:39) How­ ever, elsewhere, as in Second Samuel, he is called Ish-bosheth, a name in which "baal" is replaced by "bosheth." ( 2Sa 2 : 10) This Hebrew word bo'­ sheth is found at Jeremiah 3 : 24 and is rendered "shameful thing." (AS, AT, Jp, NW, Ro, RS) In two other occurrences ba l'al and bo'sheth are found

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parallel and in apposition, in which the one ex­ plains and identifies the other. (Jer 1 1 : 13 ; Ho 9: 10) There are also other instances where indi­ viduals similarly had "bosheth" or a form of it substituted for "baal" in their names, as, for ex­ ample, "Jerubbesheth" for "Jerubbaal" ( 2 Sa 1 1 : 21 ; Jg 6 : 3 2 ) and "Mephibosheth" for "Meribbaal," the latter being a nephew of Ish-bosheth.-2Sa 4:4; lCh 8:34; 9 : 40. The reason for these double names or substitu­ tions is not known. One theory advanced by some scholars attempts to explain the dual names as an alteration made when the common noun "baal" (owner; master) became more exclusively identi­ fied with the distasteful fertility god of Canaan, Baal. However, in the same Bible book of Second Samuel, where the account of Ish-bosheth ap­ pears, King David himself is reported as naming a place of battle Baal-perazim ( meaning "Owner of Breakings Through" ), in honor of the Lord Jeho­ vah, for as he said : "Jehovah has broken through my enemies. " ( 2Sa 5 : 20 ) Another view is that the name Ish-bosheth may have been prophetic of that individual's shameful death and the calami­ tous termination of Saul's dynasty. After the death of Saul and his other sons on the battlefield at Gilboa, Abner, a relative of Saul and the chief of his forces, took Ish-bosheth across the Jordan to Mahanaim, where he was installed as king over all the tribes except Judah, which recognized David as king. At the time Ish-bosheth was 40 years old, and he is said to have reigned for two years. Since the Bible does not say exactly where this two-year reign fits in with the seven­ and-a-half-year period when David ruled as king at Hebron, there is no way of resolving differ­ ences of opinion held by scholars on the point. However, it does seem more reasonable to think that Ish-bosheth was made king shortly after the death of his father ( rather than five years later), in which case there would have been a lapse of about five years between his assassination and David's being installed as king over all Israel. -2Sa 2 : 8- 1 1 ; 4 : 7 ; 5 :4, 5. Ish-bosheth's short rule was marked by both internal and external troubles. The war between his house and that of David "came to be long drawn out"; he lost 360 men to David's 20 in one engagement. ( 2 Sa 2 : 12-31 ; 3 : 1 ) At the same time his relative Abner kept strengthening himself at the expense of Ish-bosheth, even to the point of having relations with one of Saul's concubines, which, according to Oriental custom, was tanta­ mount to treason. When rebuked for this by Ish­ bosheth, Abner withdrew his support and made a

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covenant with David, part of which stipulated the return of David's wife, Michal, who was Ish­ bosheth's own sister. ( 2Sa 3 :6-21 ) Abner's death at the hand of Joab further weakened Ish­ bosheth's position, and shortly thereafter two of his own captains assassinated him while he was taking his midday siesta. ( 2Sa 3 : 22-27 ; 4 : 1 , 2, 5-7) However, when these murderers, in seeking a reward, brought Ish-bosheth's head to David, he had them put to death and ordered the head interred in the tomb of Abner at Hebron. -2Sa 4 : 8-12. Thus it was that the dynasty of Saul, which could have lasted "to time indefinite," came to its abrupt and humiliating end, not because of the sins of Ish-bosheth, but instead, because of those of his father. ( 1Sa 13 : 13 ; 1 5 : 26 -29 ) It is true, Ish-bosheth was a weak ruler, one who gained and held the throne principally because of the strength of Abner. Nevertheless, David referred to him as "a righteous man . "-2Sa 4 : 1 1 .

ISHMAEL

great nation. " ( Ge 17: 16, 18-20 ) Ishmael was then circumcised, at the age of 13, along with his father and his father's servants.-Ge 17: 23-27. A year later Isaac was born; Ishmael was now 14. ( Ge 16 : 16 ; 21 : 5 ) Five years after that, in 1913 B. C.E. , on the day of Isaac's being weaned, Ishmael was caught "poking fun" at his younger half brother. ( Ge 21 : 8, 9) This was no innocent child's play on the part of Ishmael. Rather, as implied by the next verse in the account, it may have involved a taunting of Isaac over heirship. The apostle Paul says these events were "a sym­ bolic drama" and shows that the mistreatment of Isaac by the half-blooded Egyptian Ishmael was persecution. Hence, this was the beginning of the foretold 400 years of Israel's affliction that end­ ed with deliverance from Egyptian bondage in 1513 B.C.E.-Ga 4 : 22-31 ; Ge 1 5 : 1 3 ; Ac 7 : 6 ; see ISAAC.

1. Son of Abraham by Sarah's Egyptian slave girl Hagar; born in 1932 B.C.E. , his father being 86 years old at the time.-Ge 16 : 1 -4, 1 1 - 16.

Ishmael's demonstration of scorn toward Isaac led to the dismissal of him and his mother from Abraham's household, but not without provisions for their journey. Abraham "took bread and a skin water bottle and gave it to Hagar, setting it upon her shoulder, and the child, and then dismissed her. " ( Ge 21 : 14 ) Some have interpreted this to mean that Ishmael, now 19 years old, was also placed on the back of Hagar, and indeed this is the way some translations read. ( JE, Mo, Bagster's LXX ) Certain scholars, however, consider the phrase "setting it upon her shoulder" as only parenthetical, inserted to explain how the bread and water were carried, and so, if this phrase is placed in parentheses or set off by commas, the difficulty is removed. Professors Keil and Delitzsch assert that the expression "and the child" depends upon the sentence's principal verb "took," not on the verb "gave" or the word "set­ ting. " This tie-in of "the child" with "took" is made by the conjunction "and." The thought, therefore, is this : Abraham took bread and water and gave them to Hagar ( placing them on her shoulder) and took the child and also gave it to her.-Com mentary on the Old Testament, 1973, Vol. I, The First Book of Moses, pp. 244, 245.

When informed that Sarah would also have a son from whom "kings of peoples" would come, Abraham petitioned God in behalf of his first­ born: "0 that Ishmael might live before you! " God's reply, after declaring that the future son Isaac would be the covenant heir, was: "As re­ gards Ishmael I have heard you. Look! I will bless him and will make him fruitful and will multiply him very, very much. He will certainly produce twelve chieftains, and I will make him become a

Hagar apparently lost her way in the wilder­ ness of Beer-sheba, and so when the water ran out and Ishmael became exhausted, "she threw the child under one of the bushes. " ( Ge 21 : 14, 15 ) This expression "threw the child" does not mean Ishmael was a baby in arms. The Hebrew word ye'ledh ( child) does not necessarily refer to an infant but is often applied to an adolescent boy or a young man. Hence, it was said of the youth Joseph ( 17 at the time) that he was sold into

ISHHOD ( Ish/hod ) [ Man of Dignity ]. A descen­ dant of Manasseh whose mother was Hammole­ cheth.- 1 Ch 7: 14, 18. ISHI ( Ish/i ) [ shortened form of Isaiah, meaning "Salvation of Jehovah" ]. 1 . A descendant of Judah; son of Appaim and father of Sheshan. -1 Ch 2 : 3, 31 . 2. Another descendant of Judah.- 1 Ch 4 : 1 , 20.

3. A leader and family head of the half tribe of Manasseh that lived E of the Jordan.- 1Ch 5 : 23 , 24.

4. A Simeonite whose four sons are noted in the Chronicles for having led 500 to victory against the Amalekites living in Mount Seir. - l Ch 4 :42, 43.

ISHMA ( Ish/rna ) [shortened form of Ishmael]. An early descendant of Judah.-1Ch 4: 1 , 3. ISHMAEL

( Ish/ma·el ) [ God Hears (Listens )].

­

ISHMAELITE

slavery over Reuben's protest, "Do not sin against the child [bai·ye'Jedh]." Lamech likewise spoke of "a young man [ ye'Jedh l" as having wounded him. -Ge 42 : 2 2 ; 4 : 2 3 ; see also 2Ch 10:8. Neither does Hagar's act of 'throwing' the child down imply she was carrying him in her arms or on her back, though she was evidently supporting her tired son. She apparently withdrew her sup­ port suddenly, as did those who brought lame and infirm ones to Jesus and "fairly threw them at his feet. "-Mt 15 : 30. In accord with the meaning of Ishmael's name, "God heard" his cry for help, provided the neces­ sary water, and allowed him to live to become an archer. As a nomadic inhabitant of the Paran Wilderness, he fulfilled the prophecy that said of him: "He will become a zebra of a man. His hand will be against everyone, and the hand of every­ one will be against him ; and before the face of all his brothers he will tabernacle. " ( Ge 21 : 17-21 ; 16 : 12 ) Hagar found an Egyptian wife for her son, and he in time fathered 12 sons, chieftains and family heads of the promised "great nation" of Ishmaelites. Ishmael also had at least one daugh­ ter, Mahalath, who married Esau.-Ge 17 : 20 ; 21 : 21 ; 2 5 : 13-16; 28: 9 ; see ISHMAEUTE. At the age of 89 Ishmael assisted Isaac in bury­ ing their father Abraham. After that he lived another 48 years, dying in 1795 B.c.E. at the age of 137. ( Ge 2 5 : 9 , 10, 17) There is no record of Ishmael's being buried in the cave of Machpelah, the place of burial for Abraham and Isaac, along with their wives.-Ge 49 : 29-31. 2 . A descendant of Saul through Jonathan ; son of Azel of the tribe of Benjamin.- 1 Ch 8 : 3 3-38, 40 ; 9 : 44. 3. Father of Zebadiah who was appointed by

Jehoshaphat to serve as a royal representative in judicial matters; of the tribe of Judah.-2Ch 19 :8, 11. 4. One of "the chiefs of hundreds" who entered the covenant with High Priest Jehoiada for the overthrow of wicked Athaliah and the enthrone­ ment of Jehoash; son of Jehohanan.-2Ch 23 : 1 , 12-15, 20; 24: 1 . 5 . Ringleader o f those who killed Governor Gedaliah only three months after the downfall of Jerusalem in 607 B.c.E. ; son of Nethaniah of the royal line. At the time the governor's appoint­ ment was made by Nebuchadnezzar, Ishmael, son of Nethaniah, was in the field as one of the mili­ tary chiefs. Later, he came to Gedaliah and appar­ ently entered a sworn covenant of peace and support with the governor. Secretly, however,

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Ishmael conspired with Baalis, the king o f the Ammonites, to kill Gedaliah. Other military com­ manders, including Johanan, warned Gedaliah of Ishmael's mischief, but the governor, not believ­ ing the report, refused to grant Johanan permis­ sion to strike Ishmael down.-2Ki 25 : 22-24; Jer 40: 7- 16. As a result, when Gedaliah was entertaining Ishmael and his band of ten men at a meal, they rose up and killed their host as well as the Jews and Chaldeans who were with him. The next day these assassins seized 80 men who had come from Shechern, Shiloh, and Samaria, killing all but 10 of them, and throwing their bodies into the great cistern built by King Asa. Ishmael and his men then took the remnant of those living in Mizpah captive and headed for Ammonite territo­ ry. On the way Johanan and his forces overtook and rescued the captives, but Ishmael and eight of his men escaped to their Ammonite sanctuary. -2Ki 2 5 : 2 5 ; Jer 41 : 1 - 18. 6 . One of the priests of the paternal house of Pashhur who put away their foreign wives in the days of Ezra.-Ezr 10: 22, 44.

ISHMAELITE

( lsh'ma·el·ite) [ Of (Belonging to) Ishmael ]. A descendant of Ishmael, the first­ born son of Abraham by Hagar, the Egyptian handmaid of Sarah. ( Ge 16: 1-4, 11 ) Ishmael, in turn, married an Egyptian by whom he had 12 sons ( Nebaioth, Kedar, Adbeel, Mibsam, Mishma, Dumah, Massa, Hadad, Tema, Jetur, Naphish, Kedemah), the chieftains of the various Ishmael­ ite clans. ( Ge 21 : 21 ; 25: 13- 16) The Ishmaelites, therefore, were at the start one fourth Semitic and three fourths Hamitic, racially speaking. As God had promised, the Ishmaelites grew to become "a great nation" that 'could not be num­ bered for multitude. ' ( Ge 1 7 : 20 ; 16: 10) But in­ stead of settling down ( they built few cities ), they preferred the nomadic life. Ishmael himself was "a zebra of a man," that is, a restless wanderer who roamed the Wilderness of Paran and lived by his bow and arrows. His descendants were like­ wise tent-dwelling Bedouin for the most part, a people who ranged over the Sinai Peninsula from "in front of Egypt," that is, to the E of Egypt and across northern Arabia as far as Assyria. They were noted for being a fierce, warlike people hard to get along with, even as it was said of their father Ishmael : "His hand will be against every­ one, and the hand of everyone will be against him. "-Ge 16 : 12 ; 21 : 20, 21 ; 2 5 : 16, 18. In further describing the Ishmaelites, it is said: "In front of all his brothers he settled down [ Heb. ,

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naphal']. " (Ge 2 5 : 18) Similarly, the Midianites and their allies, it was said, "were plumped [ no­ pheJim', a participle form of naphal'] in the low plain" in Israelite territory until Gideon's band forcefully routed them. (Jg 7 : 1, 12 ) Hence, when the Ishmaelites "settled down" it was evidently with the intent of holding on to the region until forcefully removed. In the course of time it is quite likely that intermarriage between Ishmaelites and descen­ dants of Abraham through Keturah (Ge 25 : 1 -4 ) occurred, resulting i n the inhabitants of sections of Arabia. Since Ishmael and Midian were half brothers, any intermarriage of their respective descendants with the amalgamation of their blood, habits, traits, and occupations could have given rise to an interchangeable usage of the terms "Ishmaelites" and " Midianites, " as is noted in the description of the caravan that sold Joseph into Egyptian slavery. (Ge 37: 25-28; 39: 1 ) In the days of Gideon the hordes that invaded Israel were described as both Midianites and Ishmael­ ites, one of the identifying marks of the latter being their gold nose rings.-Jg 8 : 24; compare Jg 7 : 25 and 8 : 22, 26. The animosity Ishmael had toward Isaac seems to have been handed down to his descendants, even to the extent of hating the God of Isaac, for the psalmist, in enumerating those that are "the very ones intensely hating" Jehovah, includes the Ishmaelites. (Ps 83: 1 , 2, 5, 6 ) There were, how­ ever, evidently exceptions. Under the organiza­ tional arrangement instituted by David, Obil, who is referred to as an Ishmaelite, had supervision over the camels of the king. - 1 Ch 27 : 30, 31 . Muhammad, who lived in the seventh century c.E. , claimed to be an Ishmaelite descendant of Abraham. ISHMAIAH ( Ish-ma'iah) [May Jehovah Hear (Listen) ; Jehovah Has Heard ( Listened )]. 1 . An outstanding Gibeonite warrior who joined David's army at Ziklag before Saul's death. ( l Ch 12: 1, 4) In this early list of David's "thirty" leading warriors, Ishmaiah is called their head, but the absence of his name in later lists suggests that he may have died in the meantime. -2Sa 23:8, 18, 19 ; l Ch 11 : 10, 11, 20, 21 . 2 . The prince over the tribe of Zebulun in David's time; son of Obadiah.- 1Ch 27: 19, 22. ISHMERAI ( Ish'me·rai) [ May Jehovah Guard ]. A head among the Benjamites who lived in Jeru­ salem ; son or descendant of Elpaal. - 1Ch 8: 1 , 18, 28.

ISLAND, ISLE

ISHPAH (Ish'pah) [ taken from a root meaning "sweep bare"]. A head of the people among the Benjamites living in Jerusalem; son or descendant of Beriah.-1Ch 8 : 1 , 16, 28. ISHPAN ( Ish'pan) [ possibly, He Has Judged ]. A Benjamite son or descendant of Shashak; one of the heads of the people living in Jerusalem.-1Ch 8: 1 , 22, 25, 28. ISHTOB (Ish'tob) [ Man of Tob ]. One of the small kingdoms that provided fighting men for the sons of Ammon to use against David. The forces from "Ishtob" and their allies were defeat­ ed . ( 2Sa 10, AT, KJ, NW, Yg) Most translators and geographers consider that Ishtob should be ren­ dered "men of Tob," referring to "the land of Tob" where Jephthah resided. ( Jg 11 : 3- 1 1 ; see 2 Sa 10: 6, 8, AS, JB, JP, RS ) However, the reading "Ish­ tob" has the support of certain ancient versions. (LXX; Sy; Vg) The location of an ancient Ishtob is not now known.-See TOB. ISHVAH (Ish'vah) [ meaning, possibly, "Made Equal; Smoothed Out" ]. The second of Asher's four sons. ( Ge 46 : 17 ; 1Ch 7 : 30 ) Since he is not listed in the families of Asher, it is possible that he had no sons or that his line of descent soon died out.-Nu 26:44. ISHVI ( Ish'vi ) [ meaning, possibly, "Made Equal; Smoothed Out" ]. 1 . Third-listed son of Asher and founder of the Ishvite family in that tribe.-Ge 46 : 17 ; Nu 26 :44; 1Ch 7 : 30. 2. One of King Saul's sons . - 1 Sa 14 :49. ISHVITES (Ish'vites) [ Of ( Belonging to) Ishvi ]. A family descended from Ishvi, a son of Asher. -Ge 46 : 17 ; Nu 26:44. ISLAND, ISLE . The Hebrew term 'i ( plural, 'i·yim ' ) is not restricted to a body of land smaller than a continent and completely surrounded by water (Isa 11 : 11 ; 24 : 15 ) but also designates dry land ( Isa 42 : 15 ) or coastland( s). (Isa 20: 6 ; 2 3 : 2, 6 ; Jer 2: 10 ) Figuratively, the word 'j applies to the inhabitants of such islands or coastlands. ( Ge 10 : 5, ftn ; Isa 49 : 1, ftn; 59: 18, ftn) Sometimes "is­ lands" represent the most distant places and their inhabitants. (Isa 41 : 5 ; 66: 19; Eze 39 : 6 ; see MAGOG No. 2. ) Thus nothing will be too remote or isolat­ ed, like islands in the sea, to escape the effects of the symbolic earthquake on Babylon the Great. (Re 16: 18-21 ; compare Re 6 : 12- 14. ) From Jeho­ vah's standpoint, all the islands are as "mere fine dust. "-Isa 40: 15.

ISMACHIAH

Among the islands specifically named in the Bible are Cyprus ( Ac 1 3 : 4-6), Cos, Rhodes ( Ac 2 1 : 1 ), Crete (Ac 27 : 7 ) , Cauda ( Ac 27: 16 ), Malta ( Ac 28: 1 ), and Patmos ( Re 1 :9 ) .

ISMACHIAH ( Is·ma·chi'ah) [ May Jehovah Sup­ port; Jehovah Has Supported ]. One of the Levites selected as a commissioner in connection with the contributions for temple service during Hezeki­ ah's reign.-2Ch 31 : 13.

ISRAEL (Is'ra·el ) [ Contender ( Perseverer ) With God ; or, God Contends]. 1. The name God gave to Jacob when he was about 97 years old. It was during the night that Jacob crossed the torrent valley of Jabbok on his way to meet his brother Esau that he began struggling with what turned out to be an angel. Because of Jacob's perseverance in the struggle, his name was changed to Israel as a token of God's blessing. In commemoration of these events, Jacob named the place Peniel or Penuel. ( Ge 3 2 : 22-28; see JACOB No. 1 . ) Later, at Bethel the change in name was confirmed by God, and from then on to the end of his life Jacob was frequently called Israel. (Ge 3 5 : 10, 15 ; 50: 2 ; l Ch 1 : 34 ) Many of the more than 2, 500 occurrences of the name Israel, however, are in reference to Jacob's descendants as a nation.-Ex 5 : 1 , 2. 2 . All the descendants of Jacob, collectively, at any one time. ( Ex 9 :4 ; Jos 3 : 7 ; Ezr 2 : 2b ; Mt 8: 10) As the offspring and descendants of Jacob's 12 sons, they were quite often called "the sons of Israel" ; less often, "the house of Israel," "the peo­ ple of Israel," the "men of Israel," "the state of IsraeL" or the "Israelites. "-Ge 3 2 : 3 2 ; Mt 10: 6 ; Ac 4 : 10 ; 5 : 35 ; Eph 2 : 12 ; Ro 9 :4; see ISRAEUTE. In 1728 B. c . E. famine caused the household of Jacob to travel to Egypt, where, as alien residents, their descendants remained for 215 years. All the Israelites reckoned as "of the house of Jacob who came into Egypt," not counting the wives of Ja­ cob's sons, were 70. But during their sojourn there they became a very large society of slaves, totaling perhaps some two or three million or more.-Ge 46 : 26, 27 ; Ex 1 : 7 ; see EXODUS. On his deathbed Jacob blessed his 12 sons in this order: Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Zebulun, Issachar, Dan, Gad, Asher, Naphtali, Joseph, Ben­ jamin ; and through them the patriarchal tribal arrangement was continued. ( Ge 49: 2-28) How­ ever, during Israel's period of slavery the Egyptians set up their own overseer system, in­ dependent of the patriarchal establishment, des­ ignating certain ones from among the Israelites as officers. These kept count of the bricks pro-

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duced and assisted the Egyptian overlords, who drove the Israelites to work. ( Ex 5 : 6- 19 ) Moses, on the other hand, when making known Jehovah's instructions to the congregation, did so through "the older men of Israel" who were the hereditary heads of the paternal houses. They were also the ones who accompanied him when appearing be­ fore Pharaoh.-Ex 3 : 16, 18; 4 : 29, 30; 12 : 21 . I n due time, at the end of the predetermined 400-year period of affliction, in 1513 B.c.E., Je­ hovah crushed the dominating world power of Egypt and, with a great display of his Sovereign Almightiness, brought his people Israel out of slavery. With them came "a vast mixed company" of non-Israelites who were happy to cast their lot in with that of God's chosen people.-Ge 1 5 : 1 3 ; A c 7 : 6 ; E x 1 2 : 38. Birth of the Nation. Under the covenant made with Abraham, the resultant congregation of Israel was viewed as a single individual, and, therefore, a close relative could reclaim or repur­ chase them from their slavery. Jehovah was that close relative by this legal covenant, indeed, their Father, and as the rightful Repurchaser he used punitive force to kill Pharaoh's firstborn for refus­ ing to release God's "firstborn" son Israel. ( Ex 4 : 22, 2 3 ; 6 : 2-7) Thus legally delivered from Egypt, Israel became the exclusive property of Jehovah. "You people only have I known out of all the families of the ground, " he said. (Am 3 : 2 ; Ex 19 : 5 , 6 ; De 7 : 6 ) God now saw fit, however, to deal with them, not strictly as a patriarchal society, but as the nation of Israel, which he created and to which he gave a theocratic government found­ ed on the Law covenant as a constitution.

Within three months after Israel left Egypt it became an independent nation under the Law covenant inaugurated at Mount Sinai. ( Heb 9: 19, 20) The Ten Words, or Ten Commandments, writ­ ten " by God's finger" formed the framework of that national code, to which some 600 other laws, statutes, regulations, and judicial decisions were added. This made it the most comprehensive set of laws possessed by any ancient nation, spelling out as it did in great detail the relationship be­ tween man and God, as well as between man and his fellowmen.-Ex 31 : 18 ; 34: 27, 28. As a pure theocracy, all judicial, legislative, and executive authority rested with Jehovah. ( Isa 3 3 : 22; Jas 4 : 1 2 ) I n turn, this Great Theocrat delegat­ ed certain administrative power to his appointed representatives. The law code itself even provided for an eventual dynasty of kings that would rep­ resent Jehovah in civil matters. These kings, however, were not absolute monarchs, since the

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priesthood was separate from the kingship and independent of it, and in reality the kings sat on "Jehovah's throne" as his representatives, subject to his directives and discipline.-De 17: 14-20; l Ch 29 : 2 3 ; 2Ch 26: 16-21 . Under the constitutional code, worship of Jeho­ vah was placed above everything else and domi­ nated every part of the nation's life and activity. Idolatry was rank treason punishable by death. ( De 4: 1 5 - 19 ; 6 : 13- 1 5 ; 13 : 1 - 5 ) The sacred taberna­ cle, and later the temple, with its prescribed sac­ rifices was the physical center of worship. The God-appointed priesthood had the Urim and Thummim, by means of which answers were received from Jehovah on important and difficult questions of life or death. ( Ex 28 : 30 ) Regular assemblies of the men, women, and children were provided (compulsory for the men ), and they helped to maintain the nation's spiritual health and unity.-Le 2 3 : 2 ; De 31 : 10- 13. Provisions were made for a system of judges over "tens," "fifties," "hundreds, " and "thousands. " I n this way the cases of the people could be handled quickly, and appeals could be made on up to Moses, who could, when necessary, present the matter before Jehovah for final decision. ( Ex 18: 19-26 ; De 16 : 18 ) The military organization with its conscription of manpower and distribu­ tion of command also conformed to a similar numerical system.-Nu 1 : 3, 4, 16; 31 : 3-6, 14, 48. The various civil, judicial, and military offices were filled by the hereditary heads of the tribes -the older men who were experienced, wise, and discreet. ( De 1 : 13- 15 ) These older men stood before Jehovah as representatives of the entire congregation of Israel, and through them Jehovah and Moses spoke to the people in general. (Ex 3 : 15, 16 ) They were men who patiently heard judicial cases, enforced the various features of the Law covenant ( De 21 : 18-21 ; 2 2 : 15-21 ; 25 : 7- 10), abided by the divine decisions already rendered ( De 19 : 11 , 1 2 ; 21 : 1 -9 ), furnished military leader­ ship ( Nu 1 : 16 ), confirmed treaties already nego­ tiated ( Jos 9 : 1 5 ) , and, as a committee under the headship of the high priest, discharged other re­ sponsibilities (Jos 22: 13-16). This new theocratic state of Israel with its cen­ tralized authority still retained the patriarchal arrangement of 12 tribal divisions. But in order to relieve the tribe of Levi of military service ( so it could devote its time exclusively to religious mat­ ters) and still retain 12 tribes having 12 portions in the Promised Land, formal genealogical adjust­ ments were made. ( Nu 1 :49, 50; 18: 20-24 ) There was also the matter concerning the firstborn

ISRAEL

rights. Reuben, Jacob's firstborn, was entitled to a double portion in the inheritance ( compare De 21 : 17), but he forfeited this right by committing incestuous immorality with his father's concu­ bine. ( Ge 3 5 : 2 2 ; 49 : 3, 4) These vacancies, the vacancy of Levi among the 12 as well as the absence of one with firstborn rights, had to be filled. In a comparatively simple way Jehovah adjust­ ed both matters by a single act. Joseph's two sons, Ephraim and Manasseh, were advanced to full status as tribal heads. ( Ge 48: 1 - 6 ; l Ch 5 : 1 , 2 ) Again 1 2 tribes exclusive of Levi could be num­ bered, and also a double portion of the land was representatively given to Joseph the father of Ephraim and Manasseh. In this way the firstborn rights were taken away from Reuben, the first­ born of Leah, and given to Joseph, the firstborn of Rachel. ( Ge 29 : 31 , 3 2 ; 30 : 22-24 ) Now with these adjustments the names of the 12 ( non-Levite) tribes of Israel were Reuben, Simeon, Judah, Is­ sachar, Zebulun, Ephraim, Manasseh, Benjamin, Dan, Asher, Gad, and Naphtali.-Nu 1 :4 - 1 5 . From Sinai to the Promised Land. Only 2 out of 12 spies sent into the Promised Land came back with faith strong enough to encourage their brothers to invade and conquer. Jehovah, there­ fore, determined that for this general lack of faith all those more than 20 years old who had come out of Egypt, with few exceptions, would die there in the wilderness. ( Nu 1 3 : 25 - 3 3 ; 14 : 26-34) And so for 40 years that vast camp of Israel wandered about in the Sinai Peninsula. Even Mo­ ses and Aaron died without setting foot on the Promised Land. Soon after Israel came out of Egypt, a census showed there were 603, 5 50 able­ bodied men, but about 39 years later the new generation numbered 1 ,820 less, or 601 , 730.-Nu 1 :45, 46 ; 26: 5 1 .

During Israel's nomadic wilderness life Jehovah was a wall of protection around them, a shield from their enemies. It was only when they re­ belled against him that he allowed evil to befall them. ( Nu 21 : 5 , 6 ) Jehovah also provided for their every need. He gave them manna and water, gave them a sanitary code by which their health was protected, and even kept their shoes from wearing out. ( Ex 1 5 : 23-25 ; 16 : 31 , 35 ; De 29 : 5 ) But i n spite o f such loving and miraculous care on the part of Jehovah, Israel repeatedly murmured and complained ; and from time to time rebels arose to challenge the theocratic appointments, making it necessary for Jehovah to discipline them severely, that the rest might learn to fear

ISRAEL

and obey their Grand Deliverer.-Nu 14: 2- 1 2 ; 16 : 1-3; D e 9 : 24; l Co 10: 10. Israel's 40-year trek through the wilderness was coming to an end when Jehovah gave the kings of the Amorites, Sihon and Og, into their hands. With this victory Israel fell heir to a great amount of territory E of the Jordan in which the tribes of Reuben and Gad and half the tribe of Manasseh settled down.-De 3 : 1 - 1 3 ; Jos 2 : 10. Israel Under the Judges. Following Moses' death, Joshua led the Israelites across the Jordan in 147 3 B.c.E. into the land described as "flowing with milk and honey. " ( Nu 13 : 27 ; De 27: 3 ) Then, in a sweeping six-year campaign, they conquered the territory that had been controlled by 31 kings W of the Jordan, including such fortified cities as Jericho and Ai. (Jos 1 to 1 2 ) The coastal plains and certain enclave cities, like the Jebusite stronghold that later became the City of David, were excep­ tions. (Jos 13 : 1- 6 ; 2Sa 5 : 6-9) These God-defying elements that were allowed to remain acted like thorns and thistles in the side of Israel, and inter­ marriage with them only increased the pain. For a period of more than 380 years, from the death of Joshua to their complete SUbjugation by David, such worshipers of false gods acted "as agents to test Israel so as to know whether they would obey Jehovah's commandments. "-Jg 3 :4-6.

The newly conquered territory was divided among the tribes of Israel by lot, as Jehovah had commanded Moses. Six "cities of refuge" were set aside for the safety of unintentional manslayers. These, and 42 other cities and their surrounding agricultural land, were allotted to the tribe of Levi. -Jos 13 to 21 . Each city appointed judges and officers in its gates for handling judicial affairs as provided under the Law covenant ( De 16: 18) as well as representative older men to administer the gen­ eral interests of the city. (Jg 11 : 5 ) Although the tribes maintained their identity and inheritances, much of the centralized organizational control that had been exercised during the stay in the wilderness was gone. The song of Deborah and Barak, the events of Gideon's warfare, and the activities of Jephthah all reveal the problems of lack of unity in action that arose after Moses and his successor Joshua passed off the scene and the people failed to look to their invisible Head, Jeho­ vah God, for guidance.-Jg 5 : 1 -31 ; 8: 1 - 3 ; 11 : 1 - 1 2 : 7. With the death of Joshua and of the older men of his generation, the people began to vacillate in their faithfulness and obedience to Jehovah, like a

1 2 30

great pendulum swinging to and fro between true and false worship. ( Jg 2 : 7, 11-13, 18, 19 ) When they abandoned Jehovah and turned to serving the Baals, he removed his protection and allowed the nations around them to move in to pillage the land. Awakened by such oppression to the need for united action, wayward Israel appealed to Jehovah and he, in tum, raised up judges, or saviors, to deliver the people. ( Jg 2 : 10-16; 3 : 15 ) There was a whole series of these valiant judges after Joshua, including Othniel, Ehud, Shamgar, Barak, Gideon, Tola, Jair, Jephthah, Ibzan, Elon, Abdon, and Samson.-Jg 3 to 16. Each deliverance had a uniting effect on the nation. There were other uniting incidents too. On one occasion when a Levite's concubine had been wantonly ravished, 11 tribes acted in outraged unity against the tribe of Benjamin, reflecting a sense of national guilt and responsibility. ( Jg chaps 19, 20 ) All the tribes were unitedly drawn to the ark of the covenant in the tabernacle at Shiloh. (Jos 18: 1 ) They therefore felt the loss nationally when the Ark was captured by the Philistines because of the debauchery and mis­ conduct of the priesthood at that time, especially on the part of High Priest Eli's sons. ( l Sa 2 : 22-36 ; 4 : 1 -22 ) With the death of Eli, and with Samuel becoming a prophet and judge of Israel, there was a unifying effect on Israel, as Samuel traveled in a circuit through Israel to handle the questions and disputes of the people.- lSa 7: 15, 16. The United Kingdom. Samuel was extreme­ ly displeased when, in 1117 B.c.E., Israel pleaded: "Do appoint for us a king to judge us like all the nations. " However, Jehovah told Samuel, "Listen to the voice of the people . . . for it is not you whom they have rejected, but it is I whom they have rejected from being king over them . " ( 1Sa 8:4-9 ; 1 2 : 17, 18) Thereupon, Saul the Benjamite was picked as Israel's first king, and though he began his rule well enough, it was not long before his presumptuousness led to disobedience, dis­ obedience, in turn, to rebellion, and rebellion to his finally consulting a spirit medium-so that after 40 years he proved a complete failure! - l Sa 10: 1 ; 11 : 14, 1 5 ; 13 : 1 - 14 ; 15 : 22-29 ; 31 :4.

David of the tribe of Judah, a 'man agreeable to Jehovah's heart' ( lSa 1 3 : 14; Ac 1 3 : 2 2 ), was anointed king in the place of Saul, and under his able leadership the nation's boundaries were ex­ tended to the limits promised, from "the river of Egypt to the great river, the river Euphrates. " -Ge 1 5 : 18; D e 1 1 : 24 ; 2 S a 8: 1 - 14 ; l Ki 4:21 . During David's 40-year reign various special­ ized offices were created in addition to the tribal

1231

ISRAEL

arrangement. There was a n inner circle of coun­

and on down to the destruction of Jerusalem in

selors surrounding the king himself, besides the

607 B.c. E., the term "Israel" usually applied only

older men of influence that served the centralized

to the ten tribes under the rule of the northern

government. ( lCh 13: 1 ; 27 : 3 2-34) Then there

kingdom. ( 2Ki 1 7 : 21 - 2 3 ) But with the return of a

was the larger departmental staff of the govern­

remnant of all 12 tribes from exile, and continu­

ment made up of tribal princes, chiefs, court

ing on down to the second destruction of Jerusa­

officials, and military personnel having adminis­

lem in 70 c.E. , the term "Israel" once again em­

trative responsibilities. ( 1 Ch 28: 1 ) For effective

braced the whole of Jacob's descendants living at

handling of certain matters,

David appointed

that time. Again the people of all 12 tribes were

6,000 Levites as judges and officers. ( l Ch 2 3 : 3 , 4 )

called "all Israel."-Ezr 2 : 70; 6 : 1 7 ; 10: 5 ; Ne 12 : 47;

Other departments with their appointed over­

Ac 2 : 22, 36.

seers were established to look after the cultivation of the fields and to manage such things as the vineyards and wineries, the olive groves and oil supplies, and the livestock and the flocks. ( l Ch 27: 26-31 ) The king's financial interests were sim­ ilarly cared for by a central treasury depart­ ment separate from that supervising the trea­ sures stored elsewhere, as in outlying cities and villages. - 1 Ch 27 : 25 . Solomon succeeded his father David as king in 1037 B.c.E. He reigned "over all the kingdoms from the River [ Euphrates] to the land of the Philistines and to the boundary of Egypt" for 40 years. His reign was especially marked by peace and prosperity, for the nations round about kept "bringing gifts and serving Solomon all the days of his life. " ( 1 Ki 4: 21 ) The wisdom of Solomon was proverbial, he being the wisest king of ancient times, and during his reign Israel reached the zenith of its power and glory. One of Solomon's grandest accomplishments was the building of the magnificent temple, the plans for which he had received from his inspired father David . - 1 Ki chaps 3 to 9 ; 1 Ch 28 : 11 - 19 . And yet for all his glory, riches, and wisdom, Solomon ended up a failure, for he allowed his many foreign wives to turn him away from the pure worship of Jehovah to the profane practices of false religions. In the end Solomon died disap­ proved by Jehovah, and Rehoboam his son suc­ ceeded him. - 1 Ki 11 : 1 - 13, 33, 41 -43. Rehoboam, lacking wisdom and foresight, in­ creased the already heavy government burdens on the people. This, in turn, caused the ten north­

Those who returned to Jerusalem with Ze­ rubbabel and High Priest Joshua (Jeshua)

in

537 B.C.E. included 42,360 males ( and, undoubt­ edly, their wives and children; in addition to slaves and professional singers t and these began

rebuilding Jehovah's house of worship. ( Ezr 3 : 1 , 2 ; 5 : 1 , 2 ) Later others returned with Ezra in 468

B.c.E.

(Ezr 7: 1-8:36),

and

still later,

in

455 B.c.E., no doubt others accompanied Nehemi­ ah when he came to Jerusalem with the special assignment to rebuild the walls and gates of the city. ( Ne 2 : 5 -9 ) Many Israelites, however, remained scattered throughout the empire, as noted in the book of Esther.-Es 3 : 8 ; 8 : 8- 14; 9 : 30. While Israel did not return to its former sover­ eignty as an independent nation, yet it did be­ come a Hebrew commonwealth with considerable freedom under Persian domination. Deputy rulers and governors (like Zerubbabel and Nehemiah ) were appointed from among the Israelites them­ selves. ( Ne 2 : 16-18; 5 : 14, 15; Hag 1 : 1 ) The older men of Israel and the tribal princes continued to act as counselors and representatives of the peo­ ple. (Ezr 1Q:8, 14) The priestly organization was reestablished, based on the ancient genealogical records that had been carefully preserved, and with such Levitical arrangement once again in operation, the sacrifices and other requirements of the Law covenant were 2 : 59-63 ; 8: 1 - 14; Ne 8: 1 - 1 8.

observed . -Ezr

With the fall of the Persian Empire and the rise of Grecian domination of the world, Israel found itself torn by the conflict between the Ptolemies of

ern tribes to secede under Jeroboam, even as Jehovah's prophet had foretold. ( 1Ki 1 1 : 29 -32;

Egypt and the Seleucids of Syria. The latter, dur­

1 2 : 12-20 ) Thus it was that the kingdom of Israel

mined to eradicate Jewish worship and customs.

was divided in 997 B.c.E. For details on the divided kingdom, see ISRAEL No. 3. Israel After the Babylonian Exile . During the next 390 years following the death of Solo­ mon and the breaking up of the united kingdom

ing the rule of Antiochus IV ( Epiphanes), deter­ His effort reached a climax in 168 B.c.E. when a pagan altar was erected atop the temple altar in Jerusalem and dedicated to the Greek god Zeus. This outrageous incident, however, had a reverse effect, for it was the spark that touched off the Maccabean uprising. Three years later, to the day,

ISRAEL

victorious Jewish leader Judas Maccabaeus re­ dedicated the cleansed temple to Jehovah with a festival that has since been commemorated by the Jews as Hanukkah. The century that followed was one of great internal disorder in which Israel was led farther and farther away from the tribal administrative provisions of the Law covenant. It was during this period when home rule by the Maccabeans or Hasmonaeans met with varying fortunes, and when the parties of the pro-Hasmonaean Saddu­ cees and the anti-Hasmonaean Pharisees devel­ oped. Finally Rome, by now the world power, was called upon to interfere. In response General Gnaeus Pompey was sent, and after a three­ month siege he took Jerusalem in 63 B.c.E. and annexed Judea to the empire. Herod the Great was appointed king of the Jews by Rome in about 39 B.c.E., and about three years later he effec­ tively crushed the Hasmonaean rule. Shortly be­ fore Herod's death Jesus was born in 2 B.c.E. , as "a glory of your people Israel. "-Lu 2 : 32. Rome's imperiaJ authority over Israel during the first century C.E. was distributed among dis­ trict rulers and governors, or procurators. The Bible mentions such district rulers as Philip, Lysa­ nias, and Herod Antipas ( Lu 3 : 1 ) ; as well as Governors Pontius Pilate, Felix, and Festus ( Ac 23 : 26 ; 24: 27 ) ; and Kings Agrippa I and II ( Ac 1 2 : 1 ; 25 : 13). Internally, there still remained some semblance of the tribal genealogical arrange­ ment, as is seen when Caesar Augustus had Isra­ elites register in the respective cities of their paternal houses. ( Lu 2 : 1 -5 ) Among the people "the older men" and the priestly Levitical func­ tionaries were still very influential ( Mt 21 : 23 ; 26 :47, 57; A c 4 : 5 , 2 3 ), though they had, t o a large degree, substituted the traditions of men for the written requirements of the Law covenant.-Mt 15 : 1 - 1 1 . I n such a n atmosphere Christianity had its birth. First came John the Baptizer, the forerun­ ner of Jesus, who turned many of the Israelites back to Jehovah. ( Lu 1 : 16 ; Joh 1 : 31 ) Then Jesus and his apostles followed up in the rescue work, laboring as they did among "the lost sheep of the house of Israel," opening blind eyes to the false traditions of men and to the excelling benefits of pure worship of God. (Mt 1 5 : 24 ; 10: 6 ) Yet, only a remnant accepted Jesus as Messiah and were saved. ( Ro 9 : 27 ; 11 : 7 ) These were the ones that joyfully hailed him as the "King of Israel. " ( Joh 1 :49 ; 1 2 : 12, 1 3 ) The majority, refusing to put faith in Jesus ( Mt 8: 10; Ro 9 : 31 , 3 2 ), joined their

1232

religious leaders in crying out: "Take him away! Take him away! Impale him!" "We have no king but Caesar. "-Joh 19 : 15 ; Mr 1 5 : 1 1 - 15 . Time soon proved that this pretended solid fidelity to Caesar was false. Fanatical elements in Israel fomented one revolt after another, and each time the province suffered harsh Roman reprisals, reprisals that, in turn, increased the Jewish ha­ tred of Roman rule. The situation finally became so explosive that the local Roman forces were no longer able to contain it and Cestius Gallus, gov­ ernor of Syria, moved against Jerusalem with stronger forces to maintain Roman control. After setting fire to Bezetha, N of the temple, Gallus encamped in front of the royal palace, SW of the temple. At that moment, Josephus says, he could have easily forced his way into the city; his delay, however, strengthened the insurgents. The advance units of the Romans then made a protec­ tive covering, like the back of the tortoise, with their shields over themselves and began under­ mining the walls. Again when the Romans were about to succeed, they withdrew in the fall of 66 c.E. Concerning this withdrawal, Josephus says: "Cestius . . . suddenly recalled his troops, renounced his hopes, without having suffered any reverse, and, contrary to all calculation, retired from the city." ( The Jewish War, II, 540 [ xix, 7 ] ) This attack o n the city, followed b y the sudden withdrawal, furnished the signal and the oppor­ tunity for the Christians there to 'flee to the mountains' as instructed by Jesus.-Lu 21 : 20-22. The next year ( 67 C.E. ) Vespasian set about putting down the Jewish uprising, but Nero's unexpected death in 68 opened the way for Ves­ pasian to become emperor. So he returned to Rome in 69 and left his son Titus to continue the campaign, and the next year, 70 c.E. , Jerusalem was entered and destroyed. Three years later the last Jewish stronghold at Masada fell to the Ro­ mans. Josephus says that during the whole cam­ paign against Jerusalem 1 , 100,000 Jews died, many from pestilence and famine, and 97,000 were taken captive, he says, many being scat­ tered as slaves to all quarters of the empire. The Jewish War, VI, 420 ( ix, 3 ). -

For the identity of "the twelve tribes of Israel" that are referred to at Matthew 19 : 28 and Luke 2 2 : 30, see TruBE ( "Judging the TWelve Tribes of Israel" ) .

3 . The tribes that twice formed a separate northern kingdom of Israel.

The first split in the national government came with the death of Saul in about 1078 B.C.E. The

1233

tribe o f Judah recognized David a s king, but the rest of the tribes made Saul's son Ish-bosheth king; two years later Ish-bosheth was assassinat­ ed. ( 2Sa 2 :4, 8 - 10 ; 4 : 5-7) In time the breach was healed and David became king of all 12 tribes. -2Sa 5 : 1-3. Later in David's reign, when the revolt by his son Absalom had been put down, all the tribes once again acknowledged David as king. Yet, in returning the king to his throne, a dispute arose over protocol, and in this matter the ten northern tribes called Israel were at odds with the men of Judah.-2Sa 19:41 -43. All 12 tribes were united in their support of David's son Solomon in his kingship. But upon his death in about 998 B.c.E. the second dividing of the kingdom occurred. Only the tribes of Benja­ min and Judah supported King Rehoboam, who sat on his father Solomon's throne in Jerusalem. Israel, consisting of the ten other tribes to the N and E, picked Jeroboam to be their king.- 1 Ki 1 1 : 29-37; 1 2 : 1 -24; MAP, Vol. 1 , p. 947. At first the capital of Israel was set up at Shechem. Later it was moved to Tirzah, and then during the reign of Omri it was moved to Samar­ ia, where it remained for the next 200 years. ( 1Ki 1 2 : 2 5 ; 15 : 3 3 ; 16: 23, 24) Jeroboam recog­ nized that unified worship holds a people togeth­ er, and so to keep the breakaway tribes from going to Jerusalem's temple to worship, he set up two golden calves, not at the capital, but at the two extremities of Israel'S territory, one at Bethel in the south and the other at Dan in the north. He also installed a non-Levitical priesthood to lead and instruct Israel in worship of both the gold­ en calves and the goat-shaped demons.-1Ki 1 2 : 28- 3 3 ; 2Ch 11 : 13- 15. In Jehovah's eyes this was a very great sin that Jeroboam committed. ( 2Ki 17:21 , 2 2 ) Had he re­ mained faithful to Jehovah and not turned to such rank idolatry, God would have allowed his dynas­ ty to continue, but as it turned out, his house lost the throne when his son Nadab was assassinated less than two years after Jeroboam's death.- 1 Ki 1 1 : 38 ; 15 : 25 -28. As the ruler went, so went the nation of Israel. Nineteen kings, not counting Tibni ( 1Ki 1 6 : 2 1 , 2 2 ), reigned from 997 t o 740 B.c.E. Only nine had their own sons succeed them, and only one had a dynasty extending to the fourth generation. Sev­ en of Israel's kings ruled two years or less; some for only a few days. One committed suicide, four others met a premature death, and six others were assassinated by ambitious men who then

ISRAEL

occupied the throne of their victims. Whereas the best of the whole lot, Jehu, pleased Jehovah by removing the vile Baal worship that Ahab and Jezebel had sponsored, yet "Jehu himself did not take care to walk in the law of Jehovah the God of Israel with all his heart " ; he allowed Jeroboam's calf worship to continue throughout the land. -2Ki 10: 30, 3 1 . Jehovah, for his part, was certainly long­ suffering with Israel. During their 2 57-year histo­ ry he continued to send his servants to warn the rulers and the people of their wicked ways, but to no avail. ( 2Ki 17 : 7- 1 8 ) Among these devoted ser­ vants of God were the prophets Jehu ( not the king), Elijah, Micaiah, Elisha, Jonah, Oded, Hosea, Amos, and Micah.- 1Ki 1 3 : 1 - 3 ; 16 : 1 , 1 2 ; 17: 1 ; 2 2 : 8 ; 2Ki 3 : 1 1 , 12; 14: 2 5 ; 2Ch 28: 9 ; Ho 1 : 1 ; Am 1 : 1 ; Mic 1 : 1 . Israel's problem of protecting herself against invasion was greater than Judah's, for though she had double the population, she also had nearly triple the land area to guard. In addition to war­ ring against Judah from time to time, she was frequently at war on her northern and eastern frontiers with Syria and under pressure from Assyria. The final siege of Samaria was begun by Shalmaneser V in the seventh year of Hoshea's reign, but it took nearly three years before the city was taken by the Assyrians in 740 B.C.E. -2Ki 1 7 : 1 - 6 ; 18:9, 10. The policy of the Assyrians, inaugurated by Shalmaneser's predecessor Tiglath-pileser III, was to remove captives from conquered territory and transplant in their place peoples from other parts of the empire. Thus, future uprisings were discouraged. In this instance the other national groups brought into Israel's territory eventually became intermingled both racially and religiously and were known thereafter as Samaritans. -2Ki 1 7 : 24-3 3 ; Ezr 4 : 1 , 2, 9, 10; Lu 9 : 5 2 ; Joh 4 : 7-43. With the fall of Israel the ten northern tribes were not completely lost, however. Some persons of these tribes evidently were left in Israel's ter­ ritory by the Assyrians. Others no doubt fled from Israel's idolatry to Judah's territory prior to 740 B.c.E. , and their descendants would have been among the captives taken to Babylon in 607 B.c.E. ( 2Ch 11 : 13- 17; 35 : 1 , 17- 19 ) No doubt there were descendants also from among those taken captive by the Assyrians ( 2Ki 1 7 : 6 ; 18: 11 ) who were numbered among the returning rem­ nant that made up the 12 tribes of Israel in 537 B.c.E. and thereafter.- 1Ch 9 : 2, 3 ; Ezr 6 : 17; Ho 1 : 11 ; compare Eze 37 : 15-22.

ISRAELITE

4. The Promised Land, or geographic territory assigned to the nation of Israel ( all 12 tribes), in contrast with the territory of other nations ( lSa 13: 19 ; 2Ki 5 : 2 ; 6 : 2 3 ), and over which Israelite kings ruled.-1Ch 22 : 2 ; 2Ch 2 : 17.

Following the division of the nation "the land of Israel" was at times used to designate the north­ ern kingdom's territory, distinguishing it from that of Judah. ( 2Ch 30: 24, 25 ; 34: 1 , 3-7 ) After the northern kingdom's fall the name of Israel was, in effect, kept alive by Judah, the only king­ dom remaining of Israel's (Jacob's) descendants. Therefore, it is primarily with reference to the land of the Judean kingdom and its capital Jeru­ salem that the expression "soil of Israel" is used by the prophet Ezekiel. (Eze 12 : 19, 22; 18: 2 ; 21 : 2, 3 ) This was the geographic area that was completely desolated for 70 years from and after 60 7 B.C.E. ( Eze 25 : 3 ) but to which a faithful remnant would be regathered.-Eze 1 1 : 17; 20: 42 ; 37: 12. For a description of Israel's geographic and cli­ matic characteristics, as well as its size, location, natural resources, and related features, see the article PALESTINE.

ISRAELITE ( Is'ra·eHte) [Of ( Belonging to) Is­ rael]. A descendant of Jacob, whose name was changed to Israel. ( 2Sa 17:25; Joh 1 :47 ; Ro 11 : 1 ; see ISRAEL No. 1 . ) As determined by the context, in the plural the term refers to the following: ( 1 ) Members of all the 12 tribes before the split in the kingdom ( lSa 2: 14; 13:20 ; 29 : 1 ) ; ( 2 ) those of the 10-tribe northern kingdom ( 1Ki 12 : 19; 2Ki 3 : 24); ( 3 ) non-Levitical Jews returning from Bab­ ylonian exile ( 1Ch 9 : 1 , 2 ) ; (4) Jews of the first century C.E.-Ac 13 : 16 ; Ro 9 : 3, 4 ; 2Co 1 1 : 22. ISRAEL OF GOD. This expression, found on­ ly once in Scripture, refers to spiritual Israel rath­ er than to racial descendants of Jacob, whose name was changed to Israel. ( Ge 32: 22-28 ) The Bible speaks of "Israel in a fleshly way" ( lCo 10: 18), as well as spiritual Israel made up of those for whom descent from Abraham is not a require­ ment. ( Mt 3 : 9 ) The apostle Paul, when using the expression "the Israel of God," shows that it has nothing to do with whether one is a circumcised descendant of Abraham or not.-Ga 6 : 15, 16. The prophet Hosea foretold that God, in reject­ ing the nation of natural Israel in favor of this spiritual nation, which includes Gentiles, would say "to those not my people: 'You are my people. ' " (Ho 2 : 23 ; Ro 9 : 22-25 ) In due time the Kingdom of God was taken away from the nation of natural

1 2 34

Jews and given to a spiritual nation bringing forth Kingdom fruitage. ( Mt 21 :43 ) To be sure, natural Jews were included in spiritual Israel. The apostles and others who received holy spirit at Pentecost in 33 c.E. ( about 120), those added on that day ( about 3,000), and those that later in­ creased the number to about 5,000 were all Jews and proselytes. ( Ac 1 : 13- 15 ; 2 :41 ; 4:4) But even at that, they were, as Isaiah described them, "a mere remnant" saved out of that cast-off nation. -Isa 10: 21 , 22; Ro 9: 27. Other scriptures elaborate on this matter. With the breaking off of some "natural branches" of the figurative olive tree, there was a grafting in of "wild" non-Israelite ones, so that there was no racial or class distinction among those that flare really Abraham's seed, heirs with reference to a promise." (Ro 11 : 1 7-24; Ga 3 : 28, 29) "Not all who spring from Israel are really 'IsraeL ' " "For he is not a Jew who is one on the outside, nor is circumcision that which is on the outside upon the flesh. But he is a Jew who is one on the inside, and his circumcision is that of the heart by spirit." ( Ro 9 : 6 ; 2 : 28, 29 ) Natural Israel failed to produce the required number, so God "turned his atten­ tion to the nations to take out of them a people for his name" ( Ac 15: 14), concerning whom it was said, "You were once not a people, but are now God's people. " ( lPe 2: 10 ) The apostle Peter quoted what had been said to natural Israel and applied it to this spiritual Israel of God, saying it is in reality "a chosen race, a royal priesthood, a holy nation, a people for special possession. "-Ex 19 : 5, 6; l Pe 2 :9. The 12 tribes mentioned in Revelation chap­ ter 7 must refer to this spiritual Israel for several valid reasons. The listing does not match that of natural Israel at Numbers chapter 1 . Also Jerusa­ lem's temple and priesthood and all the tribal records of natural Israel were permanently de­ stroyed, lost forever, long before John had his vision in 96 C.E. But more important, John re­ ceived his vision upon a background of the afore­ mentioned developments from and after Pente­ cost 33 c.E. In the light of such events, John's vision of those standing on the heavenly Mount Zion with the Lamb ( whom natural Israel had rejected) revealed the number of this spiritual Israel of God to be 144,000 "bought from among mankind."-Re 7 :4; 14: 1 , 4.

ISSACHAR ( Is'sa·char) [He Is Wages [that is, a man of wages ] ]. 1 . The ninth son of Jacob and the fifth of Leah's seven children born in Paddan-aram. Leah

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viewed this son a s Jehovah's reward or wages paid for her having allowed a maidservant to bear sons by her husband during a period when she was barren.-Ge 29: 3 2-30: 21 ; 35: 23, 26; 1 Ch 2:1. Issachar was perhaps eight years old when his family moved to Canaan in 1761 E.c.E. After that nothing is known of his life aside from the record­ ed events in which, as one of "the sons of Ja­ cob," he mutually participated. ( Ge 34: 5-7, 13, 27 ; 37 : 3-27 ; 42 : 1 -3; 45 : 15 ) In 1728 E.C.E. , when Issachar was about 41 years old, he moved to Egypt together with his sons Tola, Puvah ( Puah), lob (Jashub), and Shirnron as part of the 'seventy souls' of Jacob's household.-Ge 46: 13 , 27 ; Ex 1 : 1-3; l Ch 7: 1 . When Jacob was on his deathbed, Issachar was the 5th of the 12 sons to receive his father's blessing: "Issachar is a strong-boned ass, lying down between the two saddlebags. And he will see that the resting-place is good and that the land is pleasant; and he will bend down his shoul­ der to bear burdens and he will become subject to slavish forced labor. " ( Ge 49 : 14, 1 5 ) In pronounc­ ing this blessing, not only was Jacob pointing out certain individual characteristics and events in the personal life of Issachar but, as with the blessings bestowed on his brothers, Jacob was also foretelling tribal traits and conduct that would be displayed in the future by Issachar's descendants "in the final part of the days."-Ge 49 : 1 . 2. One of the 12 tribes of Israel ; descendants of Jacob through his son Issachar.

When the first census was taken after leaving Egypt, the number of able-bodied men 20 years old and upward who were fit for warfare among this tribe was 54,400. ( Nu 1 : 17- 19, 28, 29 ) A similar census about 39 years later showed the tribe had increased their registered ones to 64,300, and in David's time the fighting force num­ bered 87,000. ( Nu 26: 23-25; lCh 7 : 5 ) There were 200 head ones of the tribe that went to Hebron in 1070 B.C.E. when David was made "king over all Israel. "- lCh 1 2 : 23, 32, 38. In the layout of the great wilderness camp, the families of Issachar, together with those of their full-blood brother-tribe Zebulun, were situated on Judah's flanks on the E side of the tabernacle (Nu 2 : 3-8); when on the march this three-tribe divi­ sion was assigned to take the lead. ( Nu 10: 14-16) Moses' parting blessings on the tribes grouped Issachar and Zebulun together ( De 3 3 : 18), but a few years later they were separated when the

ISSACHAR

tribes were divided into two groups to hear the reading of blessings and cursings of the Law between the mountains of Gerizim and Ebal.-De 27 : 11 - 1 3 ; Jos 8 : 33-3 5 ; see EBAL, MOUNT. In dividing up the Promised Land, Issachar was the fourth tribe chosen by lot to receive its inher­ itance, which proved to be mainly in the fertile Valley of JezreeL Bounding Issachar were the tribal territories of Zebulun and Naphtali on the N, the Jordan River on the E, Manasseh's territory on the S, and on the W a portion of Asher's allotment. Mount Tabor lay along its northern boundary with Zebulun, while the city of Megiddo was near its SW border and Beth-shean was to­ ward its SE boundary. Within this territory there were a number of Canaanite cities and their de­ pendent settlements. ( Jos 17: 10; 19 : 17-23) It was here in this choice valley that the tribe of Issa­ char, according to Moses' blessing, 'rejoiced in their tents.'-De 33: 18. The likening of Jacob's son Issachar to "a strong-boned ass" evidently pointed to a quality reflected as well in the tribe descended from him. (Ge 49 : 14, 15) The land assigned them was in­ deed "pleasant," a fertile part of Palestine, good for agriculture. Issachar seems to have accepted well the hard labor involved in such work. Will­ ingness is indicated by his 'bending down his shoulder to bear burdens. ' So, while the tribe was not particularly outstanding, it apparently could be commended for taking on the load of responsi­ bility that was its share. Certain cities within Issachar's possession were designated as enclave cities belonging to the neighbor tribe of Manasseh, including the promi­ nent cities of Megiddo and Beth-shean. (Jos 17: 11 ) A number of towns in its territory, together with their surrounding pasture grounds, were also set aside for the tribe of Levi. (Jos 21 :6, 28, 29 ; lCh 6 : 62, 71-73 ) Later, Issachar supplied its share (one twelfth of the annual needs ) for the support of Solomon's court.- 1Ki 4 : 1 , 7, 17. Among the prominent individuals of Issachar was Igal, the tribe's selected spy who joined oth­ ers in advising Israel not to enter the Promised Land. ( Nu 13: 1 -3, 7, 31-33) As chieftains of the tribe, Nethanel served after the Exodus (Nu 1 :4, 8; 7 : 18; 10: 15 ), Paltiel when Israel entered the Promised Land (Nu 34: 17, 18, 26), and Omri dur­ ing the reign of David.-1Ch 27 : 18, 22. Issachar was listed among those that supported Judge Barak in the overthrow of Jabin's forces under Sisera. ( Jg 4 : 2 ; 5: 1 5 ) Later, for 23 years Tola of the tribe of Issachar was one of the judges

1236

ISSHIAH

of Israel. ( Jg 10: 1 , 2) After the split-up of the united kingdom, Baasha of Issachar was the third ruler of the northern kingdom. A wicked man, Baasha murdered his predecessor to gain the throne and held it for 24 years. ( lKi 15 : 27, 28, 33, 34 ) Some 200 years later, Hezekiah the king of Judah invited those of the northern kingdom to join in keeping the Passover, and many from Issachar, in response, traveled up to Jerusalem for the celebration.-2Ch 30: 1 , 13, 18-20. In the books of Ezekiel and Revelation, Issachar is enumerated with the other tribes and, in view of the prophetic nature of those visions, obviously has symbolic meaning.-Eze 48: 25 , 26, 3 3 ; Re 7 : 7. 3. A Levite gatekeeper; seventh son of Korah­ ite Obed-edom. Issachar, toge,ther with his rela­ tives, was assigned to guard duty on the S side of the sanctuary in Jerusalem. - 1Ch 26: 1-5, 13, 15.

ISSHIAH

( Is·shi'ah ) [Jehovah Makes Forget ].

1. One of the headmen of the tribe of Issachar whose descendants helped make that tribe very numerous. - lCh 7 : 1 , 3, 4. 2. A warrior who j oined David's forces at Zik­ lag; possibly a Korahite.- 1 Ch 1 2 : 1 , 6. 3. A descendant of Kohath whose Levite sons were organized under David's reign.- 1 Ch 2 3 : 12, 20; 24: 24, 25. 4. Another Levite of David's day, a descendant of Moses.-1Ch 23 : 14 - 1 7 ; 24: 21 .

ISSHIJAH ( Is·shi'jah) [Jah Makes Forget ]. One of the Levites who responded to Ezra's urging to send away their foreign wives and sons.-Ezr 10: 31 , 44. ITALIAN BAND. A unit of the Roman army in which Cornelius of Caesarea served as a centu­ rion. In the Bible's only reference to it, Cornelius is said to have been " an army officer of the Italian band, as it was called . " ( Ac 10: 1 ) This was prob­ ably a cohort, so named to distinguish it from the regular Roman legions. A cohort in full strength consisted of about 600 men, that is, about one tenth the size of a legion. As its name implies, this cohort was probably made up of volunteers mus­ tered in Italy, having Roman citizenship either as freeborn men or as freedmen. The scripture does not say this Italian band was stationed at Caesarea. It only says that Cornelius, one of its army officers, had his home in Caesarea. -Ac 10: 1, 2, 22, 24. ITALY [possibly from Latin, vituius, "calf" ]. The boot-shaped peninsula extending out in a southeasterly direction from continental Europe

into the Mediterranean Sea. From the Alps on the N to the "big toe" at the Strait of Messina in the S it is about 1 , 130 km ( 700 mi) long. It varies in width from 160 to 240 km ( 100 to 150 mi ) and is bounded by the Adriatic Sea on the E and the Tyrrhenian Sea on the W. As a backbone down the middle of this peninsula is the Apennine mountain range, with fertile valleys running to­ ward the coastal plains. The principal rivers are the Tiber and the Po. Italy is about the size of the Philippines. Originally, according to Antiochus of Syracuse (of the fifth century E.C.E. ), the name Italia ap­ plied only to the province of Calabria in the S where the Itali lived. This name seems to be a Grecized form of Viteiia, related to the Latin vitu­ ius, meaning "calf. " It was possibly applied to this region either because of its grazing lands and cattle or because its inhabitants supposed them­ selves to be descendants of their bull-god. By the first century c.E. the name Italy had been ex­ tended to cover much the same territory as it does today. Over the centuries peoples of various origins migrated to this very fertile land. Italy's early history includes wars between those already there and waves of newcomers that periodically invaded the land. The peninsula thus served as a melting pot of languages, blood, and customs as these different national groups settled down and intermarried. Christianity was brought to Italy at an early date, for on the day of Pentecost, 33 C.E., Italian proselytes as well as Jews from Rome witnessed the outpouring of holy spirit and listened to Pe­ ter's explanation ; no doubt some of them were among the "about three thousand" baptized on that occasion. ( Ac 2 : 1 , 10, 41 ) Returning to Italy, they could have formed the nucleus of the Chris­ tian congregation in Rome to whom Paul some years later addressed one of his letters. ( Ro 1 : 1 - 7 ) Aquila and Priscilla may have been o f that con­ gregation in Italy when ordered by Emperor Claudius, sometime in the year 49 or early 50 c . E . , to leave the country. They arrived in Corinth shortly before Paul got there on his first visit to that city on his second missionary tour. -Ac 18: 1 , 2. Cornelius, undoubtedly an Italian and an army officer of "the Italian band," had a home in Caesa­ rea. ( Ac 10: 1 ) It was in Caesarea that Paul , at his trial before Festus, appealed his case to Caesar. He was then taken by boat to Myra, where, to­ gether with other prisoners, he was transferred

ITTAI

1 2 37

to a grain boat from Alexandria that was headed for Italy. ( Ac 25 : 6, 1 1 , 1 2 ; 27: 1 , 5, 6) Shipwrecked on the voyage, they had to winter on the island of Malta. Then probably in the spring of 59 c.E., Paul first touched Italian soil at Rhegium on the "toe" of Italy, and shortly thereafter he disembarked at Puteoli on the Bay of Pozzuoli ( Naples ). Here, more than 160 km ( 100 mi) S of Rome, Paul stayed for a week with the local congregation before going on up to Rome via the Appian Way, along which, at "the Marketplace of Appius and Three Thverns, " he was met by the brothers from Rome. ( Ac 28: 11 - 16 ) Likely, toward the end of Paul's first Roman imprisonment, or shortly after his release in about 61 C.E. , he wrote the book of Hebrews while still in Italy.-Heb 1 3 : 24.

ITHAI

( I'thai ) [possibly a shortened form of Ithiel ]. Son of Ribai from Gibeah in Benj amin's territory ; one of the mighty men of David's mili­ tary forces. ( l Ch 11 : 26, 31 ) Apparently Ithai is called Ittai at 2 Samuel 2 3 : 29.

ITHAMAR ( Ith'a·mar) [ possibly, Father (or, Brother) of the Palm Tree]. The fourth listed of Aaron's sons. ( Ex 6 : 2 3 ; Nu 26:60; 1 Ch 6 : 3 ) After having supervised the inventory of tabernacle materials, Ithamar, with his father and brothers, was installed as a priest in the ceremony detailed at Exodus 29. ( Ex 28: 1 ; 38: 21 ; 40: 12- 15 ) When his two older brothers, Nadab and Abihu, were later executed for offering "illegitimate fire," Itha­ mar and his third brother Eleazar were told not to mourn for them. Later, Ithamar and Eleazar re­ ceived a greater portion of priestly duties as Jeho­ vah progressively outlined these. ( Le 10: 1-20) Ithamar was made overseer of the various taber­ nacle services performed by the Gershonites and Merarites.-Nu 3 : 2-4; 4 : 28, 3 3 ; 7 : 8. Ithamar's descendants continued as priests, and during the reigns of Saul, David, and Solo­ mon, members of the house of Ithamar's descen­ dant Eli temporarily officiated as high priest. When David organized the temple service, 8 of the 24 priestly divisions were of the house of Ithamar. ( 1 Ch 24: 1 - 6 ; 1Sa 14: 3 ; 2 2 : 9 ; see HIGH PRIEST. ) Sons of Ithamar were also enrolled among the paternal houses of Israel after the Babylonian exile.-Ezr 8 : 2 .

ITHIEL

( Ith'i·el ) [ probably, With Me I s God ].

1. One of the hearers of what Agur spoke, as

recorded in Proverbs chapter 30; possibly a son or disciple of Agur.-Pr 30: 1 . 2 . A Benjamite whose descendant lived i n Je­ rusalem in Nehemiah's time.-Ne 11 :4, 7.

ITHLAH (Ith'lah ) [ possibly from a root mean­ ing "hang" ]. One of the border cities of Dan. ( Jos 19 :40, 42 ) Its location is uncertain. ITHMAH ( Ith'mah) [ from a root meaning "fa­ therless boy"] ' One of several of David's mighty men listed only in Chronicles ; a Moabite. - 1 Ch 1 1 : 26, 46. ITHNAN (Ith'nan). A city at the extremity of southern Judah ( Jos 1 5 : 21 , 23 ), the location of which is unknown. ITHRA ( Ith'ra) [ from a root meaning "more than enough; overflow"]. Father of Amasa by David's sister or half sister Abigail. ( 2Sa 1 7 : 2 5 ) He is called Jether at 1 Chronicles 2 : 17.-See JETHER No. 6. ITHRAN (Ith'ran) [ from a root meaning "more than enough; overflow"]. 1. A son of the Edomite sheik Dishon; descen­ dant of Seir the Horite.-Ge 36 : 20, 2 1 , 26; l Ch 1 : 38, 41. 2 . A descendant of Asher through Zophah. ( lCh 7: 30, 37 ) Likely the same as Jether ( spelled similarly in Hebrew ) in the following verse. -See JETHER NO. 4.

ITHREAM (Ith're·am) [ from a root meaning "more than enough; overflow" ]. David's sixth son, born in Hebron by his wife Eglah.-2Sa 3 : 5 ; 1 Ch 3 : 1 , 3. ITHRITE ( Ith'rite) [ Of ( Belonging to ) Jether (or, Jethro)]. A family name in the tribe of Judah, connected with Kiriath-jearim. ( l Ch 2 : 3, 52, 5 3 ) Two o f David's mighty men, Ira and Gareb, came from this family.-2Sa 23 : 38; 1 Ch 11 : 40. ITTAI

( It'tai ) [ shortened form of Ithiel ]. 1. A Gittite warrior, presumably from the Phi­ listine city of Gath, who was very loyal to David. When David and his attendants were fleeing Je­ rusalem because of Absalom's rebellion, 600 Git­ tites, including Ittai, came along. David tried to dissuade Ittai from leaving the city, but the war­ rior expressed his great devotion in these terms: "As Jehovah is living and as my lord the king is living, in the place where my lord the king may come to be, whether for death or for life, there is where your servant will come to be! " David then permitted Ittai to continue accompanying him. -2Sa 15 : 18-22. After numbering his forces, David appointed this non-Israelite Ittai, along with Joab and Abishai, as chiefs, each over one third of the army.-2Sa 18:2, 5, 12.

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ITURAEA 2. One of David's mighty men; a Benjamite

and the son of Ribai of Gibeah. ( 2Sa 2 3 : 29 ) He is called Ithai at 1 Chronicles 11 : 31 .

ITURAEA ( Itu·rae'a). A small territory of varying and undefined boundaries located NE of the Sea of Galilee. The name Ituraea is thought to derive from Ishmael's son Jetur, whose descendants residing E of the Jordan were defeated by the Israelites. ( Ge 25 : 15, 16; l Ch 1 : 31 ; 5 : 18-23 ) Toward the close of the second century B.c.E . , the Maccabean king Aristobulus I successfully warred against Ituraea and added much of its territory to Judea. To remain in the country, the inhabitants of Itu­ raea had to submit to circumcision and obey Jewish law. (Jewish An tiquities, XIII, 318 [ xL 3 ] ) Later, Ituraea was one of the territories compris­ ing the tetrarchy of Philip, inherited from his father Herod the Great.-Lu 3: 1 . IVORY.

The creamy-white tusks of the ele­ phant, hippopotamus, walrus, and other animals. Though hard, and having a density about three and a half times as great as seasoned cedarwood, it is highly elastic and is easily carved or tooled. Its fine grain gives it a pleasing touch and finish that has remarkable durability. The intersecting layers of dentin, alternating in shade, add to its utility a beauty all its own. "Ivory" is designated in Hebrew by the words shen ( literally, tooth) and shen·hab·bim ' ( rendered "elephants' teeth" in the Greek Septuagint). The Greek term e·lephan 'ti­ nos means "made of ivory. " Ivory has been associated with the luxuries of life-fine art, elegant furnishings, treasured rich­ es. Solomon's ships, once every three years, brought great quantities of ivory from faraway places. ( 1Ki 10: 22 ; 2Ch 9 : 21 ) Befitting his glo­ ry and greatness, Solomon "made a great ivo­ ry throne and overlaid it with refined gold. " ( 1 Ki 10: 18; 2Ch 9 : 17) The Psalms mention "the grand ivory palace" in connection with stringed instru­ ments of music. ( Ps 45 : 8 ) In the lovely Song of Solomon the writer uses ivory as a metaphor and a simile to express beauty: "His abdomen is an ivory plate covered with sapphires," " Your neck is like an ivory tower. " ( Ca 5 : 14; 7 : 4 ) King Ahab also built himself a palace using costly ivory, making it a veritable "house of ivory. " ( 1 Ki 2 2 : 39 ) In the days of Amos houses and couches were con­ structed with ivory. ( Am 3 : 15 ; 6 : 4 ) Archaeologi­ cal findings confirm the rather extensive use of ivory by the nation of Israel and her neighbors. Egypt too used this natural "plastic" in making such things as combs, fan handles, dishes, oint­ ment boxes, chair legs, game boards, statuettes,

and sculptured works o f art. The city o f Tyre, in her great sea commerce, inlaid the prows of her ships with ivory. Ivory is also listed among the costly things of ancient Tyre's traders, as well as in the stock of "the traveling merchants of the earth" who weep over Babylon the Great's fall into destruction.-Eze 27:6, 1 5 ; Re 18: 1 1 , 12.

IVVAH

(Iv'vah ). One of the cities conquered by the Assyrians ( 2Ki 18 : 34; 19 : 1 3 ; Isa 37: 13), likely the same as Avva.-2Ki 1 7 : 24.

IYE-ABARIM ( I'ye-ab'a·rim) [ Ruins of the Fords ( Crossings) ; Ruins of the Borderland ( Re­ gions Beyond ) ]. One of Israel's wilderness en­ campments. Its exact location is uncertain, but it was evidently on the southern border of Moab and near the torrent valley of Zered. ( Nu 21 : 11 , 1 2 ; 3 3 : 44 ) Perhaps Iye-abarim marked the south­ ernmost point of the Abarim region. ( Nu 33:47, 48; see ABARlM. ) Yohanan Aharoni suggests an identification with el-Medeiyineh at the ford of the Brook Zered, about 60 km ( 37 mi ) S of Dibon­ gad, the next encampment listed.- The Land of the Bible, 1979, pp. 202, 436. IYIM ( I'yim ) [ Heaps of Ruins]. Apparently an abbreviated form of Iye-abarim, a site on the border of Moab where the Israelites encamped. -Nu 3 3 : 44, 45. IZHAR ( Iz'har). Two names, spelled similarly in Hebrew, are rendered the same in English. 1 . Yits·har'. The second listed of Kohath's four sons; therefore a grandson of Levi. (Ex 6 : 16, 18; Nu 3 : 17, 19 ; l Ch 6 : 2, 18) One of Izhar's three sons, Korah, was executed in the wilderness for rebellion. -Ex 6 : 21 ; Nu 16 : 1 , 32. Izhar founded the Levite family of Izharites. ( Nu 3 : 27 ) Under King David, some of the 1zhar­ ites, whose headman was Shelomith, were ap­ pointed singers, officers, and judges, while oth­ ers performed regular Levitical duties.- 1 Ch 6 : 31 -38; 23: 12, 18; 24: 20-22; 26 : 23, 29 ; see AM ­ MINADAB No. 2. 2 . Yits·char' (in agreement with Vg). A de­ scendant of Judah ; a son of Ashhur and Helah. ( 1 Ch 4: 1 , 5, 7) In the margin of the Masoretic text the name is spelled Zohar.

IZHARITES

(lz'har·ites) [ Of ( Belonging to) 1z­ har]. A Levite family of the Kohathites that de­ scended from Izhar.-Nu 3 : 19, 27; l Ch 24: 22; 26 : 23, 29.

IZLIAH

( Iz·li'ah ). A leading Benjamite who lived in Jerusalem; son or descendant of Elpaal. - l Ch 8: 1, 18, 28.

JAAZANIAH

1239

IZRAHIAH

( Iz·ra·hi'ah ) [Jah Shines Forth; Jah

Flashes Forth].-

1. A descendant of Issachar through Tola. - lCh 7 : 1-5 .

2. An overseer of the singers who helped cele­ brate the completion of Nehemiah's rebuilding of Jerusalem's wall.-Ne 12 :42.

IZRAHITE ( Iz'rah·ite ). The designation of the man Shamhuth, chief of David's fifth service divi­ sion that ministered to him. ( lCh 27: 8 ) Shamhuth was of either the town or family of Izrah.

J

JAAKOBAH

( Ja·a·ko'bah) [ from a root mean­ ing "seize the heel; supplant"]. One of the chief­ tains of Simeon who, in the days of Hezekiah, extended their territory into the fertile valley of Gedor by striking down its inhabitants. - 1 Ch 4: 24, 36-41 .

JAALA, JAALAH ( Ja'a·la[h ] ) [ ( Female) Moun­ tain Goat ]. The founder of a family of Solomon's servants, some of whom, along with the Nethi­ nim, returned from the Babylonian exile with Zerubbabel.-Ezr 2 : 2 , 5 5 -58; Ne 7 : 7, 57-60. JAARE-OREGIM ( Ja'a·re-or'e·gim). A name appearing only at 2 Samuel 21 : 19. It is generally believed that scribal error has given rise to this name and that the correct reading is preserved in the parallel text at 1 Chronicles 20: 5 . "Jaare" is considered to be an alteration of "Jair," and "ore­ gim" ( o ·reghim "weavers" or "loom workers" ) is thought to have been copied inadvertently from a line below in the same verse. '

',

JAARESHIAH ( Ja·a·re·shi'ah). A family head in the tribe of Benjamin; son or descendant of Jeroham. He and his household lived in Jerusa­ lem.- 1 Ch 8: 1 , 27, 28. JAASIEL

( Ja·a·si'el) [ May God Make; God Has

Made ].

1. One of the mighty men of David, listed only in Chronicles ; a Mezobaite. - 1 Ch 11 : 26, 47.

2. Prince of the tribe of Benjamin during Da­ vid's reign. He was the son of Abner, therefore probably a cousin of King Saul.- 1Ch 27 : 21 , 22.

JAASU

( Ja'a·su) [ shortened form of Jaasiel]. A son of Bani and one of the Jews who responded to

IZRI (Iz'ri ) [ Of ( Belonging to) Jezer]. The leader of the fourth course of 12 musicians at Jehovah's sanctuary under David's reorganization. ( lCh 25:7, 8, 11 ) Without the Hebrew letter yohdh at the beginning, his name is spelled "Zeri" in verse 3 , where he is identified as a son of Jedu­ thun. IZZIAH

( Iz·zi'ah) [Jah Spatters]. One of the sons of Parosh who, after hearing Ezra's counsel, sent away their foreign wives and sons.-Ezr 10:25, 44.

Ezra's admonition by putting away their foreign wives and sons.-Ezr 10: 34, 37, 44.

JAAZANIAH ( Ja·az·a·ni'ah ) [ Jehovah Has Giv­ en Ear]. Toward the end of the kingdom of Judah it seems that this was a rather common name; all four men mentioned in the Bible by this name lived within the same short period of time. The name has also been found in the Lachish Letters, and on a seal found at Tell en-Nasbeh the words "Ya'azanyahu, servant [ officer] of the king" ap­ pear. ( The Biblical Archaeologist, 1947, p. 71 ) There is no direct evidence, however, that such an inscription identifies any of the following per­ sons. 1 . A leader of the Rechabites when the prophet Jeremiah tested their integrity by offering them wine, which they refused. Jaazaniah was the son of another Jeremiah.-Jer 35 : 3, 5, 6. 2. Son of Shaphan; the only individual named in Ezekiel's vision ( 612 B.c.E. ) of the 70 men who offered incense before carved idolatrous symbols in the temple at Jerusalem.-Eze 8: 1 , 10, 1 1 .

3 . Son of Azzur; one o f the 25 men seen in Ezekiel's vision standing at the eastern gate of Jehovah's temple. Jaazaniah and his companions were "scheming hurtfulness and advising bad counsel against this city," and Ezekiel was com­ manded to prophesy against them. -Eze 1 1 : 1-4.

4. A military chief of Judah in the brief period immediately following the destruction of Jerusa­ lem by the Babylonians. Jaazaniah ( Jezaniah, as his name was sometimes spelled ) was one of several who readily supported the appointment of Governor Gedaliah. ( 2Ki 2 5 : 2 3 ; Jer 40: 7, 8) He was presumably included when "all the chiefs of

JAAZIAH

1 240

the military forces" warned Gedaliah of Ishmael's threat on his life and, after Ishmael did assassi­ nate Gedaliah, pursued Ishmael and recovered those he had taken prisoner. (Jer 40: 13, 14; 41 : 1 1 - 1 6 ) Jezaniah was among those leaders who inquired of Jeremiah concerning what to do then, but rather than follow his advice, they led the few remaining ones down to Egypt. ( 2Ki 25 : 26; Jer 42 : 1-3, 8 ; 43 : 1-5 ) "Azariah the son of Hoshaiah" is possibly a brother of, but more likely the same as, Jaazaniah.-Jer 43 : 2 .

Jabbok flows. This valley, with its steep sides, served as a natural boundary. ( De 3 : 16 ) The first section of the torrent valley, running from S to N, once constituted a frontier between the Ammon­ ites and the Amorites ( Nu 21 : 24 ), whereas the section extending from W to E split Gilead in two and formed the boundary between the realms of Amorite Kings Sihon and Og. ( De 2 : 37; Jos 12: 2 ; J g 11 : 13, 2 2 ) Today this same valley i s one of the best routes for crossing the Jordan from what was anciently called Gilead.

JAAZIAH (Ja·a·zi'ah ). A Merarite Levite, four of whose sons or descendants served during Da­ vid's reign.- 1 Ch 24 : 26, 27, 31 .

JABESH

JAAZIEL ( Ja·a'zi· el ). A Levite musician in the second division that accompanied the ark of the covenant when it was transferred from Obed­ edom's house to Jerusalem. ( 1 Ch 1 5 : 18) In verse 20 he is called Aziel. According to 1 Chron­ icles 1 6 : 5 , where he is called Jeiel ( the first "Jeiel" in that verse ), he was afterward assigned to reg­ ular duty as a musician before the Ark. JABAL (Ja'bal) . A descendant of Cain; son of Lamech and his first wife Adah. ( Ge 4 : 17, 19, 20) Jabal is called "the founder of those who dwell in tents and have livestock. " Jabal was not the first shepherd, for Abel had been one previously ; but Jabal evidently began or was predominant in nomadic livestock raising as a way of life. He perhaps invented tents, which would be much easier to move than permanent dwellings when a certain pasturage gave out. JABBOK, TORRENT VALLEY OF

( Jab'­ bok ). One of the main torrent valleys, or wadis, E of the Jordan, first mentioned in Scripture with reference to Jacob's crossing "the ford of Jabbok" with his household. Also, near this ford Jacob grappled with an angel.-Ge 3 2 : 22-30. Though the Jabbok's headwaters rise near 'Amman (ancient Rabbah), the wadi collects wa­ ters from several perennial streams and numer­ ous winter torrents before flowing into the Jordan 39 km ( 24 mi ) N of the Dead Sea. Only about 40 km ( 25 mi ) separate the source of the torrent valley from its finish, but the Jabbok's semicircu­ lar course covers about 100 km (62 mi ). Its mod­ ern Arabic name, Wadi Zarqa, literally means "Torrent Valley of Blue." Perhaps this name is derived from the gray-blue color that the Jabbok exhibits when seen from a distance. Small fish abound in its shallow, easily fordable waters. Oleander bushes and many kinds of small trees line the deep fertile valley through which the

(Ja'besh ).

1. [possibly, Dried-Up Place ]. A town in the northern section of Gilead. Also known as Jabesh­ gilead, it is mentioned in the history of the judges and kings.-Jg 21 :8; l Sa 11 : 1 ; l Ch 10: 1 1 , 12; see JABESH-GlLEAD. 2. [possibly, Dried Up]. Father of Israel's King Shallum.-2Ki 1 5 : 10, 13, 14.

JABESH-GILEAD (Ja'besh-gil'e·ad ) [ possi­ bly, Dried-Up Place of Gilead ]. An ancient town in the tribal territory of Gad, E of the Jordan. Its exact location is not certain, although most schol­ ars believe that it was a little E of the Jordan in the vicinity of Wadi Yabis (Jabesh), about 35 km ( 22 mi ) S of the Sea of Galilee. The first mention of Jabesh-gilead was in the days of the Judges, in connection with the retri­ bution dealt out to the neighboring tribe of Benja­ min for its condoning of gross immorality. ( Jg 21 : 8 ) On that occasion when the Israelites practi­ cally exterminated the entire tribe of Benjamin (only 600 males escaped ), it was found that not a man of Jabesh-gilead had participated in meting out this justified punishment. It was therefore determined that every man, woman, and child of Jabesh-gilead, with the exception of the virgins, should be put to death. The 400 virgins that were thus spared were then given as wives to the fugitive Benjamites so as to prevent extinction of the tribe.-Jg 20: 1-21 : 14. Some three centuries later, when all Israel was clamoring for a visible king like the other nations had, the Ammonites threatened to bore out the right eye of every male inhabitant of Jabesh­ gilead, a threat that was removed only when Saul mustered a force of 330,000 and put the Ammon­ ites to flight. ( 1Sa 11 : 1 - 15 ) Forty years later the Philistines defeated the Israelites and hung the decapitated bodies of Saul and his three sons on the wall of the public square inside Beth-shan. Upon hearing of this disgrace, valiant men of Jabesh-gilead made a daring night raid in which they removed the corpses, brought them to

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Jabesh-gilead, burned the bodies, and gave the bones a respectful burial. They then fasted for seven days. -1Sa 31 :8-13 ; l Ch 10:8- 12. David, as the newly anointed king of Judah, sent commendations and blessing to the citizens of Jabesh-gilead for having extended loving­ kindness in this way toward the fallen anointed one of Israel. ( 2Sa 2 :4-7) Later, David had the bones of Saul and Jonathan brought from Jabesh­ gilead and interred in Saul's family burial plot in Benjamite territory.-2Sa 21 : 12- 14. JABEZ ( Ja' bez). 1 . [ from a root meaning "pain" ]. A descendant of Judah named Jabez by his mother because of her pain in giving birth to him. Jabez proved himself to be more honorable than his brothers and, in answer to his prayer, experienced Jeho­ vah's blessing and protection. - 1 Ch 4: 1 , 9, 10. 2 . Apparently a Judean site, perhaps founded by No. 1 . Jabez was the home of three families of scribes. ( 1 Ch 2 : 5 5 ) Its exact location is today unknown. JABIN ( Ja'bin ) [ possibly, Discerning; Under­ standing ; or, One Who Builds]. Perhaps a dynastic name or title of the Canaanite kings of Hazor. 1 . The king of Hazor when Joshua invaded the Promised Land. Jabin formed a confederation of northern Canaanite kings, and these amassed against Israel a force "as numerous as the grains of sand . . . [including] very many horses and war chariots. " When camped at the waters of Merom, their combined armies were defeated by Joshua's surprise attack and follow-up pursuit. Jabin was executed when Hazor itself was later captured and burned. -Jos 11 : 1 - 14; 12 : 7, 19. 2 . A later Canaanite king who ruled from the restored Hazor; possibly a descendant of No. 1 . Jabin's being called "the king o f Canaan" might denote supremacy over the other Canaanite kings, granting him exceptional power and au­ thority ; it does appear that there were others at least allied with him. On the other hand, the expression might merely distinguish him from kings of other lands. Jabin's army, including 900 chariots with iron scythes, was under the com­ mand of Sisera, who takes greater prominence in the account than Jabin himself.-Jg 4:2, 3 ; 5 : 19, 20. By Jehovah's permission, Jabin harshly op­ pressed apostate Israel 20 years. But on their calling to God for deliverance, Jehovah raised up Barak and Deborah to lead Israel to victory over Jabin's army. Sisera was killed by the wife of

JACKAL

Heber the Kenite, who had been at peace with Jabin. (Jg 4 : 3-22) The Israelites continued war­ ring against Jabin and finally put him to death. -Jg 4:23, 24 ; Ps 83:9, 10. JABNEEL ( Jab'ne ·el ) [May God Build; God Has Built]. 1 . A Judean boundary site (Jos 15 : 1, 1 1 ), prob­ ably the same as the Jabneh that King Uzziah ( 829-778 B.C.E. ) wrested from the Philistines. ( 2Ch 26:6) Jabneel is identified with modern Yavne. Situated about 6 km ( 3.5 mi ) from the Mediterranean Sea, Yavne stands on an isolated, sandy hill 20 km ( 12 mi ) S of Joppa. 2 . A boundary site of Naphtali. (Jos 19 : 3 2, 33) Although some suggest an identification of the Talmudic Jabneel with Khirbet Yamma, the Bibli­ cal Jabneel is identified with Tell en-Na'am ( Tel Yin'am), near a spring, about 8 km (5 mi ) SSW of Tiberias. The name is preserved in the present­ day village of Yavne'el nearby. JABNEH ( Jab'neh) [ May [ God ] Build; [ God ] Has Built ]. A walled Philistine city that suffered defeat at the hands of Judah's King Uzziah. ( 2Ch 26:6) It is probably the same as Jabneel. -Jos 15 : 11 ; see JABNEEL No. 1 . JACAN (Ja'can) [related through a play on words to the name Achor, meaning "Ostracism; Trouble" ]. Fifth named of Abihail's seven sons; a Gadite.- 1 Ch 5 : 13, 14. JACHIN (Ja'chin ) [ May [ Jehovah ] Firmly Es­ tablish; [ Jehovah] Has Firmly Established ]. 1 . The fourth-listed son of Simeon. ( Ge 46: 10) He is apparently called Jarib at 1 Chronicles 4: 24. His descendants, the Jachinites, comprised one of the Simeonite families in Israel.-Ex 6 : 1 5 ; Nu 26 : 12. 2 . The priest whose paternal house was select­ ed by lot to care for the 21st of the 24 priestly divisions that David organized. ( 1 Ch 24: 7, 17) One or more of his descendants (or of another priest of the same name) resided in Jerusalem after the Babylonian exile. - 1 Ch 9 : 3, 10; Ne 11 : 10. 3. The southernmost of the twin pillars stand­ ing in front of Solomon'S temple. - 1 Ki 7: 15-22; see BOAZ, II; CAPITAL. JAC HINITES (Ja'chin·ites) [ Of (Belonging to ) Jachin ]. Descendants of Simeon's son Jachin.-Ge 46 : 10 ; Nu 26: 12. JACKAL [ Heb. , tan]. A kind of wild dog that has a long, pointed muzzle and a bushy tail, and closely resembles the fox. This animal ( Canis

1242

JACOB

aureus)

is still encountered in Palestine. Though

the jackal may attack and kill fowl and even

ried for 20 years before the birth of these twins, their only children, in 1858 B . c . E. Isaac at the

lambs and, in fact, live on almost anything, in­

time was 60 years old. So, as in the case of

cluding fruit, it is basically a scavenger that feeds

Abraham, Isaac's prayers for offspring were an­

on carrion. Hence, the animal performs a benefi­ cial service, since the carrion otherwise might provide a breeding place for germs. Jackals gen­

swered only after his patience and faith in God's promises had been fully tested.-Ge 25 : 20, 2 1 ,

26 ; Ro 9 : 7- 10.

erally hunt at night, singly, in pairs, or in small

In her pregnancy, Rebekah was distressed by

packs. During the day they usually sleep in deso­

the struggling of the twins within her womb,

late places, holes in the ground, caves, abandoned

which, Jehovah explained, were the beginnings of

buildings, or ruins.

two opposing nations. Furthermore, Jehovah de­

Since jackals are denizens of wild, lonely, and

clared that, contrary to custom, the older would

even desertlike areas, the domain of the jackal is

serve the younger. Accordingly, the second-born

used figuratively in the Scriptures to represent a

Jacob was holding the heel of Esau at their birth;

state of utter desolation, without human inhabit­

hence the name Jacob, meaning "One Seizing the

ant. Various prophecies use this figure to forecast

Heel. " ( Ge 25 : 22-26) Jehovah thus demonstrated

desolation for Jerusalem, the cities of Judah, Ha­

his ability to detect the genetic bent of the unborn

zor, Babylon, and Edom. ( Jer 9 : 11 ; 10: 2 2 ; 49 : 3 3 ;

and to exercise his foreknowledge and right to select beforehand whom he chooses for his pur­

51 : 37 ; Isa 34 : 5 , 1 3 ; Mal 1 : 3 ) The Bible also makes reference to the jackal's mournful wailing, or howling. ( Isa 1 3 : 2 2 ; Mic 1 :8) The jackal's cry begins at sunset and is a long-drawn-out wail, repeated three or four times, each repetition be­ ing slightly higher in key than the preceding one. Finally the wail ends in a series of short, loud, yelping barks. In Scripture the jackal figures repeatedly in an illustrative setting. Job, in describing his own It lamentable state, exclaims that he has become a brother to jackals. " ( Job 30 : 29 ) In regard to a humiliating defeat of God's people, the psalmist, perhaps with reference to the battlefield where jackals congregate to feed upon those slain ( com­ pare Ps 68: 2 3 ) , mourned : "You have crushed us in the place of jackals. " ( Ps 44: 19 ) Babylon's siege of Jerusalem in 607 B.c.E. brought the stress of famine, with the result that mothers treated their own offspring cruelly. Thus Jeremiah appropri­

poses; yet he in no way predetermines the final destiny of individuals.-Ro 9: 10- 1 2 ; Ho 1 2 : 3 . I n contrast t o his father's favorite son Esau, who was a wild, restless, wandering type of huntsman, Jacob is described as Ita blameless [ Heb. , tam] man, dwelling in tents, " one who led a quiet pastoral life and was dependable to look after domestic affairs, one who was especially loved by his mother. ( Ge 2 5 : 27, 28) This Hebrew word

tam

is used elsewhere to describe those

approved of God. For example, "bloodthirsty men hate anyone blameless, " yet Jehovah gives assur­ ance that "the future of [ the blameless] man will

be peaceful. " ( Pr 29 : 10; Ps 37 : 37 ) The integrity

keeper Job "proved to be blameless [ Heb. , tam ] and upright . "-Job 1 : 1 , 8 ; 2 : 3 .

Received Birthright and Blessing.

Abra­

ham did not die until his grandson Jacob was 15 years old, in 1843 B.C.E . , and so the boy had

ately contrasted the cruelty "of my people" with

ample opportunity to hear of God's oath-bound

the jackals' maternal care.-La 4 : 3 , 10.

covenant directly from the lips of his grandfather

On account of the intense droughts on the land of Judah when it lacked Jehovah's blessing, ze­ bras are depicted as snuffing up the wind, that is, panting for breath, like jackals. (Jer 14: 1 , 2, 6 ) On the other hand, with reference to the restoration of his people, Jehovah promised that the abiding place of jackals would come to have grass, reeds, and papyrus plants. And Jehovah's providing wa­ ter for his people in the wilderness would cause animals such as the jackal to glorify him.-Isa 3 5 : 7 ; 43 : 20, 2 1 .

as well as his father. ( Ge 22: 15-18) Jacob realized what a privilege it would be to participate in the fulfillment of such divine promises. Finally the opportunity presented itself legally to purchase from his brother the firstborn's birthright and all that went with it. ( De 21 : 15- 1 7 ) This opportunity arrived one day when Esau came in from the field exhausted and smelled the tasty stew his brother had cooked. "Quick, please," Esau exclaimed, "give me a swallow of the red-the red there, for I am tired! " Jacob's reply: "Sell me, first of all, your

(Ja/cob) [ One Seizing the Heel ; Sup­

right as firstborn ! " "Esau despised the birthright," and so the sale was quickly made and sealed with

1 . Son of Isaac and Rebekah, and younger twin

a solemn oath. ( Ge 2 5 : 29-34 ; Heb 1 2 : 16 ) Reasons enough why Jehovah said, "I loved Jacob, but

JACOB planter].

brother of Esau. Jacob's parents had been mar-

Esau I hated. "-Ro 9 : 1 3; Mal 1 : 2, 3 .

1 24 3

Was it proper for Jacob to impersonate Esa u ?

When Isaac was old and thought that he would soon die, he sent Esau out to hunt some venison, saying: "Let me eat, in order that my soul may bless you before I die." However, Rebekah over­ heard the conversation and quickly sent Jacob to get two kids of the goats so she could prepare a tasty dish for Isaac, and she said to Jacob: "You must bring it to your father and he must eat it, in order that he may bless you before his death. " She even put the skins o f the kids o n Jacob's hands and neck to cause Isaac, when feeling Ja­ cob, to conclude that he was Esau. When Jacob took the food in to his father, Isaac asked him : "Who are you, my son?" And Jacob answered: "I am Esau your firstborn. " Legally, as Jacob well knew, he was entitled to act in the role of Esau, the firstborn of Isaac. Isaac felt Jacob to see if this was really Esau or not, and he said : "The voice is the voice of Jacob, but the hands are the hands of Esau." Nevertheless, matters worked out success­ fully, and as the account says, "He blessed him. " ( Ge 27 : 1 -29 ) Had Rebekah and Jacob done the right thing? There could be no doubt that Jacob was entitled to the blessing. Before the birth of the twins, Jehovah had said to Rebekah: "The older will serve the younger. " ( Ge 2 5 : 2 3 ) Later, in harmony with the inclination that Jehovah had already foreseen and that had caused him to love Jacob more than he did Esau, Esau sold his birthright to Jacob for just a bowl of stew.-Ge 25: 29 -34. To what extent Isaac knew of these indications as to who should receive the blessing, the Bible account does not say. Exactly why Rebekah and Jacob handled the matter in the way they did, we do not know, except that both of them knew that the blessing belonged to Jacob. Jacob did not maliciously misrepresent himself in order to get something that did not rightfully belong to him. The Bible does not condemn what Rebekah and Jacob did. The outcome was that Jacob received the rightful blessing. Isaac himself evidently saw that Jehovah's will had been accomplished. Short­ ly after this, when sending Jacob off to Haran to get a wife, Isaac further blessed Jacob and specif­ ically said: "God Almighty . . . will give to you the blessing of Abraham. " ( Ge 28 : 3, 4; compare Heb 11 : 20. ) So we properly conclude that the outcome of the matter was what Jehovah purposed. The Bible states clearly the lesson that we should

JACOB

draw from this account, warning that we should be careful "that there may be no fornicator nor anyone not appreciating sacred things, like Esau, who in exchange for one meal gave away his rights as firstborn. "-Heb 12 : 16. Jacob's Move to Paddan-aram. ( MAP, Vol. 1, p. 5 29 ) Jacob was 7 7 years old when he left Beer-sheba for the land of his foreparents, a land where he spent the next 20 years of his life. ( Ge 28: 10 ; 31 : 38 ) After traveling NNE about 100 km (62 mi ) he stopped at Luz (Bethel) in the Judean hills for the night, using a stone for his pillow. There in his dreams he saw a ladder, or flight of stairs, reaching into the heavens, upon which angels were ascending and descending. At the top Jehovah was envisioned, and He now confirmed with Jacob the divine covenant made with Abra­ ham and Isaac.-Ge 28: 1 1 - 1 3 ; l eh 16: 16, 17.

In this covenant Jehovah promised Jacob that He would watch over and keep him and would not forsake him until the land upon which he was lying had become his and his seed had become like the dust particles of the earth for numbers. Moreover, "by means of you and by means of your seed all the families of the ground will certainly bless themselves. " ( Ge 28: 13-15 ) When Jacob fully realized the import of the night's ex­ perience he exclaimed : "How fear-inspiring this place is! This is nothing else but the house of God . " He therefore changed the name of Luz to Bethel, meaning "House of God," and proceeded to set up a pillar and anoint it as a witness of these momentous events. In grateful response to God's promise of support, Jacob also vowed that with­ out fail he would give to Jehovah a tenth of all he received.-Ge 28: 16-22. Traveling on, Jacob eventually met his cousin Rachel in the vicinity of Haran and was invited by her father Laban, the brother of Jacob's mother, to stay with them. Jacob fell in love with Rachel and bargained to work seven years for her father if he would give her to be his wife. The passing years seemed "to be like some few days," so deep was Jacob's love for Rachel. However, at the wed­ ding Rachel's older sister Leah was deceitfully substituted, Laban explaining, "It is not custom­ ary . . . to give the younger woman before the firstborn. " After celebrating this marriage for a week, Laban then gave Rachel also to Jacob as his wife upon the agreement that Jacob would work another seven years in payment for her. Laban also gave Leah and Rachel two maidservants, Zilpah and Bilhah respectively.- Ge 29 : 1 - 29 ; Ho 1 2 : 12.

JACOB

Jehovah began building a great nation out of this marriage arrangement. Leah bore Jacob four sons in succession: Reuben, Simeon, Levi, and Judah. Rachel, seeing she continued barren, then gave her slave girl Bilhah to Jacob and, through her, got two sons, Dan and Naphtali. At this time Leah remained barren. So she too gave her slave girl Zilpah to Jacob and got two sons from this union, namely, Gad and Asher. Leah then began bearing children once again, giving birth first to Issachar, then to Zebulun, and then to a daughter named Dinah. Rachel at last became pregnant and gave birth to Joseph. As a consequence, in the comparatively short period of seven years, Jacob was blessed with many children.-Ge 29 : 30-30: 24. Jacob Made Rich Before Leaving Haran. On completing his 14-year work contract for the ac­ quisition of his wives, Jacob was anxious to re­ turn to his homeland. But Laban, seeing how Jehovah had blessed him because of Jacob, insist­ ed that he continue overseeing his flocks ; Jacob was even told to stipulate his own wages. In that part of the world the sheep and goats are gener­ ally of a solid color, the sheep being white, the goats black. Jacob therefore asked that only the sheep and goats with abnormal colors or mark­ ings be given to him-all the sheep dark brown in color and all the goats with any white marks. "Why, that is fine!" was Laban's reply. And to keep the wages as low as possible, Laban, at Jacob's suggestion, separated out of the flocks all the striped, speckled, and color-patched goats and the dark-brown young male sheep, which he gave to his own sons to look after, even putting a three-day distance between them, to prevent any interbreeding of the two flocks. Only abnormally colored ones born in the future would be Jacob's. -Ge 30: 25 -36. So here Jacob started off tending only sheep of normal color and goats with no markings. How­ ever, he worked hard and did what he thought would increase the number of off-colored ani­ mals. He took green sapling staffs of the storax, almond, and plane trees, and peeled the barks of these in such a way as to give them a striped, spotty appearance. These he placed in the gutters of the animals' drinking troughs, apparently with the idea that if the animals looked at the stripes when in heat there would be a prenatal influence that would make the offspring mottled or abnor­ mal in color. Jacob also took care to place the sticks in the troughs only when the stronger robust animals were in heat.-Ge 30: 37-42.

1244

Results? The offspring abnormally marked or colored, and therefore Jacob's wages, proved to be more numerous than those of normal solid color, which were to be Laban's. Since the desired re­ sults were obtained, Jacob probably thought his stratagem with the striped sticks was responsible. In this he no doubt shared the same misconcep­ tion commonly held by many people, namely, that such things can have an effect on the off­ spring. However, in a dream his Creator instruct­ ed him otherwise. In his dream Jacob learned that certain princi­ ples of genetics, and not the sticks, were respon­ sible for his success. Whereas Jacob was tending only solid-colored animals, yet the vision revealed that the male goats were striped, speckled, and spotty. How could this be? Apparently they were hybrids even though of uniform color, the result of crossbreeding in Laban's flock before Jacob began being paid. So certain of these animals carried in their reproductive cells the hereditary factors for spotting and speckling future genera­ tions, according to the laws of heredity discov­ ered by Gregor Mendel in the last century.-Ge 31 : 10- 12. During the six years that Jacob worked under this arrangement, Jehovah greatly blessed and prospered him by increasing not only his flocks but also the number of his servants, camels, and asses, and this in spite of the fact that Laban kept changing the agreed-upon wages. Finally, "the true God of Bethel" instructed Jacob to return to the Promised Land.-Ge 30:43 ; 31 : 1 - 13, 41 . Return to the Promised Land. Fearing that Laban would again attempt to prevent Jacob from leaving his service, Jacob secretly took his wives and children, and all that he owned, crossed the Euphrates River, and headed for Canaan. In con­ templating this move, Jacob was probably graz­ ing his flocks close to the Euphrates, as is indicat­ ed by Genesis 31 :4, 21 . At the time, Laban was out shearing his flocks and was not informed of Jacob's departure until three days after he had left. More time may have elapsed in which the shearing was completed and preparations were made to chase after Jacob with his forces. All together, this would have given Jacob sufficient time to drive his slow-moving flocks all the way down to the mountainous region of Gilead before Laban caught up with him, a distance from Haran of not less than 560 km ( 350 mi ), a distance, however, that could easily have been covered in seven days by Laban and his kinsmen riding camels in hot pursuit.-Ge 31 : 14 -23. When Laban found the object of his pursuit

� -

1245

JACOB

camped a few kilometers N of the Jabbok, he demanded that Jacob explain: Why had he left without allowing Laban to kiss his children and grandchildren good-bye, and why had he stolen Laban's gods? (Ge 31 : 24-30) The answer to the first question was rather obvious-fear that La­ ban would have prevented him from leaving. As to the second question, Jacob knew nothing of any theft, and a search failed to disclose that Rachel had indeed stolen the family teraphim and hidden them in her camel's saddle basket. - Ge 3 1 : 31-35. One explanation for Rachel's actions, and

La­

ban's concern, is this: "Possession of the house­ hold gods marked a person as the legitimate heir, which explains Laban's anxiety in Gen. 31 : 26 ff. to recover his household gods from Jacob. " -An­ cien t Near Eastern Texts, edited by J. B. Pritch­ ard, 1974, p. 220, ftn. 5 1 . Their quarrel peacefully settled, Jacob set u p a stone pillar and then heaped up stones, which stood there for many years as a witness to the covenant of peace that these two had concluded with a ceremonial meal. The names given to this heap of stones were Galeed ( meaning "Witness Heap" ) and The Watchtower. -Ge 31 : 36-55. Jacob was now anxious to make peace also with his brother Esau, whom he had not seen for more than 20 years. To soften any lingering hatred his brother might still harbor, Jacob sent ahead of him costly gifts for Esau-hundreds of goats and sheep, and many camels, asses, and head of cat­ tle. (Ge 32 : 3-21 ) Jacob had fled Canaan with practically nothing; now because of Jehovah's blessing he was returning a wealthy man.

called

the place Peniel or Penuel.-Ge 3 2 : 25,

30-32. After the conclusion of the amiable meeting between Jacob and Esau, these twins, now about 97 years old, each went his separate way, pre­ sumably not to meet again until they jointly bur­ ied their father Isaac some 23 years later. Esau went S to Seir with his gifts, and Jacob turned N, recrossing the Jabbok.- Ge 3 3 : 1 - 1 7 ; 35 : 29. Next

33 Years as Alien Resident.

After he

parted company with Esau, Jacob settled down in Succoth. This was the first place where Jacob stayed for any length of time after returning from Paddan-aram. How long he was here is not stat­ ed, but it may have been a number of years, for he built himself a permanent structure in which to live and also booths or covered stalls of some sort for his livestock.-Ge 3 3 : 17. Jacob's next move was westward across the Jordan to the vicinity of Shechem, where he bought a tract of land from the sons of Hamor for "a hundred pieces of money [ Heb. ,

qesi·tah']."

( Ge

3 3 : 18-20; Jos 24 : 3 2 ) The value of that ancient money unit, the qesi·tah ', is not known today, but a hundred of them, all together, may have amounted to a considerable sum of weighed-out silver, there being no coins in those days. It was at Shechem that Jacob's daughter Dinah began associating with the Canaanite women, and this, in turn, opened the way for Shechem, the son of the chieftain Hamor, to violate her. In the wake of this episode matters soon developed beyond Jacob's control-his sons killed every male inhabitant of Shechem, took the women and children captive, appropriated all the property and wealth of the community, and made their

Why did the angel with whom Jacob wrestled cause Jacob to limp ? During the night that Jacob's household crossed the Jabbok on the way S to meet Esau, Jacob had the most unusual experience of wrestling with an angel, and because of his perseverance his name was changed to Israel, meaning "Contender ( Per­ severer) With God ; or, God Contends. " ( Ge 3 2 : 22-28 ) Thereafter both names often appear in Hebrew poetic parallelisms. ( Ps 14: 7 ; 2 2 : 2 3 ; 78 : 5 , 2 1 , 71 ; 105 : 10, 2 3 ) In this struggle the angel touched the socket of Jacob's thigh joint, and Jacob limped for the rest of his life-perhaps to teach him humility ; a constant reminder not to be overly exalted because of his God-given prosper­ ity or for having grappled with an angel. In com­ memoration of these momentous events Jacob

--

father Jacob a stench to the inhabitants of the land.-Ge 34 : 1 -31 . Jacob was then divinely directed to leave She­ chern and move down to Bethel, which he did. However, before going, he had his household clean themselves up, change their garments, re­ move all their false gods ( probably including La­ ban's teraphim) as well as the earrings possibly worn as amulets. These Jacob buried out of sight near Shechem. - Ge 3 5 : 1-4. Bethel, the " House of God," was of special im­ portance to Jacob, for here, perhaps some 30 years before, Jehovah had passed on to him the Abrahamic covenant. Now, after Jacob built an altar to this great God of his forefathers, Jeho­ vah restated the covenant and also confirmed that Jacob's name had been changed to Israel. Jacob then erected a pillar over which he poured

1246

JACOB a drink offering and oil in commemoration of

42 : 29-38) Only when the food obtained in Egypt

these momentous events. It was also while so­

had all been eaten did Jacob finally consent to let

journing here at Bethel that his mother's nurse

Benjamin go.-Ge 43 : 1 - 14; Ac 7 : 12.

Deborah died and was buried.-Ge 3 5 : 5 - 15.

With the reconciliation of Joseph and his broth­

Again we do not know how long Jacob lived at

ers came the invitation for Jacob and his whole

Bethel. Upon leaving there and moving south­

household, together with all their livestock and

ward, and while yet some distance from Bethle­

belongings, to move down to the fertile land of

hem ( Ephrath), birth pains struck Rachel, and in

Goshen in Egypt's delta country, for the great

the ordeal of giving birth to her second son,

famine was destined to last another five years.

Benjamin, she died. Jacob buried his beloved Ra­

Pharaoh even provided wagons and food provi­

chel there and erected a pillar to mark her grave. -Ge 35 : 16 -20.

sions for their assistance. ( Ge 45:9 -24) On the way down, Jehovah assured Jacob that this move

This man Israel, now blessed with a full com­

had his blessing and approval. (Ge 46 : 1 -4) All the

plement of 12 sons from whom the 12 tribes of

souls counted as belonging to Jacob's household,

Israel would spring, traveled on farther south. His

including Manasseh, Ephraim, and others that

next campsite is described as "a distance beyond the tower of Eder," which places it somewhere between Bethlehem and Hebron. It was while

may have been born in Egypt before Jacob died, were 70 in number. ( Ge 46 : 5 -27 ; Ex 1 : 5 ; De

10: 2 2 ) This number did not include Leah, who

residing there that his oldest son Reuben had

had died in the Promised Land ( Ge 49 : 31 ), or his

sexual relations with his father's concubine Bil­

unnamed daughters, or the wives of his sons.

hah, the mother of Dan and Naphtali. Reuben

-Ge 46 : 26 ; compare Ge 37 : 35 .

may have thought his father Jacob was too old to

Soon after arriving in Egypt i n 1728 B.C.E. ,

do anything about it, but Jehovah disapproved,

Jacob was brought to Pharaoh's court and there

and for his incestuous act Reuben lost the first­

he greeted the king with a blessing. Jacob de­

born's birthright.-Ge 35 : 21 -26; 49 : 3 , 4; De 27 :

20; l Ch 5 : 1 .

scribed himself as an alien resident (the same as Abraham and Isaac, for like them he too had not

Perhaps it was prior to his son Joseph's being

inherited the God-promised land ). Asked about

sold into Egyptian slavery that Jacob moved his

his age, Jacob replied that he was 130 but that,

residence down to Hebron, where his aging father

compared with those of his forefathers, his days

Isaac was still living, but the date of this move is not certain. -Ge 3 5 : 27.

had been "few and distressing. "-Ge 47: 7- 10. Shortly before his death, Jacob blessed his

One day Jacob sent Joseph ( now 17 years old )

grandsons, Joseph's sons, and, by divine guid­

out to see how his brothers were getting along

ance, put the younger Ephraim ahead of the older

tending their father's flocks. When he finally lo­

Manasseh. Then to Joseph, who would receive the

cated them at Dothan about 100 km ( 62 mi ) N of

firstborn's double portion of the inheritance, Ja­

Hebron, they seized him and sold him to a cara­

cob declared : "I do give you one shoulder of land

van of traders headed for Egypt. This was in 1750 B . c . E . They then led their father to believe

more than to your brothers, which I took from the hand of the Amorites by my sword and by my

that Joseph had been killed by a wild beast. For

bow." (Ge 48 : 1 -22 ;

many days Jacob sorrowed over the loss, refusing

peaceably purchased the plot of ground near She­

1Ch 5: 1 ) Since Jacob had

to be comforted, and saying : "I shall go down

chern from the sons of Hamor ( Ge 33 : 19 , 20), it

mourning to my son into Sheol! " ( Ge 37: 2, 3,

seems that this promise to Joseph was an expres­

1 2-36 ) The death of his father Isaac in 1738 B.C.E.

only added to his grief. -Ge 3 5 : 28, 29.

sion of Jacob's faith, in which he prophetically spoke of the future conquest of Canaan by his

About ten years after

descendants as if already accomplished by his

Isaac's death an extensive famine forced Jacob to send ten of his sons down to Egypt for cereals.

own sword and bow. ( See AMORITE. ) Joseph's dou­ ble portion of that conquered land consisted of the

Benjamin remained behind. Pharaoh's food ad­

two allotments given to the tribes of Ephraim and

The Move to Egypt.

ministrator, Joseph, recognized his brothers and demanded that they bring their younger brother Benjamin back with them to Egypt. ( Ge 41 : 57 ;

Manasseh. Before he died, Jacob summoned up enough strength to bless his 12 sons individually. ( Ge

42 : 1 -20) However, when told o f the demand, Jacob at first refused to let him go, fearing harm

Jehovah's purposes. ( Heb 1 1 : 21 ) Because of his

might befall this beloved son of his old age; Ben­

faith and because Jehovah specifically confirmed

jamin at the time was at least 22 years old. ( Ge

49 : 1 -28) He showed faith in the outworking of

to him the Abrahamic covenant of blessing, the

1247

JADON

Scriptures often refer to Jehovah as the God not only of Abraham and Isaac but also of Jacob.-Ex 3 : 6 ; l Ch 29 : 18; Mt 2 2 : 32.

er water sources in the region. Or, he may have needed a better and more permanent supply of water when other wells in the area dried up.

Finally, in 1711 B.CE., after 1 7 years of resi­ dence in Egypt, Jacob died at the age of 147. (Ge 47 : 27, 28) Thus that period of history from the birth of Jacob to his death ended, a history that occupies more than half the pages of the book of Genesis. (Chaps 25 -50 ) In accordance with Ja­ cob's wish to be buried in Canaan, Joseph first had the Egyptian physicians embalm his father's body in preparation for the trip. A great funeral train, in keeping with the prominence of his son Joseph, then set out from Egypt. When it came into the region of the Jordan, there were seven days of mourning rites, after which Jacob's sons buried their father in the cave of Machpelah where Abraham and Isaac had been interred. -Ge 49 : 29 -3 3 ; 50: 1- 14.

2. The prophets often used "Jacob" in a figura­ tive sense, with reference to the nation descended from the patriarch. ( Isa 9 : 8 ; 27 : 9 ; Jer 10 : 2 5 ; Eze 39 : 25 ; Am 6 : 8 ; Mic 1 : 5 ; Ro 11 : 26 ) Jesus, on one occasion, used the name Jacob figuratively when speaking of those who would be "in the kingdom of the heavens. "-Mt 8 : 1 1 .

3 . The father o f Joseph who was the husband

JADA

(Ja/da) [ probably a shortened form of

Jedaiah, meaning "Jah Knows" ]. A descendant of Judah through Jerahmeel. Jada is listed as a son of Onam and father of Jether and Jonathan. -1 Ch 2 : 3, 25, 26, 28, 32.

JADDAI

(Jad/dai ). A son of Nebo ; one of those

who took non-Israelite wives but sent them away at the urging of Ezra. (Ezr 10:43, 44 ) Some trans­ lations read "Iddo" instead of "Jaddai . "-AS, AT,

MO, Ro. JADDUA

(Jad/du·a)

[from

a

root

meaning

"know"].

1. One of the headmen of Israel whose descen­ dant, if not he himself, sealed the resolution of faithfulness

during

Nehemiah's

governorship.

-Ne 10: 1 , 14, 2 1 .

2 . The last o f the Aaronic high-priestly line listed in the Hebrew Scriptures. Jaddua's being the fifth generation after Jeshua allows for him to have lived during "the kingship of Darius the Persian. "-Ne 1 2 : 10, 1 1 , 22; see DARIUS No. 3 .

of Mary, the mother of Jesus.-Mt 1 : 15, 16.

JADE.

JACOB'S FOUNTAIN.

ornamental stone used for jewelry and carvings;

The "well" or "foun­

A hard, durable, usually green-colored

tain" where Jesus Christ, while resting, conversed

in Hebrew, ya·shepheh'. It occurs as two distinct

with a Samaritan woman. (Joh 4 : 5-30 ) It is con­ sidered to be Bir Ya'qub (Be'er Ya'aqov ), situated

jade ) is the most common variety. It varies from

about 2.5 km ( 1 . 5 mi ) SE of modem-day Nablus, not far from Tell Balata, the site of Shechem. Jacob's fountain is a deep well, the water level of

minerals, "nephrite" and "jadeite. " Nephrite (true translucent to opaque and is found in colors such as dark green, black, gray, yellow, and white. Jadeite is more valuable than nephrite because of

which never rises to the top. Measurements made

its more attractive coloring and rarity. Jade is

in the last century indicate the well's depth to be about 2 3 m ( 75 ft). It is approximately 2.5 m (8 ft)

composition.

particularly suitable for engraving because of its

wide, although narrowing at the top. Because the

A beautiful jade stone with the name of one of

well is usually dry from about the end of May until the autumn rains, some reason that its wa­

Israel's 12 tribes engraved upon it adorned "the breastpiece of jUdgment" worn by High Priest

ter is derived from rain and percolation. But oth­ ers believe that the well is also spring fed and

Aaron, occupying the third position in the fourth

therefore could also be called a fountain.

Jade was also included among the precious stones

The Bible does not directly state that Jacob dug the well. However, it does indicate that Jacob had property in this vicinity. (Ge 3 3 : 18-20; Jos 24: 3 2 ;

that decorated the "covering" of the king of Tyre.

Joh 4 : 5 ) And the Samaritan woman told Jesus that "Jacob . . . gave us the well and [ he] . . .

together with his sons and his cattle drank out of it. " ( Joh 4: 1 2 ) So Jacob likely dug it or had it dug, perhaps to provide water for his large household

row of stones. ( Ex 28:2, 15, 20, 21 ; 39 :9, 13, 14 )

-Eze 28: 12, 13.

JADON

(Ja/don) [ possibly a shortened form of

Jaazaniah, meaning "Jehovah Has Given Ear" ]. A Meronothite who helped Nehemiah rebuild Jeru­ salem's wall in 455 B.C.E. Jadon was apparently from the vicinity of Mizpah.-Ne 3 : 7.

and flocks, thereby preventing trouble with his

Josephus calls the unnamed prophet in 1 Kings

neighbors, who doubtless already owned the oth-

13 "Jadon."-Jewish An tiqUities, VIII, 231 (viii, 5 ).

JAEL

JAEL (Ja/el) [Mountain Goat ]. The wife of He­ ber the Kenite, hence a non-Israelite, and slayer of the Canaanite army chief Sisera. With her husband, Jael tented near Kedesh, and there was peace between Heber and the Canaan­ ite oppressors. (Jg 4 : 10, 11, 17, 2 1 ; see KEDESH No. 3. ) After Sisera was defeated at Israel's hand, he fled to Heber's neutral encampment, where Jael invited him into her tent. She then covered him with a blanket. When he asked for water she gave him a banquet bow I of curdled milk to drink. After she again covered him up, he asked her to stand guard at the entrance of the tent. Thinking himself secure as her guest, the tired and weary Sisera soon fell fast asleep. Jael, who as a tent dweller was undoubtedly used to driving tent pins into the ground, then quietly came in to him armed with a hammer and a tent pin that she drove through his head into the earth. When the pursuer Barak arrived, she showed him the army chief, dead at "the hand of a woman, " as Debo­ rah foretold. (Jg 4:9, 17-22) Jael's courageous act against the enemy of Jehovah is extolled in the victory song of Deborah and Barak, which also pronounces Jael "most blessed among women. " -Jg 5 : 6, 24-27. JAGUR (Ja/gur) [ possibly related to Aramaic word meaning "[ stone] heap" ]. A city in the south­ ern part of Judah. ( Jos 15 : 21 ) Jagur is possibly to be identified with Khirbet el Gharra ( Tel 'Ira), about 14 km ( 8. 5 mi ) E of Beer-sheba. JAH . A poetic shortened form of Jehovah, the name of the Most High God. ( Ex 15 : 1 , 2 ) This abbreviated form is represented by the first half of the Hebrew Tetragrammaton il'il' ( YHWH), that is, the letters yohdh ( ' ) and he' ( il ), the tenth and fifth letters of the Hebrew alphabet respec­ tively. Jah occurs 50 times in the Hebrew Scriptures, 26 times alone, and 24 times in the expression "Hallelujah," which is, literally, a command to a number of people to "praise Jah. " However, the presence of "Jah" in the original is completely ignored by certain popular versions. ( Dy, Mo, RS ) The King James Version and A n American Trans­ lation have it only once, as "Jah" and "Yah" re­ spectively. ( Ps 68 :4) In the English Revised Ver­ sion it appears twice in the body of the text ( Ps 68:4; 89 : 8 ), and in the American Standard Ver­ sion the full form, Jehovah, is substituted throughout, but these latter two translations in practically every occurrence of the contracted form call it to our attention in footnotes. The New World Translation preserves for the reader all

1248

50 occurrences of Jah, or Yah ; and Rotherham's Emphasised Bible, 49 of them. In the Christian Greek Scriptures "Jah" appears four times in the expression Hallelujah. ( Re 19 : 1 , 3, 4 , 6 ) Most Bibles simply carry this Greek ex­ pression over into English untranslated, but G. W. Wade renders it, "Praise ye Jehovah," and the New World Translation reads, "Praise Jah, you people! " In point o f time "Jah" could not have been a primitive form of the divine name used earlier than the Tetragrammaton itself. The latter full form, Jehovah, occurs 165 times in the Masoretic text in the book of Genesis, but it was not un­ til the account of events after the Exodus from Egypt that the shorter form first appeared. -Ex 15 : 2 . The single syllable Jah i s usually linked with the more moving emotions of praise and song, prayer and entreaty, and is generally found where the subject theme dwells upon a rejoicing over victory and deliverance, or where there is an acknowledgment of God's mighty hand and pow­ er. Examples of this special usage are abundant. The phrase, "Praise Jah, you people!" ( Halleluj ah) appears as a doxology, that is, an expression of praise to God, in the Psalms, the first being at Psalm 104: 35. In other psalms it may be at the beginning only (Ps I l l , 1 1 2 ), occasionally within a psalm ( 135 : 3 ), sometimes at the end only (Ps 104, 105, 115- 117), but often at both the beginning and the end ( Ps 106, 113, 135, 146- 150). In the book of Revelation heavenly personages repeatedly punc­ tuate their praise of Jehovah with this expressiori. -Re 19: 1 -6. The remaining instances where "Jah" appears also reflect exaltation in songs and petitions to Jehovah. There is the song of deliverance by Moses. (Ex 15 : 2 ) In those recorded by Isaiah a double emphasis is gained by combining both names, "Jab Jehovah. " ( lsa 12 : 2 ; 26:4) Hezekiah, in his poetic exultation after being miraculously healed when close to death, expressed heightened feelings by repetition of Jah. (lsa 38:9, 11 ) The contrast is drawn between the dead, who cannot praise Jah, and those determined to live a life of praise to him. ( Ps 115 : 17, 18; 118: 17-19 ) Still other psalms display a prayerful appreciation for de­ liverance, protection, and correction.-Ps 94: 12; 118:5, 14. JAHATH (Ja/hath ). 1. A descendant of Judah. Jahath's two sons founded the families of the Zorathites. - 1 Ch 4 : 1 , 2.

1249

2 . A Levite descended from Gershon ( Ger­ shorn) through Libni, and an ancestor of Asaph. -Ex 6: 17; 1Ch 6 : 1 , 20, 39-43. 3. Another Levite descended from Gershon, but through Gershon's other son, Shimei. Jahath was the head over his brothers, and his sons became a paternal house.- 1 Ch 23:6, 7, 10, 11.

4. A Levite during David's reign; a descendant of Kohath's son Izhar through Shelomoth.-1Ch 6: 18; 24 : 22. 5 . One of four Levites, a Merarite, assigned to oversee the temple repair work that King Josiah promoted.-2Ch 34: 12 .

JAHAZ (Ja'haz ). A city E of the Jordan and evidently situated N of the Arnon. It was prob­ ably wrested from the Moabites by Amorite King Sihon. ( Nu 21 : 23-26 ) At Jahaz the Israelites de­ feated the forces of Sihon, and the city itself became a Reubenite possession. ( De 2 : 32, 33; Jos 13: 15, 18, 2 3 ; Jg 11 : 20, 21 ) Subsequently Jahaz was designated as a Levite city for the Merarites. (Jos 21 : 34, 36 ) Later in Israel's history the city came under Moabite control. On the Moabite Stone, King Mesha boasted of having taken Jahaz from the king of Israel with 200 warriors. Also, the prophets Isaiah and Jeremiah mention the city in pronouncements against Moab.-Isa 15: 1 , 4; Jer 48: 1, 34. Although scholars have suggested several pos­ sible sites for ancient Jahaz, its precise location remains unknown.

JAHAZIEL

(Ja·ha·zi'el ) [ May God Behold ; God

Has Beheld]. 1 . Third-listed son of Hebron, a Kohathite of

the tribe of Levi.-1Ch 23:6, 12, 19 ; 24:23.

2 . One of the mighty men who joined David at Ziklag.-1Ch 12: I, 4.

3 . One of the priests with trumpets stationed before the ark of the covenant after David had it brought to Jerusalem.- 1Ch 16 : 1 , 6. 4. The Levite who was empowered by Jeho­ vah's spirit to speak words of encouragement to King Jehoshaphat and the congregation when they were threatened by a superior force of the enemy. " Here is what Jehovah has said to you, 'Do not you be afraid or be terrified because of this large crowd,' " Jahaziel declared, " 'for the battle is not yours, but God's . . . . You will not need to fight in this instance. Take your position, stand still and see the salvation of Jehovah in your behalf. "' ( 2Ch 20: 14 - 1 7 ) Jahaziel was the son of Zechariah, a descendant of Asaph of the Gershom ( Gershon [ Ge 46 : 11 ] ) family of Levites, hence not a priest.- 1Ch 6 : 39-43.

JAHZERAH

5. The father of Shecaniah, who was one of those returning to Jerusalem with Ezra in 468 B.C.E.-Ezr 8: 1 , 5.

JAHDAI (Jah'dai ). A father of six sons list­ ed among the descendants of Judah's great­ grandson Caleb. Jahdai's exact relationship to Ca­ leb is not given.- 1 Ch 2 : 3, 42, 47. JAHDIEL (Jah'di·el ) [ possibly, May God Feel Glad]. One of the household heads of the half tribe of Manasseh residing E of the Jordan; a valiant, mighty man. Jahdiel's descendants "began to act unfaithfully" toward Jehovah, leading to eventual exile by the Assyrians. - 1 Ch 5 : 23-26. JAHDO

(Jah'do) [possibly, May He Feel Glad]. A name in the genealogy of Gad's tribe; son of Buz and father of Jeshishai.- l Ch 5 : 11 , 14.

JAHLEEL (Jah'le·el). Third-listed son of Zebu­ lun and founder of the family of Jahleelites in his father's tribe.-Ge 46 : 14 ; Nu 26 : 26. JAHLEELITES

(Jah'le·el·ites ) [ Of (Belonging to) Jahleel ]. Descendants of Jahleel of the tribe of Zebulun.-Nu 26: 26.

JAHMAI

(Jah'mai ). Head of a forefather's house in the tribe of Issachar; son of Tala. -1 Ch 7 : 1 , 2.

JAHZEEL (Jah'ze· el) [ God Divides ]. The first­ listed son of Naphtali and founder of the Jahzeel­ ite family in that tribe. ( Ge 46 : 24 ; Nu 26:48) His name is also spelled Jahziel. -1 Ch 7: 13. JAHZEELITES

(Jah'ze·el·ites) [ Of ( Belonging to) Jahzeel). Descendants of Jahzeel of the tribe of Naphtali.-Nu 26 :48.

JAHZEIAH

(Jahzei'ah ) [May Jah Behold ; Jah Has Beheld]. One who perhaps opposed Ezra's proposal that the sons of Israel send away their foreign wives and the children born to them; son of Tikvah. (Ezr 10: 3 , 10,. 1 1 , 15) However, it has been suggested that this opposition of Jahzeiah and Jonathan was not against Ezra's suggestion but against the procedure adopted for carrying it out. According to the Greek Septuagin t and Latin Vulgate, Jahzeiah and the others assisted rather than opposed Ezra. Hence, an alternate rendering of Ezra 10: 15 says that Jonathan and Jahzeiah "were the ones that acted representatively in this behalf. "-NW ftn; see also KJ; AS, ftn ; Dy; Kx.

JAHZERAH

( Jah'ze·rah). A priest whose de­ scendant lived in Jerusalem after the Babylonian exile. ( lCh 9: 12 ) He is probably the same as Ahzai in Nehemiah 1 1 : 13.

JAHZIEL

JAHZIEL

(Jah'zi·el) [ Goo Divides ]. An alter­ nate spelling of Jahzeel ( Ge 46 : 24), who was the first-listed son of Naphtali. - l Ch 7 : 13.

JAIL.

See PRISON.

JAILER.

One having in his custody persons accused of breaking the law; a prison keeper. Two Greek words are translated in the Scriptures as jailer: ba·sa·ni·stes', meaning "tormentor," and de­ smo·phyJax, a compound of de·smos' ( band, fet­ ter) and phy'Jax ( guard). Jailers often inflicted cruel tortures on prison­ ers, hence were called ba·sa·ni·stes'. For example, debtors were sometimes thrown into prison for failing to pay what they owed. There the jailer might scourge and torture them, and they would not be released until, as Jesus said, they "paid over the last coin of very little value. " ( Mt 5 : 25, 26 ) This also was the point of Jesus' illustration about the unmerciful slave. When the master learned what his ungrateful slave had done, he "delivered him to the jailers [ ba·sa·ni·stais/], until he should pay back all that was owing."-Mt 18: 34, 35 ; compare Re 14: 1 1 , where "torment" is translated from ba·sa·ni·smou'. If the prisoners escaped, jailers were held liable for the penalty imposed on the escapee, according to Roman custom. Hence, when Peter was set free from prison by an angel, we read that Herod "examined the guards and commanded them to be led off to punishment. "-Ac 12: 19. In Philippi, Paul and Silas were dragged before the civil magistrates, who commanded that they be beaten with rods, and "after they had inflicted many blows upon them, they threw them into prison, ordering the jailer [ de·smophy'Ja·ki] to keep them securely. Because he got such an order, he threw them into the inner prison and made their feet fast in the stocks. " ( Ac 16: 22-24 ) Then in the middle of the night a great earthquake opened all the prison doors. This caused the jailer to imagine the prisoners had escaped, and realiz­ ing what severe punishment would be meted out to him if this were so, he was about to kill himself when Paul informed him that they were all there. These events, together with Paul's instructions, caused this jailer to exercise faith, and he and his household became baptized believers.-Ac 16 : 25-36.

JAIR

( Ja'ir ).

1 . A descendant of Judah through his grand­

son Hezron. Hezron married a woman from the tribe of Manasseh. ( lCh 2 : 2 1 , 2 2 ) Jair is reckoned as a descendant of Manasseh rather than Judah, likely because of his exploits in the territory of

1250

Manasseh, where h e captured a number o f tent cities and I!amed them after himself, which name they kept for many generations.-Nu 32:41 ; De 3 : 14 ; Jos 13 : 30 ; l Ki 4: 13 ; see HAWOTH-JAIR. 2. The seventh judge of Israel. Since he was a Gileadite of high standing and each of his 30 sons is connected with one of the above-mentioned tent cities of Jair, he was likely a descendant of No. 1 above. Jair judged Israel for 22 years, after which he died and was buried in Kamon.-Jg 10: 3-5. 3. Father of Mordecai ; tribe of Benjamin.-Es

2:5. 4. Father o f the Elhanan who slew Goliath's brother Lahmi. ( 1Ch 20: 5 ) The corresponding passage at 2 Samuel 21 : 19 evidently contains a copyist's errof.-See LAHMI.

JAIRITE (Ja'ir·ite) [ Of ( Belonging to ) Jair]. The designation of Ira the "priest of David. " ( 2 Sa 20: 26 ) Perhaps Ira was a descendant of the Ma­ nassite Jair. But if the Syriac Peshitta is correct, he may have been a priest from the Levite city of Jattir.-See IRA No. 1 . JAIRUS

(Ja'i·rus). A presiding officer of the synagogue ( probably in Capernaum) whose only daughter Jesus resurrected.-Mt 9: 18; Mr 5 : 2 2 ; Lu 8:41 , 42. When, in late 31 or early 32 CE., Jairus' 12-year-oid daughter became so ill that she was expected to die, her father sought out Jesus, fell at his feet, and implored him to come and cure her before it was too late. While leading Jesus to his home, Jairus surely must have been greatly en­ couraged by witnessing Jesus heal a woman sub­ ject for 12 years to a flow of blood. But how disheartening to receive word from messengers that his own little daughter had already died! Nonetheless, Jesus urged Jairus not to fear, but to exercise faith. Passing amid the noisy mourners who scorned and ridiculed Jesus' remark that the child was only sleeping, Jairus, his wife, and three apostles accompanied Jesus inside, where Jesus restored the girl to life. As might be expected, Jairus and his wife were "beside themselves with great ecstasy. "-Mr 5 : 21 -43; Mt 9 : 18-26 ; Lu 8:41-56.

JAKEH

(Ja'keh). Father of Agur, the writer of what is recorded in Proverbs 30.-Pr 30: 1 .

JAKIM

(Ja'kim) [shortened form o f Jekamiah, meaning "Jah Has Raised Up" ]. 1. A descendant of Benjamin through Shimei, included in a list of heads of fathers' houses residing in Jerusalem.- 1 Ch 8: 1 , 19-21, 28.

1251 2 . The priest whose paternal house was select­ ed by lot for the 12th of the 24 divisions of priestly temple service during David's reign. - I Ch 24: 3, 5, 12.

JALAM ( Ja'lam). A son of Esau by his wife Oholibamah. Jalam was born in Canaan but was soon taken to Edom ( Seir), where he eventually became a sheik. -Ge 36:5, 6, 8, 14, 18; 1 Ch 1 : 35. JALON

(Ja'lon). A descendant of Judah; one of "the sons of Ezrah."-ICh 4: 17.

JAMBRES ( Jam'bres ). A resister of Moses, presumably one of the Egyptian magicians in the court of Pharaoh.-2Ti 3 : 8 ; Ex 7: 11 ; see JANNES. JAMES

[English equivalent of Jacob, meaning, "One Seizing the Heel ; Supplanter" ]. 1 . Father of the apostle Judas ( not Judas Iscar­ iot).-Lu 6 : 16; Ac 1 : 13. 2 . Son of Zebedee; brother of John and one of the 12 apostles of Jesus Christ. (Mt 10: 2 ) His mother, it seems, was Salome, as may be noted by comparing two accounts of the same event. One mentions "the mother of the sons of Zebe­ dee," the other calls her "Salome. " ( Mt 27:55, 56; Mr 15 :40, 41 ; see SALOME No. 1 . ) A further com­ parison of John 19 : 25 perhaps points to Salome as the fleshly sister of Mary, Jesus' mother. If so, James was a first cousin of Jesus.

James and his brother were working with their father in the fishing business in 30 c.E. when Jesus called them, together with associate fisher­ men Peter and Andrew, to be his disciples and "fishers of men. " In answering Jesus' call, James and John left a fishing business that was a part­ nership with Peter and Andrew and that was large enough to employ hired men.-Mt 4: 18-22; Mr 1: 19, 20; Lu 5 : 7- 10. The next year, 31 c.E. , when Jesus designated 12 of his disciples to be apostles, James was one of the group selected.-Mr 3 : 13- 19 ; Lu 6 : 12- 16. Often Peter, James, and John were mentioned as being together in close company with Christ. For example, these three were the only ones present with Christ in the mount of transfigura­ tion (Mt 17: 1 , 2 ), were the only apostles invited into the house to witness the resurrection of Jai­ rus' daughter ( Lu 8 : 5 1 ), and were the ones closest to Jesus in Gethsemane while he was praying that last night (Mr 14: 32-34). Peter, James, and John, together with Andrew, were the ones that asked Jesus when the foretold destruction of Jeru­ salem's temple would be and what would be the

JAMES

sign of his presence and of the conclusion of the system of things. ( Mr 1 3 : 3 , 4) James is always mentioned along with his brother John, and in the majority of instances he is mentioned first. This may indicate he was the older of the two. -Mt 4 : 21 ; 10: 2 ; 17: 1 ; Mr 1 : 19, 29 ; 3 : 17; 5 : 37 ; 9 : 2 ; 10:35, 41 ; 1 3 : 3 ; 14: 3 3 ; Lu 5 : 10 ; 6 : 14 ; 8:51 ; 9 : 28, 54; Ac 1 : 13. To James and his brother, Jesus gave the sur­ name Boarterges, a Semitic term meaning "Sons of Thunder. " (Mr 3 : 17 ) This may have been be­ cause of the energetic, fiery, and enthusiastic nature of these men. On one occasion, for exam­ ple, when certain Samaritans were inhospitable toward Jesus, James and John wanted to call down fire from heaven to annihilate them. Al­ though reproved by Jesus for suggesting such revenge, this attitude was indicative of their righ­ teous indignation and also of their faith. ( Lu 9 : 51-55) They also entertained ambitions of hav­ ing the most prominent positions in the Kingdom, at the right and left hands of Jesus, and they apparently got their mother ( possibly Jesus' aunt) to request such favors of him. After explaining that such decisions were made by the Father, Jesus took the occasion to point out that "whoever wants to be first among you must be your slave. " -Mt 20: 20-28. James evidently died in 44 c.E. Herod Agrippa I had him executed with the sword. He was the first of the 12 apostles to die as a martyr.-Ac 12: 1-3. 3 . Another apostle of Jesus Christ and son of Alphaeus. ( Mt 10: 2, 3 ; Mr 3 : 18; Lu 6 : 1 5 ; Ac 1 : 13 ) I t i s generally believed and quite probable that Alphaeus was the same person as Clopas, in which event James' mother was Mary, the same Mary that was "the mother of James the Less and of Joses. " (Joh 19 : 2 5 ; Mr 15 :40; Mt 27: 56 ) He may have been called James the Less because of being either smaller in physical stature or younger in age than the other apostle James, the son of Zebedee.

4. Son of Joseph and Mary, and half brother of Jesus. (Mr 6 : 3 ; Ga 1 : 19 ) Although not an apostle, it was evidently this James who was an overseer of the Christian congregation at Jerusalem ( Ac 12: 17) and who wrote the Bible book bearing his name. (Jas 1 : 1 ) He may have been next to Je­ sus in age, being the first named of Mary's four natural-born sons: James, Joseph, Simon, and Ju­ das. ( Mt 13:55 ; see BROTHER. ) Paul implies in his letter to the Corinthians, written about the year 55 C.E., that James was married.-1Co 9 : 5 .

JAMES, LETTER OF

It appears that during Jesus' ministry James was well acquainted with his brother's activity (Lu 8 : 19 ; Joh 2: 12 ), but though apparently not opposed, he was not one of the disciples and followers of Christ. ( Mt 12:46-50; Joh 7 : 5 ) He was probably with his nonbelieving brothers when they urged Jesus to go boldly up to the Festival of Tabernacles, at a time when the rulers of the Jews were seeking to kill him. (Joh 7 : 1 - 10 ) James also may have been numbered among the relatives that said of Jesus: " He has gone out of his mind." -Mr 3 : 21 . However, after the death of Jesus and prior to Pentecost 33 GE., James was assembled for prayer together with his mother, brothers, and the apostles in an upper chamber in Jerusalem. (Ac 1 : 13, 14) It was evidently to this James that the resurrected Jesus appeared personally, as re­ ported at 1 Corinthians 1 5 : 7, so convincing this onetime nonbeliever that He was indeed the Mes­ siah. This reminds us of Jesus' personal appear­ ance to Paul. -Ac 9: 3-5. Thereafter James became a prominent member and, apparently, an "apostle" of the Jerusalem congregation. (See ApOSTLE [Congregational Apos­ tleships ]. ) Thus, at Paul's first visit with the Jeru­ salem brothers (about 36 GE. ), he says he spent 15 days with Peter but "saw no one else of the apostles, only James the brother of the Lord. " ( Ga 1 : 18, 19 ) Peter, after his miraculous release from prison, instructed the brothers at John Mark's home, "Report these things to James and the brothers," thereby indicating James' prominence. (Ac 1 2 : 12, 17) About 49 GE. the issue of circum­ cision came before "the apostles and the older men" at Jerusalem. Following personal testimony by Peter, Barnabas, and Paul, James spoke, offer­ ing a decision that was approved and adopted by the assembly. (Ac 15 : 6-29; compare Ac 16:4. ) Referring to that occasion, Paul says that James, Cephas, and John "seemed to be pillars" among those at Jerusalem. ( Ga 2 : 1-9 ) At the close of a later missionary tour, Paul, in Jerusalem, reported on his ministry to James and "all the older men," and these then gave him certain counsel to follow. -Ac 21 : 15-26 ; see also Ga 2 : 11-14. That it was this 'brother of Jesus' who wrote the book of James, and not one of the apostles by the same name ( either the son of Zebedee or the son of Alphaeus ), seems to be indicated at the beginning of his letter. There the writer identifies himself as "a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ," rather than as an apostle. In a similar fashion his brother Judas ( Jude) also identified

1252 himself a s "a slave o f Jesus Christ, but a brother of James. " (Jas 1 : 1 ; Jude 1 ) Both brothers humbly avoided identifying themselves as fleshly broth­ ers of the Lord Jesus Christ. His being called "James the Just" is based on traditions that say he was so designated because of his way of life. There is no record in the Scriptures of James' death. The secular historian Josephus, however, says that during the interval between the death of Governor Festus, about 62 GE., and the arrival of his successor Albinus, the high priest, Ananus (Ananias), "convened the judges of the Sanhedrin and brought before them a man named James, the brother of Jesus who was called the Christ, and certain others. He ac­ cused them of having transgressed the law and delivered them up to be stoned. "-Jewish Antiq­ uities, XX, 200 (ix, 1 ). JAMES, LETTER OF . An inspired letter of the Christian Greek Scriptures. It is one of the so-called general letters because, like First and Second Peter, First John, and Jude (but unlike most of the apostle Paul's letters ), it was not addressed to any specific congregation or person. This letter is addressed to "the twelve tribes that are scattered about. "-Jas 1 : 1 . Writer. The writer calls himself simply "James, a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ . " (Jas 1 : 1 ) Jesus had two apostles named James ( Mt 10:2, 3 ), but it is unlikely that either of these wrote the letter. One apostle, James the son of Zebedee, was martyred about 44 GE. As the section on "Date and Place of Composition" shows, this would be very early for him to have been the writer. ( Ac 12: 1, 2) The other apostle James, the son of Alphaeus, is not prominent in the Scriptur­ al record, and very little is known about him. The outspoken nature of the letter of James would seem to weigh against the writer's being James the son of Alphaeus, for he would likely have identified himself as one of the 12 apostles, in order to back up his strong words with apostolic authority. Rather, evidence points to James the half brother of Jesus Christ, to whom the resurrected Christ evidently had made a special appearance, and who was prominent among the disciples. ( Mt 13:55 ; Ac 2 1 : 15 -25 ; lCo 15 : 7 ; Ga 2 : 9 ) The writer of the letter of James identifies himself as "a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ," in much the same way as did Jude, who introduced the letter of Jude by calling himself "a slave of Jesus Christ, but a brother of James. " (Jas 1 : 1 ; Jude 1 ) Further­ more, the salutation of James' letter includes the term "Greetings!" in the same way as did the

JAMES, LETTER OF

1253

letter concerning circumcision that was sent to the congregations. In this latter instance it was apparently Jesus' half brother James who spoke prominently in the assembly of "the apostles and the older men" at Jerusalem.-Ac 1 5 : 13, 22, 23. Canonicity. The letter of James is contained in the Vatican Manuscript No. 1209, as well as the Sinaitic and the Alexandrine Manuscripts of the fourth and fifth centuries c.E. The Syriac Peshitta includes it, and it is found in at least ten an­ cient catalogs before the Council of Carthage in 397 c.E. Early religious writers quoted from it, Origen, Cyril of Jerusalem, Jerome, and others recognizing the letter as authentic Scripture. Date and Place of Composition. The letter gives no indication that Jerusalem's fall to the Romans ( in 70 c.E. ) had yet taken place. Accord­ ing to the Jewish historian Josephus, a high priest named Ananus, a Sadducee, was responsible for bringing James and others before the Sanhedrin and having them stoned to death. This event, Josephus writes, occurred after the death of the Roman procurator Festus, but before his suc­ cessor Albinus arrived. ( Jewish Antiquities, XX, 197-203 [ ix, 1 ] ) If so, and if the sources placing the death of Festus at about 62 c.E. are correct, then James must have written his letter some­ time prior to that date.

Jerusalem was the probable place of composi­ tion, for that is where James resided.-Ga 1 : 18, 19. To Whom Written. James wrote the letter to "the twelve tribes that are scattered about," liter­ ally, "the ( ones ) in the dispersion. " (Jas 1 : 1 , ftn) He here addresses his spiritual "brothers, " those who hold to "the faith of our Lord Jesus Christ," primarily those living beyond Palestine. ( 1 :2; 2 : 1, 7 ; 5 : 7 ) James bases much of his argument on the Hebrew Scriptures, but this does not prove that his letter was only for Jewish Christians, even as one's acquaintance with the Hebrew Scriptures in modern times does not prove that one is of Jewish descent. His reference to Abraham as "our father" ( 2 : 21 ) is in harmony with Paul's words at Gala­ tians 3 : 28, 29, where he shows that one's being of the true seed of Abraham is not determined by whether one is a Jew or a Greek. Therefore, "the twelve tribes" addressed must be the spiritual "Israel of God. "-Ga 6 : 15, 16. Purpose. James' purpose in writing seems to have been twofold : ( 1 ) to exhort his fellow believ­ ers to display faith and endurance amid their trials, and ( 2 ) to warn them against sins resulting in divine disapproval.

Some had fallen into the snare of looking to those more prominent and rich and showing

H IG H LIG HTS OF JAM ES A letter emphasizing that faith has to be demonstrated by works Written before 62 C.E., more than eight years prior to Je­ rusalem's destruction by the Romans

Teac hers have a great responsi bi lity before Jehovah

(3: 1 - 1 8) They, and all Christians, m ust learn to control the tongue They can do this if they manifest wisdom from above

Christians enduring faithfully u nder trial have rea­ son to be happy ( 1 : 1 - 1 8)

Worldly tendencies will affect our relationsh i p with God (4: 1 -5: 1 2)

God will generously g ive us the wisdom needed to en­ d ure if we keep asking for it in faith

Those g u ilty of fighting to attain their selfish aims or those condemn i n g their brothers need to repent Friendship with the world is enmity with God Materialistic pla n ning that i gn ores Jehovah's will is arro­ gan t . Divine judgment is in store for rich, defrauding o ppres­ sors A spirit of impatience and sighing u nder adversity must be guarded against while we wait for Jesus Christ to j udge

Never does God try us with evil things; but a person may be enticed i nto a wrong course by his own wrong desire Everything that Jehovah provides is good Worsh i p that is acceptable to God requi res right works to demonstrate one's faith ( 1 : 1 9-2:26)

Put away all badness and accept G od's word with m ild­ ness; be a doer of the word and not merely a hearer Learn to control the tongue, look after orphans and wid­ ows, and keep without spot from the world Favoring the rich while disregardi n g the poor is a viola­ tion of "the kingly law' of love A living faith is revealed by works, as is evident in the examples of Abraham and Rahab

To recover from spiritual sick ness resulting from sin, the suffering one should call on elders for help (5: 1 3-20)

An open confession of sin as wel l as prayers o n behalf of the sinner by the elders will promote spiritual h ealing To recover an erring brother is to save h i m from spiritu­ al death

JAMIN

favoritism. (Jas 2 : 1 -9 ) They failed to discern what they really were in God's eyes and were hearers of the word but not doers. ( 1 : 22-27) They had begun to use their tongues wrongly, and their cravings for sensual pleasure were causing fights among them. ( 3 : 2- 1 2 ; 4 : 1 - 3 ) Their desire for ma­ terial things had brought some into the position of being friends of the world and therefore, not chaste virgins, but spiritual "adulteresses," at en­ mity with God.-4 :4-6. James corrected them on the matter of being doers as well as hearers by showing from Scrip­ tural examples that a man having real faith would manifest it by works in harmony with his faith. For example, one having true faith would not say to a brother naked and lacking food, "Go in peace, keep warm and well fed," and not give him the necessities. (Jas 2 : 14-26) Here James was not contradicting Paul by saying that one could earn salvation by works. Rather, he accepts faith as the basis for salvation but points out that there cannot be genuine faith that does not produce good works. This is in harmony with Paul's de­ scription of the fruitage of the spirit, at Galatians 5 : 22-24, and his counsel to put on the new per­ sonality, at Ephesians 4: 22-24 and Colossians 3 : 5 - 10, as well as his admonition to do good and share with others, at Hebrews 1 3 : 16. James' letter has a strong prophetic Style. tone and contains many figures of speech and similes, giving it a certain resemblance to Jesus Christ's discourses, such as the Sermon on the Mount. Like Jesus, James drew on physical things -the sea, vegetation, animals, boats, a farmer, the earth-to give colorful backing to his argu­ ments on faith, control of the tongue, patience, and so forth. ( Jas 1 : 6, 9 - 1 1 ; 3 : 3- 1 2 ; 5 : 7 ) This, together with the use of pointed questions and more than 50 imperatives in this relatively short letter, made James' letter dynamic. Relationship to Earlier Inspired Scripture.

James quoted or referred to the Hebrew Scrip­ tures with regard to man's creation (Jas 3 : 9 ; Ge 1 : 26 ) ; Abraham and Rahab ( Jas 2 : 21-26; Ge 1 5 : 6 ; 2 2 : 9 - 1 2 ; Jos 2 ; Isa 41 : 8 ) ; Job (Jas 5 : 11 ; Job 1 : 13-22 ; 2 : 7- 10 ; 42 : 10- 1 7 ) ; the Law ( Jas 2 : 8, 11 ; Ex 20: 13, 14 ; Le 19 : 18; De 5 : 17, 18), and Elijah (Jas 5 : 17, 18; l Ki 17: 1 ; 18: 1 ). There are many pointed examples of direct harmony with state­ ments of Jesus Christ. To name a few: concerning persecution (Jas 1 : 2 ; Mt 5 : 10- 1 2 ) ; asking for and receiving things from God ( Jas 1 : 5 , 17; Lu 11 : 9 - 1 3 ) ; being both hearers and doers ( Jas 1 : 22 ; M t 7 : 2 1 -27 ) ; separateness from the world ( Jas

1 2 54

4:4; Joh 17: 14) ; not judging others ( Jas 4: 12; Lu 6 : 37 ) ; reliability of one's word (Jas 5 : 12; Mt 5 : 33-37 ). James 4:5 has presented a problem because there is uncertainty about the verse( s) James quoted (or perhaps only referred to ). This text reads: "Or does it seem to you that the scripture says to no purpose: 'It is with a tendency to envy that the spirit which has taken up residence with­ in us keeps longing'?" It has been suggested that these words were drawn by James under divine inspiration from the general thought of such texts as Genesis 6 : 5 ; 8 : 21 ; Proverbs 21 : 10 ; and Gala­ tians 5 : 17.

JAMIN

(Ja'min) [ Right Hand ].

1. The second-listed son of Simeon. ( Ge 46 : 10 ;

Ex 6 : 15 ; lCh 4 : 24) He founded the family of the Jaminites.-Nu 26: 12. 2 . A descendant of Judah through Hezron's grandson Ram.- 1 Ch 2:9, 25, 27.

3. A postexilic Levite who helped explain the Law to the people assembled in Jerusalem.-Ne 8 : 7.

JAMINITES (Ja'min·ites) [ Of ( Belonging to ) Jamin]. Descendants of Jamin of Simeon's tribe. -Nu 26 : 12. JAMLECH ( Jam'lech ) [ May [ God ] Cause to Reign]. One of the chieftains of the tribe of Sime­ on who, in the days of King Hezekiah, extended their territory into the Valley of Gedor. -1Ch 4: 24, 34, 38-41 . JANAI ( Ja'nai ) [possibly, May [ God ] Answer; [ God ] Has Answered]. A Gadite residing in the territory of Bashan.- 1 Ch 5 : 1 1 , 12. JANIM ( Ja'nim). A city in the mountainous region of Judah. ( Jos 15 : 20, 48, 5 3 ) Janim is tentatively identified with Beni Na' im, about 5 km ( 3 mi ) ESE of Hebron. JANNA I ( Jan'na·i ). An ancestor of Jesus' mother Mary; the fifth generation prior to her. -Lu 3 : 24. JANNES

(Jan'nes ). A resister of Moses with whom Paul compares apostates who resist the truth. ( 2Ti 3 : 8, 9) Jannes and Jambres, whose 'madness became plain to ali,' are not identified in the Hebrew Scriptures, but it is generally agreed that they were two of the leading men in Pha­ raoh's court, perhaps the magic-practicing priests who resisted Moses and Aaron on their numerous appearances there. ( Ex 7 : 11 , 12, 22 ; 8: 17- 19 ; 9 : 1 1 )

JAPHIA

1255

The amount o f tradition that agrees with this greatly outweighs what little there is to the con­ trary. Non-Christian sources, such as Numenius, Pliny the Elder, Lucius Apuleius, a Qumran writ­ ing, the Targum of Jonathan, and several apocry­ phal writings all mention one or both of these men.

JANOAH

(Ja·no'ah) [from a root that means "rest; settle down"].

1 . A boundary location of Ephraim usually identified with Khirbet Yanun, about 20 km ( 12 mi ) SE of Samaria.-Jos 16 : 5 -7. 2. A city in the ten-tribe kingdom taken by Tiglath-pileser III during Pekah's reign ( c. 7 78759 B.C.E. ). Its inhabitants were deported to As­ syria. ( 2Ki 1 5 : 29 ) The exact location of Janoah is uncertain. Although some identify it with Yanouh, about 10 km ( 6 mi) E of Tyre, this loca­ tion is considered to be too far W of the other cities listed at 2 Kings 15 : 29. Most scholars favor Tell en-Na'meh, about 10 km ( 6 mi ) NE of Kedesh in Galilee.

JAPHETH

(Ja'pheth) [ May He Grant Ample Space]. A son of Noah; brother of Shem and of Ham. Although usually listed last, Japheth ap­ pears to have been the eldest of the three sons, as the Hebrew text of Genesis 10: 21 refers to "Ja­ pheth the oldest" ( "elder," KJ; Da; Yg; Le; AS, ftn) . Some translators, however, understand the He­ brew text here to refer instead to Shem as "the elder brother of Japheth. " (RS; also AT, JB, NE ) Considering Japheth to be Noah's eldest son would place the time of his birth at 2470 B.C.E. -Ge 5 : 32. Japheth and his wife were among the eight occupants of the ark, thereby surviving the Flood. ( Ge 7 : 13 ; I Pe 3 : 20 ) Remaining childless until af­ ter the Flood, they thereafter produced seven sons: Gomer, Magog, Madai, Javan, Tubal, Me­ shech, and Tiras. ( Ge 10: 1 , 2; l Ch 1 : 5 ) These sons and also some grandsons are the ones from whom "the population of the isles of the nations [ "coast­ land peoples," RS ] was spread about in their lands, each according to its tongue, according to their families, by their nations. " ( Ge 10: 3-5 ; l Ch 1 :6, 7 ) Historically, Japheth was the progenitor of the Aryan or Indo-European ( Indo-Germanic) branch of the human family. The names of his sons and grandsons are found in ancient historical texts as relating to peoples and tribes residing mainly to the N and W of the Fertile Crescent. They appear to have spread from the Cauca­ sus eastward into Central Asia and westward

through Asia Minor to the islands and coastlands of Europe and perhaps all the way to Spain. Arabian traditions claim that one of Japheth's sons was also the progenitor of the Chinese peo­ ples.-See CHART and MAp, Vol. 1, p. 329. As a result of Japheth's respectful action taken in company with his brother Shem on the occa­ sion of their father's drunkenness, Japheth was the object of his father's blessing. ( Ge 9 : 20-27) In that blessing, Noah requested for Japheth that God "grant ample space [Heb., yaph t]" to him. This Hebrew expression is evidently derived from the same root word as the name Japheth (Heb . , Yepheth o r Yapheth ) and appears t o indicate that the meaning of Japheth's name would be fulfilled in a literal sense and that his descendants would spread out over a wide area. His 'residing in the tents of Shem' is thought by some to indicate a peaceful relationship between the Japhethites and the Semites. However, since history does not particularly present such a peaceful association, it may, rather, be connected prophetically with God's later promise to Shem's descendants Abra­ ham, Isaac, and Jacob, that in their "seed" all the families of the earth ( including those descended from Japheth) would be blessed. ( Ge 2 2 : 15- 18; 26 : 3, 4; 28: 10, 13, 14; compare Ac 10: 34-36; Ga 3 : 28, 29. ) Canaan's 'becoming a slave' to the Japhethites finds fulfillment in the domination of the land of Canaan during the rule of the Medo­ Persian Empire (a Japhetic power) and in the later conquests by the Greeks and the Romans, includ­ ing the conquests of the Canaanite strongholds of Tyre and Sidon.

JAPHIA

(Ja·phi'a).

[ 1 , 2: May [ God ] Beam Forth; [ God] Has Beamed Forth] 1 . The king of Lachish who joined forces with four other Amorite kings to punish Gibeon for making peace with Israel. (Jos 10: 3-5 ) Gibeon's call for help brought Joshua's forces on a rescue mission from Gilgal. During the ensuing battle, the Israelites trapped Japhia and his allied kings in a cave at Makkedah. Later he and the others were executed and their dead bodies hung on stakes until sunset, after which they were thrown into the cave where they had sought refuge. -Jos 10:6-27. 2. A son of David born at Jerusalem. -2Sa 5 : 14, 1 5 ; l Ch 3 : 7 ; 14: 6. 3 . A boundary site of Zebulun. (Jos 19 : 10, 1 2 ) I t is identified with modern Yafa ( Yafia), less than 3 km ( 2 mi ) SW of Nazareth.

JAPHLET

1 2 56

JAPHLET

( Japh'let ) [ May He Provide Escape; He Has Provided Escape ]. A descendant of Ash­ er through Beriah and Heber. Three "sons of Japhlet" are included in the genealogy.-1Ch 7 : 30-33 .

JAPHLETITES

(Japh'le·tites ) [ Of ( Belonging to) Japhlet ]. An ancient people occupying territo­ ry on Ephraim's boundary when the Israelites moved into the Promised Land. (Jos 16 : 3 ) There is no historical evidence linking the Japhletites with the descendant of Asher who was named Japhlet. ( lCh 7 : 30, 3 2 ) Secular history provides no addi­ tional information about them.

JAR.

See VESSELS.

JARAH (Ja'rah). A descendant of Saul through Jonathan and, according to this genealogy, him­ self a father of three sons. ( l Ch 9 : 39-42 ) He is called Jehoaddah at 1 Chronicles 8 : 36.

JARED

(Ja'red ). Father of Enoch and a pre­ Flood ancestor of Jesus Christ; the fifth genera­ tion after Adam. ( lCh 1 : 2 ; Lu 3 : 37 ) Jared, the son of Mahalalel, lived 962 years ( 3566-2604 B.c.E. ), second only to his grandson Methuselah in lon­ gevity. He had a number of sons and daughters, becoming father to Enoch at the age of 162. -Ge 5 : 15 -20.

JARHA

(Jar'ha ). An Egyptian slave of Judah's descendant Sheshan. Since Sheshan had no sons, he gave his daughter in marriage to Jarha, en­ abling Jarha to father Attai and thus preserve Sheshan's family line through him.- 1 Ch 2 : 34, 35.

JARIB (Ja'rib ) [ May [God ] Contend; [ God ] Has Conducted [ Our] Legal Case ]. 1. A son of Simeon ( lCh 4 : 24), elsewhere ap­ parently called Jachin.-Ge 46 : 10 ; see JACHIN No. 1 . 2 . One of the nine headmen whom Ezra sent to encourage Levites and Nethinim to come to the river Ahava and join the others on the journey to Jerusalem.-Ezr 8: 15 -20. 3. One of the listed relatives of the priests who "promised by shaking hands that they would dismiss their foreign wives in response to Ezra's bidding.-Ezr 10: 18, 19.

1 2 : 7, 11 ; 15 : 20, 33, 35 ) After the Babylonian exile Judeans again resided at Jarmuth. ( Ne 1 1 : 25 , 29 ) Khirbet Yarmuk ( Tel Yarmut), some 26 km ( 16 mi ) WSW of Jerusalem, seems to be the ancient site. Situated on a hilltop, it overlooks the coastal plains as far as Gaza by the Mediterranean Sea. 2. A city in Issachar assigned to the Gershon­ ites. ( Jos 21 : 27-29 ) It is believed to be the same as Ramoth ( lCh 6 : 73 ) and Remeth.-Jos 19 : 21 ; see RAMOTH No. 1 .

JAROAH ( Ja·ro'ah). A descendant of Gad who resided in the territory of Bashan.- 1 Ch 5 : 1 1 , 14. JASHAR, BOOK OF.

See BOOK.

JASHEN

(Ja'shen) [ possibly, Sleeping ; Falling Asleep]. The expression lithe sons of Jashen" is found in the list of David's mighty men. ( 2Sa 2 3 : 32 ) The parallel list at 1 Chronicles 11 : 34 calls him Hashem the Gizonite.

JASHOBEAM ( Ja·sho'be·am) [ possibly, The People Have Returned ]. 1. A Korahite warrior who joined David's forces at Ziklag. ( l Ch 12: 1 , 6) Possibly the same as No. 2. 2 . The head one of David's three most out­ standing mighty men. Jashobeam once used his spear to fight off several hundred of the enemy and was also one of the three to force their way into the Philistine camp to get water for David from the cistern of Bethlehem. ( l Ch 11 : 1 1 , 1 5 - 19 ) I n the course of events, Jashobeam was appointed head of the first monthly division of 24,000. ( lCh 27 : 1 , 2) He was a son of Zabdiel; a Hachmonite. His name is spelled Josheb-basshebeth at 2 Sam­ uel 2 3 : 8.-See JOSHEB-BASSHEBETH.

JASHUB

(Ja'shub )

[ probably,

He

Has

Re­

turned ]. 1. The third-listed son of lssachar and founder of the Jashubite division of his tribe. ( lCh 7: 1 ; Nu 26 : 23, 24 ) He is called lob at Genesis 46 : 13 . 2 . One o f lithe sons o f Bani" who, after return­ ing from the Babylonian exile, took but then dis­ missed foreign wives.-Ezr 10: 29, 44.

II

JARMUTH

(Jar'muth) [ from a root meaning "be high (exalted)" ]. 1. One of five Amorite cities involved in the attempted punitive expedition against the Gibe­ onites. Its king, Piram, and his allies were defeat­ ed by Joshua. Thereafter this city of the Shephe­ lah was assigned to Judah. ( Jos 10: 3-5, 23-25 ;

JASHUBI-LEHEM

(Jash'u·bi-le'hem ). Name in the genealogies of JUdah, possibly a descen­ dant of Shelah. However, some translators think this means "returned to Lehem," that is, lito Beth­ lehem. "-1Ch 4:21 , 22; Dy, AT, JB, Mo.

JASHUBITES ( Jash'u·bites) [ Of ( Belonging to) Jashub]. Descendants of lssachar's son Jashub ( lob ), and one of the four major family divisions of the tribe.-Nu 26 : 23-25 ; Ge 46 : 13 .

I�--

1 2 57 JASON

JAVAN

( Ja'son) [possibly from a root meaning

JATHNIEL

(Jath'ni· el ).

One

of

the

Levite

"heal"]. A prominent Christian in Thessalonica

gatekeepers for the house of Jehovah; the fourth

who had 'received Paul and Silas hospitably' on

son of Meshelemiah, a Korahite.- 1 Ch 26: 1 , 2.

their first journey into Macedonia. A mob of jeal­ ous Jews set about to take Paul and Silas from Jason's house, but, not finding them there, they took Jason instead and made him the principal defendant in charges of sedition against Caesar. Jason and the others with him were released after giving "sufficient security," perhaps in the form of bail.-Ac 1 7 : 5 - 10; lTh 2 : 18. In Paul's letter to the Romans, written from Corinth on his next trip through Macedonia and Greece, Jason is one whose greetings are includ­ ed. (Ro 16 : 2 1 ) If he is the same person as the Jason in Thessalonica, he apparently had come to Corinth, possibly with Paul. He is called a 'rela­ tive' of Paul, which can mean that he was a fellow countryman, though the primary meaning of the Greek word is "blood relative of the same genera­ tion. " If a close fleshly relative of Paul, he was naturally the one with whom Paul would stay in Thessalonica.

JASPE R.

Modern jasper is an opaque variety

of quartz containing an admixture of iron oxide. Its colors, often arranged in layers, are white, red, yellow, brown, or black. Jasper is harder than glass and is found in metamorphic rocks in mass or as distinct crystals. The best grades are used for gemstones and can be highly polished. Some scholars, however, believe that, since the jasper ( Gr. ,

i'a·spis)

at Revelation 21 : 11 is called "a most

precious stone . . . shining crystal-clear, " the ancient stone may have been of greater rarity and value than the comparatively inexpensive modern jasper, and brilliantly translucent rather than opaque. Some scholars have suggested that the Greek term in reality refers to the diamond. A stone of jasper ( Heb. ,

ya·halom' )

representing

one of Israel's 12 tribes was placed in the last position in the second row of stones on Aaron's "breastpiece of judgment. " ( Ex 28 : 2 , 15, 18, 2 1 ; 39 : 11 ) The jeweled "covering" worn by the king of Tyre was adorned with jasper. ( Eze 28: 12, 13 ) In the vision of Jehovah's heavenly throne of splen­ dor, John observed that "the one seated is, in appearance, like a jasper stone and a precious red-colored stone." ( Re 4: 1 -3, 10, 1 1 ) "The holy city, New Jerusalem," is described as having a radiance like "a jasper stone shining crystal­ clear. " The structure of the holy city's wall was

JATTIR

(Jat'tir) [from a root meaning "more

than enough; overflow" ]. A priestly city in the mountainous region of Judah. (Jos 15 : 20, 48; 2 1 :9, 10, 14 ; lCh 6 : 54, 57 ) It was to Jattir that David sent a portion of the spoils of victory taken from Amalekite raiders. Perhaps this was in ap­ preciation for hospitality and friendship accorded to him, a fugitive from King Saul . - 1 Sa 30: 17-20, 26, 27, 31 . Jattir is usually identified with Khirbet 'Attir ( Horvat Yattir), about 21 km ( 1 3 mi l SSW of Hebron.

JAVAN

( Ja'van ). Fourth-listed son of Japheth

and the father of Elishah, Tarshish, Kittim, and Dodanim (or Rodanim). As post-Flood descen­ dants of Noah, they are included among those populating "the isles of the nations," which phrase can also refer to the coastlands and not simply to islands surrounded by water. ( Ge 10 : 2 , 4, 5; l Ch 1 : 5 , 7) Historical evidence indicates that the de­ scendants of Javan and his four sons settled in the islands and coastlands of the Mediterranean Sea from Cyprus ( Kittim) to the western Mediter­ ranean.-See DODANIM; EUSHAH; KITIIM; No. 1 . Javan ( Heb . ,

Ya·wan ')

TARSHISH

is identified a s the pro­

genitor of the ancient Ionians, called by some "the parent tribe of the Greeks. "

Old Testament,

( Commentary on the

by C. F. Keil and F. Delitzsch,

1973, Vol. I, The First Book of Moses, p. 163 ) The name I·a 'o·nes is used by the poet Homer ( of perhaps the eighth century B.C . E . ) as referring to the early Greeks, and beginning with Sargon II (eighth century B.c. E. ), the name

Ja wanu

begins

to appear in Assyrian inscriptions. In course of time the name Ionia came to be restricted to Attica (the region around Athens), the western coast of Asia Minor ( corresponding to the coasts of the later provinces of Lydia and Caria ), and the neighboring islands of the Aegean Sea. The sea that lies between southern Greece and southern Italy still retains the name Ionian, and this name is acknowledged to be of very ancient origin, supporting the view that this form of the name of Javan once applied to the main­ land of Greece as well as to the later smaller area designated "Ionia. "

jasper, as was the first foundation stone.-Re

Following the Genesis account, the descendants of Javan first begin to be mentioned about the

2 1 : 2 , 10 , 1 1 , 18, 19.

latter part of the ninth century B.c.E. by the

1258

JAVELIN

prophet Joel. The prophet there condemns the 1\1rians, Sidonians, and Philistines for selling the sons of Judah and Jerusalem in their slave trade with "the sons of the Greeks" (literally, "the Ioni­ ans " ). (Joe 3 : 4 - 6 ) Isaiah, in the eighth century E.c.E. , foretells that some of the Jews surviving God's expression of wrath would travel to many lands, including "Javan," there proclaiming Jeho­ vah's glory.-Isa 66: 19. Slaves and copper articles were listed in the late seventh or early sixth century B.C.E. as items being supplied by "Javan, Thbal and Meshech [ these latter places evidently being located in eastern Asia Minor or to the N thereof r to the wealthy commercial center of Tyre. ( Eze 27: 13 ) Verse 19 of the same prophecy again mentions Javan, but the fact that the other places men­ tioned in the context are in Syria, Palestine, and Arabia has led some to view the appearance of the name there to be the result of a scribal error. Rather than reading "and Javan from Uzal," the Greek Septuagint renders Javan as "wine," thus reading, "and with wine. From Asel [Uzal ]." ( LXX, Thomson ) The Revised Standard Version reads "and wine from Uzal. " Others, however, suggest that Javan may here refer to a Greek colony located in Arabia or that it may perhaps be the name of an Arabian tribe or town. In Daniel's prophecy "Javan" is usually ren­ dered by translators as "Greece," since the histor­ ical fulfillment of Daniel's writings makes this meaning evident. (Da 8 : 21 ; 10: 20; 1 1 : 2 ) So, like­ wise, Zechariah's prophecy ( 520-518 E.c.E. ), fore­ telling the successful warfare of the 'sons of Zion' against Javan ( Greece ).-Zec 9 : 13. JAVELIN.

See ARMs, ARMOR.

JAZER ( Ja'zer) [May [God ] Help ] . An Amorite city with dependent towns, located E of the Jor­ dan. In the time of Moses, the Israelites took Jazer and the surrounding region. ( Nu 21 : 25, 3 2 ) Origi­ nally granted to Gad and fortified by that tribe, Jazer was subsequently assigned to the Levites. ( Nu 32: 1 , 3-5, 34, 35 ; Jos 1 3 : 24, 25; 21 : 34, 38, 39 ; l Ch 6 : 7 7, 81 ) It was one of the places mentioned in connection with the route followed by Joab and the chiefs of the military forces when they took the census that David had ordered without hav­ ing divine authorization. ( 2 Sa 24:4, 5 ) Toward the close of David's reign certain mighty men of the Hebronites residing at Jazer were assigned ad­ ministrative duties in Israel's territory E of the Jordan.- 1Ch 2 6 : 3 1 , 32. In the eighth century E.C.E., Jazer was in Mo­ abite hands. It seems that the region was then, if

not already earlier, famous for its vine culture. Jazer and other Moabite cities were foretold to suffer future calamity.-Isa 16 :8-10; Jer 48: 32, 33. Various possible identifications have been sug­ gested for ancient Jazer, but its precise location remains unknown. JAZIZ (Ja'ziz). The chief caretaker of King Da­ vid's flocks; a Hagrite.-1Ch 27 : 31 . JEALOUS, JEALOUSY. According to Bibli­ cal usage, "jealousy" may be a positive or a nega­ tive quality or emotion. (Pr 14: 30; Zec 1 : 14 ) The Hebrew noun qin-'ah ' variously means "insistence on exclusive devotion; toleration of no rivalry ; zeal; ardor; jealousy [righteous or sinful ]; envy­ ing. " The Greek ze'10s has a similar meaning. -2Co 11 : 2 ; 1 2 : 20. Jehovah's Jealousy. Jehovah describes him­ self as "a God exacting exclusive devotion. " ( Ex 20:5, ftn; De 4:24; 5 : 9 ; 6: 15 ) He also says: "Jeho­ vah, whose name is Jealous, he is a jealous God . " ( Ex 34 : 14 ) Over what and with what kind of jealousy? Not with the envious, selfish jealousy of humans. It is a jealousy, a zeal or ardor for his holy name, concerning which he himself says: "I will show exclusive devotion for my holy name. " -Eze 39 : 25 . For his nams. When one considers what God's name stands for, the reason for his "insis­ tence on exclusive devotion" becomes clear. ( Eze 5 : 13 ) His name represents all that is right and righteous. He is holy, clean, upright, loyal in the superlative degree. ( Isa 6 : 3 ; Re 4:8; 16 : 5 ) His sovereignty is necessary to the existence of the universe, and allegiance to his sovereignty and laws is essential to the order and peace of all creation. (Pr 29 : 2 ; lCo 14: 3 3 ) His jealousy is therefore a pure, clean jealousy and is altogether for the benefit of his creatures, as their devotion brings him-the Creator, Provider, and Giver of all good things-no profit. (Job 41 : 11 ; Ps 145: 16; Ro 11 : 3 5 ; Jas 1 : 17 ; Re 4 : 11 ) But in his devotion to righteousness his heart is made glad with loving appreciation when his servants stand firm for righteousness and give exclusive devotion to him. -Pr 2 3 : 15, 16 ; 27 : 11 . Those serving God can rely on him to establish righteousness, being confident in his zeal for his name. He illustrated his zeal in his dealings with ancient Israel, and he tells us of the destruction of earthly governments and the establishment of the government of the Prince of Peace with justice and righteousness, saying: "The very zeal of Je-

1259

hovah of armies will do this. "-Isa 9 : 6, 7; Zep 3 : 8, 9. For righ teousness. In his love of righteous­ ness and his insistence on exclusive devotion, Jehovah is impartial. Moses warned God's cove­ nant people Israel that if anyone forsook the cov­ enant, "Jehovah's anger and his ardor [ would ] smoke against that man, . . . and Jehovah [ would] indeed wipe out his name from under the heav­ ens." ( De 29 : 19-21 ) God told the apostate, idol­ worshiping, immoral city of Jerusalem that he would judge her and give her "the blood of rage and jealousy. " ( Eze 16 : 3 8; 23 : 25 ) This occurred when the Babylonians destroyed the city and the temple upon which Jehovah's name had been placed, but which name they had grossly de­ famed. Nevertheless, his jealousy did not over­ shadow or flood out his purposes and his mercy, for Jehovah spared a remnant to return and re­ build the temple. For his people. Because of his love for his people and because they bear his holy name, Jehovah is jealous for them with a fiery zeal. Just as a husband jealously protects his wife as pre­ cious to him, so Jehovah says : "He that is touch­ ing you is touching my eyeball. " (Zec 2 : 8 ) Accord­ ingly, because of the malicious acts of the nations toward his people, God foretold: "1 will be jealous for Zion with great jealousy, and with great rage I will be jealous for her," also, that he would be zealous for his land and would show compassion upon his people.-Zec 8 : 2 ; 1 : 14; Joe 2: 18. In citing Jehovah to jealousy. In his insis­ tence on exclusive devotion, Jehovah is not one to be mocked. ( Ga 6 : 7 ) Any one of his servants who refuses to give him wholehearted devotion, fail­ ing to love him with his whole heart, mind, soul, and strength, is trying to serve two masters. Jesus explained that the result of this course would be disastrous, for such a man would love one master and despise the other. (Mt 6 : 24 ) Such a person is "inciting [Jehovah] to jealousy." ( De 3 2 : 16; lKi 14 : 2 2 ) In a vision given to Ezekiel, Jehovah showed him a "symbol of jealousy," evi­ dently idolatrous, in the gateway to the temple. (Eze 8 : 3 , 5 ) For Judah's turning away from exclu­ sive devotion to him, Jehovah's jealousy burned against them. The apostle Paul says to Christians: "You cannot be partaking of 'the table of JehOVah' and the table of demons. Or 'are we inciting Jehovah to jealousy'? We are not stronger than he is, are we?" ( l Co 10 : 2 1 , 2 2 ; De 3 2 : 21 ) He points out that if a Christian practices sin willfully after having

JEALOUS, JEALOUSY

received the accurate knowledge of the truth, he can look forward only to judgment and "a fiery jealousy that is going to consume those in opposi­ tion. "-Heb 10: 26, 27. Jesus Christ . The Son of God, being more intimate with his Father than any other of his creatures, and better able to emulate him and reveal him to others, could say: "He that has seen me has seen the Father also." (Joh 14 : 9 ; Mt 11 : 27 ; Joh 1 : 1 8 ) Consequently his zeal and jealousy for righteousness and his Father's name exceeded that of all others. ( Heb 1 : 9 ; Ps 45 : 7 ) He at all times rendered exclusive devotion to Jehovah. (Mt 4: 10 ; Joh 8 : 29 ) When on earth, his heart burned with heated zeal, with jealousy because of the defamation of Jehovah's name that was being brought by money-loving merchants in the tem­ ple. (Joh 2: 13- 1 7 ) Just as he there fulfilled the prophecy at Psalm 69 :9, "Sheer zeal for your house has eaten me up," so his followers can be sure of his zeal for completely establishing ever­ lasting righteousness, justice, and respect for Je­ hovah's name and sovereignty in fulfillment of the prophecy at Psalm 45 : 3- 6 . Worshipers o f God With Exclusive Devotion.

All who have been true worshipers of God have exercised zeal for his service and jealousy for his name. The prophet Elijah, who did powerful works in turning many in Israel back from false worship to the worship of JehOVah, said : "1 have been absolutely jealous for Jehovah the God of armies." ( 1 Ki 19 : 10, 14 ) Phinehas demonstrated devotion that pleased God and saved Israel from extermination by his zeal in killing a chieftain of Israel who had contaminated the camp by bring­ ing in filthy phallic Baal worship. This was be­ cause, as an Israelite and a priest, Phinehas was "tolerating no rivalry at all" toward Jehovah.-Nu 25 : 11 ; compare 2Ki 10 : 16. The Christian congregation must exercise the same jealous watch, that no unclean thing should spring up as a "poisonous root" to cause trouble and defile many. ( Heb 1 2 : 15 ) If anyone corrupt should slip in and try to defile others, the congre­ gation must 'exercise earnestness, clearing itself before Jehovah with indignation and zeal. ' They must 'remove the wicked man from among them.' -lCo 5 : 4, 5, 13 ; 2Co 7 : 1 1 , 12. It is good, therefore, for Christians to exercise "a godly jealousy" in behalf of fellow Christians. That is, they should be burning with the desire to do all they can to assist one another to main­ tain exclusive devotion to God and obedience to Christ. The apostle Paul likened those who were

JEALOUS, JEALOUSY

his spiritual brothers to a virgin engaged to Christ as his prospective bride. He was jealously protect­ ing them so that they could be preserved unblem­ ished for Christ. ( 2Co 11 : 2 ; compare Re 19 : 7, 8. ) His zeal for them is demonstrated in many ex­ pressions in his letters to the Corinthian congre­ gation and to others. And the jealousy that Christ himself has for his "bride" ( Re 21 : 9 ) is shown in his strong statements to the congregations as recorded in Revelation, chapters 1 through 3. Inciting to jealousy in a proper way. Jeho­ vah showed mercy to the nation of Israel after all except a remnant had rejected the Messiah. The remnant of believing Jews was the beginning of the Christian congregation; Jehovah's favor was now upon it rather than the rejected Jewish na­ tion. Jehovah demonstrated this change of deal­ ing by signs and portents and powerful works. ( Heb 2 : 3, 4) He opened the way for Gentiles to come into his favor. But he did not 'close the door' on Israel altogether. As the Scriptures point out: "Did they [ all Israelites] stumble so that they fell completely? Never may that happen! But by their false step there is salvation to people of the na­ tions, to incite them to jealousy. " ( Ro 11 : 11 ) This was what Jehovah, centuries beforehand, had said he was going to do, which resulted in the saving of some. ( De 3 2 : 21 ; Ro 10: 19 ) The apostle Paul, who earnestly sought the good of fellow Israelites, followed this principle, saying: "Foras­ much as I am, in reality, an apostle to the nations, I glorify my ministry, if I may by any means incite those who are my own flesh to jealousy and save some from among them. "-Ro 11 : 13, 14; 10: 1 . Misdirected Zeal. One may b e sincerely zealous, or jealous, for a certain cause and yet be wrong and displeasing to God. That was true of many of the Jews of the first century. They looked for righteousness to come to them through their own works under the Mosaic Law. But Paul showed that their zeal was misdirected because of lack of accurate knowledge. Therefore they did not receive the real righteousness that comes from God. They would have to see their error and turn to God through Christ to receive righteous­ ness and freedom from the condemnation of the Law. ( Ro 10: 1 - 10) Saul of Tarsus was one of such, being extremely zealous for Judaism to the point of excess, "persecuting the congregation of God and devastating it. " He was scrupulously keeping the Law as "one who proved himself blameless. " ( Ga 1 : 13, 14 ; Php 3 : 6 ) Yet his jealousy for Judaism was a misdirected one. He was sincere of heart, for which reason Jehovah exercised undeserved

1260

kindness through Christ in turning him to the way of true worship. - l Ti 1 : 12, 13. Jealousy and Envy. A person who shows improper jealousy suspects others without ade­ quate cause or resents the diversion to another of what he unjustifiably claims as his own. An en­ vious person discontentedly desires or covets the good fortune and attainments of others. The con­ text often determines the sense in which the Hebrew words usually translated "jealous" or "jealousy," but sometimes "envy," are used in the Bible. The same is true of the Greek word for "jealousy," but the Greek language also has a separate word, phtho'nos, for "envy . " In the Corinthian congregation o f the first cen­ tury, ambitious men had come in, calling atten­ tion to themselves, boasting in men, and they were bringing about strife in the. congregation. The congregation was split into factions jealous­ ly looking to, exalting, and following men. Paul pointed out that such jealousy was fleshly, not spiritual. ( l Co 3 : 3 ; 2Co 12 : 20 ) He explained that godly love is not jealous in an improper way but, rather, is trusting and hopeful, always acting in the interests of others. -lCo 13 :4, 5, 7. Jealousy of the kind that Paul spoke against in the Corinthian congregation is not righteous. It is not in behalf of exclusive devotion to Jehovah. Rather, it is a form of idolatry, demonic in origin, and it breeds envy and strife. The Bible repeated­ ly warns against it, showing that it affects the heart itself. Jesus' half brother James wrote: "If you have bitter j ealousy and contentiousness in your hearts, do not be bragging and lying against the truth. This is not the wisdom that comes down from above, but is the earthly, animal, demonic. For where jealousy and contentiousness are, there disorder and every vile thing are. " -Jas 3: 14-16; Ro 13: 13; Ga 5 : 19 -21 . Jealousy of the wrong kind has a detrimental effect on one's physical health, for "a calm heart is the life of the fleshly organism, but jealousy is rottenness to the bones. " (Pr 14: 30) Jealousy re­ sults from harboring suspicion or resentment within oneself. It can be more destructive than rage or anger because it may be more deep­ rooted, more lasting and persistent, and less eas­ ily assuaged. Usually reason is thrown to the winds. (Pr 27: 4 ) And the jealousy of a man who is righteously enraged toward another who com­ mits adultery with his wife will not accept any sort of excuse or ransom!-Pr 6 : 32-35. The wrong kind of jealousy can bring a person to a point where he sins against God, as did the ten half brothers of Joseph. ( Ge 37: 11 ; Ac 7 : 9 ) It

1261

JEBUS

can lead to loss of life for an individual and others

the town of Chesalon was apparently located.

involved, as it did in the case of Dathan and

-Jos 1 5 : 10; see CHESALON.

Abiram and members of their households. ( Ps 106 : 16, 1 7 ) Worse yet, jealousy prompted unbe­

JEATHERAI

(Je·ath'e·rai ) . A Levite ; descen­

lieving Jews to commit serious crimes toward

dant of Gershon ( Gershom ).- l Ch 6 : 1 , 20, 21 .

the apostles and, in addition, blasphemy and at­ tempted murder.-Ac 1 3 : 45, 50; 14: 19.

hovah Blesses" ]. Father of the Zechariah who wit­

Marital Jealousy.

Jealousy of one toward his

( or her) mate is good if it is a proper jealousy, a zeal for the mate's benefit and well-being. But improper jealousy, or mistrust without founda­ tion, is wrong and lacking love, and it can result in ruin to the marriage.- 1 Co 1 3 : 4, 7. Under the Mosaic Law, provision was made for cases of jealousy where the husband suspected his wife of secret adultery. If there were not the required two witnesses to prove the accusation so that the human judges could act to apply the death sentence, the procedure prescribed by the Law was that the couple should present them­ selves before Jehovah's representative, the priest. This action constituted an appeal to Jehovah, who

JEBERECHIAH (Je·ber·e·chi'ah ) [ meaning "Je­ nessed Isaiah's writing of the prophetic name Maher-shalal-hash-baz, that of the prophet's own son, on a tablet.-Isa 8: 1 , 2.

JEBUS

(Je'bus) [ possibly from a root meaning

"tread down; stamp down" ], JEBUSITE (Jeb'u­ site). Jebus was an ancient city of the Jebusites on the site now known as Jerusalem. In

the

time

of Abraham before the

year

1900 B.C.E. , this place was called Salem ( meaning "Peace" ), which is included in the name Jerusalem and may be a contraction of it. (Heb 7 : 2 ) Mention was made of Urusalim ( Jerusalem ) in the Amarna Tablets found in Egypt. And in the books of Josh­ ua, Judges, and First Samuel, where events prior

was aware of all the facts, for his judgment. If

to the conquest of the city by David are men­

adulterous, the woman received, as a direct pun­

tioned, the site is often called Jerusalem. (Jos

ishment from Jehovah, the loss of her procreative

10: 1 , 3, 5, 2 3 ; 1 2 : 10; 1 5 : 8, 6 3 ; 18 : 28 ; Jg 1 : 7 , 8, 21 ;

powers. If the husband's jealousy was unfounded,

19 : 10; 1 Sa 1 7 : 54) In only two passages is it re­

then he had to acknowledge her innocence by

ferred to as Jebus. (Jg 19 : 10, 1 1 ; 1Ch 11 :4,

having sex relations with her so that she could bear a child. -Nu 5 : 1 1 -31 .

Joshua 18:28 Yevu·sF appears in the Hebrew, the

God's Servants Are Warned Against Rivalry. Rivalry or competition, so common in the present system of things, is not fitting. The writer of the

ending

i indicating

5) In

people, the inhabitants of the

city. It therefore seems evident to most scholars that Jerusalem ( or, possibly, Salem) was the city's

book of Ecclesiastes says: "I myself have seen all the hard work and all the proficiency in work,

original name, and that only when occupied by

that it means the rivalry [Heb., qin· 'a th ' ] of one toward another; this also is vanity and a striving

also generally agreed that "Jebus" was not a con­

after the wind."-Ec 4 : 4 ; compare Ga 5 : 26 .

the Jebusites was it occasionally called Jebus. It is traction of Jerusalem but, rather, a contraction of Jebusites, the name of the occupants of the site

B y being jealous o f others' successes, posses­ sions, or accomplishments, the servant of God

for a time. After David's capture of this strong­

may develop envy and covetousness, even going

residence there, it was sometimes referred to as

so far as being envious of those who are bad but who prosper. The Scriptures warn that this should not be; though the time may seem long that they prosper, they will receive quick judg­ ment at God's time, as it is written : "Do not show yourself heated up because of the evildoers. Do not be envious of those doing unrighteousness. For like grass they will speedily wither. " ( Ps 37 : 1 , 2 ) Envy of such ones can lead a person into copying their violent ways, detestable to Jehovah. -Pr 3 : 3 1 , 3 2 ; 23 : 17; 24: 1 , 19 ; compare Ps 7 3 : 2, 3, 17-19, 21- 23. (Je'a·rim) [ Forests ]. A mountain that marked part of Judah's N boundary and on which

JEARIM

hold of Zion and the establishment of his royal the "City of David. "-2Sa 5 : 7. The Jebusites, who occupied this city and the surrounding area, were descendants of Ham and Canaan. ( Ge 10 : 15 , 16, 20; 1Ch 1 : 13, 14 ) When mentioned along with their relatives ( Hittites, Girgashites, Amorites, Canaanites, Perizzites, Hi­ vites ), the Jebusites are generally listed last, per­ haps because of being the least numerous. ( De 7 : 1 ; Jg 3 : 5 ) They were classified as a mountain­ dwelling people (Nu 1 3 : 29 ), and their land was said to be, figuratively, Ita land flowing with milk and honey. "-Ex 3 : 8, 17. Jehovah promised Abraham that he would give the land of the Jebusites to him and to his seed.

1262

JEBUSI ( Ge 1 5 : 18-21 ; Ne 9 : 8 ) In carrying out this prom­

and there h e built a n altar and offered u p special

ise, Jehovah brought his chosen people out of Egypt, and as they crossed the Jordan, God sent

sacrifices. ( 2Sa 24: 16-25 ; l Ch 21 : 15, 18-28) It was

his angel ahead, commanding that they show themselves strong and that they oust all those who resisted them. (Ex 1 3 : 3-5 ; 2 3 : 2 3 ; 33 : 1 , 2 ) They were t o conclude no covenant and no mar­ riage alliance with the Jebusites and other Ca­ naanites but, instead, were to devote them to total destruction, leaving no breathing thing alive, "in order that they may not teach you to do according to all their detestable things. "-Ex 34: 1 1 - 16 ; De 20: 16- 18. Upon observing the Israelite successes in the takeover of the land-the capture of Jericho and Ai as well as the capitulation of the Gibeonites -the Jebusite king Adoni-zedek headed a con­ federacy of five kings who were determined to stop the invasion. (Jos 9 : 1 , 2; 10: 1-5 ) In the battle that ensued, in which Jehovah caused the sun and moon to stand still, the armies of the confed­ eracy were defeated, the kings were captured and put to death, and their corpses were impaled on stakes for all to see. (Jos 10:6 -27; 1 2 : 7, 8, 10) It

upon this site years later that Solomon built the costly temple. ( 2Ch 3: 1 ) Thereafter, Solomon put the descendants of the Jebusites to work in the great building program, working them as slaves. - I Ki 9: 20, 21 ; 2Ch 8:7, 8. In the last reference we have to the Jebusites, we learn that as an ethnic group they were still present to contaminate the worship of the Isra­ elites upon their return from Babylonian exile. -Ezr 9 : 1 , 2. See JEEUS, JEBUSITE.

JEBUSI .

JECOLIAH

(Je·co·li'ah)

[ Jehovah

Has

Been

Able]. Mother of Judah's King Uzziah (Azariah), whom she bore in about 845 B.C.E. Jecoliah, wife of Amaziah, was from Jerusalem.-2Ki 1 5 : 1 , 2 ; 2Ch 26: 1 , 3 .

JECONIAH

(Jec· o·ni'ah) [Jehovah Firmly Es­

tablishes]. King of Judah for only three months and ten days before being taken captive to Bab­ ylon by Nebuchadnezzar in 617 B.c.E. ; son of

may have been after this victory that the Israel­

Jehoiakim and grandson of good King Josiah.

ites put the torch to Jebus, burning it to the ground.-Jg 1 : 8.

sionally contracted to Coniah. ( Jer 2 2 : 24; 37: 1 )

( 1 Ch 3 : 15-17; Es 2 : 6 ; Jer 24: 1 ) His name is occa­

With the conclusion of Joshua's campaign of conquest in the S and central portions of the

I n certain translations it is sometimes spelled Jechoniah ( Mt 1 : 11 , 12, JB; Mo; RS ), but most

Promised Land, he turned his attention to the northern section W of the Jordan. Once again the Jebusites rallied to resist, this time under

often it occurs as Jehoiachin.-2Ki 24:6, 8-15 ; see

JEHOIACHIN.

the banner of Jabin, the king of Hazor, and again Israel defeated them, with Jehovah's help. ( Jos 1 1 : 1 -8 ) Nevertheless, after the burning of Jebus and sometime before the dividing of the land, the

different in spelling and meaning, are transliter­ ated into English the same way.

Jebusites had control of the strategic heights of Jerusalem, which they held for 400 years. -Jos 15:63. The city of Jebus was assigned to Benjamin when the land was apportioned out, and it lay on the immediate border between the tribal territo­ ries of Judah and Benjamin. (Jos 15: 1-8; 1 8 : 1 1 , 15, 16, 25-28) However, the Israelites did not drive out the Jebusites but, instead, allowed their sons and daughters to intermarry with these people, and they even took up worshiping the false gods of the Jebusites. ( Jg 1 : 21 ; 3 : 5 , 6 ) During this period it remained "a city of foreigners," in which a Levite once refused to stay overnight. -Jg 19 : 10- 12. Finally, in 1070 B.C. E . , David conquered Zion, the stronghold of the Jebusites. ( 2 Sa 5 : 6 -9 ; l Ch 1 1 : 4 - 8 ) Later David purchased the threshing floor to the N from a Jebusite named Araunah (Ornan ),

JEDAIAH

[ 1 , 2 : Heb.,

(Je· da'iah ).

Two Hebrew names,

Yedha-yah ']

1. A Simeonite whose descendant Ziza was a chieftain when Hezekiah ruled.-lCh 4 : 24, 37, 38, 41 .

2 . A postexilic resident of Jerusalem who re­ paired the section of the city wall in front of his house; son of Harumaph.-Ne 3 : 10. [ 3-8: Heb. ,

Yedha (-yah � Jah Knows]

3 . A paternal house of priests selected by lot for the 2nd of the 24 priestly groups into which David divided the priesthood. - l Ch 24: 1 , 6, 7. Listed below are several postexilic priests des­ ignated by the name Jedaiah, some of whom were quite likely members of the same paternal house, but this is difficult to determine_ 4. A priest, or possibly members of the above­ mentioned paternal house, who resided in Jerusa­ lem after the return from Babylon. Jedaiah's be­ ing called "the son of" Joiarib at Nehemiah 11 : 10 may be a copyist's addition, as is indicated by

JEDUTHUN

1263

comparison with 1 Chronicles 9: 10. Jedaiah and the other two ( Joiarib or Jehoiarib and Jachin) at the beginning of the lists in Nehemiah and Chron­ icles are the same names as those of paternal houses in the time of David. ( l Ch 24:6, 7, 17) So it may be that reference is simply to the paternal houses, indicating that they were represented, whereas the names following may be of indi­ viduals ; or it could be that all the names are of individuals then living.-lCh 9: 10- 1 2 ; Ne 11 : 10- 13. 5 . Forefather of 973 priests who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel. ( Ezr 2 : 1 , 2, 36 ; Ne 7 : 39 ) These are likely members of the same paternal house ( No. 3 ), unless their being "of the house of Jeshua" refers to some connection with the high­ priestly line. 6, 7. Two priests of this name are included in the list of those who returned with Jeshua and Zerubbabel in 537 B.C.E. ( Ne 12: 1 , 6, 7) During the priesthood of Jeshua's successor Joiakim, each of the two is referred to as a paternal house, one represented by Uzzi and the other by Nethanel. ( Ne 12: 12, 19, 21 ) Whether either or both of these Jedaiahs are connected with the original paternal house ( No. 3 ) cannot be determined. 8. One of the returned exiles from whom gold and silver were taken and made into a crown for High Priest Joshua. ( Zec 6 : 10- 14 ) No connection with the above priests is specifically indicated.

JEDIAEL (Je·di'a·el ) [God Knows [This One 1; Known of God]. 1. A son of Benjamin. Jediael's descendants at one time numbered 17,200 valiant, mighty men. ( 1Ch 7:6, 10, 11 ) He is probably the same as Benjamin's son AshbeL- Ge 46:21 ; see AsHBEL, ASHBEUTES. 2 . One of several warriors and leaders of the tribe of Manasseh who joined David's army while he was camped at Ziklag. ( 1Ch 1 2 : 20, 21 ) Possibly the same as No. 3. 3 . One of David's mighty men; son of Shimri. -lCh 1 1 : 26, 45 ; see No. 2. 4. A gatekeeper of the house of Jehovah, ap­ pointed during David's reign. He was the second son of Korahite Meshelemiah.-1Ch 26: 1 , 2. JEDIDAH (Je·di'dah) [Beloved 1. Wife of Amon and mother of King Josiah, whom she bore in 667 B.C.E. ; daughter of Adaiah from Bozkath. -2Ki 21 : 24 -26 ; 22: 1 . JEDIDIAH ( Jed·i·di'ah) [ Beloved of Jah]. The name given by Jehovah's prophet Nathan to the second child of David and Bath-sheba. ( 2Sa 1 2 : 24,

25) The name reflected Jehovah's love and accep­ tance of the newborn infant, in contrast with His rejection of their earlier adulterine child, which died soon after birth. ( 2Sa 12: 13-19 ) In usage the name Jedidiah did not, however, supersede the name Solomon.-See SoWMON.

JEDUTHUN

(Je·du'thun) [ possibly from a root

meaning "laud"]. 1 . A Levitical musician. Apparently Jeduthun had previously been called Ethan, for prior to the Ark's arrival in Jerusalem, "Ethan" is connected with the other musicians, Heman and Asaph, whereas afterward "Jeduthun" is in this same association. ( 1 Ch 15: 17, 19 ; 25: 1 ) There is no ancestry of Jeduthun given; there is for Ethan. ( lCh 6:44 -47) And there are no descendants of Ethan mentioned ; there are for Jeduthun. ( 1 Ch 9 : 16 ) Changing the name from Ethan [meaning "Enduring; Everflowing"1 to Jeduthun [ possibly from a root meaning "laud" 1 was certainly in line with the assignment he was given.- 1Ch 16:41 ; see ETHAN No. 3.

Jeduthun and his family of musicians partici­ pated in several celebrations when "thanking and praising Jehovah" was in order ( 1Ch 25 : 3 ) ; for example, when the ark of the covenant was brought to Jerusalem. ( lCh 16 : 1, 41 , 42 ) Of the 24 divisions into which David's reorganization sepa­ rated the sanctuary musicians, the 2nd, 4th, 8th, 10th, 12th, and 14th lots fell to the six sons of Jeduthun, all working under their father's direc­ tion. ( 1Ch 25: 1 , 3, 6, 7, 9, 1 1 , 15, 17, 19, 21 ) The sharing of these duties by Jeduthun, Asaph, and Heman meant that each of the three main branches of Levites ( Merari, Gershom, and Ko­ hath respectively) was represented among the temple musicians. ( 1Ch 6 : 31-47 ) All three groups praised Jehovah with music when Solomon inau­ gurated the temple. ( 2Ch 5 : 12, 13 ) Jeduthun's descendants are mentioned during the reign of Hezekiah and even among the exiles who re­ turned from Babylon.-2Ch 29 : 1 , 12, 14, 1 5 ; Ne 11 : 17. Three of the psalms mention Jeduthun in their superscriptions. Two of them ( Ps 39, 6 2 ) read "To the director of Jeduthun" ( "after the manner of [the choir of1 Jeduthun," Ro ftn on superscription of Ps 39 ), while the third ( Ps 7 7 ) reads "To the director on Jeduthun. " ( NW; Ro; "upon," AT) In each case the composition of the psalm is attrib­ uted to someone else, the first two to David and the third to Asaph; so there is no sUggestion that Jeduthun composed them, though he is elsewhere

------.---

�h�;;

I

JEGAR-SAHADUTHA

called "the visionary of the king" and it is also said that he "was prophesying with the harp." ( 2Ch 35: 15; 1 Ch 25: 1 , 3 ) Therefore, the superscriptions of these three psalms are evidently instructions for their performance, perhaps identifying a style or even a musical instrument that was somehow associated with Jeduthun, or that he or his sons may have invented, introduced, developed, or made common through usage. 2 . A Levite whose son or descendant, Obed­ edom, was a gatekeeper at the time David had the Ark brought to Jerusalem.-1Ch 16: 1 , 37, 38. JEGAR-SAHADUTHA ( Je'gar-sa·ha·du'tha ) [ Aramaic, meaning "Witness Heap" ]. The Arama­ ic ( Syrian) expression that Laban used to desig­ nate the heap of stones on which he and Jacob ate a covenant meal. This stone heap called Jegar­ sahadutha was to serve as Ita witness" that nei­ ther of them would pass it to harm the oth­ er. Jacob called it by the Hebrew equivalent "Galeed. "-Ge 31 : 25, 46-5 3 ; see GALEED. JEHALLELEL (Je·hal'le·lel ) [ possibly, God Has Flashed Forth [ Light]]. 1 . Father of four sons listed in the genealogies of Judah. -1Ch 4: 1 , 16. 2. A Merarite Levite whose son helped cleanse the temple during Hezekiah's reign.-2Ch 29: 1 , 1 2 , 1 5 , 16. JEHDEIAH (Jeh·de'iah) { possibly, May Jeho­ vah Feel Glad ]. 1 . A Levite (or his paternal house) descended from Amram, involved in David's reorganization of the Levites. - 1 Ch 24 : 20, 3 1 . 2 . A Meronothite i n charge of King David's she-asses. - 1 Ch 27 : 30. JEHEZKEL (Je·hez'kel) [May God Strengthen; God Has Strengthened]. The priest and head of the paternal house that was selected by lot for the 20th of the 24 rotating groups into which David had the priestly services divided. -1 Ch 24: 1, 3, 7, 16. JEHIAH (Je·hi'ah ) [ May He Live, 0 Jah! ]. A Levite who acted as a gatekeeper for the Ark at the time of its transfer to Jerusalem.- 1Ch 15 : 24, 25.

l

__

JEHIEL (Je·hi'el) [ May He Live, a God ! ]. 1 . A Levite in the second division of musicians that accompanied the ark of the covenant from Obed-edom's house to Jerusalem. ( 1Ch 1 5 : 17, 18, 20, 25, 28) Afterward, Jehiel and others were

1264

appointed to play outside the tent in which the Ark rested. - 1 Ch 16 : 1 , 4-6. 2 . A Levite descendant of Gershon through Ladan; a "headman . " ( 1Ch 2 3 : 6-8) Toward the close of David's reign, Jehiel(i ) and his sons ( or the paternal house called by his name) took care of the treasury belonging to Jehovah's house of worship.- 1 Ch 2 6 : 2 1 , 2 2 ; 29 : 8. 3 . Caretaker, perhaps an instructor, of David's sons; a son or descendant of Hachmoni.-1Ch 27: 32. 4 . A son of King Jehoshaphat. Jehiel and his brothers had received gifts of riches and cities from their father, but the kingship was to gb to their eldest brother Jehoram. However, after Je­ hoshaphat died, all these brothers were slain by Jehoram.-2Ch 21 : 1 -4, 12, 13. 5 . A Levite who helped to dispose of the un­ clean objects that King Hezekiah had removed from the temple; descendant of Heman. ( 2Ch 29 : 12, 14 -19 ) Probably the same as No. 6. 6 . A Levite commissioner appointed to help care for the bounteous contributions that the peo­ ple brought to the temple during Hezekiah's reign. ( 2Ch 31 : 12, 13 ) Probably the same as No. 5. 7 . One of three "leaders of the house of the true God" who made generous contributions of animal victims for King Josiah's great Passover celebration.-2Ch 35:8. 8 . A member of the paternal house of Joab whose son Obadiah returned with Ezra to Jerusa­ lem.-Ezr 8: 1 , 9. 9. One whose son acknowledged to Ezra the great error of the people in taking foreign wives ; descendant of Elam. (Ezr 10: 2 ) The Jehiel at Ezra 10: 26, included in the list of those who sent away their foreign wives and sons ( Ezr 10:44 ), is possi­ bly the same person, or at least another descen­ dant of Elam. 10. One of the priests who had taken foreign wives but sent them away.-Ezr 10 : 2 1 , 44. JEHIELI (Je·hi'e ·li ) [ Of (Belonging to ) Jehiel ]. A Gershonite Levite who apparently served as an overseer of the sanctuary's treasury. ( 1 Ch 2 6 : 20-2 2 ) He is elsewhere called "Jehiel."- 1Ch 23 :6-8; 29:8; see JEllEL No. 2. JEHIZKIAH (Je·hiz·ki'ah) [meaning "May Je­ hovah Strengthen Me; Jehovah Has Strengthened Me" ]. A leading Ephraimite who opposed Israel's making captives of their brothers from the south­ ern kingdom when the Israelites under King Pe­ kah defeated Judah, and who also gave material

1265 assistance to the captives. Jehizkiah was the son of Shallum.-2Ch 28:6, 8, 12-15.

JEHOADDAH

(Je·ho'ad·dah) [possibly, Jeho­ vah Has Decked Himself]. A Benjamite descen­ dant of Saul through Jonathan and Merib-baal ( Mephibosheth ). Three sons of Jehoaddah are in­ cluded in the genealogy. ( 1 Ch 8: 33-36 ; 2Sa 9:6, 12) He is called Jarah at 1 Chronicles 9 : 42.

JEHOADDAN.

See JEHOADDIN.

JEHOADDIN

(Je ·ho·ad'din ) [Jehovah Is Plea­ sure] . Mother of Judah's King Amaziah; wife of Jehoash. ( 2Ki 14: 1, 2 ) In the Hebrew text the name is written "Jehoaddin," with a marginal note saying it should be read as "Jehoaddan," as at 2 Chronicles 2 5 : 1 .

JEHOAHAZ

( Je·ho'a·haz) [ May Jehovah Take Hold ; Jehovah Has Taken Hold] . 1 . Variant spelling o f the name o f Ahaziah, who succeeded his father Jehoram as king of Judah in the late tenth century B.C.E. ( 2Ch 21 : 16, 1 7 ; 22: 1) This alternate spelling, also found in the Masoretic text at 2 Chronicles 25: 23, simply transposes the divine name to serve as the prefix instead of the suffix. Once this king of Judah is called Azariah. -2Ch 22:6b; see AHAZIAH No. 2. 2. Son and successor of King Jehu as king of Israel. For 17 years Jehoahaz reigned, from 876 to about 860 B.c.E. ( 2Ki 10: 3 5 ; 13: 1 ) When he suc­ ceeded his father to the throne, much of the realm was controlled by Syrian King Hazael of Damas­ cus, who had seized from Jehu all of Israel's territory E of the Jordan River. ( 2Ki 10: 32-34) And because Jehoahaz did what was bad in Jeho­ vah's eyes, God allowed Hazael to continue to oppress Israel all the days of Jehoahaz, reducing his fighting force to a mere 50 horsemen, 10 char­ iots, and 10,000 foot soldiers. Finally, Jehoahaz sought Jehovah's favor, and because of the cove­ nant with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, Jehovah did not allow Syria to bring Israel completely to ruin. ( 2Ki 13: 2-7, 22, 2 3 ) Upon his death Jehoahaz was buried in Samaria and was succeeded on the throne by his son Jehoash.-2Ki 13:8, 9; 2Ch 2 5 : 17. Certain translations, as well as the Masoretic text, spell the name Joahaz in 2 Kings 14 : 1 . -See JOAHAZ No. 1 . 3 . Son and successor of Josiah as king of Judah. His mother's name was Hamutal. ( 2Ki 23 : 31 ) Ezra and Jeremiah, according to certain manuscripts, call him Shallum, which some suggest may have been his name prior to his accession to the throne. ( 1 Ch 3 : 15 ; Jer 22: 11 ) After the death of his father

l_

JEHOASH

at the hands of Pharaoh Nechoh of Egypt, Jehoa­ haz ( though not the oldest of Josiah's living sons) was apparently the people's choice as successor to the throne. ( 2Ki 23 : 29, 30) In 2 Chronicles 36 : 2, where this same event is mentioned, certain translations ( AS, AT, JP, Ro) have the shortened form Joahaz for Jehoahaz.-See JOAHAZ No. 3. Jehoahaz was 23 years old when made king, and he ruled badly for three months in the early part of the year 628 B.C. E., until he was impris­ oned at Riblah by Pharaoh. Later he was taken to Egypt, where he died in captivity, just as the prophet Jeremiah had foretold.-2Ki 23: 31 -34; Jer 22: 10-12.

JEHOASH

(Je·ho'ash ).

1. King of Judah for 40 years, from 898 to

859 B.c.E. He was the youngest son of Judah's King Ahaziah ; his mother was Zibiah from Beer­ sheba. ( 2Ki 12: 1 ; 1Ch 3 : 11 ) In the Masoretic text his name is often abbreviated to Joash. The death of Ahaziah gave Athaliah, the wicked grandmother of Jehoash, an excuse to make her­ self queen. But to prevent anyone in the future from challenging her seizure of the throne, she killed off all the sons of Ahaziah with the excep­ tion of young Jehoash, who at the time was an infant less than a year old. He escaped the massa­ cre because his aunt Jehosheba, the wife of High Priest Jehoiada, took him and his nurse and se­ cretly hid them in the temple for six years.-2Ki 1 1 : 1-3; 2Ch 22: 10- 12. When the child reached seven years of age, Jehoiada took into his confidence five chieftains to whom he revealed for the first time the legal heir to the throne. Jehoiada then armed the 500 men under the command of these chieftains with shields and weapons from the temple and in­ structed them to stand guard around Jehoash at the coronation ceremony in the temple courtyard. Anyone attempting to interfere was to be killed. ( 2Ki 11 :4-12, 21 ; 2Ch 23: 1-11 ) Upon hearing the people shouting, Athaliah came running, at the same time crying, "Conspiracy! Conspiracy! " She was quickly ushered out, and at the entry of the horse gate they put her to death. Jehoiada then made a covenant of faithfulness between Jehovah, the newly installed king, and the people, after which they tore down the house of Baal and destroyed its altars and images and even killed Mattan the priest of Baal.-2Ki 11 : 13-20; 2Ch 2 3 : 12-21. Thereafter, as long as High Priest Jehoiada lived and acted as father and adviser to Jehoash, the young monarch prospered. Married by the

JEHOHANAN

1266

time he was 2 1 , he had two wives, one of whom

Jehoash generally did what was bad in Jeho­

was named Jehoaddan, and by these Jehoash became father to sons and daughters. In this way

vah's eyes and allowed calf worship to continue throughout the

the line of David leading to the Messiah, which

prophet Elisha was sick and near death Jehoash

land.

Nevertheless,

when the

had come so near to being completely severed,

went down and wept over him, saying: "My fa­

was once again made strong. -2Ki 1 2 : 1-3; 2Ch

ther, my father, the war chariot of Israel and his

24 : 1 -3; 25 : 1 .

horsemen! " ( 2Ki 1 3 : 1 1 ,

14) In response to the

Jehovah's house was badly in need of repairs

prophet's request, Jehoash shot an arrow out the

not merely because of age (now no more than 150

window toward Syria and then beat the earth

years old) but also because of neglect and plunder

with his arrows. However, he only beat three

during the reign of Athaliah. As a consequence,

times. Elisha was incensed at this, for had he

Jehoash urged the Levites to raise the money

continued to beat the earth five or six times,

for the restoration by going from city to city

Elisha said, then Jehoash would have been com­

throughout Judah, but the response of the Levites

pletely victorious over the Syrians; but now, the

was not wholehearted, and the work was not

prophet declared, he would enjoy only three par­

getting done. ( 2Ki 12:4-8; 2Ch 24:4-7 ) In time

tial victories. ( 2Ki 13: 15-19 ) In Jehoash's three

the arrangements for gathering and administer­

campaigns against the Syrians he did have a

ing the funds were changed. The people respond­

measure of success, recovering a number of Isra­

ed well, and the repair work moved ahead to its

elite cities that Ben-hadad's father Hazael had

completion. -2Ki 1 2 : 9 - 1 6 ; 2Ch 24 : 8 - 14.

taken

After the death of faithful High Priest Jehoiada

from

the

northern

kingdom.-2Ki

13:

24, 25.

at the age of 130, the princes of the realm gradu­

Jehoash also hired out a hundred thousand of

ally turned King Jehoash and the people away

his troops to the king of Judah to fight against the

from Jehovah to the worship of pagan idols and

Edomites. However, on the advice of a "man of

phallic "sacred poles. " And when Jehovah raised

the true God" they were dismissed, and although

up prophets to warn them, they refused to give

they had been paid a hundred silver talents

heed. ( 2Ch 24 : 1 5 - 19 ) Jehoash went so far as to

( $660,600) in advance, they were angered at be­

kill Zechariah, the very son of Jehoiada, because

ing sent home, probably because of losing out on

through him God reprovingly had asked: "Why

their anticipated share of the booty. So after their

are you overstepping the commandments of Je­

return N they plundered towns of the southern

hovah?" Zechariah's dying words were: "Let Jeho­

kingdom, from Samaria ( perhaps their base of op­

vah see to it and ask it back . " -2Ch 24 : 20-22.

erations ) as far as Beth-horon.-2Ch 2 5 : 6 - 10, 13.

Retribution was not long in coming. With Jeho­

It was probably in retaliation for this that the

vah's protection removed, a small military force

king of Judah provoked Jehoash to fight. In the battle that followed, Judean King Amaziah was

of Syrians led by Hazael was able to invade Ju­ dah's territory, forcing Jehoash to give over the

captured at Beth-shemesh, and in the follow-up

gold and treasures of the sanctuary, as well as his

Jehoash's forces broke through the wall of Jerusa­

own possessions, leaving him a broken and dis­ eased man. ( 2Ki 1 2 : 17, 18; 2Ch 24 : 23-2 5 ) Not

lem, looting the temple and house of the king of

long after that, two of his servants formed a

Samaria. ( 2Ki 14:8- 14; 2Ch 25: 17-24) Finally, Je­

their gold and silver and taking hostages back to

conspiracy and put Jehoash to death at the com­

hoash died and was buried in Samaria, and his

paratively young age of 47. They buried him in

son Jeroboam II ruled in his place. -2Ki 1 3 : 12, 13; 14: 15, 16.

the City of David with his forefathers, and his son Amaziah reigned in his place.-2Ki 1 2 : 19-21 ; 2Ch 24: 25 -27.

2. King of Israel; son of Jehoahaz and grand­ son of Jehu. The shortened form of his name, Joash, also appears in the Masoretic text. ( Ho 1 : 1 ;

JEHOHANAN

(Je·ho·ha'nan)

[Jehovah

Has

Shown Favor; Jehovah Has Been Gracious ].

1. A Korahite gatekeeper during the reign

of David; the sixth son of Meshelemiah. - l Ch

A m 1 : 1 ) He ruled for 1 6 years i n the middle of the

26: 1 -3.

ninth century B . c. E . During the first part of the reign of this Jehoash ( son of Jehoahaz ) over the

direct charge of 280,000 men of Judah. ( 2Ch

2. An army chief under King Jehoshaphat, in

northern kingdom of Israel, Jehoash son of Ahazi­ ah was king over the southern kingdom of Judah.

17: 12, 14 - 1 6 ) Possibly the same as No. 3.

-2Ki 1 3 : 10.

Jehoiada and other chiefs to depose Athaliah and

3. Father of the Ishmael who stood up with

1267 put Jehoash on Judah's throne. ( 2Ch 2 3 : 1 -3 ) Pos­ sibly the same as No. 2.

JEHOIADA The record at 2 Kings 24: 12-16 states that Neb­ uchadnezzar took these captives into exile, along

4. An Ephraimite whose son Azariah was a

with "all the treasures of the house of Jehovah

leader in that tribe around 760 B.C.E. , when

and the treasures of the king's house." The ac­

Kings Ahaz of Judah and Pekah of Israel were

count at Daniel 1 : 1 , 2 refers to only "a part of the

ruling. -2Ch 28: 1 , 6, 12.

5. Head of the priestly paternal house of Amariah during the days of Joiakim the successor of High Priest Jeshua .-Ne 1 2 : 10, 12, 13.

6 . Son of Eliashib. Ezra retired to Jehohanan's temple dining hall to mourn over the unfaithful­ ness of the people.-Ezr 10 :6. 7 . One of four sons of Bebai who dismissed their foreign wives and sons in Ezra's day. -Ezr 10: 28, 44.

8 . Son of Nehemiah's antagonist Tobiah the Ammonite. Jehohanan married an Israelite girl. -Ne 6 : 17- 19.

utensils" as being taken to Babylon. The explana­ tion may be that the treasures referred to at Second Kings involved particularly the gold uten­ sils, which are emphasized in that account, and that other utensils were allowed to remain. An­ other possibility is that, when Jerusalem yielded to the Babylonian siege ( which came as a result of Jehoiakim's rebellion against the king of Bab­ ylon), "some of the utensils of the house of Jeho­ vah" were taken to Babylon, and a short time later, when Jehoiachin himself was transferred to Babylon, other "desirable articles of the house of Jehovah" were taken along. This possibility is suggested by the account at 2 Chronicles 36:6- 10.

9 . A priest positioned at the temple during

From the Chronicles account, it appears that Neb­

the inauguration of Jerusalem's rebuilt wall. -Ne

uchadnezzar, after successfully conquering Jeru­

12:40-42.

salem, departed but then "sent and proceeded to

JEHOIACHIN

(Je·hoi'a·chin) [probably, Jeho­

vah Has Firmly Established ). Son of Judean King Jehoiakim by Nehushta. ( 2Ki 24 :6, 8; 2Ch 36:8) He is also called Jeconiah ( a variant of Jehoiachin ) and Coniah ( a contraction o f Jeconiah ).-Es 2 : 6 ; Jer 2 8 : 4 ; 37 : 1 . At the age o f 18 Jehoiachin became king and continued the bad practices of his father. ( 2Ki 24:8, 9 ; 2Ch 36:9, ftn ) Jehoiachin's father, Jehoi­ akim, had been under subjection to Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar but rebelled in his third year of such vassalage ( 618 B.c.E. ). ( 2Ki 24: 1 ) This resulted in a siege being laid against Jerusa­ lem. The expression "during that time" ( 2Ki 24: 10) may refer, not to Jehoiachin's brief reign, but to the general period in which it fits, hence allow­ ing for the siege to have begun during his father Jehoiakim's reign, as Daniel 1 : 1 , 2 seems to indi­ cate. It appears that Jehoiakim died during this siege and Jehoiachin ascended the throne of Ju­ dah.

His rule ended,

however, a mere three

months and ten days later, when he surrendered to Nebuchadnezzar in 617 B.c.E. (in the month of Adar, according to a Babylonian chronicle ). ( 2Ki 24: 1 1 , 1 2 ; 2Ch 36 : 9 ;

Chronicles,

Assyrian and Babylonian

by A. Grayson, 1975, p. 102 ) In fulfill­

ment of Jehovah's word through Jeremiah, he was taken into Babylonian exile. (Jer 2 2 : 24-27; 24 : 1 ; 27 : 19, 20 ; 29 : 1 , 2) Other members of the royal household, court officials, craftsmen, and warriors were also exiled.-2Ki 24 : 14 - 16 ; see NEBUCHADNEZZAR .

bring [ Jehoiachin] to Babylon with desirable arti­ cles of the house of Jehovah. " In a similar way, ten years later, in the final conquest and destruc­ tion of Jerusalem ( 607 B.C.E. ), Nebuchadnezzar retired to Riblah "in the land of Hamath," leaving the postconquest details to his chief of the body­ guard, Nebuzaradan.-2Ki 25 :8-21 . While in Babylon, Jehoiachin fathered seven sons. ( 1 Ch 3 : 16-18) In this way the royal line leading to the Messiah was preserved. ( Mt 1 : 1 1 , 1 2 ) But, as prophecy ,had indicated, none of Jehoi­ achin's descendants ever ruled from earthly Jeru­ salem. It therefore was as though Jehoiachin had been childless, with no offspring to succeed him as king.-Jer 2 2 : 28-30. In the fifth year of Jehoiachin's exile, Ezekiel began his prophetic work. (Eze 1 : 2 ) About 32 years later, evidently in 580 B. c.E., Jehoiachin was released from prison by Nebuchadnezzar's successor Evil-merodach ( Awil-Marduk ) and giv­ en a position of favor above all the other captive kings. Thereafter he ate at Evil-merodach's table and received a daily allowance.-2Ki 2 5 : 27-30; Jer 52: 31 -34. Babylonian

administrative

documents

have

been found listing rations for Jehoiachin and five of his sons.

JEHOIADA (Je·hoi'a·da) [May Jehovah Know]. 1 . Father of the Benaiah who is almost always identified as "Benaiah the son of Jehoiada," and who was one of David's mighty men and also Solomon's army chief. ( 2 Sa 2 3 : 8 , 20, 22, 2 3 ; 1Ki

JEHOIAKIM 2 : 3 5 ) Jehoiada himself is connected with the priesthood, being called "the chief priest. " He is referred to as "the leader of the sons of Aaron" and was among those flocking to David when he became king over all Israel at Hebron. -1 Ch 27 : 5 ; 1 2 : 27, 38. 2. A counselor of King David ; apparently a grandson of No. 1 . - 1 Ch 27: 33, 34. 3. High priest in the time of Jehoram, Ahaziah,

Athaliah, and Jehoash. Jehoiada was married to King Jehoram's daughter Jehosheba, also called Jehoshabeath (the only recorded instance of a high priest marrying into the royal family ). Jehoi­ ada was noted especially for overthrowing Atha­ liah and elevating true worship in Judah. After Athaliah's ruling son Ahaziah was slain, she pro­ ceeded to kill off all the remaining royal offspring and placed herself on the throne. However, Je­ hosheba, herself a sister of Ahaziah though not necessarily Athaliah's daughter, took Ahaziah's infant son Jehoash away and kept him hidden for six years. In the seventh year, Jehoiada secured the support of the Levites, the chiefs of the Carian bodyguard and of the runners, as well as the heads of the paternal house of Israel. He then produced Jehoash, whom they proclaimed as king. Jehoiada next ordered Athaliah taken out­ side the temple grounds and slain.-2Ki 11 : 1-16; 2Ch 22: 10-2 3 : 15. Jehoiada thereafter wasted no time in advanc­ ing Jehovah's worship. He renewed Israel's cove­ nant relationship with Jehovah, whereupon the people tore down the house of Baal and removed its altars, images, and priesthood. Jehoiada then restored full temple services. He had a strong influence for good upon the life of Jehoash. Jehoi­ ada and the king repaired the temple and made various utensils for Jehovah's house. When, at the age of 130, Jehoiada finally died, he was given the exceptional honor of burial with the kings "be­ cause he had done good in Israel and with the true God and His house." Unfortunately, his good influence died with him, for Jehoash then listened to the princes of Judah and turned aside from Jehovah, even to the point of ordering the killing of Jehoiada's son Zechariah, who issued the un­ faithful people a rebuke. -2Ki 1 1 : 17-12 : 16 ; 2Ch 2 3 : 16-24:22.

4 . A priest who was replaced by Zephaniah the son of Maaseiah during Jeremiah's time.-Jer 29 : 24-27.

JEHOIAKIM

(Je·hoi'a·kim) [ possibly, Jehovah Raises Up]. One of the last Judean kings, son of Josiah by Zebidah, and originally called Eliakim.

1268 ( 2Ki 23 : 34, 36; l Ch 3 : 1 5 ) Jehoiakim's bad rule of about 11 years (628-618 B.C.E. ) was marked by injustices, oppression, and murder. ( 2Ch 36 : 5 ; Jer 22: 17; 52 : 2 ) Also, during his reign Judah experi­ enced much harassment from Chaldean, Syrian, Moabite, and Ammonite marauder bands.-2Ki 24:2. After the death of King Josiah, the people of Judah for some reason constituted Eliakim's younger brother Jehoahaz king. About three months later Pharaoh Necho ( Nechoh) took King Jehoahaz captive and made 25 -year-old Eliakim king, changing the new ruler's name to Jehoia­ kim. Necho also imposed a heavy fine on the kingdom of Judah. King Jehoiakim exacted the silver and gold for this fine from his subjects by taxation. ( 2Ki 2 3 : 34-36; 2Ch 3 6 : 3 - 5 ) Despite the financial burden that was therefore already on the people, Jehoiakim made plans for building a new, luxurious palace. Probably to keep down the cost, he oppressively withheld the laborers' wag­ es. Consequently Jehovah, through Jeremiah, pronounced woe upon this wicked ruler, indicat­ ing that he would have the burial of a he-ass. -Jer 2 2 : 13-19. Early in Jehoiakim's reign Jeremiah warned that unless the people repented, Jerusalem and her temple would be destroyed. Thereafter the prophet was threatened with death. However, the prominent man Ahikam stood up for Jeremiah and saved the prophet from harm. Previously, similar prophesying by Urijah had so enraged Jehoiakim that he had determined to kill him. Although fearful Urijah had fled to Egypt, he did not escape the king's wrath. Jehoiakim had had Urijah brought back and then had killed him with the sword. -Jer 26: 1-24. The fourth year of the reign of Jehoiakim ( 625 B.c.E. ) saw Nebuchadnezzar defeat Pharaoh Necho in a battle over the domination of Syria­ Palestine. The battle took place at Carchemish by the Euphrates, over 600 km ( 370 mi ) N of Jerusa­ lem. (Jer 46 : 1 , 2 ) In that same year Jeremiah began dictating to his secretary Baruch the words Jehovah directed against Israe1, Judah, and all the nations, recording messages that had begun to be delivered from the 13th year of Josiah's reign ( at which time Jehoiakim had been about six years old ) onward. Nearly a year later, in the ninth lunar month ( Chislev, November/December), the scroll containing the dictated message was read before King Jehoiakim. As soon as Jehudi read three or four page-columns, that section was cut off and thrown into the fire burning in the brazier

1269 of the king's winter house. Thus the entire scroll was committed to the flames section by section. Jehoiakim ignored the pleas of three of his princes not to bum the roll. He particularly objected. to the prophetic words that pointed to the desolation of Judah at the hands of Babylon's king. This suggests that Nebuchadnezzar had not yet come against Jerusalem and made Jehoiakim his vas­ sal. -Jer 36: 1 -4, 21 -29. Second Kings 24: 1 shows that Nebuchadnezzar brought pressure upon the Judean king "and so Jehoiakim became his servant [ or vassal ] for three years. However, he [ Jehoiakim] turned back and rebelled against him [ Nebuchadnezzar]. " Evident­ ly it is to this third year of Jehoiakim as a vassal king under Babylon that Daniel refers at Daniel 1 : 1. It could not be Jehoiakim's third year of his 1 1 -year reign over Judah, for at that time Jehoia­ kim was a vassal, not to Babylon, but to Egypt's Pharaoh Necho. It was not until Jehoiakim's fourth year of rule over Judah that Nebuchadnez­ zar demolished Egyptian domination over Syria­ Palestine by his victory at Carchemish ( 625 B.c.E. [apparently after Nisan]). (Jer 46 : 2 ) Since Jehoia­ kim's revolt against Babylon led to his downfall after about 11 years on the throne, the beginning of his three-year vassalage to Babylon must have begun toward the end of his eighth year of rule, or early in 620 B.c.E. Daniel's account ( 1 : 1 , 2 ) states that Nebuchad­ nezzar came against Jerusalem and laid siege to it and that Jehoiakim, along with some of the tem­ ple utensils, was given into the Babylonian king's hand. However, the account at 2 Kings 24: 10- 15 describes the siege of Jerusalem by the Babylo­ nians and shows that Jehoiakim's son Jehoiachin, whose reign lasted only three months and ten days, was the one who finally capitulated and went out to the Babylonians. It therefore appears that Jehoiakim died during the siege of the city, perhaps in the early part thereof. Jehovah's prophecy through Jeremiah ( 22 : 18, 19 ; 36 : 30 ) indicated that Jehoiakim was not t o receive a decent burial ; his corpse was to lie unattended outside the gates of Jerusalem, exposed to the sun's heat by day and the frost by night. Just in what way Jehoiakim was 'given into the hand of Nebuchadnezzar' ( Da 1 : 2 ) is not revealed.. It may have been in the sense of his dying under siege and of his son's thereafter having to go out into captivity, so that Jehoiakim's line suffered the loss of the kingship at Nebuchadnezzar's hands. There is no way to confirm the Jewish tradition ( record­ ed by Josephus ) that Nebuchadnezzar killed Je­ hoiakim and commanded that his dead body be

JEHONADAB

thrown outside Jerusalem's walls. ( Jewish Antiq­ uities, X, 97 [vi , 3 ] ) By whatever means Jehoia­ kim's death came, it appears that the copper fetters Nebuchadnezzar had brought along to bind Jehoiakim were not used as planned .-2Ch 36 :6. Following the siege of Jerusalem during Jehoia­ kim's "third year" (as vassal king ) , Daniel and other Judeans, including nobles and members of the royal family, were taken as exiles to Babylon. There being no record of an earlier Baby Ionian exile, this appears to place the event in the short reign of Jehoiachin, Jehoiakim's successor.-2Ki 24 : 12-16 ; Jer 52: 28. After Jehoiakim's son Jehoiachin surrendered, Nebuchadnezzar elevated Jehoiachin's uncle Zed­ ekiah to the throne of Judah. ( 2Ch 36:9, 10) This fulfilled Jeremiah's prophecy that Jehoia­ kim would have no one sitting on the throne of David. (Jer 3 6 : 30 ) Jehoiakim's son Jehoiachin ruled a mere three months and ten days.

JEHOIARIB (Je ·hoi'a·rib) [ May Jehovah Con­ tend; Jehovah Has Conducted [Our] Legal Case ]. The priest whose paternal house was selected by lot as first of the 24 priestly divisions organized during David's rule. ( 1Ch 24: 1 -3, 5-7) Some of the postexilic descendants of this paternal house, or another priest with the same name, lived in Jeru­ salem. ( l Ch 9 : 3, 10) The name is spelled Joiarib in the parallel list at Nehemiah 11 : 10. JEHONADAB (Je·hon'a·dab) [ Jehovah Is Will­ ing (Noble; Generous )], JONADAB ( Jon'a·dab) [ shortened form of Jehonadab]. In the Hebrew text and many English translations, both spell­ ings are used interchangeably for each of the two persons bearing the name. 1 . David's nephew; son of his brother Shime­ ah. Jehonadab was "a very wise man" but crafty and shrewd. After inducing David's son Amnon to disclose to him his passion for his half sister Tamar, Jehonadab proposed the scheme by which Amnon violated her. After her full brother Absa­ lom had Amnon killed in revenge, the report came to David that Absalom had killed all the king's sons, but Jehonadab was on hand to give assurance that Amnon alone was dead. ( 2Sa 1 3 : 3-5, 14, 22, 28-33 ) He is possibly the "Jona­ than" at 2 Samuel 21 : 21 and 1 Chronicles 20:7. 2 . Son of Rechab ; companion of King Jehu. His encounter with Jehu was not accidental, for on Jehonadab's own initiative he was "coming to meet him," and in turn, he received Jehu's bless­ ing. The subsequent events showed that Jehona­ dab was in complete agreement with Jehu's

JEHONATHAN

determination to armihilate Baal worship out of Israel. At each proposal made by Jehu, Jehonadab quickly responded in the affirmative. "Is your heart upright with me?" Jehu asked. He an­ swered, "It is." "Do give me your hand," Jehu said; and Jehonadab gave him his hand. Now in Jehu's chariot, Jehonadab was told, "Do go along with me and look upon my toleration of no rivalry toward Jehovah," and again he manifested will­ ingness. Finally, when they got to Samaria, and all the worshipers of Baal were assembled, Jehon­ adab did not turn back but accompanied Jehu into the house of Baal and remained by his side during the slaughter that followed. At the same time Jehu demonstrated his complete trust and confi­ dence in Jehonadab. -2Ki 10: 15 -28. Nearly 300 years later, Jehonadab's descen­ dants, the Rechabites, were used by Jeremiah at Jehovah's direction as an example of faithfulness to their forefather's commands, in contrast with the disobedience to God displayed by the people of Judah and Jerusalem. Jehonadab had instruct­ ed the Rechabites to live in tents, sow no seed, plant no vineyards, and take no wine. When Jer­ emiah offered them wine, they refused, referring back to the commandment of their ancestor Je­ honadab. For such faithfulness Jehovah prom­ ised: "There will not be cut off from Jonadab the son of Rechab a man to stand before me always. " -Jer 35 : 1 - 19. JEHONATHAN (Je ·hon'a-than) [Jehovah Has Given]. In Hebrew this name is often used inter­ changeably with Jonathan. Listed below are only those occurrences where it is rendered Jehona­ than. For those occurrences where the shorter form appears, see JONATHAN. 1 . One of the Levites sent by Jehoshaphat in the third year of his reign to teach Jehovah's law to the people of Judah.-2Ch 1 7 : 5 , 7-9. 2 . A secretary whose house was converted into a prison, where Jeremiah was kept in detention. (Jer 37: 15, 20 ; 38 : 26 ) The house likely had sub­ terranean quarters suitable for imprisonment. 3 . Postexilic head of a paternal house of priests in the days of Jeshua's successor Joiakim.-Ne 1 2 : 10, 12, 18. JEHORAM (Je·ho'ram) [Jehovah Is High (Ex­ alted) ] . A shortened form of the name is Joram. 1 . One of two priests whom Jehoshaphat se­ lected in 934 B.C.E., the third year of his reign, along with leading princes and Levites, to be traveling teachers of "the book of Jehovah's law." -2Ch 1 7 : 7-9.

1 270

2. Son of Ahab and Jezebel, who succeeded his

older brother Ahaziah as the tenth king of the northern kingdom of Israel in about 917 B.c.E. He reigned 12 years. ( 2Ki 1 : 17, 18; 3 : 1 ; 9:22 ) This king of Israel should not be confused with the king of Judah by the same name, who was his brother-in-law. (See No. 3 . ) Though Jehoram re­ moved the sacred pillar of Baal erected by his father, he continued to do "what was bad in Jehovah's eyes," clinging to calf worship insti­ tuted by Jeroboam. - 1 Ki 12: 26-29 ; 1 6 : 3 3 ; 2Ki 3:2, 3. King Jehoshaphat of Judah and the king of Edom joined Jehoram in an attack on Moab that proved successful because Jehovah deceived the enemy with an optical illusion. God's prophet Elisha instructed those of the camp of Israel to dig ditches in which to catch much-needed and di­ vinely provided water. The next morning the reflection of the sunlight upon this water caused the Moabites to think the water was blood. Think­ ing the confederate camp of the three kings had killed off one another, the Moabites moved in to take the spoil, only to be slaughtered in great numbers.-2Ki 3 : 4-27. Naaman, the army chief of Syria, came to Jeho­ ram to be cured of leprosy, bearing a letter to that effect from the king of Syria. Jehoram, thinking the Syrian ruler was picking a quarrel, exclaimed, 'Am I God who can put to death and preserve alive and cure leprosy?' Elisha, however, request­ ed that Jehoram send Naaman to him so that the Syrian army chief might know that the true God did have a prophet in the land, one capable of performing such cures.-2Ki 5: 1 -8. In advance, Jehovah's prophet Elisha also in­ formed Jehoram of Syrian military maneuvers. ( 2Ki 6:8-12) Certain Syrian assaults against Israel were divinely foiled during Jehoram's reign.-2Ki 6 : 13-7 : 20. But despite such manifestations of God's loving-kindness, Jehoram, down to the day of his death, did not repent and tum to Jehovah with all his heart. Death came suddenly and in an unex­ pected way. Jehoram was at Jezreel recuperating from wounds received in battle with the Syrians. In time, he went out to meet Jehu, asking, "Is there peace, jehu?" The negative answer made Jehoram turn to flee, but Jehu shot an arrow through his heart. Thus "this son of a murderer" ( 2Ki 6 : 3 2 ) was executed, his dead body being pitched into the field of Naboth.-2Ki 9: 14-26. 3. The firstborn son of Jehoshaphat who, at the age of 32, became king of JUdah. ( 2Ch 21 : 1 -3, 5, 20) It appears that for a number of years Jehoram

1271 was in some way associated with his father in the kingship. ( 2Ki 1 : 17 ; 8 : 16 ) The eight years of rul­ ership credited to Jehoram count from 913 B.C.E. ( 2Ki 8 : 17 ) So during these years both the north­ ern and southern kingdoms had rulers with the same name. They were also brothers-in-law be­ cause Jehoram of Judah married Athaliah; the daughter of Ahab and Jezebel and sister of Jeho­ ram of Israel.-2Ki 8 : 18, 25, 26; see No. 2 above. At least partially because of the bad influence of his wife Athaliah, Jehoram did not pursue the righteous ways of his father Jehoshaphat. ( 2Ki 8: 18) Not only did Jehoram murder his six broth­ ers and some of the princes of Judah but he also turned his subjects away from Jehovah to false gods. ( 2Ch 21 : 1-6, 1 1 - 14) His whole reign was marred by both internal trouble and external strife. First, Edom rebelled ; then Libnah revolted against Judah. ( 2Ki 8 : 20-2 2 ) In a letter to Jeho­ ram, the prophet Elijah warned: "Look! Jehovah is dealing a great blow to your people and to your sons and to your wives and to all your goods. " Moreover, you, King Jehoram, "will b e with many sicknesses, with a malady of your intestines, until your intestines have come out because of the sickness day by day. "-2Ch 21 : 12- 15. It all occurred just that way. Jehovah allowed Arabs and Philistines to overrun the land and take Jehoram's wives and sons captive. God per­ mitted only Jehoram's youngest son, Jehoahaz (also called Ahaziah ), to escape, a concession made, however, only for the sake of the Kingdom covenant made with David. "After all this Jeho­ vah plagued [ Jehoram ] in his intestines with a sickness for which there was no healing. " Two years later "his intestines came out" and he grad­ ually died. So ended the life of this wicked man, who "went away without being desired. " He was buried in the City of David, "but not in the burial places of the kings." Ahaziah his son became king in his stead.-2Ch 21 :7, 16-20; 22: 1 ; 1 Ch 3 : 10, 1 I .

JEHOSHABEATH (Je ·ho·shab'e ·ath) [ Jeho­ vah Is Plenty]. Daughter of King Jehoram and wife of High Priest Jehoiada. She is also called Jehosheba. -2Ch 22: 10- 1 2 ; 2Ki 11 : 1-3; see JE­ HOSHEBA. JEHOSHAPHAT (Je ·hosh'a·phat ) [ Jehovah Is Judge]. 1 . Son of Ahilud serving as recorder during the reigns of David and Solomon.-2Sa 8 : 16 ; 20:24; 1 Ki 4:3; 1 Ch 18: 15. 2. One of King Solomon's 12 deputies. For a month each year this "son of Paruah" supplied the

JEHOSHAPHAT

food for the king and his household from the territory of Issachar.- 1 Ki 4:7, 17. 3 . Son of Judean King Asa by Azubah the daughter of Shilhi. At the age of 35 Jehoshaphat succeeded his father to the throne and ruled for 25 years, from 936 B.C.E. ( lKi 22:42; 2Ch 20: 31 ) His reign was contemporaneous with that of Isra­ elite Kings Ahab, Ahaziah, and Jehoram. ( l Ki 22:41 , 51 ; 2Ki 3 : 1 , 2 ; 2Ch 17 : 3, 4 ) It was marked by stability, prosperity, glory, and relative peace with neighboring lands. Jehoshaphat received presents from his subjects and tribute from the Philistines and Arabs.-2Ch 17: 5 , 10, 1 I . Accomplishments. Jehoshaphat strength­ ened his position by putting military forces in Judah's fortified cities, as well as garrisons both in the land of Judah and in the Israelite territory captured by his father Asa. At Jerusalem a large body of valiant warriors served the royal inter­ ests; and in JUdah, Jehoshaphat built fortified places and storage cities.-2Ch 17: 1 , 2 , 12- 19.

Unlike the Israelite kings of the northern king­ dom, Jehoshaphat manifested great concern for true worship. ( 2Ch 17: 4 ) He commissioned cer­ tain princes, Levites, and priests to teach Jeho­ vah's law in the cities of Judah. ( 2Ch 1 7 : 7-9 ) Jehoshaphat also sanctified holy offerings ( 2Ki 1 2 : 18) and personally traveled throughout his realm, directing his subjects to return to jehovah in faithfulness. ( 2Ch 19 :4) Courageously Jehosh­ aphat continued the campaign against idolatry started by Asa. ( l Ki 2 2 :46 ; 2Ch 17 : 6 ) But improp­ er worship at high places was so entrenched among the Israelites that Jehoshaphat's efforts did not permanently eradicate it. - 1 Ki 22:43; 2Ch 20 : 33. Jehoshaphat's reign also witnessed the institu­ tion of a better judicial system. The king himself impressed upon the judges the importance of being impartial and free from bribery, since they were judging, not for man, but for Jehovah.-2Ch 19: 5 - 1 I . Jehoshaphat proved himself t o b e a king who relied on Jehovah. When Judah was threatened by the combined forces of Ammon, Moab, and the mountainous region of Seir, he humbly acknowl­ edged the nation's weakness in the face of this danger and prayed to Jehovah for help. There­ after Jehovah fought for Judah by striking con­ fusion into the ranks of the enemy so that they slaughtered one another. Consequently the sur­ rounding nations became fearful, and Judah con­ tinued to enjoy peace.-2Ch 20: 1 -30.

JEHOSHAPHAT, LOW PLAIN OF Relationship With the Ten-Tribe Kingdom.

Jehoshaphat maintained peace with the northern kingdom and unwisely formed a marriage alli­ ance with Ahab. ( 1Ki 2 2 : 44; 2Ch 18: 1 ) For this reason on several occasions he was drawn into other alliances with the kingdom of Israel. During a visit in the northern kingdom some­ time after the marriage of Ahab's daughter Athaliah to his firstborn Jehoram, Jehoshaphat agreed to accompany King Ahab in a military venture to recover Ramoth-gilead from the Syri­ ans. However, before actually starting out, Je­ hoshaphat requested that Ahab inquire of Je­ hovah. Four hundred prophets assured Ahab of success. But Jehovah's true prophet Micaiah, hat­ ed by Ahab but called at Jehoshaphat's insis­ tence, foretold certain defeat. Nevertheless, Je­ hoshaphat, perhaps so as not to go back on his original promise to accompany Ahab, went into battle dressed in his royal garments. Since Ahab had taken the precaution to disguise himself, the Syrians mistakenly concluded that Jehoshaphat was Israel's king and therefore subjected him to the heaviest attack. Jehoshaphat barely escaped with his life, and Ahab, despite the disguise, was mortally wounded. ( 1 Ki 22: 2-37 ; 2Ch 18) Upon returning to Jerusalem, Jehoshaphat was cen­ sured for unwisely allying himself with wicked Ahab, the visionary Jehu saying to him: "Is it to the wicked that help is to be given, and is it for those hating Jehovah that you should have love? And for this there is indignation against you from the person of Jehovah."-2Ch 19 : 2. Later, Jehoshaphat became partner to King Ahaziah, Ahab's successor, in a shipbuilding en­ terprise at Ezion-geber on the Gulf of 'Aqaba. But Jehovah disapproved of this maritime alliance with wicked Ahaziah. Therefore, in fulfillment of prophecy, the ships were wrecked.- 1 Ki 2 2 :48, 49 ; 2Ch 20: 35-37; see AHAZIAH No. 1 . Sometime after this, Jehoshaphat joined Ahazi­ ah's successor to the throne, Jehoram, and the king of Edom in a military offensive to put down Moabite King Mesha's revolt against the ten-tribe kingdom. But the armies of the alliance became entrapped in a waterless wilderness. Jehoshaphat therefore called for a prophet of Jehovah. Only out of regard for Jehoshaphat did the prophet Elisha seek divine inspiration, and his subsequent advice saved the three kings and their armies from disaster.-2Ki 3 : 4 -25. Jehoram Becomes King . While Jehoshaphat was still alive he gave the kingship to his firstborn Jehoram, but to his other sons he gave precious

1272

gifts and fortified cities in Judah. ( 2Ki 8: 16; 2Ch 2 1 : 3 ) Particularly after Jehoshaphat's death and burial in the City of David did the marriage alli­ ance with the house of Ahab prove to be disas­ trous for the kingdom of Judah. Under the in­ fluence of Athaliah, Jehoram revived idolatrous practices. -lKi 2 2 : 50 ; 2Ch 21 : 1-7, 1 1 . 4 . Father of Israelite King Jehu.-2Ki 9 : 2, 14. JEHOSHAPHAT, LOW PLAIN OF. Evi­ dently a symbolic place, also called the "low plain of the decision." ( Joe 3 : 2, 14 ) Since it relates to God's execution of judgment, it is appropriately designated as "the low plain of Jehoshaphat," for the name Jehoshaphat means "Jehovah Is Judge." Also, during Jehoshaphat's reign Jehovah deliv­ ered Judah and Jerusalem from the combined forces of Ammon, Moab, and the mountainous region of Seir, causing the enemy forces to be­ come confused and to slaughter one another. -2Ch 20: 1-29. At the symbolic "low plain of Jehoshaphat" Je­ hovah judges the nations as worthy of execution on account of their mistreatment of his people. The low plain itself serves as a huge symbolic winepress for crushing the nations like bunches of grapes. To link "the low plain of Jehoshaphat" literally with the Kidron Valley, the Valley of Hinnom, or the Valley of Jezreel, as some have done, is hardly plausible. None of these valleys would be large enough to accommodate "all" the nations.-Joe 3 : 1-3, 1 2-14; compare Re 14: 18-20. JEHOSHEBA (Je·hosh'e·ba) [ Jehovah Is Plen­ ty ]. Wife of High Priest Jehoiada; daughter of King Jehoram of Judah, though not necessarily by his wife Athaliah. Her name is also spelled "Jehoshabeath. " ( 2Ch 2 2 : 1 1 ) After the death of her brother (or half brother) King Ahaziah, Je­ hosheba took Ahaziah's infant son Jehoash into hiding to escape Athaliah's slaughter of the roy­ al offspring. Jehoiada and Jehosheba kept their nephew hidden in their temple quarters for six years before Jehoiada brought him out to be proclaimed king. ( 2Ki 1 1 : 1 -3; 2Ch 22: 10- 1 2 ) Je­ hosheba's action, along with that of her husband, providentially preserved the royal lineage from David to the Messiah. JEHOSHUA (Je·hosh'u·a) [ Jehovah Is Salva­ tion). Son of Nun; an Ephraimite who succeeded Moses and led the Israelites into the Promised Land. His original name was Hoshea, but Moses called him Jehoshua, or Joshua (a short form of Jehoshua).-Nu 13:8, 16; De 34: 9 ; Jos 1 : 1 , 2 ; see JOSHUA No. 1 .

Map Index Abdon : Abel-beth-maacah :

2 : 960 1 : 746, 9 4 7 ;

2 : 960

Abel-kerami m : Abel-meholah :

1 : 74 3 ; 2 : 9 5 7 1 : 7 4 3 , 9 4 7, 9 4 9 ;

2 : 959 1 : 60 2 Abila: 2 : 540 Abilene: 1 : 54 1 Abronah : 2 : 960 Acco: 1 :40 Achaia: Achor, Low Plain of: 2 : 95 7 2 : 960 Achzib ( Asher ) : 2 : 956 Achzib ( Juda h ) : 2 : 95 9 Adam : 2 : 959 Adami-nekeb: Adorai m : 2 : 956 Adullam: 1 : 73 7, 746 ; 2 : 956 2 : 95 7 Adummim: 2 : 54 1, 959 Aenon: 1 : 329 Africa : 1 : 330, 73 7 ; 2 : 4 7, 9 5 7 Ai : Aijalon : 2 : 956 2 : 95 6 Ain : 2 : 50 1 Albert, Lake : 1 : 72 ; 2 : 3 3 4, 533 Alexandria : 2 : 3 34 Alexandria Eschate: Almon : 2 : 957 Almon-diblathai m : 1 : 54 1 ; 2 :957 1:951 Amalek: Ammon : 1 : 743, 746, 945, 949, 9 5 1 Amorites : 1 : 9 7, 738 2 : 74 7 Amphipolis: 1 : 7 3 7 ; 2 : 9 56 Anab: 2 :957 Anania h : Anathoth : 2 : 4 7, 95 7 2 : 956 Ani m : Anti-Lebanon Mts. : 1 : 1024 Antioch ( Pisidia): 1 : 194, 195 ; 2 : 74 7 Antioch ( Syria ): 1 : 1 9 4, 195 ; 2 : 3 3 4, 5 3 3, 74 7

Antiochus, Kingdom of: Antipatris: Aphek ( Asher): Aphek ( E of Jorda n ) : Aphek ( Ephraim ) : Aphekah : Appian Way : Appius, Marketplace of:

1 : 1 95 2 : 95 8 2 : 960 2 : 9 59 1 : 7 3 7 ; 2 : 958 2 : 9 56 1 : 130 1 : 130

'Aqaba, Gulf of: 1 : 6 79 Ara b : 2 : 956 Arabah : 1 : 73 7 Arabia : 1 : 3 2 9 ; 2 : 540, 744 Arabian Desert: 1 : 6 79 Arad ( Canaanit e ) : 1 : 541, 73 7 ; 2 : 956 Arad ( Israelite ) : 2 : 956 Aral Sea : 2 : 3 34 Aram-maacah : 1 : 143 Aram-naharaim: 1 : 14 3 Aram-Zobah: 1 : 143 Araxes River: 2 : 358 Arbel, House of: 2 : 959 Argob : 1 : 943 Arima thea : 2 : 54 0, 958 Arnon, T.V. of: 1 : 9 7, 333, 744, 94 3 ; 2 : 95 7, 1 1 1 6

Aroer (Judah ) : 2 : 956 Aroer ( Reuben ) : 1 : 7 3 7 ; 2 : 95 7 Arubboth : 2 : 958 Arumah : 2 : 9 58 Ashdod : 2 : 956 Asher ( tribe ) : 1 : 74 4 Ashkelon : 1 : 7 4 3 ; 2 : 956 As hnah (Juda h ) : 2 : 9 56 Ashna h ( S of above ) : 2 : 9 56 Ashtaroth : 1 : 943 ; 2 : 95 9 Asi a : 1 : 3 29 1 : 19 5 ; 2 : 7 44, 7 4 7 Asia ( Roman ) : Asian Phrygia : · 1 : 194 Asshur: 1 : 95 4 Assos: 2 : 74 7 Assyria: 1 : 95 1 , 9 5 4 ; 2 : 3 2 1, 3 2 7 Aswan: 2 : 501 Ataroth : 2 : 95 7 Atbara River : 2 : 501 Athens : 1 : 4 0 ; 2 : 74 7 Atlantic Ocean: 2 : 533 Attalia: 2 : 74 7 Avvim : 2 : 95 7 Azekah: 1 : 7 3 7 ; 2 : 956 Azmaveth : 2 : 957 Aznoth-tabor: 2 : 959 Baal : 2 : 95 7 Baalah ( Mt. ) : 2 : 956 Baalath-beer : 2 : 95 7 1 : 7 4 6 ; 2 : 956 Baale-j udah : Baal-gad : 1 : 7 3 7 ; 2 : 960 2 : 958 Baal-hazar:

Reference numbers in this index have boldface type to indicate the volume, lightface type for the pages. The names in parentheses in this index are usually alternate names of the same place or indications of the area in which the city or village is located. Distances between locations, as stated in articles, are generally given in terms of air miles ( km ) . O n maps in this publication, north is toward t h e top of page.

• on a map

=

city or village that can be located with reasonable certainty.

o on a map = city or village concerning the location of which there is reasonable evidence but some uncertainty. 1 273

Baal-meon: Baal-perazim: Baal-shalisha h : Babylon ( city ) :

2 : 957 1 : 746 ; 2 : 4 7 2 : 9 58 1 : 9 5 4 ; 2 : 3 2 1, 3 2 7,

332, 3 3 4, 744 1 : 95 1 ; 2 : 3 2 1 Babylon ( empire ) : Bahuri m : 1 : 74 6 ; 2 : 9 5 7 2 : 95 7 Bamoth-baal : 1 : 3 33, 73 7, 943 Bashan : Beer-sheba : 1 : 3 3 0, 5 29, 744, 748, 9 4 7, 949; 2 : 956

Bene-berak : Bene-jaakan : Benjamin ( tribe ) : Beroea: Besor, T . V . of: Beten: Beth-anath : Beth-anoth : Bethany : 2 : 4 7, Beth-arabah : Beth-dagon : Bethe! : 1 : 330,

2 : 958 1 : 541 1 : 744 2 : 74 7 2 : 1116 2 : 958 1 : 7 43 ; 2 : 960 2 : 9 56 540, 5 4 1 , 742, 95 7 2 : 957 2 : 958 5 29, 7 3 7, 744, 9 4 7,

949; 2 : 4 7, 95 7

Beth-emek: Beth-eze l : Beth-gamu ! : Beth-haran: Beth-hogl a h : Beth-horon ( Lower; Upper):

2 : 960 2 : 956 2 : 957 2 : 95 7 2: 957 1 : 73 7 ;

2 : 4 7, 956

Beth-jeshimot h : Bethlehem ( Judah ) :

2 : 957 1 : 5 2 9, 743, 746 ;

2 : 4 7, 5 40, 9 5 7 2 : 958 Bethlehem ( Zebulun ) : 2 : 957 Beth-nimrah : Beth-peor : 2 : 957 Bethphage : 2 : 4 7, 540 Bethsaida : 2 : 5 4 0, 5 4 1 , 738, 740, 960 Beth-shean: 1 : 602, 744 ; 2 : 959 2 : 959 Beth-shemesh ( Issacha r ) : 2 : 9 56 Beth-shemesh ( Juda h ) : Beth-shittah : 1 : 74 3 ; 2 : 959 2 : 956 Beth-tappuah: 2 : 5 4 2, 742 Bethzatha, Pool of : Beth-zur: 2 : 956 Betonim : 2 : 959 Bezek : 2 : 959 Bezer: 1 : 4 7 2, 744, 943 ; 2 : 9 5 7 Binding House of the Shepherds : 2 : 958

Bithynia : Black Sea :

1 : 194, 1 9 5 ; 2 : 744, 74 7 1 : 3 29, 95 4 ; 2 : 3 2 7, 334,

5 3 3 , 744

Blue Nile: Bozez : Bozkath: Bozrah : Britannia: Brundusium: Cabu!: Caesare a : 2 : 540, 7 4 7, Caesarea Philipp i : 2 : 540,

2 : 501 2 : 95 7 2 : 956 1 : 679 2 : 533 1 : 130 2 : 960 750, 958 5 4 1 , 960

MAP INDEX Calah : Cana : Canaanites: Canatha: Capernaum:

1274 1 : 954 2 : 5 40, 5 4 1, 7 3 8 , 9 5 8 1 : 738 1 : 602 ; 2 : 540 2 : 540, 5 4 1, 738, 740,

960

Cappadocia: Carchemish: Cari a : Carmel: CarmeL Mt. :

1 : 194, 195 ; 2 : 74 4 1 : 954 ; 2 : 3 2 1 1 : 1 94 1 : 74 6 ; 2 : 9 56 1 : 3 3 3, 7 3 7, 9 4 7, 949,

9 5 3 ; 2 : 95 8

Carthage : Caspian Sea :

2 : 5 33 1 : 3 29, 954 ; 2 : 32 1 , 3 3 4,

3 5 8, 5 3 3 , 744

Cauda: 1 : 5 4 7 ; 2 : 750 Chaldea: 1 : 3 30 Chephar-ammoni: 2 : 957 Chephira h : 1 : 73 7 ; 2 : 956 Chesalon : 2 : 95 6 Chesulloth : 2 : 9 58 Chinnereth : 2 : 960 2 : 747 Chios : 2 : 958 Chisloth-tabor: Chitlish : 2 : 95 6 Chorazin: 2 : 540, 7 3 8 , 7 4 0 , 960 1 : 194, 195 ; 2 : 747, 750 Cilicia : 2 : 75 0 Cnidus: 1 : 3 3 3 ; 2 : 569 Coastal Plain : 1 : 194 Commagene: Constantinople : 2 : 533 1 : 4 0 ; 2 : 74 7 Corinth : 2 : 74 7 Cos : 2 : 9 56 Cozeba: Crete : 1 : 54 7 ; 2 : 744, 74 7, 750 Cyprus: 1 : 1 95 , 564 ; 2 : 744, 747, 750 2 : 5 3 3, 744 Cyrene: 2 : 958 Dabbesheth: 2 : 958 Daberath : 1 : 143, 330, 602, 947, Damascus: 949 ; 2 : 332, 3 3 4, 540

Dan ( city ) :

1 : 3 3 0, 743, 744, 748,

9 4 7 ; 2 : 960

Dan ( tribe ) : 1 : 7 44 1 : 7 5 2, 895, 942 David, City of: 2 : 959 Debir (Gad ) : 1 : 7 3 7 ; 2 : 9 56 Debir (Judah ) : 1 : 60 2 ; 2 : 540 Decapolis : Derbe: 2 : 74 7 Dibon: 2:957 1 : 54 1 Dibon-gad : Dilea n : 2 : 9 56 2 : 958 Dimnah: Dimon: 2:957 Dion: 1 : 60 2 ; 2 : 540 1 : 54 1 Dophkah: 1 : 73 7, 744, 9 5 3 ; 2 : 9 5 8 Dor: Dothan: 1 : 5 29, 949 ; 2 : 9 5 8 Dumah : 2 : 956 1 : 73 7, 74 4 ; 2 : 958 EbaL Mt. : Ebenezer: 2 : 958 2 : 3 2 7, 3 3 4, 358 Ecbatan a : 1 : 6 79, 945, 949, 9 5 1 Edom : 1 : 943 ; 2 : 9 59 Edrei ( Manasseh) : Edrei ( Naphtal i ) : 2 : 960 Eglaim : 2:957

Eglon : Egypt:

1 : 73 7 ; 2 : 9 56 1 : 5 29, 5 3 1, 536, 95 1, 9 5 4 ;

Egypt, T.V. of: 1 : 5 3 1, 744, 748, 9 4 7 1 : 949; 2 : 9 56 Ekron: Elah, Low Plain of : 1 : 746 ; 2 : 956 1 : 9 5 4 ; 2 : 3 2 1 , 744 Elam : 1 : 6 79 Elath : 2 : 3 58 Elburz Mts. : 2 : 95 7 Elealeh: 1 : 5 36, 5 4 1 El Haj Route: 1 : 54 1 Elim : 2 : 956 Elkosh: 2 : 956 Elteke( h ) : 2 : 956 Eltekon: 2 : 4 7, 540, 956 Emmaus : 1 : 744 ; 2 : 9 59 En-dor : 2 : 958 En-gannim ( Issachar ) : 2 : 9 56 En-gannim (Judah ) : 1 : 74 6 ; 2 : 95 7 En-ged i : 2 : 9 59 En-hadda h : En-rimmon : 2 : 9 56 1 : 7 5 2, 895 ; 2 : 9 5 7 En-rogel: 2 : 957 En-shemesh: Ephesus : 1 : 1 9 4, 195 ; 2 : 5 3 3, 74 7, 945 2 : 5 40, 5 4 1 , 9 5 7 Ephraim ( city ) : 1 : 7 44 Ephraim ( tribe ) : 2 : 957 Esha n : Eshtaol : 2 : 956 Eshtemoa: 2 : 9 56 2:957 Etam (Judah ) : Etam ( S imeon ) : 1 : 744, 94 7 ; 2 : 9 56 1 : 5 36, 5 3 7 Etha m : 1 : 5 41 Etham, Wilderness of: 1 : 74 4 ; 2 : 956 Ether: Ethiopia: 1 : 5 3 1, 95 1 ; 2 : 3 2 7, 744 2 :958 Eth-kazin: 1 : 1 4 3, 3 30, 748 ; Euphrates River : 2 : 3 2 1, 3 2 7, 5 3 3, 744

2 : 3 2 1, 3 3 2

Europe : 1 : 329 1 : 5 4 1, 6 79, 748 Ezion-geber: 1 : 547 Fair Havens: Far'ah, T.V. of: 2 : 9 5 9, 1 1 16 1 : 744 Gad ( tribe ) : Gadara : 1 : 6 0 2 ; 2 : 5 40, 5 4 1, 740 Galatia : 1 : 194, 195 ; 2 : 744, 7 4 7 1 : 1 94 Galatian Phrygia: Galatian Pontus: 1 : 1 94 Galilee : 2 : 5 40, 5 4 1, 738 Galilee, Mts. of: 1 : 333 Galilee, Sea of: 2 : 5 40, 5 4 1 , 7 3 8 , 740, 959, 960 2: 957 Gallim: 1 : 74 6 ; 2 : 956 Gath : 2 : 958 Gath-hepher: Gath-rimmon : 2 : 95 8 Gaugamela: 2 : 3 2 7, 3 3 4 Gau l : 2 : 5 33 1 : 7 3 7 , 743, 744, 748 ; 2 : 9 56 Gaza : 1 : 746 ; 2 : 4 7, 957 Geba: Gederah ( Benjamin ) : 2:957 Gederah ( J udah ) : 2 : 9 56 Gederoth: 2 : 95 6 Gedor : 2 : 956 Gehenna : 2 : 542 Gennesarer, Pla in of: 2 : 740

1 : 33 0 ; 2 : 9 56 Gerar: 2 : 1 1 16 Gerar, T.V. of: 1 : 60 2 ; 2 : 540 Gerasa: 1 : 73 7 ; 2 : 9 58 Gerizim, Mt. : Germania : 2 : 5 33 1 : 1 4 3, 746 Geshur: Gethsemane, Garden of : 2 : 7 42 1 : 73 7, 746 ; 2 : 9 56 Gezer: Gibbethon : 1 : 94 7 ; 2 : 9 56 Gibeah ( Benjamin ) : 1 : 746 ; 2 : 4 7, 9 5 7 2 : 956 Gibeah (Judah ) : 1 : 7 3 7, 746, 748 ; 2 : 4 7, 957 Gibeon: Gihon: 1 : 752, 8 9 5 , 9 4 2 ; 2 : 542, 742 Gilboa, Mt. : 1 : 744, 746; 2 : 9 58 1 : 333, 5 2 9, 73 7, 743, 943, Gilead : 949

Gilgal ( Ephraim ) : Gilgal ( near Jordan ) :

1 : 94 9 ; 2 : 958 1 : 73 7, 743 ;

2 : 95 7

Giloh : 2 : 9 56 Gimza : 2 : 9 56 Girgashites: 1 : 738 Golan : 1 : 4 72, 7 4 4 , 943 ; 2 : 9 59 Golgotha: 2 : 7 42 Gomorrah: 1 : 3 30 Goshen ( Egypt ): 1 : 5 29, 5 3 1 , 536 Goshen ( Judah) : 1 : 73 7 ; 2 : 9 56 2 : 3 34 Granicus River: Great Sea: 1 : 3 3 3 ; 2 : 98 Greece: 2 : 3 3 4, 533, 744, 74 7 Hadadrimmon: 2 : 958 Hadi d : 2 : 95 6 Halak, Mt. : 1 : 737 Halhul: 2 : 9 56 Hali : 2 : 9 58 Ham: 2 : 959 Hamat h : 1 : 748, 1024 H ammath : 2 : 9 59 Hammon : 2 : 960 Hannathon: 2 : 958 Hapharaim : 2 : 9 59 Hara n : 1 : 1 4 3, 3 3 0, 5 29 1 : 74 3 ; 2 : 9 5 8 Harod, W e l l of: Harosheth: 1 : 74 3 ; 2 : 9 58 Hazar-shual : 2 : 956 Hazeroth: 1 : 54 1 Hazar ( Benjamin ) : 2 : 957 Hazar ( Judah ) : 2 : 9 56 Hazor ( Naphtali ) : 1 : 73 7, 743, 744 ; 2 : 960

Hebron :

1 : 3 3 0, 4 7 2, 5 2 9, 73 7, 743,

744, 746 ; 2 : 956

Helbah: Heleph : Heliopolis: Hepher: Hermon, Mt. :

2 : 960 2 : 959 1 : 531 1 : 73 7 ; 2 : 95 8 1 : 9 7, 3 3 3, 943 ; 2 : 540,

541, 569

Heshbon : Hinnom, Valley of:

1 : 7 3 7, 7 4 4 ; 2 : 9 5 7 1 : 75 2, 895 ;

2 : 5 42 , 742

Hippos : Hitti tes : H ivites: Hobah : Holon:

1 : 602 1 : 73 8 1 : 73 8 1 : 330 2 : 9 56

MAP INDEX

1 275 1 : 1024 Horns: 1 : 541, 6 79 Hor, Mt. : 1 : 746 ; 2 : 956 Horesh: 1 : 541 Hor-haggidgad : 2 : 9 60 Hukkok : 1 : 74 4 ; 2 : 9 58 I blea m : 2 : 747 lconium : 2 : 958 Idalah: 2 : 540 Idumea : 1 : 9 4 7 ; 2 : 9 60 Ijon: 2 : 744 I1Iyricu m : 2 : 327 India : 2 : 3 2 7, 3 3 4 Indian Ocean : 2 : 3 2 7, 3 3 4 Indus River : 2 : 9 56 Iphtah : 2 : 956 Ir-nahash: 2:957 Irpeel : 1 : 947 Israel ( lO-tribe ) : 1 : 74 4 Issachar ( tribe ) : 2 : 334 Issus: 1 : 1 3 0 ; 2 : 5 3 3, 744, 750 Italy: 2 : 540 Ituraea : Iye-abarim : 1 : 541 Jabbok, TV. of: 1 : 9 7, 3 3 3 , 52 9, 943 ; 2 : 959, 1 1 16

Jabneel (Judah ) : Jabneel ( Naphtal i ) : Jacob's Fountain: Jagur: Jani m : Janoah ( Ephraim ) : Janoah ( Naphtali ) : Japhia : Jarmuth : Jattir: Jebel 'Ataqah: Jebel el Galala : Jebusites: Jehud : Jekabzeel: Jericho: 1 : 7 3 7, 947,

1 : 74 4 ; 2 : 9 56 2 : 9 59 2 : 540, 958 2 : 9 56 2:957 2 :958 2 : 960 2 : 958 1 : 7 3 7 ; 2 : 9 56 2 : 956 1 : 537 1 : 5 37 1 : 7 38 2 : 958 2 : 9 56 949 ; 2 : 540, 5 4 1,

957

Jerusalem :

1 : 744, 746, 748, 7 5 2, 895,

9 4 7 ; 2 : 4 7, 540, 5 4 1 , 5 4 2, 742, 744, 74 7, 9 5 7

Jeshanah : 2 : 958 2 : 9 56 Jes hua : Jezreel: 1 : 9 47, 949, 9 5 3 ; 2 : 9 58 1 : 3 3 3 ; 2 : 958 JezreeL Low Plain of: 1 : 743 ; 2 : 9 59 Jogbehah : 2 : 9 56 Jokdeam : 1 : 7 3 7, 95 3 ; 2 : 9 5 8 Jokneam : 1 : 744 ; 2 : 9 8, 540, 9 5 8 Joppa: Jordan River : 1 : 3 33 , 73 7, 7 4 4 ; 2 : 5 40, 5 4 1, 9 5 7 9 5 9

Jotba h : Jotbathah : Judah ( kingdom ) : Judah ( tribe ) : Judah, Mts. of: Judah, Wilderness of: Judea : Judea, Wilderness of: Jutta h : Kabzee l :

2 : 9 58 1 : 54 1 1 : 94 7 1 : 7 44 1 : 3 3 3 ; 2 : 569 1 : 3 33 2 : 540, 5 4 1 2 : 5 40, 5 4 1 2 : 9 56 2 : 956

Kadesh-barnea ( Kadesh ) :

1 : 5 4 1, 6 79,

73 7, 9 4 7

Kain : Kanah : Kanah, T.V. of: Kedesh Ossachar ) : Kedesh ( Naphtal i ) :

2:957 2 : 9 60 2:1116 1 : 73 7, 74 3 ; 2 : 9 5 8 1 : 4 72, 7 4 3 , 744 ; 1 : 74 6 ; 2 : 9 56 2 : 50 1 1 : 954 1 : 541 1 : 752, 895, 942 ;

2 : 54 2, 5 53, 74 2

Kinah : King's Road: Kir-hareseth: Kir-heres: Kiriath-jearim: Kir of Moa b: Kishon, TV. of:

2 : 9 56 1 : 5 4 1, 6 79 1 : 9 4 7 ; 2 : 95 7 2:957 2 : 4 7, 956 2 : 957 1 : 743, 949; 2 : 958,

1 1 16 1 : 73 7 ; 2 : 956 Lachish : 2 : 956 Lahmam : Laish : 2 : 960 Lakkum: 2 : 9 59 Laodicea : 2 : 945 1 : 73 7 ; 2 : 9 59 Lassharon: 1 : 1 4 3, 1024 ; 2 : 5 69 Lebanon Mts. : Lebonah : 2 : 958 Lehi : 1 : 74 3 ; 2 : 9 56 Leshem : 2 : 960 1 : 73 7 ; 2 : 956 Libnah: 2 : 744 Libya : Litani River : 1 : 1024 Lod : 2 : 9 56 Lo-debar: 1 : 7 46 Luz ( Bethel ): 2 : 957 Luz ( Hittite ) : 2 : 960 Lycaonia: 1 : 194 1 : 194, 1 9 5 Lycia : Lydda: 2 : 9 56 1 : 194; 2 : 3 2 7 Lydia : Lysimachia : 2 : 3 34 Lystra: 2 : 74 7 1 : 7 46 Maacah : Maarath : 2 : 9 56 Macedonia: 1 : 40 ; 2 : 3 2 7, 744, 74 7 Machpelah, Cave of: 2 : 956 2 : 956 Madmannah : 1 : 73 7 ; 2 : 959 Madon : Magada n : 2 : 540, 5 4 1 , 7 3 8 , 740, 9 5 9 Mahanaim: 1 : 5 2 9, 746 ; 2 : 9 59 Makaz : 2 : 9 56 1 : 73 7 ; 2 : 9 56 Makkedah : Malta : 2 : 744, 750 1 : 3 30, 5 29 ; 2 : 9 56 Mamre: Manahath : 2 :957 1 : 744 Manasseh ( tribe ) : 1 : 746; 2 : 9 56 Maon: Marah : 1 : 541 Mareal : 2 : 9 58 1 : 72 Mareotis, Lake : 2 : 956 Maresha( h ) : 2 : 957 Mattanah :

2 : 95 7 2 : 3 2 7, 3 5 8, 744 2 : 5 33, 744, 7 4 7,

750

Medo-Persia: Megiddo:

2 : 327 1 : 73 7, 744, 9 4 7, 95 3 ;

2 : 9 58

Memphis:

2 : 960

Keila h : Khartou m : Khorsabad : Kibroth-hattaavah: Kidron, TV. of :

Medeba : Media : 1 : 954 ; Mediterranean Sea :

1 : 5 3 1 , 5 3 6 ; 2 : 3 2 7, 334,

501 1 : 73 7 ; 2 : 9 60 Merom : Meroz: 2 : 9 60 1 : 1 43 , 3 3 0 ; 2 : 7 44 Mesopotamia : Michmas ( h ) : 2 : 4 7, 95 7 2 : 958 Michmethath : 2 :957 M iddin: 2 : 960 M igdal-el: Migdal-gad: 2 : 956 M igdol : 1 : 5 3 6, 5 3 7 Migron: 2 :957 2 : 74 7 Miletus: 1 : 74 3 ; 2 : 95 7 Minnith: Misrephoth-maim: 1 : 73 7 ; 2 : 9 60 2 : 74 7 Mitylene : Mizpah ( Benjamin ): 2 : 4 7, 9 5 7 Mizpah ( Gad ) : 1 : 74 3 ; 2 : 959 M izpah ( Juda h ) : 2 : 9 56 Moa b : 1 : 743, 746, 945, 949, 9 5 1 1 :541 Moab, Plains of: Moreh : 2 : 958 2 : 9 56 Moresheth: 1 : 3 3 0, 752 Moriah ( Mt. ) : 2 :957 Mozah : Myra : 2 : 75 0 Mysi a : 1 : 194 ; 2 : 7 4 7 2 : 95 7 Naarah : 2 : 5 4 0, 5 4 1, 738, 958 Nain : 1 : 744 Naphtali ( tribe ) : Nazareth : 2 : 540, 5 4 1, 7 3 8, 958 Neah : 2 : 958 Neballat: 2 : 95 8 2 : 9 56 Nebo ( Judah ) : 2 :957 Nebo ( Reuben ) : Nepo, M t. : 1 : 3 3 3 , 54 1 ; 2 : 9 5 7 Negeb : 1 : 3 3 0, 3 3 3, 73 7 2 : 960 Neiel : 2 : 95 7 Nephtoa h : 2 : 957 Netophah : Nezib : 2 : 956 Nibshan: 2 : 957 N i l e River: 1 : 5 3 1 , 536; 2 : 3 2 7, 334, 501 2 :957 Nimri m : 1 : 95 4 ; 2 : 9 8, 3 2 1 Nineveh : 1 : 53 1 No: 2 : 501 No-amon: 1 : 746 ; 2 : 4 7 Nob : 1 : 531 Noph: Offense, Mt. of: 2 : 553 2 : 553, 7 4 2 Olives, Mt. of: 1 : 531 On: 2 : 958 Ono: 1 : 7 5 2, 895 Ophel : 2 :957 Ophni: 2:95 7 Ophrah ( Benjamin ) : 2 : 9 58 Ophrah ( Manasseh ) :

1276

MAP INDEX 1 : 1024 Orontes River: 1: 1 43, 5 29 Paddan-ara m : 2 : 5 69 Palestine : 1 : 194, 195 ; 2 : 744, 74 7 Pamphylia: 1 : 194 Paphlagonia: 1 : 5 6 4 ; 2 : 74 7 Paphos : 2:957 Para h : 1 : 5 4 1, 7 4 6 Paran, Wilderness of: 2 : 3 2 7, 744 Parthia : 2:327 Pasargadae : 2 : 74 7 Patara : 2 : 9 45 Patmos : 1 : 60 2 ; 2 : 540 Pella ( Decapolis ) : 2 : 334 Pella ( Macedonia ) : 2 : 959 Penie l : 1 : 5 2 9, 743, 947; 2 : 9 59 Penue l : 2 : 540, 5 4 1 Perea : 2 : 74 7 Perga : 2 : 9 45 Pergamu m : 1 : 738 Perizzites: 2 : 3 2 7, 334 Persepoli s : 2 : 3 27 Persia: 1 : 954 ; 2 : 3 21, 3 2 7, Persian Gulf: 3 3 2, 334

Pharos Isla nd: Philade lphia ( Decapolis ) :

1 : 72 1 : 60 2 ;

2 : 5 40, 9 5 7

Philad elphia ( Roman Asi a ) : 2 : 945 2 : 747 Philipp i : Philistia : 1 : 746, 945, 9 5 1 Phoenicia: 1 : 945 ; 2 : 540 Phoenix : 1 : 547 1 : 1 94 ; 2 : 7 4 7 Phrygia : Pihahiroth : 1 : 53 6, 5 3 7 1 : 7 4 3 ; 2 : 9 58 Pirathon: Pisgah : 1 : 737; 2:957 1 : 194 ; 2 : 7 4 7 Pisidia : 1 : 1 95 Polemon, Kingdom of : Pontus : 1 : 1 9 5 ; 2 : 74 4 2 : 74 7, 960 Ptolemais: 1 : 541 Punon : 1 : 1 3 0 ; 2 : 7 50 Puteol i : Rabba h : 1 : 602, 744, 746, 943 ; 2 : 9 5 7 Rabbath-moab : 2:957 Rabbith: 2 : 958 2 : 9 59 Rakkat h : 2 : 958 Rakkon : Ramah ( Benjam i n ) : 1 : 94 7 ; 2 : 4 7, 9 5 7 1 : 7 46 ; 2 : 958 Ramah ( Ephraim ) : Ramah ( Naphtal i ) : 2 : 960 Rameses: 1 : 5 36 Ramoth ( Issacha r ) : 2 : 959 1 : 4 72, Ramoth ( Ramoth-gilea d ) : 744, 943, 947, 949 ; 2 : 9 59

Raphana : Red Sea : 1 : 5 3 1 , 536, Rephidim : Reuben ( tribe ) : Rhegium: R hodes: Ribla h : Ri mmon ( Benjamin ) : R i mmon ( Simeon ) : Rimmon ( Zebulu n ) : Ri mmon-perez:

1 : 602 5 3 7, 5 4 1 ; 2 : 5 0 1 1 : 541 1 : 744 2 : 750 2 : 74 7 1 : 1024 2 : 95 7 1 : 9 4 7 ; 2 : 9 56 2 : 958 1:541

1 : 5 41 Rissah : 1 : 7 46 ; 2 : 9 59 Rogelim : Rome: 1 : 1 3 0 ; 2 : 533, 744, 750 2 : 9 58 Rumah : Salamis : 1 : 5 64; 2 : 74 7 2 : 9 59 Salim: Salmone: 1 : 547 2 : 95 7 Salt, City of: 1 : 3 3 3 ; 2 : 569, 9 5 7 Salt Sea : 1 : 9 4 7, 949 ; Samaria ( Manasseh ) : 2 : 95 8

Samaria ( Roman district ) : 2 : 5 4 0, 5 4 1 Samaria, Mts. of: 1 : 3 3 3 ; 2 : 5 69 Samos : 2 : 747 2 : 956 Sansannah : 2 : 3 34, 945 Sardis : Sarid : 2 : 958 2 : 5 53 Scopus, Mt. : 1 : 602 Scythopolis: 2: 957 Secacah : 1 : 52 9, 9 5 1 S e i r ( Edom ) : 2 : 956 S e i r ( Juda h ) : 1 : 679 Sela : 2 : 33 4, 7 4 7 Seleucia : Senaah : 2 : 95 7 Shaalbim : 2 : 9 56 Shaaraim : 1 : 7 44, 9 4 7 ; 2 : 956 Shamir : 1 : 7 43 ; 2 : 9 56 Shaphir : 2 : 956 Sharuhen : 2 : 9 56 S hechem : 1 : 330, 4 72, 529, 744, 9 4 7 ; 2 : 958

Shema : Shephelah: S hikkeron : Shilhim: Shiloh : S himron : Shittim : Shunem : Shur: S hushan:

2 : 9 56 1 : 3 3 3 ; 2 : 5 69 2 : 956 2 : 956 1 : 744, 947; 2 : 958 2 : 958 1 : 7 3 7 ; 2 : 95 7 1 : 9 4 9 ; 2 : 9 58 1 : 330 1 : 9 5 4 ; 2 : 3 2 1, 3 2 7, 33 2,

334

Sicily : Sidon :

2 : 750 1 : 7 3 7, 744 ; 2 : 540, 5 4 1, 750,

960 1 : 942 ; 2 : 5 4 2, 742 Siloam, Pool of: Simeon ( tribe ) : 1 : 744, 947 1 : 5 41 Sin, Wilderness of: Sinai, M t . : 1 : 541 Smyrn a : 2 : 945 Soco( h ) ( Juda h ) : 2 : 95 6 Soco( h ) (S of above ) : 2 : 9 56 Soco( h ) ( Manasseh ) : 2 : 958 Sodom: 1 : 3 30 Sorek, T.V. of : 1 : 74 3 ; 2 : 9 56, 1 1 16 2 : 533, 744 Spa i n : Succoth ( Egypt ) : 1 : 5 36 Succoth ( Gad ) : 1 : 5 2 9, 743 ; 2 : 9 59 2 : 95 7 Sup h : 2 : 540, 5 4 1 , 958 Sychar : Syene: 1 : 5 3 1 ; 2 : 50 1 Syracuse: 2 : 750 Syri a : 1 : 194, 1 9 5, 945, 949, 95 1 ; 2 : 744, 74 7

Syrtis : Taanach: 1 : 73 7, Taanath-shiloh : Tabbath : 1 : 333, Tabor, Mt . : Tadmor : Tahpanhes: Tappuah ( Ephrai m ) :

2 : 750 744, 9 5 3 ; 2 : 9 58 2 : 958 2 : 9 59 743, 7 4 4 ; 2 : 959 1 : 74 8 ; 2 : 332 1 : 531 1 : 7 3 7, 744 ;

2 : 958 2 : 956 Tappuah ( Judah ) : Tarshish : 2 : 98 Tarsus : 2 : 74 7 Taurus Mts. : 1 : 143 2 : 33 4 Taxila: 1 : 7 46; 2 : 95 7 Tekoa: Tema : 2 : 3 2 1, 3 3 2 Ternan : 1 : 679 1 : 5 3 1 ; 2 : 3 2 7, 501 Thebes: Thebez: 2 : 9 58 Thessalonica : 2 : 747 Three Taverns : 1 : 130 Thyatira : 2 : 945 Tiberias: 2 : 540, 738, 740, 959 Tigris River: 1 : 143, 3 3 0, 9 5 4 ; 2 : 3 2 1 , 3 2 7, 3 3 2, 334

Timnah ( J udah ) : 2 : 9 56 Timnah (Judah/Dan ) : 1 : 74 3 ; 2 : 9 56 Timnath-serah : 1 : 744 ; 2 : 958 Tiphsa h : 1 : 748 Tirza h : 1 : 7 3 7, 94 7 ; 2 : 9 58 1 : 947 Tochen : 2: 540 T rachonitis: Troas: 1 : 194, 1 9 5 ; 2 : 74 7 Tyre : 1 : 744, 748 ; 2 : 3 2 1 , 3 3 4, 5 3 1, 540, 5 4 1, 7 4 7, 960

Tyropoeon Valley:

1 : 7 52, 895 ;

2 : 542

Ur: Urmia, Lake : Uzzen-sheera h : V ictoria, Lake: White Nile : Yarmuk, T . V . of:

( 67)

1 : 3 30 2 : 358 2 : 956 2 : 50 1 2 : 501 1 : 3 33, 943 ; 2 : 959,

Yiron: 2 : 960 2 : 956 Zaanan: Zagros M ts. : 2 : 358 Zalmonah : 1 : 541 Zanoah ( Judah ) : 2 : 956 Zanoah (S of above ) : 2 : 956 Zaphon : 2 : 959 1 : 9 49; 2 : 960 Zarephath : Zarethan : 2 : 959 1 : 744 Zebu lun ( tribe ) : Zenan : 2 : 956 Zered, T.V. of : 1 : 679; 2 : 1 1 16 2 : 9 58 Zeredah ( Ephrai m ) : 2 : 9 59 Zeredah ( Manasseh ) : Zereth-shahar: 2:957 Ziklag : 1 : 744, 746, 94 7 ; 2 : 9 56 1 : 5 4 1 , 679 Zin, Wilderness of: 1 : 752, 942 Zion, Mt. : Zior : 2 : 956 1 : 7 4 6 ; 2 : 956 Ziph: 1 : 531 Zoan : 1 : 7 43 ; 2 : 956 Zorah :

Abbreviations Used in This Publication Bible Translations AB

The Amplified Bible (1 965), Zondervan

LXX, Bagster

Publishing House

An

The Anchor Bible (1964 and following years),

LXX,

W. F. Albright and D. N. Freedman,

Thomson

general editors

AS

American Standard Version (1901 ; as printed

AT

The Complete Bible -An American Translation

NAB

The New American Bible (1970), Catholic

NAS

New American Standard Bible (1971),

NC

Sagrada Biblia (1944; as printed in 1972),

NE

The New English Bible (1970)

NIV

The Holy Bible-New International Version

NW

New World Translation of the Holy

Ph

The New Testament in Modern English (1958; as

Plain English ( 1963), Charles K. Williams

Ro

The Emphasised Bible ( 1 902), Joseph B.

Darby

RS

Revised Standard Version (1 952; as printed in

in 1942)

Sd

The Authentic New Testament (1958), Hugh J.

1942), Benjamin Wilson

Sh

The Holy Bible (1892), Samuel Sharpe

Sp

The New Testament of Our Lord and Saviour

Sy

Syriac Peshitta, originally produced in the.

(1939; as printed in 1951), j. M. Powis

Sagrada Biblia (1947), Jose Maria Bover and The Bible in Basic English (1 949), Cambridge

Da Dy ED

The Bible in Living English (1972), Steven T.

Eloino Nacar Fuster and Alberto Colunga

The New Testament-A Translalion in the

Language of the People (1937; as printed in

The New Testament (1941 ; as printed in

1947), Confraternity of Christian

The New Testament-A New Translation in The 'Holy Scriptures ' (1 949 Edition), J. N.

Challoner-Douay Version (c. 1 750; as printed The Emphatic Diaglott (1864; as printed in

ER

English Revised Version (1885; as printed in

Fn

The Holy Bible in Modern English (1903; as

jB

The jerusalem Bible (1966), Alexander Jones,

jP

The Holy Scriptures Aaording to the Masoretic

Kj

King james Version (161 1 ; as printed in 1942)

jesus Christ (1937; as printed in 1948),

TC

The Twentieth Century New Testament, Revised

TEV

Today's English Version ( 1976)

Vg

Publication Society of America

The Holy Bible From Ancient Eastern

1971)

Bible Societies, 1979)

Text (191 7; as printed in 1952), The Jewish

La

Rotherham

fifth century CE. (edited by S. Lee,

general editor

The Holy Bible ( 1956), Ronald A. Knox

printed in 1 976), J. B. Phillips

London, 1826, and reprinted by United

Greek Scriptures (1985 Edition)

Kx

Scriptures - With References (1984)

Francis Aloysius Spencer

printed in 1935), Ferrar Fenton

The Kingdom Interlinear Translation of the

(1 978)

SchonfieJd

1893), Cambridge University Press

Int

1924), Richard G. Moulton, editor

Lockman Foundation

Doctrine Revision CK

printed in 1954), James Moffatt

Biblical Association of America

1950), Charles B. Williams

CC

1954)

The Modern Reader's Bible (1907; as printed in

Byington CB

Thomson, 1808; revised by C A. Muses,

MR

University Press

By

185 1 ; as printed in 1986)

The Septuagint Bible (translation by Charles

A New Translation of the Bible (1935; as

Francisco Cantera Burgos, Madrid, Spain

BE

English (translation by L. C L. Brenton,

Mo

in 1944), American Revision Committee

Smith and Edgar J. Goodspeed

BC

The Septuagint With Apocrypha: Greek and

Edition (1 904)

Latin Vulgate (originally produced c. 400 C E. by Jerome; edited by R. Weber, Stuttgart, Germany, 1975)

VM

La Santa Biblia, Version Moderna (1966),

We

The New Testament in Modern Speech

Sociedades Biblicas en America Latina

Manuscripts (1957), George M. Lamsa

Le

The Twenty-Four Books of the Holy Scriptures

(Fifth Edition, 1943; as printed in 1944),

LXX

Greek Septuagint (originally produced in the

J . A. Robertson

(1853; as printed in 1914), Isaac Leeser

R. F. Weymouth; revised by Yg

third and second centuries B.CE.), as

edited by Alfred Rahlfs (1 935)

The Holy Bible (Revised Edition of 1887), Robert Young

1 27 7

Books of the Bible Ac

Acts

Ho

Hosea

Ne

Am

Amos

Isa

Isaiah

Nu

Nehemiah Numbers

Ca

Song of Solomon (Canticles)

Jas

James

Ob

Obadiah

Jer

Jeremiah

I Ch

Chronicles, 1

IPe

Peter, 1

Jg

Judges

lCh

Chronicles, 2

2Pe

Peter, 2

Joe

Joel

I Co

Corinthians, 1

Philemon

1]0

John, 1

Phm

2Co

Corinthians, 2

2Jo

John, 2

Php

Philippians

Col

Colossians

3Jo

John, 3

Pr

Proverbs

Da

Daniel

Joh

John

Ps

Psalms

De

Deuteronomy

Jon

Jonah

Ec

Ecclesiastes

Jos

Joshua

Eph

Es

Ephesians

I Ki

Kings, 1

Esther

2Ki

Kings, 2

Ex

Exodus

la

Re

Revelation

Ro

Romans

Ru

Ruth

ISa

SamueL 1

2Sa

SamueL 2

Eze

Ezekiel

Le

lamentations Leviticus

l Th

Ezr

Ezra

Lu

Luke

lTh

Ga

Galatians

Mal

Malachi

lTi

Timothy, 1

Ge

Genesis

Mr

Mark

2Ti

Timothy, 2 Titus

Thessalonians, 1 Thessalonians, 2

Hab

Habakkuk

Mt

Matthew

Tit

Hag

Haggai

Mic

Micah

Zec

Zechariah

Heb

Hebrews

Na

Nahum

Zep

Zephaniah

page

Other Abbreviations a.

after

in.

inch(es)

p.

a.m.

(ante meridiem), before noon

kg

kilogram(s)

par(s).

paragraph(s)

kl

kiloliter(s)

pI.

plural

km

kilometer(s)

p.m.

krn/hr

kilometers per hour

(post meridiem), after noon

avdp

avoirdupois

b.

before

B.CE.

before Common Era

bu

bushel(s)

c.

about

C

Celsius

CE.

Common Era

chap(s)

chapter(s)

cm

centimeter(s)

col.

column

cu

cubic

E

east

ENE

east-northeast

L

li ter(s)

pp.

pages

lat.

latin

pt

lb

pound(s)

qt

pint(s) quart(s)

lit.

literaUy

S

south

m

meter(s)

SE

southeast

mg

milligram(s)

sec (s).

section(s)

mi

mile(s)

sq

ml

milliliter(s)

SSE

south-southeast

mm

millimeter(s)

SSW

south-southwest superscription

square

mph

miles per hour

Sup

manuscript(s)

SW

southwest

Mount(ains)

t

troy Torrent Valley

ESE

east-southeast

MS(S)

F.

Fahrenheit

Mt(s).

ft

foot/feet

N

north

T.V.

ftn(s)

footnote(s)

NE

northeast

Vol(s).

Volume(s)

g

gram(s)

NNE

north-northeast

vs(s)

verse(s) west

gal

gallon(s)

NNW

north-northwest

W

Gr.

Greek

No(s).

nurnber(s)

WNW

west-northwest

ha

hectare(s)

NW

northwest

WSW

west-southwest

Heb.

Hebrew

oz

ounce(s)

yd

yard

NOTE: All quotations from classical authors are from the Loeb Classical Library, unless otherwise indicated.