Inscribed Landscapes: Travel Writing from Imperial China [Reprint 2019 ed.] 9780520914865

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INSCRIBED LANDSCAPES

Inscribing a Cliff. F r o m San-ts'ai t'u-hui (1609), Richard C . R u d o l p h East Asian Library, U n i versity of California, L o s Angeles.

INSCRIBED LANDSCAPES Travel Writing from Imperial China

Translated with Annotations and an Introduction by R I C H A R D E.

U N I V E R S I T Y OF CALIFORNIA PRESS

BERKELEY

STRASSBERG

LOS ANGELES

LONDON

THIS BOOK IS PUBLISHED WITH THE SUPPORT OF THE KELTON FOUNDATION

University of California Press Berkeley and Los Angeles, California University of California Press, Ltd. London, England © 1994 by T h e Regents of the University o f California

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Inscribed landscapes : travel writing from imperial China / Richard E. Strassberg. p.

cm.

I S B N 978-0-520-08580-0 (pbk : alk. paper) 1. China—Description and travel—To 1900. DS707.I57

I. Title.

1994

951—dc20,

92-22968

Printed in the United States of America 15 9

14 8

13 7

6

12

11

5

4

10

09

T h e paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements o f A N S I / N I S O Z 39.48-1992 ( R 1997) (Permanence of Paper).

@

ForJane, Jim, Jimmy,

Cornelia, and Celeste Hall

To translate the spirit is an intention of such enormity, so phantasmal,

that it can well turn out

to be inoffensive; to translate the letter, a precision so extravagant that there is no risk in attempting it. Of more consequence than these infinite purposes is the conservation or suppression of certain particulars; of more consequence than those preferences and omissions is the syntactic movement. JORGE LUIS BORGES

Contents

List of Illustrations

xv

Preface

xix

Editorial Notes

xxi

Introduction: T h e Rise o f Chinese T r a v e l Writing

1.

MA TI-PO (n.D.)

i

57

F r o m A Record of the Feng and Shan Sacrifices:

2.

3.

4.

T h e Supreme Mountain

59

WANG HSI-CHIH (ca. 3 0 3 - C a . 3 6 1 )

63

Preface to Collected Poems from the Orchid Pavilion

65

LAY SCHOLARS OF HERMITAGE MOUNTAIN (fl. ca. 400)

67

Preface and P o e m on a J o u r n e y to Stone Gate

68

PAO CHAO (ca. 4 1 4 - 4 6 6 )

73

A Letter to M y Y o u n g e r Sister f r o m the B a n k s of

5.

Thunder Garrison

74

LI TAO-YÜAN (d. 5 2 7 )

77

F r o m The Guide to Waterways with Commentary

78

M e n g ' s Gate Mountain

78

Lotus Mountain

79

T h e Three G o r g e s

84

X

CONTENTS

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

Y A N G HSUAN-CHIH (fl. c a . 5 2 8 - 5 4 7 )

91

From The Temples of Lo-yang: The Bazaar of Lo-yang

94

HSUAN-TSANG (ca. 6 0 0 - 6 6 4 )

97

From A Record of the Western Region: The Land of Baluka

100

W A N G PO (ca. 6 5 0 - c a . 6 7 6 )

105

Preface to Poems from the Pavilion of the Prince of T'eng

106

W A N G WEI ( 7 O I - 7 6 1 )

III

A Letter from the Mountains to the "Cultivated Talent" P'ei T i

113

YUAN CHIEH ( 7 1 9 - 7 7 2 )

115

The Right-hand Stream

117

The Winter Pavilion

117

M y O w n Terrace

118

HAN YU ( 7 6 8 - 8 2 4 )

121

The Pavilion of Joyous Feasts

122

The I-ch'eng Station

124

LI AO ( 7 7 2 - 8 3 6 )

127

Diary of My Coming to the South

128

PO CHU-I ( 7 7 2 - 8 4 6 )

133

The Cottage

134

Preface to Poems from the Cave of the Three Travelers

137

LIU T S U N G - Y U A N ( 7 7 3 - 8 1 9 )

139

Eight Pieces from Yung Prefecture

141

1. M y First Excursion to West Mountain

141

2. Flatiron Pond

142

3. The Little Hill West of Flatiron Pond

143

4. T o the Little Rock Pond West of the Little Hill

144

CONTENTS

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

5. Yuan Creek

144

6. Stony Brook

145

7. Rocky Stream

146

8. Little Rock Citadel

147

Preface to Poems from Dimwit's Stream

147

LIU K'AI ( 9 4 7 - 1 0 0 0 )

151

Flat-Top Mountain

151

FAN C H U N G - Y E N ( 9 8 9 - I O 5 2 )

157

The Pavilion of Yueh-yang

158

O U - Y A N G HSIU ( 1 O O 7 - I O 7 2 )

161

The Pavilion of the Old Drunkard

162

The Pavilion o f j o y f u l Abundance

165

s u SHUN-CH'IN ( 1 0 0 8 - 1 0 4 8 )

169

The Temple of the Moon-in-the-Water at Grotto Mountain in Su-chou

170

WANG AN-SHIH ( 1 0 2 1 - 1 0 8 6 )

173

The Mountain Where Hui-pao Meditated

175

SHEN K ' U O ( 1 0 3 1 — I O 9 5 )

179

Geese Pond Mountain

180

SU SHIH ( 1 0 3 7 - 1 1 0 1 )

lg3

Red Cliff I

l8j

Red Cliff II

l8?

Stone Bells Mountain

lg8

From Tung-p'o's Forest ofJottings

I9I

Sandy Lake

I9I

An Evening Stroll to the Temple That Receives the Heavenly

192

An Account for Kuo of Our Visit to Mount White Water

194

XI

Xll

CONTENTS

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

SU CH'E ( I 0 3 9 - I 112)

195

The Delightful Pavilion of Huang Prefecture

197

CH'lN KUAN ( 1 0 4 9 - 1 1 0 0 )

199

Dragon Well I

201

Dragon Well II

203

LU YU ( 1 1 2 5 - 1 2 1 0 )

205

From A Journey into Shu: The C a v e of the Three Travelers

209

FAN CH'ENG-TA ( 1 1 2 6 - I I 9 3 )

213

From Diary of a Boat Trip to Wu: Eyebrows Mountain

215

CHU HSI ( 1 1 3 0 — 1 2 0 0 )

219

The Mountain a Hundred Chang High

221

YEH-LU CH'U-TS'AI ( 1 1 8 9 - 1 2 4 3 )

225

From Record of a Journey to the West

229

YUAN HAO-WEN ( I I 9 0 - I 2 5 7 )

235

A Trip to Chi-nan

236

MA KO (fl. c a . 1 2 2 4 - 1 2 3 9 )

245

Dragon Mountain

246

CHOU MI ( 1 2 3 2 - 1 2 9 8 )

251

From Recollections of Wu-lin: Observing the Tidal Bore

253

TENG MU ( 1 2 4 7 - 1 3 0 6 )

257

Snow Gorge Mountain

257

SA-TU-LA (SA T'lEN-HSI, ca. 1 3 0 0 - c a . 1 3 8 0 )

263

Dragon Gate

266

SUNG LIEN ( 1 3 1 0 - 1 3 8 1 )

269

Bell Mountain

272

CONTENTS

34.

35.

36.

37.

38.

39.

40.

41.

LIU CHI ( 1 3 1 I - I 3 7 5 )

279

T h e Wind-in-the-Pines Pavilion I

280

T h e Wind-in-the-Pines Pavilion II

282

KAO C H ' l ( 1 3 3 6 - 1 3 7 4 )

283

Flat-Top Mountain

285

CHANG C H U - C H E N G ( 1 5 2 5 - 1 5 8 2 )

289

Transverse Mountain

292

WANG SHIH-CHEN ( 1 5 2 6 - 1 5 9 0 )

297

Chang's Cave

300

YUAN H U N G - T A O ( 1 5 6 8 - 1 6 1 0 )

303

Tiger Hill

305

Heaven's Eyes Mountain

307

An Evening Stroll to the Six Bridges to Await the M o o n

310

CH'IEN C H ' I E N - I ( 1 5 8 2 - 1 6 6 4 )

313

From Yellow Emperor Mountain

3!5

HSU H U N G - T S U ( 1 5 8 6 - 1 6 4 1 )

3*7

From The Travel Diaries of Hsu Hsia-k'o

319

Terrace of Heaven Mountain

319

Seven Stars Cavern

326

CHANG TAI ( c a . 1 5 9 7 - C a . 1 6 7 9 )

335

From Dreamlike Memories from the Studio of Contentment

335

T h e Juniper in the Temple of Confucius

335

An Inn in T'ai-an

339

West Lake at the M i d s u m m e r Festival

342

The Riverside Houses Along the Ch'in-huai

345

Romance at T w e n t y - f o u r Bridges

347

The Yu Garden

34»

The Relic at King Asoka Temple

35°

xiii

XIV

CONTENTS

42.

43.

44.

45.

46.

47.

48.

49.

50.

KU YEN-WU ( 1 6 1 3 - 1 6 8 2 )

353

Five Terraces Mountain

357

CHU I-TSUN ( 1 6 2 9 - 1 7 0 9 )

361

The Chin Temple

364

SHAO CH'ANG-HENG ( 1 6 3 7 - I 7 O 7 )

367

A n Evening Stroll to Solitary Hill

370

K'UNG SHANG-JEN ( 1 6 4 8 - 1 7 1 8 )

373

Stone Gate Mountain

376

TAI MING-SHIH ( 1 6 5 3 - I 7 1 3 )

389

Diary of a Journey North in the Year I-hai

392

FANG PAO ( 1 6 6 8 - 1 7 4 9 )

399

Geese Pond Mountain

400

YUAN MEI ( 1 7 1 6 - 1 7 9 8 )

403

Y e l l o w D r a g o n Mountain

403

Y e l l o w E m p e r o r Mountain

405

T h e Cascade Pavilion at G o r g e River T e m p l e

411

YUN CHING ( 1 7 5 7 - 1 8 1 7 )

413

Hermitage Mountain

413

KUNG TZU-CHEN ( 1 7 9 2 - 1 8 4 1 )

417

Passing through Y a n g - c h o u A g a i n in the Sixth M o n t h o f the Year Chi-hai

418

Notes

423

Selected Bibliography

533

Glossary-Index

551

Illustrations

Figures

I.

2. 3456. 78. 910. il. 12. 13H15i6. 1718.

19-

Frontispiece. Inscribing a Cliff Inscriptions on a mountain in Kuei-lin, Kuang-hsi Wang Hsi-chih, Preface to Collected Poems from the Orchid Pavilion Su Shih, Red Cliff I Emperor M u Meets the Queen Mother of the West Some Inhabitants of the Great Wilds f r o m Guideways through Mountains and Seas Portraits of Masters of T'ang and Sung Prose Fan K'uan, Travelers Among Streams and Mountains Emperor Shun Sacrificing at the Supreme Mountain The Gathering at the Orchid Pavilion Ching Hao, Mount Lu (Hermitage Mountain) Hsia Kuei, A Myriad Miles Along the Long River Meng's Gate Mountain Ting Yiin-p'eng, Lotus Mountain The Three Gorges Hsia Yung, The Pavilion of the Prince of T'eng After Wang Wei, Bird's Eye View of Wang-ch'uan (Wheel River) Attributed to Lu H u n g , album leaf f r o m Ten Views of the Thatched Cottage Printed text of The Pavilion ofJoyous Feasts Portrait of Po Chii-i

ii

5

8 ri 14 19 41 47 58 65 69 72

8i 82 87

104 112 116 120 132

xvi

LIST

20. 21. 22.

2324.

2526.

2728. 29.

30. 3i32. 33343536. 3738. 3940. 41. 42.

43444546.

4748.

4950.

Si52.

53545556.

OF

ILLUSTRATIONS

Chin N u n g , "The Little Hill West ofFlatiron Pond" by Liu Tsung-yuan Flat-Top Mountain Hsia Yung, The Pavilion of Yueh-yang Chin N u n g , "The Pavilion of the Old Drunkard" by Ou-yang Hsiu Rubbing of Su Shih's Inscription of The Pavilion of Joyful Abundance East and West Grotto Mountains in the Great Lake Anonymous, Portrait of Wang An-shih Li Chao, Geese Pond Mountain Wu Yuan-chih, Red Cliff Stone Bells Mountain Shen Tsung-ch'ien, Su Tung-p'o's Evening Stroll to the Temple That Receives the Heavenly The Delightful Pavilion Dragon Well Temple The Long River at Hsia-lao Stream Sung Hsu, Eyebrows Mountain After a Snowfall Portrait of Chu Hsi Sailing on Bright Lake in Chi-nan Geese Gate Pass Observing the Tidal Bore Snow Gorge Mountain The Feng-hsien Temple Grotto at Dragon Gate Nanking Ch'iu Ying, Pine Pavilion and Waterfall Attributed to Wen Cheng-ming, Traveling to Flat-Top Mountain Transverse Mountain Shen Chou, Chang-kung Cave (Chang's Cave) Tiger Hill Heaven's Eyes Mountain Misty Willows by the Six Bridges Mei Ch'ing, Mahjusri's Temple Wu Pin, Mount T'ien-t'ai (Terrace of Heaven Mountain) The Confucian Shrine at Ch'iifu Ascending the Supreme Mountain to Offer Sacrifices Viewing the Moon on West Lake Fan Ch'i, The Ch'in-huai River Five Terraces Mountain The Chin Temple

140 153

156 160 165 168 174

181 184 189 193

196 200 207 214 220 239 244 253 259

265 271 278 284 291 298 304 308 311

314

318 337 340 343 345 355 363

LIST

5758.

59. 60. 61. 62.

6364.

OF

ILLUSTRATIONS

A Complete View of West Lake Wang Hui, The K'ang-hsi Emperor's Second Tour of the South Arriving in the Capital Geese Pond Mountain Lo P'in, Portrait of Yuan Mei Viewing the Pines from Seeing-Is-Believing Peak on Yellow Emperor Mountain Shih-t'ao, Viewing the Waterfall at Mount Lu (Hermitage Mountain) Springtime at Red Bridge

XVII

369

375 391 398 402 409 414 421

Maps China

Lo-yang During the Wei Dynasty Hsüan-tsang's Journey through the Western Region Li Ao's Route Yeh-lii Ch'u-ts'ai's Journey through the Western Region

xxvii

92 98 126 227

Preface

T h e g r o w t h of planetary awareness at the end of our century has, a m o n g other things, stimulated a renewed interest in travel writing in m a n y countries. Records of past j o u r n e y s continue to hold our i m a g inations b o t h as pioneering itineraries that reduced the distance between cultures and as eyewitness accounts of worlds n o w lost. A m i d the abundance of recent w o r k s on travel writing in b o t h China and the West, the lack of a comprehensive anthology in English of the v o l u m i nous literature f r o m Imperial China has become increasingly apparent. Although examples of travel writing are rare for the first t w o - t h i r d s of Chinese literary history, in the later dynasties it seems that j u s t about every writer of note tried his hand at travel accounts or travel diaries. This anthology focuses on literary pieces, ones characterized by lyrical or autobiographical content, but also includes documentary pieces w r i t ten as objective records of places or events. T h e line between these t w o poles of Chinese travel writing is often obscure, as are the distinctions that are sometimes d r a w n between the various subgenres of the travel account (yu-chi). T h e selections are arranged chronologically by author to suggest b o t h the development and continuity of travel writing t h r o u g h the centuries. For in these works, tradition was a particularly p o w e r f u l guide to artistic choice: early forms, themes, and literary techniques, in addition to the actual places visited, constantly reappear in pieces f r o m later periods. M a n y of these w o r k s have been canonized by the literary tradition and were widely anthologized in general collections of prose. S o m e are still read in Chinese middle schools and universities today. In general, I have tried to include the m o n u m e n t s of classical Chinese travel writing, neglected examples by s o m e of the notable personalities of Imperial China, w o r k s that record j o u r n e y s to

xix

important places as well as works suggesting the generic extent of this kind o f literature. I have excluded works that are not the result of personal experience and those of purely scholarly interest. I would like to thank the National Endowment for the Humanities Translation Program for a generous grant that enabled me to take a year off from teaching to begin w o r k on this book. Several other grants from the U C L A Academic Senate were also helpful in enabling me to travel to China and engage in further research. The Center for Chinese Studies and the Office of International and Special Overseas Programs at U C L A and the Kelton Foundation provided support for the illustrations and maps. I hope I will be forgiven for collectively thanking the many colleagues, librarians, curators, and graduate assistants w h o were generous with their time and advice. At the University of California Press, executive editor Sheila Levine, senior editor A m y Klatzkin, and editor Laura Driussi have m y gratitude for patiently guiding this book through the stages of publication, as does Anne Canright for her careful editing. I would also like to thank Columbia University Press for permission to reprint a revised version of K ' u n g Shang-jen's travel account from an earlier book, The World of K'ung Shang-jen (1983). Much can be understood about a civilization from its landscapes, and even more from the w a y its people described them. These pieces articulate traditional Chinese attitudes toward Nature, history, the individual, and society, and toward writing itself. Most o f the places in this anthology still exist on the map and can be visited by travelers today. Despite the enormous destruction of Chinese culture through the centuries, an inconceivable amount of which has occurred within our very lifetimes, the modern pilgrim can still follow in the footsteps of many of these writers, encounter earlier inscriptions, and experience a sense of the ethos of the past. And for those preferring to indulge in what the Chinese call "recumbent traveling" (wo-yu), reading these pieces at leisure and contemplating the illustrations may stimulate the imagination to retrace these journeys from afar.

Editorial

Notes

Classical

Texts

Citations of classical texts follow the Harvard-Yenching and SinoFrench Indexes unless otherwise noted. Official titles and geographical divisions follow Charles O. Hucker, A Dictionary of Official Titles in Imperial China (Stanford, 1985), when possible. Romanizations of Central Asian places generally follow Feng Ch'eng-chiin, ed., Hsi-yu ti-ming (Peking, 1982). Reign dates and eras follow Tz'u-hai (Shanghai, 1979), and conversions of dates are based on A Sino-Western Calendar for Two Thousand Years, 1-2000 A.D. (Taipei, i960 rpt.). The following standard abbreviations of collectanea are used:

CPTC

TS

Chih-pu-tsu-chai ts'ung-shu

CT PS

Chin-tai pi-shu

CTS

Ch'iian T'ang shih

SPPY

Szu-pu pei-yao

SPTK

Szu-pu ts'ung-k'an

Taishö

Taishö shinshü Daizökyö

TSCC

Ts'ung-shu chi-ch'eng

The anthology N i Ch'i-hsin et al., eds., Chung-kuo ku-tai yu-chi hsiian, vols. 1 and 2 (Peking, 1985), is abbreviated in the notes as N i , Yu-chi.

xxi

XXII

EDITORIAL

Weights and

NOTES

Measures

I have tried to convert Chinese measurements to their closest Western equivalents when possible. However, some that are rhetorical, such as "a myriad hsiin' or "a hundred chang," and those that are parts of proper names, such as "Five-Li Station," have been preserved. Chinese measurements vary somewhat according to time and place. Generally speaking, quantities grew slightly in size over the centuries. A precise list of equivalents that would cover all of China during the last three millennia has yet to appear, and a number of historical measurements remain the subject of scholarly investigation. T h e following list is based on the chart of Chinese weights and measures in Frederic Wakeman, J r . , The Great Enterprise, vol. i (Berkeley, 1985), p. xiii, which provides a set of equivalents derived from various sources from the seventeenth to nineteenth centuries. Other measures appearing in texts in this anthology have been added to these. They should be considered as approximate values for present purposes and the numbers adjusted downward a bit for earlier periods:

Chinese Units

U.S.

Equivalent

Metric Equivalent

Linear Measures 1 ts'un 1 ch'ih ( = 1 0 ts'un) 1 jen (=7 ch'ih) 1 hsiin (=8 ch'ih) 1 chang (=10 ch'ih)

1 . 4 1 inches 1 4 . 1 inches 98.7 inches 1 1 2 . 8 inches 141 inches

3.581 centimeters 35.814 centimeters 250.698 centimeters 2 8 6 . 5 1 2 centimeters 3.581 meters

1 2 . 1 inches 60.5 inches

30.734 centimeters 1 . 5 meters

1 8 2 1 . 1 $ feet (roughly 1/3 mile)

0.555 kilometer

o. 16 acre 1 6 . 1 6 acres

0.064 hectare 6.539 hectares

Itinerary Measures 1 ch'ih 1 pu (=5 ch'ih; translated here as "pace") 1 li Area mu I ch'ing ( = 1 0 0 mu) I

EDITORIAL

NOTES

xxiii

Weight 1 chu ( = 1 / 2 4 Hang) 1 Hang (tael) 1 chin (catty; = 16 Hang) 1 tan (picul) 1 shih (stone; = 120 chin)

0.055 ounce 1 . 3 2 7 ounces 1 . 3 3 pounds

1.568 grams 37.62 grams 603.277 grams

1 3 3 . 3 3 pounds 160 pounds

60.477 kilograms 72.574 kilograms

1 . 8 7 pints 2.34 gallons 23.4 gallons 23.4 gallons 149.8 gallons

1.031 10.31 103.1 103.1 659.8

234 gallons

1 , 0 3 1 liters

Volume 1 1 1 1 1

sheng tou ( = 1 0 sheng) hu ( = 1 0 tou) shih ( = 1 0 tou) chung ( = 6 hu 4 tou) [Chou-Ch'in dynasties] 1 chung ( = 1 0 0 0 sheng) [post-Ch'in period]

liters liters liters liters liters

Currency i Hang = 1 0 ch'ien (cash) = 100 fen Chinese Hsia Shang Chou Western C h o u Eastern C h o u Spring and A u t u m n Period Warring States Period Ch'in Han Western (Former) Han Hsin Eastern (Latter) Han Six Dynasties

ca. 2 1 s t c e n t . - c a . 1 7 t h cent. b . c . ca. 1 7 t h c e n t . - c a . n t h cent. b . c .

ca. n t h c e n t . - 2 2 1 b . c .

ca. I Ith cent.-771 b.c. 7 7 0 - 2 2 1 b.C. 7 7 0 - 4 7 7 B.C. 4 7 6 - 2 2 1

B.C.

2 2 1 - 2 0 6

B.C.

206 B.C.-A.D.

221

206 B.C.-A.D.

8

A.D.

9 - 2 3

25-220 222-589

Dynasties

XXIV

EDITORIAL

NOTES

Three Kingdoms Wei Shu-Han Wu Western Chin Eastern Chin Sixteen Kingdoms Southern Dynasties [Liu] Sung Southern Ch'i Liang Ch'en Northern Dynasties Northern (Latter) Wei (T'o-pa) Eastern Wei Western Wei Northern Ch'i Northern Chou Sui T'ang Chou Five Dynasties Latter Liang Latter T'ang Latter Chin Latter Han Latter Chou Ten Kingdoms Wu Former Shu Wu-Yueh Ch'u Min Southern Han Jing-nan Latter Shu Southern T'ang Northern Han Sung Northern Sung Southern Sung

220-280 220-26$ 221-263 222-280 265-316 317-420 304-439 420-589 420-479 479-502 502-557 557-589 386-581 386-534 534-550 535-556 550-577 557-581 581-618 618-907 690-704 907-960 907-923 923-936 936-946 947-950 951-960 902-979 902-937 907-925 907-978 927-951 909-945 917-971 924-963 934-965 937-975 951-979 960-1279 960-1126 1127-1279

Liao (Khitan) Northern Liao Western Liao Hsi-Hsia (Tangut) Chin (Jiirchen) Yiian (Mongol) Ming Ch'ing (Manchu)

907-1125 1122-1123 1124-1211 1032-1227 1115-1234 1280-1368 1368-1644 1644-1911

Bell Mountain

I

The Cascade Pavilion

24

The Cave of the Three Travelers Chang's C a v e

26

25

The Chin Temple

27

Ch'in-huai River

1

The Delightful Pavilion Dragon Gate

16

2

Dragon Mountain Dragon Well

3

4

Eyebrows Mountain

5

Five Terraces Mountain

6

Flat-Top Mountain (Ho-nan)

30

Flat-Top Mountain (Chiang-su) Geese Pond Mountain Heaven's Eyes Mountain

8

Hermitage Mountain

9

The I-ch'eng Station

28

Lotus Mountain

31

7

10

Meng's Gate Mountain

II

Mount White Water

13

The Mountain A Hundred Chang High The Mountain Where Hui-pao Meditated M y O w n Terrace Orchid Pavilion

14 15

The Pavilion of J o y f u l Abundance The Pavilion o f j o y o u s Feasts

The Pavilion of the Old Drunkard The Pavilion of the Prince of T'eng The Pavilion of Yiieh-yang Red Cliff

37

Terrace of Heaven Mountain

16 17

4

Solitary Hill

18

4

Stone Bells Mountain

19

38

Thunder Garrison

41

Transverse Mountain

12

Twenty-four Bridges

42

West Lake

Stone Gate Mountain

20

The Supreme Mountain

4 43

The Wind-in-the-Pines Pavilion 21

The Winter Pavilion

21

The Temple of Confucius

22

31

Wheel River

9

T'ai-an Prefecture

The Three Gorges Tiger Hill

Snow Gorge Mountain

Stone Gate

35

16

Seven Stars Cavern Six Bridges

33

36

The Right-hand Stream Sandy Lake

33

34

39

Y e l l o w Dragon Mountain 20

The Temple of the Moon-in-the-Water The Temple That Receives the Heavenly

Yellow Emperor Mountain 23 16

The Yii Garden Y u n g prefecture

40 14

44 45

15

n_rU"l

Great Wall

minim

Grand Canal

A

Mountains

o

Historic Sites

•

Major Cities HEI-LUNG-CHIANG .Harbin

Ch'ang-ch'un CHI-LIN INNER MONGOLIA

Shen-yang LIAO-NING

Hu-ho-hao-t'e . KAN-SU

i Peking? a. , ^Tientsin 6 , HO-PEI T'ai-yiian

Yin-ch'uan; Koko N o r

u

27®

. . » Hsi-ning >

CH'ING-HAI

»Chi-nan

fSHAN-HSI i

'A a 1 0

/SHAN-TUNG

Lan-chou i

V.

Hsi-an

t. 10

.? 43

vCHIANG-SU

2 ® Lo-yang \

HO-NAN

• RWeei, the first day of the intercalary third month [April 19], I remained in Ch'ii Prefecture. On chia-tzu [May 6], a daughter was born. On ping-tzu, the first day of the fourth month [May 18], I remained in Ch'ii Prefecture with Hou Kao, spending the night at Stone Bridge. 3 4 On ping-hsu [May 28], departed Ch'ii Prefecture. On wu-tzu [May 30], I traveled up along the ridge of Constancy Mountain, reaching Yii-shan. 3 5 On keng-yin [June 1], reached Hsin Prefecture. 3 6 On chia-wu [June 5], viewed Mount Chiin-yang. Its strange peaks rose straight upward, resembling Lotus Mountain. 3 7 On ping-shen [June 7], visited the Kan-yiieh Pavilion. 3 8 On chi-hai [June 10], crossed directly over Carrying Rocks Lake. 3 9 On hsin-ch'ou [June 12], reached Hung Prefecture. Met a commissioner from Ling-nan. Traveled to Hsu Ju-tzu's Pavilion, where I viewed the lotuses. 40 O n the day jen-tzu of the fifth month [June 23], reached Chi Prefecture. 41 Onjeti-hsii [July 3], reached Ch'ien Prefecture. 4 2 On i-ch'ou [ J u l y 6], crossed the river together with Han T'ai, courtesy name An-p'ing; traveled to the Mountain of Responding Spirits and rested there. 43 On hsin-wei [ J u l y 12], climbed Great Yii's Ridge. T h e next day, arrived at Chen-ch'ang. 4 4 O n kuei-yu [July 14], climbed up the western part o f Spirit C a m p Ridge; saw the Shao Rocks. 4 5 On chia-hsii [July 15], spent the night in a house at Divine Vulture Mountain. 4 6 On i-hai, the first day of the sixth month [July 16], arrived at Shao Prefecture. 47 O n ping-tzu [July 17], visited the grave of the Lord of Shih-hsing. 4 8 O n wu-yin [July 19], entered Eastern Shade Mountain and saw bamboo shoots as large as an infant. Passed through Chen-yang Gorge. 4 9 On chi-mao [ J u l y 20], spent the night at Gorge Mountain in C h ' i n g yiian. 5 0 On kuei-wei [ J u l y 24] reached Kuang Prefecture. 5 1 From the Eastern Capital to Kuang Prefecture following the water route through Ch'ii and Hsin Prefectures: 2,620 miles; by w a y of Shang-yuan and Hsi-chiang: 2,450 miles. 5 2 From the L o River down

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the Yellow River, the Pien-liang Canal, and the Huai River to Huaiyin: 630 miles. Following the current from Huai-yin to Shao-po: 120 miles. 53 Traveling against the current from Shao-po to the Long River: 30 miles. From Jun Prefecture to Hang Prefecture: 275 miles. Along this section o f the canal, the water levels fluctuated and so there was no current. From Hang Prefecture to Constancy Mountain: 240 miles. Traveling against the current took us past many rapids; the boat had to be hauled with bamboo hawsers to pass over them. From Constancy Mountain to Yu-shan: 28 miles. This land route is called "Yu-shan Ridge." From Yii-shan to Carrying Rocks Lake: 245 miles, sailing with the current. This is known as High Stream. 54 From the Lake to Hung Prefecture: 40 miles, sailing against the current. From Hung Prefecture to Great Yii's Ridge: 620 miles, sailing against the current. This is called the Chang River. 5 5 From Great Yii's Ridge to Chen-ch'ang: 38 miles by land. This is called Great Yii's Ridge. From Chen-ch'ang to Kuang Prefecture: 325 miles, sailing with the current. This is called the Chen River. After leaving Shao Prefecture, it is called the Shao River. 5 6

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Fig. 19. Portrait of Po Chii-i.

F r o m San-ts'ai

t'u-hui

(1609), Richard C . R u d o l p h East Asian Library, U n i v e r s i t y o f California, Los Angeles.

13 Po Chu-i (772-846) & % %

Po Chu-i, courtesy name Le-t'ien, was born in Hsin-chen in what is today Ho-nan into a family of officials that originated in T'ai-yiian in present-day Shan-hsi. He spent his early years in several places where his father took up appointments as a magistrate and was occasionally sent elsewhere for safety during local rebellions. A child prodigy, he became a Presented Scholar in 800. T w o years later, he met the poet Y u a n Chen (779-831), with w h o m he shared artistic ideals and, on occasion, political fates. T h e t w o studied together, and eventually both passed the palace examination with distinction. Po later published essays on governmental questions resulting from his studies, but neither he nor Y u a n ever attained sufficient power to influence court policy. Both supported the reformist faction o f Wang Shu-wen, which later fell from power. Yuan was banished in 809. Po was demoted to viceprefect of Chiang-chou (modern Chiu-chiang, Chiang-hsi) in 815 for his outspokenness and particularly for protesting the ineffectual response of the court to the assassination of the prime minister, Wu Yuan-heng (758-815). It was during this exile that he discovered the scenic beauty of nearby Hermitage Mountain. Po eventually returned to the capital and served in a number of posts, including prefect of Hang-chou and of Su-chou. Later, he dwelled in the eastern capital of Lo-yang, where he rose to the position of minister of the Bureau of Punishments. His thought combined the social activism o f Confucianism with the individualist ideals of philosophical Taoism and the transcendental yearnings of Buddhism. Po Chii-i left over 2,800 poems and a variety of prose writings in several literary collections that he published and distributed during his lifetime. His satiric poems on social issues were widely read, and his simple, accessible style earned

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him a following in both China and Japan. He is perhaps best remembered today for several lengthy narrative poems on the melancholy fates of courtesans.

The Cottage

it

(817)

Hermitage Mountain had by the late T'ang accumulated a rich tradition of literary celebration that only added to its continuing importance as a Buddhist and Taoist center. Its scenic beauty increasingly attracted writers and painters as well as others who found a refuge from the world amid its natural beauty. The severe psychological effect that exile had on Po Chii-i resulted in his privately rejecting the values of official life and enthusiastically embracing the persona of the recluse poet, although he never abandoned his official career. The year after taking office in Chiang-chou he discovered the scenic attractions of Censer Peak (Hsiang-lu-feng), and in 817 he built a cottage there, whose completion he celebrated with a gathering of twenty-two friends on April 28 of that year. The essay immortalizing the occasion has long been read as a classic evocation of the poet's studio and of the simple, purified life of the scholar dwelling in Nature.

The unique beauty of K'uangs' Hermitage 1 ranks it first in all the world. A peak on the north of the mountain is called "Censer." 2 The temple north of this peak is called "Bestowed Love." Between the peak and the temple, the scene is absolutely unsurpassed and ranks first on Hermitage Mountain. In the autumn of the eleventh year of the Yiianho era [816], I, Po Le-t'ien of T'ai-yiian, saw it and fell in love with it. I was like a far-ranging traveler who passes through his hometown and who so yearns for it that he is unable to leave. So I built a cottage facing the peak, beside the temple. In the spring of the following year, the cottage was completed: three rooms divided by two columns forming two side-chambers with four windows. Its area and proportions agreed with my conception and resources. The doorway opens to the north so that cool winds can enter and mitigate the advancing summer heat.3 The rooms face south to bring in the sunlight and protect against the extreme cold. The wood was evenly hewn and left unpainted; the walls were plastered but not

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whitewashed. For the steps, stone was used; for covering the windows, paper. B a m b o o shades and burlap curtains—this is enough to satisfy me. In the central room, four wooden couches and t w o screens of white silk, a lacquered ch'in zither, and books on Confucianism, T a o ism, and Buddhism, t w o or three volumes each. Ever since I moved in to become the master of it all, I look up at the mountain, listen to the spring below, gaze at the bamboo, trees, clouds, and rocks beside me. From dawn to dusk, there is not enough time to experience all of it. Suddenly, something may fascinate me, and then I feel the entire atmosphere coalesce. Outwardly, I feel at ease; inwardly, in harmony. After one night, m y body is at peace; after the next night, m y mind becomes calm and congenial; and after the third night, I feel entranced though unable to understand why. I asked myself the reasons for this and found the answer: This dwelling has a piece of flat ground before it about one hundred feet across; in the middle is a raised plateau occupying about half this area. South of the plateau is a square pond about twice the size of the plateau. Rustic b a m b o o and wild plants ring the pond, and in the midst of the pond are white lotus and white fish. Farther south, one reaches a rocky ravine; lining the ravine are ancient pines and old firs about as large as a circle formed by ten men. I don't k n o w h o w many hundreds of feet high they are. Their long limbs stroke the clouds; their lower branches whisk across the pond, like banners suspended, like parasols opened, like dragons and snakes slithering. Below the pines is dense brush and creeping vines interwoven to f o r m a canopy. The light of the sun and m o o n never reaches the ground, and the weather at the height of the summer is like autumn. O n the ground, white stones have been spread to f o r m a path leading in and out. Five paces north of the cottage are layers of crags and piles of rocks, an ornamental tracery of crenelated forms on top of which all kinds of trees and wild plants grow. Their verdant shade: copious; their vermilion fruits: abundant. 4 I don't k n o w all their names, but they remain unchanged through the four seasons. And then there is a cascade, and tea bushes I have cultivated so that I can prepare and drink tea. When enthusiasts see them, they can spend days without end in enjoyment. T o the east of the cottage is a waterfall three feet high, which splashes along the edges of the stairs d o w n into a stone channel. It resembles white silk at dawn and at dusk; in the evening, it sounds like tinkling jade pendants or like ch'in and chu zithers. The western side of the cottage leans against the foothills on the right of the crag to the north. I split some b a m b o o and built a trough through the air to lead the water f r o m the spring on the crag to flow like an artery or suspended line f r o m the roof eave d o w n onto

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the stairs. It spurts intermittently, looking like a string of pearls in a fine drizzle, like falling dew, dripping, spraying, sprinkling, b l o w n far away by the wind. F r o m every side of the cottage, one's eyes, ears, and steps can reach: in spring, the flowers of Tapestry Valley; 5 in s u m m e r , the clouds in Stone Gate Ravine; 6 in a u t u m n , the m o o n over Tiger Stream; 7 in winter, the s n o w o n Censer Peak. In the shade, the scene is obscured, then, in the sunlight, made visible; at dusk, things are swallowed up, then, at dawn, discharged. T h e r e are a thousand t r a n s f o r m a tions and ten thousand appearances—they could n o t all be recorded in detail. J u d g i n g it, the scenery around the cottage ranks as the finest o n Hermitage M o u n t a i n . Ah! W h e n a m a n erects a house, embellishes it w i t h fine f u r n i t u r e and dwells therein, he finds it difficult to avoid an attitude of arrogant self-satisfaction. N o w I am the master of all these things, and w h e n such things are of the finest, one's k n o w l e d g e can e x p a n d . 8 Since each of these things is the finest of its kind, h o w could I n o t feel o u t w a r d l y at ease and inwardly in h a r m o n y , m y b o d y at peace and m y m i n d j o y ful? In the past, eighteen m e n including Y u n g , Yiian, T s u n g , Lei, et cetera 9 came to this m o u n t a i n together and remained here until their deaths. 1 0 T h o u g h they lived a millennium before m y time, I k n o w that they felt as I do. M o r e o v e r , I recalled that f r o m y o u t h o n w a r d , w h e t h e r dwelling in a h u m b l e house or behind vermilion gates, w h e r ever I have stopped, even if for a day or t w o , I have always piled u p a few baskets of earth to m a k e a terrace, gathered small rocks to f o r m a miniature m o u n t a i n , and built a ring a r o u n d a few ladles of water to make a p o n d — s u c h is m y addiction to landscape! O n e day, m y fortunes reversed and I came here to serve in C h i a n g chou. 1 1 T h e prefect consoled m e w i t h his kindness, and H e r m i t a g e M o u n t a i n has received m e w i t h the spiritual beauty of its scenery. Heaven has provided m e with the o p p o r t u n i t y ; Earth has provided m e w i t h the place. Finally I have been able to obtain w h a t I have desired, so w h a t m o r e is there for m e to search for? Yet, t h o u g h inactive, I a m still burdened w i t h petty responsibilities and I have n o t been able to discharge all m y duties. So I must c o m e and go and have n o t the time to dwell for long in this abode. I m u s t await a future time w h e n m y siblings have all been married off, w h e n m y term as vice-prefect is c o m pleted, w h e n I can decide on m y o w n w h e t h e r to serve or retire. T h e n , m y left hand leading m y wife and m y right hand grasping a ch'in zither and books, I will spend the rest of m y days here and fulfill m y life's desire. M a y the pure streams and white rocks bear witness to these words! O n the twenty-seventh day of the third m o n t h [April 17], I m o v e d

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«37

into this new cottage. On the ninth day of the fourth month [April 28], to Yüan Chi-hsü of Ho-nan, Chang Yün-chung of Fan-yang, Chang Shen-chih of Nan-yang, venerables of the Eastern and Western Forest Temples Ts'ou, Lang, Man, Hui, Chien, et cetera 1 2 —twenty-two people in all—I served a vegetarian feast, tea and fruits to entertain them, and on this occasion wrote " A Record of the Cottage." 1 3

Preface to Poems from the Cave of the Three Travelers The Cave of the Three Travelers (San-yu-tung; see fig. 33) is a prime example of the literary shrine, a scenic spot immortalized by a writer which is then inscribed on the literary map. Such a place subsequently becomes part of the cultural itinerary and a place of pilgrimage for later writers. In 819, Po Chu-i, still in exile, received a minor promotion to prefect of Chung Prefecture in Szu-ch'uan. On his way to take up his new post he met Yuan Chen, also in disfavor and on his way from Szuch'uan to a post as administrator of Kuo Prefecture in what is today Ho-nan. Together with Po's younger brother, Po Hsing-chien (775826), these "Early Three Travelers" visited this cave located along the Long River northwest of modern I-ch'ang, Hu-pei, just before West Mount Gorge. As a result of this piece immortalizing a hitherto uncelebrated spot, later writers were attracted to visit it and participate in the genius loci by adding their writings. In the Sung, Ou-yang Hsiu, Su Shih, and Su Ch'e also visited the site, and they became known as the "Later Three Travelers." Such later arrivals as Lu Y u , Yuan Chung-tao (1570-1623), and Liu Ta-k'uei (ca. 1697-1779) further contributed to the expanded corpus of writings celebrating this site.

In the winter of the year following the suppression of the military commissioner of Huai-hsi's rebellion [818], 1 I was transferred from the post of vice-prefect of Chiang-chou to become prefect of Chung Prefecture. 2 Wei-chih was transferred from vice-prefect of T'ung Prefecture to administrator of Kuo Prefecture. 3 Then, in the spring of the following year, both of us obeyed our orders to proceed to our areas. I traveled together with Chih-t'ui. 4 On the tenth day of the third month [April 8, 819], we three met at I-ling. 5 The following day, Wei-chih reversed his course and escorted me as far as Hsia-lao Garrison. 6 Then, the next day, unable to bear parting, we brought our boats

(S19)

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near to each other and for a long time circled about. Flushed with wine, we heard the sound of a waterfall among the rocks, so we left our boats and alighted on land, making our way into the cleft in the bank. At first we espied rocks that appeared as if they had been stacked up high and scraped smooth. In their oddness, they resembled a beckoning arm or a hanging banner. Next, we saw a waterfall that appeared as if it were purging itself or scattering itself. In its novelty, it resembled suspended white silk or an unbroken thread. We agreed to tie up our boats below a cliff. Our servants cleared away the bushes and removed any other obstacles; they constructed steps where dangerous, and tied ropes where slippery. We stopped to rest four or five times before climbing up again. We turned our gaze upward and scrutinized things below but found no human traces. There was only the water colliding with the rocks, limpid and glistening like pearls leaping onto submerged jade, startling our eyes and ears. From early afternoon on into the evening, we found it so lovely that we could not bring ourselves to leave. Suddenly it turned dark within the mountain gorge, then the clouds would break and the moon appear, its light swallowed up and then disgorged, now bright, now extinguished. The scene was dazzling and intricate in design as various images appeared. Even someone clever with words could not fully describe them. Later on, we could not sleep the entire night through. The next morning, as we were about to depart, we felt sorry to leave this unique place and regretted parting from each other. We sighed as we chatted. Chih-t'ui said, "This area is unsurpassed in scenic beauty. H o w many such places exist between Heaven and Earth? Why is it that, though it lies along a passage route, year after year it has been neglected by people and cast aside so that few people have come here?" I said, "If you use this as a sign of other things, then one can certainly utter a great, long sigh. Is it true only of this place?" Wei-chih said, "Indeed! Moreover, it is difficult for us to meet, and this scene is not easy to encounter. Since both these conditions happened to occur, should we not have some writing about it? Why not each of us write a poem in the ancient style in twenty rhymes and inscribe them on the cliff?" I was requested to write a preface to record the occasion. Then, because we three were the first to travel here, I named it "The Cave of the Three Travelers." The cave is located seven miles north of Hsia Prefecture below North Peak in the space between the two cliffs. 7 So that future enthusiasts may know about this, I have written out a description of this occasion. 8

14 Liu Tsung-yiian (773—819) ^

7L

Liu Tsung-yiian was born in Ch'ang-an into a prosperous and cultured official family originally from Ho-tung (modern Yung-chi, Shan-hsi) and grew up in the cosmopolitan environment of the capital. A child prodigy who wrote a memorial at the age of thirteen, and who spent his youth assiduously preparing for the examinations, he benefited from early travels around central China with his father. In 793, at the age of twenty, he became a Presented Scholar. After succeeding in a special recruitment examination, Liu quickly rose in the government, where he aligned himself with the reformist faction of Wang Shu-wen. He also associated with Han Yii and the poet Liu Yu-hsi (772-842), and was considered one of the leaders of the Ancient Style movement. When the Wang faction fell in 805, Liu and others along with him were sent into internal exile with little hope of gaining pardon. Liu, demoted twice in one year, was to spend the next nine years as vice-prefect in the pestilential wilds of Yung Prefecture (modern Ling-ling, Hu-nan), more than a thousand miles from Ch'ang-an. With little to occupy him, he spent much of his time in literary pursuits and in traveling through the area, discovering neglected scenes, which he recorded in these pieces. In 815, after years of effort to obtain recall, he was summoned back to the capital briefly, but his hopes were again dashed when he was reassigned as prefect to Liu Prefecture in modern Kuanghsi, an even more remote place populated largely by aborigines whom the Han Chinese often exploited. During these final years before his early death in 819, his literary output declined as he devoted himself to administrative matters, giving up all hope of ever returning to court. Liu's early writings before his exile were largely Confucian and related to his ambitions in government. He shared Han Yii's ideal of

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Fig. 20. Chin N u n g ( 1 6 8 7 - 1 7 7 3 ) , "The Little Hill West of Flatiron Pond" by Liu Tsung-yiian. Leaf E of Album of Landscapes Illustrating Poems and Essays by Famous Writers (1736), Museum Rietberg, Zürich, Gift of Charles A. Drenowatz. Liu Tsung-yüan is depicted here sitting in a cottage with his travel account fully inscribed as a colophon.

expressing the moral Tao in a simplified, noncourtly prose style employing elements from classical models. Yet he had a greater sense of the role of the individual in history, was sympathetic to Buddhism and Taoism, and was specifically concerned with understanding the operation of the Tao in politics. It was only after his exile to Yung Prefecture that he broadened his vision to include an awareness of universal principle (li) and natural process ( t z u - j a n ) , discovering an alternate source of meaning in sublime landscapes. It is the writings of

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this latter period on which his fame is based. He produced poetry, fu rhapsodies, essays, biographies, and fables in the style of the Chuangtzu, in addition to lyrical travel accounts. During the Northern Sung, after two centuries of neglect, his reputation was rescued by Fan Chung-yen and others. In the Ming, he was canonized along with Han Yii as the only T'ang writers among the Eight Masters of T'ang and Sung Prose. The eight short pieces written from 809-812 about rural scenes in Yung Prefecture are traditionally considered to have inaugurated the genre of the lyric travel account. It is not known exactly when they were first considered a set, though they were certainly so regarded in the Ch'ing dynasty. Another piece from Yung Prefecture, The Stream of the God Huang (Yu huang-hsi chi, 813), was also included in his collected works.

Eight Pieces f r o m Y u n g Prefecture ¿kfl-l/VIS, I.

MY FIRST E X C U R S I O N

TO W E S T M O U N T A I N

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(809-812)

J-l % V^MtL

I have been in a state of constant fear ever since being exiled to this prefecture. Whenever I had a free moment, I would roam about, wandering aimlessly. Every day I hiked in the mountains accompanied by friends with similar fates. We would penetrate into the deep forests, following the winding streams back to their source, discovering hidden springs and fantastic rocks—no spot seemed too remote. Upon reaching a place, we would sit down on the grass, downing bottles of wine until we were thoroughly drunk. Drunk, we would lean against each other as pillows and fall asleep. Asleep, we would dream. Our wildest imaginings reappeared in our dreams. We awoke and arose, and, having arisen, returned. Thus I felt that I had experienced every unusual scene in this prefecture; however, I was still unaware of the wondrous scenery of West Mountain. 1 This year, on the twenty-eighth day of the ninth lunar month [November 9, 809], while sitting in the West Pavilion of the Temple of the Dharma Lotus, 2 I gazed at West Mountain and, for the first time, really noticed its extraordinary appearance. So I ordered my servants to accompany me across the Hsiang River, following along Tinting Stream. 3 We cut a path through the forest growth and burned the dry brush that stood in our way until we reached the highest point on the

(809)

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mountain. We ascended by pulling ourselves up and then stretched out our legs to enjoy the scene. The land of several prefectures spread out below our mats. The towering and low-lying formations of spacious mountains and deep lakes resembled anthills and caves. A thousand li appeared as but a few inches. Things appeared crowded together or piled up—nothing below escaped our view. White clouds wound about in the clear blue atmosphere, and the sky extended to the far beyond so that the view was the same in every direction. Thus, I understood the prominence of this mountain, which distinguishes it from mere hills. I felt myself expanding, fusing with the cosmic atmosphere, unable to comprehend its extent; I happily rambled along with the Creator-ofThings, unable to grasp its infinitude. We filled our winecups to the brim, downed them, and collapsed in a stupor, so we did not realize that the sun had gone down. The evening darkness arrived from afar, and, once it arrived, we could see no more. Still, we were loath to return. M y mind was frozen and I lost all sense of my body, feeling at one with everything. Thus, I realized that I had never really traveled. M y travels had only now begun, and I decided to record it in this, the fourth year of the Yiian-ho era [809]. 2.

FLATIRON POND

¿¿-i&ifitL

(809)

Flatiron Pond 4 lies to the west of West Mountain. Its source is undoubtedly Tinting Stream, which flows into it from the south. The stream encounters mountainous rocks which divert it eastward. All along its length the current is strong, so it increases in ferocity as it flows. It gnaws at its banks along the way, so it is wide along its sides and deep in the middle, finally coming to a halt where it encounters rocks. The water's froth then forms swirling wheels and slowly moves on. The calm and clear surface of the pond extends for about one and a half acres. Surrounding it are trees, and there is a spring high above it. There was an inhabitant who dwelled above the pond, and, because I often visited it, he came knocking at my door one day and said, "I cannot pay the taxes and the debts that have piled up so I have cleared some uncultivated land in the mountains and moved there. I would like to sell off the fields above the pond for cash to settle what I o w e . " I gladly agreed with what he said. Then I increased the height of the viewing terrace, extended the railings, and diverted the spring to a higher place from which it could cascade down into the pond and make a splashing sound. It was especially fitting for viewing the moon during the Mid-Autumn Festival. 5 I could then see the height of the sky

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and the atmosphere stretching into the distance. What else but this pond could make me glad to dwell a m o n g barbarians and forget m y longing for home? 3.

THE L I T T L E HILL W E S T OF F L A T I R O N P O N D

&

Eight days after I had arrived at West Mountain [ N o v e m b e r 16, 809], I f o l l o w e d a path at its entrance northwest for some t w o hundred paces and came upon Flatiron Pond. T w e n t y - f i v e paces west o f the pond, where the stream flows rapidly and deep, is a fisherman's dam. U p f r o m the dam is a hill on w h i c h b a m b o o and trees g r o w . T h e rocks here sharply protrude or lie at an angle. T h e y carry the soil on their backs as they thrust upward, competing to f o r m the most fantastic s h a p e s — I could not possibly enumerate them all. T h o s e w h i c h jostle each other as they bend d o w n f r o m their heights seem like o x e n and horses drinking at a stream. T h o s e w h i c h lunge u p w a r d in a line o f sharp points resemble bears climbing a mountain. T h e hill is so small, barely a tenth o f an acre in area, that it seems like one could put it in a basket. I inquired about its o w n e r and was told, " T h i s is abandoned land belonging to the T ' a n g family. T h e y have been trying to sell it but have not been able t o . " I asked the price and he said, " O n l y four hundred." I liked it and b o u g h t it. Li Shenyiian and Y u a n K ' o - c h i , 6 w h o had accompanied me, w e r e both o v e r j o y e d and surprised by the unexpectedly l o w price. W e quickly gathered s o m e tools and cut d o w n the dense o v e r g r o w t h , cleared a w a y the more unsightly trees, and burned them all. T h e n the fine trees stood forth, the beautiful b a m b o o were revealed, and the fantastic rocks became visible. G a z i n g out f r o m amidst this, the loftiness o f the mountains, the floating o f the clouds, the coursing o f the stream, the frolicking o f the birds and animals—all these j o y f u l l y displayed their talents b y performing in h o m a g e to this hill. I lay d o w n using a mat as a pillow. Clear and cool forms sought out m y eyes, the gurgling sound o f water sought out m y ears, the e x pansive space sought out m y spirit, and the capacious quietude sought out m y mind. Within the span o f ten days, I had obtained t w o extraordinary places. E v e n enthusiasts in the past were not necessarily able to achieve this. A h ! If this hill with its scenic beauty were m o v e d to such areas as Feng, Hao, Hu, or T u , 7 then wealthy travelers w o u l d compete to purchase it. T h e y might increase their offers by a thousand pieces o f gold each day yet still be unable to obtain it. B u t n o w , it stands neglected

it-%Z>

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in this prefecture. Farmers and fishermen pass by and think it worthless. Offered at a price of four hundred, it remained unsold for years. Shen-yiian, K'o-chi, and I alone have enjoyed it and obtained it, so has it not truly found good fortune at last? I have had this engraved on a rock to commemorate this hill's good fortune. 4.

T O T H E L I T T L E R O C K P O N D W E S T O F T H E L I T T L E H I L L J L ' J * ¡L. 187 • ] - &

From the little hill, I walked 120 paces west and found myself blocked by a thicket of bamboo. I heard sounds of water like jingling jade pendants and bracelets and found this delightful. I had the bamboo cut down to make a path and saw below a little pond whose water was particularly clear and cold. Its bottom was entirely of rock. 8 Along its edges, the rock bottom curved and protruded forming rises, islets, archipelagoes, and crags. Emerald vines on viridian trees grew thickly entwined or hanging down. Uneven in length, they waved back and forth in the wind. There are a hundred or so fish in the pond who seem to be swimming in the air without any support. Sun rays penetrate down through the water, and their shadows spread out on the rock bottom as they contentedly remain immobile. Suddenly, they swim off, swiftly darting back and forth, seeming as happy as this traveler. I gazed at the southwest corner of the pond, which was bent like the Dipper and wound about like a snake, the water flickering light and dark. Its edges were serrated like a dog's teeth, and I could not discover the source of the water. I sat down above the pond and was completely surrounded by bamboo and trees on all four sides. I felt solitary without anyone else there. The scene chilled my spirit and froze my bones. I became hushed, melancholy, and remote. The scene was far too quiet to linger long, so I wrote this down and departed. Those who traveled with me were Wu Wu-ling, Kung Ku, and my younger brother Tsung-hsiian. Those who came along and served us were two youths of the Ts'ui family named Shu-chi and Feng-i. 9 5.

YUAN CREEK

(8 12)

B y proceeding southwest on Tinting Stream for three miles, one encounters five notable landscapes, of which Flatiron Pond is the finest. B y proceeding westward on land from the mouth of the stream, one encounters eight or nine such landscapes, of which West Mountain is the finest. And by proceeding from the Cliff Facing the Sun 1 0 southeast

LIU

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145

by water to Weedy River, one encounters three others, of which Yuan Creek 1 1 is the finest. All of these are secluded, exquisite, unique places in Y u n g Prefecture. In the dialect of the C h ' u and Yueh regions, 1 2 streams that flow westward are called ho, which sounds like the w o r d ho [coarse cloth] in the expression i-ho [clothes of coarse cloth]. T h e upper reaches of this ho begin in Southern Lodge Ridge, and it flows into Hundred Clans Shoals. In its middle reaches are a series of islands and tributary brooks, clear pools of water and shallow sandbars, all closely interlaced, f o r m ing a winding course. Where the water is placid, its color is a deep black; where it flows rapidly, a frothy white. Traveling by boat, it appears one can go no further, but then, suddenly, an endless vista opens up. A small mountain juts out f r o m the middle of the water. The mountain is composed of beautiful rocks, and on top grows a green grove which is always flourishing in winter and in summer. Its sides contain many grottoes, and at its foot is much white gravel. T h e trees are maple, cedar, rhododendron, lindera, oak, camphor, and pomelo. The grasses are orchids, angelica, also an unusual species like a mimosa, except that it grows like a vine, clinging to rocks in the water. Whenever the wind gusts d o w n f r o m the surrounding mountains, it shakes the large trees, blows the plants over onto one another, scatters the flowers, and frightens the leaves, so that a lush fragrance is diffused. It causes waves to surge and currents to swirl, so that the water retreats and collects in the valley. The trembling, flourishing, drooping plants undergo changes along with the seasons. This is its general appearance, for I could not completely describe it. The people of Yung Prefecture have never traveled here. I have experienced it but have no wish to monopolize it, so I am revealing it and making it k n o w n to my contemporaries. Its owner is the Yuan family, hence its name. 6.

S T O N Y B R O O K & -?MtL ( 8 I 2 )

By walking not quite a hundred paces southwest of Yuan Creek, I came across a stony brook. The people have built a bridge over it. There is a languid spring whose sound suddenly grows loud, then, just as suddenly, grows faint. The width of the brook is only about a foot or perhaps two, while its length is some ten or so paces. When the flow encounters a large rock, it meekly submits and emerges f r o m beneath it. Continuing on beyond the rock, I found a rock pool covered by

146

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TSUNG-YUAN

s w e e t rush and surrounded b y green m o s s and lichen. T h e n I turned w e s t , and the flow sank beneath the rocks o f a cliff to the side and n o r t h w a r d dropped d o w n into a little p o n d . T h e area o f the p o n d is n o t quite one hundred feet. It is clear and deep, w i t h m a n y mullets. I meandered n o r t h w a r d , z i g z a g g i n g and glancing at the unlimited v i e w alongside. Finally it flowed into Y u a n C r e e k . A l o n g the banks there are bizarre rocks, extraordinary trees, rare plants, and fine a r r o w b a m b o o : 1 3 o n e can sit d o w n and rest amidst them. W h e n the w i n d shakes their tops, a p o e t r y echoes t h r o u g h the valley. I o b s e r v e d the scene as all b e c a m e quiet and then b e g a n to hear sounds f r o m far a w a y . I obtained this place f r o m the prefect. I had the o v e r g r o w t h rem o v e d , enlarged the b r o o k b y r e m o v i n g earth and rocks, piled all o f it up, and burned it. T h e n the spring had ample r o o m to flow forth a b u n dantly. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , it has never had a n y o n e w r i t e about it, so I h a v e c o m p o s e d a record according to its behest, to be transmitted to others. I inscribed this o n the south side o f the m o u n t a i n so that later e n t h u siasts w h o search can easily find it. In the seventh year o f the Y i i a n - h o era, on the eighth day o f the first lunar m o n t h [February 24, 812], I had the b r o o k d r e d g e d as far as the large r o c k . O n the nineteenth day o f the tenth lunar m o n t h [ N o v e m b e r 26], I traveled past the rock to the rock p o o l and the little pond. Here, the scenic beauty o f the b r o o k ends. 7.

R O C K Y S T R E A M /5 j f i j f c (8 I 2)

A f t e r c o m p l e t i n g the w o r k on S t o n y B r o o k , I w e n t u p o v e r the b r i d g e and headed n o r t h w e s t d o w n to the northern side o f an earthen m o u n tain. T h e r e , the people have built another bridge. T h e w a t e r here exceeds S t o n y B r o o k b y threefold. B r o a d r o c k s f o r m the b o t t o m and extend to the banks, resembling a bed, a foundation, an o p e n mat, or a threshold to an inner chamber. T h e w a t e r c o v e r s it e v e n l y , its flow like e m b r o i d e r y , s o u n d i n g like a s t r u m m e d ch'in zither. I lifted u p m y g a r ment and w a d e d in barefoot. I b r o k e o f f s o m e b a m b o o to s w e e p a w a y the dead leaves and r e m o v e d the d e c a y i n g trees, f r o m w h i c h w e w e r e able to construct eighteen or nineteen f o l d i n g chairs. I sat d o w n o n o n e and f o u n d a flowing tapestry and crashing sounds b e l o w m y seat. T r e e s the color o f kingfisher feathers and rocks w i t h patterns like d r a g o n scales shaded m e f r o m a b o v e . D i d the ancients ever e n j o y a n y t h i n g like this? Will future visitors be able to retrace m y steps? T h e day I e x p e r i enced this w a s the v e r y same o n e on w h i c h I encountered S t o n y B r o o k . C o m i n g here f r o m Y u a n C r e e k , one first encounters S t o n y B r o o k , then R o c k y Stream. C o m i n g up f r o m H u n d r e d C l a n s Shoals, R o c k y

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147

Stream is first, then Stony Brook. The section of the torrent that can be traveled flows out from the southeast of Rock Citadel Village and contains many delightful spots. Further up its length are deep mountains and secluded forests, where it becomes even more precipitous and steep. T h e path becomes so narrow that one cannot travel any farther. 8.

LITTLE ROCK CITADEL

O , (8 I 2 )

Turning northward from where the path to West Mountain begins, I crossed over Y e l l o w Reed Hill and descended to where there are t w o paths. One leads off to the west: I followed it but found nothing worthy of note. T h e other runs north for a bit, then east for not more than four hundred feet to where the land terminates at a fork in a stream. 1 4 A pile of rocks lay at the end of the path. On top, it was shaped like a crenelated parapet and like roof beams. Its sides thrust upward like the walls of a fortress with what resembled a gate. When I peered into it, it was pitch black. I hurled a small rock into it, and there was a resounding splash which echoed sharply, continuing for quite a while before it stopped. I was able to climb up it in a circular fashion, and gazed quite far. There is no soil, and yet, fine trees and beautiful bamboo g r o w there, appearing quite fantastic yet sturdy. They g r o w densely as well as sparsely, some bending downward and others facing upward. It all seemed as if some keen intelligence had arranged them. Ah! I had long doubted whether a Creator-of-Things existed or not. But n o w I believe that he does indeed. Yet I find it strange that he did not situate this in the Central Plains 1 5 instead of placing it here in the barbaric wilds. For hundreds, for thousands of years, it has had no chance to display its talents—truly a waste of labor. If this god can be so mistaken, can it be that he does not exist after all? Someone said, "This place serves to console those worthy men w h o have been exiled here." Another said, " T h e spiritual energies of this place do not produce great men, only such natural things. Therefore, in the south of Ch'u, there are few talented men but many outstanding rocks." I do not believe in either of these explanations. 1 6

Preface to Poems from Dimwit's

Stream M

In addition to lyric and documentary travel accounts, Liu Tsung-yiian also wrote in the more traditional form of prefaces to poems. Preface to

J^- (810)

LIU

TSUNG-YUAN

Poems from Dimwit's Stream, written after five years in Y u n g Prefecture, treats the predicament of the exile with a satiric touch. The original poems, unfortunately, have not survived.

North of the Libation River lies a stream that flows eastward into the Hsiao River. 1 Someone said, "This was on the former homestead of the Jan Family and so it was given the name 'Jan S t r e a m . ' " Someone else said, " O n e can dye fabrics in it and so it was named after this capacity and called 'Tinting S t r e a m . ' " 2 I was guilty of a crime because of m y dimwittedness and exiled to the Hsiao River area. 3 Being fond of this stream, I followed it for about a mile until I encountered its finest scenery and there built m y house. In antiquity, there was a "Mr. D i m wit's Valley." 4 N o w I am living beside this stream. Since its name remains in doubt and is still debated by the locals, there is no reason w h y I cannot change it. Therefore, I have changed it to " D i m w i t ' s Stream." Above Dimwit's Stream, I purchased a small hill and called it "Dimwit's Hill." Walking sixty paces northeast of D i m w i t ' s Hill, I encountered a spring and purchased the site for a residence, calling it " D i m w i t ' s Spring." Dimwit's Spring has six fissures; the water flows out of each one f r o m flat ground below a mountain and spurts upward. It gathers into a flow that winds southward, which I called " D i m w i t ' s Channel." I amassed some earth and piled up rocks to dam its small amount of water to form what I called "Dimwit's P o n d . " East of Dimwit's Pond is Dimwit's Cottage, and south of that is D i m w i t ' s Pavilion. In the middle of the pond is Dimwit's Island. Fine trees and unusual rocks were interspersed, creating something unique a m o n g landscapes. And because of me, everything was demeaned with the name " D i m w i t . " Streams are what the man of wisdom delights in. 5 But n o w , this stream alone has been demeaned as a " d i m w i t . " Why so? Because its current is too lowly, so that it cannot irrigate anything. Moreover, since it flows quicky and contains many islets and rocks, large boats cannot enter it. It is remote, shallow, and narrow: c/iido-dragons will not dwell in it, and so it cannot produce clouds and rain. O f no benefit to mankind, it is just like me. So it is entirely permissible for me to demean it as a " d i m w i t . " Ning Wu-tzu became a dimwit when the realm was no longer governed by the Tao—this was a case of a wise man pretending to be a dimwit. 6 Yen-tzu did not interrupt Confucius during the entire day

LIU

TSUNG-YÜAN

and seemed like a dimwit, 7 but this was a case of penetrating intelligence appearing to be a dimwit—neither of these is true dimwittedness. N o w I live in a time when the world is governed according to the Tao, but have violated right principles and mismanaged affairs so that no other dimwit can possibly compare with me. And so, no one in the world can dispute my possession of this stream, for I have obtained it for myself alone and have given it this name. Although this stream is of no benefit to mankind, it is adept at reflecting Nature's myriad things—clear and pure, beautiful and transparent, with a ringing sound like chimes and gongs. It can cause a dimwit to become happy, to laugh, to regard it affectionately, and to feel so joyful that he cannot bear to leave it. Since I do not blend into the vulgar ways of the world, I console myself with writing. I purify everything through it, capture a hundred kinds of appearances with it, letting nothing inhibit it. I serenade Dimwit's Stream with dimwitted verses. In our boundless ignorance, we are not at all in discord; in our muddled confusion, we both agree. I can only transcend this vast energy of Nature, and blend the undiscernible with the inaudible into a soundless, formless void 8 where no one understands me. Thus I wrote "Poems on the Eight Dimwits" and had them inscribed on a rock beside the stream. 9

149

15 Liu K'ai (947-1000) fA

Liu K'ai was an early exponent of Ancient Style prose in the Northern Sung, the first major reviver of this movement some 170 years after the deaths of Liu Tsung-yuan and Han Yii. His original name was Chienyii, but he changed it to K'ai (Opening Up) to signify his ambition of "opening up the Tao of the sages." He was born into an official family in Ta-ming in what is now Ho-pei; his father later served the Northern Sung in its early years as an investigating censor. Liu K'ai became a Presented Scholar in 973 and served in several cities as magistrate, eventually rising to the position of palace censor. He was demoted and exiled in 98$ owing to a political conflict but later was reinstated. An early advocate of the Six Classics and the writings of Han Yii, Liu was more influential as a theorist than as a writer. Some critics regarded his style as too arid; however, his restraint seems well suited to travel writing, and the qualities of conciseness and objectivity that this piece exemplifies were emulated by many later writers. Flat-Top Mountain is located in the west of modern Lin District, Ho-nan, and is one of more than twenty peaks that collectively form Lin-lii Mountain (Lin-lu-shan). (A different mountain of the same name near Su-chou was later described by Kao Ch'i.) This piece was not included in Liu K'ai's collected works. It was discovered only later by a relative of his grandson, who preserved it and wrote an afterword.

Flat-Top

Mountain i^Af

In the first year of the Chih-tao era [995], I was dwelling in T'angyang 1 when, before long, the Buddhist priest Wei-shen of Kuei-lin 2

(995)

151

Fig. 2 1 . Flat-Top

Mountain.

F r o m Ku-chin t'u-shu chi-

ch'eng ( 1 7 2 5 ) , Gest Oriental L i b r a r y , Princeton U n i v e r s i t y . T h e mountain is one o f m a n y f o r m i n g M o u n t Lin-lii and is indicated to the e x t r e m e left o f center.

154

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K'AI

passed through on his return from Five Terraces Mountain. 3 He kindly called on me and said, "Formerly, when Your Excellency was magistrate of Kuei-lin, I often talked with you of the beauty of Transverse Mountain, which ranks as the finest scenery in the south. Recently I traveled from Shang-tang through Hsiang Prefecture, 4 reaching Lin-lii District, where I visited the Temple of the Brilliant Teachings 5 at FlatTop Mountain. I sought out its secluded charm and visited all its scenic spots, eagerly viewing its waterfalls and rocks: it surpasses Transverse Mountain by far." I was surprised and replied, "I lived in T'ang-yang for two years when I accompanied my late father, the investigating censor. T'ang-yang is next to Lin-lii Mountain, yet in all that time I never heard anyone mention it. N o w Your Reverence has informed me of it, but are you not trying to make fun of me because I am from Wei?" 6 T w o days later, Wei-shen came to bid farewell. I detained him by saying, "If you were not exaggerating when you spoke earlier, then I should like to travel there with you." Wei-shen said, "Agreed!" First, we entered Dragon Mountain from Horse Ridge. The narrow path was rugged and exhausting. About a mile farther on we entered Dragon's Mouth Valley, where mountains enclosed us on all four sides and the forests were blue-green and emerald. We gazed all around us, peered down, and so forgot the rigors of riding on horseback. The next day we breakfasted in Lin-lii District and by noon had reached Peachtree Village at the foot of the mountain. The route was lined with the sounds of springs; the strange rocks and rare flowers were beyond counting. After traveling around a mountain, we found a plateau extending for about twenty feet known as the Huai-Tree Forest. Entranced by the way the rocks toyed with the springs, we did not notice that sunset was approaching. We relaxed at the Pavilion Surrounded by Greenery. All around us, the atmosphere was ethereal, and we suddenly felt that we had taken leave of this world. We slowly walked along, lingering here and there. It was not until dark that we reached the Temple of the Brilliant Teachings, where we spent the night at the Hall of Unending Clouds. The following day, Wei-shen arranged for a monk at the temple named Ch'i-yiian to accompany me. Proceeding eastward, we crossed the Bridge to Scenic Wonders and arrived at Green Dragon Cave. Then, we went to Bodhisattva Cave. We descended and observed to the south Abbot's Cliff and Watery Curtain Pavilion. We walked on the path around the cliff and gazed down at White Dragon Pool before returning. The next day, we traveled west to Abbot's Retreat, observed Pearl Falls above, made our way through Dancing Beast Rock, rested at a cottage along the road, and reached the Bridge of N o Return.

LIU K'AI

We wound along a ravine to K'un-lang Stream and the Terrace Where a Transcendent Presented Flowers. We came out by Nine Turns Rapids and encountered White Dragon Pool again to the south. Then, we made our way up West Mountain, followed along Waiting for the Woodcutter Path, and gazed at Wind-and-Clouds Valley before returning. The next day, Ch'i-yiian cooked some yellow-essence and greenthistle 7 sprouts and invited me to dine north of the Buddha Hall. I looked about at the peaks: their beauty was like that of an encircling screen. Ch'i-yiian said, "The first prominent peak to the northeast is Screen Peak." I replied, "All the peaks seem to form a screen on every side—why is such a name given to this one alone?" Ch'i-yiian said, "Six of the great peaks have names, and five of the smaller ones. They have borne these names for a long time—all were bestowed by earlier masters. To the west of this one are two more: one is called 'Purple Empyrean,' which contains Handsome Scholar Cliff; the other is called 'Arhat Peak,' which contains Lay Scholar Cliff. These cliffs are so named because they resemble such figures. Besides the six major peaks, somewhat hidden to the south is what the local people call 'Hunting Boars Ridge.' The smaller one next to it is Clothes Iron Peak." Each peak thrusts up a sheer cliff several thousand feet high through the thick forests and lofty pines. They all connect to encircle this place, sheer and precipitous: even a skilled painter could not completely depict them. I remained a while to view this. I stayed here five days viewing the scenery, unable to depart. I realized indeed that what Wei-shen had said was no exaggeration. And I regretted that for these past several years I had dwelled no farther than thirty miles from this extraordinary scenery yet had never heard of it. I truly felt ashamed before Wei-shen. The next day, as I prepared to leave, Wei-shen and Ch'i-yiian repeatedly asked me for some kind of inscription. I feared that my talent could not rival the beauty of the scenery and dared not write a poem. Instead, I wrote down a narrative of what I had seen during the past several days. 8

155

Fig. 22. Hsia Y u n g (active 14th cent.), The Pavilion Yiieh-yang.

nian Insitution, Washington, D C . , 1 5 . 3 6 I . Fan C h u n g - y e n ' s account is inscribed as a colophon.

of

T h e Freer Gallery o f Art, S m i t h s o -

16

Fan Chung-yen

(g8g-io^2)

it it

Fan Chung-yen was born in Su-chou in what is today Chiang-su. His father died when he was still young, and he was educated in Buddhist temple schools with the support of patrons. Becoming a Presented Scholar in 1 0 1 5 , he enjoyed a distinguished career, although he suffered demotion three times during his early years in office. He was nevertheless admired as an idealistic Confucian and achieved notable success in military and diplomatic affairs. In 1041, when he was auxiliary academician of the Dragon Diagram Hall, he was sent as assistant military commissioner for the Shaan-hsi Circuit, where he fortified a critical area against the Hsi-Hsia K i n g d o m and arranged a durable peace between the two countries. In 1043, he proposed a reform program—later regarded as the " M i n o r R e f o r m " of the Northern Sung, since it antedated the more pervasive reforms of O u yang Hsiu and Wang An-shih ( 1 0 2 1 - 1 0 8 6 ) . It failed in 104$ owing to political opposition. Fan was then assigned to local posts at his request, where he continued to serve with distinction as a prefect. His literary theory embraced the ideals of Ancient Style prose but also included interest in the conventions of parallel prose. The Pavilion of Yiieh-yang was commissioned by a friend, T'eng Tzu-ching (991— 1047), who, like Fan, was demoted and exiled to the post of prefect. Fan wrote the piece from a distance, relying both on his memory of the place and on an illustration. It became one of the most widely known works o f travel literature, combining a documentary function with a lyrical description of the scenery that reflects the ambivalent moods of the writer. His statement "First feel concern for the concerns of the world. Defer pleasure until the world can take pleasure" became an enduring motto for Confucian officials.

157

I58

FAN

CHUNG-YEN

The Pavilion of Yiieh-yang faces Grotto Lake and was first built above the West Gate of the city wall of Yiieh-yang in present-day H u nan during the K'ai-yiian era ( 7 1 3 - 7 4 1 ) of the T'ang dynasty. It was renovated a number of times through the centuries and was completely rebuilt in 1867. Presently, its three stories stand about sixty-five feet high. Although celebrated as early as the T'ang in a poem by T u Fu (712-770), the pavilion became a literary shrine largely as a result of Fan Chung-yen's account. Later, an engraving of this piece written by the Ch'ing calligrapher Chang Chao ( 1 6 9 1 - 1 7 4 5 ) was placed inside the main hall.

The Pavilion of Yiieh-yang

f%$;iZ>

(1046)

In the spring of the fourth year of the Ch'ing-li era [1044], T'eng T z u ching was demoted to the post of prefect of Pa-ling. 1 T w o years later, his administration was well ordered and the people lived in harmony; numerous affairs that had languished were revived with success. Then he had the Pavilion o f Yiieh-yang restored, expanding its original design. Poems and prose by worthies of the T'ang as well as by men of the present dynasty were inscribed upstairs. I was asked to write a piece in commemoration. I have observed the magnificent scenery of Pa-ling at this lake named " G r o t t o , " which bites the distant mountains and swallows up the Long River, surging restlessly as it extends beyond the horizon. B e tween the radiant mornings and the shadowy twilight, its atmosphere undergoes myriad transformations. This is the grand view f r o m the Pavilion of Yiieh-yang, which ancient writers have described in detail. Because the water routes lead north to Shaman's Gorge and stretch south all the w a y to the Hsiao and Hsiang rivers, exiled officials and tragic poets have always gathered here. Did they not have various feelings upon viewing this scene? When it rains constantly in heavy showers and the sun does not shine through for months on end, cold winds howl, and muddy waves strike at the sky. T h e sun and stars hide their radiance; the hills and mountains conceal their forms. Merchants and travelers cannot set sail, for the masts would break and the oars snap. At twilight, all turns to darkness: tigers roar and gibbons cry. Ascending to the pavilion n o w ,

FAN

CHUNG-YEN

one feels remote from the capital and longs for home, worried about slander and fearful of ridicule. A bleak vista fills one's eyes; regrets intensify and turn to melancholy. When it turns to balmy spring and the entire scene brightens, the waves are no longer aroused. The sky above and its reflection below form a single, vast expanse of blue-green. Seagulls soar about and gather to rest; colorful fish swim and submerge. Angelica by the banks and orchids on the islets diffuse their fragrances as they flourish. And sometimes, when the blanketing mist vanishes, the luminous moon shines for a thousand li. Floating light beams shimmer like gold; the moon's quiet reflection forms a submerged jade disc. Fishermen's songs respond to one another. H o w could one ever tire of such joy? Ascending to the pavilion now, one's heart opens and one's spirit is delighted. Favor and disgrace are both forgotten as one faces the breeze with a cup of wine in boundless satisfaction. Ah! I have often sought to attain the mind of those ancient paragons of humaneness, for some of them did not experience these two kinds of feelings. Why was this? They took no delight in external things, nor felt sorry for themselves. When they occupied a high position at court, they felt concern for the people. When banished to distant rivers and lakes, they felt concern for their sovereign. When serving at court, they felt concern, when forced to withdraw they felt concern. Then when did they enjoy happiness? Would these ancients not have said, "First feel concern for the concerns of the world. Defer pleasure until the world can take pleasure." Alas! If there were not such people, then whom could I follow?

ON THE FIFTEENTH D A Y OF T H E N I N T H L U N A R M O N T H IN THE S I X T H Y E A R [ O C T O B E R 1 7 ,

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Fig. 27. L i C h a o , Geese Pond Mountain

(detail, 1 3 1 6 ) .

Shanghai M u s e u m , Shanghai. This handscroll is an early e x a m p l e o f a t o p o g r a p h i c a l p a i n t i n g that illustrates a travel a c c o u n t .

When he passed by Geese Pond, the clouds stretched without end; When he quietly sat by Dragon Falls, all was obscured by the spray.

O n the south of this mountain is Lotus Peak, and below the peak is Lotus Station, which overlooks the sea. Yet people still did not k n o w where Geese Pond and Dragon Falls were located. Only later, when they went to cut lumber, did they discover the mountain. O n the s u m mit is a large pond, which legend identifies as Geese Pond. Below it are t w o deep pools named after the Dragon Falls. 3 In addition, there is Passing-by Gorge and Quietly Sitting Peak. Both were named by later people after Kuan-hsiu's poem. When Hsieh Ling-yun was governor of Yung-chia, 4 he traveled to all the scenic spots in the area; he neglected to mention this mountain alone, probably because it was not yet named "Geese P o n d . "

181

182

SHEN

K'UO

I observed all the peaks of Geese Pond Mountain. Each one rises sheer, is perilously steep and startling in appearance, soaring upward for a thousand feet. The magnificent cliffs and immense valleys resemble those of no other mountain, for they are all encompassed within yet another valley. When one looks at the mountain from the outside, nothing can be seen. But upon reaching this valley, there appears a forest of peaks encroaching upon the sky. If one seeks for the principle behind this, it appears the result of violent action by a huge river that carried away the sand and earth, leaving only giant rocks standing erect in all their immensity. As for such places as Greater and Lesser Dragon Falls, the Watery Curtain, and the Valley of the New Moon, 5 they are all hollows carved out by water. When one gazes up at Geese Pond Mountain from below, one sees lofty cliffs and sheer walls; but when one looks down from above, the mountain appears to be even with the surrounding land. Even the summits of its various peaks seem to be below those of the surrounding mountains. Throughout the world, valleys that have been carved out by water all contain vertical landforms and hollowed-out cliffs, just like this place. The great valleys today in Ch'eng-kao 6 and Shaan-hsi include upright landforms a hundred feet high, standing conspicuously erect: these places are miniature versions of Geese Pond Mountain, except they are of rock and this place is of earth. Since the mountain does not project above the surface of the land, it was hidden by deep valleys and thick forests. Thus, it is hardly strange that the ancients never noticed it and Hsieh Ling-yiin never reached it. 7

21

Su Shih

(1037-1101)

JÎL*

Su Shih, widely known by his artistic name, Tung-p'o (Eastern Slope), became one of the dominant figures in Chinese literati culture, influencing not only prose and poetry but aesthetic theory, painting, and calligraphy as well. He was born into a gentry family of limited means and educated primarily by his father, Su Hsiin (1009-1066), later famous as a political essayist, and also by his mother, née Ch'eng. He and his younger brother, Su Ch'e, were regarded as newly discovered talents after passing the Presented Scholar examination in 1057 under Ou-yang Hsiu. In 1061, Su Shih passed the special examination held to recruit new officials and began his career as a case reviewer at the Court of Judicial Review. During these early years, he wrote numerous memorials identifying critical national problems in areas of finance and military defense. Although interested in reform, he opposed Wang Anshih's N e w Policies, objecting to the dislocation caused by their rapid implementation and Wang's use of legalist methods. In 1079, Su was arrested in a "literary inquisition" for allegedly defaming the court in one of his poems. After several months of investigation, he was released, demoted to the nominal post of assistant military training commissioner, and exiled to Huang Prefecture in what is today Hu-pei. There, he wrote some of his best-known travel pieces while continuing to address current issues. Given a slight promotion to Ju Prefecture in 1084, he passed through Nanking on his way and met Wang An-shih, with whom he continued to maintain cordial literary relations despite political differences. Su Shih returned to the capital after the reversal of Wang's policies under the Empress Dowager Hsuan-jen, regent for the young Emperor

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F i g . 28. W u Y u a n - c h i h (active late 1 2 t h cent.), Red C/t^"(detail). N a t i o n a l Palace M u s e u m , T a i p e i .

Che-tsung (r. 1 0 8 5 - 1 1 0 0 ) , and served as a Han-lin Academician when the conservative party of Szu-ma Kuang gained power. He angered them, however, when he protested the indiscriminate dismantling of Wang's N e w Policies, with none of their beneficial aspects preserved, and was sent to administer Hang-chou in 1089. A series of other local posts followed in which he was able to institute progressive changes despite the reigning conservative atmosphere. In 1094 when the C h e tsung Emperor assumed personal rule, another faction supplanted those favored under the Empress D o w a g e r , and Su Shih was again exiled, this time to remote Hai-nan Island in the south, where living conditions were particularly severe. Here, too, he wrote travel pieces, which continued to express his acceptance of the vicissitudes of life and

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a vitalistic engagement with his surroundings. Pardoned in 1 1 0 0 upon the accession of the Emperor Hui-tsung (r. 1 1 0 0 - 1 1 2 5 ) , he died the following year while on his w a y north. T h o u g h an activist Confucian official, Su Shih was eclectic in his intellectual interests. He was deeply influenced by Ch'an Buddhist concepts o f enlightenment, the mind, and human nature, and searched for transcendence through engagement with social reality and the natural environment. He was also enthralled by the mysterious pageant of universal transformation. Such themes as the equivalence o f objective and subjective viewpoints, the Tao as a ceaseless alternation between change and constancy, the affirmation of happiness in this life, equanimity toward fate, and unflagging curiosity about the natural world pervade his prolific writings. Su's shih poems alone number almost 2,800, of which those containing perceptions of Nature and his philosophical views have been the most widely read. His tz'u poems, numbering about 350, expanded the range of content in this genre and are considered innovative examples of an attitude of "heroic abandon" (,hao-fang). One o f the Eight Masters of T'ang and Sung Prose, Su was further canonized by the literary tradition as the personification of the Northern Sung Zeitgeist, an expansive, optimistic personality w h o later was celebrated in drama, painting, and the decorative arts. As a travel writer Su employed a variety of forms such as letters,/« rhapsodies, travel records, random notes, and prefaces. His t w o pieces on Red Cliff were written during his exile in Huang Prefecture. T h e first is perhaps the best-known work of Chinese travel writing. In it, Su Shih achieved an optimistic solution to a lyric vision imperiled by an awareness o f tragic history. His mood shifted in the second piece to a sober recognition of Nature's awesome power and the limits of human ambition. Y e t even here he concluded with an affirmation of the possibility of transcendence. Together, these pieces became monuments of Chinese literature and art, establishing the place as a literary shrine.

Red Cliff I i w « ^ In the fall of the year jen-hsii in the seventh month on the day after the moon had reached its height [August 12, 1082], I traveled in a boat with some guests to the foot of Red Cliff. 1 A light wind wafted by, and not a ripple was stirred. I poured wine for my guests as w e chanted the poem about the bright moon and sang the song about the graceful

(1082)

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maiden. 2 Before long, the m o o n appeared over East Mountain and lingered by the constellations Dipper and O x . 3 White dew extended over the Long River; the water's gleam mingled with the sky. We let this reed of a boat follow its course as it traversed an expanse of myriad ch'ing. I felt boundless, as if gliding through the void not k n o w ing where I might land; I felt like I was soaring about, having left the world behind to stand alone as I sprouted wings to become a Transcendent. Then we drank more wine and reached the height of j o y . I beat out a r h y t h m against the side of the boat and sang: Cassia-wood oars, Magnolia-wood rudder, Stroke the moon's pure reflection As we glide upstream on its shimmering light. Ever distant, the object of my longings. I gaze at the beautiful one In a faraway corner of Heaven. 4 O n e of the guests could play the flute and accompanied m y song. 5 Yet his s o u n d s — " w u - w u " — w e r e plaintive, yearning, weeping, accusing. T h e lingering notes meandered through the air, drawn out like silken threads. They would have aroused a submerged chiao-dragori to whirl around in the cavernous depths, and caused a w i d o w to weep in her lonely boat. I was saddened. Straightening m y clothes, I sat up and asked m y guest, " W h y are you playing this way?" H e replied, " 'The moon is bright, stars are few Crows and magpies are flying south.' 6

"Isn't this f r o m the poem by Ts'ao Ts'ao? Westward is Hsia-k'ou; to the east lies Wu-ch'ang. 7 The mountains and the river encircle one another; h o w dense the viridian growth! Yet, is this not the place where Ts'ao was trapped by C h o u Yu? 8 H e had just conquered Ching-chou and sailed d o w n to Chiang-ling 9 as he followed the course of the river eastward. His fleet stretched b o w to stern for a thousand li\ his banners and flags blotted out the sky. As he drank wine by the bank of the river, he lay d o w n his lance and composed this poem. Indeed, he dominated his age, yet where is he now? And what about you and me,

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conversing here by the riverbank like a fisherman and a woodcutter, joined by fish and shrimp with the deer as our companions? We ride on a boat no bigger than a leaf as we drink to each other out of simple gourds. We exist no longer than mayflies between Heaven and Earth, and are of no more consequence than a kernel in the vast ocean. I grieve that my life is but a moment and envy the Long River's endless flow. If only I could grasp hold of a flying Transcendent and wander with him through the Heavens to embrace the bright moon and live forever. But I realize this cannot be, so I confide these lingering sounds to the sad autumn wind." I said, " D o you really understand the water and the moon? Here, it flows by yet never leaves us; over there, it waxes and wanes without growing or shrinking. If you look at things as changing, then Heaven and Earth do not last for even the blink of an eye. If you look at them as unchanging, then I along with everything am eternal. So w h y be envious? Moreover, each thing within Heaven and Earth has its master. If I did not possess it, then I would not take even a hair of it. However, the pure wind over the river becomes sound when our ears capture it, and the bright moon between the mountains takes on form when our eyes encounter it. There is no prohibition against our acquiring them, and w e can use them without ever consuming them. They are from the inexhaustible treasury of the Creator-of-Things, which you and I can enjoy together." M y guest became happy and laughed. We washed out the cups and drank again. Soon the food was gone, and the cups and plates were strewn about. We lay down in the boat, leaning against each other for pillows, unaware that it was becoming light in the east.

Red Cliff II In the tenth month of the same year on the day the moon reached its height [November 7], I walked from the Snow Lodge back toward Lin-kao. 1 T w o guests accompanied me as we crossed over Yellow Clay Slope. Frost and dew had already fallen; the leaves had all dropped off from the trees. Our shadows lay on the ground as we gazed up at the bright moon. We looked around us, delighted by the scene, and sang songs for each other as we walked along. After a while I sighed, "I have guests but no wine, and even if I had wine, there is no food to go along with it. The moon is white, the wind, gentle. But how can we enjoy such a fine evening?" One of the

(1082)

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guests replied, " T o d a y at twilight, I cast a net and caught a fish with a large mouth and fine scales. It resembles a Pine River perch. 2 But where can w e obtain some wine?" I went back and discussed this with m y wife, w h o said, "There are t w o gallons o f wine which I have been keeping for some time in case you should ever need it." So w e took along the wine and the fish and traveled once again to the foot o f Red Cliff. T h e river flowed vociferously, the cleaved banks rose a thousand ch'ih. T h e mountain was high, the m o o n small. T h e water level had fallen, rocks protruded. H o w long had it been since m y last visit? T h e scene was no longer recognizable! I lifted up m y robe and alighted. I made m y w a y among sharp crags, parting the o v e r g r o w t h to crouch on rocks shaped like tigers and leopards and to climb up trees twisted like horned dragons. I pulled myself up to the precarious nests o f falcons and peered d o w n at the hidden palace o f the river g o d P'ing I. 3 M y t w o guests were unable to follow me this far. I suddenly let out a sharp cry. T h e plants and trees were startled and shook; mountains resounded, valleys echoed. Winds arose, and the water became agitated. For m y part, I became hushed and melancholy, then awed and fearful. Then I began to tremble so that I could no longer remain there. I returned, got back on board, and had the boat steered into the mainstream. W e let it drift until it came to rest there. B y then it was toward midnight. All around us it was deathly silent. Suddenly, a solitary crane came toward us across the river from the east. Its wings traced cartwheels in the air. It seemed dressed in a white jacket over a black g o w n , and let out a long, piercing c r y — "chia"—as it swept past our boat and headed west. A short while later the guests left, and I fell asleep. I dreamed o f t w o Taoists clothed in feathers, fluttering about. 4 A s they passed by Lin-kao, they greeted me and asked, " D i d y o u enjoy your journey to Red C l i f f ? " When I asked their names, they looked d o w n without answering. " O h ! N o w I understand! Last night, was it not y o u w h o called out as y o u flew by?" T h e Taoists looked back at me and laughed. A n d then I suddenly awakened. I opened the door and looked outside but saw no trace o f them. 5

Stone Bells Mountain

(1084)

In 1084, Su Shih was given a slight promotion and transferred from Huang Prefecture to Ju Prefecture. He traveled to his n e w post by boat along the Long River together with his son, Su Mai (1059-?), stopping

SU

SHIH

Fig. 29. Stone Bells Mountain. From T'ien-hsia mingshan sheng-kai chi (Hong Kong, n.d.; rpt. of Ch'ung-chen era [1628-1644] ed.).

at Hu-k'ou in present-day Chiang-hsi. His expository piece on Stone Bells Mountain reflects a more Confucian side of his travel writing, an empirical quest to investigate things and rectify names. M a n y travelers both before and after Su Shih sought to explain the phenomenon of the "stone bells," and Su confidently propounded his o w n explanation based on personal inquiry rather than on textual tradition. His effort only stimulated more debate, and the place became another site o f literary pilgrimage as later travelers felt challenged to confirm or revise Su's conclusions. A m o n g those visiting the place during the Ming and Ch'ing periods were Ch'iu Chun ( 1 4 2 0 - 1 4 9 $ ) and Lo Hung-hsien ( 1 5 0 4 - 1 5 6 4 ) , w h o argued that the name was based on the mountain's

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shape, and P'eng Yii-lin ( 1 8 1 6 - 1 8 9 0 ) , w h o discovered an underwater grotto and asserted that the mountain was hollow like a bell.

The Guide to Waterways states, " A t the mouth of Lake P'eng-li stands Stone Bells Mountain." 1 Li Tao-yiian believed that " w h e r e the foot of the mountain meets the deep lake, a slight breeze stirs up the waves so that the water strikes the rocks, producing sounds like that of great bells." People have often doubted this explanation. Recently, some bells and chimes were placed in the middle of the water, and although a strong wind stirred up the waves, they did not emit any sounds. So h o w could this be true of the rocks? Li Po of the T'ang was the first to travel to the site, 2 and he found a pair o f rocks protruding from the lake. "I struck them and listened," he wrote. " T h e one to the south sounded deep and turbid, the one to the north had a high, clear pitch. After they were struck, the sounds continued to reverberate as the vibrations slowly faded." He thought that he had thus solved the matter. But I still had m y doubts about this theory. There are many places where rocks can emit a clanging sound like metal. Why was this one named "Bells"? O n the day ting-ch'ou in the sixth month of the seventh year of the Yiian-feng era [July 14, 1084], I took a boat from Ch'i-an to Lin-ju, 3 and because m y son Mai was on his w a y to Te-hsing in J a o Prefecture 4 to serve as magistrate, I saw him off as far as H u - k ' o u . 5 So I was able to view the so-called Stone Bells. A Buddhist monk had a boy bring along an ax and strike one or t w o of the scattered rocks. They gave off a dull thud—"hung-hutig"—and I laughed in disbelief. In the evening when the moon shone brightly, I went with Mai alone in a small boat to the foot of the cliff. The huge rock rose slanting up a thousand ch'ih, resembling a ferocious beast or a strange demon, terrifying as if it was about to seize one. T h e perching falcons on the mountaintop were startled by the sound of humans, and their piercing cries—"che-che"—rang out through the sky. And then there were sounds like an old man yelling and laughing in a canyon. Someone said, "That must be a crane." I had just begun to feel uneasy and wanted to return when loud sounds were emitted on the surface of the water, booming "tseng-hung" like continuous bells or drums. T h e boatman was frightened. We slowly approached to investigate and found that at the foot of the mountain were grottoes and fissures in the rock. I could not tell h o w deep they were, but it was the small waves which entered, surged around, and crashed against each other that were causing this sound.

SU

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SHIH

As the boat returned, it passed between t w o mountains and was about to enter the harbor. There was a huge rock standing in the middle of the current, which could accommodate a hundred people seated. It was hollow inside, and it also had many holes in it. It swallowed and spit out the wind and water, giving off ringing sounds—"k'uan-k'an t'ang-t'a"—as the water struck it. It seemed to reply to the booming sound w e had previously heard, just like a musical performance. I laughed and said to Mai, " D o you recognize this? T h e booming sound is the bell Wu-i of King Ching of the C h o u dynasty, 6 and the ringing sounds are the Singing Bells of Wei Hsien-tzu. 7 The ancients have not deceived me!" Should one arbitrarily decide about the existence of something without personally investigating it? Li Tao-yuan probably witnessed what I did, but his description was vague. Since gentlemen would never moor a small boat at the foot of a sheer cliff at night, none of them could k n o w about it. Fishermen and boatmen may have known, but they could not express it. This is w h y the facts have not been transmitted by m y contemporaries. Moreover, an unintelligent person investigated it by striking it with an ax, and thought that he had found the truth. I have written this down because I regret Li Tao-yiian's simplicity and laugh at Li Po's shallowness. 8

From T u n g - p ' o ' s Forest o f J o t t i n g s T h e following three pieces were included in Tung-p'o's Forest of Jottings (Tung-p'o chih-lin), a miscellany posthumously published that was quite influential on later Ming and Ch'ing writers of prose miniatures. Most of these pieces are no more than one or t w o hundred characters in length, but they deftly reveal Su's personality and moods through his vignettes of people and places. Sandy Lake and An Evening Stroll to the Temple That Receives the Heavenly were written during Su Shih's exile in Huang Prefecture. SANDY LAKE

fy

Sandy Lake is located ten miles southeast of Huang Prefecture 1 and is also known as Whelk Station. I bought some land there but fell ill when I went to oversee the property. I heard that P'ang An-ch'ang 2 of Hemp Bridge, though deaf, was an expert in medicine, so I went to seek a cure from him. An-ch'ang may be deaf, but his intelligence and

'M

(1082)

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insight surpass others; I used a sheet o f paper to write down the words. N o sooner had I written a few characters than he instantly understood what I meant. I teased him by saying, "I use my hand as a mouth. Y o u , sir, use your eyes as ears. Both of us are extraordinary people in our time!" The illness was cured, and I traveled with him to the Temple o f the Pure Spring. The temple is located less than a mile beyond the outer gate of the town of Ch'i River. 3 There is the Spring Where Wang Hsichih Washed His Brushes. 4 The water is extremely sweet. Then we went down to Orchid Stream. The stream flows westward. I wrote a song: The orchid sprouts at the foot o f the mountain are short and drenched by the stream; A sandy road through the pines is immaculate, without any mud. In the whispering evening rain, cuckoos cry. W h o says "youth never returns"? Just look h o w the water still flows west. A n d don't think about the white hair increasing with every cockcrow. 5

That day we drank heavily and returned home. 6 A N E V E N I N G S T R O L L T O T H E T E M P L E T H A T R E C E I V E S T H E H E A V E N L Y H, fa. A

(1083)

O n the evening o f the twelfth day o f the tenth month o f the sixth year of the Yiian-feng era [November 24, 1083], I had already taken off my clothes and was about to fall asleep when the moonlight came through the doorway. I happily arose and walked outside. I realized that there was no one else there to enjoy this with, so I went to the Temple That Receives the Heavenly to find Chang Huai-min. 1 Huai-min had also not yet retired, so we went together into the central courtyard. The ground resembled a body of water illuminated by moonlight. The intertwining "aquatic grasses" were just the shadows o f the bamboo and junipers. Is there ever an evening without a moon? And what place lacks bamboo and junipers? But rarely are there carefree men such as we two! 2

Fig. 30. Shen T s u n g - c h ' i e n ( 1 7 3 6 - 1 8 2 0 ) , Su Evening Heavenly

Stroll to the Temple

Tung-p'o's

That Receives the

(October 30, 1770). N a n k i n g

M u s e u m , N a n k i n g . Su's account is inscribed as a colophon.

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SHIH

A N A C C O U N T FOR K U O OF O U R V I S I T TO M O U N T W H I T E W A T E R

6 ?K •

#

( I O94)

This miniature was written during Su Shih's last period of exile. He was ordered to the distant island of Hai-nan at the southern end of the empire, where he suffered from financial hardship and appalling living conditions. It was jotted down as a memento for his third son, Su Kuo ( 1 0 7 2 - 1 1 2 3 ) , who accompanied him on this journey. The combination of objective recording of sights, subjective response, poetic description, and the quotidian details of their meal conveys the spontaneity of an ink sketch and the casual attitude so appealing to later writers.

On the twelfth day of the tenth month of the first year of the Shaosheng era [November 22, 1094], I traveled to the Temple of Buddha's Imprints at Mount White Water 1 with my younger son, Kuo. We bathed at Hot Springs. 2 The water was quite hot and at its source was perhaps capable of cooking things. We followed along the mountain eastward, then slightly north, to where there was a waterfall about seventy feet high. It made eight or nine breaks, and at each break there was a pond. They were so deep that a weighted rope fifty feet long failed to touch bottom. With snow white splashes and a thunderous roar, the waterfall was both delightful and frightening. Beside the water were tens of giant imprints—these are what are known as " B u d dha's Imprints." We returned in the evening by the same route we had taken, observing the lights on the mountain. Often, we had to crouch as we crossed through several valleys. The moon appeared when we reached the river. We struck at the ripples in the middle of the current, scooping up the watery pearls and the jade-disc moon. We arrived home during the second watch [9:00-11:00 p . m . ] . I then drank some wine with Kuo, dining on some olives and cooked vegetables. I noticed the shadows fading but was not very sleepy, so I wrote this out for Kuo.

OLD MAN T U N G - p ' O 3

22

Su Ch'e

(1039-1112)

Though Su Ch'e, too, was counted as one of the Eight Masters of T'ang and Sung Prose, he was overshadowed by his elder brother Su Shih as a literary figure; however, he rose higher as an official. Like Su Shih, he passed the Presented Scholar examination in 1057 and the special recruitment examination of 1061. He also opposed Wang Anshih's N e w Policies and voiced his objections in memorials to the Emperor Shen-tsung (r. 1067-1085). When Su Shih was imprisoned for alleged slander in his poetry, Su Ch'e defended him and also suffered demotion and exile. Upon the return of the conservative faction under the regency of Empress Dowager Hsuan-jen, however, he was recalled and rose to minister of personnel and, in 1089, vice-director of the Chancellory. He also successfully served on diplomatic missions to the state of Liao. When another reformist party gained ascendancy under Emperor Che-tsung (r. 1085-1100), Su Ch'e was again demoted to posts as a local magistrate; he was recalled under Emperor Hui-tsung (r. 1 1 0 0 - 1 1 2 5 ) , but only to be demoted again. He finally retired in 1104. His remaining years were spent in leisurely pursuits, enjoying the pleasures of rural existence, and practicing Ch'an meditation. Su Ch'e's most influential writings are his essays on political and historical issues; as a poet he was less productive than Su Shih and exerted little influence. He also engaged in aesthetic theory; his essay in praise of the bamboo painter Wen T'ung (1019-1079) is a classic statement of the literati ideal of "scholar painting" promoted by the Su circle. Su Ch'e was exiled to Huang Prefecture in 1083, where Su Shih had also been sent a few years earlier. His piece on the Delightful Pavilion is in the mode of Han Yii, a valedictory tribute to the moral

195

Fig. 3 1 . The Delightful

Pavilion

(detail). F r o m

Huang-

kang District, f o r m e r l y H u a n g Prefecture.

kang hsien-chih (Taipei, 1969; rpt. o f 1882 ed.).

T h e Delightful Pavilion is in the l o w e r left,

T h i s late C h ' i n g dynasty v i e w s h o w s part o f

next to Su Shih's S n o w L o d g e . B o t h had been

the shrine c o m p l e x later built on R e d C l i f f

rebuilt a n u m b e r of times since the Sung and

across the L o n g R i v e r f r o m the city o f H u a n g -

originally stood outside the city walls.

su

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197

character o f a fellow exile that is also a consolation f o r himself. Su C h ' e shared Han Y i i ' s pragmatic ideals in literature but emphasized the need for personal enlightenment in the Tao as well as the writer's enhancement o f his vital force (ch'i) in preparation for literary creativity.

The Delightful Pavilion of Huang Prefecture When the L o n g R i v e r leaves West M o u n t G o r g e , the land becomes flat while the current breaks free and expands. Where it meets the Y u a n and Hsiang rivers on the south and the Han and Mien on the north, 1 its force further increases. A n d right b e l o w R e d C l i f f , 2 waves crash mightily j u s t like the ocean. C h a n g Meng-te of C h ' i n g - h o 3 was demoted to C h ' i - a n 4 and built a pavilion southwest o f his cottage to gaze upon the scenic beauty o f the L o n g River. M y elder brother, Tzu-chan, 5 bestowed the name " D e l i g h t f u l . " T h e v i e w f r o m the pavilion extends north and south for thirty miles and for about ten miles f r o m east to west. B i l l o w s and w a v e s surge and churn; winds and clouds gather and disperse. In daytime, boats appear and vanish before it; in the evening, fish and dragons wail s o r r o w f u l l y b e l o w . T h e transformation of the scene occurs so suddenly that it unsettles the mind and terrifies the eyes: one cannot observe it f o r long. N o w I am contemplating it while seated here and can observe it all in a glance. T o the west I can v i e w the mountains by Wu-ch'ang: 6 I can clearly distinguish the rise and fall o f the hills, the r o w s of plants and trees, the mist dispersing as the sun appears, and the huts o f fishermen and w o o d gatherers. This is w h y it is called " D e l i g h t f u l . " A l o n g the shores of the long islands and by the ruins o f the former city wall, T s ' a o T s ' a o and Sun Ch'iian spied on each other in anticipation; C h o u Y i i and Lu Hsiin sallied forth. 7 T h e m e m o r y o f their heroism and the traces o f their exploits still excite people today. In the past, K i n g Hsiang o f C h ' u led Sung Y i i and C h i n g C h ' a i to the Orchid Terrace Palace. 8 When a w i n d wafted by, the K i n g loosened his garments and said, " H o w delightful this w i n d is! A m I not enjoying this with the c o m m o n people?" Sung Y i i said, " T h i s is a virile wind fit only for a king. H o w could the c o m m o n people share it?" Sung Y i i ' s remark was probably meant to be satirical. For w i n d is neither male nor female, but among men, experiences differ. T h e K i n g of C h ' u m a y have delighted in it, while the c o m m o n people m a y have been suffering

(1083)

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CH'E

from it—such are the differences among men. What does this have to do with the wind? If a scholar is dissatisfied with his lot in life, is there any place where he won't find imperfection? But if he is inwardly content and does not allow external things to damage his own nature, then would there be any encounter that he would not find delightful? N o w , Mr. Chang does not grieve over exile, and he uses his leisure time away from his duties as a tax official to roam freely among the mountains and streams. It is this quality that makes him superior to ordinary men. Though dwelling behind a door of thatch and windows of potsherds, he delights in everything. Moreover, when wading in the clear currents of the Long River and grasping hold of the white clouds by West Mountain, 9 he enjoys himself by filling his eyes and ears with such scenic beauty! Otherwise, when mountain ranges and remote valleys, tall forests and ancient trees are agitated by a breeze or illuminated by the bright moon, they always provoke uncontrollable sorrow and anxieties among plaintive poets and thought-filled scholars—how could they be able to regard this as delightful?

WRITTEN BY SU CH'E OF CHAO C O M M A N D E R Y 1 0 ON THE FIRST DAY OF THE ELEVENTH MONTH OF THE SIXTH YEAR OF THE YUAN-FENG ERA [DECEMBER 1 2 ,

IO83]11

23

Ch'in Kuan (1049-1100)

Ch'in Kuan, from K a o - y u , Chiang-su, was considered one of the four major disciples of Su Shih and became his favorite. He is best remembered as an outstanding tz'u poet. Many o f his poems express love themes—thus the popular image of him as a romantic personality. A number o f his most famous pieces combine the vicissitudes of love with a deep melancholy and feelings of self-commiseration stemming f r o m his frustrating official career. Ch'in first met Su Shih in 1077 in Hsii-chou and impressed him with a fu rhapsody, which Su likened to the w o r k of Ch'ii Y u a n and Sung Yii. Later, in 1084, Su introduced Ch'in to Wang An-shih, w h o likewise praised him, comparing the innovativeness of his poetry to Pao Chao and Hsieh Ling-yiin. Ch'in Kuan became a Metropolitan Graduate in 1085; this degree had by then assumed a new importance as a major prerequisite for official position, and he began his career by holding several local posts. Though highly recommended to the court by Su Shih, Ch'in found his opportunities blocked by political opponents. He passed a special recruitment examination in 1088 and was appointed as part of the conservative faction under Empress D o w a g e r Hsiian-jen to proofreader and junior compiler of the history of the dynasty. With the return of the progressive faction in 1094 he was successively demoted but then recalled when Emperor Hui-tsung assumed the throne in 1100. Like Su Shih a year later, he died as he was returning from exile. Dragon Well is a natural spring located in Hang-chou west of West Lake on Windy B a m b o o Ridge. It is believed to have been discovered during the C h ' i h - w u era (238-250), and as early as the T'ang dynasty a temple existed next to the well. The water is considered sweet and

199

Fig. 32. Dragon Well Temple (detail). From San-ts'ai t'u

the far distance in the upper left, near the U p -

hui (1609), Richard C . Rudolph East Asian

per India Temple, is from West Lake. Across

Library, University of California, Los

the middle is Su's Embankment with two of

Angeles. The view of the temple, located in

the Six Bridges.

CH'IN

KUAN

201

cold, and an undulating line appears w h e n it is slightly agitated. T h e environs around D r a g o n Well still produce a fine grade o f green tea o f the same name, which has long been appreciated b y connoisseurs. When these pieces were written, C h ' i n K u a n had been traveling with Su Shih. Su was on his w a y f r o m Hsii-chou to a n e w post in Hu-chou, while C h ' i n was on his w a y to visit his uncle in Kuei-chi. A f t e r parting, C h ' i n continued his j o u r n e y , passing through Hang-chou; only upon reaching his destination did he learn o f Su's arrest. He hastened back to Wu-hsing to provide help and then returned to Kuei-chi, again b y w a y o f Hang-chou. O n his return j o u r n e y C h ' i n K u a n accepted the invitation o f one o f Su Shih's Buddhist friends, Pien-ts'ai (d. 1 0 9 1 ) , retired abbot o f the U p p e r India Temple. T h e first D r a g o n Well piece is a formal, consciously literary travel record containing a documentary description o f the place and a philosophical discussion o f its virtues. In the second piece, C h ' i n K u a n recorded the place in a shorter, more casual f o r m similar to the miniatures o f Su Shih. It is terser and more linear, focusing on his itinerary and brief observations o f the scenery. T h e f o l l o w i n g year, Pien-ts'ai f o r w a r d e d a copy to Su, w h o had been released f r o m prison and exiled to H u a n g Prefecture.

Dragon Well I f i # ii T h e old name for D r a g o n Well was D r a g o n Depths. 1 During the C h ' i h - w u era of the k i n g d o m of W u [ 2 3 8 - 2 5 0 ] , the wizard K o H u n g once refined elixirs of immortality here, a fact that appears in illustrated gazetteers. 2 This place is located to the west o f West Lake north o f the C h e River on Windy B a m b o o Ridge. It is, in fact, a spring located deep in the mountains among scattered rocks. E v e r y year during the dry season, supplications for rain are made in temples elsewhere. If these have no effect, then a supplication is made here, and this has always been answered. T h u s , tradition holds that a dragon dwells in the well. B u t springs are really discharges o f the vital essence o f mountains. West Lake is deep, tranquil, and broad. It accommodates the beautiful scenery and stores up smoke and mist. Caltrop and water lilies attach themselves to it; turtles, fish, birds, and insects are dependent on it. It o v e r flows, yet not disastrously; it casually meanders, f o r m i n g patterns o f ripples. Whether overcast or clear, it presents a unique appearance in each case that cannot be fully described. T h u s , the mountains around the lake are all seduced by it and so are unable to produce springs.

(1079)

202

CH'IN

KUAN

The Che River forms the border between Wu and Yiieh. 3 In the course o f a day, the tidal bore can flow in twice from the sea. 4 It strikes quickly and then runs away. Saw-beasts and tigers are terrified as the wind and rain rage. 5 Whatever encounters it is battered; whatever resists it is smashed. When observed from high up, it makes one's hair stand on end and one's heart race beyond control. Thus, the mountains along the river are intimidated and have no time to produce springs. However, this place occupies a secluded location difficult to reach. Inwardly, bewitching attractions do not seduce it into dissipating its essence; outwardly, tyrannical violence does not intimidate it into diminishing its energy. Therefore, there are always many springs in the vicinity o f the ridge, and Dragon Well is the finest o f these. When that which has been deeply stored can be discharged at a distance, it is because it has not been negligent in its cultivation, and so what it bestows is inexhaustible. The virtue of Dragon Well is due to its having perfectly attained this state. H o w can there be any doubt that it is sustained by some divine thing! In the second year o f the Yiian-feng era [1079], Pien-ts'ai, w h o is the Buddhist master Yuan-ching, concluded his sermons at the India Temple and retired to the Monastery o f the Sage o f Longevity on this mountain, which is less than half a mile from Dragon Well. 6 Whenever anyone in these mountains has business in Ch'ien-t'ang, 7 as well as travelers on their way to the monastery, all take the road passing beside the well. The master therefore built a pavilion at this spot. He then had his disciples form a circle and utter Buddhist incantations to the well, hoping to pacify the so-called "dragon." Suddenly a large fish leapt up out o f the spring, startling all w h o observed this. Subsequently, none doubted that there was a dragon in the well, and its fame has spread even more widely. In this same year, on my way from Huai-nan 8 to visit relatives in Yiieh, I arrived in Ch'ien-t'ang and called on the master in the mountains. The master, grasping his staff, escorted me up Windy Bamboo Ridge and pointed to Dragon Well, saying, "The virtue o f this spring is perfect. As beautiful as West Lake, it cannot be corrupted and led astray; as strong as the Che River, it cannot be coerced and forced to submit. It has received its stable centrality from Heaven and Earth and is sustained by the harmony o f yin and yang, nurturing its source and issuing forth its waters like silk threads to enrich the myriad things. Though there have been men o f antiquity w h o were in accordance with the Tao, how could they ever improve upon this? It should be recorded." I replied, " O f course. " 9

CH'IN KUAN

Dragon Well II H^Mtit O n the day after the M i d - A u t u m n Festival in the second year o f the Y u a n - f e n g era [September 1 3 , 1079], I passed through Hang-chou on m y return eastward f r o m Wu-hsing to Kuei-chi. 1 T h e Buddhist master Pien-ts'ai of D r a g o n Well sent a letter inviting me to visit him in the mountains. B y the time I left the city, it was already dusk. I crossed West Lake by boat to the T e m p l e o f Universal Tranquillity, where I met the m o n k Ts'an-liao. 2 I asked him about the sedan chair that was supposed to have been sent f r o m D r a g o n Well, and he replied that because I had arrived late, it had left. That evening, the s k y cleared after the rain and the m o o n shone through the forest so brightly that one could even count hairs. I then disembarked and f o l l o w e d Ts'an-liao with staff in hand around the lake by Thunder Peak, crossed over South Screen Mountain, and washed m y feet at the Stream of Benevolent K a r m a . 3 We entered M a g i c R o c k Vale, 4 where w e took a side path and climbed up Windy B a m b o o Ridge. We rested at D r a g o n Well Pavilion, where w e drew water f r o m the spring and drank it as w e sat on the rocks. F r o m Universal Tranquillity w e passed b y fifteen Buddhist temples, all silent without any sound of people. In some o f the cottages along the road w e r e lamplights, n o w bright, n o w dim. T h e bushes and trees were dense and flourishing; the flowing water was agitated and let out a s o r r o w f u l cry—this could not be any place in the human w o r l d . It was almost the second watch [9:00-11:00 P.M.] by the time w e reached the Monastery o f the Sage o f L o n g e v i t y . I paid a visit to Pients'ai at the Hall o f the Tide's Sound. T h e next day, I left to return home.5

203

(1079)

24

Lu Yu

(1125-1210) fk

a*

Lu Y u was born into a family of high officials during the Northern Sung w h o became impoverished soon after the fall o f the dynasty. When he was one year old, the Jurchen tribe attacked the capital of K'ai-feng and subsequently established the Chin dynasty in the north, a circumstance that compelled Lu's family to flee south back to their home in Shan-yin, Yiieh Prefecture (modern Shao-hsing, Che-chiang). During the difficult years of his childhood Lu was educated primarily by his father and, like him, became an ardent supporter of the irredentist faction that urged the recovery of north China. Although Lu Y u was a complex personality w h o explored broad themes in his writings, he has been celebrated in later centuries for his patriotic sentiments and visions of ancient Chinese glory. In 1 1 5 3 , he passed first in the palace examination. His views, however, angered the peace faction of Prime Minister Ch'in Kuei ( 1 0 9 1 - 1 1 5 5 ) , w h o favored negotiations, and his name was stricken from the list for the follow-up examination. U p o n the accession o f Emperor Hsiao-tsung (r. 1 1 6 2 1189), the irredentist faction gained power and he was finally employed. T h e disunity of this faction and its military failures led to the emperor's loss of confidence, whereupon the court returned to policies of appeasement. Lu Y u was forced out of government service and retired. Henceforth, his official career alternated between holding low-ranking offices and periods of retirement caused by his outspoken views on foreign policy and administrative matters. In 1169, after several years of requests, he received a minor assignment as vice-prefect in K'uei Prefecture (modern Feng-chieh, Szu-ch'uan). Economic pressures forced him to accept the position, which required long travel through the interior to the western

205

) ¡1

!

«.«.«MS-

Fig. 33The Long River at Hsia-lao chiang chiu-sheng-ch'uan

Stream.

From

Hsia-

chih (1884), D e u t s c h e

Staatsbibliothek, Berlin. T h e Hsia-lao Stream is s h o w n flowing i n t o t h e L o n g R i v e r t o t h e

right of the center o f the illustration. H i g h e r u p t o t h e left is t h e C a v e o f t h e T h r e e Travelers.

LU

YU

frontier—the subject matter of A Journey into Shu. After his term ended, he remained in the establishment of the Pacification Commissioner of Szu-ch'uan, Wang Yen ( 1 1 3 8 - 1 2 1 8 ) , and wrote numerous patriotic poems reflecting his enthusiasm for the army. After Wang's recall, Lu Y u held further positions in Szu-ch'uan. In 1 1 7 5 , he worked for Fan Ch'eng-ta when the latter came to serve in the military command. None of these positions enabled him to realize his ambition to counterattack the Chin, however, and he eventually turned to wine and unconventional behavior as an escape, taking the sobriquet "The Old Man Who Does as He Pleases" (Fang-weng). It was as a poet of increasing note that he received an imperial audience in 1178 after his return east. He was given further minor posts, some of which were merely to allow him time to write poetry. In 1194, a relative, Han T'o-chou ( 1 1 5 1 - 1 2 0 7 ) , gained power at court, and Lu Y u became politically involved with him. A persistent irredentist, Han finally persuaded the Emperor Ning-tsung (r. 1 1 9 4 1224) to attack the north in 1206. This campaign ended in defeat the following year, and Han's head was presented to the Chin as a peace offering. Lu Y u , then eighty years old, finally retired under criticism. He lived another five years, mostly writing poetry. Lu Y u produced an immense number of poems—more than 9,300 in all genres. He destroyed most of his early work but preserved and published some 2,400 poems of his middle age, and during the last twenty years of his life he composed perhaps 6,500 more. In these later poems he celebrated a calm, rural life in which he had contact with peasants, though as always he continued pursuing his earlier patriotic themes. Among his wider interests was a quest for transcendence through Taoism and The Book of Changes (I ching). He also wrote noteworthy landscape and field-and-garden poetry in which he explored the tension between Confucian loyalty to the dynasty and lyric ideals of self-contentment and spiritual liberation. A Journey into Shu, which covers Lu's trip from Shan-yin to K'uei Prefecture in July-December 1170, was one of the most influential travel diaries, becoming a model for other writers. It was one of the longest and most ambitious works in the genre until the late-Ming travel diaries of Hsu Hung-tsu. Its broad contents included geography, roads and waterways, local customs and religions, ethnic characteristics, economic and political structures, local products, and administrative problems of the areas through which he passed. In the following selection, Lu Y u describes the entrance to the Three Gorges and mentions O x Mountain, earlier recorded in Li Tao-yiian's Guide to

L U Y U

209

Waterways. T h e C a v e of the Three Travelers had already become a site o f literary pilgrimage after Po Chii-i, but his diary helped to popularize this place further among travel writers and poets.

From A J o u r n e y i n t o S h u : The Cave

of the Three

Travelers (1170)

O n the eighth day o f the month [ N o v e m b e r 1 7 , 1 1 7 0 ] , after the fifth watch [3:00-5:00 A.M.], w e cast off and sailed through the Hsia-lao Pass. 1 Lining both sides o f the river w e r e a thousand peaks and myriad ridges. S o m e arose challenging each other; some stood alone, towering over the others; some were crumbling and about to collapse on those below; some were so l o f t y that they seemed about to fall; some were filled with horizontal cracks; and some had vertical crevices. There w e r e protrusions and there were hollows and there were fissures—their f o r m s were so strange that they could not be fully described. A t the beginning o f winter, the viridian color o f the grass and trees had not faded. Looking off to the west, the layered mountains f o r m e d palace gatetowers. A river flowed out f r o m between them, and this is called "Hsia-lao S t r e a m . " O u - y a n g Hsiu w r o t e a poem entitled "Hsia-lao F e r r y , " which goes: A s w e entered the gorges, mountains gradually w o u n d about us; A s w e m o v e d through the rapids, the mountains grew ever more numerous. 2

He was referring to this place. We tied the boat up and I went with m y sons and the Buddhist master Liao-cheng to see the C a v e o f the Three Travelers. We climbed stone steps f o r less than a mile; some were so steep that w e couldn't get a foothold. T h e cave was as large as a three-room house. There was an opening through which one could pass, but it was dark, steep, and dangerous—quite frightening. We w o u n d around the mountain's waist and had to crouch d o w n as w e passed below a cliff. We could barely walk to the mouth o f the cave. H o w e v e r , w e could v i e w b e l o w a stream, a pond, and stone cliffs more than one hundred feet high as the sound o f the water frightened us. There were t w o more caves, with a

210

L U

YU

wall in back, which were large enough to dwell in. Stalactites had built up over many years, which hung perpendicular down to the ground like pillars. Just above the entrance was carved an inscription that said:

Huang Ta-lin, his younger brother T'ing-chien, together with Hsin Hung and his son Ta-fang, 3 visited on the date hsin-hai in the third month of the second year of the Shao-sheng era [April 22, 1095].

Alongside on the rock wall was carved: Ou-yang Yung-shu of I-ling 4 visited on the tenth day of the seventh month in the fourth year of the Ching-yu era [August 23, 1037].

A character was missing afterward. It further said, "Judge Ting . . . , " with a f e w characters missing afterward. " T i n g " was Ting Pao-ch'en, 5 whose courtesy name was Yuan-chen. The t w o characters below " T i n g " seemed barely visible but did not resemble Yuan-chen." M o r e over, the inscription signed " O u - y a n g Y u n g - s h u " only mentioned I-ling: it did not indicate that he was the magistrate there. 6 Outside the cave in the stream was a fallen rock lying on its side, on which was inscribed:

Huang T'ing-chien, his younger brother Shu-hsiang, son Hsiang, nephew Ch'ing, and the monk T'ang-lii traveled here. When we viewed the old inscription dated "hsin-hai," it was like something out of a dream. Inscribed on the day keng-yin in the third month of the first year of the Chien-chung ching-kuo era [April 29, 1101].

Huang T'ing-chien, though, was banished to Ch'ien-nan and passed this w a y in i-hai, the second year of the Shao-sheng era [1095-1096], so stating the year as "hsin-hai" was a mistake. 7 We moored at Stone Tablet Gorge. 8 In a cave there is a rock resembling an old man holding a fishing pole, which almost seems like the real thing. O n the ninth day of the month [November 18], it was snowing slightly as w e passed through Fan Gorge. 9 The layers of mountains

LU

YU

overlapped each other just like panels of a folding fan, so I suspect it derived its name from this. We climbed to Toad R o c k . 1 0 This is where the "Fourth Finest Spring in the World," mentioned in A Ranking of Waters, is located. 1 1 The "toad" was at the foot o f a mountain, facing the river. Its head, nose, throat, and neck bore an exact resemblance, while its back had bumps that were quite realistic. H o w clever natural creation is! Entering from along its back, one comes across a cave whose rock is green and moist. A spring tinkled—"ling-ling." It flowed out from the cave and dripped down into the river through the toad's mouth and nose in a beaded curtain of water. On this day it was extremely cold, and the top of the cliffs were covered with snow, yet the cave was as warm as springtime. The rock and the cave stood opposite each other. Slightly to the west was a peak standing alone, piercing the clouds. It is called "Celestial Pillar Peak." From here on, the mountains leveled out slightly, but along the river huge rocks were piled up as far as the eye could see, looking as if they had been dredged up from a canal. In the evening w e stayed at the O x T e m p l e , 1 2 where the mountains again rose high. Many villagers came to sell us tea and vegetables. A m o n g them were w o m e n w h o wore kerchiefs of black cloth decorated with patterns of white flowers, yet their skin was very white, and their accent was fairly correct. H o w e v e r , the tea was like twigs and grass, so bitter in taste that it was undrinkable. T h e temple is called "Responsive Spirit," and it enshrines the god w h o was given the title "Marquis of Blessings and Protection," both named according to an imperial decree during the Shao-hsing era [ 1 1 3 1 - 1 1 6 2 ] . B e l o w it were the Rapids of Unrighteousness. Scattered rocks blocked the middle of the current; looking at it, I felt danger ahead. Yet as our boat passed through I was not overly concerned, no doubt thanks to the marvelous skill of the boatman. A legend says that a god accumulated merit by helping the Hsia emperor Y u control the river, so he is sacrificed to here. Stone horses stand to the right and left of the gate, each rather unimpressive, small in size, and covered by a little roof. The horse on the right is without his left ear, a fact that was noticed by Ou-yang H s i u . 1 3 A grove of trees behind the temple seemed to be tung-ch'ing evergreens, 1 4 but they weren't. N o one knew what they were called. The fallen leaves have black veins and resemble the seal-style characters on Taoist charms. Each leaf is unique, and m y sons collected a number of them. T h e poem by Ou-yang Hsiu was engraved in stone inside the temple. There was also an envoi by Chang Wenchung, 1 5 which said:

211

212

LU

YU

How mighty the ox with his great spiritual power. He carted giant rocks here, hundreds, thousands, millions of them, like swords and halberds, like teeth. Piled-up tall beside the river, they block and agitate the waves, perilous beyond measure. They threaten the boatmen, who are so frightened they lose color. They kill lambs and offer up wine, sacrificing at the temple for the past thousand years.

His Excellency Chang's idea seems to be that the god piled up the rocks to block the flow in order to threaten man and extort sacrifices. If this was the god's real intent, h o w could there have been such august sacrifices to him for a thousand years? N o doubt, this theory is far-fetched. In the evening, the boatman told us not to strike the watch, saying, "There are many tigers in the hills about the temple and they come out when they hear the sound of drums." 1 6

25

Fan Ch'eng-ta

(1126-1193)

&& A

Fan Ch'eng-ta, from P'ing-chiang, Wu-chiin (modern Su-chou, Chiang-su), was born into an official family. At the age of seventeen, he was identified as a promising young talent and asked to submit poetry to the Ministry of Rites. In 1 1 5 4 , he became a Metropolitan Graduate and, t w o years later, began serving in local posts. Fan was a dedicated Confucian official concerned with the welfare of the people, the military strengthening of the state, and the recovery of the north f r o m the Chin dynasty. B y 1 1 6 6 he had quickly risen to the position of vice-director in the Ministry of Personnel, causing political opponents to claim that he had been promoted above his rank; he was therefore dismissed and sent home. After t w o years in retirement, he returned to office, gaining the confidence o f the Emperor Hsiao-tsung (r. 1 1 6 2 1189) as a member o f the irredentist faction. He successfully carried out a diplomatic mission to the Chin in 1 1 7 0 , which resulted in the first of his travel diaries, Grasping the Carriage Reins (Lan-p'ei lu), along with a cycle of seventy-two poems on the events of this journey. He subsequently lost power at court for opposing a favorite of the emperor and again retired in 1 1 7 1 . Fan returned to public life in 1 1 7 3 to serve in Kuang-hsi; he recorded his investigations of the area around Kuei-lin in a local gazetteer and in another travel diary, Riding in the Luan-bird Chariot (Ts'an-luan lu, 1 1 7 3 ) . The following year he served as military commissioner in Szu-ch'uan, where he employed Lu Y u . Returning to the capital in 1 1 7 7 , Fan took over the Ministry of Rites and, in 1 1 7 8 , became Examination Administrator and Participant in Determining Government Matters, an important policymaking position. A few months later he was again impeached by a jealous censor. After

213

F i g - 34-

Sung Hsü (1525-?), Eyebrows Mountain After a Snowfall (1605). Nanking Museum, Nanking.

FAN

CH'ENC-TA

215

returning to government in 1 1 8 0 for one final period of service, he retired in 1 1 8 3 owing to ill health; he lived on at Stone Lake (Shih-hu) in the Su-chou area for another ten years. Later canonized as one of the Four Masters of Southern Sung poetry, Fan worked largely in the field-and-garden genre. He brought to its tradition of reclusiveness, assertion of moral purity, and transcendental longings a thorough realism, conveyed through objective observations about moral and social life in the countryside. Some poems have a quality of egoless impersonality and sudden shifts in perspective, reflecting his interest in Ch'an Buddhism. His monumental Gazetteer ofWu-chiin (Wu-chun chih, 1 1 9 2 - 1 1 9 3 ) was considered a model work. In his lyric travel records, he was influenced by the descriptive style of Liu Tsung-yiian and the philosophical attitudes of Su Shih, particularly in two accounts of his outings on Stone Lake. Fan was also regarded as an outstanding calligrapher. Diary of a Boat Trip to Wu (Wu-ch'uan lu) was written following Fan Ch'eng-ta's service in Szu-ch'uan. In June 1 1 7 7 , he set out on his return to Hang-chou at a leisurely pace that enabled him to stop at scenic places along the river route. The following selection describes the 10,165-foot Eyebrows Mountain (O-mei-shan), located in modern O-mei District, Szu-ch'uan. One of the four sacred mountains of Buddhism in China, its patron being the Bodhisattva Samantabhadra, it has been a site of religious pilgrimage since the T'ang. Even earlier, during the Eastern Chin, the calligrapher Wang Hsi-chih had viewed it from a nearby mountain and praised its beauty. Fan moored his boat at Chia Prefecture (modern Le-shan, Szu-ch'uan) and spent three days making the seventeen mile ascent to the summit, where pilgrims and sightseers could visit an ancient shrine and view "Buddha's Halo." His descriptive style is clear and reportorial, revealing his curiosity about the observable world and his interest in "the classification of things"; some of his explanations of natural phenomena, though, would be considered unscientific today.

From D i a r y o f a B o a t T r i p to W u : Eyebrows

Mountain

On the day i-wei [July 24, 1177], the sky cleared after a snowfall. We passed N e w Station, Eighty-four Slopes, and Sala Plateau. 1 wood and leaves of the sala-tree resemble the hai-t'ung, and it is also the yang-mei.2 Its flowers are red and white, blossoming in spring

(1177) . . . The like and

216

FAN

CH'ENC-TA

summer. It grows only on this mountain. I saw them as soon as I climbed halfway up, but when I reached this point, they covered the whole mountain. In general, all the plants, trees, birds, and insects on Greater Eyebrow Peak differ from those found in the world below. Previously, I had only heard descriptions of them; now I have been able to investigate them for myself. I came in the last month of summer. 3 Several days before, there was a heavy snowfall, and there were still fresh traces of it on the tree leaves. Among the rare plants, there is one that resembles the Eight Transcendents hydrangea, except that it is a deep purple. Another is like the morning glory, but several times larger. Yet another resembles smartweed but is a pale green. I have heard that rare flowers are especially plentiful in spring, but at this season it is cold on the mountain and few can be seen. As for rare herbs, there are so many I could not enumerate them all. The mountain is high and windy, so trees cannot grow tall. Their branches all hang downward. Old moss clings to the trees like disheveled hair, hanging down several tens of feet and touching the ground. There is also the pagoda pine, shaped like a fir but with leaves that are round and small. It, too, cannot attain great height but grows erect in stages, like a pagoda. They are especially plentiful on the summit. Furthermore, there are no birds at all, probably owing to the mountain's elevation, for they cannot fly this high. From Sala Plateau I passed the Pavilion for Contemplating Buddha, Soft-Grass Plateau, and the Stream for Cleansing Feet before finally arriving at the Temple of the Brilliant Image on the summit. Though it contains several tens of wooden chambers, no one lives there. In the middle is a small chapel dedicated to the Bodhisattva Samantabhadra. 4 I began the climb at the beginning of the hours of mao [5:00-7:00 a . m . ] ; now, it was already past shen [3:00-5:00 p . m . ] . At first I wore summer linen, but it gradually grew colder as I ascended. At Eighty-four Slopes, it suddenly became quite cold. And when I reached the summit, I had to quickly don a double layer of silk-padded clothes as well as a woolen gown and a camel-hair jacket. This exhausted the clothing I had brought along in the trunks. I wrapped a turban around my head in several layers and put on felt boots. Still, it was shiveringly cold, quite unbearable. So I burned charcoal in a brazier, which I clutched as I sat up straight. There is a spring on the summit, but the water cannot boil rice. The kernels remain hard like grains of sand. I knew that water from ancient ice and snow cannot be used to cook with, 5 so I had ajar of water brought along from down below, and this was enough to sustain me.

FAN

CH'ENG-TA

A while passed, then I braved the cold and went up over the Bridge of the Celestial Transcendent to Brilliance Cliff, where I lit some incense. T h e chapel there is covered with a roofing of bark. The V i c e - G r a n d Councillor Wang Chan-shu 6 once had the roof tiled, but the snow and frost seeped in and within a year the tiles had all cracked. Later it was reroofed with bark that at least lasts for t w o to three years. Someone said to me, "Buddha's Halo always appears at the hours of wu [ 1 1 : 0 0 a . m . - 1 : 0 0 p . m . ] . N o w it is past shen [3:00-5:00 p . m . ] . We had better return to our lodgings and come again t o m o r r o w . " While w e were hesitating, suddenly clouds arose below the cliff from a valley to the side, just where Thunder C a v e Mountain is located. T h e clouds paraded by vigorously like an honor guard. When they encountered the cliff, they paused for a short while. From the top of the clouds, a grand halo appeared containing several rings of various colors. I stood exactly opposite it and saw an inky shadow in its center, like a Transcendent or a sage astride an elephant. 7 In the time it would take to drink a cup of tea, the halo vanished, while beside it appeared another halo just like the one before. It, too, vanished after a while. From the clouds there then appeared t w o rays o f golden light, which extended along the waist of the cliff. People call it the "Lesser Manifestation." B y sunset, the clouds had all dispersed, and the surrounding mountains became quite tranquil. B y the second night watch [ 9 : 0 0 - 1 1 : 0 0 p . m . ] , lights appeared all over below the cliff. When viewed from a distance, they seemed to number in the many hundreds, perhaps even a thousand. At night, the cold was intense; I could not stand outside for long. The next day, ping-sheti [July 25], I again ascended Brilliance Cliff for the view. Behind the cliff were the many layers of the Mount Min range. Slightly to the north was Tiled House Mountain, located in Y a Prefecture. 8 A bit to the south was Greater Tiled House Mountain, close to the area of Nan-chao. 9 Its shape looked just like a one-room house with a tiled roof. There was also a halo at Lesser Tiled R o o f Mountain, k n o w n as the "Manifestation of Self-Enlightenment." 1 0 Behind these mountains are the S n o w y Mountains of the Western Reg i o n . 1 1 L o f t y , rugged, carved, sliced; scores, perhaps a hundred peaks in all. When the rising sun first illuminates them, the snow glistens like shiny silver, shimmering in the light of the dawn. From antiquity to the present, this snow has never melted. These mountains extend all the w a y to the land of India and to tributary kingdoms along the border for a distance of I don't k n o w how many thousands of li. It looks like it is spread out on a table before one. This spectacular, unique, unsurpassable view was truly the crowning one of m y entire life.

217

2 X 8

FAN

CH'ENG-TA

I returned to the chapel on the cliff to offer up a prayer. Soon, a dense mist arose on all sides, blending everything into a single whiteness. A monk said to me, "This is the 'Silvery W o r l d . ' " After a while, a heavy rain fell and the mist dispersed. The monk said, "This is the 'Rain That Cleanses the Cliff.' 'Buddha's Halo' is about to appear." Flossy clouds once again spread out below the cliff, billowing upward until they reached only several tens of feet below the top. The clouds smoothed themselves out like a floor of jade. There was a sudden rain, and droplets flew about. I looked down at the middle of the cliff— there was a large halo lying on top of the smooth clouds. Encircling it were three rings, each containing blue, yellow, red, and green colors. The center of the halo was empty, bright, dense, and clear. Each observer could see his form appear in the empty, bright area without the slightest degree of obscurity, just like a mirror. When one raised one's hands and moved one's legs, the reflection indicated this without showing anyone else's form. The monk said, "This is the 'Halo That Captures the B o d y . ' " When this halo vanished, winds arose from the mountains in front and the clouds quickly drifted away. From the midst of the wind and clouds appeared yet another large halo. It stretched across several mountains and contained many unusual hues, all gathered together in a multicolored light. Peaks, plants, and trees were so fresh, gorgeous, brilliant, and glittering that I couldn't look at them directly. When the clouds and mist dispersed, this halo remained to shine alone. People call it the "Pure Manifestation." When Buddha's Halo is about to appear, clouds must gather first, forming what is known as the "Flossy World." It is from out of these clouds that the halo appears. But when it appears without the help of clouds, it is called a "Pure Manifestation" and is extremely rare. After the time it would take to have a meal, the halo gradually shifted westward past the mountain. I glanced to the left above Thunder C a v e Mountain and again saw a halo just like the one before, only slightly smaller. After a moment it, too, flew off beyond the mountain, moving over toward the plateau, where it hovered just opposite the cliff. Its colors had all changed, and it became the "Golden Bridge," similar to the Rainbow Bridge over the Wu River 1 2 except that the two ends of this "bridge" were supported by purple clouds. Between the hours of wu [11:00 a . m . - i : o o p . m . ] and wei [ 1 : 0 0 - 3 : 0 0 p . m . ] the clouds all disappeared, and this is called "The Final Scene at the C l i f f . " Only Golden Bridge remained visible until after yu [5:00-7:00 p . m . ] , when it vanished. 1 3

26

Chu Hsi

(1130-1200) J L

Chu Hsi was the major formulator of Neo-Confucianism, which absorbed concepts of metaphysics and consciousness f r o m Buddhism and Taoism into traditional Confucian ethics. His comprehensive views on the classics were accepted as orthodox thought by the end of the Southern Sung and became the basis o f the examination system when it was reinstated in the late Yuan. During the Ming and Ch'ing dynasties, he was canonized as a Sage and sacrificed to in temples along with Confucius and Mencius. His career, however, followed a pattern similar to that of many officials: public service in a variety of offices alternating with periods of political disfavor. While he lived, there was little indication of the extraordinary veneration he was to be accorded throughout the later Chinese empire. C h u Hsi grew up in Ch'ung-an, Chien-yang, in what is today Fuchien, in an official family originally from Chiang-hsi. His father was demoted for opposing Ch'in Kuei's appeasement policies and died when Chu Hsi was fourteen; subsequently, Chu Hsi continued to espouse his father's patriotic views and suffered similar punishments during his o w n career. He earned the Metropolitan Graduate degree in 1 1 4 8 and began to serve in local positions. Meanwhile, he attracted disciples and developed his o w n program of Confucian education. In 1 1 6 3 , under Emperor Hsiao-tsung, he was granted an audience and argued for war against the Chin. Though appointed to a number of positions both in the provinces and in the capital, he often refused to accept appointments because of policy differences, or served only briefly before retiring or being demoted. During a fifty-year career, he spent only nine years in office and about forty days at court. His influence was greater through the educational institutions he sponsored.

219

F'g- 35Portrait of Chu Hsi. ( n . d . ) N a t i o n a l Palace M u s e u m , Taipei.

CHU

221

HSI

He helped to restore the White Deer C a v e Academy in 1 1 7 9 while serving in Chiang-hsi and the Academy at the Foothills of the Sacred Mount in 1 1 9 4 while serving as military commissioner in Hu-nan. B y the end of his career in 1 1 9 5 he had become an edict attendant in the Han-lin Academy, but, after angering the powerful official Han T ' o chou, he was finally impeached. His remaining years were spent back in Chien-yang writing and teaching. C h u Hsi's aesthetics asserted the absolute identity of literature and the Tao, in contrast to more conventional formulations, which saw writing as but an expression or vehicle of the Tao. For Chu Hsi, they were one and the same, unified through the moral cultivation of the individual. Similarly, he espoused the view, stated in the " M a o Preface" to The Book of Poetry, that poetry was simply the expression of the moral will. His poems, for which he achieved some note, conveyed an archaistic temperament, employing f e w allusions or metrical intricacies in favor of direct, uncomplicated emotions and objective observations of the world. His prose, as might be expected, was largely didactic and pragmatic. A m o n g the more influential texts associated with him is the Collected Sayings of Master Chu (Chu-tzu yti-lei), which transmitted his remarks on philosophy and literature. It came to be looked upon as a literary model for its inclusion of colloquial elements that captured a sense of actual speech. The following travel piece is undated, but it must have been written before 1 1 8 5 , when one of his traveling companions, Liu P'ing-fu, died. That it has been often anthologized is probably due to the prestige of the writer, for it is a conventional, though well-wrought, travel account. Like many travel narratives, it was originally written in conjunction with poems. C h u Hsi represented his experience o f a journey as a linear progress through a world of concrete appearances and sensations with only brief autobiographical and lyric elements. The piece reveals a restrained imagination focused on "the classification of things," recording immediate observations of the environment.

The Mountain

a Hundred C h a n g High

After ascending the Mountain a Hundred Chang High 1 for about a mile, I peered down to the right at a deep valley and braced myself on the left against an overhanging cliff. Stones had been stacked to form stairs. I climbed all ten or so of them. T h e scenic beauty of the mountain began from here.

&

^ihii,

222

CHU

HSI

I followed m o r e stairs eastward and encountered a small stream; a rock bridge spanned it. E v e r y w h e r e were aged vines and ancient trees. Although it was the height of s u m m e r , it was not hot, even at n o o n time. T h e water was completely clear and deep. It splashed d o w n f r o m higher u p with splattering sounds—"chien-chien." I crossed the rock bridge, followed alongside t w o cliffs, w i n d i n g m y w a y higher until I reached the outer gate of a temple. It was a small building with three rooms, hardly capable of accommodating ten or so people. Still, f r o m the front it surveyed the stream below; in back, it faced a rock pond. Wind comes wafting t h r o u g h t w o gorges all day long w i t h o u t respite. Inside the gate, one passes over a pond b y another rock bridge. Crossing it and turning n o r t h w a r d , I climbed u p m a n y stone steps to arrive at the temple. T h e temple itself was an old building of several r o o m s — small, low, cramped, and n a r r o w — n o t m u c h to look at. O n l y its western pavilion offered a scenic view. Water flows out f r o m the valley to the west, then t h r o u g h a fissure in the rock, and shoots out f r o m beneath the pavilion. Southward, it meets the stream f r o m the valley to the east and flows into the pond. W h e n it leaves the pond, it becomes the small stream mentioned earlier. T h e pavilion occupies a position upstream, j u s t where the onrushing water and steep rocks confront each other, a m o s t enjoyable site. But a wall was built behind it, so there is nothing further to see. I spent the night upstairs in the pavilion alone. B e l o w m y bed was the gurgling of water—"chan-chan"— t h r o u g h o u t the evening. After a long while, the sounds became increasingly melancholy; it was all quite charming. Exiting t h r o u g h the temple gate eastward ten or so paces, I came u p o n a rock terrace. Below, it extended to a steep cliff, which was deep, dark, dangerous, and inaccessible. I gazed to the southeast t h r o u g h a dense g r o v e and saw a cascade f r o m a rock cave in front shoot out into the air and then d r o p d o w n for several tens of feet. T h e f o a m was like scattering pearls and exhaled mist: as the sunlight illuminated it, the luster was so striking that I couldn't look at it directly. T h e terrace occupies an open spot on the southwest of the mountain. In front it greets Reed Peak M o u n t a i n , 2 w h o s e single peak soars handsomely while for several h u n d r e d li about peaks and pinnacles, high and low, one by one, are displayed before one's eyes. As the sun d r e w near to the mountains o n the west, its twilight rays glowed across the sky. Purple and emerald green intermingled—an indescribable sight. W h e n I arose at d a w n and looked d o w n below, white clouds f o r m e d a river rising and falling like waves in the ocean. All the mountains, far and near, protruded t h r o u g h the middle. T h e y seemed

CHU

HSI

to fly and float, back and forth, now surging, now engulfed. In but a short while, a myriad transformations occurred. East of the terrace, the path ended. Local people have cut stairs into the rock in order to pass. They have placed a shrine to the east of it. In times of drought, they offer up prayers to it. Those who are frightened by the dangerous steepness dare not cross, though beyond this point there is nothing more worth viewing on the mountain anyway. I traveled here with Liu Ch'ung-fu, Liu P'ing-fu, 3 Lii Shu-ching, and my cousin Hsu Chou-pin. We all wrote poems to mark the scenic spots. I also wrote this description of the sequence of sights. Those most worth viewing are the stone stairs, the small stream, the temple gate, the rock terrace, the West Pavilion, and the cascade. Because these places are so distinctive, I composed a short poem to record each one and offer them to my fellow travelers as well as to those who would like to journey here but cannot. RECORDED ON THE

DAY, IN THE

M O N T H OF THE

YEAR 4

223

27 Yeh-lii Ch'u-ts'ai

(1189-1243)

Yeh-lii Ch'u-ts'ai, an ethnic Khitan descended from a son of the founder of the Liao dynasty, served the Chin and the Yuan dynasties as an important official. His father had been Right Aide in the Department of State Affairs under the Chin, and Yeh-lii Ch'u-ts'ai soon rose to vice-director in the Left and Right Offices of the same department. In 1 2 1 5 , the Mongols conquered Yen-ching (modern Peking), the Central Capital of the Chin, after a ten-month siege, the Chin emperor having previously fled southward to the Southern Capital at Pien-ching (modern K'ai-feng). Yeh-lii remained in Yen-ching, but the shock of the ensuing destruction and pillaging by the Mongols led him to retreat from the world to study Buddhism with the Ch'an master Wan-sung Hsing-hsiu (1166-1246). Three years later, in 1218, Chinggis Khan (r. 1206-1227) summoned Yeh-lii Ch'u-ts'ai to an audience at his camp in Mongolia; Yeh-lii quickly gained his confidence both as an able official who could aid the Mongols in administering their growing conquests and as a skilled astrologer. From 1219 to 1224, Yeh-lii Ch'u-ts'ai accompanied Chinggis Khan on his Western Campaign, the goal of which was the defeat of Shah Mohammed II of Khwarazm (d. 1220). With fewer than one hundred thousand men, Chinggis destroyed the numerically superior Moslems, and Yeh-lii witnessed the capture of the wealthy cities of Bokhara and Samarkand in 1220. It was in Samarkand the following year that he became acquainted with another eminent traveler from China, the Taoist master Ch'iu Ch'u-chi (Ch'ang-ch'un, 1 1 4 8 - 1 2 2 7 ) , head of the Ch'uan-chen sect. On Yeh-lii's recommendation, Ch'iu had been summoned by Chinggis Khan, who wished to hear him expound his religious views. Ch'iu so impressed Chinggis that the khan conferred

225

(1219) [1224] n_nj-i_n

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YEH-LU

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numerous privileges on him and his disciples, w h i c h emboldened the Taoists to seek control over their Buddhist rivals. Despite a surface cordiality between the t w o men, Y e h - l u , w h o believed in the underlying unity o f Confucianism, T a o i s m , and B u d d h i s m , soon regretted his sponsorship o f C h ' i u . When C h i n g g i s K h a n returned to M o n g o l i a in 1224, Y e h - l u remained for a while in the Western Region. He then rejoined C h i n g g i s for his campaign against the Hsi-Hsia K i n g d o m before making his w a y back to Y e n - c h i n g in 1227. A l t h o u g h slighted b y M o n g o l historians, he was highly regarded b y the Chinese, w h o credited him w i t h helping to arrange the succession o f O g o d e i (Emperor T'ai-tsung o f the Y u a n , r. 1229-1241) under w h o m he rose to secretariat director. A man o f w i d e scholarly and literary interests, Y e h - l u Ch'u-ts'ai strove to civilize the victorious M o n g o l s by persuading them to establish many administrative and economic institutions based on Chinese patterns. H e also sought, w h e n possible, to alleviate s o m e o f the cruelties o f M o n g o l rule. Y e h - l u Ch'u-ts'ai w r o t e Record of a Journey to the West in 1228 and privately printed it the f o l l o w i n g year. It consists o f t w o distinct sections with a preface. T h e preface presents an argument against sectarian conflict and heterodoxy. T h e first section, w h i c h is translated here, is a report o f the cities he visited; it is, in fact, one o f the f e w extant descriptions o f the Western R e g i o n in the centuries f o l l o w i n g Hsiian-tsang's account. T h e second, longer section, in the f o r m o f a dialogue, is an attack on the reputation o f C h ' i u C h ' u - c h i , in w h i c h Y e h - l u , as an eyewitness, offers ten specific criticisms o f C h ' i u ' s character and dismisses claims about C h ' i u ' s spiritual and intellectual powers. This appears to have been the real motivation behind Yeh-lii's text, for as the abuses o f the Ch'iian-chen sect g r e w , Y e h - l u felt obliged publicly to disassociate himself f r o m the Taoists, something that became possible for him only after the deaths o f both C h i n g g i s Khan and C h ' i u C h ' u - c h i in 1227. A r o u n d the same time, a detailed, hagiographical account o f C h ' i u ' s j o u r n e y , titled The Perfected Master Ch'ang-ch'un's Journey to the West (Ch'ang-ch'un chen-jen hsi-yu chi, ca. 1228-1230), appeared. It was written b y his disciple Li C h i h - c h ' a n g (1193-1278), an important Taoist prelate, and w a s designed to promote the interests o f the Ch'iian-chen sect b y recording the patronage o f C h i n g g i s K h a n and the miracles performed by C h ' i u . (It was translated into English in 1931 by Arthur Waley as The Travels of an Alchemist.) Y e h - l u Ch'u-ts'ai may well have been aware o f an early version o f this w o r k and decided to respond to its extravagant claims. Yeh-lii's text was not w i d e l y disseminated after his lifetime,

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CH'U-TS'AI

229

perhaps because one of his sons was devoted to Taoism. The t w o parts were separated by later editors and reassembled only in 1926, when a complete version was discovered in Japan. Although Yeh-lu Ch'u-ts'ai describes his journey in terms of a string of cities, in many places the account does not reflect his actual itinerary. He mostly accompanied Chinggis Khan's camp and in between traveled back and forth between places on missions for the khan. One must thus rely on other sources, such as his poems and official histories, to suggest his probable route.

From R e c o r d o f a J o u r n e y to the W e s t In the spring of the year wu-yin, the day after the moon reached its height in the third month [April 12, 1218], I, the Lay Scholar of Profound Clarity, 1 was commanded to be in attendance on a journey to the West. After the Imperial A r m y returned victoriously, in the winter of the year ting-hai [ 1 2 2 7 - 1 2 2 8 ] , I was ordered to collect books and records, and m y route brought me to Y e n . 2 There, I was resting when a guest felicitously arrived and directly asked me, " Y o u r journey to the West must have taken you over thousands of miles. Could I hear something of the events o f this j o u r n e y ? " I replied, "I set out from the T o m b of Eternal Peace, went through the Chii-yung Pass, passed through Wu-ch'uan, went forth east of Yiin-chung, arrived north of the Celestial Mountains, traversed great sandhills, and crossed over the Desert. 3 In less than a hundred days, I reached the Traveling Court. 4 Mountains and rivers crisscrossed; how lush was the verdant land! T h e covered wagons were like clouds; the army, like rain drops. Horses and oxen covered the plains; foot soldiers and troops in armor emblazoned the sky. Fires and smoke viewed each other from afar; fortified camps stretched for thousands of miles. Never has there been such magnificence throughout all history! "In the following year [1219], the Imperial A r m y commenced its Western Campaign, 5 the route passing through the Golden Mountains. 6 It was just at the height of summer, yet snow flew about on the mountain peaks and the accumulated ice was more than a thousand feet high. His Majesty commanded that the ice be cut through to create a road for the army. T h e springs in the Golden Mountains number somewhere in the many hundreds; pines and junipers reach the sky, while flowers and grass fill the valleys. I viewed it from the summit: all the peaks competed in beauty, streams struggled with each other to flow through the rugged ravines—truly a most magnificent view! West of the Golden

(1228)

230

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CH'U-TS'AI

Mountains, the rivers all flow westward into the Western Ocean. T h u s has Heaven defined the boundary between East and West! "In the southern corner of the Golden Mountains is a city of the Uighurs called 'Beshbalik.' 7 It has a T ' a n g stele k n o w n as the 'DesertOcean A r m y Stele.' 8 The 'Desert-Ocean' is m o r e than a hundred miles northwest of the city. There are 'islands' in this 'ocean' that are covered by the feathers left by birds. M o r e than seventy miles west of the city is Bugur; 9 there is a T ' a n g stele there. O n e hundred seventy-five miles south of the city is Qoco, k n o w n as 'Kao-ch'ang' during the T'ang, also called 'I Prefecture.' 1 0 Around twelve hundred miles west of Kaoch'ang is the city of Khotan, k n o w n as the k i n g d o m of Yu-t'ien during the T'ang. 1 1 The Black and White Jade rivers emanate f r o m here. 1 2 "After traveling about three hundred fifty miles beyond the DesertOcean A r m y Region, there is the city of Bolat, 1 3 which controls several other towns nearby. South of Bolat are the Dark Mountains, 1 4 which stretch for some three hundred fifty miles east to west and seventy miles north to south. O n the summit is Round Lake, 1 5 around t w e n t y five miles in circumference. After passing Round Lake, descending to the south are groves of apple trees whose lush shade keeps out the sun. After coming out of the Dark Mountains, there is the city of Almalik. 1 6 When men of the Western Region saw these apple groves they called it 'Almalik,' for the entire surrounding area contains apple farms, and it is from these that it derived its name. It controls eight or nine cities where many grapes and pears can be found. They also raise the five kinds of grain, 1 7 just like in the Central Plains of China. "Farther west is a great river named the 'I-lieh.' 1 8 West of this river is a city named 'Gus O r d o , ' which was the site of the capital of the Western Liao dynasty. 1 9 It controls several tens of cities. "Farther west more than a hundred miles is the city of Talas. 2 0 Farther southwest more than a hundred forty miles are the cities of Khojend, Pap, Kasan, and Pa-lan. 2 1 Khojend has many pomegranate trees; the fruits are as large as t w o hands clasped together, and are sweet with a tinge of sourness. Three to five pieces yield about one large cup of juice, excellent for quenching thirst. Beside the city of Pa-lan are pa-lan groves, hence the name. T h e flowers of the pa-lan are like those of the c o m m o n apricot tree, but somewhat lighter in shade; the leaves are like those of the peach tree, but smaller. Every winter they blossom; by the height of summer, the fruit ripens. It is shaped like the flat peach, but the flesh is not fit to eat, only the pits are consumed. T h e large watermelons of Pa-p'u weigh as much as sixty-five pounds; a mule can carry only t w o at a time. Their flavor is sweet, cool, and delicious. "About

one hundred

seventy-five miles farther northwest

of

YEH-LU

CH'U-TS'AI

Khojend is the city of Otrar, 2 2 which controls more than ten neighboring cities. The leader of this city murdered our dynasty's ambassador and a number of his entourage as well as more than a hundred merchants, plundering their goods. This was the initial reason for this Western Campaign. "More than three hundred fifty miles west of Otrar is a great city named 'Samarkand.' 2 3 'Samarkand' means 'fertile' among the men of the Western Region, and this place was so named because of its fertile soil. The Western Liao named this city 'the Superior Prefecture of Hochung' because of its proximity to the river. 24 Samarkand is extremely rich. They use gold and copper coins without holes or raised edges; all merchandise is weighed out by scales. There are gardens everywhere in the surrounding outskirts, stretching for several tens of miles. Every house must have a garden, and these gardens are always fascinating in design. They all employ canals and fountains, square ponds, and round pools; cypresses grow next to willows, and peach trees intertwine with plum, creating one of the most impressive scenes today. Large melons are the size of a horse's head and long enough to contain a fox. Of the eight kinds of grain, they lack millet, glutinous rice, and soybeans, but they have all the others. 25 At the height of summer there is no rain, so they transport water by means of canals. Every third acre of land is irrigated with over two hundred gallons of water. They ferment grapes, the flavor resembling the 'Nine Fermentations Wine' of Chung-shan. 2 6 Though there are plenty of mulberry trees, few people know how to raise silkworms, so silk is extremely rare and they all wear cotton. The local people consider white an auspicious color, while black clothing is worn at funerals, so everyone wears white. "Between two hundred and two hundred fifty miles west of Samarkand is the city of Bokhara. 27 The produce here is even more plentiful, and the cities and towns quite numerous. Samarkand was the capital of the Shah of the Moslems. 28 Bokhara, Khojend, and Otrar were subject to it. "West of Bokhara is a great river named the Amu Darya, slightly inferior to the Yellow River, which flows west into the Great Sea. 29 West of this river is the city of Urgenj, where the mother of the Shah lived. 30 Its wealth surpasses that of Bokhara. "Farther west along this great river is Bactria, which is quite prosperous. 31 Farther west is the city of T'uan, which is also magnificent. 32 In the city can be found many items made of lacquer that bear the mark of Ch'ang-an. "I proceeded directly west of here, arriving at the city of Black India. 33 The people of this kingdom also have a written language, but it

231

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differs in alphabet and sound from that used in the Buddhist kingdoms. There are many Buddhist statues throughout this kingdom. The people do not butcher cows or goats but do drink their milk. According to their custom, when the husbands die first, their wives are cremated together with them. I inquired about the location of the Buddhist kingdoms, and they indicated that they lay to the southeast. After investigation, I concluded that this kingdom is not northern India proper; the inhabitants are a border people on the north of India. T h e local inhabitants have never seen snow. There are t w o harvests of wheat every year. At the height of summer, they set out pewter utensils in the sand and are immediately able to solder them. When the dung of horses falls to the ground, it begins to boil. T h e moonlight shines down on people like the summer sun in the Central Plains of China. In the evening, they often escape the heat in the shadows o f the moonlight. South o f this kingdom is a great river as broad as the Y e l l o w River, as cold as ice and snow, whose swirling current is swift and dangerous. It comes from slightly west of here and flows directly south and slightly east. I would reason that it must enter into the Southern Ocean. Furthermore, the land produces much sugarcane on fields as wide as those which g r o w millet. T h e local people squeeze out its juice, fermenting it into wine and boiling it to make sugar. "Northwest o f Black India is the kingdom of Kipchak. 3 4 For a thousand miles there are calm rivers everywhere without any hills. A h , it is a strange place indeed! There are no cities, and the people mostly raise goats and horses. They make wine from honey, but the flavor is not too different f r o m the wine of the Central Plains of China. In this kingdom, the days are long while the nights pass quickly. Before the shoulder of a lamb is fully cooked, the sun rises again. It tallies exactly with what the History of the T'ang Dynasty records about the kingdom of Quriqan; 3 5 however, the names of these kingdoms are different. Could it be that after so long a time, the sounds of these names have become confused? Samarkand is almost seven thousand miles f r o m the Central Plains of China, India is the same distance from Samarkand, and Kipchak is the same distance f r o m India. 36 Even though the road is circuitous and winding, I would not consider these places nearby, for they are I don't k n o w how many tens of thousands of li away. "When the year fell on chun-t'an [1224], the Imperial A r m y set forth on a campaign. The Hsi-Hsia had betrayed our trust and violated treaties, 37 so, in the second month of spring of the year ping-hsu [March 1226], the entire Six Armies attacked in successive waves and in one blow conquered it. Their leader was executed, but the common people were allowed to dwell in peace.

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"Sha Prefecture and Kua Prefecture were established by the Han dynasty. 38 Su Prefecture is equivalent to Shan-shan. 39 Kan Prefecture is equivalent to Chang-yeh. 4 0 Ling Prefecture is equivalent to Ling-wu. 41 Ah! Traveling toward the horizon to the corner of the sea where no man ventures was indeed an extraordinary series of events. This, in general, was what I saw on my journey to the West." 42

28

Yuan Hao-wen

(ngo-1257) fL-Hf-M

Y u a n Hao-wen, considered the greatest poet of the Chin dynasty, was from Hsiu-jung, T'ai-yiian (modern Hsin District, Shan-hsi). He traced his lineage back to a non-Chinese T'o-pa clan that ruled during the Northern Wei dynasty; he was also a descendant of Y u a n Chieh. His uncle, w h o adopted him, served the Chin and often took the young Yuan Hao-wen with him to his posts. As a child of seven, he was already writing poetry and regarded as a prodigy. T h e period of his youth represented the peak of the Chin dynasty. In 1 2 1 1 , though, when he entered his twenties, the M o n g o l army under Chinggis Khan began to attack, capturing his home three years later. His elder brother was killed, and Y u a n fled to safer areas, eventually settling for several years in present-day Ho-nan, where he compiled the first of a number of poetry anthologies preserving Chin literature. There followed about a decade of respite as Chinggis Khan shifted his attention toward Central Asia. The Chin appeared to revive and even gained military victories over the Southern Sung. After several attempts, Y u a n Hao-wen became a Metropolitan Graduate in 1 2 2 1 , but he did not immediately hold office. In 1224, after passing the Literary Erudite examination, he was given the title o f Gentleman Confucian and appointed to the Historiography Academy as a junior compiler. He served in various local offices for the next f e w years, during which he compiled works reflecting his study of the poetry o f T u Fu and Su Shih. In 1 2 3 1 , he was called to serve as an official in the capital, Pien-ching (modern K'aifeng, Ho-nan), just before the Mongols renewed their attack. T h e city surrendered in 1233. During the collapse of authority, Y u a n appealed in a letter to Yeh-lii Ch'u-ts'ai to intercede with the Mongols and spare some fifty-four leading cultural figures. Y u a n himself was interned for

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two years in Liao-ch'eng in what is today Shan-tung during which he began to compile an anthology of Chin poetry. Upon his release, he adopted the role of a survivor of a fallen dynasty. His literary and historical projects designed to preserve Chin culture were supported by certain Y u a n dynasty officials, and he was free to travel widely in northern China gathering material. Much of his data was later used in the official History of the Chin Dynasty (Chin shih, 1 3 4 3 - 1 3 4 4 ) . Y u a n Hao-wen left some 1,366 shih poems, 377 tz'u, and a considerable amount of prose. Even before entering government, he had attracted the notice of high officials with his early poetry expressing activist ambitions and with his critique of the poetry tradition. In general, he attempted to distinguish between "correct" and "heterodox" writers; he especially valued the sincerity of the poets of the Chien-an era ( 1 9 6 - 2 1 9 ) at the end of the Eastern Han dynasty, while he deplored subsequent styles based on courtly artifice and imitation. T h e poems o f his middle period extended his realist focus to the events of dynastic collapse, the horrors o f war, and the suffering of the common people. It was in his last phase that he turned to landscape poetry and wrote travel accounts based on his journeys to scenic places. A Trip to Chi-nan was written in 1235, the year Y u a n Hao-wen was released from internment. It is primarily in the documentary mode as the writer displays his erudition to record the famous mountains, springs, and other notable sites in a dignified, historical style. Interwoven are brief indications of his o w n movements and occasional lyric descriptions that convey an element of personal experience. As Yuan mentions at the end, he originally appended fifteen poems about his journey as well as ones by his friends; this piece, therefore, can also be considered in the genre of prefaces, even though its conventions are clearly those of the independent travel account.

A Trip to Chi-nan

> | ( 1 2 3 5 )

When I was a child, I followed m y adoptive father to Y e h District when he went to serve in office there. 1 We passed through Chi-nan, but I could remember only the general appearance of the city. A s an adult, whenever I heard others talk of the scenic beauty of the region and its wealth of sights, I always regretted not being able to travel there. In autumn, during the seventh lunar month of the year i-wei [July

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1 7 - A u g u s t 1$, 1235], it had already been some three years since I had come north of the Y e l l o w River. 2 Then, I had occasion to go to Chinan on account of an old friend, Li Fu-chih, and I compiled this record of m y travels over a twenty-day period for all those w h o enjoy such things. First, I arrived at Ch'i-ho District, where I met T u Chung-liang, and w e both proceeded east. T h e mountains alongside the road were connected to the Supreme Mountain to the south, but this day it was overcast so I could not see it. When w e reached Chi-nan, Fu-chih and his colleague Ch'uan Kuo-ch'i arranged a banquet at the original site of the Pavilion B e l o w Mount Li. 3 This pavilion is located behind the Official Residence and has existed since the state o f C h ' i during the Chou dynasty. 4 Nearby are pavilions named "Encircling Waves," "Magpie Mountain," "Northern Isle," " M i s t y Ripples," "Water's Fragrance," "Westerly Water," "Frozen Waves," and "Frolicking Seagulls." 5 Both a terrace and a bridge are called "Wonderland of a Hundred Flowers"; 6 a hall is named "Quietude"; a waterside pavilion, "Famous Scholars." 7 B e l o w Westerly Water Pavilion is a lake named "Brilliance," whose source is Shun's Spring. 8 It is so large that it occupies one third of the city's area. T h e autumn lotuses were just in full bloom, red and green interwoven like embroidery, making one think that in its vastness, one is seeing islands in the Wu region. 9 Indeed, when times were peaceful, no place could compare with Chi-nan's architecture. But after twenty years of chaos, 1 0 only thorns, brush, roof tiles, and rubble remain, just like the former Palace of Abundant Virtue in the Southern Capital, 1 1 which has lain in ruins for what looks like a century. Situated among streams, brooks, grass, and trees, it has taken on a certain charm of cold desolation and unobtrusive antiquity. Although once there were high roofs with painted beams, it can never be restored. Still, Nature's skill lives on; it never depends on exterior decoration, yet it continues to seem wonderful. Near Northern Isle Pavilion, one can see five solitary peaks in the northwest. One is named " K ' u a n g s ' M o u n t a i n . " 1 2 The C h ' i River Road begins below it. It is generally believed that Li Po once studied here. Another is named "Millet Mountain," and another, "Medicine Mountain," which derived its name from its "sun s t o n e . " 1 3 Another is named "Magpie Mountain." The mountain folks say, " E v e r y year around the seventh or eighth lunar month, magpies gather on its top." There is yet another mountain similarly named "Season of M a g p i e s . " This is h o w they got their names. 1 4 And there is another named "Flower C a l y x . " 1 5 Li Po's poem goes,

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Fig. 36. Sailing on Bright Lake in Chi-nan. From Linch'ing, Hung-hsiieh yin-yiian t'u-chi, vol. 1 (Peking: Pei-ching ku-chi ch'u-pan-she, 1984; rpt. of 1847 ed.).

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In a former year, I traveled to the City Below Mount Li and climbed Flower Calyx Peak. How majestic and flourishing this mountain: blue and emerald like a lotus.' 6

This poem is truly a portrait of Flower Calyx Peak. Brilliance Lake flows out from North Water Gate, where it merges with Relief River and spreads out boundlessly. 17 I gazed at this mountain in the distance, and it seemed to be in the water as well. This is the most scenic point in the City Below Mount Li. East of Flower Calyx Mountain is Recumbent O x Mountain. 1 8 Directly east some fifty miles in the southern part of Tsou-p'ing District are the Long White Mountains. 19 It is where Fan Chung-yen's schoolhouse, also known as Collegiate Hall, is located. 20 More than three miles east of the range are North and South Marvelous Mountains. Min Tzu-ch'ien's grave is located between these two peaks. 21 To the southwest is Buddha's Head Mountain, at the foot of which is a temple. 22 West of Thousand Buddhas Mountain is Container Mountain, about seven miles long containing some ninety valleys. 23 It forms the northern foothills of the Supreme Mountain. The Supreme Mountain is as close to the city as thirty miles but is blocked from view by Container Mountain. On clear days, one can make it out faintly from Northern Isle Pavilion. Mount Li is about two and a half miles from the city. A stele on the mountain says, "This mountain, tall and extensive, produces an inexhaustible supply of timber." But today, it is just a flat-topped hill. In the southwest after a small gap there is Candle Mountain, which stretches east from the southern mountains, extending for some three hundred fifty miles until it connects with the mountainous isles in the sea. Eruption Spring is in the southwest of the city. 24 It is the source of the Lo River. 25 The mountain streams converge at Thirsty Horse Cliff, where the water forms eddies and seems to stop flowing. But when it reaches the city, it surfaces as this spring. Some people who were curious once tested this by dropping some chaff in the water, and it proved to be so. Formerly, the water overflowed its banks; it was barely knee deep, so the spring would gush more than three feet high. But now, grass and trees obstruct the flow and its depth reaches from seven to about ten feet. Consequently, the spring only gushes two or three inches above the surface of the water.

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Recently, a prefect changed the spring's name to "Fenced-in Spring" and built a "Fenced-in Spring Arch," alluding to a theme in The Book of Poetry.26 But natives still call it "Eruption Spring" as before; Eruption Spring is also called "Leaping Spring," according to Tseng Kung. 2 7 Golden Thread Spring has a line like a golden thread undulating back and forth on the pool's surface. 2 8 Nowadays, located by the spring is the Cloister by Spirit Spring. T h e Taoist, Kao, has a marvelous talent for playing the ch'in zither. People call him "Zither Kao." He invited me to stay over for t w o nights. T h e Metropolitan Graduate Hsieh Fei-ch'ing enjoys fine company and takes pleasure in good deeds; he is a cordial, generous, and considerate man. He joined me in m y travels for m o r e than ten days and said that one day he saw what is called the "golden thread." Minister An-wen Kuo-pao said, "If one uses a b a m b o o pole to restrain the water so that it does not flow forth, one may be able to see it." Hsieh and I wandered back and forth to the spring again and again for three or four days, but we never saw it. T u K'ang's Spring has been paved over, but a native was able to point out its location for me. 2 9 The spring is located below the western veranda of Shun's Temple. It is said that T u K'ang had manufactured wine f r o m this spring. Someone took some water f r o m Cold Spring by the Long River and compared it. 3 0 Each sheng of Cold Spring water weighed twenty-four chu, but this spring's water was lighter by one chu. If it were used to brew tea, it would not prove inferior to any of the waters ranked by Lu Yii. 31 There are t w o "Shun's Wells," 3 2 and there is a poem by O u - y a n g Hsiu engraved in stone in large characters. The chapter on "Springs in the City Below M o u n t Li" in Writings from the Sweet Dew Garden33 says:

The source of the Relief River is quite distant. It begins at King's Chamber Mountain in Ho-tung, 3 4 where it is called the Yen River. It flows into the Ch'in Marsh, 3 5 where it sinks d o w n into the ground, reemerging at Unity Mountain, 3 6 where it begins to be called "Relief." Therefore, "The Tributes of Yii" states that Yii led the course of the Yen River eastward. 3 7 It passes Wen District and the city of T'ui-ch'eng and enters the Yellow River, where it becomes a torrential flow at Hsing-yang, then it turns into whirlpools between Ts'ao and P'u. Then it flows out north of T'ao's Hill, merges with the Wen River, and passes north of the Lo River in the City Below Mount Li before flowing eastward. 3 8 Moreover, Relief River is considered a " * "

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displaying an interest in B u d d h i s m and T a o i s m . W a n g w a s also an influential drama critic and theorist. He published his collected w o r k s , The Mountain Dweller of Yen-chou's Writings (Yen-chou shan-jen szu-pukao), w h i c h includes this travel account, in 1575. C h a n g ' s C a v e (Chang-kung-tung) is located some fourteen miles southwest o f modern I-hsing, Chiang-su. A number o f legends are associated w i t h it: that it w a s the dwelling place o f the hermit K e n g sang C h ' u , a fictional character in the Chuang-tzu; that the founder o f T a o i s m , C h a n g T a o - l i n g (d. 156), engaged in religious cultivation here; and that, in the T ' a n g , it was a retreat used b y C h a n g K u o - l a o , one o f the Eight Transcendents o f T a o i s m , w h o was said to have appeared here during the T ' a n g . Consequently, it has been revered as the Fifty-eighth Blessed Place o f T a o i s m . T h e front and rear caves together cover an area o f about 32,280 square feet, and the entire route through them is about two-thirds o f a mile long. Within are numerous smaller caves, o f w h i c h s e v e n t y - t w o have received particular names. T h e rear cave, w h i c h W a n g Shih-chen preferred to enter because o f its superior scenic attractions, can accommodate f r o m four to five thousand people.

Chang's Cave From I-hsing, I sailed east to East N i n e Lake. 1 " N i n e " refers to its length o f nine li (three miles) f r o m north to south. T h e water is a bright green throughout. T w o mountains on either side accost it. Screening it f r o m the glare are lofty trees; like y e l l o w clouds are the fields w i t h their harvest. It is even more w o n d e r f u l in the twilight. I finally m o o r e d at H u - f u . 2 H u - f u is w h e r e the road to the cave b e gins. In the middle o f the night, a heavy rain suddenly fell and dripped d o w n through the a w n i n g on the boat. I arose and pondered it for a long time. It cleared up only at daybreak. T h o s e accompanying m e were m y y o u n g e r brother C h i n g - m e i , M r . Li f r o m Y e n , M r . C h ' e n g f r o m She District, and Messrs. Shen and C h a n g o f this locality. 3 A t this time, I had a foot injury. M r . Li was also ill, and a sedan chair w a s found for him. Including one for m y brother, w e took along three b a m b o o sedan chairs and f o r m e d a party. T h e other three f o r m e d another party. It was only a little more than a mile until w e reached the cave, w h i c h had a prominent appearance like a m o u n d o f earth o v e r turned.

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Mr. Chang, who had traveled here before, said I should enter through the rear of the cavern, not through the front. The reason was because the front path is too wide: a single glance quickly exhausts one's curiosity, and there is nothing more to sustain interest. After one's curiosity is satisfied, one penetrates further past a barrier along a passageway quite dangerous and narrow; by the middle of it, one feels regret upon realizing that one cannot reach the end. So I determined to enter from the rear. With numerous torches brought along to lead the way, we squeezed our bodies through an opening and descended into it, one by one, like a line of fish. As we gradually descended, it became more and more slippery; furthermore, the slanting steps could not accommodate our feet. The foot in back had to wait for the one in front to be firmly planted before moving, and we were forced to hold on to each other's shoulders to steady ourselves. The stairs ahead were even more narrow, so one could not even grab hold of others' shoulders. It was like this for almost a hundred steps. I could barely see the person in front of me, for he appeared like a bird in the fog. Moreover, whatever I heard sounded like someone speaking in a jar. When a torch was lit, I cried out in surprise: a myriad giant stalactites all hung suspended, like mountains high and low, shaped like bronze vessels, forming an intricate design, crystalline and gleaming—it was beyond description. Generally, its color was like fine jade from Yii-yang 4 but even more lustrous. Slightly to the southwest was a large flat rock with stalagmites lying sidewise on top. Next to it was what is known as the "Stone Bed," "Elixir Stove," and "Salt Bin." 5 Slightly to the east, the earth sloped downward and was wet; when I stepped on it, it became even wetter, for it was a mire of unknown depths, what is known as the "Field of Transcendents." I looked back at the opening I had come through—I don't know how many thousands of feet away it was—and it flickered like "the small stars when the sun is eclipsed," 6 now visible, now extinguished. After a while, the path practically ended. Farther down, I passed through a place no more than two feet wide. I had to crawl through it, then go up and down more than a hundred stairs. Suddenly, it opened up into a spacious area where a myriad people could sit. The stalactites hanging down became more and more fantastic; naturally multicolored, the cinnabar on them shimmered and struck one's eyes. The large ones resemble pillars of jade. Some reach down to the ground, while those that do not quite touch are barely a foot above it. Some stalagmites erupt upward, while those that do not touch the ceiling are also but a foot below it. Some growing upward and some growing downward are separated from each other by only a hair. The rocks are

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shaped like submerged, hornless dragons, like leaping, horned dragons, like dashing lions, like crouching elephants, like lotuses, like bells and drums, like flying Transcendents, like foreign Buddhist monks—there are so many varieties that I could not record them all. At the time, m y tired feet found it increasingly difficult to walk; I had to concentrate m y energy in order to ascend. When I reached the rock terrace I peered down at it, all clearly illuminated. T h e scenic beauty of the cave reached its height at this point. It so happened that the food and wine brought along had been lost on the way, so I called for some water, drank it, and then departed. " C h a n g " was neither Chang Tao-ling of the Han dynasty nor Chang Kuo, as some have said. 7 Chang Tao-ling's movements in Szuch'uan are well documented. Hsu Yiian-yu, 8 in a letter to Wang Hsichih, wrote, " A m o n g golden halls and jade chambers, and the divine fungi and herbs of Transcendents, can be found many of T s o Tz'u's followers w h o attained the Tao at the end of the Han dynasty. " 9 Could this, indeed, be such a place? I say, the "Stone Bed," "Elixir Stove," "Salt and Rice Bin," and "Chessboard" that I saw just happen to resemble such things. H o w could one possibly speak of them as signs of Transcendents? 1 0

Yuan Hung-tao

(1568-16

Together with his brothers Tsung-tao (1560-1600) and Chung-tao (1570-1624), Yuan Hung-tao formed the vanguard of the Individualist movement in Ming literature, a group opposed to the orthodoxy of Wang Shih-chen and the poetic canon of the "Early and Later Seven Masters." Born in Kung-an in present-day Hu-pei, their poetry, prose, and criticism defined the core of the "Kung-an school" of letters and represented one of the important trends of late Ming culture. Yuan Hung-tao, the most influential of the brothers, showed youthful promise, organizing a literary society at the age of fifteen. He became a Provincial Graduate in 1588 but failed his first attempt at the Metropolitan Graduate exam the following year. He then visited the iconoclastic thinker Li Chih (1527-1602) and became his disciple. Li's courageous advancement of the concept of the individual self, his revisionism of Confucianism and of official history, and his appreciation of unorthodox literary genres such as fiction and drama became key elements in Yuan Hung-tao's own thought. After becoming a Metropolitan Graduate in 1592, Yuan maintained a lifelong ambivalence toward government service, rarely holding any office for long and retiring frequently. In 1595, he served as magistrate in Wu District (Su-chou) and was later commemorated as an outstanding official even though he resigned after a year or so to travel. He then visited West Lake and other areas in what is today Che-chiang, while further refining his literary views. In 1598, he joined his brothers in Peking in forming the Grape Society (P'u-t'ao-she) to further their literary views. Yuan Hung-tao briefly returned to the government as a secretary in the Ministry of Rites but retired after a few months and returned home. The shock of his elder brother's early death in 1600 led

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Fig. 46. Tiger Hill. From T'ien-hsia ming-shan sheng-kai chi (Hong Kong, n.d.; rpt. of Ch'ung-chen era [ 1 6 2 8 - 1 6 4 4 ] ed.). The canal in the foreground is the one ordered dug by Po Chii-i. The plateau in the center is Thousand Men Rock, with Sword Spring to the upper left of it beneath the covered bridge.

him to embrace Buddhism more deeply. He retired to a religious community in his native city and continued to travel and write. In 1606, he again returned to office and held a series of positions in the Ministry o f Personnel; he also served as chief examiner of the provincial examinations in Shaan-hsi in 1609. Y u a n died the following year at the age of forty-two. The fundamental program of Y u a n Hung-tao and the Kung-an school was based on developing authentic (chen), individual styles of

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poetry and prose to convey the writer's "personal sensibility" (hsingling) and on recognizing the inevitability of historical change in literary styles. The school opposed the archaist position of orthodox writers, considering such practices as imitation and stylistic revival irrelevant to the present. Yuan was a master of the "prose miniature," particularly in his influential travel writing. Indebted to the miniatures of Su Shih, he represented the traveler as an autonomous consumer of sensual scenes w h o has liberated himself from court politics and Confucian moralism. In Tiger Hill, Yuan appears as an observant tourist and as a connoisseur of elegant, aesthetic scenes. Unlike Ou-yang Hsiu, whose enjoyment of a place among the common people signified the achievement of moral order, Yuan noted with some irony that his status as magistrate had been a barrier to his participation in the lyric scene. Yuan Hung-tao also wrote a historical novel, edited dramas, and experimented with new forms of poetry. Yet he was also strongly criticized by his opponents. Some of his works were later proscribed under the Ch'ienlung Emperor (r. 173 5 - 1 7 9 5 ) and rejected by orthodox bibliographers, such as the editors of the officially sponsored Complete Edition of the Four Libraries (Szu-k'u ch'uan-shu, 1 7 7 2 - 1 7 8 2 ) .

Tiger Hill The city of Su-chou had long been a favored destination of the sophisticated traveler and was celebrated along with Hang-chou as an earthly paradise. Tiger Hill, a scenic park dominated by a hill only ninety-eight feet high, is one of its most famous spots, located about two miles outside the city walls to the northwest. The ingenious placement of ponds, paths, and pavilions gives the park the appearance of spaciousness once one is within the grounds. According to legend, it is the burial place of King Ho-lu of Wu (r. 514-496 B.C.) and three thousand of his swords; a white tiger was observed crouching on his gravemound three days after the internment, hence the name. Another theory bases the name on the shape of the hill, said to resemble a crouching tiger. Originally, during the Six Dynasties period, it was a private estate; later it was converted into a Buddhist temple. Through the centuries, the buildings were destroyed and rebuilt some seven times. Its most outstanding edifice is the pagoda finished in 961, which dominates the flat countryside. Tiger Hill is said to have been visited by the First Emperor of Ch'in, who unsuccessfully tried to find the

fob.

(1597)

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HUNG-TAO

entrance to H o - l u ' s t o m b . It was a favorite retreat for P o Chii-i w h e n he was magistrate; in fact, he ordered the canal constructed in f r o n t of its entrance. Its f a m o u s sites noted here by Y u a n earned it the n a m e " N u m b e r O n e Scenic Attraction in W u . "

Tiger Hill is only about t w o and a half miles f r o m the city. T h e hill lacks tall cliffs or deep valleys, but because it is near the city n o t a day passes w i t h o u t flutes and d r u m s sounding and pleasure boats gathering. O n moonlit nights, on blossom-filled m o r n i n g s , o n s n o w y evenings, visitors c o m e and go, crisscrossing like the weave of a tapestry. It is especially c r o w d e d on the M i d - A u t u m n Festival. 1 Whenever this day arrives, so does every family in the city, shoulder to shoulder. F r o m fine ladies and elegant gentlemen d o w n to shanty dwellers, all put on their finery, and the w o m e n d o n m a k e u p . T h e y spread o u t layers of mats and drink wine by the roadside. F r o m T h o u s a n d M e n Rock to the T e m p l e Gate, 2 they c r o w d together like teeth on a c o m b , like scales o n a fish. A hill could be f o r m e d f r o m all the sandalwood clappers; the wine drains f r o m goblets like rain f r o m clouds. O b s e r v e d f r o m a distance, it looks like geese flocking along sandy banks, like mist blanketing the Long River, like t h u n d e r r u m bling or lightning crackling—I could not fully describe it. At first, j u s t after the mats have been spread out, there are as m a n y as a thousand singers. Their sounds are like a s w a r m of mosquitoes: it is impossible to distinguish any one of them. T h e y divide into g r o u p s and c o m p e t e against one another w i t h their loud singing. As b o t h refined and crude voices are displayed, the beautiful singers distinguish themselves f r o m the ugly ones. Before long, there are only several tens or so w h o s e heads are swaying and feet are tapping. By then the bright m o o n has floated u p in the sky and the rocks glisten like satin. All the "clamoring of earthen crocks" 3 falls into silence. A g r o u p o f only three or four gathers and harmonizes: a vertical hsiao flute, a short horizontal flute, and s o m e o n e slowly beating the clappers while singing. B a m b o o instruments and voice p e r f o r m together, the purity of the sound penetrates so that listeners feel their souls melting. As the night deepens, the m o o n s h a d o w s elongate, plants and flowers appear to blend in c o n f u sion. B y then, flutes and clappers are put aside. S o m e o n e takes the stage as the audience holds its breath. T h e sound o f his voice is like a delicate strand of hair, yet its resonance reaches the clouds. E v e r y w o r d seems to last for fifteen minutes. Flying birds circle about him, brave m e n listen and weep.

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S w o r d Spring is so deep it is unfathomable. 4 The soaring cliffs seem like they were sliced. Thousands of Acres of Clouds serves as a table for Celestial Pond and other mountains whose peaks and valleys vie with one another for beauty. 5 It is a perfect spot for inviting guests for wine drinking. But past noon the sun's rays beat down, and it becomes unbearable to sit for long. The Pavilion of the G o d of Literature 6 is also fine, for the evening trees are especially worth viewing. Opposite it to the north is the old site of the Hall of Unbroken Distance—an empty, vast, endless v i e w — o n l y the speck o f Mount Y i i is visible. 7 T h e hall has long since been demolished, and I discussed with Chiang Chin-chih how it might be rebuilt. 8 I wanted to enshrine Wei Y i n g - w u , Po Chii-i, and others in it, 9 but illness forced me to abandon the project. I retired from office and fear that Chin-chih's enthusiasm has also waned. Indeed, the flourishing and decline of a scenic place can only occur at its proper time. I served as an official in Su-chou for t w o years and climbed Tiger Hill six times. The last occasion was with Chiang Chin-chih and Fang Tzu-kung. We awaited the moon at Tao-sheng's R o c k . 1 0 When the singers there heard that the magistrate had come, they all fled. So I said to Chin-chih, " H o w awful! This is due to the brutality of officials and the crudeness o f their clerks. Someday when I leave office, I swear by the moon above that I will hear the songs sung at this rock!" N o w , fortunately, I have been granted release from official life and can call m y self just a traveler in Su-chou. I wonder if the moon at Tiger Hill still remembers m y oath? 1 1

Heaven's Eyes Mountain ^ EO (1597) Heaven's Eyes Mountain (T'ien-mu-shan) is located in modern Lin-an District in northwest Che-chiang. It is composed of t w o ranges, eastern and western, which culminate in t w o majestic peaks. According to one legend, lakes on the summit o f each peak appear to be gazing at each other, hence the name "Heaven's E y e s . " Its highest point stands at about 5,080 feet. K n o w n for its waterfalls, which Y u a n Hung-tao also celebrated in a poem, the mountain was regarded by the Taoist religion as the Thirty-fourth Celestial Cave. The following is one of t w o accounts Y u a n wrote about the mountain. It is primarily an expository piece that uses the occasion of a journey to define aesthetic criteria for appreciating scenery, thus demonstrating his approach to traveling as that of a connoisseur.

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F i g - 47-

Heaven's Eyes Mountain. From T'ien-hsia

ming-

shan sheng-kai chi (Hong K o n g , n.d.; rpt. of Ch'ung-chen era [ 1 6 2 8 - 1 6 4 4 ] e d )-

I can hardly describe the secluded, remote, extraordinary, and ancient character of Heaven's Eyes. It is only a little less than seven miles from the village 1 to the summit. Most mountains that are deep and out of the w a y are desolate and overgrown; those that are sheer and precipitous lack curiously winding and twisting forms; when they are ancient, then there is an insufficiency of fresh beauty; and when their structure is massive, they are absolutely devoid of delicate intricacy. Moreover, mountains that are too high and lack streams, and rock that is outsized so that the greenery is parched—all these constitute defects in mountains.

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Heaven's Eyes is filled with valleys where cascading streams sound "ts'ung-ts'ung," appearing like a myriad bolts of white satin: these are its first perfection. T h e color of the rock is a lustrous blue-green, its structure is inscrutably ingenious, with winding stone paths and sheer cliffs standing erect: these are its second perfection. The architecture of every temple is exquisite, though they are located in secluded valleys or by overhanging cliffs: these are its third perfection. I don't like to listen to lightning, but the sound of lightning on Heaven's Eyes is quite muted, like the cry of a baby: this is its fourth perfection. At dawn, I arose to view the clouds, which were at the b o t t o m of a deep valley. They were white and pure as silk, rising up like waves until the whole land had become a glass sea. The sharp tips of the mountain pierced through the clouds like blades of floating sea-grass: these are its fifth perfection. However, the changing shapes of the clouds were most unusual, and the sight of them was extraordinary to the extreme. Unless one dwells for a long time on the mountain, one cannot possibly come to k n o w all their forms. The large trees on the mountain are practically forty handspans around. The pine trees are shaped like parasols. A single tree, though no more than a few feet in height, would be worth more than ten thousand cash: these are its sixth perfection. T h e flavor of the firstpick tea leaves is far superior to the tea f r o m Dragon Well. 2 T h e flavor of its b a m b o o shoots resembles that of the shoots f r o m Broken Pond in Shao-hsing 3 but far surpasses them in lightness: these are its seventh perfection. I maintain that south of the Long River no place surpasses this for spiritual cultivation and dwelling in retirement, for it makes one long to escape the bondage of mental turmoil and become a m o n k . After spending the night at the Temple Where Illusions Abide, I arose in the morning to view the clouds and then, after a while, climbed to the summit, where I spent the night at the Gateway to Death on Tall Peak. The next day I descended by the same path f r o m the Temple of the Living E n t o m b m e n t . It had been very clear for several days following a rain. The monks on the mountain took this for an auspicious sign, and as I descended the mountain they all came to greet me. T h e more than four hundred monks on the mountain were extremely courteous and competed to offer me food. As I was about to depart, the m o n k s said, "This rustic mountain is isolated and small, u n w o r t h y of your exalted gaze. But what can we do about it?" I said, "I feel like I am but a child of Heaven's Eyes Mountain. If you do not speak so h u m b l y about it, then I will not flatter it before y o u . " Thus we parted, laughing heartily. 4

309

3io

An Evening

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Stroll to the Six Bridges to Await

the Moon

ItL

(1597)

West Lake in Hang-chou, the scenic focus of the former Southern Sung capital, increasingly became a mecca for literati, who immortalized its famous scenes and helped create a demand for literature, paintings, prints, and guidebooks representing its well-known spots. The Six Bridges (Liu-ch'iao) were located along Su's Embankment (Su-ti), the causeway on the west side of the lake built by Su Shih when he was magistrate. They were named "Reflecting Ripples" (Ying-po), "Locking the Waves" (So-lan), "Gazing at the Mountain" (Wang-shan), "Supporting the Embankment" (Ya-ti), "Controlling the Shore" (Shup'u), and "Arching Rainbow" (K'ua-hung). Yiian's piece is a typical example of a prose miniature and resembles a souvenir album-leaf in its brevity. Here, he further presents traveling as a mode of aesthetic cultivation. The literatus reveals his authentic sensibility by inscribing lyrical landscapes and participating in elegant social scenes, in contrast to the implicit vulgarity of the common tourist.

The finest scenes at West Lake are in springtime and in the moonlight. And within a single day, the best are the morning mist and the twilight haze around the mountains. This year, the snow at the beginning of spring was especially plentiful. The plum blossoms, prodded by the cold, flowered along with the apricot and the peach, one after the other, making an especially wonderful sight. T'ao Shih-k'uei 1 said to me several times, "In Chamberlain Fu's garden, the plum blossoms are the ones that belonged to Chang Kung-fu's concubine, Glistening Jade. 2 Let's go quickly and view them." But at that time I was so captivated by the peach blossoms that I couldn't bear to leave them. Across the lake from Broken Bridge to Su's Embankment 3 is green mist and red haze spreading for almost seven miles. Songs to the sounds of flutes form a breeze; powdered drops of perspiration fall like rain. There are numerous people clad in gauze and silk, many of them on the grass lining the embankments. They are the epitome of seductive beauty. Yet the people of Hang-chou make outings on the lake only during the hours of wu, wei, and shen [11:00 a . m . to 5:00 p . m . ] . Actually, the most perfect reflection of the greenery on the lake's surface and the most marvelous colors of the haze on the mountains occur when the sun first rises and just before it sets. This is when they reach

Fig. 48Misty Willows by the Six Bridges (detail). F r o m Hai-nei ch'i-kuan ( 1 6 1 0 ) , Deutsche Staatsbibliothek, Berlin.

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the epitome of richness and attractiveness. The moonlit scene is particularly indescribable. The gestures o f the blossoming flowers, the feelings of the swaying willows, the face of the mountains, and the sentiments of the water hold a special kind of charm. These pleasures are meant for the mountain-dwelling monk and for the traveler. H o w could one explain it to ordinary people? 4

Ch'ien Ch'ien-i

(1382-1

mi

Ch'ien Ch'ien-i was a major writer and critic during the turbulent decades at the end of the Ming and the beginning of the Ch'ing dynasties. Born in Ch'ang-shu in what is today Chiang-su, he became a Metropolitan Graduate in 1610. Ch'ien entered the government as a junior compiler in the Han-lin Academy but had to retire to go into mourning. He returned to office a decade later, becoming affiliated with the Eastern Forest Society (Tung-lin) which sought to revive the faltering Ming dynasty. In 1628, he became vice-minister of the Ministry of Rites but was suddenly purged because o f Tung-lin opposition to the powerful grand secretary, Wen T'i-jen (d. 1638). When the dynasty collapsed in Peking in 1644 and a restoration was attempted in Nanking several months later, he was recalled and became minister of the Ministry of Rites; however, the short-lived regime disintegrated within a year as the Manchu conquest advanced southward. Unlike many loyalist scholars w h o committed suicide, went underground, or fled to other centers of resistance, Ch'ien Ch'ien-i surrendered the southern capital of Nanking and accepted a position in the Ch'ing dynasty as vice-minister in the Ministry of Rites. This move earned him considerable criticism from loyalist scholars, and he became emblematic of the dilemma of Chinese w h o chose to serve the Manchus while still maintaining a personal allegiance to the Ming. In 1645, he briefly assisted in the first attempt to compile the official History of the Ming Dynasty (Ming shih, published 1739), retiring in 1646 because of ill health. Despite his collaboration, he was arrested in 1647 and imprisoned for two years when suspected by the Manchus of maintaining contacts with Ming loyalists. A m o n g his protégés were

3H

CH'IEN

CH'IEN-I

Fig- 49Mei Ch'ing (1623-1697), Maitjusri's

Temple.

From Album of Scenes on Yellow Emperor Mountain ( 1 6 9 1 - 1 6 9 3 ) , Palace Museum, Peking.

Ch'ii Shih-szu (d. 1650) and Cheng Ch'eng-kung (1624-1662), both important anti-Ch'ing activists; and Ch'ien, in his poetry, occasionally voiced loyalist sympathies as well. His remaining years were spent writing at his estate, which contained an outstanding library destroyed in a fire in 1650. Ch'ien Ch'ien-i maintained an independent position in the literary politics of the late Ming, supporting neither the archaist program of the orthodox faction nor the rigorously individualist position of the Kungan school and its followers. Rather, he considered both tradition and the writer's personality as the basic components of literary creativity. A prolific writer and editor of anthologies of T'ang and Ming poetry, Ch'ien had wide-ranging intellectual interests, including philosophy, history, Buddhism, and literary theory. He was also an avid travel writer and an admirer of the intrepid travel diarist Hsu Hung-tsu, whose biography he compiled.

CH'IEN

CH'IEN-I

315

Y e l l o w Emperor Mountain (Huang-shan), one of China's premier scenic places, was discovered by such T'ang writers as the poet Li Po, but it became popular only in the seventeenth century after the Ch'an monk P'u-men established a temple there in 1606 and opened roads to its many unusual sights. Hsu Hung-tsu in 1 6 1 6 and Ch'ien Ch'ien-i several decades later were among the writers w h o visited this inaccessible place in the late Ming. It also began to attract painters in the An-hui school w h o were inspired by its fantastic rocks and "sea of clouds." During the Ch'in dynasty, this area of some ninety-seven square miles covering four counties in modern An-hui was named Mount I; it received its present name in 747, during the T'ang, when it was said that the Y e l l o w Emperor had manufactured elixirs here. Its numerous attractions include t w o lakes, three waterfalls, twenty-four streams, and groups of thirty-six and seventy-two famous peaks. Ch'ien Ch'ien-i visited it while out of office at the end of the Ming dynasty in 1642. He wrote a lengthy record of his journey in nine sections, of which this selection is the third, celebrating the "Sea of C l o u d s . " It was among his most widely read prose pieces and was included in his collection Early Studies from the Shepherd's Studio (Muchai ch'u-hsiieh chi), published in 1643.

From Y e l l o w E m p e r o r M o u n t a i n 'Mit&iiL From the Temple o f the Lucky Charm I crossed the Rock Bridge and proceeded north, passing by the Temple of Compassionate Light. 1 Traveling about a mile, I passed the Cinnabar Retreat and climbed upward. 2 T o the east is Purple Rock Peak, fourth of the Thirty-six Famous Peaks. Together with Azure Luan-Bird and Celestial Capital peaks, 3 they form one mountain. After passing by here, I took the road between Alms B o w l 4 and Old Man Peaks. T h e foothills of the peaks are connected such that the two cliffs appear as layers. The more I gazed at them, the more they seemed to have been sliced by knives— one can't see even a crack between them. I brushed against the cliffs as I walked until they opened up like a gaping mouth. In the wide expanse all was revealed, as if a door had been pushed open. This is where travelers up the mountain really begin their journey. After less than half a mile I rested at Kuan-yin's Cliff. T h e cliff slants like a tilted parasol. I passed by Old Man Peak, where the rock

(1642)

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CH'IEN-I

looks like the hunched back of an old man. There are many unusual pines extending out beyond the cliffs. They break through the rocks to grow forth and form a cover with their intertwining branches. The luxuriant white clouds rushed up on the pines. A monk said, "The clouds are about to spread out and form a sea; why not wait awhile to see it?" I therefore rested at a pavilion that faced the peaks. From the heights of this mountain I had a complete view of the vast landscape of mountains and rivers: it all became a sea. When it is about to rain, the clouds collect in a bunch around the mountain. When it is about to clear, the clouds disperse and return into the mountain. This collecting and dispersal throughout the vast landscape of mountains and rivers is what is called the "Sea of Clouds." 5 The clouds first rise like balls of cotton, swirling around the waist and spine of Old Man Peak. In a while they obliterate the summit and feet of the peak, moving back and forth, prodded and agitated as they merge into each other, stretching far, swirling around; the sea becomes clouds as clouds become a sea. Openings are pierced by light, then the clouds rush forward and brush against each other, looking like hundreds of towers and pavilions, like galloping horses, like sailboats—racing, leaping, retreating, merging— I could not describe it all. They flowed toward my chest and brushed my face. My body was in the midst of layers of clouds and I became another "Old Man Peak"! After a time the clouds dispersed like waves in the ocean, expanding out in all four directions like a victorious army and cavalry returning. Then suddenly they collapsed and disappeared without a trace. I looked back at Old Man Peak: he was stooped over as before, as if respectfully awaiting a guest. Proceeding along the foot of Celestial Capital Peak and turning westward, I arrived at Manjusri's Temple and spent the night there. 6 On Yellow Emperor Mountain, as one proceeds upward from Kuan-yin's Cliff, old trees choke the path and venerable vines spread over the rocks. Green bamboo and verdant grasses envelop as they intertwine. The sun's rays suddenly pierce through. A waterfall unexpectedly splashes. The shady darkness deepens—it no longer seems to be in the human world. On a mountain, the part "before reaching the top" is called "verdant growth." 7 Doesn't that describe this? When one ascends Old Man Peak, the sky appears vast: clouds and all things are below it. The Thirty-six Peaks reveal themselves all woven together. In a daze, I felt I had experienced an entire lifetime. It was only from this point on that I understood Yellow Emperor Mountain. 8

40 Hsu Hung-tsu

(1386-1641)

Hsu Hung-tsu, better known by his artistic name, Hsia-k'o (Mistlike Traveler), has been canonized as the ultimate Chinese traveler. He possessed a rare commitment to an unencumbered life devoted exclusively to traveling, and produced monumental diaries that dwarf all other efforts. Hsu was born in Chiang-yin, in present-day Chiangsu, into an old scholar family that had fled south after the fall of the Northern Sung. His immediate forebears were men of some literary reputation w h o declined to enter the government during the turbulent politics of the late Ming, preferring to lead leisurely, comfortable lives as local gentry on their estates. His father, Hsu Yu-an, about w h o m the connoisseur Ch'en Chi-ju ( 1 5 5 8 - 1 6 3 9 ) wrote a biography, enjoyed traveling to nearby scenic places. He died in 1604 from wounds inflicted by marauding bandits near his home. After a youth in which he pored over books on geography, travel, history, and Taoism, Hsu Hung-tsu decided at the age of twenty-two to devote his life exclusively to visiting the places he had read about; he never even bothered to take the official examinations. Rather, for thirty-three years until his death at the age of fifty-five he traveled to more than sixteen of the modern provinces, often venturing on foot and facing robbers, desertion of servants, the death of companions, lack of food and shelter, inclement weather, and illness. In between journeys, he returned home for brief periods, during which he married twice, raised a family, and was particularly devoted to his mother. Indeed, she was extraordinary for encouraging his unconventional ambitions and even accompanied him on one of his shorter journeys at the age of eighty. With her death in 1625, Hsu felt free to roam more widely; his most strenuous travels thus took place in his later years.

317

318

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HUNG-TSU

Fig. 50. Wu Pin (active ca. 1 5 8 3 - 1 6 2 6 ) , Mount T'ient'ai (Terrace of Heaven Mountain) (detail, 1607). Honolulu Academy of Arts, Honolulu, H A A 3678.1. T o the left is the Rock Bridge.

Although Hsu saw himself in the tradition of epic figures such as Hsiian-tsang and Yeh-lii Ch'u-ts'ai, he differed from them in the purity of his motivation. He traveled neither for religious merit nor out of political necessity but in the idealistic spirit o f Taoist "free and easy wandering" as well as an insatiable curiosity about the natural world. Initially, he was attracted by scenic beauty and the aura of these places in the literary tradition. In his later journeys, he became more interested in geographical questions, and a number of his hypotheses about such features as cave formations have since been validated by modern scientists. Hsu enjoyed a wide range of acquaintances, including many prominent scholars, w h o regarded him as something of a legend. T h e y valued highly the hand-copied sections of his travel diary that they were able to read. Hsu's diary was compiled over the course of his travels. He would write at the end of each day, if possible, or several days later, relying on his excellent memory to preserve the details of what he had seen. His entries ranged from about 250 characters to over 4,000. Although

HSÜ

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HUNG-TSU

some diaries were lost, those that were preserved cover a period from 1613 to 1639 and amount to over 600,000 characters. The diaries were basically notes that Hsu kept on the road for his own benefit. Unlike the other travel writing in this anthology, they were not polished literary pieces intended for publication in their original form. He did in fact plan to publish them eventually, but he died unexpectedly from an illness contracted on the road and was unable to edit them. At first, therefore, they were hand-copied by his friend Chi Meng-liang in 1642. Subsequently, one of his sons recovered more diaries, printing them in a 1684 edition that is no longer extant. In 1776, Hsu's grandson published another corrected edition. Further printings throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries popularized the diaries. The literary appeal of the diaries lies in their spontaneous, unfinished form. Lacking a commemorative occasion or a moralistic intent, they present a relatively objective, unmediated vision of the world in the tradition of "the classification of things." Hsu's narration of his journey, which is recorded with meticulous detail in a concise prose style, conveys the experience of a direct encounter with the landscape. Though his diaries do not project a strong sense of personality, they capture the reality of travel more than other writers had, even to the point of noting the food consumed and the condition of his lodgings. Hsu's prose is rich in figurative expressions, and his descriptions include visionary perceptions of Nature as an everfascinating texture of interacting phenomena. He incorporates lyric responses to the environment in short, poetic phrases. Occasionally, there are subjective opinions and even moments of humor. The sheer magnitude of his diaries and their accuracy have earned them considerable documentary credibility. Whether retracing his footsteps or engaging in "recumbent traveling," readers have considered his diaries to be the ultimate example of aesthetic realism in Chinese travel writing.

From T h e T r a v e l Diaries o f H s ü H s i a - k ' o T E R R A C E OF H E A V E N M O U N T A I N

(1613-1639) JS-^J^JJ

Terrace of Heaven Mountain (T'ien-t'ai-shan) is located in the north of modern T'ien-t'ai, Che-chiang. Though not especially difficult to climb, it was originally considered remote and mysterious. Sun Ch'o

0 i(L

(1613)

320

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(314—371), a member of Wang Hsi-chih's circle, was among the first to celebrate it in his imaginary "Rhapsody on a Journey to Terrace of Heaven Mountain" ( Y u t'ien-tai-shanfu). The Taoist alchemist K o Hung (284-362) also praised it as a suitable place for manufacturing elixirs. But it was largely developed as a spiritual site by Buddhists; indeed, it was the place of origin of the T'ien-tai school, founded by the monk Chih-i (530-597), which later spread to Japan. In his twenty-three years on the mountain, Chih-i built twelve temples. The major one was the Temple of the Peaceful Nation (Kuo-ch'ing-szu), which Chih-i dreamed would bring tranquillity to the country. It was completed in 598. Later, in the eighth century, the temple was home to the three reclusive monks Feng Kan, Han-shan, and Shih-te. It had been lavishly restored twelve years before Hsu's visit. T h e mountain is actually a range that extends f r o m Transcendent's Mist Mountain (Hsien-hsia-shan) northward to the Chou-shan Archipelago. Its highest point, 3,732-foot Lotus Summit (Hua-tingshan), is encircled by lesser peaks. T h e mountain contains eight famous scenes, of which the arched Rock Bridge (Shih-liang) is the most notable, extending twenty-three feet across a waterfall 140 feet high; its narrowest section is only one-half foot wide. The following selection records Hsu Hung-tsu's first visit to the mountain together with the monk Lien-chou; he returned for another visit in 1632.

The last day of the third month in the year kuei-ch'ou [May 19, 1 6 1 3 ] : Left Ning-hai 1 through the West Gate. T h e clouds had dispersed and the sun was shining brightly. M y mood appeared j o y f u l along with the mountain's glow. After ten miles, reached Guardian Liang's Mountain. 2 Heard that tigers were stalking the roads hereabout and had injured several tens of people in a month. Therefore, I decided to spend the night here. The first day of the fourth month [May 20]: It rained in the morning. Traveled five miles, and came upon a fork in the road. Our horses headed west toward Terrace Mountain, 3 and the sky gradually cleared. Another three miles and w e arrived at Pine Gate Ridge. 4 T h e mountain became steep and the road slippery, so w e dismounted and proceeded on foot. Though w e had crossed over several ridges since Feng-hua, 5 w e had merely been following the foothills. N o w the road began to wind around as w e ascended along the spine of the mountain. Meanwhile, it had cleared after the rain so that the sound of springs and the colors of the mountains were transformed all over. The azaleas blazed

HSU

HUNC-TSU

forth among the emerald growth, making me forget about the difficulty of the climb. After another five miles w e had a meal at the Sinewy B a m b o o Monastery. On the summit, wheat was being g r o w n everywhere. Proceeded south from Sinewy B a m b o o Ridge and turned onto the wide road leading to the Temple of the Peaceful Nation. 6 We happened to meet a monk from the temple, Y u n - f e n g , and dined with him. He told me that this road led to the Rock Bridge 7 but that the mountain becomes more dangerous, the road is long, and it would be difficult to bring along luggage. He suggested I travel lightly and have the heavier things brought to the temple to await me. I agreed and had the porters follow Y u n - f e n g to the temple while I and the venerable monk Lien-chou 8 took the path to the Rock Bridge. Traveled one and a half miles over Sinewy B a m b o o Ridge. There are many short pines along the ridge. Their old trunks are bent and twisted with beautiful blue-green needles—just right for the kind of potted trees one sees in Su-chou. Another ten miles or so and w e arrived at the Amitabha Monastery. A b o v e and below it stood high hills. It is deep in the mountains, and the land is barren and desolate. (All the trees and shrubs have been burned away for fear that they might conceal tigers.) Cascades thundered, and the wind gusted; there were no travelers along this lonely stretch. The monastery lies on a plateau amid a myriad hills, and the road to it is long and barren. Located halfway up, one can dine there and spend the night. The second day of the fourth month [May 21]: After lunch, the rain finally stopped. We then waded along the swamped roads and clambered up over the ridges; the streams and rocks appeared increasingly secluded. After seven miles, reached the Temple of the Celestial Realm 9 by evening. A s I lay in bed, I wondered about the ascent to the summit the next morning and hoped that clear weather would be an auspicious sign. For the past few days, it had cleared up in the evening but there was no sun the next morning. As I lay dreaming during the fifth watch [3:00-5:00 A.M.], I heard a voice say that there were bright stars filling the sky and was so happy I could not go back to sleep. The third day of the fourth month [May 22]: Arose early. T h e sun was indeed glorious. I set m y goal on mounting the summit. Ascended for about a mile, arriving at the Monastery of the Lotus Summit; 1 0 after another mile, just as w e were approaching the summit, there was the Li Po H a l l 1 1 — b u t neither place was anything worth looking at. I had heard that below to the left of the cottage was the C a v e of the Yellow Court Scripture,12 so w e followed a narrow path for less than a mile to where I gazed down upon a rock boldly protruding and found it quite exquisite and flourishing. When w e arrived, there was a retreat

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built by a long-haired monk in front. He had sealed up the cave's entrance with rocks to block the draft from the cave. I sighed deeply, filled with regret. Then I climbed back up to Li Po Hall and followed the path to the very summit. It was dense with wild grass. At this height, the winds were biting. More than an inch of frost lay on the grass. Meanwhile, jadelike flowers and trees glistened on the mountainsides, creating an intricate splendor wherever I looked. The wildflowers were in full bloom along the edges of the ridges, but the summit, in contrast, exuded no color, constrained, no doubt, by the cold at this height. Returned back down to the Monastery of the Lotus Summit, crossed a small bridge beside a pool, traveled over three ridges. A stream wound about as the mountains enclosed a scene where the trees and rocks were magnificent and beautiful. Every turn produced some unique sight, satisfying all my expectations. After seven miles, passed the Upper Monastery of the Universal Teachings 13 and arrived at the Rock Bridge. Worshipped Buddha at the Pavilion of the Udumbara Blossom 14 but had no time to inspect the waterfall. Went down to the Lower Monastery and gazed up at the Rock Bridge and the waterfall. They both appeared to be way up in the sky. I had heard that Broken Bridge and the Curtain of Pearls 15 were especially scenic. A monk told me that if we started right after lunch there would be time to go there and return. Later, we proceeded from the Bridge of the Transcendent's Raft toward the rear of the mountain, where we crossed a ridge and followed a stream for about three miles. A waterfall dropped down from a stone gate, winding its way in three stages. The uppermost is Broken Bridge, where two rocks meet, leaning against each other. The water splashes between them, then swirls down into a pool. In the middle stage, two rocks stand opposite each other like a doorway. The water is forced through this doorway and becomes extremely agitated. At the lowest stage is a pool whose mouth is quite wide. Where the water flows out resembles a threshold. From there the water flows along a cavity and descends to the side. Each of the three levels rises several tens of feet high, and every one is absolutely fantastic. But when I descended by the steps alongside, there were places where the path turned and my sight was blocked so that I could not get a complete view of it all. After less than half a mile, there was the Curtain of Pearls. Where the water falls is broad and flat, which slows its force so that it flows steadily to the sounds of "ku-ku." Barefooted, I bounded through the grass, swung around trees, and followed along cliffs. Lien-chou was unable to follow me. We returned only when dusk had fallen all around us. Rested at the Bridge of the Transcendent's Raft. Gazed at the Rock

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Bridge, shaped like a rainbow over the waterfall, which spat out s n o w flakes. I almost lost all desire to go to sleep. The fourth day of the fourth month [May 23]: The sky and the mountain were a single shade of blue-green like mascara. N o time for breakfast. Quickly crossed the Bridge of the Transcendent's Raft and ascended to the Pavilion of the Udumbara Blossom. The Rock Bridge stands just beyond. It is more than a foot wide and thirty feet long. It is suspended between t w o hills. T w o cascades issue forth to the left of the pavilion. On reaching the bridge, they converge and drop down for more than a hundred chang with the thunderous roar of a river that has burst through a dam. I walked over the Rock Bridge and looked down at the deep pool. It was both hair-raising and bone-chilling. At the end of the bridge was a giant rock, which blocked me so that I could not reach the mountain in front. I had to cross back. Passed the Pavilion of the Udumbara Blossom and entered the Upper Monastery of the U n i versal Teachings. Followed the stream in front of it and arrived again at the giant rock that had blocked m y w a y to the mountain. Sat d o w n and observed the Rock Bridge. A monk from the L o w e r Monastery urged me to eat, so I went. After eating, went another five miles and reached the Temple of Eternity. Visited the Repository for Buddhist Sutras, a two-story hall with a set each of Northern and Southern School sutras. 1 6 There are many ancient firs in front of and behind the monastery; it would take three men with outstretched arms to encircle one o f their trunks. Cranes make their nests on top. Their cries reverberated, yet another ethereal sound in these mountains. On this day, I wanted to visit the Paulownia and Cypress Monastery 1 7 and view the Jade Terrace and the Double Gatetowers, 1 8 but after several attempts I could not find the w a y and finally changed m y plans in the direction of the T e m ple of the Peaceful Nation. It is fourteen miles from the Temple of Eternity, and between them is the Hall of the Dragon King. Each time I descended a ridge I thought I had reached flat ground, but after several such descents it had still not leveled out. I thus realized how high the Lotus Summit is—not far from Heaven, indeed! At dusk, reached the Temple of the Peaceful Nation. Was met by Yiin-feng, and it seemed like encountering an old friend. Discussed with him the marvelous sights I planned to visit. Yiin-feng said, " T h e finest scene is by the T w o C r a g s . 1 9 Though far off, w e can ride there. First w e can visit the T w o Crags, then walk to Peach Spring 2 0 and reach Paulownia Monastery. This would include the Emerald Cliffs and the Red Citadel." 2 1 T h e fifth day of the fourth month [May 24]: Disregarded signs of rainy weather and took the road to the T w o Crags, " C o l d " and

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" B r i g h t , " leaving the temple through the west gate, where w e hired horses. As soon as our horses arrived, so did the rain. After seventy miles, arrived at Pu-t'ou Village. The rain stopped and w e sent the horses back. After less than a mile, entered the mountain, where the winding peaks were reflected in the water. T h e trees were flourishing, and the rocks, extraordinary—I took great pleasure in the scene. A stream flowed from Tung-yang District with a strong current, as wide as the Maiden Ts'ao River. 2 2 Looked all around but could not find any ferry, so I crossed on the back of a servant. T h e depth of the water rose past his knees. Then w e had to cross a torrent, which took nearly an hour. After a mile, arrived at Bright Crag. Bright C r a g was where Han-shan and Shih-te lived in retreat. 23 Here, t w o mountains twist and turn toward each other to form what the local gazetteer calls " E i g h t Inch Pass." 2 4 Entered through the pass to find sheer cliffs surrounding me on all four sides like a city wall. At the end was a cave several tens of feet deep that could accommodate several hundred people. Outside the cave were t w o crags to the left, both located halfway up the cliffs. On the right was a rock shaped like a bamboo shoot jutting upward. Its top was even with one of the cliffs and separated from it by no more than a hairline. Green pines and purple flowers flourished on top. It complements perfectly the crags to the left—it could certainly be called a marvel. Exited through Eight-Inch Pass, climbed up another crag, also on the left. I looked up at it as I approached and it resembled a cleft, but when I reached the top it was spacious enough to hold several hundred people. There was a well in the middle named "Transcendent's Well"—shallow and yet inexhaustible. B e y o n d the crag was a particularly unusual rock several tens of feet high with a forked top resembling t w o men. The monk described it as "Han-shan and Shih-te." Stopped at the monastery there. After a meal, the clouds dispersed and the new moon appeared in the sky. I stood on the summit of this undulating cliff and watched the pure light flood the rock walls. The sixth day of the fourth month [May 25]: Departed from the temple at the break of dawn. After more than t w o miles, reached C o l d Crag. Its rock wall stood straight up as if hewn. Looked up at it in the sky and saw that it had numerous caves. There was one such cave halfway up the crag about eighty paces wide and more than a hundred paces deep—level, spacious, and bright. Proceeded along the right side of the crag and climbed up through a cleft in the rock. There were t w o rocks facing each other, rising straight up in the cave. T h e y were separated below but joined together at the top—a " B r i d g e of Magpies." 2 5 It could rival the Rock Bridge by the Monastery of the Universal

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Teachings, but it lacks the cascade plunging straight down. Returned to the monk's quarters for lunch, then found a ferry and crossed a stream. Followed this stream down the mountain along a strip of sheer cliffs and jagged precipices overgrown with plants and trees hanging down from their tops. A m o n g them were crabapple and redbud trees. Their reflections covered the stream as sweet breezes wafted toward me. Magnolias and fragrant plants were everywhere. In no time, reached the entrance to a mountain. Rock walls stood perpendicular, extending down to a torrent at their feet. The torrent was deep and its flow swift. There was no land on either side of it. Holes had been bored into the rock wall to aid in crossing, but only half of m y foot could fit into each hole. I shuddered as I pressed m y body against the wall to pass. From Cold Crag it was five miles to Pu-t'ou Village, then followed a small path to Peach Spring, which is beside the Temple Guarding the Nation. 2 6 The temple has been destroyed, and none of the locals remember anything about it. Followed behind Yiin-feng along a winding road choked with tall grass. The sun had already set, but w e could find no place to spend the night until w e finally asked the w a y to Plateau Pond. The pond is only seven miles from Pu-t'ou Village, but w e had been taking this small path that wound about for more than ten miles. Spent the night there. N o w I believe h o w Peach Spring can cause travelers to lose their w a y . 2 7 The seventh day of the fourth month [May 26]: Proceeded along the winding road from Plateau Pond for more than ten miles. Crossed a stream and entered a mountain. Another one and a half miles and the opening to the mountain gradually narrowed. There is a lodge there named "Peach Blossom Vale." 2 8 Followed alongside a deep pond. The water was a clear blue-green. A waterfall poured down into it from above. This was the Ringing Jade Torrent. 2 9 T h e torrent follows the winding shape of the mountain, and I followed wherever the torrent led. The mountains on both sides were like skeletons of rock. Patches of emerald foliage grew among the clustered peaks. E v e r y w h e r e I looked was delightful. Its scenic beauty ranks somewhere between that of C o l d and Bright Crags. The road breaks off where the torrent ends. A waterfall crashes down from a hollow in the mountain with ferocity. I left, dined at the lodge, and proceeded southeast through the vale; crossed over two ridges to search for what is called the "Jade Terrace" and the "Double Gatetowers," but no one knew where they were. About a mile farther on, learned they were on the summit. Followed the road there with Yiin-feng, pulling ourselves up until finally w e reached the top. Looked down at sheer peaks, which encircled us just

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like at Peach Spring but these emerald cliffs were loftier by far. On top of the peak there is a break in the middle: this forms the Double Gatetowers. What they surround and enclose is the Jade Terrace. Three sides of the terrace are precipitous cliffs, and the rear is connected to the Double Gatetowers. I stood facing the "gatetowers," but dusk had fallen and there was not the time to climb them. H o w e v e r , I had been able to view all the other famous sights in one day. Then descended the mountain behind Red Citadel and returned to the Temple of the Peaceful Nation, traveling ten miles in all. The eighth day of the fourth month [May 27]: Left the Temple of the Peaceful Nation. Went one and a half miles along the rear of the mountain. Ascended to Red Citadel. O n its summit a rounded cliff rises prominently. When viewed from afar, it resembles a city wall, and the color of the rock is a pale cinnabar red. T h e caves have been converted into monks' dwellings at random, obscuring their natural beauty. The Cave of the Jade Capital, Gold Coin Pond, and the Well for Cleansing Intestines 30 are all of no particular interest. 31 SEVEN STARS CAVERN

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3 i£> • - t JL % (1637)

From 1636 until 1640, Hsu Hung-tsu carried out his last and most extensive journey, this one to southwestern China. His leisurely route took him through the present-day provinces of Che-chiang, Chianghsi, Hu-nan, Kuang-hsi, Kuei-chou, and Yun-nan. T h e diaries completed during these years are more than ten times the length of all those written previously and represent a distinct phase of his travel writing in which the search for geographical knowledge became more important than aesthetic pleasure. The southwest did not contain an abundance of historical sites but was rich in unusual natural formations, particularly caves. It was his observations about these—of which he visited over one hundred in the course of his travels—that has attracted most interest from modern scientists. Seven Stars Cavern (Ch'i-hsing-yen) remains one of the major scenic attractions in the city of Kuei-lin in Kuang-hsi, an area renowned for the picturesqueness of its karst mountains. Seven peaks form a group on the left bank of the Li River (Li-chiang), and their arrangement is said to resemble the B i g Dipper. Seven Stars Cavern, located at the midlevel of the mountain, was formed by an underground river. Its widest part measures 141 feet, and it is 89 feet high. The route through the cave is about one-half mile long. It became a tourist attraction in the late sixth century during the Sui dynasty, and numerous inscriptions by literary travelers attest to its long popularity.

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Hsu's southwest travels were filled with difficulties; his servants deserted him, and his traveling companion, the monk Ching-wen, died. Although he may originally have intended to g o as far as Tibet, this final journey ended when his o w n health deteriorated. He had to be carried back home, where he died in 1 6 4 1 .

T h e second day [of the fifth month in the year ting-ch'ou: June 23, 1637]: After breakfast, together with the monk C h i n g - w e n and m y servant, Ku, packed provisions, took along bedding, and departed eastward through Pontoon Bridge Gate. Crossed Pontoon Bridge, 1 then turned east again to cross Flower Bridge. 2 East of the bridge, turned north and proceeded toward the mountain. (By the cliff on the east side of Flower Bridge is a small rock that protrudes, 3 abutting the end of the bridge—it beautifies the stream and connects the scene with the village; it also catches the eye o f anyone traveling east.) A jagged mountain stands northeast of Flower Bridge. Though its rocky heights cannot compare to the peaks that line the road on the southeast, 4 this is where Seven Stars Cavern is located. It is about half a mile from Pontoon Bridge. The cavern faces west; below it is the Temple o f the Buddha of Longevity, and w e began our climb up the mountain by the left side of the temple. First w e came upon "a pavilion with eaves like w i n g s , " which greets the traveler. Called "Plucking Stars, " 5 it was built and inscribed by Ts'ao Neng-shih. 6 A b o v e it was a cliff that jutted out horizontally with space enough only for one's feet, but the view looking down at the city walls and the western mountains was quite exhilarating. T o its left was a Buddhist hermitage, which stood at the mouth of a cavern. U p o n entering, one is unaware that there is a cavern. I asked a monk from the temple where exactly it was. He pushed open a door at the back and led me inside. We climbed up steps for about thirty feet—his hermitage had concealed the entrance to the cavern. It was pitch black, then suddenly w e turned to the northwest and the space grew brighter as it opened up before us. It had an arched ceiling over flat ground with numerous " b a m b o o shoots" and suspended "pillars" 7 clustered in the center. T h e y created a pure and intricate beauty. This, the upper cave, is Seven Stars Cavern. Descended by stairs to the right and entered the lower cave, k n o w n as the C a v e Perched on Mist. 8 This cave is gigantic, luminous, magnificent, and spacious. Its opening also faces northwest. Gazed up at its loftiness and majesty. Across the ceiling ran a fissure. A rock in the shape of a carp was suspended from the fissure, leaping downward,

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head to tail covered in "scales" and "bristles." If one tried to carve such a thing, one could hardly obtain a closer resemblance. Next to it were rocks that were coiled up, knotted together, twisted around, and that formed canopies with their many colors aglow. To the northwest were layered terraces stacked high. Climbed up a set of stairs—this was Laotzu's Terrace. 9 North of the terrace, the cavern was clearly divided into two areas. Proceeded west along the high terrace, then east through the middle of a deep valley. Walked further up from the terrace and through an opening straight north into a dark area. Above, the arched ceiling appeared endless; below, the ground dropped down into a pool: cavernous, precipitous, and fissured. What had been level suddenly became dangerously steep. Just then, the guide I had hired earlier lit a torch of pine twigs at the bottom of the cave and entered another cave. He didn't come by the terrace, so I couldn't follow him. Nor could I tell where he was, for it was too dark. So I descended from the terrace and returned to the floor of the cavern. The guide preceded me, holding the torch. We passed along the east side of the terrace through a valley and only then saw that the walls of the terrace were compacted and fractured, forming interweaving patterns that contained all sorts of phantasmal shapes. I recalled that I had just descended to this place from above. Went directly north and entered a "Celestial Gate" 10 of stone pillars standing erect but that admitted only one person at a time. After entering, found it to be another arched space, lofty and extensive, with balustrades of rock on the left. Below, it dropped down into a deep blackness so obscure that no bottom was visible: this was Otter's Pool. 11 The guide said that it is so deep it connects with the ocean, but this is not necessarily so. From Lao-tzu's Terrace northward down to the lower level here, heights and depths kept shifting, dense formations meshed with open expanse, creating yet another realm. Within this I passed through two more "Celestial Gates." The path gradually turned to the northeast and contained such rock formations as "Sprig of Bamboo in a Flower Vase," "Fisherman's Net," "Chessboard," "Eight Transcendents," "Steamed Buns," and images of the divine youth Sudhana 12 on both sides with the Bodhisattva Kuan-yin in the middle. The guide hurried on. Even though I forced him to linger so that I could study things more carefully, for everything I observed I had to neglect something else. However, what I really wanted to see was not located here. Again we crossed over a cliff while ascending. To the right was a pool, abyssal and black just like Otter's Pool but its area was greater: this one is called "Dragon River." 13 It is probably connected to Otter's Pond. Walked further northward, then turned east past "Red Carpet"

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and "White Carpet": 1 4 like hanging fur robes and suspended rugs whose patterns resembled textiles. Then, eastward, w e passed "Fengand Huang-Birds Playing in the Water." As soon as I had passed through an opening, a cold wind came whistling by—"sou-liu." The torch was extinguished, and m y skin felt raw. Because the wind had entered the cave f r o m outside, upon reaching this opening it had become compressed and its force increased. (Windy Cave on Layered Colors Mountain is also like this. 15 Formerly it was not called "Windy Cave," but this is what people n o w call it. Whether there was a "Windy Cave" here in the past no one knows today.) Exited and suddenly saw a halo of white light that illuminated the deep valley inside, creating an expansive atmosphere like the sky at daybreak. Then went east out of the rear cave. There was a stream f r o m the north of the cave, which circled around and entered the cave f r o m the south. I think it must become the Dragon River farther on. A small rock bridge spanned it, constructed by the Sung minister Tseng Pu. 1 6 Crossed the bridge and wiped off a spot on the cliff to the right of the mouth of the cave: it bore an inscription by His Excellency Tseng. Thus I learned that this cave was formerly called Cold Water Cavern. When Tseng served as a military commander in Kuang-hsi he built this bridge in his search for marvelous sights, and the name was changed to " T h e Cave of His Excellency Tseng." It is undoubtedly connected underground with Perched on Mist forming a single cavern: only the t w o gateways separate them. I stood for a long while on the bridge and saw someone washing clothes and fetching water f r o m the stream. I inquired, "This stream flows here f r o m the northeast. Can one enter by following it upstream?" He replied, "By following along the water channel, one can enter more than a mile deeper. Compared to the outer cave, the road is twice as long, and the sights are twice as fantastic. But the depth of the channel is u n k n o w n — o n l y during the winter months can one wade across i t — n o w is not the right season." So I took him on as a guide. H e went back to get a torch, and I followed him outside the cave, then to the right, where I arrived at the Monastery of the Forest of Blessings. 17 Left the pack I had been carrying there and had the monastery prepare a meal to await us on our return. Then I followed the guide, going in, as before, through the narrow opening of the eastern entrance. Passed by Feng- and Huang-Birds Playing in the Water, reached Red and White Carpets, and then turned northward at the fork in the path. Along the way was a "lion" playing with a ball, an "elephant" with a coiled trunk, and a "camel" with a long neck and a rounded h u m p . There was an earthen t o m b with sacrificial offerings

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such as hog bristles and goose feet arranged before it. There was a vegetarian "Arhat's Feast," with golden winecups on silver trays arranged below. In the honored place was the God of the Mountain, about a foot or so high, seated on an overhanging cliff. In a recess was a figure of the Buddha only seven inches high, seated in a formal position next to a Bodhisattva situated halfway up the cliff. There was a meditation couch and a small shrine—the couch was suitable for sitting crosslegged and meditating. In front of Kuan-yin on her throne was a prayer wheel that, it seemed, was about to start spinning. Farther back was another deep, dark pool facing a bridge over a flowing stream. At this point, the guide dared not enter any farther, saying, "Even with lamps and torches, several days would not be enough to cover it all. N o one ever goes beyond here. Moreover, once the water rises, h o w could we protect ourselves against it?" So we turned back, passing by Red and White Carpets and Feng- and Huang-Birds Playing in the Water before exiting. I calculated that the route f r o m the Cave Perched on Mist to His Excellency Tseng's Cavern was less than a mile; f r o m Tseng's Cavern farther in and then back out along this circuitous route was about a mile. However, not a single sight in these t w o caves escaped my view. After exiting f r o m the cave, I lunched at the Monastery of the Forest of Blessings and gazed upon Wife's Peak to the east, which I had seen upon m y arrival. Hurried d o w n a side path and found to the west a hollow at the foot of the peak. Some vegetable gardeners had built their houses in it. (They raise a golden-colored tobacco that can be smoked.) T o the north of this are many m o r e caves. These surround His Excellency Tseng's Cavern and are quite numerous. At this point, I followed along the southern foothills of Seven Stars Mountain, turned north through wild grass, and went through three caves in succession. I calculated that the Cave of the Springtime Visit 18 ought to be located north of here and that it could be reached by crossing a hill. I thus headed north in the direction of a hollow in the hill and came across a small path. After half a mile, arrived at the s u m m i t where the rock was steep and protruded—there was barely enough r o o m to get a foothold. And the small fissures in the rock were concealed by b r a m bles and thorns, so climbing up became more and m o r e difficult. From a distance, the unique shape of the rock slabs and the strange forms of the petal-like peaks seemed to conceal while supporting each other; as I approached, though, they increasingly opened up and revealed t h e m selves, leaving me in a daze. After another half mile, crossed over the hill and descended by means of the stairs that had been cut into the rock. At the foot of the stairs was the Cave of the Springtime Visit. It

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contains three caves in succession, all facing northeast. Surging clouds arose by the westernmost one. Entered deep into the cave. There was a rock suspended in the middle like a hanging lung. Penetrated westward, then turned south. The cave gradually darkened. Unfortunately, there were no inhabitants, and I could not obtain a torch to penetrate further. However, I had heard that there was nothing extraordinary inside, so there was no need to go in any farther. On the right side of the cave was an opening that led to the middle cave. This cave located in the center is wide in front, but one cannot penetrate far into it. In the front are rocks that resemble a suspended, forked tree and an upside-down dragon. O n the right side of the cave was an opening leading to the eastern cave. In this easternmost cave, the suspended rocks are even more abundant. One side of the cave, moreover, contained a fissure. A clear spring flowed down into a pool whose cold, green surface was mirrorlike. I had my servant Ku watch over the packs in the middle cave while I went with Ching-wen from the front of the cave along a cliff, eastward. Above, rocks standing erect were like people; those crouching low, like animals. In the eastern part, rocks like roof tiles touched the sky—I looked up at them, and they seem to have been cleaved. Below, a clear stream wound around— it is called Sword's Trail River (also known as the Kuei River). 19 It originates at Yao's Mountain. 2 0 From the northeast, it reaches the northern foothills of the mountain and flows out west under Old Ko's Bridge 21 and thence westward into the Li River. 22 At this point, I turned and reached the eastern corner of the mountain and looked up to find at the middle of the cliff row upon row of grottoes as if the clouds had exhaled a curtain of gauze. Where a file of three such grottoes were, I imagined that if they were joined inside so that these three were one it would resemble an elegant many-storied pavilion in the middle of the sky whose white jade eaves would be visible through the clouds—this would be a marvelous sight! And yet, it did not seem possible to reach it. We wandered back and forth below it before we cleared away some undergrowth among the rocks, cut some stairs into the overhanging cliff, and climbed up from one level to the next. Finally reached a grotto, and as expected it led into a middle grotto. However, this middle one was so low that I couldn't raise my head up. I had to cross it around the outside as if it were a pavilion on a terrace, and not through its interior space. Then I reached the third grotto and entered through a narrow fissure. Went to the rear, where there was a shrine with a window in front. There was a "jade pillar" suspended in the window. T o the left of the pillar was another shrine with an arched roof above and a platform beneath. I sat down on it in

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a meditative position and all my limbs felt perfectly relaxed—even if someone set out to carve this, he could not create something so marvelous! Its front was opposite the jade pillar.. There was a small stalactite hanging down; a spring of watery pearls kept on dripping. Ching-wen and I crouched down in front of the jade pillar in the space of the window and looked down the precipitous cliff. The passersby below looked up at us and kept walking around in circles below; some lingered, unable to leave. After a bit, two wood gatherers from the village looked up at us for a long while and finally clambered up. One said to me, "This would be a fine place to build a cottage, for my village is nearby and I could always look out on it." I said, "This pavilion in the sky is, I regret, a bit too shallow and narrow. If it were only slightly more spacious and deeper, one could reside here." He replied, "Above the middle grotto is another cave that is quite spacious." He wanted me to climb up to it, but although I tried for a long while, I couldn't reach it. So I descended and rested against a shady pine. Just where the two wood gatherers had gazed up at me, I now gazed up at them. They grasped hold of some branches and searched for stairs but finally were blocked by a precipice and found no way to climb up any farther. After a while, once more went west into the eastern cave of the Cave of the Springtime Visit and entered the middle cave. Followed along the western waist of the mountain and entered the western cave, which contained many inscriptions by men of the present carved on the walls. Exited the cave going west and came across yet another cave. Its entrance, which faced north, was about fifty feet high. Inside, I descended slightly, turning west. Although it gradually grew darker, its lofty and spacious proportions increased greatly, But without a torch I could not penetrate further. This was indeed an ancient cave! On a cliff to the left was inscribed in large characters the phrase "The Five Excellences and the Four Evils, " 2 3 written by Chang Nan-hsuan in his heroic and consummate style of calligraphy. 24 H o w sad that no one appreciates it; moreover, even the name of the cave cannot be determined. It could be the "Cave of the Encountered Transcendent" 25 or "Pellet Cavern." I brushed off the wall of the cavern, only to find an inscription by Ch'en Fu of P'u-t'ien during the Sung dynasty, 26 which read, "Islet Cave." 2 7 Is this because the cave is located on an islet in the Kuei River? West of the cave, the Sword's Trail River flows straight from the northeast, pressing along the foot of a cliff. The cliff becomes increasingly arched and sheer, its height piercing the empyrean while extending down into a deep pool—how majestic and powerful! A rock bridge spans the water leading westward, so that both the cliff and the river are to the south of the road. This spot is the northeast

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corner o f Seven Stars Mountain, and the cliff's name is Pellet M o u n tain. 2 8 F r o m Springtime Visit to here is less than half a mile. From its southwest corner I crossed over Elders' Bridge. (Elders o f various towns had it constructed, hence its name.) L o o k e d at the s u m m i t o f the cliff and saw a cave located high up. A b o v e and below it, the rock was extremely steep and sheer: it must have been the entrance to the C a v e Perched on Mist. When I focused m y sight to its left, I saw yet another cliff with a hermitage a m o n g the clouds, quite different from the one at the rear entrance to Seven Stars Cavern. Hurriedly turned east to climb the mountain. At the foot, I first encountered a temple. N o doubt it, along with the T e m p l e o f the Buddha o f L o n g e v ity and the Seven Stars M o n a s t e r y , 2 9 stands in front o f mountains that are like three legs o f a tripod along a north-south axis. O n the south is Seven Stars M o n a s t e r y — a b o v e it to the east is Seven Stars C a v e ; in the middle is the T e m p l e o f the B u d d h a o f L o n g e v i t y — a b o v e it to the east is the C a v e Perched on Mist; in the north is this t e m p l e — a b o v e it to the east is Morning C l o u d s C a v e . 3 0 C l i m b e d with bent knees while looking upward, then walked straight up several hundred stairs until I finally entered M o r n i n g C l o u d s Cave. It faces west, lies to the north o f Perched on Mist, and is less than half a mile farther from Elders' Bridge. T h e m o u t h o f the cavern was situated high up; inside, the cavern turned to the north and was extremely lofty. T h e m o n k T'ai-hsii o f Hui-chou 3 1 had piled up stairs and erected a pavilion at the entrance. It soars up along the sheer cliff and gazes d o w n over the City o f Rivers, 3 2 happily greeting the Western Mountains in the distance. B y then, however, the late sun's rays were falling on the cliff and so I struggled to climb farther, hard pressed by panting and sweating. I had barely thrown m y s e l f at the foot o f the B u d d h a to offer a prayer when suddenly a m o n k called to m e — i t was Jung-chih. Previously, I had met Jung-chih at Antiquity Plateau on Transverse Mountain 3 3 and again at the Green B a m b o o Monastery in H e n g chou. 3 4 Jung-chih left first to return to Kuei-lin, and w e planned to meet at Seven Stars Cavern. When I arrived here, I asked anyone I met about him, but no one knew anything. After g o i n g through Seven Stars Cavern, I told myself that I w o u l d never be able to find him. Then when I arrived here, I suddenly encountered him most unexpectedly. S o I spent the night in his cave. I asked about the pathway to the higher cave to the north, and Jung-chih said, " A l t h o u g h this cave is lofty and stands to the right o f the cliff, there have never been any stairs going up to it. H o w e v e r , the south wall o f this cave is separated by only ten feet or so from the northern base o f that one. O n e might bore

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a hole through from inside this cave, since outside there is no place to support a stairway." I leaned against a railing and gazed off to the north. The cave was blocked by rocks, so I was unable to observe it from a closer distance. There was nothing left but to undo my hair and gaze toward the Western Mountains to identify the various peaks. (The Western Mountains from north to south: at the extreme north is Yii's Mountain; 35 south of it is East T o w n Gate Mountain; 36 and south of this is Dragon Tree Cave Mountain and Windy Cave Mountain, also known as Cassia Mountain; 37 further south is Fu-po's Mountain 38 —all of these form a range east of the city. West of Yii's Mountain at the extreme north is Flowerscape Mountain; 39 south of it is Lingering Horse Mountain; 40 south of this is Retirement Mountain; 41 and south of this is Marquis Mountain and King of Good Fortune Mountain. 42 These form a range to the west of the city. Between Fupo's and Retirement Mountain stands Unique Beauty; 43 opposite it to the south by the mouth of the river are Mount Li and Pierced Mountain. 44 All of these are west of the Li River, hence the name "Western Mountains.") The third day of the fifth month [May 24]: Stayed in the pavilion at Morning Clouds Cave. Sat facing the west as I recorded the events of the past several days in my diary. At twilight, bade farewell to Jungchih and descended the mountain. Passed the Temple of the Buddha of Longevity and Seven Stars Monastery to the south, traveling less than half a mile in all. Westward crossed over Flower Bridge, then went less than half a mile again, crossed Pontoon Bridge, and entered East River Gate. Three hundred yards south and I arrived at the Chao Residence, where I spent the night. 45

4i Chang Tax (ca. 1597-ca.

1679)

at«.

Chang Tai was the scion of a prominent family of Shan-yin (modern Shao-hsing, Che-chiang). Like a number of wealthy literati during the late Ming, he did not pursue an official career; instead, during the first half of his life he led a charmed existence as an aesthete and socialite. During the final four decades of the Ming, he was able to travel extensively in comfort and observe many of the fashionable scenes of the time. At some point he took the artistic name T'ao-an (Studio of Contentment). After the collapse of the dynasty in 1644, his fortunes declined as the world he knew vanished. During the remaining fortyor-so years of his life, he lived in much-reduced circumstances as a recluse and wrote his memoirs in the form of miscellanies. Dreamlike Memories from the Studio of Contentment is his best-known collection, containing short, epigraphic narratives of the travels of his youth as well as vignettes of personalities, customs, and various cultural pursuits. His style continued the individualism and miniaturism of the Kung-an school of the late Ming. It conveys his own sensuality, humor, and delight in the unusual, in addition to his melancholy, irony, and nostalgia. The details he provides recapture the manifold pleasures of a lost world from the vantage point of a once-privileged tourist now left with few illusions.

From Dreamlike M e m o r i e s f r o m the Studio of Contentment ffcj fitTHE JUNIPER

IN T H E T E M P L E OF

CONFUCIUS

With the establishment of Confucianism as the official ideology during the Western Han dynasty, the city of Ch'ii-fu in Shan-tung, the home

335

Fig. 5 1 . The Confucian Shrine at Ch'ii-fu.

From

San-ts'ai

ple. A b o v e behind the circular wall is the

t'u-hui (1609). Richard C . R u d o l p h East Asian

C o n f u c i a n G r o v e , w h e r e C o n f u c i u s , his disci-

L i b r a r y , U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , Los

ples, and his descendants are buried. In the far

Angeles. T h e j u n i p e r o f C o n f u c i u s is located

distance in the upper right is the S u p r e m e

within the city walls to the right o f the center

Mountain.

o f the illustration, beside the C o n f u c i a n T e m -

CHANG

TAI

o f C o n f u c i u s , became a shrine. Embellished over the centuries b y imperial largess, the ancient t o w n g r e w into a c o m p l e x o f temples, monuments, and sacred objects celebrating the C o n f u c i a n cult, presided over b y his descendants in the aristocratic K ' u n g family. Located not far f r o m the Supreme Mountain, C h ' i i - f u attracted emperors and c o m m o n e r s alike, w h o made pilgrimages to sacrifice in the grand C o n f u c i a n T e m p l e and v i e w the many sights associated w i t h historical events and personalities. B y C h a n g Tai's time, it had also b e c o m e a tourist spot visited b y sightseers interested in the curiosities displayed at the shrine. M a n y o f these, the juniper o f C o n f u c i u s a m o n g them, w e r e o f dubious historical origin, though such objects as the Han dynasty steles were undoubtedly genuine. A f t e r several decades o f neglect, C h ' i i - f u has been undergoing restoration in recent years and once again attracts visitors.

In the year chi-szu [1629], I arrived in C h ' i i - f u and visited the T e m p l e o f C o n f u c i u s . O n e must pay admission before entering through the gate. T o w e r s thrust up above the palacelike walls. A placard read, " T h e Place Where Liang Shan-po and C h u Y i n g - t ' a i Studied." 1 I w a s startled by its inappropriateness. I entered through the Gate o f Ritual C e r e m o n y and saw the juniper that C o n f u c i u s himself had planted. 2 T h i s juniper has endured for several thousand years, through the C h o u , C h ' i n , Han, and C h i n dynasties. In the third year o f the Y u n g - c h i a era [309], during the reign o f E m p e r o r Huai o f the Western C h i n , it w i t h ered. It remained withered for 309 years. H o w e v e r , the descendants o f C o n f u c i u s continued to tend it, so it was not destroyed. In the first year o f the I-ning era [617], during the reign o f E m p e r o r K u n g o f the Sui dynasty, it revived. Fifty-one years later, in the third year o f the C h ' i e n - f e n g era [668], during the reign o f E m p e r o r K a o - t s u n g o f the T ' a n g , it withered again and remained withered for 374 years until the first year o f the K ' a n g - t i n g era [1040], during the reign o f E m p e r o r Jen-tsung o f the Sung, w h e n it flourished again. In the third year o f the C h e n - y u era [1215], during the reign o f E m p e r o r Hsiian-tsung o f the C h i n , it was scorched in a fire set b y soldiers. Its branches and leaves were all burned; only its trunk survived, a little more than twenty feet high. E i g h t y - o n e years later, in the thirty-first year o f the reign o f Emperor Shih-tsu o f the Y u a n [1294], it sprouted forth again. In the year chi-szu [1389], the twenty-second year in the reign o f the H u n g - w u Emperor, it sprouted numerous branches o f lush foliage, which fell o f f ten years later. 3

CHANG

T AI

339

I felt its trunk. It was smooth, moist, firm, and shiny. T h e pattern of its bark swirled to the left. When struck, it produced a sound like that of metal or stone. T h e descendants of Confucius have always regarded its flourishing and withering as a sign of the times. I proceeded further, to a large pavilion with a toppled stele. The t w o characters "Apricot Terrace" 4 had been written on it in the calligraphy of Tang Huai-ying. 5 At the edge of the pavilion is a bridge where the C h u and Szu rivers meet. 6 I crossed it and entered the Grand Hall. This hall is magnificent and beautiful. T h e Expositor-Sage Confucius, his Four Attendant Spirits, and the Ten Philosophers 7 were all represented by statues wearing crowns with strands of jade beads. On the altar were arranged three bronze tripods in the shape of a bullock, an elephant, and a pi-hsieh.s Their styles closely followed those of antiquity. Their entire bodies were an emerald verdigris; and they were nailed down to the altar table. B e l o w the stairs were arranged in a file the steles of emperors of various dynasties. That of the Y u a n dynasty stood out for its enormity. It was made of burnished bronze and had a tortoise base more than ten feet high. The hall on the left is three bays large, slightly smaller in scale than the Grand Hall. It is the Temple of the K ' u n g Clan. The east and west walls were lined with encomiums by emperors of various dynasties, written on small wooden tablets. In a corner o f the western wall is the Hall of Emperor T'ai-tsu of the Ming. N o n e of the titles bestowed by the Ming dynasty are used in the temple. One can gauge by this the nobility of the K ' u n g clan. One clan member said, "There are only three great clans in the world—ours, the Changs of Chiang-hsi, and the Chus of Feng-yang. 9 The Chiang-hsi Changs have the odor of Taoists, while the Feng-yang Chus are upstarts with the airs of a common f a m i l y . " 1 0

A N I N N IN T ' A I - A N

T h e subprefecture of T'ai-an, Shan-tung, is not far from Ch'ii-fu, and Chang Tai must have visited it around the same time, in 1629. T h e town lies at the foot of the Supreme Mountain, where the Temple to the Sacred Mount of the East is located. T h e temple is the starting point for pilgrims ascending the mountain. What in ancient times had been an arduous and dangerous climb had been developed over the centuries into a scenic route lined with shrines dedicated to deities of various cults. Long before Chang Tai's visit, the central path up the

¡HI &

340

CHANG

TA I

Fig. 52. Ascending the Supreme Mountain to Offer Sacrifices (Chia-ch'ing era [1796-1820]). From Wang Shu-ts'un, ed., Yang-liu-ch'ing nien-hua tzu-liao chi (Peking, 1959). This popular woodblock print shows an affluent Ch'ingdynasty gentleman on his way up to the summit.

mountain had been paved with stone steps, and affluent travelers could be carried up in comfort in open sedan chairs. While emperors and officials continued to make sacrificial pilgrimages, the Supreme Mountain had already become a prime tourist destination catering to a wide range of guests of all classes. These visitors were motivated not only by religious devotion but also by the desire to experience in their leisure time one of the natural wonders o f the Chinese world. Chang appears to have availed himself of a package tour, and his account is a rare glimpse into the circumstances o f commercialized travel in later Imperial China. N o t only does he describe the impressive establishments that catered to those w h o could afford them, but he also reveals the pleasurable customs involved in such "sacrificing." Throughout, there is an attitude of irony and amusement at the worldliness of what originally had been a state occasion of the utmost

CHANG T A I

seriousness. C o m p a r e d to Ma Ti-po's account, Chang Tai's report is without the slightest intimation of hardship or spiritual awe.

I shall never again regard the inns of T'ai-an as merely inns. I had come to sacrifice at the Supreme Mountain, and less than half a mile or so before reaching the inn I saw twenty or more stables for mules and horses. As I got closer, there were more than twenty dwellings housing actors. And closer still were discreet doorways and concealed houses all belonging to courtesans engaged in their seductive profession. I thought that these must serve the entire subprefecture—I didn't realize they were just for a single inn. When arriving at the inn, one first enters a reception r o o m to register. Someone collects the basic rate of three ch'ien, eight fen in silver; then someone collects the tax for climbing the mountain, of one ch'ien, eight fen. There are three grades of rooms. The lowest provides only a vegetarian meal in the evening and another one the next morning. Lunch is taken on the mountain, where the pilgrim partakes of ordinary rice wine and nuts; this is called "Reaching the S u m m i t . " By evening he arrives back at the inn where a feast of congratulations is held. It is said that after burning incense, if he prayed to become an official, then he will become one; if he prayed for sons, then he will receive them; if he prayed for money, he will obtain it. Therefore it is called "congratulations." There are also three grades of "congratulations." The first consists of a table for one with sweet cakes, five kinds of fruit, ten kinds of meat, nuts, and an opera performance. The next grade provides a table for two, also with sweet cakes, meat dishes, nuts, and an opera. T h e lowest grade is a table for three or four people, also with sweet cakes, meat dishes, nuts, but no opera, though it includes a singer with lute. At the inn I counted more than twenty places for opera performances, while those for singers were beyond counting. There were more than twenty kitchens preparing food and between one and t w o hundred servants running about serving the guests. After descending f r o m the mountain, one can eat and drink and enjoy the courtesans to one's heart's content—all this in one day. Guests arrive day after day to ascend and descend the mountain in this way. Yet the rooms of the new and departed guests are never confused, the nonvegetarian and vegetarian meals are never mixed up, and the staff w h o welcome the guests and the staff w h o see them off are each different. All this precision is quite incomprehensible. In the single subprefecture of T'ai-an, there are five or six inns just like this one, which is even more amazing. 1

341

342

CHANG

T AI

W E S T LAKE AT T H E M I D S U M M E R

FESTIVAL

©

-t H

Chang Tai was a frequent visitor to West Lake, whose scenic beauty, prosperity, and sophisticated social scene attracted all kinds of travelers. In his later years, he wrote a collection of nostalgic travel pieces, In Search of My Dreams of West Lake (Hsi-hu meng-hsun), twenty-eight years after he had last visited it. In the following selection f r o m Dreamlike Memories, Chang Tai, like Yuan Hung-tao before him, defined travel as a demonstration of individual taste. H o w one travels and with w h o m are essential elements in experiencing a place, as significant as lyrical perceptions of the landscape or recognition of its historical meanings. H e defines his o w n self by means of a typology of aesthetic consciousness. Avoiding exuberant vulgarity as well as conventional forms of sophistication, Chang Tai avows the simpler, understated tastes traditionally extolled in literati culture.

At West Lake at the M i d s u m m e r Festival, 1 there is nothing worth watching except those w h o come to watch the m i d s u m m e r m o o n . O n e can distinguish five types worth watching: O n e type: those on spacious pleasure boats where music is played, wearing formal dress, enjoying magnificent banquets under lantern lights, entertained by actors as sounds and sights dissolve into one another. They call this "watching the m o o n , " though they never really see it. They themselves are worth watching. Another type: those on pleasure boats as well as those in pavilions along with celebrated beauties, accompanied by pretty boys, laughter and shouting spreading among them, seated in a circle on terraces, gazing this way and that. Their bodies are located under the moon, though they really never look at it. They, too, are worth watching. Another type: those w h o are also on pleasure boats w h o are singing, accompanied by famous courtesans and Buddhist priests, sipping wine and singing softly to subdued flutes and mellow strings, b a m b o o instruments and voices accompanying each other. They are also under the m o o n and they watch it, and they want others to watch them watching the moon. They are worth watching. Another type: those w h o ride neither boats nor carriages, wear neither gowns nor hats, are drunk with wine and stuffed with food, forming groups of three or five, shoving their way through the crowds by the Temple of Glorious Blessings and Broken Bridge 2 yelling and screaming, pretending to be drunk, and singing discordant songs. They

nfcmf

Fig- S3Viewing the Moon on West Lake (detail). F r o m Hsi-hu shih-ching (Shanghai, 1979; rpt. o f W a n li era [ 1 5 7 3 - 1 6 2 0 ] ed.). T h e title of this print, " V i e w i n g the A u t u m n M o o n on Placid L a k e , " describes one o f the ten f a m o u s scenes o f West Lake and w a s later the name o f a pavilion on Solitary Hill.

o

CHANG

TAI

w a t c h the m o o n , they w a t c h those w a t c h i n g the m o o n , they w a t c h those not w a t c h i n g the m o o n , but actually they see nothing. T h e y are worth watching. A n o t h e r type: those o n small boats w i t h thin cloth curtains w h o heat a stove on a clean table, set up a teapot and boil tea, delicately serving it in w h i t e porcelain cups to g o o d friends and beautiful w o m e n all seated together o n an outing to w a t c h the m o o n , and w h o m a y hide in the s h a d o w s beneath the trees or flee f r o m the clamor to the Inner L a k e . 3 T h e y w a t c h the m o o n , but others cannot see h o w they w a t c h it, and, m o r e o v e r , they d o not w a t c h it self-consciously. T h e y are w o r t h watching. W h e n H a n g - c h o u people visit West Lake, they usually set out during the hours o f szu [9:00-11:00 A . M . ] and return at yu [5:00-7:00 P . M . ] , avoiding the m o o n as if it w e r e an enemy. B u t this e v e n i n g is f a m o u s , and they c o m e out in droves. M a n y tip the guards at the city gate w i t h m o n e y for wine. T h e sedan chair bearers carry torches and line up to wait for them along the banks. O n c e o n board, they u r g e the b o a t m a n to hurry t o w a r d B r o k e n B r i d g e so as to m a k e it to the festivities. U p until the second w a t c h [9:00-11:00 P . M . ] , the sounds o f voices and instruments are like a b u b b l i n g over, like a tremor, like c r y i n g out f r o m a nightmare, like m u r m u r i n g in one's sleep, so deafening that it makes one seem mute. T h e boats, great and small, all mass along the bank. N o t h i n g can be seen except poles striking poles, boats colliding w i t h boats, shoulders rubbing against shoulders, faces l o o k i n g into other faces. A f t e r a while, the excitement dies d o w n . T h e parties o f officials disperse as the g o v e r n m e n t runners shout to clear the w a y . T h e sedan chair bearers alert those on the boats, w a r n i n g that the city gates w i l l shut. Lanterns and torches, like stars strewn in the s k y , one b y one gather into clusters and depart. T h o s e onshore also s w a r m t o w a r d the gates. T h e c r o w d gradually thins, and s o o n e v e r y o n e has dispersed. T h i s is w h e n our boat approaches the shore, w h e n the stone steps on B r o k e n B r i d g e have cooled off. T h e mats are laid out there, and the guests are bid to drink freely. N o w the m o o n is like a n e w l y polished mirror. A g a i n the mountains adjust their finery as, once m o r e , the lake cleanses its face. T h o s e w h o had been sipping w i n e and singing s o f t l y c o m e out; those w h o hid in the s h a d o w s beneath the trees also c o m e out. W e g o and m a k e contact w i t h them, u r g i n g them to sit d o w n w i t h us. Elegant friends c o m e b y , f a m o u s courtesans arrive, cups and c h o p sticks are laid aside as b a m b o o instruments and voices sound forth. W h e n the m o o n is pale and cool, and it begins to g r o w bright in the east, the guests finally depart. W e let our boat drift and fall asleep

CHANG

T AI

-'-A

F'g- 54Fan Ch'i ( 1 6 1 6 - c a . 1695), The

Ch'in-huai

River. From Five Views of Chin-ling,

Shang-

hai Museum, Shanghai.

among the lotus flowers, which stretch for several miles. Their fragrance caresses us and our dreams are sweet. 4 THE RIVERSIDE HOUSES ALONG THE

CH'lN-HUAI

The Ch'in-huai River (Ch'in-huai-ho) originates in modern Li-shui, Chiang-su, and flows along the southern edge of Nanking before entering the Long River. Since the Six Dynasties, many spots along its length have become celebrated in literature and painting for their associations with famous literati and courtesans. In the late Ming, one particular stretch of the Ch'in-huai in the city was lined with elegant residences, inns, and courtesan houses where could be found the leading celebrities of the time. The entire neighborhood seemed dedicated to art and pleasure, and the social scene rivaled that o f West Lake.

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A l o n g with C h a n g Tai, a number o f other writers at the end o f the seventeenth century w r o t e nostalgic accounts o f Ch'in-huai in its heyday. Y u Huai (1616-1696), for example, in Random Notes from the Planked Bridge (Pan-ch'iao tsa-chi, published in 1697), recorded the unique customs and leading personalities o f the quarter. In K ' u n g Shang-jen's (1648-1718) historical drama The Peach-Blossom Fan (T'aohua-shan, 1699), the Ch'in-huai o f the 1640s is recreated as the setting for the romance between the courtesan Li Hsiang-chun and the scholar H o u Fang-yii (1618-1655). In painting as well, scenes along the C h ' i n huai River were nostalgically depicted b y artists, such as Shih-t'ao (1642-ca. 1710) in his album Reminiscences of Ch'in-huai (Ch'in-huai i-yu, ca. 1685).

T h e riverside houses along the Ch'in-huai were convenient for lodging, for social intercourse, and for carousing. T h e rates w e r e e x orbitant, yet not a day w e n t b y w h e n they weren't filled w i t h guests. Decorated boats w i t h their sounds o f music passed back and forth, winding in circles b y the houses. Outside each house w e r e terraces w i t h vermilion balustrades and latticed w i n d o w s , b a m b o o shades and gauze curtains. In summer, people relaxed on the terraces after bathing, while f r o m the pavilions along both banks a jasmine breeze w o u l d arouse the men and w o m e n w i t h its pungent fragrance. T h e ladies held round fans and w o r e fine white silk. Their flowing sidelocks and tilted hairbuns attracted the men w i t h their soft allure. E v e r y year on the day o f the D r a g o n Boat Festival 1 the place was filled w i t h the ladies and gentlemen o f the capital, 2 w h o w o u l d c o m e to v i e w the lantern boats. Enthusiasts w o u l d assemble about a hundred small sailboats, with lanterns shaped like the horns o f rams hung f r o m the sails like strings o f pearls. T h e boats were tied stem to stern so that as many as ten or more were joined in a file. T h e y resembled fiery dragons and flaming clam-monsters, coiling, writhing, undulating, meandering. T h e water became agitated as the lights flashed. O n board, cymbals and bells sounded while festive songs sung to strings and flutes rose up like frothy bubbles. T h e ladies and gentlemen, leaning against the balustrades, w o u l d break out in laughter. T h e sounds and sights w e r e so dazzling that one no longer felt in control o f his o w n eyes and ears. A f t e r midnight, they tired o f songs and only a f e w lanterns remained lit. Like the stars, one b y one, they disappeared. C h u n g Po-ching has written a " R h a p s o d y on the Lantern Boats o f C h ' i n huai," 3 w h i c h is consummate and quite captures the scene. 4

CHANG

R O M A N C E AT T W E N T Y - F O U R

TA I

BRIDGES

—

Chang Tai describes one of the principal attractions for many male travelers of such southern cities as Yang-chou. Noted for the charm and beauty of its women, w h o were also highly desired as actresses and concubines, Yang-chou possessed several courtesan quarters. T h e origin of the name " T w e n t y - f o u r Bridges" (Er-shih-szu-ch'iao) is obscure. It may originally have referred to twenty-four bridges throughout the city. In the T'ang, the poet T u M u (803-852) celebrated T w e n t y - f o u r Bridges as a courtesan quarter, whereas by Chang Tai's time the name clearly denoted a specific neighborhood on the street leading to the West Gate of the old city. The writer surveys the scene with a sense of fascination, pity, and realism as he focuses on the courtesans of the lowest rank. While his account is intriguing for its details of the customs of the quarter, it dispels all romantic illusions in its observations of the blemished streetwalkers and its awareness of the sad fate of the unsuccessful ones, only to end on a perversely comic note.

O f the romantic scene at T w e n t y - f o u r Bridges in Yang-chou, something was still preserved along Han Canal. 1 One circled around for about three hundred yards past Currency Gate to where there were nine alleys. There were originally nine, but almost a hundred alleys now encircle and zigzag between these to the left and right, front and back. The entrances to these alleys were narrow and winding. Standing neatly alongside each other were exquisite houses with secret doorways where both famous courtesans and ordinary streetwalkers dwelled. The famous courtesans would never appear themselves; one required the services of a guide to gain entry. There were as many as five or six hundred streetwalkers. Every day toward evening they would come out to the entrances to the alleys all bathed, perfumed, and made up, leaning against or sitting around the teahouses and taverns. This was called "standing sentry." A hundred gauze lanterns lined the fronts of these teahouses and taverns. The girls screened themselves from the glare, half-concealing themselves between the lights. Those scarred masked themselves behind curtains; those crippled did not venture out beyond the threshold. If viewed before the lanterns or under the moonlight, not a single one could be found unblemished. The power of powder proved the saying, " A stroke of white covers a hundred defects."

347

fa

M. H

34

8

CHANG T A I

Roamers and travelers came and went like the movements of a weaving shuttle. They rubbed their eyes and stayed on the lookout. When someone struck their fancy, they rushed forward and led her away. But suddenly the girl would remember her position and humbly allow the customer to go first while she followed behind at a slow pace. When they reached the entrance to the alley, a spotter would call through the doorway, "Miss X has a guest!" From within erupted a response like thunder and torches were instantly brought out. One by one, the girls would disappear; only about twenty or thirty were left remaining. As the night grew heavy, by the second watch [ 9 : 0 0 - 1 1 : 0 0 P.M.] lanterns and candles were nearly burned out. T h e teahouses went dark and silent. "Professor T e a " was embarrassed to make the girls leave; all he could do was yawn. But the girls would gather some money and buy short candles from "Professor T e a " while they waited for late customers. Some would seductively sing tunes like " T h e A x e Breaks Jade"; some would tease each other and roar with laughter, deliberately making a scene to stir things up a bit. Y e t this raucous laughter gradually took on a tinge of desperation. B y midnight, they had to leave. Quietly, they groped their w a y through the darkness like ghosts. When they encountered the old madams, the girls might be starved or beaten—one had no w a y of knowing. A younger cousin of mine, Cho-ju, had a handsome set of whiskers, was compulsively romantic, and fond of joking. Whenever he went by Currency Gate, he had to find a courtesan and once chortled to me, " M y pleasure today is no less than that of kings and nobles!" " H o w is that?" I asked. He said, "Kings, nobles, and great men have several hundred concubines waiting on them. When evening comes they all passionately yearn to be chosen, but only one person is favored. When I pass by Currency Gate, there are several hundred beauties w h o eye me and tempt me and w h o regard me as a P'an A n . 2 I need only signal with an expression to choose whomever I wish. I can always find someone appealing, call out to her, and she will serve me. H o w are kings, nobles, and great men better off than I?" Then he guffawed loudly, and I along with him. 3 THE YU GARDEN "F" 1)

It was not only natural landscapes that attracted literary travelers, but also the artificial landscapes of gardens. The cities of the Chiang-nan region were particularly noted for outstanding examples of these, many of which had been developed over centuries. Ingenious rock formations

CHANG

T AI

were the focus of these microcosms of the universe, with rocks from the Great Lake often preferred for their fantastic shapes. The garden was an important part of the art of living, a demonstration of aesthetic taste, a place for contemplation as well as entertainment. It could also confer social distinction. Kua-chou (modern Chiang-tu, Chiang-su) is located on the north bank of the Long River at the mouth of the Grand Canal, just below Yang-chou. In the late Ming, Yang-chou and its neighboring cities were among the most prosperous, owing in part to their role in the salt trade. The merchants of this area enjoyed unusual prestige and often cultivated literati tastes to demonstrate their status. The visit by Chang Tai and his uncle the vice-magistrate to the merchant Yii Wu's garden reveals how the garden could serve as a point of informal contact between social classes. It also demonstrates how wealthy merchants, traditionally relegated to a lower order, could win the approval of the official class.

The Yii Garden was located by Five-Li Station in Kua-chou. It was built by a man of wealth, Yii Wu. The gate was never unlocked unless the visitor was a man of distinction. When my uncle Pao-sheng served as vice-magistrate of Kua-chou, he took me there, and the owner treated us hospitably in every way. The marvel of the garden lay exclusively in its constructions of rocks. A rock slope by the front hall was twenty feet high. On top, many fruit and pine trees were planted, while along the side of the slope were peonies. One could not climb it, but it was marvelous because of its realism. The rear hall overlooked a large pond, in the middle of which were fantastic peaks and deep valleys. It was a steep climb up and down them. When one walked below the level of the pond and looked up, one could see lotus flowers that appeared to be in the sky—it was marvelous because of its use of space. Beyond the balustrade of a bedchamber, a valley wound about below like a wasp—it was marvelous because of its remoteness and seclusion. And farther back was a waterside pavilion, long in shape like a punt. It spanned a miniature river that watered groves of entangled trees on all sides where birds warbled. It was just like being deep in the mountains or in a thick forest. Sitting amidst all this was like relaxing in a green, isolated place. All the gardens in Kua-chou were noted for their artificial mountains. They were pregnant with rocks, which were delivered with the

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350

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T AI

assistance o f artisans skilled in these constructions. These "boys and girls," when cut and polished and carefully selected by the owner, should have had no regrets over being in the Yii Garden. The Wang Garden in I-chen 1 had car ted-in rocks costing some forty to fifty thousand. The greatest effort was spent on "The Peak That Flew Here. " 2 Overly shaded and slimy, it seemed to elicit only derision. O n its vacant lot I found a white rock about ten feet high and twenty feet wide that had a foolish appearance—but it was marvelous because o f this foolishness; and I saw a black rock eight feet wide and fifteen feet high that appeared skinny—but it was marvelous because o f this skinniness. It would have been enough to use just these t w o rocks. The owner could have saved twenty or thirty thousand and lived off the interest. Would it not have been better to preserve these t w o rocks from generation to generation? 3

THE RELIC AT KING A $ O K A TEMPLE

M tF

i

King Asoka Temple (A-yu-wang-szu) is located in present-day Y i n District, Che-chiang, about twelve miles east o f the city o f Ning-po. According to legend, in 282 Liu Sa-ho discovered a small reliquary here in the shape of a pagoda containing a bone. The reliquary was said to be one o f the eighty-four thousand constructed at the order o f the Indian king Asoka (r. 268-232 B . C . ) , an early patron o f Buddhism who, according to tradition, sponsored missionaries to China. The bone was believed to come from the Sàkyamuni Buddha and was widely revered as a powerful relic. A temple was first built in 425 and the name bestowed in 522 during the Liang dynasty. It was designated a Ch'an temple in 1382 during the Ming, and its many buildings have been restored over the years, most recently in 1980. The relic is n o w housed in an impressive hall inside three pagodas of stone, j e w e l encrusted wood, and another of w o o d believed to be the original one discovered by Liu Sa-ho. The pursuit o f the strange and the unusual was a prime motivation for travel among literati. In his reminiscences, Chang Tai records a number o f marvelous sights that produced enlightening breakthroughs vis-à-vis more rational modes of perception. The relic, with its apparent ability to predict death, reminds the reader o f the magical nature o f the traditional Chinese world. The mystical power o f such objects was even capable of inspiring faith in a traveler as worldly as Chang Tai.

CHANG

TAI

K i n g A s o k a T e m p l e is a B u d d h i s t m o n a s t e r y r e m o t e and tranquil. B e f o r e the f r o n t steps are eight or nine old pines, all quite majestic w i t h an air o f antiquity. T h e main hall is located at s o m e distance f r o m the outer gate. A misty light a m o n g the shady trees shines t h r o u g h the gate so that one can l o o k up at the s k y and perceive a brilliance that is icy, cold, crystal clear, and penetrating. T o the right, one w i n d s t o w a r d the gate to the abbot's quarters, w h e r e there are t w o sala-trees so high they pierce the e m p y r e a n . A hall to the side contains a s a n d a l w o o d B u d d h a and, in the middle, a bronze pagoda w h o s e patina is quite old. It is a reliquary donated b y the E m p r e s s D o w a g e r T z ' u - s h e n g during the Wan-li era [ 1 5 7 3 - 1 6 2 0 ] . T h e relic often emits a light, dense and multicolored, radiating in all directions t h r o u g h the openings in the p a g o d a . E v e r y year this is witnessed on three or f o u r occasions. W h e n e v e r s o m e o n e prays to the relic, it produces all kinds o f visions according to the person's k a r m a ; but if it remains dark as ink and nothing is seen, the person will certainly die. In the past, the m o n k C h a n visited the temple. H e did not see any visions f r o m the relic and died later that year. T h e r e h a v e been n u m e r o u s confirmations o f this p o w e r . T h e m o r n i n g after m y arrival, w h e n the sun had j u s t b e g u n to shine, a m o n k escorted m e to it w h e r e I o f f e r e d prayers to the B u d d h a . H e opened the bronze p a g o d a . A purple s a n d a l w o o d shrine contained a smaller pagoda shaped like a h e x a g o n a l brush holder, t h o u g h o f neither w o o d , nor m u l b e r r y bark, n o r leather, nor lacquer. Its top and b o t t o m w e r e covered w i t h hide. It w a s pierced all around w i t h ornamental designs, and the corners w e r e decorated w i t h Sanskrit letters. T h e relic w a s suspended f r o m the top o f the pagoda and h u n g d o w n , s w a y i n g back and forth. O n e stared intently t h r o u g h the o p e n w o r k , then turned one's eyes u p w a r d to l o o k at the relic to discern its shape. A t first glance, I s a w three pearls strung together like S a k y a m u n i ' s C h a i n flickering brilliantly. 1 I b o w e d d o w n again and s o u g h t a vision. W h e n I l o o k e d at it once m o r e , I s a w a small i m a g e o f W h i t e - r o b e d K u a n - y i n 2 w h o s e e y e b r o w s and eyes w e r e clearly defined and w h o s e sidelocks w e r e clearly visible. C h ' i n I-sheng l o o k e d at it again and again but in the end s a w nothing. H e trembled w i t h fright, turned red, and left w e e p i n g . Indeed, C h ' i n I-sheng died in the eighth m o n t h o f that year. What an amazing c o n f i r m a t i o n o f its p o w e r ! 3

351

42

Ku Yen-wu

(1613-1682)

jn*

K u Y e n - w u was a Neo-Confucian intellectual and Ming loyalist with broad scholarly interests. Born in K'un-shan in modern Chiang-su, he matured during the decline of the Ming and was influenced by members of his family, particularly his father and foster mother, w h o were committed to the activist moral principles o f orthodox N e o Confucianism. Although he prepared for the examinations, he did not seek office; instead he joined the Restoration Society (Fu-she), a political movement of concerned literati w h o sought in vain to save the faltering dynasty by means o f practical reforms. Y e t even though its leading members were eventually purged by powerful court eunuchs and such societies were later banned under the Ch'ing, the Restoration Society and its predecessor, the Eastern Forest Society (Tung-lin), had established in K u the intellectual foundations he later developed in his extensive researches. With the collapse of the Ming in 1644, K u changed his personal name from Jiang (Descend) to Y e n - w u (Blazing Warrior) and became actively involved in military resistance, often traveling incognito. His foster mother in K'un-shan had starved herself rather than live under the Manchus, and t w o of his brothers also lost their lives during the turmoil. K u himself participated in several uprisings. He joined the short-lived restoration in Nanking in 1645 and that of the prince of T'ang, w h o m he briefly served in a minor official capacity. In 1656 he left K'un-shan and traveled extensively in the north, where he continued to make contact with Ming loyalists and undertake research, the goal of national recovery always in his mind. He wrote several monumental geographical works, including most notably Strategic Advantages and Disadvantages of Commanderies and Kingdoms in the World

353

Fig- 55Five Terraces Mountain.

F r o m San-ts'ai

t'u-hui

(1609), Richard C . R u d o l p h East Asian L i brary, U n i v e r s i t y o f California, Los Angeles.

KU

YEN-WU

(T'ien-hsia chun-kuo li-pitig-shu, 1662), which surveyed the economic and military value of various areas, comparing his findings to the information found in historical sources. He adamantly refused to participate in the compiling of the official Ming History and, in 1668, was briefly arrested, then released through the influence of friends. K u spent the remainder of his years involved in scholarly projects, still hoping for a restoration of the Ming. A s a scholar, K u maintained a stringently pragmatic position, and his rigorous methods of research earned him the informal title of founder of the "School of Practical Learning" (P'u-hsiieh) during the early Ch'ing. He was a leader of the reaction against the subjectivist ideals of Wang Shou-jen (Yang-ming; 1 4 7 2 - 1 5 2 8 ) , whose emphasis on discovering the intuitive knowledge of the individual mind was influential during the late Ming. Ku, in contrast, helped set the course of later Ch'ing scholarship by creating objective, factual knowledge of the world, originally intended for social and political ends. He resisted metaphysical issues, but instead pioneered studies in classical philology, phonology, and epigraphy. A s a poet, he earned some recognition because of the vivid historical content of his poems, which document the gruesome sufferings of the Chinese population during the Manchu invasion. K u Y e n - w u ' s travel writings usually maintained the highly impersonal, objective tone characteristic of official historiographical narrative. In the present piece, however, he employed historical knowledge with a vengeance in order to demystify the traditional origins of the Buddhist shrine at Five Terraces Mountain (Wu-t'aishan). The essay was intended to reinforce the kind of orthodox Confucian position earlier articulated by Han Yii, w h o argued in his influential essay " T h e Original Tao" (Yuan-tao) that Buddhism was a danger to society and the state. Five Terraces Mountain is one of the four sacred Buddhist mountains in China and was dedicated to Manjusri. Located in the district o f W u - t ' a i in the northeast corner of Shan-hsi, the entire mountain range extends for more than sixty miles and covers an area about 150 miles in circumference. Surrounding a plateau filled with temples are five flat-topped peaks, the highest, on the north side, rising 10,030 feet above sea level. T h e first temples are recorded as existing as early as the Yung-p'ing era of the Eastern Han (A.D. 58-75); by the Sui-T'ang period, the mountain had become a flourishing religious center maintaining contacts with Central Asia, India, and Japan. Today, only thirty-nine temples remain on the plateau, and eight outside.

KU

YEN-WU

Five Terraces Mountain Five Terraces Mountain is located forty miles northeast of the seat of Wu-t'ai District, and its distance northwest f r o m Fan-chih District is forty-three miles. Shih Chao wrote in his commentary to the Comprehensive Mirror for Government: "Five Terraces Mountain is located in Wu-t'ai District in Tai Prefecture." 1 The mountain is formed by five peaks. It is traditionally believed to be where Manjusri appeared. 2 The commentary to the Flower Garland Sutra states:

Pure and Cold Mountain is the same as Five Terraces Mountain near Geese Gate in Tai Prefecture. Over the years, firm ice has accumulated; in the summer there are still flurries of snow, and it has never been torrid, so it is called "Pure and Cold." Five peaks soar above; their summits have no trees. They resemble terraces formed by piling up earth, hence the name "Five Terraces." 3

I investigated what men before me have said about Five Terraces and found it to be much exaggerated. O n e said that the circumference at the base is as much as one hundred seventy miles. Another said that four outer "terraces" are each forty miles f r o m the central one. " T h e Eastern Terrace was climbed by Chao Hsiang-tzu when he surveyed the state of Tai." 4 "The Southern Terrace is where Emperor Yao encountered a flood and tied logs together to make a boat." " T h e N o r t h ern Terrace, also k n o w n as ' S u m m e r House Mountain,' 5 is where Emperor Hsiao-wen of the Latter Wei dynasty 6 stopped on tour." "The Western Terrace, also k n o w n as 'Celestial Pond,' is where Emperor Yang of the Sui escaped the summer heat in the 'Dragon and Feng-Bird T o w e r s ' " 7 —all of these explanations are too farfetched and lacking in factuality. O n l y what recent gazetteers say about Five Terraces M o u n tain is close to the truth. T h e N o r t h e r n Terrace is the tallest, and later men named it " M e r g ing with the Dipper." It contains "Dragon Falls"; seven miles to its east is Flower Garland Ridge. And seven miles farther east is the Eastern Terrace, f r o m whose summit one can view the sunrise. T o its east is the road to Dragon Spring Pass. Seven miles south of the N o r t h e r n Terrace is the Central Terrace. N o r t h w e s t of its summit is Great Lotus Spring, and five miles farther west is the Western Terrace. West of this are layers of ridges for many miles. T o the north is Hidden Devil's

357

£~ J* tU iZ,

KU

YEN-WU

Cliff; 8 southeast is Pure and Cold Ridge. Only the Southern Terrace is rather distant, about seventeen miles from the Central Terrace. These five peaks encircle like a city wall. The wind on their summits is quite fierce and one cannot dwell there, so five or six of the larger Buddhist temples are located in the valleys. The land is cold and does not produce any of the five grains. Of trees, there is the pine, but not the cypress. There are also common people who engage in gathering firewood and in hunting for a living. When this was a kingdom in antiquity this land must have belonged to the Royal Forester, 9 but since the Middle Ages 1 0 those of our people who have escaped into Buddhism have dwelled here. In this way, the mountain was named and was subsequently taken over by this religion. But according to my investigations, Five Terraces was designated "Luszu District" in the Han, and the name of the mountain first appeared only during the Northern Ch'i dynasty. The construction of its Buddhist temples would have begun during the Latter Wei. However, the followers of this religion believe that when Kasyapa-matanga 11 came from India he dwelled here. They do not realize that the Pure and Cold Terrace where Emperor Ming had the images painted was in Lo-yang and not here. 12 According to my further investigations, The History of the Northern Ch'i Dynasty states only, "When the T'u-chiieh tribes invaded, the two governors of the Tai and Hsin prefectures escaped from the plunderers along with several tens of thousands of horses to Juniper Valley north of Five Terraces Mountain." 1 3 The History of the Sui Dynasty states no more than that "Lu T'ai-i fled to Five Terraces Mountain, where the land produced many kinds of herbs. He lived with disciples in a cottage beneath a cliff, dwelling in quietude and cutting themselves off from the world in the belief that they could become Transcendents." 14 The "Biography of Wang Chin" in The History of the T'ang Dynasty is the first to state that "there was a Temple of the Golden Pavilion on Five Terraces Mountain. Bronze rooftiles were cast and gold applied to their surface. They shone brilliantly throughout the valleys and consumed a huge amount of many hundreds of millions. Wang Chin was the prime minister. He issued a directive to the Secretariat that ordered several tens of monks on Five Terraces Mountain to disperse through the commanderies and districts, gathering audiences and lecturing on the sutras to raise funds." 1 5 And so the name of this mountain became known in foreign parts. As for the statement "The Tibetans sent an envoy to request a painting of Five Terraces Mountain . . . , " this appears in the annals of Emperor Ching-tsung. 1 6 In The History of the Five Dynasties, it

KU

YEN-WU

is written that when some foreign monks visited Five Terraces M o u n tain, " E m p e r o r Chuang-tsung dispatched envoys to entertain them with a lavish feast, which sent the entire city into a f r e n z y . " 1 7 It was also written that a monk on Five Terraces Mountain, Chi-jung, had served as chief minister for Dependencies under Liu Ch'eng-chiin: " H e could lecture on the Flower Garland Sutra. From all corners of the world they came with offerings, and much was accumulated for the kingdom's use. Five Terraces Mountain was on the border with the Khitan tribe. Chi-jung often obtained horses from them to present to the court, which were called 'Horses for the C a p i t a l . ' " 1 8 In The History of the Yuan Dynasty, it is furthermore written that in the second month o f the Chih-ta era of Emperor Wu-tsung, " O n the day kuei-hai [March 2 1 , 1309], the Empress D o w a g e r visited Five Terraces Mountain." On the day chi-ch'ou in the third month [April 16], " T h e King of Korea was commanded to accompany the Empress D o w a g e r to Five Terraces Mountain." On the day chia-shen in the fifth month of the second year of the Chih-chih era of Emperor Ying-tsung [June 20, 1322], " T h e imperial carriage visited Five Terraces M o u n tain." On the day keng-yin [June 24], " A sacrifice to the stars was held on Five Terraces Mountain to avert disasters." 1 9 N o w , the events involving Wang Chin as prime minister and Chuang-tsung, Wu-tsung, and Ying-tsung as sovereigns are known, yet none of these are recorded in the local gazetteers. When I inquired of elders here, none knew of any traces of these events. They had occurred between three and four hundred years ago and are already forgotten. Is this not even truer of the arrival of Kasyapa-matanga and the appearance of Manjusri? O n this mountain, a brilliant blaze occasionally erupts on rainy nights. The Book of Changes says: "Fire in the Marshes: Revolution." 2 0 In this deep mountain with its huge valleys, there are often places that are not Buddhist, but they are not worth discussing. Alas! M r . Han, in " T h e Original Tao," went so far as to advocate, "Return them to secular life, burn their books, make housing out of their retreats," 2 1 while Li Te-yii as prime minister ordered Chang C h u n g - w u to seal off Chii-yung Pass and refused to admit escaping monks from Five Terraces Mountain. 2 2 Such is the extent to which the Noble Man carries out the Tao o f the sovereign. Yet I maintain that when men's minds have long been mired in superstition, even if a sage were reborn among them, he could not effect a sudden revolution. Therefore, it is preferable to choose a rustic, perilous, secluded, and remote place like Five Terraces Mountain and let them dwell there, not allowing them to mix

359

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YEN-WU

with the four classes of people. 2 3 It is far better not to permit them to live in towns and villages, where these two groups would ruin each other beyond control. Thus I wrote "A Record of Five Terraces Mountain." 2 4

43

Chu I-tsun

(1629-1709)

Chu I-tsun was a leading scholar, essayist, and poet whose writings and anthologies had a significant effect on the literary scene of the early Ch'ing. Born in Hsiu-shui (modern Chia-hsing, Che-chiang) into an impoverished family descended from a grand secretary of the Ming, he was of the generation who willingly entered the Ch'ing government despite ambivalence over serving the Manchus. C h u was one of the outstanding talents recruited in the special Erudite Literatus (Po-hsiieh hung-tz'u) examination of 1679 and was appointed an examining editor in the Han-lin Academy. He was soon attached to the Southern Study, the personal secretariat of the K'ang-hsi Emperor (r. 1 6 6 1 - 1 7 2 2 ) . Later he was involved in the ongoing compilation of the History of the Ming Dynasty, and he also directed the provincial examination in Chiangnan. A s a poet, Chu I-tsun specialized in tz'u and was regarded as the leading master of the Western Che-chiang school. He produced an anthology in 1678 o f some 2,250 pieces selected from the T'ang through the Yuan, which had considerable influence on contemporary taste. As a prose writer, Chu I-tsun was eclectic in his choice of models. He was also an important author on geographical and historical subjects and produced a comprehensive history of Peking, A History of the Capital (fih-hsia chiu-wen, 1687). His use of over 1,400 sources covering a wide range of topics on urban life from antiquity to the late Ming made this a basic source, which was later enlarged by his son and again expanded and reprinted under the sponsorship of the Ch'ien-lung Emperor (r. 1735—1795)-

361

Fig. 56. The Chin Temple.

F r o m T'ai-yiian

hsien-chih

ter, and the smaller building on its left is the

(Taipei, 1976; rpt. o f 1 8 2 6 ed.). T h e Shrine o f

T e m p l e o f T'ai-t'ai. T h e temple to S h u - y i i o f

the H o l y M o t h e r is located to the left o f cen-

T ' a n g is at the e x t r e m e right.

364

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I-TSUN

T h e C h i n T e m p l e (Chin-tz'u) is actually a group o f several shrines built around the source o f the C h i n River at the foot o f Suspended Jar Mountain (Hsiian-weng-shan), located about fifteen miles southwest o f T'ai-yiian, Shan-hsi. A s C h u I-tsun records, the temple is associated with Shu-yii, the younger son o f K i n g W u w h o founded the C h o u dynasty in the eleventh century B.C. Shu-yii was enfeoffed with the state o f T'ang, and his son changed the name o f the state to Chin, after the river that originates at this site. A temple dedicated to Shu-yii is first mentioned in Li Tao-yiian's Guide to Waterways with Commentary. During the Northern C h ' i dynasty, one o f whose capitals was at nearby Chin-yang, it was also the site o f pleasure palaces. T h e area flourished under subsequent northern dynasties and was the starting point o f the military uprising led by Li Y u a n (566-635), w h o founded the T ' a n g dynasty in 618 and reigned as Emperor Kao-tsu (618-626). In 979, Chin-yang, then the center o f the rival Northern Han dynasty, was destroyed by the Sung, and the city o f T'ai-yiian was begun. T h e C h i n Temple escaped damage, but later, during the T'ien-sheng era (10231031) o f Emperor Jen-tsung, the cult o f Shu-yii was superseded b y that o f I-chiang, the mother o f Shu-yii, canonized as the " H o l y M o t h e r " (Sheng-mu). She was believed to grant prayers for rain, and her shrine has dominated the Chin T e m p l e complex ever since. C h u I-tsun's intellectual approach to travel writing is apparent in his focus on documenting the history o f the place before indicating an autobiographical context. O n l y then does the scenic beauty produce a response, which seems to be one o f relief at being able to rest from the rigors o f the road.

The Chin

Temple

(1666)

The Chin T e m p l e is dedicated to Shu-yii o f T'ang. It is located less than three miles southwest o f T'ai-yiian District. Shu-yii is called the " K i n g o f Eastern Fen" and " K i n g o f Prosperity and Peace," for these are titles bestowed on him through the ages. 1 T h e temple faces south. T o the west, lofty mountains conceal it; below these mountains is the Shrine o f the H o l y Mother, facing east. A stream flows forth f r o m beneath a pavilion and passes before the Chin Temple. A n d to the southwest there is a spring called "Eternal Y o u t h . " 2 It merges with the stream, then the water divides as it flows off into channels and irrigation ditches. It irrigates thousands o f acres o f land. This is what the

CHU

I-TSUN

Guideways Through Mountains and Seas refers to when it mentions that " T h e Chin River originates from Suspended Jar Mountain." 3 The river flows on until it meets the Fen, 4 where the level of the earth is lower than that under the Temple by several tens of feet. This is what is meant when The Book of Poetry says, " T h e River Fen, damp and l o w l y i n g . " 5 I do not k n o w about the beginnings of the Shrine of the Holy Mother. The local people pray to her when a drought occurs, and she always answers them. So her shrine is particularly imposing, while Shu-yii's appears to be merely standing alongside. This is the place where the Sui generals Wang Wei and K a o Chiin-ya intended to assassinate Emperor Kao-tsu as he prayed for rain. 6 South of the shrine is the Temple of T'ai-t'ai, w h o was identified by Tzu-ch'an as the G o d of the Fen River. 7 T o the east is the Chin Temple stele by Emperor T'aitsung of the T ' a n g . 8 And fifty paces east of that is a stele from the T'aip'ing hsing-kuo era (976-984) of the Northern Sung dynasty. Many ancient trees encircle the temple, all about a thousand years old. This is what Li Tao-yiian referred to when he wrote, "Beside the river is a cool pavilion; a Flying Bridge extends over the water. T o the left and right, varieties of trees intertwine to form a cover through which one barely sees the sunlight. " 9 Earl Chih diverted this river to flood the city of T'ai-yiian, 1 0 and the Sung Emperors T'ai-tsu and T'ai-tsung used the same method to subdue the Northern Han dynasty. 1 1 H o w e v e r , the Fen River flows at an even level with T'ai-yiian, while the level of the Chin River is higher than the Fen's, so diverting the Fen alone is not sufficient to destroy the city walls. Only by combining both rivers can the city be flooded. In the second lunar month of the year ping-wu [March 1666], while I was traveling to Celestial Dragon Mountain, 1 2 the route passed by the Chin Temple, where I stopped and rested. I wandered freely on a stone bridge: the grass was fragrant, the spring clear; the shrubs were dense and low; minnows swam about in schools, 1 3 chirping birds sang endlessly. It seemed as if I was viewing the scenic beauty of m y native place, perhaps because I had been a traveler for so long. I had wandered from Yiin-chung some t w o hundred forty miles to T'ai-yiian. 1 4 Y e l l o w dust was blown about by the wind, blinding m y eyes so that I was unable to distinguish rivers from valleys. T h e raging waters of the M u l berry and Hu-t'o rivers were like bubbling broth. 1 5 There were no pontoon bridges or ferryboats for crossing. M y horse had to walk through deep mud, so I was unable to look around on either side. B y Geese Gate and Winding Current Mountains, 1 6 the road was rough and dangerously narrow. What I formerly regarded as scenic beauty seemed

CHU

I-TSUN

only to increase my anxious, miserable, and exasperated thoughts. Only when I arrived at the temple was I able to relax and enjoy its pleasures. From the time of Shu-yii of T'ang to the present is some three thousand years, while T'ai-t'ai was a descendant of the sage-king Chint'ien, 17 whose time was even more distant. Such pure, fine worlds among mountains and streams were not enjoyed just by travelers. Even gods and spirits choose such places as their dwellings and never leave. Is this not the natural order of things? I have written this down not merely to record the date of my journey here but to inform future travelers. 18

44

Shao Ch'ang-heng

(1637-1707)

Shao Ch'ang-heng, from Wu-chin (modern Ch'ang-chou, Chiang-su), was primarily an essayist in the orthodox tradition of the Eight Masters of T'ang and Sung Prose. This corpus of models had been defined by his fellow local T'ang Shun-chih ( 1 5 0 7 - 1 5 6 0 ) , w h o , together with Kuei Yu-kuang ( 1 5 0 7 - 1 5 7 1 ) and others, argued for the superior "methods" (fa) of T'ang and Sung styles. They opposed a rival orthodoxy based on Ch'in and Han masters, w h o m they considered to have been less self-aware as writers. Nevertheless, both Kuei and T'ang tended to abandon the lofty Neo-Confucian moralism of their predecessors, instead evolving personal voices that emphasized naturalness, simplicity, and casual, intimate subject matter. In this sense, they were also heirs to the individualism of the late Ming. Shao Ch'ang-heng left some three hundred pieces, many of which were in this individualistic vein, though he also wrote about historical and philosophical issues. Unable to pass the provincial examinations, he joined the establishment of Sung Lo ( 1 6 3 4 - 1 7 1 3 ) , then governor of Chiang-su, and helped him edit an anthology, Selections from Three Prose Masters of the Ch'itig Dynasty (Kuo-ch'ao san-chia wen-ch'ao), for which he wrote a preface praising these masters' respective qualities o f "vital force" (ch'i), "forcefulness" (/»'), and "method" (fa). Shao especially valued one of them, Hou Fang-yii, with w h o m he identified as someone w h o , though unable to gain official position, had influenced his generation through his prose. Shao Ch'ang-heng wrote a number of travel pieces, but his essay on Solitary Hill (Ku-shan) at West Lake is among the most atmospheric. Solitary Hill stands 122 feet high and was originally an

367

Fig- 57A Complete shih-ching,

View of West Lake. F r o m

Hs:-hu

(Shanghai, 1979; rpt. o f C h ' u n g -

a b o v e and Pai's E m b a n k m e n t b e l o w . E x t e n d ing horizontally across the middle is S u ' s

chen era [ 1 6 2 8 - 1 6 4 4 ] w o o d b l o c k print). S o l -

E m b a n k m e n t and the Six Bridges. A t the b o t -

itary Hill is the island to the right o f center,

t o m , parts o f the city wall of H a n g - c h o u are

j o i n e d to the land by Western C o o l n e s s B r i d g e

shown.

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island that separated the inner and outer areas of West Lake; its ends were connected to the land by bridges and causeways so that one could stroll along its length. For centuries it was the site of numerous garden villas and famous for its pavilions and other attractions. Against this background of scenic beauty Shao and his brother, whose villa was named after Wang Wei's famous estate, surround themselves with historical meanings. Their walk along the base of Solitary Hill is a peregrination through the past as Shao consoles himself with thoughts of the vanitas of official life and the paradox of fame exemplified by Lin Pu (957-1028), a local recluse during the Northern Sung, whose reputation had triumphed over that of the once-powerful minister Chia Szu-tao ( 1 2 1 3 - 1 2 7 5 ) . This piece, praised by a contemporary as capturing the "untrammeled" (1) quality of Ou-yang Hsiu and Su Shih, was probably written before 1695. It appeared in an edition of his collected works printed in 1700-1702.

An Evening Stroll to Solitary

Hill

Since I arrived at West Lake I have been staying at the Hall of the Four Acceptable Things at Wheel River for half a month. Wheel River is the villa of my elder brother, whose artistic name is Chieh-an [The Abstinence Studio]. 1 The hall faces Solitary Hill, but the weather was sweltering so I could not visit it. Five days after the Double Seventh Festival 2 there was a slight cooling after a rain, and the peaks ringing the lake were a clear emerald green as if newly washed. I watched the bright moon rise above the highest peak in the southeast and undulate in the ripples. The lake was a jade green, the sky, an azure blue; everything was clear and limpid. M y enthusiasm for traveling soared, so I joined my brother, summoned a small craft, and crossed the lake to the foot of Solitary Hill. We followed a servant and climbed up to the Pavilion for Releasing Cranes 3 and wandered about below the tomb of the hermit Lin Pu. 4 Having dismissed the boat, we followed a path through a damp, low-lying marsh to the Pavilion for Viewing the Lake. Leaning against the railing, I gazed in all four directions, while the lake appeared round as a mirror; the T w o Eminences, South Screen, and all the other peaks converged like a great ring, 5 for this pavilion is suitably situated between the lake and the mountains and is especially scenic on moonlit evenings. But the pavilion has fallen into

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disrepair, and n o w it has become the Shrine of the Dragon King. 6 We walked westward past the Shrine of Lu Chih. 7 Dwelling to the left and right were several tens of households; the light f r o m their lamps could be seen through the forest thicket. We walked alongside the lake for almost a mile until my feet started to tire a bit, so w e sat d o w n on the stone balustrades of Western Coolness Bridge. M y brother pointed and said to me, " T h e original site of Chia Szu-tao's Garden of Deferred Pleasures 8 was at the present Ko's Ridge. 9 And it is also recorded that the Water-and-Bamboo Villa 10 was south of Western Coolness Bridge. It grasped hold of Solitary Hill on the left and Su's Embankment 1 1 on the right—it must have been right here!" Alas! The mountain shadows reflected in the lake are no different today than then. And yet Chia's fearsome power blazing forth in the politics of those times and the extravagant beauty of his seductive courtesans dancing in the waterside pavilions have all vanished long since into cold smoke. At the mere mention of his name even children but three feet high spit, while Lin Pu, a commoner, has endured in m e m ory for more than six hundred years, and his traces, on the contrary, still remain. W h y is this so? Together w e wistfully sighed over this for a long while. C o m i n g back f r o m Solitary Hill, w e passed six or seven monks' hermitages where the Buddhist chanting had fallen silent. I heard only the desolate sounds of the bell of Feng-Bird Forest Temple. 1 2 I wrote out this account on the day after the j o u r n e y . 1 3

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45

K'ung Shang-jen (1648-1718)

K ' u n g Shang-jen, from C h ' i i - f u , Shan-tung, was a sixty-fourthgeneration descendant o f Confucius. He is remembered as an outstanding playwright, an exponent o f "Empirical Studies" (K'aocheng-hsiieh) in scholarship, a genealogist, art collector, and active participant in literary circles. A noted poet as well w h o published three collections, he espoused the late M i n g ideal o f expressing "personal sensibility" (hsing-ch'ing) while also writing realistic poems filled w i t h irony and moral criticism. K ' u n g Shang-jen was not born into the highest level o f the K ' u n g clan w h o s e members inherited titles and official positions. Despite his expert k n o w l e d g e o f the ritual classics, he never passed the provincial examinations. Hence, like many literati o f the later dynasties, he spent his early years in frustration as he vainly attempted to gain entry into official life. It was during this relatively unoccupied period o f his life that he often visited Stone Gate Mountain (Shih-men-shan), located about fifteen miles northeast o f C h ' i i - f u , w h e r e he built a studio. K ' u n g was another scholar w h o , despite nostalgia for the native M i n g dynasty, willingly served the Manchus as an official. A f e w years after he w r o t e this piece K ' u n g ' s life underwent a major change o w i n g to a fortuitous contact w i t h the K'ang-hsi E m p e r o r (r. 1 6 6 1 - 1 7 2 2 ) . In 1684, w h e n the K'ang-hsi E m p e r o r came to C h ' i i - f u to sacrifice to C o n f u c i u s , K ' u n g Shang-jen was chosen as lecturer and guide. He made a favorable impression on the emperor and was immediately appointed an Erudite at the National University in Peking, after w h i c h he entered the government. It was while serving as a river control

373

Fig. 58. Wang Hui ( 1 6 3 2 - 1 7 1 7 ) , The K'ang-hsi

Em-

Hui and his studio records the K ' a n g - h s i

peror's Second Tour of the South (detail). M e t r o -

E m p e r o r ' s 1689 tour, w h i c h took him to

politan M u s e u m o f A r t , N e w Y o r k , Purchase,

the S u p r e m e Mountain. This section reflects

T h e Dillon Fund, 1979. T h i s long handscroll

the scenery o f nearby mountains such as Stone

painted on imperial c o m m i s s i o n b y W a n g

Gate.

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official in Yang-chou that he was able to research his greatest work, The Peach Blossom Fan (T'ao-hua-shan, 1699), which used authentic sources to recreate the key characters and events of the fall of the Ming. Not long after the appearance of this work, today considered China's greatest historical drama, he retired from office over a minor political conflict. He spent his final years pursuing his creative interests and revisiting Stone Gate Mountain. Like the Supreme Mountain nearby, Stone Gate is a place of rugged beauty and ancient historical associations, yet it is not too difficult a climb for the casual traveler. K'ung's account is long and complex—an encyclopedic summary of earlier styles and themes, in which he is fully conscious of the generic tradition of travel writing. The account contains, for example, the realistic detail of Hsu Hung-tsu as well as considerable poetic lyricism, while also expressing exilic and reclusive emotions. In addition, there are moments of ironic perception and an autobiographical presence characteristic of K'ung's other writings. The immediate occasion for the piece was to record a specific visit and the memory of a friend who subsequently died. As K'ung mentions, he had a nephew who was a noted painter append a landscape illustrating the mountain, but this has been lost.

Stone Gate Mountain

5 Hibii

(1678)

Stone Gate Mountain is a fistlike rock possessing the majesty of the Five Sacred Mounts. Travelers cannot survey every view, nor can their feet cover even that which they can see. Compared to the Five Sacred Mounts, it is even more extraordinary and fantastic. And yet for generations no one has bothered to ask the way, though it is barely twenty miles from Ch'u-fu. I can well understand how the fisherman's tale fell on deaf ears, but Peach Blossom Spring lies not in Heaven, so how could the original path have been forgotten? 1 I entered the world of the mountain with Mei-yiian and Ching-szu 2 three days after the Double Ninth Festival in the year wu-wu [October 27, 1678]. 3 Perched on hills, we peered down into valleys in what was the most enjoyable trip of my entire life. I feel as if I now have one more brother: Stone Gate. Wine was poured on the earth and a pledge

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shang-jen

made with my two friends: "If any of us should someday forsake this mountain, may he sink like this wine into the ground." That evening we stayed at Mei-yiian's cottage and fortified our determination to retire to these hills. Mei-yiian had to return home the next morning to take care of some matters, but Ching-szu persuaded me to journey farther. Just like circling around Flower Calyx three times, 4 every aspect of the mountain's vitality unfolded before us. We awaited the moon by the Terrace of the Chinned Pearl. 5 Deep in the mountain autumn had well advanced. Realizing that our bedding would not protect us, we made our way beneath the moonlight shadows for about ten miles before reaching an inn. Wine was brought and we rewarded our efforts. Though there was a variety of side dishes, it was the surrounding peaks and streams on which we munched. We chatted and laughed, laughed some more, and then hooted, our boisterousness awakening all the other sleepers. We two, however, stayed up all night long. When we got back we told Mei-yiian about it, and it made a great tale indeed. After this, scarcely a day went by that we didn't meet for intimate conversation along with dignified Stone Gate. Appearing there before us in its imposing grandeur, its pavilions, terraces, trees, and rocks seemed continually to change in appearance. A few weeks later, Ching-szu became delirious and died, babbling on about Stone Gate on the very eve of his death. Mei-yiian wept with grief and said that the mountain contained a "stele of falling tears" 6 and that we should never visit it again. But I replied that the spirit of Ching-szu would flow through the mountain for a thousand autumns: to cut ourselves off from Stone Gate would be to cut ourselves off from Ching-szu. Therefore, I have sorted out the famous spots and arranged images of the land and the flora. Although I could not mention even one out of a hundred, still, certain high places, remote spots, things old, rustic, grand, and imposing appeared like clam-monsters and mirages rising out of the sea or worlds fabricated out of thin air. O f these I made a record and had my nephew Yen-shih 7 illustrate it. Should anyone come and ask about the mountain and find me too exhausted to reply, I would show him these comments and sketches. Then he could understand Stone Gate as though he had been there. Stone Gate appears to be a continuation of the Mountain of the Nine Transcendents, but it is in fact separate. As soon as I left the northern outskirts of Ch'ii-fu, I began to feel invigorated. I crossed the Chu and Szu rivers and wound my way toward the northeast. After traversing a number of hills and plateaus, I came across a mountain. It

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was shaped like thin-waisted gourds arranged on their sides in a row of three, all looking alike—what one would call "painting gourds by imitating the same model." 8 One tends to dislike all objects that are identical, and isn't this truer when it comes to scenery? Known as " C o m monplace Mountain," there is little that can be done to cure it. Still, it serves Stone Gate as a loyal official, if more like the ugly counterpart of the beauty, Hsi Shih. 9 After this I entered a large valley that sustains the majesty of the mountain, where shadows flicker and dazzle the eyes—already I could see the true face of the land. A peak appeared from the east. Dangerous and fierce, it lay athwart and was the forward barrier before Stone Gate itself. It can be entered, however, from the southwest by penetrating a crack in it, for, like a virgin, it cannot hide its beauty. Fording the Asarum River, I ascended up along the crisscrossed field paths as vapors rose from the ripening millet. Here, one can drop the reins and relax as if not ascending a mountain at all. A glance back at the city reveals it already enveloped in smoke and mist: truly, one feels drawn into a place of scenic wonders. To the side of the road was a cliff of yellow earth luxuriantly verdant, graceful and alluring. H o w absolutely marvelous! One can just imagine what everything else around it was like. From here on, the rocks all appear to be painted in the "ancient style," and every tree seems delineated by uncommon brush strokes. One continues up along stone steps, craning one's neck all around like a puppet on a stage with no control over the strings. Here I would like to pile up some rocks and build a gateway off to the right, inscribing "An Exquisite Landscape." But I prefer not to attract gawking tourists. The peaks turned as the road wound around and I crossed a small stone bridge named "Entering Scenic Wonders." Suddenly a vista opened up and I focused on a clear, jade-green pond. This is where Tu Fu, Judge Liu Chiu, and Mr. Cheng, who was posted in Hsia-ch'iu, held a banquet. Tu Fu's poem went: The autumnal water's purity is unfathomable. Its quietude cleanses a traveler's heart. Your Honors, with the rapture of the untrammeled, have ridden over to this wild forest: T w o worthy officials meeting like the halves of a jade tally at this banquet costing more than an ounce of gold. Night approaches to a fine flute melody, and a dragon chants from the watery depths. 10

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So I named the pond "Autumnal Water" and the pavilion "Quietude," not knowing when I should ever be able to reach its spring. Farther ahead is situated the Monastery of Absolute Truth. There is a stele from the Y u a n dynasty still recognizable, and monks have long flocked here. It is m y responsibility to protect the world from the philosophy of Y a n g C h u or of M o T i . n Their neighbor is the Temple of the Jade Spring. During the Y u n g - l o era [ 1 4 0 3 - 1 4 2 4 ] , a Ch'an master named Tsu-yung sought refuge and later died here. The temple reached its zenith at the end of the Ming dynasty. Such local luminaries as K u o Lu-ch'uan and Li Lan-kao have written accounts about it. N o w its roof tiles are broken and covered with thorns, like the Lucerne Hall owned by m y clan. Farther on is where Confucius studied the hexagrams. 1 2 Legend has it that just prior to the ting sacrifice, 1 3 a descendant in the clan, K ' u n g Sheng-yu, 1 4 cast a divination to find out what kind of sacrificial offering should be made. The fortune-teller replied, " T h e gods will enjoy a sacrifice of pine fragrances offered up by b o y s . " Later, at the expected time, he saw a number of herd-boys gathering pine flowers and juniper seeds and offering them up in this spot, thus convincing him of the fortune-teller's powers. At present I am planning to establish an academy and am struggling to find a place for it among these " t w o elders." 1 5 The mountains and streams in this realm of Lu will surely provide a seat. Suddenly I stood face to face with Y e l l o w Stone Mountain—he w h o had blocked me before by his danger and ferocity. But n o w that I entered his home, how could w e not help looking at each other with smiling faces? Stone Gate has an abundance of feathery growth, while Y e l l o w Stone is of indigo rock streaked with yellow patterns, sleek and brilliant. Y e l l o w Stone by no means imitates Stone Gate. In many places, Y e l l o w Stone looks as if it has been painted with the brush strokes of Huang K u n g - w a n g . 1 6 The more I looked, the more I fell in love with it—it held me transfixed for a long while. A monk said, "Further on is the Grotto of Banners. When Huang Ch'ao's rebellion broke out in L u , 1 7 the rebels occupied this very ridge." But I had no time to investigate it. The site for the academy is flat and wide: in front it overlooks the Terrace of the Chinned Pearl, and in back it leans against Emerald Screen Peak. Surrounded by pearls, encircled by emerald green—all this lies here for our enjoyment. On the left-hand side is the central peak, an interweave of rocks and trees whose dense verdure pulsates with energy. The curved things are the trees; the straight things, the

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rocks. Rocks fill in the cracks of the trees; trees plug up the fissures in the rocks. Halfway up the summit two cliffs issue forth, revealing themselves beyond the tips of the trees. They resemble two vertical bolts of Geese Creek silk 1 8 and can be seen for more than three miles. I would like to polish a cliff and engrave an "Inscription on Stone Gate Mountain," but perhaps it would seem boastful. The traveler who climbs this far sighs deeply, satisfied that he has seen it all, not knowing that this is only the first peak of the mountain. I proceeded along the ridge, passing the Hill of the Singing Feng-Birds, where, in the second year of the Ti-chieh era of the Western Han [68 B.C.], feng- and huang-birds

sang. T h e r e are m a n y wu-t'ung trees o n its

southern slope. Clambering on, I came to the Peak of Small L u , 1 9 from which the realm of Lu below looked like an anthill. And still farther on was the Peak of Jade Bamboo Shoots: a thicket of swords and halberds, a ranking of bayonets and a salute of knives, all of which made me feel terribly alarmed. It was quite different from the ethereal scene by the River Wei. 2 0 As for what is called "Tiger Peak," I avoided climbing to the top for fear that there might be some hiding in wait there. B e l o w lay Forked Spring Ridge, where the water rose as high as my chest and followed a winding path from Peach Blossom Valley to a point facing Fishing Terrace. And just like sweat streaming down someone's back, all the springs, streams, pools, and torrents in the mountain flowed in waves—"ts'ung-ts'ung se-se"—down a myriad courses. Their source, it seems, could only have been Heaven itself. Continuing upward and turning north I saw the Peak That Strokes the Azure Sky. As I climbed to the top, my servants hesitated. They were even afraid to breathe for fear of trespassing on the Jade Emperor's throne. 21 I looked off to the east toward the boundless sea; silver flowed down across embossed emerald inlaid with purple and embroidered with blue. I stared transfixed beyond the gleaming white rays, unable to tell if it was the ocean or not, for all became an amorphous expanse of cosmic energy. I had reached Yuan-ch'iao and Fang-hu, the isles of the Transcendents! 22 In front there is a flat slope known as " T h e Temple of the White Clouds," where sacrifices used to be made to the Jade Emperor. Right in the middle of the path is a rock shaped like a table for burning incense, and I regretted that I was not an official so I could preside there. Turning northwest, I saw a small peak called " C l i f f of the Earth G o d " 2 3 — I suspect it refers to the Earth God of Lu. Descending through Breezy Gorge, I came across the former site of a temple to the Azure Emperor 2 4 and turned west, continuing upward to the Peak

k ' u n g

s h a n g - j e n

B o w i n g to the Sacred Mount. It bowed respectfully to the northwest as if circling about an old man in hope of gaining some pears and chestnuts. B y descending westward I came to the site of the ancient stone gate that forms the back door to the mountain and is the actual boundary of the capital of Lu. People passed through here bound north and south along what was considered a thoroughfare. Proceeding along the route from Lingering Stream to the Bridge of Scenic Wonders, one can reach Lu by going westward, and Pien by going eastward. 2 5 T h e single road forks, and thus there are actually three stone gates, the central one acting as the junction. In Biographies of Eminent Men, written during the Han, a native of Lu k n o w n as the Morning Gatekeeper is described as being in charge o f guarding the stone gate to Lu, overseeing its opening and closing. 2 6 There is no other stone gate in Lu, so this is where the disciple Tzu-lu carried rice to sustain his parents and shouldered his satchel of books while he followed his teacher. 27 For those w h o are vexed by life in Lu or Pien, where else should they dwell but here? Taoist priests seek out the stone gate in order to sacrifice to Black Warrior. 2 8 It occupies the most scenic location, and its western side is particularly broad, firm, and sloping. T h e ancient rocks and hoary trees of T w i n Cinnabar Peaks are revealed more brilliantly by the white clouds, subtly exuding the atmosphere of Transcendents. Sometime in the future I would like to come here with just a gourd and a bamboo hat and practice breathing exercises. While I might not attain immortality, at least I could avoid an unexpected death. Originally w e started out from the central peak and trod along a ridge for more than three miles, crossing over thirteen other peaks before arriving here at the end, whereupon w e found ourselves back within a f e w feet of the central peak again. Mei-yiian called it "like t w o jade tallies joined together." Ching-szu said, "It is like a string of pearls." I cried out, "It is definitely like a coiled dragon." The nostrils touch the tail as it breathes in and out, and thus the surface of these t w o peaks is especially abundant with "scales" and "bristles." Cultivation Peak resists enclosure by C a g e Peak. Its blue-green and emerald growth rises erect, while a single face of stone is suspended high up. A study belonging to an ancient scholar lay in ruins, and I rebuilt it as a hermitage, for Ching-szu had selected this spot. I consulted the hexagrams and drew " T h e secluded person perseveres and gains good fortune." 2 9 So, borrowing from T u Fu's poem " T h e Secluded Person," I took the phrase "Solitary C l o u d " as the name of the cottage. 3 0 Within the cottage itself I've placed a wooden couch, cloth curtains, tea bowls, and an incense burner. I consider myself to have

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had my share of good luck: I regret only Ching-szu's poor fate. Often I would point out the distant city to Mei-yiian and laughingly say, "Those who strive for fame and are lured on by profit, entangling themselves in endless lawsuits, are but a speck in the white mist. They cannot see me and I cannot see them. We are far more distant than 'a hundred feet.'" T'ao Ch'ien wrote: How lofty the Hundred-Foot Tower With its clear view of the Four Wilds. At evening, an abode for returning clouds; In the morning, a hall for flying birds. Mountains and rivers fill my eyes; The flat plain stretches to the beyond. Famous warriors in ancient times Struggled heroically on this field. Then, on the day their lives ended, They all returned north to the Mang Hills. 31

I wish I could raise a tower with high rafters where I would recite this poem day and night. There is another pleasurable aspect of this place: my hermitage is about a hundred paces from water, so I had to trouble a servant to go out each time and fetch some for my inkstone or to brew tea with. But closer by I used a bamboo staff to part the grass and found a spring to the west of the cottage. Once this "breast" was revealed, it provided for my every need. When the sun's rays strike the sandy soil, they highlight its golden color, so I named the spring "Golden Powder" 3 2 as a perfect complement for the jade liquid. With great care I removed the rocks from about the spring so it could bubble up for an inch or so. A Buddhist monk came by, looked at it, and said, "It became blocked after the dynastic chaos and has been depressed, unable to flow freely for decades. Without the help of this staff of yours today, its sorrow would have killed the mountain." Later on I viewed Cultivation Peak and found it even more alive. Its waist is wrapped in luxuriant emerald growth and, because it contains a mountain spring there, it is even more luxuriant and emerald—it should have a Luxuriant Emerald Pavilion. At the foot of the Cinnabar Peaks is a rock plateau that can accommodate one thousand men. I sat down there, gazing up at the entire aspect of Cultivation Peak, which resembled a lotus pod in the midst of lotus petals. Fragrant dew freshly glistened; its beautiful sleekness was most extraordinary. None of the

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other peaks could match it, for all of its skills have been perfected. This is the fourteenth peak of Stone Gate. I particularly counted them as I rode along the back of the mountain. T o spy out their "treasure house," one should enter circuitously where the head and tail meet. I traveled by boat, crossed bridges, clambered up the mountain by grasping onto branches, and rode on horseback to m y heart's content, but there was no way for m y carriage to turn back toward home. T h e entrance to the valley is narrow. A waterfall cascades d o w n to meet the oncoming water and then departs with it as it flows away. Crossing the stream and turning westward, I saw a curtain of wisteria vines wrapped over the rocks at the foot of the Cinnabar Peaks. The rocks appeared softened by its branches; the wisteria seemed hardened by the bones of the rocks. Both wisteria and rocks fused to become indistinguishable f r o m one another. Proceeding halfway along a cliff, I came across the old path of Golden P o w d e r Spring. Following it up northwest led to m y hermitage on Cultivation Peak. Feeling m y way eastward d o w n the winding stone steps, I reentered a gorge. In the middle, there is a spring that is unfathomably deep, a fitting complement for Golden Powder. The water runs d o w n f r o m the north and creates a magnificent scene at this point. I gazed up toward the east at a peak a thousand jen high: a solitary wall of rock stroked the sky. Looking through the myriad flora that formed an umbrageous cover revealed a line of greened sky. The water flows along the earth below, while man stands above it. He cannot merge with it, but neither can he take leave of it. Although this is called the "Ch'i-Lu T h o r o u g h f a r e , " it seems close by the kingdom of Ts'an-ts'ung and Y u - f u . 3 3 When I finally exited f r o m the m o u t h of the valley, another world appeared. Directly facing was a large creek that blocked the way. Beyond it stood peaks, trees, and dwellings. Add some fallen petals, and the inhabitants would certainly have been people of Ch'in. 3 4 It had long been clogged up by marsh weeds, and Mei-yiian wanted to clear them away. We thought it ought to be named "Mei-Berry Creek." C o n tinuing along to the east, a woodcutter's path narrows and deepens, branching off like unraveling threads, which then wind back together again; one can reach all the peaks on the southeast this way. I would like to toss pinecones all about the valley to produce myriad trees of refreshing shade whose emerald coolness would drench one's clothes. This could not be accomplished for years, though, so what can I do? I'll just have to use peach and apricot seeds as a substitute! N o r t h w a r d , I crossed the Bridge of Karma and entered Lingering Valley. It resembles Wang Wei's Wheel River Estate and Cheng T z u chen's M o u t h of the Vale, 3 5 and is part of the eastern road of Stone

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Gate. To the side is the place where Tzu-lu passed the night. One should sacrifice to him along with the Morning Gatekeeper, appropriately uniting warm enthusiasm with cool-tempered words. To the west is the Ridge with Clouds Across; to the east, Tiger-Killing Cliff. Because of Confucius's remark about "he who would kill a tiger with his bare hands," Tzu-lu went on to achieve a heroic reputation for filial piety. 36 It rather makes one laugh. I exited from the valley and turned eastward, where a stream dribbled through rocky teeth—now visible, now hidden—as it soaked down along the bones of the mountain into a cyan stillness, for which reason it is called "Azure Dragon." 3 7 Farther up I reached the Spring Where Three Friends Gargled. We three once washed ourselves here, and some monks on the mountain named it after us. Li Po's

They axe the ice to gargle the frigid stream: Three gentlemen sharing a pair of sandals38

is a better source for the name, though. West of the spring are the ruins of His Excellency Lii's 39 mansion, which has become the Dreaming of Cranes Pavilion. There are statues of cranes sleeping here, of children sleeping here, and of Transcendents also sleeping here, so upon arrival I felt extremely fatigued and likewise lay down to nap opposite them. One feels tranquilized amid the emptiness of the mountain; water flows by as flowers fade. Is not slumbering here for a thousand years better than looking at the mortal world with open eyes? I climbed to the east, where there is a Snow Veil Precipice with water cascading over the edge like pearls and crystals. The common sort of traveler inevitably calls it "The Cave of Watery Curtains," yet on a clear day the "curtains" cannot be seen. So where are the Transcendents then? To the south, a pagoda has been placed that subdues the tail of Tiger Peak. It seems undoubtedly real, and yet it is just rock, so when I arrived alongside it I could not pet it. If one wishes to view the peaks on the northeast, one should take the path that turns north; to view the peaks on the northwest, take the path that turns west. But both have no place to rest one's feet. Only below Dragon Peak is there a small "Peach Blossom Spring," called the Valley of the Leaping Dragon. It is blocked by a group of peaks and to enter it is not easy. Years ago it was filled with peach blossoms, but now it is barren, so one need not bother entering it at all. Along this trip through the mountain, I also

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noted its weather, discerned its physical appearance, and gathered information from all whom I met. Though I could not cover every inch of the mountain, how could it conceal its real self from me? Then I crossed the Bridge to Scenic Wonders and ascended the Terrace of the Chinned Pearl to the south. The rocky terrace is about half an acre wide. Its sinews and bones protrude grotesquely. When one sits here, the precipitously high and the flattened distance seem as close as one's lapel and belt. The scene is suitable on a clear day, in the rain, and especially under the moonlight. At the end of the terrace is a single rock standing erect like a stele and occupying the "throne" of the mountain. The mountain's spirit must indeed desire recognition, for it awaits someone to inscribe "Stone Gate Mountain" in huge characters on it. In the north part of the terrace hangs an ancient wisteria, below which I saw a shrine to a Buddhist priest. It is where Tsu-yung experienced enlightenment. East of it is the Pavilion for Cleansing Ears, 40 where a torrent crashes against the rocks as it flows down, with a death-defying roar. It seems to be hastening toward some great, urgent business like a speeding comet, impossible to slow down. It bewilders the observer's senses while his body remains agile, like the man whose ax handle slowly rotted away. 41 And there is in fact a studio located off to one side called "The Lodge of the Rotted Ax Handle." I crossed the torrent and visited the monks quarters of the Monastery of the King of the Underworld. Looking out over the water through an open window, I titled the scene "Snowy Waves." Ah, the water! How can I not feel sad at the passing of things? In back of the monks quarters is the eastern road leading to the front of the temple. It turns south toward the gate by a pass. Engraved in stone is "A True Painting," which mirrors "An Exquisite Landscape," for this is the left "throat" of the mountain and one of the so-called Three Stone Gates. I opened it and gazed eastward at the road, as broad as a highway and capable of accommodating two carriages abreast. The scenic power of the western road lies in its ups and downs and sudden turns; that of the eastern road, in its level straightness. It is quite a rare thing to find a level, straight road in the mountains. I rested for a while under the shade of the trees and faced Yellow Stone Mountain again, gazing at him with a warm sense of familiarity. He looked like a spotted tiger whose tail stretched out straight from his arched back as a pair of eyes glared. Then I suddenly realized that while Stone Gate was a coiled dragon, Yellow Stone was a crouching tiger. Together with the accumulation of wind and clouds, both serve as a magnificent setting for the sages and worthies who have dwelled to the southwest—how could this scene exist by mere chance?

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SHANG-JEN

I circled the central peak and continued n o r t h w a r d , entering Wut'ung Tree Valley w h e r e the g o d Shao-t'ung attained the Way. N o w it is dedicated to the g o d T z u - t ' u n g . 4 2 T h o u g h they are t w o different gods, they are identified here as one. At the m o u t h of the valley was a small field of m u l b e r r y and h e m p w h e r e s m o k e and mist f r o m several dwellings delicately wavered about. I inquired of a local and learned that this was w h e r e M r . C h a n g lived in seclusion. 4 3 M r . C h a n g , w h o s e courtesy n a m e was S h u - m i n g , was one of the " U n t r a m m e l e d Scholars of B a m b o o Stream" w i t h the rank of Student of Lu. T u Fu became friends w i t h h i m t h r o u g h Li P o and visited h i m twice, writing p o e m s on each occasion. O n e goes: The spring mountain is without a companion; alone, I seek you out. Sounds of woodcutting—"cheng-cheng"— as the mountain grows more secluded. Winter clings to the road through the ravine as I cross over ice and snow: Sunset rays fall on the Stone Gate as I reach a wooded hill. I seek not emanations of gold and silver which appear in the night; And distance such harm by observing the deer at their morning play. Enraptured, I forget completely whence I came. I gaze at you—can we be floating on a boat through the limitless void?

A n d the other: I often come by to see you And you keep me to enjoy the evening. The sturgeon teem in the azure pond Deer frolic amongst the spring grass. Tu brings the wine, insisting we drink: Chang supplies the pears, no need for anything else. The road is steep to the village ahead But I'm always carefree when returning drunk. 44

Such friendship a m o n g the ancients seems hardly attainable today. I w o u l d sacrifice to all three of them, each a leg of the tripod that is this mountain.

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SHANG-JEN

Eastward, I crossed over Leopard Ridge and gazed off at Solitary Mountain and Wild Beast Mountain, all projecting like claws from Stone Gate. Then I reached Peach Blossom Valley, where there is a Cave of the Queen Mother of the West. 45 The path of stone steps goes straight on to the Temple of the White Clouds, which is not the entrance via the stone gate. It is called the Eastern Temple. I exited northward through the mouth of the Ridge with Clouds Across. It faced the back of the mountain, which was high and level like the top of a lofty rampart. The spiritual power it exuded was like the mansion of a noble whose vermilion gates, tightly locked, possess a solemnity that inspires fearful respect. Proceeding westward, I came across Dogteeth Mountain, a group of lesser peaks clustered together, entirely different in character from Stone Gate. Someone characterized them as "in-laws," but Stone Gate does not deign to recognize them. I left them behind and continued downhill to the south. The landforms that connect with peaks arise, while those that connect with gorges submit: arising, they become ridges, submitting, they become valleys. They all have names, but it is not necessary to know them completely. To the southwest is a valley called Reed Valley, where the giant rocks are multitudinous, and the smaller ones adamantine, making it hard on the sandals. Climbing up halfway, one can enter the Hall of the Holy Monk and view Laotzu's Furnace. The valley ends where one enters the Temple of the Moon's Reflection in the Water. This is called the Western Temple and is likewise not entered via the stone gate. Now, the stone gate stands on the main road between Ch'i and Lu, so it has never been possible to enter the Eastern and Western Temples from it. It is necessary that they have their own private gates, but obviously, the Noble Man of Confucius would not enter through them. I then passed between Twin Cinnabar Peaks and saw the Valley of Bubbling Cinnabar, blocked off by blazing mountains where it is narrowest. Beyond here I could not tell what realm of existence it was. Expansive clouds severed a ridge, and suddenly I came upon an old acquaintance, for I had finally reached the western road of Stone Gate. I had mounted it, descended it, gone inside and outside it, crisscrossed and encircled it, wearing out ten pairs of sandals before I was able to encompass the entire mountain in my heart. For it is not just the fresh blossoms and extraordinary birds that constitute its gorgeous beauty: its gorgeous beauty lies in its pristine form. It is not just the dense trees and thick clouds that constitute its hoariness: its hoariness lies in its atmosphere. It is not just the red leaves and clear streams that constitute its purity: its purity lies in its structure. It is not just the withered trees and awesome rocks that constitute its detachment: its detachment lies in

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its spirit. This prevents those who arrive from leaving it, while those who have left cannot forget it. It is like meeting a beauty who, in a few words, understands one's heart and pleases in every way. How could one not want to engage her affections with a gift o f fine hair oil? O r it is like encountering a polished gentleman whose lofty brilliance transcends the vulgar and whose friendship and trust can be relied upon. How could one not want to share one's inkstone and place with him? But when there is a year o f famine on Stone Gate, the bandits are no longer quiet and one's home becomes endangered. It is an isolated place, so worthy men do not come by and it is difficult to gain recognition. T h e monks are lazy and make no effort to raise funds, so it is difficult to erect new buildings. The officials are far away, offering little protection or support, so it is difficult to produce anything. Once, after I had finished talking about the mountain with Mei-yiian, I opened my eyes, gazed around, and let out a great sigh at how truly difficult things can be here. 4 6

46

Tai Ming-shih

(1653-1713)

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T a i M i n g - s h i h w a s a scholar and essayist f r o m T ' u n g - c h ' e n g , A n - h u i , a t o w n that later g a v e birth t o an o r t h o d o x literary s c h o o l w h o s e ethical ideals w e r e to d o m i n a t e p r o s e w r i t i n g d u r i n g the e i g h t e e n t h and nineteenth centuries. B e c a u s e his f a m i l y w a s i m p o v e r i s h e d , he b e c a m e a teacher at the age o f t w e n t y , i n s t r u c t i n g students in ancient p r o s e and h i s t o r y . A n a v i d traveler w h o left several travel a c c o u n t s , he also collected m u c h i n f o r m a t i o n o n the h i s t o r y o f the M i n g d y n a s t y and w r o t e a n u m b e r o f historical essays that e x p r e s s e d nationalist sentiments. It w a s n o t until 1709, at the age o f f i f t y - s i x , that he b e c a m e a M e t r o p o l i t a n G r a d u a t e and w a s a p p o i n t e d a j u n i o r c o m p i l e r in the H a n - l i n A c a d e m y . T w o years later, h o w e v e r , he w a s c a u g h t u p in a m a j o r literary inquisition w h e n it w a s f o u n d that his Collected Works from South Mountain (Nan-shan chi) c o n t a i n e d the r e i g n era o f o n e o f the M i n g pretenders. T a i w a s i m p r i s o n e d and later e x e c u t e d a l o n g w i t h several h u n d r e d others i n v o l v e d in the p u r g e . H i s w r i t i n g s w e r e also o r d e r e d d e s t r o y e d , and it w a s n o t until a c e n t u r y later that a descendant rescued scattered literary r e m a i n s and reprinted t h e m . T a i M i n g - s h i h ' s literary ideals had a f o r m a t i v e influence o n later T ' u n g - c h ' e n g w r i t e r s , f o r he c o n s i d e r e d ethical m e a n i n g (1-/1) as the f o u n d a t i o n o f literary values and held that v e r b a l s t y l e w a s s e c o n d a r y to " c o h e r e n c e " (ching), " s p i r i t " (shen), and " v i t a l f o r c e " (ch'i). T a i , h o w e v e r , w a s another m e m b e r o f that a m b i v a l e n t g e n e r a t i o n o f lates e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y C h i n e s e scholars: a l t h o u g h he r e m a i n e d h i g h l y critical o f the m o r a l and intellectual failings o f his class, w h i c h he felt had c o n t r i b u t e d to the fall o f the M i n g , he f o u n d n o alternative to c o l l a b o r a t i n g w i t h the M a n c h u s as the best h o p e f o r p r e s e r v i n g o r d e r and traditional C h i n e s e values.

389

Fig- 59A r r i v i n g in the Capital. F r o m Fu T s e - h u n g , Hsing-shui

chiti-chien ( 1 7 2 5 ) , British L i b r a r y ,

L o n d o n . T h e travelers in the l o w e r left are crossing the Reed C h a n n e l ( M a r c o Polo) B r i d g e , arriving in P e k i n g along the same route as T a i M i n g - s h i h .

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Tai kept a travel diary of a 1695 journey from Nanking to the Ch'ing capital in Peking. Though in the tradition of the Sung dynasty diaries, his differs in several respects. For one thing, it is written in a far more subjective vein, reflecting the growth of autobiographical consciousness in the seventeenth century. The personality of the traveler is revealed in a number of incidents in which a variety of people are encountered; their interaction is captured in vivid dialogue, and a moral is drawn in each case. Tai's vision of the world is also much broader than that of earlier diarists, approaching that of a novelist or the painter of genre scenes. Like a narrative handscroll, his journey depicts a sequence of dramatized episodes. History (including recent events of the late Ming), lyrical Nature, a primitivist longing for rural life, social realism, political critique, personal anxieties, vignettes of people from different classes, as well as deception and discomfort all shape Tai's experience of travel. His realism includes ironic perceptions: unexpected joys alternate with the rigors of the road to produce contrasting moods. The diary ends on a fulminating note as Tai informs us that its function was to record the actuality of his trip, especially his final humiliation by customs officials in the capital.

Diary o f a J o u r n e y N o r t h in the Y e a r I-hai C j ^ i b i f 0 it

(1695)

On the ninth day of the sixth month [July 19], I crossed the Long River at Chiang-ning. 1 Prior to this, Liu Ta-shan of P'u-k'ou 2 had visited me and invited me to accompany him on a journey to Yen, 3 but I lacked the funds to cover expenses and could not go. This time, Hsu Wei-san and his younger brother, Wen-hu, came to see me off. Shortly afterward, Kuo Han-chan and Wu Yu-hsien also arrived. We took a boat at Chin-ling Lock, which was a few dozen or so paces from my home. On board, I bowed and bid farewell to these friends, while the Hsu brothers escorted me farther to the Bridge of Military Pacification before disembarking, an expression of their unwillingness to see me depart. On this day the wind was favorable, and before noon I reached P'u-k'ou, where I spent the night at Liu Ta-shan's home. Ta-shan had other business and could not accompany me. But Cheng P'ang-jo of Chiang-ning just happened to be staying at Ta-shan's home. P'ang-jo said that he possessed a technique for manufacturing gold and silver, telling me, " M y friend, you are about to brave the summer heat and travel in order to sell your writings and support your parents. This

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MINC-SHIH

world is vast indeed. Will anyone truly understand you? But if you practice this skill of mine successfully, m y friend, will you ever have to worry about poverty?" I laughed and nodded. T h e next day [July 20], I stayed at Morning Hill. I had traveled a mile or so when I saw grain glistening in the fields on all four sides. Old and young, men and women, were all weeding in the fields. It is the custom north of the Long River for w o m e n also to w o r k in the fields. Compared to the w a y men in the northwest loaf about unproductively, this is certainly a fine custom. At one point, I dismounted and walked along, passing a farmhouse where the man was carrying night soil to fertilize the garden while the w i f e was drawing water from a well and washing clothes. B y the gate were trellises with bean and melon vines as well as a number of trees in full flourish. B o y s and girls were laughing and screaming; cocks were crowing, dogs barking. I gazed longingly at them and thought that this family possessed everything it needed. I regretted h o w far inferior m y condition was compared to theirs. The next day [July 2 1 ] , I reached C h ' u Prefecture 4 and crossed Vermilion Dragon Bridge, the place where Minister Lu and General Tsu defeated Li Tzu-ch'eng. 5 M y ambition to take an active role in the world was stirred. I crossed Gateway Mountain and encountered Chu Tzu-lii of Su-sung and Tsan Yuan-yen of Huai-ning, 6 w h o had come from Shaan-hsi. We had not met for three years and w e were overjoyed to see each other. Setting out on foot together, hand in hand, w e walked over to a house along the road where w e engaged in animated conversation. T h e villagers all came and stood around us to listen. A f ter a long while w e parted. I crossed Millstone Mountain. Its f o r m was steep and precipitous, layered, and winding around, hence its name. It is a strategic place in C h ' u Prefecture. That evening, I stayed at an inn at Mount Tai Station in Ting-yiian. 7 The next day [July 22], I stayed at Y e l l o w Clay Hill in Feng-yang. 8 O n the road I met Ts'ai Chi-sheng from T'ai-p'ing, 9 w h o was coming from the north. At dusk I said to the horseman, "It has been insufferably hot these past f e w days. All the other travelers have been going by night. We should proceed in the moonlight." So w e set out at the third watch [ 1 1 : 0 0 p . m . - 1 : 0 0 a . m . ] . After traveling about a mile and a half I saw clouds arising in the northwest. After a while they filled the entire sky. There was much thunder and lightning and a huge rain fell like a river. Though I hurried to don rain clothes, m y garments were already soaked through. We proceeded to General Station as the rain grew heavier. We knocked on the doors of all the inns thereabouts, but none answered. The horseman managed to find a thatched shelter in the

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MING-SHIH

darkness and we sought protection beneath it for a while. B y the time the rain stopped it was already dawn, but the roads had been completely inundated to the point where even the field paths could not be distinguished. I sighed to myself over how impossible it is to govern the world if the power of water is not controlled. But with an able official, this district could be well governed. Unfortunately, no one is concerned about this. I looked up at how beautiful the clouds were. Some resembled people; some, lions and elephants; some, mountains; some, grotesque rocks; some, trees, as they suddenly changed into myriad forms. I used to maintain that viewing clouds is best at sunset and after a rain. I never realized that clouds viewed at sunrise can also be beautiful. On this day we traveled only fourteen miles or so, reaching Lin-huai. 10 I sent someone into the town to call on Chu Chien-hsiieh, but he happened to have gone out. At twilight, I took a walk outside the city wall and saw lotuses in the moat just then in full bloom. A cool breeze faintly stirred them so that their fragrance struck me. I walked back and forth around them for a long while, finally reaching the inn, where I spent the night. The next day [July 23], I crossed the Huai River. Previously there was a pontoon bridge at Lin-huai that all travelers used. But now the bridge is in disrepair, and the boatmen here have slyly profited quite a bit from this. I crossed and, as I disembarked, a man sank down into the mud helping me ashore. I almost fell in myself before several men onshore came and together pulled me up, so I was saved. On this day I traveled thirty miles, spending the night at Long Wall Village in Ling-pi District. 11 The next day was Full Moon [July 25]. 1 2 I traveled more than twenty-five miles and stayed at Wilderness Village in Su-chou. 1 3 The rooms were damp and cramped, the walls were crumbling, and there were no doors. The horseman was a friend of the innkeeper, so he insisted on staying here. I refused, but the innkeeper said, "It's only for one night, why insist on comfort?" So I gave in. It had been threatening to rain all day long but never did. When I arose at the third watch, the innkeeper kept on demanding an exorbitant payment. I traveled ten or fifteen miles under the moonlight, and suffered so in my bowels that I could not eat anything. I spent the night in an inn in Ch'u Village Station. On the seventeenth [July 27], I crossed the Yellow River and spent the night on the north bank. During the night I passed Min-tzu Township, where Min-tzu's Temple is located. 14 It was the hometown of Empress Hsiao-tz'u of the Ming. 1 5 In the Hsii-chou-Su-chou area, the mountains twist and turn, the atmosphere is dense. Along the

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banks of the Y e l l o w River in Hsii-chou the landscape is particularly majestic, f o r m i n g a protective screen around the southeast. In the f u ture, a man o f distinction will undoubtedly arise f r o m here. I looked off at the Terrace o f Sporting Horses; 1 6 it seemed to have collapsed in ruins. In the past, when Su Shih served as prefect o f Hsii-chou, he said, " A thousand men could be stationed on the Terrace o f Sporting Horses and it w o u l d f o r m a defensive w i n g for the p r e f e c t u r e . " 1 7 B u t to hold Hsii-chou, it is necessary first to hold the Y e l l o w River. O n this day it was extremely hot, and when I reached the inn I drank several pints o f water. Suddenly, the sound of crashing thunder broke out, violent wind and rain arrived, a coolness arose, and m y thirst was quenched. That evening, the condition o f m y bowels worsened and I could not fall asleep—I kept on sweating profusely. T h e next day [July 28], I spent the night at Benefit the Nation Station. 1 8 I recall h o w , in the sixth month o f the year chi-szu [ J u l y - A u g u s t 1689], I traveled to Peking f r o m Chi-nan along with Liu Yen-chieh o f Wu-hsi. Yen-chieh was corpulent and feared the heat. He envied m y ability to endure the hardships o f winter and summer. That was only six years ago, but on this j o u r n e y I felt quite w e a r y and fatigued. T i m e j u s t slips by, passing rapidly as m y vitality starts to weaken. H o w can I hope to exert m y s e l f further so as to play a role in the world? I felt m y thighs getting f a t 1 9 and grasped m y wrist in consternation as I dolefully uttered three sighs. T h e next day [July 29], I spent the night at a place called Sandy R i v e r Inn in T ' e n g District. 2 0 A n d the next day [July 30], I spent the night at a place called East B a n k Inn in T s o u District. 2 1 O n this day I passed the T e m p l e o f M e n c i u s , 2 2 which I entered and paid h o m a g e to him. I wanted to climb M o u n t I, 2 3 but it was extremely hot, and m o r e o v e r I was thirsty, so I could not make the climb. T h e next day [July 3 1 ] , I spent the night in Wen-shang. 2 4 Formerly when I passed through Wen-shang I wrote poems on the theme o f "lamenting antiqu i t y , " but I lost the manuscript. I can still remember t w o lines: How pitiful, the lady of Ch'i traveling on the road to Lu; How could a disciple of Confucius submit to Chi-sun! 25

I cannot remember the rest. T h e next day [August 1], I spent the night in the old district t o w n o f T u n g - o . 2 6 It rained that day. O n the other side of the wall at the inn I could hear a group drinking and playing a guessing game. B e f o r e long they started shouting and fighting. I went out to have a look and saw t w o men thoroughly drunk. T h e y w e r e

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brawling in the mud, which was smeared all over their faces so that they were unrecognizable. T h e wives of each of them stood up for their husbands and reviled each other. It only broke up toward evening. I realized that there was indeed good reason behind an ancient king's injunction against groups of people becoming drunk. 2 7 The next day [August 2], I spent the night at Ch'ih-p'ing. 2 8 A n d the day after that I passed through Kao-t'ang 2 9 and spent the evening at Waist Station. 30 From Ch'ih-p'ing northward, the road was completely inundated. Each day I had to make unexpected detours. I heard that the water damage was even more severe in the Y e n and Chao areas 31 and that all northbound travelers were suffering from its ravages. On the twenty-sixth [August 5], I spent the night at Fu-ch'eng. 3 2 At night I dreamed of old Miss P'ei. I owed a debt of gratitude to her and had not been able to discharge it. In the second month of this year ( M a r c h April) she fell ill and died in her home. I was in Chiang-ning and unable to attend her funeral. I often feel regret about her deep in m y heart. From the second month up to now, she has appeared many times in my dreams. On the twenty-seventh [August 6], I spent the night at Shang Family Grove; 3 3 the twenty-eighth [August 7], at Jen-ch'iu; 3 4 the twentyninth [August 8], at White Channel, 3 5 which was formerly the border between the Sung and Liao kingdoms. On the first day of the seventh month [August 10], I spent the night in Liang T o w n s h i p . 3 6 On this day I passed through C h o Prefecture 3 7 and called on Fang Pao at his home, 3 8 but just then he had gone into the capital. In Chin-ling w e used to visit each other every day, but n o w w e had not met for four months. I had planned on spending t w o nights of conversation with him, but it was not to be. When I got to the capital, Fang Pao had already returned to C h o Prefecture. Because the flood waters had blocked the roads, w e each took a different detour and missed each other. North of Jen-ch'iu the rivers had overflowed; bridges had collapsed all over so that travelers had to take boats for ten or fifteen miles before coming upon land. And after traveling on land for a f e w miles, or for some ten or fifteen miles, a boat had to be taken again. In the past, during the T'ien-ch'i era [ 1 6 2 1 - 1 6 2 7 ] , Tso Kuang-tou 3 9 f r o m m y home district served as a censor in charge of the State Farms Bureau. He developed projects for water control in the north like those employed in the Chiang-nan area. After Tso's death, these projects were abandoned —truly a pity! On the second day of the month [August 1 1 ] , I reached the capital. At Reed Channel Bridge 4 0 and the Gate of Manifest Rightness, there

TAI MING-SHIH

were guards w h o subjected travelers to excessive demands for money. For the slightest failure to please them, even the wrappings around one's baggage would be taxed. This is the way customs officials always behave. The traveler fears being delayed, so he willingly pays up to satisfy them. O n l y travelers on foot are exempt. As for this highway robbery carried out practically in front of the emperor, some may consider it a minor matter not worth worrying about, but they do not realize that the problems of the world all originate in "things not worth worrying about." That day it rained heavily. M y boxes of books all wrapped up with cloth had been opened by the customs inspectors and were soaked through. Smeared with mud, I arrived at the residence of His Excellency Chang, Minister of Rites. 41 This is the fourth time I have visited the capital and I cannot begin to express m y sense of humiliation and regret! I therefore took up a brush by lantern light and wrote d o w n the outline of these events. 4 2

397

Fig. 60. Geese Pond Mountain. From T'ien-hsia mingshan sheng-kai chi (Hong Kong, n.d.; rpt. of Ch'ung-chen era [ 1 6 2 8 - 1 6 4 4 ] ed.).

47

Fang Pao

(1668-1749)

Fang Pao, who was a close friend of Tai Ming-shih, also traced his roots to T'ung-ch'eng, An-hui, but was born and lived mostly in Nanking. He was regarded as the first leader of the T'ung-ch'eng school of prose. Despite early political misfortunes, he rose to high official position and was involved in a number of important literary projects, both official and private. Through his activities he was able to influence prose standards in favor of the orthodox models of the Confucian tradition and the Eight Masters of the T'ang and Sung. Fang placed first in the prefectural examination and enrolled in the Imperial University in Peking. He also placed first in the 1699 provincial examination and became a Metropolitan Graduate in 1706. The death of his mother and, soon after, of his father interrupted his career as he observed the prescribed periods of mourning. Fang had innocently contributed a preface to the volume of writings that led to Tai Ming-shih's arrest and execution for treason. Because of this, in 1 7 1 1 he and his entire family were suddenly imprisoned in the literary inquisition, whereupon they were all sent north as bond servants in the Han A r m y Banner. Fang, however, was saved by friends and by his literary reputation. Instead of exile, he was ordered to serve in the K'ang-hsi Emperor's Southern Study, where he did editorial work. Pardoned under the succeeding Yung-cheng Emperor (r. 1 7 2 2 - 1 7 3 5), he served in a number of positions in the capital. Under the Ch'ienlung Emperor (r. 1 7 3 5 - 1 7 9 5 ) , he edited anthologies of examination essays and standard editions of the thirteen Confucian classics. Fang eventually rose to the positions of Academician of the Grand Secretariat, Right Minister in the Ministry of Rites, and directorgeneral of the Office of Classics and History before retiring in 1742.

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Fang Pao lacked a poetic sensibility, and his reputation stemmed almost exclusively from his prose writings and edited anthologies. Generally speaking, he emphasized the ideals of ethical meaning and correct method as the foundations of literature. He championed the intellectual orthodoxy of the Ch'eng-Chu school of Neo-Confucianism and regarded its canonical texts as the correct models, while opposing imitation of the past for purely stylistic purposes. Similarly, he relegated emotional expression to a lesser position of importance in favor of conveying "purity, authenticity, elegance, and correctness" (ch'ing, chen, ya, cheng). Perhaps as a result, his writings were regarded by some as too austere and lacking in naturalness, for he resisted the taste for ornamentation, allusions, and unusual vocabulary. B y the Ming, Geese Pond Mountain had become quite celebrated, though it was still difficult to visit. Fang Pao's travel account is fairly representative of his literary sensibility. An expository piece, it construes the mountain as a metaphor for moral character, identifying qualities of antiquity, purity, dignity, and detachment in its natural formation. The tone is straightforward and unambiguous, representing travel as an act of Confucian moral self-cultivation. Like K u Yen-wu, he expressed an opposition to Buddhism. He seems to have especially valued the mountain because it escaped the fate of other sites of literary and religious pilgrimage of being inscribed.

Geese Pond Mountain ^LM^ii

(¡743)

On the day before the height of the moon in the second month of autumn in the year kuei-hai [October i, 1743], I entered Geese Pond Mountain, spent two days there, and then returned. Most of the ancient sites were overgrown with brush and could not be reached, but the shape of the mountain and the color of its cliffs were something I had never laid eyes on before. M y nephew Pao K'ung-hsiin said, "Why not write an account of it?" I replied, "This mountain cannot be recorded. The mountains of Yung and Liu prefectures were but hills and valleys in a remote corner of the world. Liu Tsung-yiian 1 was banished there, and he sought out such secluded spots to while away the time. Therefore, he was able to describe their form in detail. But this mountain is located at the junction of the mountain ranges of east and west Che-chiang and the sea. It is secluded, fantastic, steep, and sheer, with strange forms and bizarre

FANG

PAO

shapes, gigantic and numerous indeed. If I were to carve or paint it realistically, its shape and color would be just like what people describe as a 'famous mountain.' There is simply no way to distinguish the particular cliffs and valleys of this mountain." And yet, t w o things have I been able to obtain f r o m this mountain alone. A m o n g the mountains I have previously seen, such as Floating Mountain in T'ung-ch'eng, An-hui, Assistance Mountain in Nanking, and the Peak That Flew Here in Hang-chou, 2 it is not that their cliffs and caves lack beauty, but that ignorant monks have carved many figures of Transcendents and Buddhas into them, while vulgar scholars have engraved their names and poems. Like sores, they are shocking when they come into sight. O n l y this mountain has completely preserved its ancient appearance up to the present. This is because it is a wall standing a thousand jen erect that cannot be climbed. And its location is isolated and distant. Those with wealth, position, or power have no reason to come here. Even if they do, they cannot linger long enough to hire w o r k m e n to erect scaffolds so as to show off by inscribing their names. So the mountain has never been humiliated by the scraping and gouging of ignorant monks and vulgar scholars. Moreover, all attractive landscapes can cause travelers to feel delighted and happy. But this mountain has cliffs hidden deep and sheer walls. By gazing upward and peering d o w n w a r d , m y mind unconsciously became serious, respectful, calm, and rectified. U p o n arriving here, a myriad emotions ceased, a hundred thoughts were voided, and m y original mind 3 joined with the spirit of the Universe. If one investigates the mountain f r o m these t w o viewpoints, then one can comprehend that learning whereby the cultivated man protects his character while acting in the world, and that Way by which sages perfect themselves as they perfect other things. 4

A A

f , t

6i.

Lo P'in (1733-1799),

Portrait

of Yuan Mei ( 1 7 8 1 ) . C o l l e c t i o n o f Shimada Shujiro. This unflattering

portrait apparently

did n o t please Y u a n M e i . H e wrote a humorous colophon a b o v e it c o m p l a i n i n g a b o u t the l a c k o f r e s e m b l a n c e a n d i n d i c a t e d that he w a s r e t u r n i n g t h e p i c t u r e t o the painter.

A

M

If

A

/i * -i

5

. u-ch'en" in early texts may in fact be either "wuyin" (March 2 1 ) or "keng-ch'en" (March 23). C h ' a n g Prefecture is modern Ch'ang-chou, Chiang-su. 25. Su Prefecture is modern Su-chou, Chiang-su. Like Y a n g Prefecture, it was already a prosperous city and a popular travel destination in the T ' a n g . 26. Tiger Hill (Hu-ch'iu) is a scenic park just outside the city walls. Various

NOTES TO PAGES I 2 9 - I 3 O

legends account for its name. One states that a white tiger appeared when King Ho-lu of Wu (r. 514-496 B.C.) was buried in the hill. Another states that a guardian tiger appeared when the First Emperor of Ch'in visited in search of a famous sword buried along with Ho-lii. Thousand Men Rock (Ch'ien-jenshih) is a flat terrace of rock allegedly capable of accommodating a thousand people seated; it is said to be the site of preaching by the Buddhist monk Chu Tao-sheng (355-434). Sword Pond (Chien-ch'ih) derived its name from the First Emperor's sword, which is said to have fallen into the pond and disappeared when he tried to strike the tiger. Plum Blossom View House (Wangmei-lou), which appears as "Sea View House" (Wang-hai-lou) in some editions, remains unidentified. Stepping Rock (Tsou-ch'ieh-shih) is a rock that appears to be walking forward. All the above are famous spots at Tiger Hill (see 38. Yuan Hung-tao, Tiger Hill). The Temple of Gratitude (Pao-en-szu), now known as the North Temple (Pei-szu), is located in the north of the city and was originally built during the Wu dynasty. Originally called the Temple Leading to the Mysterious (T'unghsiian-szu), it acquired this name in the mid-T'ang. 27. The Sung River (Sung-chiang), the upper reaches of the modern Wu-sung River (Wu-sung-chiang), flows from the Great Lake (T'ai-hu) to the sea. Li crossed it near the city of Wu-chiang, Chiang-su. 28. Hang Prefecture is modern Hang-chou, Che-chiang, another major city and scenic place along Li Ao's route in the area around the lower Long River delta. 29. Martial Forest Mountain (Wu-lin-shan) comprises Hidden Spirits Mountain (Ling-yin-shan) and India Mountain (T'ien-chu-shan), both sites of important Buddhist temples that are mentioned in a note in the original text. The phrase lun-ch'un in the original text (translated here as "rounded trees") remains problematical but may be a misprint referring to the stately trees in the area; see Ni, Yu-chi 1 : 1 4 5 - 1 4 6 . Placid Lake (P'ing-hu) is an early name for West Lake (Hsi-hu). Solitary Hill (Ku-shan) is a prominent island located in West Lake and connected to the shore by causeways and bridges, one of which was later developed by Po Chu-i when he served as prefect from 822 to 824 (see 44. Shao Ch'ang-heng, An Evening Stroll to Solitary Hill). 30. The T'ang district of Fu-ch'un was located in what is today Fu-yang District, Che-chiang. The river referred to here is the Abundant Spring (Fu-ch'unchiang). 31. Two-Mile Rapids (Ch'i-li-t'an) runs through a scenic gorge along the Abundant Spring River between modern T'ung-lu and Chien-te districts, Che-chiang. Mu Prefecture was located in Chien-te. 32. Yang Chiung (650-ca. 693), considered one of the "Four Outstanding Writers of the Early T'ang," served as magistrate of Ying-ch'uan District, south of modern Ch'u District, Che-chiang, and built this pavilion there. 33. Ch'u Prefecture was located in modern Ch'ii District, Che-chiang. The K'ai-yiian Temple (K'ai-yiian-szu) was probably one of the temples ordered

NOTES

TO

PAGE

I 3 0

established in every prefecture and superior prefecture by the Emperor Hsiiantsung during the K'ai-yiian era ( 7 1 3 - 7 4 1 ) , many of which were given this name. 34. Hou Kao was a member of the literary circle that included Han Yii and Li Ao. A Taoist who spent time on Hermitage Mountain, he did not earn any degrees and later committed suicide by drowning. Li Ao wrote his epitaph. Stone Bridge (Shih-ch'iao) was a town northeast of Ch'ii Prefecture, now known as Shih-liang. 35. Constancy Mountain (Ch'ang-shan) is located about thirty miles west of Ch'ii Prefecture in the eastern part of modern Ch'ang-shan District, Chechiang, at the end of the Ch'ien-t'ang River. The road along its ridge was the main route to Hsin Prefecture. The T'ang district of Yii-shan is now located in modern Shang-jao, Chiang-hsi. From here, Li could travel farther by boat to Hsin Prefecture. 36. Hsin Prefecture was located in the northwest of modern Shang-jao, Chiang-hsi. 37. Mount Chiin-yang (Chiin-yang-shan) may be a mountain in the area of modern Kuei-ch'i or Ying-t'an districts, Chiang-hsi. The character yeh (leaf) has been corrected to hua (lotus); see Ni, Yu-chi 1:140. 38. The Kan-yiieh Pavilion (Kan-yiieh-t'ing), named after the westernmost area of the ancient kingdom of Yiieh during the reign of King Kou-chien (r. 497-465 B . C . ) , was located i n j a o Prefecture (modern Yii-kan, Chiang-hsi). 39. Carrying Rocks Lake (Tan-shih-hu) is another name for the southern section of Lake P'o-yang, Chiang-hsi. 40. Hung Prefecture was located in modern Nan-ch'ang, Chiang-hsi. On Hsu Ju-tzu (Chih), see 8. Wang Po, Preface to Poems from the Pavilion of the Prince of T'eng, note 5. A tomb supposedly containing the remains of Hsu still stands in Nan-ch'ang. 41. Chi Prefecture was located in modern Chi-an, Chiang-hsi. 42. Ch'ien Prefecture was located in modern Kan District, Chiang-hsi. 43. Han T'ai served as a director in the Ministry of Revenue and was a member of the reformist faction of Wang Shu-wen along with Liu Tsung-yiian. In 805, Han was demoted and twice exiled, finally serving as vice-prefect of Ch'ien Prefecture. The Mountain of Responding Spirits (Ling-ying-shan) remains unidentified. 44. Great Yii's Ridge (Ta-yii-ling) in modern Ta-yii, Chiang-hsi, was the most important of the Five Ridges (Wu-ling) leading into Ling-nan. It was named after Yii Sheng, who fortified this ridge in the campaign against the Nan-yiieh Kingdom during the Western Han dynasty. Li A o reached the T'ang district of Chen-ch'ang, located in the south of modern Nan-hsiung, Kuang-tung, by traveling along the Chen River (Chen-shui). 45. The Shao Rocks (Shao-shih), located beyond West Spirit Camp Ridge (Ling-t'un-hsi-ling) in the north of modern Ch'ii-chiang, Kuang-tung, are two

464

N O T E S TO P A G E S

I3O-I34

towering rocks of roughly equal size standing opposite each other about onethird of a mile apart like portals. 46. Divine Vulture Mountain (Ling-chiu-shan; Sanskrit: Grdhrakuta), located in the north of modern Ch'u-chiang, derives its name from the mountain in India traditionally associated with the preaching of the Lotus Sutra. On this particular mountain, tigers were prevalent; during the I-hsi era of the Eastern Chin dynasty (405-418), the Buddhist monk Lu built a retreat here and the tigers fled because of his benevolence. The name of the mountain consequently was changed to "Divine Vulture." 47. Shao Prefecture was located in modern Ch'u-chiang, Kuang-tung. 48. The poet and official Chang Chiu-ling (678-740) was from Ch'u-chiang and served as prime minister during the reign of Emperor Hsiian-tsung (r. 712-756) until forced to retire by political opponents. He was ennobled as earl of Shih-hsing District and popularly referred to as "Lord of Shih-hsing." 49. Eastern Shade Mountain (Tung-yin-shan) was located in the east of the T'ang district of Chen-yang (modern Ying-te, Kuang-tung), and Chen-yang Gorge (Chen-yang-hsia) in the south of Chen-yang. 50. Gorge Mountain (Hsia-shan) is located in the south of Ch'ing-yuan District, Kuang-tung. 51. Modern Kuang-chou, Kuang-tung, also known in the West as Canton. 52. The T'ang district of Shang-yuan was located in what is now the city of Nanking (Nan-ching), Chiang-su. Hsi-chiang was a port on the Long River in present-day Chien-li, Hu-pei. This shorter route south to Kuang Prefecture meant traveling up the Long River from Yang Prefecture and down through Lake P'o-yang. 53. Shao-po was the name of a lake, a town, and an important waterlock northwest of Yang Prefecture. 54. High Stream (Kao-hsi) is now known as the Trustworthy River (Hsinchiang); it flows into Lake P'o-yang. 55. The Chang River (Chang-shui) is actually one of the sources of the Kan River (Kan-shui), but here the latter is meant. 56. The Chen River (Chen-shui) and the Shao River (Shao-chiang) are sections of the modern North River (Pei-chiang). Translated from Li Ao, Li Wen-kung chi i8:i46a-i48b (SPTK ed.).

13.

Po

Chii-i

THE C O T T A G E

i. K'uangs' Hermitage (K'uang-lu) is another name for Hermitage Mountain after the seven K'uang brothers who retired to this mountain to cultivate the Tao during the Chou dynasty and built thatched hermitages.

N O T E S TO P A G E S

I 3 4— I 3 7

2. Censer Peak (Hsiang-lu-feng) is now considered as being located in the southern area of Hermitage Mountain, part of Flourishing Peak (Hsiu-feng). 3. See Shih ching 49:204:1, "The Fourth Month" (Szu-yueh): "In the fourth month, the impending summer; in the sixth month, the advancing summer heat." 4. See Tso Szu, "Rhapsody on the Capital of Shu" (Shu-tu /«; Wen-hsiian 4:10a): "Verdant leaves are spread out profusely, and mix with vermilion fruit abundant." The fruit refers to longan and lychee trees. 5. Tapestry Valley (Chin-hsiu-ku) is located in the southern part of Hermitage Mountain. 6. Stone Gate Ravine (Shih-men-chien) is located in the northern part of Hermitage Mountain (see 3. Lay Scholars of Hermitage Mountain, Preface and Poem on a Journey to Stone Gate). 7. Tiger Stream (Hu-hsi) is located in front of the Eastern Forest Temple (Tung-lin-szu) and is known in legend as the border beyond which the eminent monk Hui-yiian would not cross, except on one occasion, when he was seeing off the poet T'ao Ch'ien and the Taoist Lu Ching-hsiu. Absorbed in conversation, Hui-yiian forgot his usual rule; he was reminded of it only when he heard the roar of a tiger, whereupon the three friends broke into laughter. This story is without historical foundation, for Lu Ching-hsiu did not travel to the mountain until more than twenty years after T'ao Ch'ien's death. See Li Chi, trans., Travel Diaries, p. 104. 8. The character chih (to know) has been corrected to chih (to expand); see Ni, Yu-chi 1 : 1 1 5 . 9. Hui-yung was abbot of the Western Forest Monastery (Hsi-lin-szu). Huiyiian was abbot of the Eastern Forest Monastery. Tsung Ping, a lay Buddhist and art critic, spent a period of retreat on Hermitage Mountain. Lei Tz'u-tsung (386-448), a lay Buddhist, also dwelled in retirement on Hermitage Mountain. These figures were among the "Eighteen Worthies of the White Lotus Society" (Pai-she shih-pa-hsien), the most outstanding members of a prominent lay Buddhist association. In 402, Hui-yiian assembled 123 members who vowed to achieve rebirth in Amitabha Buddha's Western Paradise. The legend of the "Eighteen Worthies," however, was a later creation not based on historical fact, and it became a popular theme in figure painting after the Northern Sung. 10. Actually, only the monks Hui-yung and Hui-yiian remained on the mountain. Of the four mentioned, Tsung Ping fell ill and left, and Lei Tz'utsung accepted an official appointment. 1 1 . A reference to Po's demotion to vice-prefect of Chiang-chou. 12. Yuan Chi-hsu of Ho-nan (from modern Lo-yang, Ho-nan) had served as chief musician and later retired to Hermitage Mountain. Chang Yiin-chung of Fan-yang (modern Peking) and Chang Shen-chih of Nan-yang (modern Nanyang, Ho-nan) remain unidentified. " T s ' o u " is the monk Shen-ts'ou; " M a n " is the monk Chih-man; "Chien" is the monk "Shih-chien," all from the Eastern

466

NOTES

TO P A G E S

1 3 7 - 1 4 1

Forest Temple. "Lang" was referred to elsewhere by Po as "the Venerable Lang." "Hui" remains unidentified. 13. Translated from Po Chii-i, Po [Pai]-shih ch'ang-ch'ing chi 26:3a-6a ( S P T K ed.). P R E F A C E T O P O E M S F R O M T H E C A V E OF T H E T H R E E

TRAVELERS

1. In 814, during the reign of the T'ang emperor Hsien-tsung, the military commissioner of Huai-hsi, Wu Yuan-chi (783-817), rebelled. He was finally captured and executed in 817. The character chiu (long) has been corrected to tung (winter); see Ni, Yu-chi 1:124. 2. Chung Prefecture is modern Chung District, Szu-chuan. 3. Yuan Chen, courtesy name Wei-chih. In addition to achieving fame as a poet, Yuan was the author of "The Story of Ying-ying" (Ying-ying chuan), a disguised autobiographical tale of a failed love affair. Later storytellers and dramatists expanded it, adding a happy ending, and it became China's most popular romance. T'ung Prefecture is modern Ta District, Szu-ch'uan, and Kuo Prefecture is modern Ling-pao, Ho-nan. 4. Po Hsing-chien, courtesy name Chih-t'ui, was a younger brother of Po Chii-i. He served in various provincial offices, rising to director of the Bureau of Receptions, and was also known as a poet, particularly as a writer of fu rhapsodies. Today he is primarily remembered as the author of "The Tale of Li Wa" (Li Wa chuan) about an unusually faithful courtesan whose devotion to a wayward scholar was rewarded with marriage and high social position. 5. I-ling is modern I-ch'ang, Hu-pei. 6. Hsia-lao Garrison (Hsia-lao-shu), better known as Hsia-lao Pass (Hsia-laokuan), lies west of I-ch'ang on the Long River leading into Szu-ch'uan. 7. Hsia Prefecture was located northwest of modern I-ch'ang. 8. Translated from Po, Po [Pai]-shih ch'ang-ch'ing chi 26:12b—14a.

14. EIGHT

Liu

Tsung-yuan

PIECES

FROM

YUNG

PREFECTURE

1. West Mountain (Hsi-shan), now known as Grain Mountain (Liang-tzuling), is located in the western part of modern Ling-ling, Hu-nan. 2. The Temple of the Dharma Lotus (Fa-hua-szu) was located on East Mountain (Tung-shan) within the modern town of Ling-ling. Liu Tsung-yiian had the West Pavilion (Hsi-t'ing) constructed, an undertaking that he described in another account.

N O T E S TO PAGES I 4 I - I

47

3. Tinting Stream (Jan-hsi), which Liu later wrote about as "Dimwit's Stream" (Yii-hsi), is a tributary of the Hsiao River that flows through the southwest part of Ling-ling. 4. Flatiron Pond (Ku-mu-t'an) is traditionally located by Dimwit's Stream near Marquis Liu's Temple (Liu-hou-tz'u) outside the modern town of Lingling. 5. The Mid-Autumn Festival (Chung-ch'iu) traditionally falls on the fifteenth day of the eighth lunar month. 6. Li Shen-yiian and Yuan K'o-chi were friends of Liu Tsung-yiian's in Yung Prefecture. Li may be Li Shih-yii (756-818), a noted poet, while Yuan was a fellow exile. See Nienhauser et al., Liu Tsung-yiian, p. 129. 7. The Feng area was located in the east of modern Hu District, Shaan-hsi; Hao was originally the capital of the Western Chou in the southwest area of modern Hsi-an, Shaan-hsi; Hu was Hu District, Shaan-hsi; Tu was the T u ling section in the southeast of Hsi-an. All four were scenic areas preferred by the T'ang elite in or around the capital of Ch'ang-an. 8. The character ch'uan (spring) has been corrected to ch'tian (entirely); see Ni, Yu-chi 1 : 1 1 1 . 9. Wu Wu-ling of Hsin Prefecture (modern Shang District, Chiang-hsi) was a Presented Scholar during the early Yiian-ho era (806-820). As a sympathizer of the reformist faction he was banished in 808 to Yung Prefecture, where he became close friends with Liu Tsung-yiian. Kung K u remains unknown. Liu Tsung-hsiian is one of three brothers mentioned in Liu Tsung-yiian's writings, but little else is known about any of them. The two youths have been identified as the sons of Ts'ui Chien. 10. The Cliff Facing the Sun (Ch'ao-yang-yen) is located along the Hsiao River. It had been given this name by Yuan Chieh in 766 because it faced eastward. 1 1 . Yuan Creek (Yiian-chia-ho) is located southeast of the Cliff Facing the Sun in modern Ling-ling. 12. Ch'u (destroyed in 223 B.C.) and Yiieh (destroyed in 306 B.C.) were ancient kindoms whose area covered much of modern Hu-nan, Hu-pei, Anhui, Chiang-su, and Che-chiang provinces. 13. Arrow bamboo (chien-chu) is a species with broad leaves growing seven or eight feet tall. Its stalks can be used for arrows. 14. The character shang (above) has been corrected to t'u (land); see Yeh and Pei, Li-tai yu-chi, p. 33. 15. The Central Plains (Chung-yuan) is the ancient heartland of northern Chinese civilization, broadly the area around the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River. 16. Translated from Liu Tsung-yiian, Liu Ho-tung chi 29:2b-8a (SPPY ed.).

468

NOTES

TO P A G E S

I 4 8 - I

P R E F A C E TO POEMS FROM D I M W I T ' S

52

STREAM

1. The Libation River (Kuan-shui) originates in the southwest of modern Kuan-yang, Kuang-hsi, and flows northeast into the Hsiang River. The Hsiao River (Hsiao-shui) originates in modern Tao District, Hu-nan, and flows into the Hsiang River in Yung Prefecture. Here, the writer refers to this section of the Hsiang River as the Hsiao. 2. "Tinting" (jan) is a homonym of the surname "Jan," though they are written with different characters. 3. A reference to Liu Tsung-yuan's involvement in the ill-fated party of Wang Shu-wen and his subsequent exile and demotion to vice-prefect of Yung Prefecture. Liu's house was built to the southeast of Tinting Stream. 4. The name derives from a legend about Duke Huan of Ch'i (r. 685—643 B.C.) who came to a valley while hunting and asked an old man there its name. The old man told him he had named it "Mr. Dimwit's Valley [Yii-kung-ku] after his own folly." See Shuo-yuan 7:61 ( T S C C ed.). 5. See Lun-yii 11:6:23; also, Introduction, note 40. 6. See Lun-yii 9:5:21, which records Confucius as saying, "Ning Wu-tzu practiced wisdom when the realm was governed according to the Tao; when the realm was not governed by the Tao, he became a dimwit." 7. See Lun-yii 3:2:9: "I spoke to Yen Hui, and during the entire day he seemed like a dimwit. Then he retired, contemplated his character, and became capable of asking questions. So Hui was not a dimwit at all." 8. See Lao-tzu Tao-te ching 14:7 ( S P T K ed.): "What is seen but not comprehended is the undiscernible; what is heard but not understood is the inaudible"; and 25:9: "Soundless and formless, it stands alone and never alters." 9. "Poems on the Eight Dimwits" (Pa-yii shih), no longer extant, refers to the sights named by the author. Translated from Liu, Liu Ho-tung chi 24:6b-7b.

15.

Liu

FLAT-TOP

K'ai MOUNTAIN

1. Modern T'ang-yang, Ho-nan. It was located next to Lin-lii District, modern Lin District, Ho-nan. 2. Modern Kuei-lin, Kuei-chou. 3. Modern Wu-t'ai District, Shan-hsi. Five Terraces Mountain (Wu-t'aishan) was already a major Buddhist center in the Sung. For a later account of it, see 42. Ku Yen-wu, Five Terraces Mountain.

NOTES

469

152-164

TO PAGES

4. Shang-tang was located in modern Ch'ang-chih, Shan-hsi; Hsiang Prefecture covered several districts around modern An-yang, Ho-nan. 5. The Temple of the Brilliant Teachings (Ming-chiao-yiian) was an ancient Buddhist retreat built during the Western Chin dynasty on a flat slope surrounded by peaks. 6. The area of Wei during the Han and T'ang included Liu K'ai's hometown of Ta-ming in modern Ho-pei. 7. Yellow-essence (huang-ching; Polygonatum sibiricum) and green-thistle (ts'ang-chu-, Atractylis ovata) were plants associated with the cult of Transcendents; their stalks and roots were believed to enhance longevity as well as effect medicinal cures. 8. Translated from Ku-chin t'u-shu chi-ch'eng 7:49:23b (Shanghai, 1934 ed.).

16.

Fan

T H E P A V I L I O N OF

Chung-yen YUEH-YANG

1. T'eng Tzu-ching (991-1047) was from Lo-yang. He obtained the Presented Scholar degree in the same year as Fan Chung-yen. Later, he was slandered politically and demoted to the prefecture of Pa-ling, modern Yiieh-yang, Hu-nan. 2. Translated from Fan Chung-yen, Fan Wen-cheng-kung chi 7:33-43 ed.).

(SPTK

17.

Ou-yang

T H E P A V I L I O N OF T H E O L D

1. Ch'u Prefecture was located in modern Ch'u District, An-hui. 2. Lang-ya Mountain (Lang-ya-shan) was named after Szu-ma Jui, later Emperor Yuan of the Eastern Chin (r. 317-322). As prince of Lang-ya he had earlier found refuge on this mountain during a civil war. The mountain stands sbout 1,040 feet high snd is the site of the Lang-ya Temple, built in the Ta-li era (766-779). 3. Lu-ling Commandery was an ancient name for Ou-yang Hsiu's home area. Transited from Ou-ysng Hsiu, Ou-yang Wen-chung-kung ch'uan-chi 39:9a10a (SPPY ed.).

Hsiu

DRUNKARD

470

NOTES

TO PAGES

T H E P A V I L I O N OF J O Y F U L

1 6 6 - I 7 I

ABUNDANCE

1. Abundance Mountain (Feng-shan) is located in the west of the city in present-day Ch'u District. 2. Chao K'uang-yin (927-976), the founding emperor of the Northern Sung, who as Emperor T'ai-tsu reigned from 960 to 976. 3. Pure Stream Mountain (Ch'ing-liu-shan) is located to the southwest of the city of Ch'u Prefecture. 4. Chao K'uang-yin was originally a general of the Latter Chou dynasty in the war against Li Ching, Central Ruler of the Southern T'ang dynasty (r. 943-961). After initial setbacks, Chao succeeded in capturing Ch'u Prefecture and both enemy generals with an inferior force. 5. Another reference to Chao K'uang-yin. 6. Translated from Ou-yang, Ou-yang Wen-chung-kuttg ch'uan-chi 39:8b-9a.

18.

Su

Shun-ch'in

T H E T E M P L E OF T H E M O O N - I N - T H E - W A T E R A T G R O T T O M O U N T A I N I N

SU-CHOU

1. Wu-men is another name for Su-chou. 2. Divine Cliff (Ling-yen-shan) is located west of Su-chou and was the site of the Beauty's Palace (Kuan-wa-kung) built by Fu-ch'ai, king of Wu (r. 495-473 B . C . ) , for the beauty Hsi Shih. Great Lake is about twelve miles from modern Su-chou and covers 1,397 square miles, making it one of China's largest lakes. It is fed by several rivers and contains over ninety islands, of which the two Grotto Mountains are the most prominent. 3. Heng-chin was a village to the southeast of Su-chou. 4. Forest Hut Cave (Lin-wu-tung) is located below West Grotto Mountain. Mao's Altar (Mao-kung-t'an) is inside Mao's Cave (Mao-kung-tung), halfway up the mountain. Embracing Mountain (Pao-shan) is another name for Grotto Mountain. 5. Misty Peak (P'iao-miao-feng) is the highest peak on West Grotto Mountain. 6. An allusion to Shang-shu: Yii-kung 1:148 (Shih-san ching chu-shu ed.): "When the three rivers were channeled into it, Trembling Marsh became calm." Trembling Marsh (Chen-tse) is another name for Great Lake. Commentators have variously identified the three rivers, but use of the phrase is apparently rhetorical, referring to the rivers flowing into the lake. In the T'ang, Great Lake was bordered by four prefectures: Su, Hu, Hsiian, and Ch'ang.

NOTES

TO PAGES

471

I 72 - I 82

7. The Eight Wilds (Pa-huang) were thought to lie in every direction at the ends of the world beyond the four seas. 8. Translated from Su Shun-ch'in, Su Hsueh-shih wen-chi 13:43-58 ed.).

îg. THE MOUNTAIN

(SPPY

Wang

WHERE HUI-PAO

An-shih

MEDITATED

1. Hsiao Chiin-kuei remains unidentified; Lu-ling is modern Chi-shui, Chiang-hsi. Wang Hui (1024-1065) was a Sung Neo-Confucian philosopher; Chang-lo is modern Fu-chou, Fu-chien. Wang An-kuo (1028-1074) was the fourth younger brother of Wang An-shih, Wang An-shang the seventh younger brother. 2. Translated from Wang An-shih, Lin-ch'uan chi 83:23—33 (SPPY ed.).

20. Shen GEESE POND

1. No-chii-lo, originally named Lo Yao-yiian, was a T'ang dynasty monk who was canonized as one of the Sixteen Arhats. 2. Kuan-hsiu (832-913), originally named Chiang Te-yin, from Wu Prefecture in modern Che-chiang, was an eminent monk, writer, and painter active at the court of the Former Shu dynasty in Ch'eng-tu, modern Szu-ch'uan. These lines do not appear in the extant editions of his poems, Collected Works of the Moon of Meditation (Ch'an-yiieh chi). 3. Geese Pond, about thirty miles in circumference, is located on Lotus Peak (Fu-jung-feng). The two ponds below are formed by Greater and Lesser Dragon Falls (Ta, Hsiao lung-ch'iu). 4. In 422, Hsieh Ling-yiin was demoted to governor of Yung-chia Commandery (administered from what is today Wen-chou, Che-chiang). He often neglected his officisl duties to investigate the scenery of the srea and resigned a year later. 5. These are all names of waterfalls on the mountain. 6. Modern Ying-yang, Ho-nan. 7. Translated from Shen K'uo, Meng-hsi pi-t'an 24:5a-6a (SPTK

ed.).

K'uo

MOUNTAIN

472

2i.

NOTES

Su

TO P A G E S

I 8 5 - I 86

Shih

RED CLIFF I

1. Located in modern Huang-kang, Hu-pei. Su Shih noted elsewhere that Red Cliff was located several hundred paces from his residence in Huang Prefecture and was unsure whether it was the same Red Cliff where the famous naval battle in 208 occurred between the forces of Ts'ao Ts'ao and those of Wu under the general Chou Yii (175-210). In fact, the battle site was located elsewhere along the Long River, in modern P'u-ch'i, Hu-pei. According to some sources, Su Shih's Red Cliff (Ch'ih-pi) was originally named "Red Nose" (Ch'ih-pi) because of its color and shape; the characters were thought to have been confused because of the similar pronunciation. 2. The poem about the bright moon is traditionally identified as Shih ching 29:143, "The Moon Appears" (Yiieh-ch'u), in which the moon is a beautiful woman whose unattainability provokes longing and anxiety. The poem about the graceful maiden is Shih ching 1 : 1 , "'Kuan-kuan' Cry the Ospreys" (Kuankuan chii-chiu), in which a nobleman courts a virtuous lady for his palace. 3. The location of these constellations in the sky indicates that Su was looking toward the northeast, the direction of the capital of K'ai-feng. 4. In the traditional Confucian interpretation of poetry, such imagery of the distant beauty personified as the moon can be read as the exile's longing for the imperial court. 5. Later commentators have identified this guest as Yang Shih-ch'ang, a Taoist known for his expert playing of the hsiao flute. 6. Ts'ao Ts'ao, courtesy name Meng-te, wrote two yueh-fu poems entitled "Short Songs" (Tuan-ko-hsing), probably around the time of the Battle of Red Cliff. The one from which these lines are taken begins with melancholy observations about the futility of human ambition and the shortness of life before ending with a renewed determination to unify the country. See Ts'ao Ts'ao, Ts'ao Ts'ao chi (Peking, 1974), pp. 5-6. 7. The city of Hsia-k'ou, built by the Wu emperor Sun Ch'uan (r. 222-252) in 223, was located in what is today Wu-ch'ang, Hu-pei; ancient Wu-ch'ang was located in present-day O-ch'eng District, Hu-pei, and was not the modern city of the same name. 8. A reference to the Battle of Red Cliff in 208. 9. Ching-chou refers to a city, now modern Hsiang-yang, Hu-pei, that administered a region in the Eastern Han covering much of modern Hu-pei and Hu-nan provinces. Ts'ao Ts'ao was able to obtain this strategic place when the area's commander surrendered without a fight. Chiang-ling was located in modern Chiang-ling, Hu-pei. Translated from Su Shih, Tung-p'o chi I9:8b-9a (SPPY ed.).

NOTES

TO PAGES

I 8 7 —I 9 I

473

R E D C L I F F II

1. The Snow Lodge (Hsiieh-t'ang), located in the east of modern Huangkang, Hu-pei, was a small villa built by Su Shih. Because snow fell during its construction, the interior was then decorated with murals of snow scenes. Linkao was the location of Su Shih's main residence beside the Long River in the southern part of Huang-kang, Hu-pei. 2. The Pine River (Sung-chiang) flows from Great Lake into the Huang-p'u River in modern Shanghai. It was noted for its tasty perch. 3. According to legend, P'ing I was originally a human from Hua-yin, modern Shaan-hsi, who drowned; he later became the river god Ho-po. 4. There has been some textual controversy over the centuries as to whether Su Shih wrote that he had dreamt of one or two Taoists. Both alternatives appear in printed versions, calligraphic copies, and paintings; however, the earliest printed edition used here mentions two Taoists, and the change to one may well have been a mistaken editorial emendation. See Yu-shih Chen, Images and Ideas, pp. 1 4 9 - 1 5 1 , 2 1 4 - 2 1 5 , for a discussion of this textual problem, as well as for an interpretation of the single crane metamorphosing into two Taoists as signifying Su Shih's metaphysical view of the "two-oneness" of change and continuation. 5. Translated from Su, Tung-p'o chi 19:9b. STONE BELLS

1. Stone Bells Mountain (Shih-chung-shan) is a promontory of cliffs located in modern Hu-k'ou, Chiang-hsi on the eastern bank of Lake P'o-yang not far from where the lake flows into the Long River. "P'eng-li" is an ancient name for Lake P'o-yang. This and the subsequent quotation are not found in the extant editions of Li Tao-yiian's Guide to Waterways with Commentary and may be from a lost section. 2. Li Po (773-831) served as prefect of Chiang Prefecture (modern Chiuchiang, Chiang-hsi) during the Yiian-ho era (806-820) and wrote " A Discussion of Stone Bells Mountain" (Pien shih-chung-shan chi). 3. Ch'i-an was located in modern Huang-kang, Hupei; Lin-ju was in modern Lin-ju, Ho-nan. 4. Jao Prefecture (Jao-chou) was in modern P'o-yang, Chiang-hsi; Te-hsing is modern Te-hsing, Chiang-hsi, but was a district in Jao Prefecture during the Northern Sung. 5. Hu-k'ou (literally, "Lake's Mouth"), in modern Chiang-hsi, is located where Lake P'o-yang flows into the Long River. 6. Chi Kuei, King Ching of the Chou dynasty, reigned from 544 to 520 B.C. The bell Wu-i was cast in 521 B.C. See Ch'un-ch'iu 404: Chao 21: Tsofu i.

MOUNTAIN

474

NOTES TO PAGES

I 9 I -

IÇ2

7. The reference should have been to Wei Hsien-tzu's father, Wei Chiang, known as Wei Chuang-tzu, a grand officer of Chin during the Spring and A u tumn period. The Singing Bells (Ko-chung) was a set of bells presented to the marquis of Chin in 561 B.C. from the state of Cheng. The marquis divided the set and presented half to Wei Chiang. See Ch'un-ch'itt: 274: Hsiang n : 10 Tso. 8. Translated from Su, Tung-p'o chi 33:3a-b. On February 4, n o i , Su Shih passed through Chiang-hsi on his way back to the capital from Hai-nan. A collector showed him this text, which he had written some sixteen years earlier. Su added a postscript in which he noted the existence of similar phenomena elsewhere and stated that such places must be everywhere. The postscript is reprinted in Su Shih, Ching-chin Tung-p'o wenchi shih-lueh 49:292-293 (SPTK ed.).

1. Sandy Lake (Sha-hu) is now located in the southeast of modern Huangkang, Hu-pei. 2. P'ang An-ch'ang was a local whom Su Shih admired for his learning and skills. 3. The district of Ch'i River (Ch'i-shui) was located in modern Hsi-shui, Hu-pei. 4. This is one of many sites in China associated in local legend with Wang Hsi-chih's activities as a calligrapher, almost none of which can be proven to have a historical basis. Rather, the associations reflect the use of the mythology of literati culture as a source of names for scenic places. The name Orchid Stream (Lan-hsi) further reinforces the connection with Wang's Orchid Pavilion. 5. This tz'u to the tune of "Washed Silk" (Wan-hsi-sha) is recorded in Su Shih, Tung-p'o yiieh-fu (Shanghai, 1979 ed.), p. 56. 6. Translated from Su Shih, Tung-p'o chih-lin 1:2 ( T S C C ed.). AN E V E N I N G S T R O L L T O T H E T E M P L E T H A T R E C E I V E S T H E

HEAVENLY

1. The site of the Temple That Receives the Heavenly (Ch'eng-t'ien-szu) was in the south of modern Huang-kang, Hu-pei. Its name alludes to The Book of Changes: " H o w perfect is the sublime, Receptive Principle! The birth of all things depends on it for it willingly receives the heavenly"; see I ching: K'un y.ilt'uan. Chang Huai-min was from Ch'ing-ho, Ho-pei. In 1083, he was demoted and banished to Huang Prefecture. 2. Translated from Su, Tung-p'o chih-lin 1 : 1 - 2 .

NOTES

AN A C C O U N T

TO P A G E S

475

I 9 4 - I 9 7

FOR K U O OF O U R V I S I T T O M O U N T W H I T E

WATER

1. White Water (Pai-shui) is the name of a mountain in the northeast of modern Po-lo, Kuang-tung. 2. There were two springs near the temple, one with hot water called "Hot Springs" (T'ang-ch'iian) and the other with cold, called "Snowlike Springs" (Hsueh-j u-ch 'iian). 3. Su Shih took the artistic name "Tung-p'o" (Eastern Slope) after a farm he owned while in Huang Prefecture when he sought contentment in the rural life-style epitomized by T'ao Ch'ien. Translated from Su, Tung-p'o chih-lin 1 : 2 - 3 .

22. THE DELIGHTFUL

P A V I L I O N OF H U A N G

1. The Yiian (Yuan-chiang) and Hsiang rivers flow north out of Hu-nan into Grotto Lake and then into the Long River. The Han River, a section of which was known in ancient times as the Mien River (Mien-shui), flows down from Shaan-hsi into Hu-pei and then into the Long River at modern Wu-han. 2. The Red Cliff described by Su Shih. 3. Chang Meng-te was from present-day Ch'ing-ho, Ho-pei, and was a friend of Su Shih during the latter's exile in Huang Prefecture. 4. Ch'i-an was an ancient name for Huang Prefecture. 5. Tzu-chan was the courtesy name of Su Shih. 6. Wu-ch'ang is the modern O-ch'eng, Hu-pei, located opposite Huang Prefecture across the Long River. The mountains referred to here are also known as the Fan Mountains (Fan-shan) or Yiian Mountains (Yuan-shan). 7. The former city wall was built when Sun Ch'iian fortified O District renamed it "Wu-ch'ang" to serve as his capital from 221 to 229. Su Ch'e, his brother, identified the site of the Battle of Red Cliff upstream with the Cliff in Huang Prefecture. Lu Hsiin ( 1 8 3 - 2 4 5 ) was a leading general of under Sun Ch'iian who twice occupied Huang Prefecture.

and like Red Wu

8. An allusion to an event satirized in "Rhapsody on the Wind" (Feng fu\ Wen-hstian I 3 : i a - 2 b [ S P P Y ed.]), traditionally attributed to Sung Y u . The officials Sung Y u and Ching Ch'ai accompanied King Hsiang of Ch'u (r. 298263 B.C.) to the Orchid Terrace Palace located east of modern Chung-hsiang, Hu-pei. According to a tradition ascribed to a now-missing passage in Szu-ma Ch'ien's Historical Records, Sung Yii wrote this rhapsody to satirize King

Su

Ch'e

PREFECTURE

476

NOTES

TO PAGES

1 9 8 - 2 0 2

Hsiang's arrogance and extravagance. T h e w o r d s " w i n d " and "satirize" are homonyms, both n o w pronounced/eng. 9. West M o u n t a i n (Hsi-shan) is located on the opposite bank of the L o n g River west o f m o d e r n O - c h ' e n g , H u - p e i . 10. A n ancestor of Su C h ' e d u r i n g the T ' a n g , Su Wei-tao, was a native of Luan-ch'eng in C h a o C o m m a n d e r y ( m o d e r n H a n - t a n , Ho-pei), t h o u g h the Su family in Su C h ' e ' s time was f r o m M e i Prefecture, Mei-shan in present-day Szu-ch'uan. 11. Translated f r o m Su C h ' e , Luan-ch'eng chi 24:4b~5b (SPPY

2 3 . Ch'in

ed.).

Kuan

DRAGON WELL I

1. D r a g o n Well (Lung-ching) was originally k n o w n as D r a g o n (Lung-hung), a m o n g other names.

Depths

2. In local legend, K o H u n g was believed to have practiced alchemy on a hill n o r t h of West Lake, later k n o w n as K o ' s R i d g e (Ko-ling). C h ' i n K u a n is m i s taken in identifying h i m as living d u r i n g the C h ' i h - w u era, h o w e v e r . 3. W u and Yiieh w e r e ancient k i n g d o m s d u r i n g the C h o u dynasty. " W u " traditionally refers to the area r o u g h l y c o r r e s p o n d i n g to m o d e r n C h i a n g - s u , and "Yiieh" to m o d e r n C h e - c h i a n g . 4. See below, 30. C h o u Mi, Observing the Tidal Bore. 5. T h e szu was an imaginary animal described as a o n e - h o r n e d ox. It was m e n t i o n e d in Lun-yii 33:16:1 and Ch'un-ch'iu 180: Hsiian 2: 1 Tso. T h e szu is probably based on the rhinoceros, w h i c h once existed in C h i n a , and the w o r d was later used to refer to the female of the species. 6. T h e India T e m p l e (T'ien-chu-szu) was a m a j o r B u d d h i s t center west of H a n g - c h o u o n H i d d e n Spirits M o u n t a i n (Ling-yin-shan). It w a s divided into U p p e r , Middle, and L o w e r temples established d u r i n g the Five Dynasties, Sui (597). and Eastern C h i n (330), respectively. T h e M o n a s t e r y of the Sage of Longevity (Shou-sheng-yuan) was a N o r t h e r n S u n g d y n a s t y n a m e for the temple originally built in 949 at D r a g o n Well and popularly k n o w n as D r a g o n Well T e m p l e (Lung-ching-szu). 7. T h e n a m e C h ' i e n - t ' a n g originated in the C h ' i n dynasty to denote an area west of the m o d e r n city of H a n g - c h o u ; beginning in the Sui, it referred to the city itself and is used by the author here as a literary designation. 8. Huai-nan, a n a m e originating in the C h ' i n , generally refers to the area south of the Huai River and n o r t h of the Long River. In C h ' i n K u a n ' s time, it

NOTES

TO PAGES

477

2 0 2 - 2 1 0

denoted a province governed f r o m the city of Y a n g - c h o u that included parts of modern Chiang-su, An-hui, and Ho-nan. 9. Translated f r o m Ch'in Kuan, Huai-hai chi I7:3b-4.b

(SPPY

ed.). DRAGON WELL

II

1. Wu-hsing is modern Wu-hsing, Chiang-su; Kuei-chi is modern Shaohsing, Che-chiang. 2. Ts'an-liao (Meditating on the Boundless) was the artistic name of the Buddhist monk Tao-ch'ien. He was a noted poet and another friend of Su Shih's. 3. Thunder Peak (Lei-feng) forms part of Sunset Mountain (Hsi-chao-shan) on the south side of West Lake and was the site of a prominent pagoda built by the king of Wu-Yiieh, Ch'ien Hung-ch'u (r. 948-978), in m e m o r y of the concubine Huang. Damaged severely by Japanese pirates during the M i n g , the pagoda later collapsed in 1924. South Screen Mountain (Nan-p'ing-shan) is located west of the Gate of Clear Waves (Ch'ing-po-men), one of the gates to the city of Hang-chou. Beginning in the T ' a n g , a temple bell on the mountain would sound in the evenings creating one of the celebrated scenes of West Lake, " T h e Evening Bell at South Screen Mountain" (Nan-p'ing wan-chung). T h e Stream of Benevolent K a r m a (Hui-yin-chien) flowed past a temple of the same name and on into West Lake. 4. Magic Rock Vale (Ling-shih-wu) denotes a small valley and a mountain also k n o w n as Accumulated Blessings (Chi-ch'ing-shan), located to the southwest of Wheat Ridge (Hsiao-mai-ling). 5. Translated f r o m Ch'in, Huai-hai chi 17:4b.

24. Lu Yu THE CAVE OF THE THREE

1. T h e Hsia-lao Pass (Hsia-lao-kuan) is located in the western part o f modern I-ch'ang, Hu-pei. 2. See the poem actually titled "Hsia-lao Stream" (Hsiao-lao-hsi) in O u - y a n g ,

Ou-yang Wen-chung-kung ch'iian-chi i:3b-4a (SPPY ed.). 3. Huang Ta-lin was f r o m Fen-ting (modern Hsiu-shui District, Chiang-hsi) and served as magistrate of P'ing-hsiang District during the Shao-sheng era (1094-1097). Huang T'ing-chien ( 1 0 4 5 - 1 1 0 5 ) was a leading poet of the Chiang-hsi school, an influential calligrapher, and an aesthetic theorist associated with Su Shih's circle. Hsin Hung and Hsin Ta-fang remain unidentified.

TRAVELERS

NOTES

TO

PAGES

2 1 0 - 2 1

I

4. I-ling was located in the eastern part of modern I-ch'ang, Hu-pei. Ouyang Yung-shu was the courtesy name of Ou-yang Hsiu. 5. Ting Pao-ch'en (1010-1067) served as military controller-general in Hsia Prefecture, now the northwestern part of I-cheng, Hu-pei. He was a close friend of Ou-yang Hsiu. The two often exchanged poems, and Ou-yang later wrote his epitaph. 6. The wording of the inscription implies that Ou-yang Hsiu was a native of I-ling, though in fact he was merely serving in office there (he was a native of Yung-feng, modern Chi-shui, Chiang-hsi). The suggestion, therefore, is that these inscriptions might be inauthentic, perhaps added later by others to enhance the historical value of the cave. 7. Ch'ien-nan refers to Ch'ien Prefecture, modern P'eng-shui, Szu-ch'uan. Huang T'ing-chien was banished here in 109$ and crossed through Hsia-lao Pass on the day hsin-hai in the third lunar month (April 22, 1095). Lu Y u assumed that Huang's reference to "hsin-hai" in the earlier inscription meant the year instead of the day of the month. See Chang and Smythe, South China, p. 174, n. 18. 8. Stone Tablet Gorge (Shih-p'ai-hsia) is located in the northwest of modern I-ch'ang, Hu-pei. 9. Fan Gorge (Shan-tzu-hsia) is located west of modern I-ch'ang, Hu-pei. 10. Toad Rock (Ha-ma-pei) is located at the foot of Stone Nose Mountain (Shih-pi-shan), ten miles to the northwest of modern I-ch'ang, Hu-pei. 11. A Ranking of Waters (Shui-pin), which evaluated the quality of natural water sources, has been lost. 12. O x Temple (Huang-niu-miao) is located on O x Mountain (Huang-niushan), about seven miles northwest of modern I-ch'ang, Hu-pei. 13. See Ou-yang Hsiu's poem " O n the O x Gorge Temple" (Huang-niu-hsia tz'u) in Ou-yang, Ou-yang Wen-chung-kung ch'uan-chi 1:4a. Ou-yang's poem was motivated by a mysterious incident which he later related to Su Shih. While serving in K'ai-feng, Ou-yang was visited by his friend Ting Pao-ch'en. Ting told him of a dream he had had in which both men were visiting a temple by the upper reaches of the Long River and noticed a horse in front of the gate with one ear missing. Not long afterward, both men were exiled to this area and one day visited O x Temple. There they saw the stone horse with its left ear missing and finally understood the meaning of Ting's dream. See Su Shih, Ching-chin Tung-p'o wen-chi 6o:jn~7b (SPTK ed.). In 1082, after relating this story to the local magistrate, Su Shih was asked to write out Ou-yang's poem to be inscribed in stone in O x Temple, and he also added a prose afterword explaining the background of the dream. This is the stone inscription that Lu Y u mentions a few lines later. 14. The tung-ch'ing is known in the West as the chinaberry (Melia azedarach)', it is an evergreen with oval leaves, small white flowers, and red berries. Its seeds and bark have medicinal uses.

N O T E S TO PAGES

211-216

479

15. Chang Wen-chung was the posthumous name of Chang Shang-ying ( 1 0 4 3 - 1 1 2 2 ) , an important official and patron of Buddhism. A protégé of Wang An-shih, he continued to support Wang's reform program despite conservative opposition. After the progressive faction returned to power, he eventually rose to right vice-director of the Department of State and grand councillor under Emperor Hui-tsung (r. noo—1125). For a study and translation of an account of his pilgrimage to Five Terraces Mountain (Wu-t'ai-shan), see Robert M. Gimello, "Chang Shang-ying on Wu-t'ai Shan," in Naquin and Y u , eds., Pilgrims and Sacred Sites, pp. 89-149. 16. Translated from Lu Yu,Ju-Shu

chi 6:52-53 ( T S C C ed.).

25. Fan Ch'eng-ta EYEBROWS

1. The Sakayamuni Buddha is traditionally believed to have entered nirvana in a grove in eastern India where twin sala-trees (Shorea robusta) grew. These places are all located on Eyebrows Mountain. 2. The hai-t'ung is an evergreen that grows largely in Fu-chien and Kuangtung; it is known as Pittosporum tobira in the West. The yang-mei is an evergreen known as arbutus in the West. 3. The third and last month of summer was the sixth lunar month, J u l y August, in the year 1177. 4. The Bodhisattva Samantabhadra (Chinese: P'u-hsien), patron of the mountain, is often paired with Manjusri (Chinese: Wen-shu), whose major shrine is on Five Terraces Mountain (Wu-t'ai-shan) in Shan-hsi. 5. Here the author mistakenly ascribes the high boiling point to the water instead of the thin atmosphere. 6. Wang Chan-shu was a Metropolitan Graduate during the Shao-hsing era ( 1 1 3 1 - 1 1 6 2 ) . He rose to vice-grand councillor during the reign of Emperor Hsiao-tsung (r. 1 1 6 2 - 1 1 8 9 ) . 7. Samantabhadra is often represented in Buddhist iconography riding a white elephant, which he had conquered. 8. Y a Prefecture (Ya-chou) corresponds to modern Ya-an, Szu-ch'uan. Both Greater and Lesser Tiled House mountains (Ta, Hsiao wa-wu-shan) were part of the Mount Min range. 9. Nan-chao was the name of a border kingdom lasting from 649 to 902 that at its height included modern Yiin-nan, southern Szu-ch'uan, and western Kuei-chou provinces. 10. The Manifestation of Self-Enlightenment (P'i-chih-fo-hsien) signifies the

MOUNTAIN

480

NOTES TO PAGES

2 I Ô - 2 2 Ç

Buddhist concept of self-enlightenment (Sanskrit: pratyeka\ Chinese: p'i-chihchia-fo-t'o), which is not dependent on transmission by a master but is gained independently. 1 1 . The Snowy Mountains (Hsiieh-shan) denotes the Himalayas. 12. The Rainbow Bridge (Ch'ui-hung-ch'iao) over the Wu-sung River was built during the reign of the Northern Sung emperor Jen-tsung (r. 1022-1063). 13. Translated from Fan Ch'eng-ta, Wu-ch'uatt lu: shang 1 0 - 1 2 ( T S C C ed.).

26.

Chu

Hsi

T H E M O U N T A I N A H U N D R E D CHANG

HIGH

1. The Mountain a Hundred Chang High (Pai-chang-shan) is located in the northeast of modern Chien-yang, Fu-chien. 2. Reed Peak Mountain (Lu-shan; also Lu-feng-shan) is located in the northwest of Chien-yang, Fu-chien. 3. Liu P'ing ( 1 1 3 8 - 1 1 8 $ ) , courtesy name P'ing-fu, was from Ch'ung-an, Fuchien. 4. Translated from Chu Hsi, Chu-tzu ta-ch'iian 7 8 : i a - i b ( S P P Y ed.). The text indicates that the date of the piece was not filled in.

27.

Yeh-lii

F R O M RECORD

Ch'u-ts'ai OF

A JOURNEY

TO

THE

WEST

1. In the original text, Yeh-lii Ch'u-ts'ai refers to himself by his Taoist and literary name, Chan-jan chii-shih (Lay Scholar of Profound Clarity). He also included his Buddhist name, Ts'ung-yiian (Following the Source), on the title page. 2. " Y e n " refers here to Yen-ching in the southwest of modern Peking, which had been the capital of the Liao dynasty and the Central Capital of the Chin. 3. The Tomb of Eternal Peace (Yung-an-ling) was the burial place of Yehlu's relative the Northern Liao emperor Hsiian-tsung (r. 1122), located in modern Hsiang-shan, northwest of Peking. Yeh-lii Ch'u-ts'ai's home was in the area. Chii-yung Pass (Chii-yung-kuan) through the Great Wall is located farther to the northwest of Peking. Wu-ch'uan is modern Hsiian-hua, Ho-pei; Yiin-chung refers to modern Ta-t'ung, Shan-hsi. The Celestial Mountains (T'ien-shan), now known as the Dark Mountains (Yin-shan), are north of

NOTES

TO P A G E S

2 2 9 - 2 3 O

modern Hu-ho-hao-t'e, Inner Mongolia. T h e Desert (Sha-mo) referred to here is the Gobi. 4. T h e precise location of Chinggis Khan's court at that time in Mongolia is unclear, for the city of Karakoram had not yet been established. O n e main camp was located near the Kerulen River. T h e other was in the Black Forest (Hei-lin) south of the Tola River near modern Ulan Bator. See Yeh-lii C h ' u ts'ai, Hsi-yu lu, ed. Hsiang Ta (Peking, 1981), p. 5. 5. T h e Western Campaign of Chinggis Khan conquered the state of K h w a razm (Hua-la-tzu-mo) in 1 2 1 9 - 1 2 2 0 . K h w a r a z m , with its capital at Samarkand, was a rich kingdom ruled by Shah M o h a m m e d II (d. 1220) and stretching f r o m modern Iran to Afghanistan and northward to Transoxiana and the Aral Sea. T h e shah had previously rejected Chinggis Khan's offers of an alliance and murdered his emissaries, thus provoking M o n g o l revenge. 6. T h e Golden Mountains (Chin-shan) are the modern Altai range forming the border of modern Hsin-chiang, Mongolia, and Uzbekistan. Altai means " g o l d e n " in the Turkic T'u-chiieh language. 7. T h e city of Beshbalik (Pieh-shih-pa), meaning " F i v e Cities" in T'u-chiieh, stood at modern Chi-mu-sa-er, east of Wu-lu-mu-ch'i (Urumchi), Hsinchiang. 8. T h e "Desert-Ocean" (Han-hai) is the Gobi Desert that stretched northwest of Beshbalik to the Golden Mountains. T h e Desert-Ocean A r m y c o m m e m o rated by the stele was stationed in Beshbalik (then called Chin-man in Chinese) in 702 during the reign of Empress Wu. 9. T h e district of B u g u r (Lun-t'ai-hsien) was perhaps located in modern M i ch'iian, north of Wu-lu-mu-ch'i. Another v i e w places it in modern Fu-k'ang, Hsin-chiang. See Yeh-lii, Hsi-yu lu, p. 6. 10. Q o c o (also Khoco; Chinese: Ho-chou) was Kao-ch'ang, located at modern Ha-la-ho-cho (Karakhoja) in the southeast of the district of T'u-lu-fan (Turfan), Hsin-chiang. It was the capital of the U i g h u r K i n g d o m during the Sung and Y u a n dynasties. Yeh-lii Ch'u-ts'ai is mistaken in identifying it with "I Prefecture" (I-chou), modern Ha-mi, Hsin-chiang. 1 1 . Khotan (Chinese: Wu-tuan-ch'eng; also Yii-t'ien; also Ho-t'ien) was located west of modern Ho-t'ien, Hsin-chiang. 12. T h e Black Jade River (Karakash; Chinese: Wu-yii-ho, modern K ' o - l a - k ' o shih) and the White Jade River (Yurungkash; Chinese: Pai-yii-ho, modern Y i i lung-k'o-shih) were for centuries major sources of nephrite jade exported to China. Both rivers are tributaries of the modern Ho-t'ien River (Ho-t'ien-ho). 13. T h e city of Bolat (Pu-la) was in modern Po-le, Hsin-chiang. 14. During the Y u a n dynasty, the present-day Celestial Mountains (T'ienshan) in Hsin-chiang were k n o w n as the Dark Mountains (Yin-shan). 15. Round Lake (Yiian-ch'ih), also k n o w n as Celestial Lake (T'ien-ch'ih) and Lake Sairam (Sai-li-mu-hu), lies high in the mountains north of modern Ining, Hsin-chiang.

NOTES TO PAGES

23O-23I

16. Almalik (A-li-ma) was located east of modern Huo-ch'eng (Khorgos), Hsin-chiang. The name means "Apple C i t y " in the local dialect. 17. There are various lists of the five kinds of grain (wu-ku), which include hemp, millet, panicled millet, wheat, and beans. 18. The I-lieh is the modern Ili River (I-li-ho), which flows west for over eight hundred miles from the Celestial Mountains in modern Uighur Autonomous Region, Hsin-chiang, into Lake Balkhash in modern Kazakhstan. 19. Gus Ordo (also Balasagun; Chinese: Hu-szu-wo-lu-to), capital of the Western Liao dynasty, was located northwest of modern Lake Issyk Kul in Kirghizstan. About three miles northwest of Gus Ordo stood the T'ang city of Tokmak mentioned by Hsiian-tsang (see chapter 7 above, including note 8). The Western Liao, also known as the Black Khitans (Karakhitai), effectively came to an end in 1 2 1 1 when the last ruler was deposed in all but name by his son-in-law Kuchliig. The Mongols were not able to assert their authority and annex the territory until they defeated Kuchliig in 1218. Only then did Chingghis Khan feel the time had come to conquer neighboring Khwarazm. 20. Talas (T'a-la-szu), modern Dzhambul, Kazakhstan, was recorded by Hsiian-tsang in Record of the Western Region as "T'an-lo-su." It remained an important city in the area. See Hsiian-tsang, Ta-T'ang Hsi-yii chi, pp. 77-78. 21. Pap (also Bab; Chinese: Pa-p'u) was located 630 miles west of Khojend (K'u-chan; modern Leninabad, Tadzhikistan), and Pa-lan lay between them. Kasan (K'o-san) was located northwest of modern Namanghan, Uzbekistan. These cities were in the Ferghana Basin near the Syr Darya River (Hsi-er-ho). "Pa-lan" was the sinicization of a Persian word for a kind of apricot. 22. The city of Otrar (O-ta-la) was located east of the Syr Darya River near modern Tashkent, Uzbekistan. The governor of this city, Inalchuq, with the permission of his overlord, Shah Mohammed II of Khwarazm, executed Chinggis Khan's ambassador as well as other members of the embassy on the pretext of an insult and confiscated the rich cargo of the caravan with which they were traveling. When another emissary, sent to protest this act, was also murdered by the shah, the already strained relations between the Mongols and Khwarazm collapsed. This was the pretext for the Western Campaign, although the Mongols would probably have conquered Khwarazm in any event. Chinggis Khan attacked and destroyed the city of Otrar in June 1219. 23. Chinggis Khan attacked the city of Samarkand (Hsiin-szu-kan; modern Samarkand, Uzbekistan) in June 1220. It is actually located southwest of Otrar. 24. Ho-chung, which literally means "in the river," was located near a branch of the Amu Darya River (Oxus; Chinese: A-mu-ho). It had served as the Western Capital of the Western Liao. 25. There are varying lists of the eight kinds of grain (pa-ku), which include rice, millet, barley, wheat, soybeans, beans, maize, and hemp. As in the case of the "five kinds of grain" above, the enumeration is rhetorical.

NOTES

TO PAGES

2 3 I - 2 3 3

26. Chung-shan was an ancient commandery in the area of modern Ting and T'ang Districts, Ho-pei. The "Nine Fermentations Wine" (Chiu-yiin) of Chung-shan was a full-bodied wine mentioned in literature as early as the Western Han dynasty. 27. Bokhara (P'u-hua), now located in Uzbekistan, was another residence of Shah Mohammed II, in addition to Samarkand. 28. The Moslems referred to here are the inhabitants of Khwarazm. Bokhara had been conquered by Chinggis Khan in March 1220. 29. The Amu Darya River flows into the Aral Sea (Hsien-hai), a 26,000square-mile lake located between Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan. 30. Urgenj (Wu-li-chien) was located south of the Aral Sea along both sides of the Amu Darya. It was conquered by Chinggis Khan in the autumn of 1 2 2 1 . 31. Bactria (also Bahlika; Chinese: Pan-ch'eng) is modern Balkh in northern Afghanistan. The location of this city is south of the Amu Darya, so "west" in Yeh-lu's text is probably a misprint. The inhabitants of Bactria were deported and slaughtered by the Mongols in 1222. When Ch'iu Ch'u-chi passed through it afterward, only the sounds of dogs barking could be heard. Yeh-lu must have visited it before this time, since he describes it as a rich city. 32. T'uan may be the fortified city of T'uan-pa-la, west of Bactria. 33. Black India (Hei-se yin-tu) remains unidentified. Here, the direction is probably south rather than west. The "great river" later referred to may be the Indus. Black India may be the place recorded by historians as "East India" (Tung-yin-tu-kuo), which Chinggis Khan visited on his return journey in 1224, after summering north of what is now Kabul, Afghanistan. 34. The people of Kipchak (K'o-fu-ch'a) were a branch of the T'u-chtieh. In the eleventh century, they expanded their territory from the Amu Darya to north of the Black Sea. Yeh-lu Ch'u-ts'ai did not actually travel to this vast and distant area, but rather based his account on other sources. 35. See Hsin T'ang shu 217:6144 (Peking, 1975 ed.), which similarly records long days and short nights in Quriqan (Ku-li-kan) near modern Lake Baikal, Russia. This phenomenon, however, is due to Quriqan's closer proximity to the north pole. The two kingdoms are in fact unrelated. 36. Yeh-lu Ch'u-ts'ai's estimations of these distances are inaccurate. 37. The Hsi-Hsia Kingdom was established by the Tangut tribe in 1032 and extended over modern Ning-hsia, Shaan-hsi, Kan-su, Ch'ing-hai, and Inner Mongolia, with its capital at Hsing-ch'ing (modern Yin-ch'uan, Ning-hsia). The Hsi-Hsia king, a Mongol vassal after 1210, had angered the Mongols by not contributing soldiers to the Western Campaign, and in 1225 he had formed an alliance with the Chin. Yeh-lu Ch'u-ts'ai was in attendence at this campaign in 1 2 2 6 - 1 2 2 7 an ?Efl!I2 n , no. 1 (January 1936): 7 9 Ch'ing-hua hsiieh-pao 88.

Cheng Meng-t'ung Hung Po-chao ?£ffiBg, and Chang T e ch'ang lifeilsll, eds. Ku-tai yu-chi ming-p'ien p'ing-chu "¿i ft £ H Kuang-chou: Kuang-tung jen-min ch'u-pan-she, 1986. Cheng Te-k'un, trans. " T h e Travels of Emperor M u . " Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 2d ser., 64 (1933): 1 2 4 - 1 4 2 ; 65 (1934): 1 2 8 - 1 4 9 . Ch'eng-shih mo-yüan 1594-1606.

Vols. 1—18. [Nanking?:] Tzu-lan-t'ang,

Chiang Shao-yüan iXföl^ • Chung-kuo ku-tai lii-hsing chih yen-chiu ^ K ^ f t i S f r i f f ^ E . Shanghai: Shang-wu yin-shu-kuan, 1935. Chiang Tsu-i ^ f f l t o . "Wen-hsin tiao-lung: 'Wu-se p'ien' shih-shih" • Vols. 1 - 9 . Rpt. Taipei: T ' a i - w a n hsüehSPPY

ed.

Hung Pen-chien "Lun O u - y a n g Hsiu san-wen te chü-shih ho hsü-tz'u t'ung ch'i ch'ing-kan te kuan-hsi" ibMicßBi^ifcxÖ-J'oJÄffl . Hua-tung shih-fan ta-hsiieh hsiieh-pao i^^ffifa ^ C ^ f r i g (1984-3): 59-65Jao Hsüeh-kang

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" ' C h ' i e n hou ch'ih-pi fu' yu-tsung k ' a o " In Su Shih wen lun-ts'ung edited by Su Shih yen-chiu hsüeh-hui iff ^ , pp. 1 1 5 - 1 2 1 . Ch'eng-tu: Szu-ch'uan wen-i ch'u-pan-she, 1986.

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Jen Fang-ch'iu f i i f r i A . "Shui-ching-chu yii yu-chi wen-hsiieh" ( / K f ¡ 4 ) ^Mid^C^-

Wen-shih chih-shih xj&^OiR (1984.7): 20-25.

Jenner, W.J.F. Memories of Loyang: Yang Hsiian-chih and the Lost Capital (493-534)- Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981. Kao Shan ¡fib ill. "Sao-ch'u fu-yen tan-jan wu-ch'en—Wu Chun yii Chu [Sung] Yiian-szu shu shang-hsi" J3|5£M, — San-wen (1987.10), pp. 32~33Karlgren, Bernhard. "The Book of Documents." Bulletin of the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities 22 (1950): 1 - 8 1 . Knechtges, David R . , trans. "Wen xuan," or Selections of Refined Literature. Vols. 1 and 2. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1 9 8 2 1987. Kohara Haranobu ed. O I Bunjinga suihen, Chugoku hen, no. 1 A H ¥ i , ^ S H i , I- T o k y o : Chuo koronsha, 1975. Kohn, Livia. Early Chinese Mysticism. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992. Kroll, Paul W. "Verses from on High: The Ascent of T'ai Shan." In The Vitality of the Lyric Voice: Shih Poetry from the Late Han to the T'ang, edited by Shuen-fu Lin and Stephen Owen, pp. 1 6 7 - 2 1 6 . Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986. K u Shih U K , ed. Mu T'ien-tzu chuan hsi-cheng chiang-shu S ^ i f l l f f i Taipei: Shang-wu yin-shu-kuan 1976 ed. Kuo Shao-yu f ^ s S i S . Chung-kuo wen-hsiieh p'i-p'ing shih f f l H i ^ f t t Vols. 1 and 2. Taipei: Shang-wu yin-shu-kuan 1971 ed. Ku-shih hsiian Lao I-an

SPPY Ku-chin

ed. yu-chi ts'ung-ch'ao

"if

- Taipei:

Chung-hua shu-chii, 1962. Lao-tzu Tao-teching SPTK ed. Legge, James, trans. A Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms; Being an Account by the Chinese Monk Fa-hien of His Travels in India and Ceylon (A.D. 399-414) in Search of the Buddhist Books of Discipline. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1886. Lentricchia, Frank, and Thomas McLaughlin, eds. Critical Terms for Literary Study. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990. Leslie, D. D . , and K . H . J . Gardiner. "Chinese Knowledge of Western Asia During the Han." T'oung Pao 68, nos. 4 - 5 (1982): 254-308. Levy, Dore. "Constructing Sequences: Another Look at the Principle of Fu ^ 'Enumeration.'" Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 46, no. 2 (December 1986): 4 7 1 - 4 9 3 .

543

544

SELECTED

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Li Chi, trans. The Travel Diaries of Hsu Hsia-k'o. Hong Kong: Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1974. Li I-mang $ —(S, ed. Ming-Ch'ing-jen yu Huang-shan chi-ch'ao A ^ ^ U J i E t f c . Ho-fei: An-huijen-min ch'u-pan-she, 1983. Lieh-nuchuan Lieh-tzu n^-.

SPPY SPPY

tit

ed.

ed.

Lin, Shuen-fu, and Stephen Owen, eds. The Vitality of the Lyric Voice: Shih Poetry from the Late Han to the T'ang. Studies on China 6. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986. Lin-ch'ing i P ® . Hung-hsiieh yin-yuan t'u-chi 8 § l l 0 i i c | I l i E . Vols. 1 - 3 . Rpt. Peking: Pei-ching ku-chi ch'u-pan-she, 1984. LiuHsiang f l j f t . Lieh-hsien chuan

f|[|

. TSCC

ed.

Liu Hsieh. The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons. Translated by Vincent Yu-chung Shih. Taipei: Chung-hua shu-chu, 1970. Liu Hsi-tsai IeIJ^IR. I-kai H • she 1978 ed.

Shanghai: Shang-hai ku-chi ch'u-pan-

Liu I-ch'ing. Shih-shuo Hsin-yii: A New Account of Tales of the World. Translated by Richard B . Mather. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1976. Liu Ts'ao-nan hsiian-chu 1982.

and P'ing Hui-shan ^P-Ulf, eds. Ku-tai yu-chi f t ¡Wifiizfc• Shanghai: Shang-hai ku-chi ch'u-pan-she,

Loewe, Michael. Ways to Paradise: The Chinese Quest for London: George Allen & Unwin, 1979. Lu Chi. "Essay Anthology of Early Times Grove Press,

Immortality.

on Literature." Translated by Shih-hsiang Ch'en. In Chinese Literature, edited by Cyril Birch, vol. 1: From to the Fourteenth Century, pp. 2 0 4 - 2 1 4 . N e w Y o r k : 1965.

Lung Hui 1tm. " T ' a o Yiian-ming yii Shan-hai ching" PD^W ^ 4301139 chu (all, every) | f , 5081127 chu (islet) , 5081127 chu (pillars) |e£, 507117 Chu-chiang Jfcfll, 5o8n22 Chu Chien-hsiieh , 394 Chu Hsi ifcSF, 219-23, 220, 292, 294, 4401198, 499ni2, 5o8n24, 529n4 Chu-hsi liu-i YiM^'iffc, 5231143 Chu-hu tung-t'ien ^ 495^33 Chu I-tsun 361-66 Chujung-feng See Chu Jung's Peak Chu Jung's Peak ( C h u j u n g - f e n g ) ¡¡SEIiit, 292, 293, 498nn5,6 C h u - k o Liang l i U f l E , 269, 272, 492ns Chu-kung 436n70 Chu-lien , 504ms Chu-lin ch'i-hsien fttt-tff, 455n24 Chu-ling 499" 13 Chu-lung-ch'iao ^fetHS, 524ns Chu P'ing-man ifc ff f § , 495n30 Chu-sha-an t^S!'/¡I, 502m Chu-sha-feng ^ i'J/'iJ:, 502m Chu-shui 5iin6 Chu Tao-sheng 462n26, s o i n i o Chu Tzu-lu 393 Chu-tzu yii-lei tfc^MM,

221

Chu Ying 277 Chu Ying-t'ai 338, j i o n i Chu Yuan-chang 263, 269, 272, 279, 280, 283, 285, 339, 404, 492n6, 493nio, 11, 498ns, 5ion3, 524ms chu zither ¿ft, 286, 497n2 Chu-jan g , 46 Chii-ling g g , 446m Chii-ling shou-chang-yin g M # % W , 447 n 4

Chü-yung-kuan HrHtlUi, 48on3 Ch'u tz'u 23, 2S Ch'ü-chih fg $ , 450n2 Ch u-fu 335, 337, 339, 373, 376, 377, 442n2, 510m, s n n 6 , 5 l 9 n l 2 , 520n25, 52in33 C h ' ü Ling-wen II Ful, 117, 457n2 C h ' ü Shih-szu M í ^ í B , 3 H Ch'ü-t'ang Gorge (Ch'ü-t'ang-hsia) S I S f t , 84-85, 448m3 Ch'u-t'ang-hsia f t f l l ^ - See Ch'ii-t'ang Gorge ch'ü-ya [ft 5?, 446m 3 C h ' ü Yüan S K , 24, 199, soin3, 512m chuan p j , 4281124 Chuan-hsü, sage-king ¡SlíS, 5l6n7 Chuan-sun Shih (Tzu-chang) SSÍ^ÉÜÍ ( Í S ) , 51

In

7

ch'uatt-ch'i fll^-, 35

ch 'üan (entirely) , 467n8 ch'iian (spring) ^ , 46708 Ch'üan-chen sect 225, 228 Ch'iian Kuo-ch'i í i ü t i , 237 Ch'üan-shih fí6®, 274 Chuang-shih ko ¡(±±1*;, 449117

Chuang-tsung of the Latter T'ang, Emperor 359, 5 i 4 m 7 Chuang-tzu Í E Í , 444nn2,3 Chuang-tzu j f E ^ , 17, 21-22, 141, 280, 300 chiieh-disc , 249, 489ni4 Ch'üeh-ch'iao S^t®, 50S"25 Ch'üeh-shan ¡UlU, 4 2 5 m s , 484ns Ch'ui-hung-ch'iao JÉllEtlí, 48onl2 chiin-tzu g i 1 . See Noble Man Chün-yang-shan g p f l i l , 4631137 Ch'un-ch'iu 124, 43in44 Ch'un-ch'iu Tso chuan

15, 20,

430n39 Chung-ch'iu 467ns, 500m C h u n g Chün I^IJi, 108, 4S5n2S C h u n g H u n g g|fg£ , 28, 4561134 Chung-kuan g{+, 4 8 i n i 2 K'o-san , 482n2i Kou-chien o f Y ü e h , King 436n70, 463n38 Kou-chu-shan fcJäLLÜ, 5 1 7 m 6 K u P , 327, 331 Ku-chin t'u-shu chi-ch'eng ¡if ^f 425nl2

GLOSSARY-INDEX

Ku-feng wu-shih-chiu-shou: +

ti er-shih

Kung-shan

: S & - 1 - , 4861116

487n36

Kung-sun Shu

fiffiiil.

448m 3

K u - k ' o u £ O , 522n35

Kung-t'ing " g ^ ,

Ku-li-kan

K u n g T z u - c h e n 36 § J^ , 4 1 7 - 2 2 , 5 3 2 n 7

4831135

K u - l o - t u n g i f c r g ^ i , 46on5

Kuttg-yen

Ku-mu-t'an

Kung-yii

42, 467n4

K u - m u - t ' a n hsi h s i a o - c h ' i u

H

529m

shift £|®f#, 453ni3 f f c ' f f l , 452m6

K'ung C h i (Tzu-szu) }LI5 ( i g ) , K'ung-ming-yen

' b E L , 42 K u - s h a n M i l l - See

Solitary H i l l

Ku-wen ^f yC. See A n c i e n t S t y l e p r o s e Ku-wen kuan-chien t j t f t i i ? , 439n89 Ku-wen kuatt-chih i^iHih, 425ni2 Ku-wen-tz'u lei-ts'uan i ^ S ^ H ,

K ' u n g S h a n g - j e n i L f r f l : , 29, 346, 3 7 3 88, 5 l 8 n 2 , 5 l 9 n 7 ,

52lnn3l,33

K ' u n g S h e n g - y u i L l ! ! f £ , 379, 5 i 9 n i 4 K'ung Szu-chih

277, 496n36

K'ung Yen-shih

377, 5 i 9 n 7

K'ung Ying-ta } L $ i i t ,

425ni2

K u Y e n - w u (Jiang) K & S t ( & ) , 353~6o, K'u-chan S i .

Kuo

482n2i

526n4

245, 248

Kuo-ch'ao

400, 5 l 4 n n l 2 , l 5

51 "»7

5ion44

san-chia weti-ch'ao ( g l f f l H i ^

, 367

K u a - c h o u JJI J'H, 4 8 4 ^ 8

Kuo Chien-po

K'ua-hung i f H ,

K u o - c h ' i n g - s z u l U i n ^ F , 320, 503n6

310

K u a n - h s i u ( C h i a n g T e - y i n ) gf^c 180, 4 7 i n 2

K u o C h u n g - c h ' a n f l i f + l i , 85, 4 4 7 n 7 K u o C h u n g - s h u 115,$,®, 4 3 8 ^ 4

Kuan-kuan chii-chiu MKIii'lft, Kuan-shan hsing-lii H S u U i r i f t ,

472n2 46

Kuan-shui ¡17K, 468m

K u o H a n - c h a n f|SfHI®, 392 K u o L u - c h ' u a n f|$||-JI|, 379 K u o P'u (Ching-ch'un)

K u a n - t a o - h s i f t j i t gl', 5 2 9 n 6 Kuan T'ung

59, 6 1 , 4 4 2 n 3

(£¡¡»6), 77,

85, 88, 4 4 7 n 5 , 4 4 8 n i o , 4 9 8 m

Kuo-yu mm • 446m

46

K u a n - w a - k u n g g i i i ' i r , 47on2 K u a n - y i n H l f , 3 1 5 , 3 1 6 , 328, 3 3 0 , 3 5 1 , 507ni2,

Lai-tzu-t'an i W i i S .

Jl3n2

Kuang-chi-ch'u

, 46on2

K u a n g - c h o u ( K u a n g Prefecture, C a n t o n )

Lan-hsi

fifigi,

Lan-i M i i ,

485ns

d M H , 36, 1 2 7 , 1 2 8 , 1 3 0 , 1 3 1 ,

lan-ku f t ^ , 25

464nn5i,52

Lan-p'eilu

K u a n g - f u - w a n g - s h a n ®fliS5Eli|, 5ion42

507ml

474n4

fltff^,

49, 2 1 3 , 4 4 i n i 0 3

Lan-shui U 7 K , 456n2

Kuang-hsi-hsia H ^ i l ^ , 447m

L a n g gfl, 1 3 7 , 4 6 6 n i 2

Kuang-ming-ting

Lang-ya-shan

528118

K u a n g - w u o f the E a s t e r n H a n , E m p e r o r i i f t i ^ i i r , 2 3 , 5 7 , 59, 6 1 - 6 2

flf

Lang-yiian

|_L|, 4 6 9 n 2 416

Lao-chiin-lu

425ni5

K ' u a n g - l u I S ® • See H e r m i t a g e M o u n t a i n

Lao-chiin-t'ai ^ S f i i ,

K'uang-shan E l l ) , 485ni2

Lao-jen-feng ^ A t t ,

Kuei-ch'ien

L a o - t z u i ^ l r , 328, 387, 507n9

chih

¡ p i i t l ^ . , 245

Kuei-pei-feng S i l J f t t , 5 3 on 15 K u e i - s h a n j i i J L | , 509*137 Kuei Yu-kuang

Later T h r e e T r a v e l e r s

137,

425ni3

367

Lei-feng U t t ,

fe'uM-fish ®g, 2 2 , 4 5 4 n 2 2

Lei Hsi-yen

K ' u n - l u n , M o u n t jft^ilJLl, 1 6 , 4 3 5 ^ 4 ,

Lei H u a n

444n5

Lei Szu

kung 1 , 54 K u n g - a n school

507n9 5°3n4

477n3

MlfcM,

242, 488n42

452n4 248, 4 8 9 n i 2

Lei T z ' u - t s u n g f j f t ^ , 277, 465nn9,io, 303, 3 1 4 , 3 3 5

K u n g K u gB ¿ r , 1 4 4 , 4 6 7 n 9

4 9 5 n 3 4 . 49C359, 5i4n22 Li-tsung of the Southern Sung, Emperor 261, 49in6, 5i7n8 Li Tzu-ch'eng $ g , 393, 524ns Li Tzu-wei $ § , 249, 490m 6 Li Wa chuan 438n85, 466n4 Li Ying 456n29 Li Yiian-ying 106, 453n8 Liang Chi 94, 449n2 Liang Huang-shan ig|i!|l|, 503n2 Liang Hung 108, 454ni9 Liang-kao ¡^¡Sj, 517ns Liang Shan-po 338, 5 1 0 m Liang-tzu-ling ffi i 1 IM, 466m Liang-yen 505ni9 Liao (Khitan) i f , 48, 195, 225, 359, 48onn2,3, 5i4ni8, 5 1 6 m l ; Western (Black Khitans), 231, 482^119,24 Liao-cheng 7 I S , 209 Liao Hsiieh-lu 416 Lieh-tzu , 22, 429n3i Lien-chou 2 1 $ - , 320, 321, 322, 503n8 Lien-hua 31Tb, 79 Lien-hua ching • See Lotus Sutra Lien-hua-feng 4 2 5 m s , 503n6 Lin-ch'ing I S ® , 421 Lin-lii-shan ft&Lll, 151 Lin Pu ttii , 370, 371, 5i7nn3,4 Lin Tse-hsii 418 Lin-wu-tung ttM'/|s), 47on4 Ling-chien-chiang HIkIJ/I, 506n2, 508ni9 Ling-chiu-shan (Ch'u-chiang, Kuangtung) f U S U j , 464n46 Ling-chiu-shan (Rajagrha, India) filjlil, 444 n 4 Ling-chou g # | , 484n4i Ling-ku-szu 493 n 10 Ling of Ch'u, King S l £ , 43on39 Ling-shan (Divine Mountain) H |JL|, 435n64 Ling-shih-wu g E i l , 477n4 Ling-shui fp7K, 487n30 Ling-t'un-hsi-ling g i g B ^ , 4631145 Ling-yen-shan 470n2 Ling-yin-shan gE§.|!_|, 462029, 476n6

GLOSSARY-INDEX

Ling-yin-szu

526112

1 3 9 - 4 9 , 1 5 1 , 400,

438nn87,88,

L i n g - y i n g - s h a n g I S i l l , 4631143

439nn89,90, 4ó3n43, 4Ó6n2,

ling-yiin

468n3, 5 2 6 m ,

456n30

Literary W i s d o m , C r o w n Prince o f (Hsiao Ch'ang-mao)

Pond, The

Liu Y i i fljfé,

43,143-44

Little Rock Citadel 'hEliJctB, 147 Little Rock Pond West of the Little Hill, i / i e ^ ' h . E g ' h i i S i e , Liu Ch'en glj^ ,

To

144

505^120,27,28

Liu Yü-hsi f i l a l i ,

139

Lo-fu-shan f i d i l i ,

528m

Lo-hsing-chien fgJiiE],

495n27

Lo Hung-hsien i l g t f t ,

189

3 2 , 5 9 , 9 1 - 9 6 , 92,

266,

128, 133, 245, 246, 264,

Liu C h i (Po-wen) f l j g

(feffi), 263,

276, 2 7 9 - 8 2 , 492n6,

4 4 2 m , 458n5, 459n2,

272,

497m

L i u C h ' i ( C h i n g - s h u ) fjjffi ( m S ) ,

245,

514mm,12,

L i u - c h ' i a o A f j f i . See

Six

Bridges

207,

464^2,

494n25, 5o8n22, 523n2, 524n6,

Liu Hsia-shang g l J U ^ , 412,

529n3

Liu Hsiao-piao

496^6

277, 27

L o t u s M o u n t a i n ( H u a - s h a n ) % |JL|, 7 9 8 4 , 82, 4 0 4 Lotus Mountain Lotus Sutra

73 50,

496n36

493ni5

49

, 5i4n9

L u A o ¡¡gig, 4 9 9 m 7

95

Lu Chi

445n3, 449n7,

5

2 2 n

39

27, 109, 456n34

L u C h i h (Hsüan)

(S),

371,

5i7n7

L i u Pei ( E m p e r o r C h a o - l i e h o f the S h u H a n ) gi|fS ( ^ j f p S ? ! ! ® ) ,

448m3,

524m 9

Lu Ching-hsiu

féfàfe

, 465n7

Lu-feng-shan dittili,

48on2

L u Hsiang-sheng

L i u P ' i n g - f u ( P ' i n g ) ZWX

(¥),

221,

223, 48on3

Lu Hsiu-ching

393,

Liu Ta-k'uei Liu Ta-shan ^I^ClU,

Lu Hsiin # Ü 514m 8

L u - s h a n 1§[ | 1 | . See

392

Liu Tsung-hsuan g l j ^ l g ,

, 197,

53ln20

475n7

Lu-kou-ch'iao fffiUfà,

137

523ns

(Chien-chi)

(ffiifS), 272, 416, 493n9, 350

L i u S h o u - k u a n g %\J^F^fc,

Liu Tsung-yiian

273,

Lou Yiieh Lu

469n6

L i u P a o JlJff, 94

Liu Sa-ho

, 437n8i, 444n4,

Lou Hui-yiieh

L i u K ' a i ( C h i e n - y u ) fflPwi ( 0 $ ) ,

Liu Pang

ifl|JL|, 7 9 - 8 4

464^6

488n43

Liu Pai-to

529ns,

53in22

32, 78, 4 3 6 n 7 6

151—55, 4 4 i n i 0 4 ,

46onn2,3,5,

466116, 4 7 3 n n i , 5 , 4 7 5 m ,

476n8, 478ni3, 487n30, 492n4,

L i u - h o u - t z ' u §l|fgipn], 4 6 7 n 4

L i u M i e n fiJSft, 2 7 7 ,

198,

345. 349. 392, 393. 4*9, 422, 4 4 2 m 12,

, 223

Liu I-ch'ing

131,

2 4 1 , 242, 263, 2 7 7 , 293, 306, 309,

444n3, 445n7, 458n5,

, 490m 7

L i u H s i e h giJSg,

26, 33, 49,

137, 158, 167, 186, 187, 188, 197,

5i9nio

Liu Hsi-tsai f J B i t ,

46onn3,5,8,

54, 67, 72, 7 3 , 7 5 , 84, 85, 89, 90,

Liu-ching . See Six Classics Liu Chiu fa-ts'ao Cheng Hsia-ch'iu shihmen yen-chi fflrtifc W^JgfiiflFI«*, L i u C h ' u n g - f u §IJ H

127,

358,

52ln3i

L o n g River (Yangtze) i l i l ,

246, 248, 489n7

Liu-hsu

486n25

Lo-yang

514118

liu-ho

395

524ni6

Lo-shui

Liu Ch'eng-chun (Chun) glJ&gj 359.

PJtg

53ini Liu Yen-chieh %\\b'M,

Little Hill West ofFlatiron i S B ' j ^ i a ,

L i u Y e n (Prince o f C h i n g - l i n g )

iCM^^F

493n9

( M f t f f i ) . 272,

4Ó7nn6,9,

527n4

526n40

Hermitage

Mountain

L u - s h a n ( R e e d P e a k M o u n t a i n ) jjjg |JL|, 144,

467n9

1 2 , 3 2 , 36, 38,

39, 4 2 - 4 4 , 48, 5 1 , 5 2 - 5 3 -

117.

121,

48on2 L u T'ai-i (Chang) & ± M 514114

(*),

35»,

GtOSS A R Y - I N D E X

Lu Y u (Faog-weng) ( f t f j ) , 6, 49, 137, 2 0 5 - 1 2 , 2 1 3 , 44111103, 478n7, 49on3 Lu Y u 2 4 1 , 487n3i Lu Y u e h 404 Lii , 464046 Lii, Empress 5221139 Lii, His Excellency 384, 5221139 Lii-chu-ao i t f i R i , 5091134 Lii Shu-ching S & ^ k , 223 Lii Tsu-ch'ien B i & l t , 4391189, 4991112, 5081124 Lii Tung-pin 5o8n25 luan-bird , 315 Luminous C r o w n Prince (Hsiao T ' u n g ) ( S © c ) , 276, 4 9 5 n n 3 i , 3 2 lun-ch'un inII, 462029 Lun shan-shui shu shih Im ill taj E > 35 Lun-t'ai-hsien » 48in9 Lun-yu = & « , 20, 4 3 ° n 4 ° , 43in44 Lung-chiang f | / I , 507m 3 Lung-ching H # . See Dragon Well Lung-ching-szu flt^^p, 476n6 Lung-ch'ing of the M i n g , E m p e r o r (Chu Tsai-hou) w m . m 289 Lung-ch'iian f f tS • 4 5 2 n 4 Lung-ch'iian ching-she f | J m # , 67 Lung-hung fit®,, 476m lung-mai ft I f , 48905 Lung-men (Ho-chin, Shaan-hsi) f H H , 78, 79, 108, 456n29 Lung-men (Lo-yang) j f t H , 264-68, 265 Lung-wang 5i7n6

M a Huan H D;, 426n20 Ma K o f l ^ , 245-50, 49nni5,i8 Ma-liu-shan K, 111, 509040 M a T i - p o . m f t , 23, 5 7 - 6 2 , 3 4 1 , 432049 Ma-wei-shui . ^ H t K , 5 3 0 0 1 5 M a Y ü a n (Fu-po) ( f ö f ä ) , 509n38 Manchus, 3 1 3 , 356, 3 6 1 , 373, 389, 421, 52305 Mang-shan tp|JL|, 5 2 1 0 3 1 Manjusri (Wen-shu) 247, 248, 314, 316, 356, 357, 359, 406, 4 1 6 , 479n4, 4 8 9 m l , 503n6, 505n23, 5 1 3 0 0 2 , 3 , 52703, 52804 M a o Hung-pio 96, 450015

Mao K'un , 439089 Mao-kuog-t'an ^ ß i ® , 470n4 Mao-kung-tung 470n4 Mao-shan 277, 496n35 Mei Sfg, 5i6n7 Mei C h ' i n g Ift /n , 3'4, 406 mei-jen H A , 24 Mei Yao-ch'en IS H E , 169 Mei-yüao (Cho) § § i i ( { $ ) , 376, 377, 3 8 1 , 382, 383, 388, 51802 Mencius (Meng K ' o ) i f (|»I), 108, 2 1 9 , 395, 4 3 i n 4 2 , 455n27, 5 n n 7 , 5 1 9 m l , 525022, 526n3 Meng C h ' a n g ¿¡¿^¡r, 108, 455n23 M e n g Chiao (Tung-yeh) ¿¡friß ( 1 2 1 , 128, 46005 Meng-hsi pi-t'an WMitifc, 46, 179 Meng-hsi-yüan l ^ j ü l l l , 179 Meng-liang lu 44onioi Meng-men-shan jfeHlll • See M e n g ' s Gate Mountain Meng T ' u ü f ä , 88, 448n9 Meng-tzu Ü ü f - , 20, 4 3 1 0 4 2 , 5 1 9 0 1 1 , 52603. See also Meocius Meog-tzu-miao ife-pHK, 525022 M e o g Yüan-lao 48 Meng's Gate Mountaio (Meng-menshan) j £ H l l | , 7 8 - 7 9 , 8i Meng's Gate Mountain S P I i l l , 7 8 - 7 9 M i Fei ^Tt?, 273, 4 9 3 0 1 4 M i - m o fe^l, 51408 Mieo-chiaog 458n5 Mien-shui f^ tR , 4 7 5 m Min-chiang K f l , 447n4 Min-shan ( g i l l , 44808 M i o Tzu-ch'ien (Sun) B l i 1 ! ! (fit), 394, 486n2l, 5 l l n 7 , 524014, 5 2 5 ^ 5 mi«^ (inscription) 116, 117, 119, 457m ming (name) ^ , 2 1 Ming-chiao-yiian Bfl f5i|>i , 46905 Ming-huang hsing-shu t'u It # 10 Hi, 437081 M i o g of the Eastern Han, E m p e r o r iStHfifr, 358, 449n2, 5 i 4 n n n , i 2 Ming of the [Liu] Sung, Emperor (§l|) ^ B f l f f , 493 n 9 Ming shih , 313 Ming-shih-hsiian , 485n7 M i n g - y e n Efljff, 505019

GLOSSARY-INDEX

Ming-yen-szu

5051124

Ming-yu-chien

BfjJEifS],

5o6n29

Miscellany (pi-chi) H J B , 46, 162,

179,

Nan-shan Sill, 525n25 Nan-shan chi fë Uj Ä • 389 Nan-shan shih S Ü J , 122 Nan-tu ^ f ) ,

191. 245

485ml

M o - c h ' i c h ' o u - n u 7 5 f £ g $ # X , 95, 4491110

Nan-yüeh S I L

Mo-ch'ih

N a n - y ü e h fu-jen S 81;^ K ,

4251115

M o Ti U S ,

Nanking (Chiang-ning,

3 7 9 , 5191111

M o h a m m e d II o f K h w a r a z m , S h a h , 2 2 5 , 231, 4 8 i n 5 ,

a s ,

Mongols, 48, 2 2 5 - 3 3 , 235, 251, 263, 297, 482n22, 483nn3i,37,

289,

484^,

See also

Chinggis

381,

384,

Moslems, 225, 231, 263,

4 6 4 ^ 2 , 492nn2,4,5,

ffiKSriS,

(&&),

493nn8,9,

495nn26,27,28,29, 526n2

73

N e w P o l i c i e s ( H s i n - f a ) U r ü , 173, 1 7 9 ,

430n39

183, 184, 195,

Mou-ni-ch'uan s t u i t e ,

Chang

High,

The

221-23,480m

Mountain Where Hui-pao Meditated ^f¥Hl,

4S4

175

Mountain Where Hui-pao Meditated, s ^ s u i i e ,

The

175-77

315

ftBffl^sS,

M u H s i u iSIHE, 4 4 i n i 0 5

4

Ning-po

M u o f Ch'in, Duke

509n37

490n6

M u o f t h e C h o u , E m p e r o r 01

I ,

13-

430n39

249, 365, 4 8 9 n n 9 , i 4 ,

ffl,

4 & i # B L U i i ^ i e , 42.

Emperor Niu-t'ou-shan

495n26 lîïÎfîH

(ilÄjf),

180,

471m

Noble Man

H i ,

20, 21, 30, 36, 39, 46,

50, 51, 108, 123, 359, 387,

Notes on Brush Method

ijlftffi,

Nu-ch'ih-chien Nü-chi-shan

43on4i,

528nl2 46

452m7 JL l i l ,

489n2

490n6

38, 1 1 8 - 1 9

Terrace

O-hsi-hsiao Nan-chao M i a , 217,

479n9

m g ^ F f f t ^ i ^

O-ta-la KtflflJ,

, 435n64 ffiiZM,

Nan-ming

454m6

Nan-p'ing wan-chung 456n35 489nio

Yuan) fSTrlï

515*12

^ ¡ P l l l , 477n3,

418

482n22

O g ö d e i (Emperor T'ai-tsung o f the

517ns

Nan-lao-ch'uan

520m8

Mountain O p i u m War, 417,

, 499nI3

^¡ijtt,

ftg^ffi,

O - m e i - s h a n f$41li]- See E y e b r o w s

Nan-chi chu-ling tan-t'ien shang-ti

Nan-p'ing-shan

148, 4 6 8 n 6

^SÜÜ-I,

Nung-yü #3E,

141-42

Sung,

208

4311144, 4 5 6 n 3 3 ,

5i6ni5

Mu T'ien-tzu chuan f§3;-?-!$. See Chronicle of Mu, Son-of-Heaven, The My First Excursion to West Mountain

Nan-kao-feng

485ns

No-chii-lo (Lo Yao-yiian)

Mulberry River (Sang-kan-ho)

Nan-fu

492n2

Wfä.,

Ning Wu-tzu f S f ,

^gt^Clll,

1 5 , 14, 2 0 , 4 2 9 n 3 i ,

n I

nieh-p'an szu-le

Ning-tsung o f the Southern

Mu-chai ch'u-hsiieh chi Mu-lung-tung-shan

507ni6

Ni-ku chiu-shou jgé'Alâ, 52in3i Ni Wei T'ai-tzu yeh-chung-chi pa-shou ping-hsii

513m

Mountain a Hundred

Nan-shan

173,

183,269-77.297,271,283,313,345,

496n36, 5l2n2, 523nm,2,

265

Mou-fu (Duke Chi)

Nan-p'u

fëîS

¿ i s . f t R ) ,

New Account of Tales of the World, A

520n26

My Own

urn,

494nn22,25, ftH,

499ml

Chien-k'ang,

353.392,396,399,401,403,437178,

Khan Morning Gatekeeper

463^4

Chien-yeh, Chin-ling, Mo-ling)

4821122

485nio, 489nn3,5.

4551125,

Orchid Pavilion 5i7n5

477"3

456n32,

228 7, 6 3 - 6 6 ,

108,

474n4

O u - y a n g Hsiu (Yung-shu) 49, 5 1 - 5 4 ,

IfcPiiï

1 3 7 , 1 5 7 , 160,

67, 169, 175, 179, 209, 210, 211,

161241,

GLOSSARY-INDEX

O u - y a n g H s i u (continued) 305, 370, 4251113, 4261117, 4391189, 4411111105-8, 47811114,5,6,13, 4861127, 506115 O x Mountain ^ r ^ U - l , 89, 208, 4 7 8 n i 2 O x Temple H ^ S l , 2 1 1 - 1 2 , 478nni2,i3

pa E , 243 Pa-huang A M , 4 7 i n 7 pa-ku Af*, 482n25 Pa-ku-wen Aflx 280 Pa-kung-te-shui A ^ ^ . t K , 4 9 4 m 8 Pa-lan @jff, 230, 482n2i pa-lan K S f , 230 Pa-lu-chia Pt i S jip, 4 5 0 m Pa-p'u A ^ , 482n2i Pa-shui 456n2 Pa-ts'un-kuan A + S I , 505n24 Pa-tung E * , 4 4 8 m 5 Pa-yii shift Aflsft, 468n9 Pai-chan ¿ 3 S i , 5 0 7 m 4 Pai-chang-shan ^5tlJL|, 4 8 0 m Pai-ch'ih-lou W ^ t H , 5 2 i n 3 i Pai-ho-kuan 53ini8 Pai-hua 485n6 Pai-kou 5251135 Pai-lien-ch'ih S i l i f e , 49S133 Pai-Iien-ko 6 3 1 ® , 495"33 P a i - l u - c h o u SJftjJH, 495n25 Pai-lu-tung Sffiflpl, 529n4 Pai-ma-shan 489n2 Pai-pu yun-t'i 528n7 Pai-she shih-pa-hsien Stt+AU, 465n9 Pai-shui 475m Pai-ti 502n3 Pai-ti-ch'eng S ^ f t f c , 447n2, 448ni3 P a i - y u - h o S r E i°J, 4 8 1 m 2 Pai-yiieh rt 5U, 5 2 7 m Pai-yiin (fl. fourth century) S I S , 5 0 4 n i 2 Pai-yiin (White Clouds) S i , 285 Pai-yun-shan S S |JL|, 497n3 Pai-yun-szu 497n3 Pan fit, 497n4 Pan C h a o fflBg, 24 Pan C h ' a o 455n26 Pan-ch'eng f&W,, 483n3l Pan-ch'iao tsa-chi fi tili I t fE, 346 Pan Piao iff 24 Pan-shan 493n7

Pan-shan-szu 493 n 7 pan-tang 497n4 P'an-shui ff^K, 5i5n2 P'an Y ü e h (An-jen) ¿ f f i ( £ £ ) , 24, 109, 456n34, 5 i 2 n 2 P'ang A n - c h ' a n g g l ^ ^ , 1 9 1 , 4 7 4 1 2 pao 16, 488n46 Pao C h a o 26, 7 3 - 7 6 , 199, 4 1 8 - 1 9 , 5 3 1 m , 532n6 Pao-chih H U , 273, 4 9 3 n i o Pao-en-szu 462026 Pao K ' u n g - h s ü n IfeíLj®, 400 Pao L i n g - h u i j ^ ^ B ? , 73 Pao-liu-ch'üan 486n24 Pao-ning-szu 493n7 Pao-shan ( C h i - n a n , Shan-tung) ÜfülJLl, 4881146 Pao-shan (Great Lake, C h i a n g - s u ) S U-l, 47on4 Pao-sheng 349 Pao S h u - y a S&IX3F, 488046 P'ao-t'u-ch'üan í S ^ S I R , 486n24 Parallel prose (p'ien-wen) , 25-26, 37, 42, 51. 93, 157, 433n56 Passing through Yang-chou Again in the Sixth Month of the Year C h i - h a i £ ft A , 418-22 Pavilion ofJoyful Abundance, The mm^m, ¡65,165-67,4261117 _ Pavilion of Joyous Feasts, The i¡«t||