Information Services for a Sustainable Society: Current Developments in an Era of Information Disorder 9783110772753, 9783110772685

Table of contents :
Contents
About IFLA
Foreword
Preface
1 Blockchain Technology for Library Services: Challenges and Opportunities for Libraries from a Nigerian Perspective
2 Reshaping the Future of Academic Libraries: Insights from South Africa
3 User Services in Ghanaian Academic Libraries in Response to the COVID-19 Pandemic
4 Redefining Academic Library Services During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A View from Zimbabwe
5 Seeking Order in Chaotic Times: The Importance of Evidence in the Fight for Truth
6 To Wear Gloves or Wash Hands? A Perusal of Archives Preservation Policy in Botswana
7 National Archives Institutions During Turbulent Times: The Case of COVID-19
8 The Impact of Library Resources on Block Release Students’ Academic Achievement in Zimbabwe
9 Exploration of Data Sharing and Information Exchange among Nigerian Library and Information Science Researchers
10 Ethical Dimensions of Research Information Management: A New Challenge for Information Professionals
11 Information Services in Academic Libraries in an Era of Information Disorder
12 The Role of Academic Libraries in a Pandemic Era
13 Challenges with Open Access Institutional Repositories in Ghana
14 Advocating for Value-Added Content and Tools in Library Databases and Beyond
15 Public Library Infrastructure During COVID-19 in Limpopo Province
16 Knowledge Sharing Among Nurses in Developing Countries During COVID-19
17 One Journal’s Journey through the Fourth Industrial Revolution
18 An Altmetrics Study of Researchers at North-West University
19 Knowledge Management Strategies in Clinical Settings, Southwest Nigeria
20 From Collections to Connections: Transforming Libraries to Knowledge Centres
21 Library and Information Science Graduate Skills Needed in the Fourth Industrial Revolution: A Nigerian Perspective
Contributors

Citation preview

IFLA Publications

Edited by Janine Schmidt International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions Fédération Internationale des Associations de Bibliothécaires et des Bibliothèques Internationaler Verband der bibliothekarischen Vereine und Institutionen Международная Федерация Библиотечных Ассоциаций и Учреждений Federación Internacional de Asociaciones de Bibliotecarios y Bibliotecas

Volume 183

Information Services for a Sustainable Society Current Developments in an Era of Information Disorder Edited by Madeleine C. Fombad, Collence Takaingenhamo Chisita, Omwoyo Bosire Onyancha and Mabel K. Minishi-Majanja

DE GRUYTER SAUR

ISBN 978-3-11-077268-5 e-ISBN (PDF) 978-3-11-077275-3 e-ISBN (EPUB) 978-3-11-077282-1 ISSN 0344-6891 Library of Congress Control Number: 2023932811 Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data is available on the Internet at http://dnb.dnb.de. © 2023 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston. Cover Image: Daniel Rankadi Mosako: Constructive Unity Typesetting: Dr Rainer Ostermann, München Printing and binding: CPI books GmbH, Leck www.degruyter.com

Contents About IFLA

Contents

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Kendra Albright Foreword 1 Madeleine C. Fombad, Collence Takaingenhamo Chisita, Omwoyo Bosire Onyancha and Mabel K. Minishi-Majanja Preface 3 Rebecca Chidimma Ojobor 1 Blockchain Technology for Library Services: Challenges and Opportunities from a Nigerian Perspective 7 Asania Reneilwe Maphoto and Mpubane Emanuel Matlala 2 Reshaping the Future of Academic Libraries: Insights from South Africa 24 Amy P.A. Asimah 3 User Services in Ghanaian Academic Libraries in Response to the COVID-19 Pandemic 45 Agnes C. Chikonzo, Masimba C. Muziringa, Collence Takaingenhamo Chisita and Rexwhite Tega Enakrire 4 Redefining Academic Library Services During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A View from Zimbabwe 64 Laura Millar 5 Seeking Order in Chaotic Times: The Importance of Evidence in the Fight for Truth 78 Olefhile Mosweu 6 To Wear Gloves or Wash Hands? A Perusal of Archives Preservation Policy in Botswana 91 Charles J. Farrugia 7 National Archives Institutions During Turbulent Times: The Case of COVID-19 104

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Justice Kasiroori and Josiline Phiri Chigwada 8 The Impact of Library Resources on Block Release Students’ Academic Achievement in Zimbabwe 116 Contents Contents

Adeyinka Tella 9 Exploration of Data Sharing and Information Exchange among Nigerian Library and Information Science Researchers 131 Joachim Schöpfel and Otmane Azeroual 10 Ethical Dimensions of Research Information Management: A New Challenge for Information Professionals 150 Raliat Alabi, Adenike Damilola Omoike and Daniel Olusegun Ikegune 11 Information Services in Academic Libraries in an Era of Information Disorder 166 Bhojaraju Gunjal 12 The Role of Academic Libraries in a Pandemic Era

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Kwame Kodua-Ntim and Madeleine C. Fombad 13 Challenges with Open Access Institutional Repositories in Ghana

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Michelle Kowalsky 14 Advocating for Value-Added Content and Tools in Library Databases and Beyond 211 Mamotshabo Johanna Boloka 15 Public Library Infrastructure During COVID-19 in Limpopo Province 225 Andrew Mugenyi and Acquinatta Nomusa Zimu-Biyela 16 Knowledge Sharing Among Nurses in Developing Countries During COVID-19 240 Tanya du Plessis, Dimpho Z. Gamede, Kevin M. Letsoalo and Neo Ramatsebe 17 One Journal’s Journey through the Fourth Industrial Revolution Siviwe Bangani and Omwoyo Bosire Onyancha 18 An Altmetrics Study of Researchers at North-West University

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Oluyemi Folorunso Ayanbode and Williams E. Nwagwu 19 Knowledge Management Strategies in Clinical Settings, Southwest Nigeria 297 Tom Kwanya 20 From Collections to Connections: Transforming Libraries to Knowledge Centres 320 Adeyinka Tella, Sunday Segun Bamidele, Oluwakemi Titilola Olaniyi and Yusuf Ayodeji Ajani 21 Library and Information Science Graduate Skills Needed in the Fourth Industrial Revolution: A Nigerian Perspective 342 Contributors

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About IFLA www.ifla.org IFLA (The International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions) is the leading international body representing the interests of library and information services and their users. It is the global voice of the library and information profession. IFLA provides information specialists throughout the world with a forum for exchanging ideas and promoting international cooperation, research, and development in all fields of library activity and information service. IFLA is one of the means through which libraries, information centres, and information professionals worldwide can formulate their goals, exert their influence as a group, protect their interests, and find solutions to global problems. IFLA’s mission to inspire, engage, enable and connect the global library field can only be fulfilled with the co-operation and active involvement of its members and affiliates. Currently, approximately 1,600 associations, institutions and individuals, from widely divergent cultural backgrounds are working together to further this mission Through its formal membership, IFLA directly or indirectly represents some 500,000 library and information professionals worldwide. IFLA pursues its vision of a strong and united library field powering literate, informed and participatory societies through a variety of channels, including the publication of a major journal, as well as guidelines, reports and monographs on a wide range of topics. IFLA organizes webinars and workshops around the world to enhance professional practice and increase awareness of the growing importance of libraries in the digital age. All this is done in collaboration with a number of other non-governmental organizations, funding bodies and international agencies such as UNESCO and WIPO. The Federation’s website is the key source of information about IFLA, its policies and activities: www.ifla.org. Library and information professionals gather annually at the IFLA World Library and Information Congress, held in August each year in cities around the world. IFLA was founded in Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1927 at an international conference of national library directors. IFLA was registered in the Netherlands in 1971. The National Library of the Netherlands (Koninklijke Bibliotheek) in The Hague, generously provides the facilities for our headquarters. Regional offices are located in Argentina, South Africa and Singapore.

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110772753-201

Foreword Dramatic changes over the past several decades in terms of broad social change have occurred as the world has become more globalized in its economic, political, social, and cultural fabric. Concurrently, technology has offered new opportunities and challenges that facilitate access to information as well as create new problems. A new problem which has emerged is information disorder that can be characterized as misinformation that is inaccurate and incomplete, and disinformation that is intended to deceive. The increasing information disorder has been further complicated by a global pandemic, increasing political tensions, and global economic challenges, creating challenges for sustainability. Information professionals are also coping with shifts in the field with both a broadening of services provided to users as we have moved toward a greater community focus, as well as a fragmentation of services, particularly in the specializations needed to meet the changing needs of our users. Information Services for a Sustainable Society in an Era of Information Disorder offers an array of chapters focusing on the important challenges facing information professionals today. The chapters in this book offer state-of-the-art innovative examples that present insights into the critical role information professionals play in ensuring an informed society and the importance of information as a key resource to address modern social challenges. Information Services for a Sustainable Society in an Era of Information Disorder was born from papers presented at the Second University of South Africa Biennial International Conference on Library and Information Science Research in Africa (UNILISA), which was held online from March 8–10, 2021. The theme of the 2021 conference was the same as the title of this volume. Sponsored by the University of South Africa, the biannual conference has three primary aims: 1. Establish a forum which encourages scholars from different countries to reflect on original and innovative ways of enhancing the role of Information Science, and Libraries and Information Services LIS), in transforming society and promoting the achievement of sustainable development goals (SDGs) 2. Create opportunities to establish a research network of academics and information professionals who want to build a network of support for the creation, storage, and dissemination of information, and 3. Foster the sharing of experiences aimed at directing future research in LIS worldwide. The conference has a fourth aim which is “to create an opportunity for capacity building, while granting senior LIS academics a supportive setting in which to offer feedback to, and mentor, doctoral students.” https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110772753-001

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The UNILISA conference was attended by over one hundred academics and information professionals from across the African continent, Europe, Asia, and North America, with a total of thirteen countries represented. This book includes twenty-one chapters that reflect the theme of the conference and cover a wide range of topics. Selected topics include the use of blockchain technology in federal libraries, academic libraries in the fourth industrial revolution, skills needed in the fourth industrial revolution, archives, research data management, the role of libraries during the COVID-19 pandemic, challenges of open access in institutional repositories, and data sharing and information exchange practices, among others. The chapters address the many challenges of information disorder and bring light to the wealth of experience from authors around the world. On a more personal note, it was my pleasure to present a keynote for the UNILISA 2021 conference when asked by Conference Organizer, Professor Madeleine Fombad of the University of South Africa. It was a much-needed opportunity to reconnect with colleagues around the world that would not otherwise have been possible because of the pandemic. After being in the information profession for over thirty years, I was impressed by the range of important topics presented at the conference. As the Goodyear Endowed Professor in Knowledge Management at Kent University, I was also delighted by the innovative ideas presented on knowledge sharing, knowledge centers, and knowledge strategies. Professor Fombad is joined by three other experienced academic researchers who help guide us through this era of information disorder by bringing this volume to light. I am delighted to recommend it to information professionals around the world who are looking for ideas to manage the disorders they face on a daily basis. Given the current state of the world and the need for order out of information disorder and chaos, this is an invaluable resource. Kendra Albright, Ph.D. Goodyear Endowed Professor in Knowledge Management Kent State University Kent, Ohio, US

Preface

Preface

Information is a key resource in addressing contemporary societal challenges. The digital age has accelerated the dissemination of information. The fourth industrial revolution has brought ubiquitous, relentless, and continuous developments in information technology, connectivity, and automation with robotics, artificial intelligence, smart devices and homes, machine learning, augmented and virtual reality, mobility, blockchain, and cloud computing. The result is radical disruption of the human experience and collective human endeavour with an increase in ambiguity, volatility, instability, disruptive innovation, uncertainty and exposure of humankind to information disorder. Information disorder includes misinformation, disinformation, and malinformation which distort and disfigure the information ecology. Information disorder presents a fundamental global threat, sowing confusion, undermining global cohesion and stability, and frustrating a sustainable society. In addition to the challenges associated with information technological change are major concerns about climate change, a new world order with changes in power exerted by major countries in the world like China, Russia and the United States, and the role of women, indigenous communities and minority groups. The resulting instability and disarray have become more obvious during theCOVID-19 pandemic. Information professionals have the capacity to bring order to disorder; to promote ethics and integrity in their information services; and to make their voices heard on many digital platforms. This book presents inspiring examples from a global perspective outlining the critical role information professionals and information enterprises can play in ensuring an informed society. The book’s primary focus is on developments in the African continent, where issues and concerns are similar to those in the rest of the world with recovery from COVID19 a major theme, along with security and sustainable efforts to lessen the effect of climate change, but where issues like migration and employment are more significant. The global context is the background to the book and thought-provoking, engaging and insightful approaches are taken to the presentation of content. Examples from public libraries and academic libraries as they reshape library services are presented; trends and developments in archives and records management are provided; research developments in scholarly communication and knowledge management and data sharing are highlighted; successful collaborative initiatives are emphasised; reports on research projects are provided; and innovative approaches to meeting user needs are explained. Emerging topics like blockchain are addressed. The importance of relevant and up-to-date programmes of library education and training is highlighted. Transformation strategies are identified. This book provides an opportunity for reflections on original and innovative ways through which the libraries and information services may transform society https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110772753-002

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promoting the achievement of sustainable development goals (SDG’s). Information disorder is spreading significantly faster, deeper, and more broadly than COVID-19 and its variants. and library and information science professionals are strategically positioned as key agents to address contemporary societal challenges arising from the daunting phenomenon commonly referred to as information disorder and its corollary the infodemic. Libraries are able to contribute to the achievement of the United Nations SDGs. Libraries safeguard culture and heritage, provide access to information and support educational opportunity, universal literacy and equity. Libraries protect the past to provide for the future. Libraries provide equitable access to information, particularly in vital areas like health, agricultural production, and scientific research. Libraries empower their users through skills and knowledge development to discover, access and use information effectively for individual and societal benefit. Everyone must become digitally literate. Libraries become portals to knowledge; they provide physical places for information discovery and use and digital doorways to worlds of knowledge; they provide pathways to other sources of information. Libraries cannot work alone. Libraries within the African continent learn from each other and have lessons to transmit to the rest of the world. Libraries collaborate with each other to serve humankind. Libraries have unique strengths and can work with other organisations to deliver successful outcomes. The title of this book Information Services for a Sustainable Society: Current Developments in an Era of Information Disorder emerged from the theme of the second University of South Africa Biennial International Conference on Library and Information Science Research in Africa (UNILISA) organised by the Department of information Science at the University of South Africa and held in March 2021. The conference was organised and hosted by the Department of Information Science at the University of South Africa (UNISA), in Pretoria, South Africa. UNILISA strives to establish a forum which encourages scholars from different countries to reflect on original and innovative ways of enhancing the role of libraries and information services in transforming society and promoting the achievement of sustainable development. This book encapsulates intellectual selections from topnotch and intriguing presentations from the proceedings of the two days online conference where information scientists converged to share knowledge and strategise on the future trajectory for enhanced provision of library services to facilitate the realisation of a sustainable knowledge society. The book suggests directions to strengthen the global voice of libraries, to inspire and enhance professional practice as well as encourage international cooperation and collaboration among library and information science educators and practitioners. The book explores critical issues related to how libraries, archives and related institutions are responding to the seismic shifts in the information



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landscape amidst a myriad of challenges and opportunities and a tapestry of articles is brought together to explore the status, experiences and future prospects of effective and dynamic library and information science practices. Chapter One addresses blockchain technology and its potential applications in library services. Chapter Two investigates the strategies that can be deployed to upgrade and reshape the structure and operational procedures of academic libraries with particular reference to South Africa. Chapter Three highlights new services which emerged in Ghanaian academic libraries in response to COVID-19 and discusses the challenges faced. Chapter Four presents the key lessons learnt in the University of Zimbabwe’s response to addressing science disinformation at the peak of information disorder during COVD-19 and suggests ways forward in the new normal. The chapter explores the implications of science disinformation to library theory and practice post the COVID-19 pandemic and the effect of the pandemic to staff skills development and service delivery in the new normal. Chapter Five argues that the paradigm for records and archives management must move away from a custodial, after-the-fact approach toward a more participatory and inclusive model with an emphasis on keeping the evidence with its authenticity intact, and engage the public more actively in recordkeeping. Chapter Six examines whether Botswana National Archives and Records Service had a documented archives preservation policy to guide information management and minimise deterioration or damage of archival documents. Chapter Seven focuses on COVID-19 and its impacts on national archival institutions with some institutions taking a break from public contact to undertake housekeeping and stocktaking, and other institutions developing new directions, particularly in relation to use of information technology. Chapter Eight examines the impact of the library on the academic grade of students undertaking block release programmes. Chapter Nine explores how library and information science researchers engage in data sharing practices and data reuse. Chapter Ten addresses the ethical dimensions of research information management together with empirical evidence on how information management systems manifest ethical aspects of research projects. Usual ethical standards of scientific research apply. Chapter Eleven examines information users and the provision of information services to users in an era of information disorder. Academic libraries require the use of best practice and principles to provide timely and appropriate information resources to meet the information needs of library clientele and properly guide them on how to use the available resources. Chapter Twelve focuses on libraries in India and explains how libraries can capitalise on the use of new information technologies and seize opportunities to provide innovative library services to the benefit of all stakeholders. Chapter Thirteen addresses the extent of use of open access institutional repositories in Ghana and makes the case for well-developed

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policies on the design and use of repositories to stimulate their development. Chapter Fourteen sees the need for electronic library databases to enhance information access and addresses the current state of database information creation. Chapter Fifteen focuses on the parlous state of public library infrastructure for information service provision during COVID-19 in Limpopo Province and suggests ways to implement improvements. Chapter Sixteen addresses the challenges of knowledge sharing among nurses in developing countries particularly in relation to dealing effectively with pandemics. Chapter Seventeen reports on a study of one journal in knowledge management to determine its inclusion of content on the fourth industrial revolution. Chapter Eighteen describes an altmetrics study of researchers which examined the use of ResearchGate and Mendeley and the role of these platforms in enhancing researcher visibility and social impact. Chapter Nineteen explores knowledge management strategies adopted by therapy team members in psychiatric hospitals in Southwest Nigeria and how they gained and shared knowledge during pandemics. Chapter Twenty suggests a whole new era for libraries as they become knowledge centres and focuses on transformation strategies which facilitate multiple forms of connections and result in knowledge-laden conversations. The final chapter, twenty-one, faces the future by examining the skills and knowledge required by librarians and their educational experiences as they deal with the challenges of the fourth industrial revolution. Many have contributed to the book. We thank the authors for all their work, the International Federation for Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) and Deputy Secretary-General, Helen Mandl, along with the IFLA Professional Council for sponsoring and supporting the publication, De Gruyter Saur and Claudia Heyer for publishing it professionally, and Janine Schmidt, the Series Editor for her diligence and persistence. Goal 16 of the SDGs promotes peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, providing access to justice for all and building effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels. Library and information professionals in supporting the achievement of this and other SDGs are, more than ever before, challenged to intensify their efforts to enhance access to information services that will ensure the communication of accurate information and facilitate the realisation of a sustainable society. We commend the book to its readers. Madeleine C. Fombad, Collence Takaingenhamo Chisita, Omwoyo Bosire Onyancha and Mabel K. Minishi-Majanja Editors

Rebecca Chidimma Ojobor

1 B  lockchain Technology for Library Services: Challenges and Opportunities for Libraries from a Nigerian Perspective Abstract: This chapter examines blockchain technology and the challenges and opportunities for its use in libraries. It reports on a study undertaken in federal university libraries in Southeastern Nigeria. The study sought to establish the level of awareness of blockchain technology in libraries, ascertain its relevance in library services and operations, and identify the challenges associated with its usage in libraries. A qualitative research design was adopted targeting academic librarians at the five federal university libraries in Southeastern Nigeria .The research findings revealed various potential uses of blockchain in the library including but not limited to building an enhanced metadata system, hosting peer-to-peer sharing, and serving as a Digital Rights Management (DRM) tool. The findings identified many challenges to implementation including lack of funding, irregular power supply, poor broadband connectivity, and a shortage of competent personnel. Strategies are proffered to ameliorate the challenges and to encourage libraries to adopt and use a remarkable new technology, blockchain. Keywords: Academic libraries – Nigeria; Blockchains (Databases); Cryptocurrencies; Innovation

Introduction According to Marcal, Rodrigues, and Matos (2019), blockchain is generally known as a distributed ledger technology and is relatively new in the field of information technologies. Blockchain technology links blocks of data sequentially in a distributed ledger. Each block holds a wide variety of content, including its own unique identifier, or “hash,” that identifies and links it to all blocks preceding and following it. In a traditional ledger, one might record amounts, parties involved, time of the transaction, and other pertinent information. The distributed ledger takes this information, places it online, and distributes identical copies of the ledger to all the computers in the system, thereby ensuring that validated copies exist in multiple places. Once the blocks are created, they ensure that a time-stamped, immutable record of the content exists. (Meth 2020).

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Although the potential use of blockchain technology is commonly promoted in the cryptocurrency market, there are many other uses of the technology that could revolutionise both the public and private sectors. Malyarov (2019) believes that blockchain has the potential to help libraries and academics mitigate Internet-induced risks, although the technology is still in the experimental phase and needs some smart pioneers to shake it out and evolve it into something more usable by individual libraries and schools. This chapter examines the use of blockchain technology for library services and identifies both the challenges and opportunities. It reports on a study undertaken in federal university libraries in Southeastern Nigeria. The intention is to create awareness of the potential use of blockchain in libraries around the globe. Libraries in Southeastern Nigeria like their counterparts elsewhere in the globe need to embrace and adopt emerging technologies to ensure effective and efficient services and operations that meet with the best practices both in collection and records management and service delivery. An overview of cryptocurrencies and blockchain is provided against the background of technological developments in libraries; the details of the research study are described, and suggestions for the future are made.

The Southeastern Nigeria Background and Context Southeastern Nigeria emerged from the former East Central State of Nigeria. It was created during the civil war (1967–1970) and in the 1990s it became one of the six geopolitical zones in Nigeria. It comprises five states namely: Abia, Anambra, Ebonyi, Enugu, and Imo. The region is surrounded by large rivers and divided by the lower Niger River into two sections: east and west. Its population of over twenty million is characterised by the diverse Igbo culture and the speakers of equally diverse Igbo languages. The region has 85 local government areas, with the majority of the population noted for their entrepreneurial abilities. Even though education in the area pays little or no attention to the global technology revolution that is disrupting various industries and creating exponential value, the region’s education can be strategically redesigned to produce globally competitive young people who will transform the region and make it a 21st century global African success story (Odumody 2018).



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The Technology Background Today’s dynamic and constantly evolving environment is caused by human ideological changes and an emergence of technologies to meet new expectations. Technological advancement has revolutionised all walks of life and afforded opportunities for libraries to create new roles and new ways of rendering services to users. Tait, Martzoukou, and Reid (2016) describe the disruption and transformation wrought in libraries by the advances in technology and note online reading lists as but one example of a new service widely adopted by academic libraries. An online reading list allows users to quickly access literature suggested by lecturers or instructors. Ebooks, papers, scanned chapters, databases, and online movies are examples of possible inclusions. The online reading lists are mounted on an institution’s learning management system and/or linked to the library system and users may check locations and availability of content. Software made available by information utilities has enabled many innovative applications in libraries including, online lists as an effective and efficient means for creating, editing, visualising, personalising, updating, and integrating reading lists into online learning and teaching materials, thereby helping users to connect directly and seamlessly with information resources required for learning. The history of computing is complex with significant contributions by people like Charles Babbage and Alan Turing and hardware developments with ENIAC, mainframes, analogue, digital, super, personal, desktop, laptop and mobile devices. Innovative software, telecommunications developments and the growth of the Internet transformed and modified the services traditionally offered by libraries. The first iteration of the world wide web in the late 1990s was widely referred to as web 1.0. It was an era in which web pages were built using Common Gateway Interface (CGI). The pages were static and could only be accessed from the server’s file systems. Although the web content displayed to users was read only, it was a great improvement in library services as information sources could be accessed in remote areas using information technology. More significantly, the barriers of the library being confined in a building or place were broken by the information and communications technology (ICT) available. The ideology of the library as a pool of information resources was redefined as an interactive, socialising, learning, knowledge creation and service-oriented information provision centre. Between 2000–2010, the participative social web emerged and modified the way web pages were designed and used. Web 2.0 encouraged user-generated content, usable and modifiable by and for the end-users. The dynamic nature of web content encourages free sorting of information, permits users to classify, edit and retrieve information resources that best satisfy their information needs (Tait, Martzoukou, and Reid 2016, 4). Users were not just users of the web but also par-

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ticipants using tools like podcasting, blogging, tagging, curating with RSS, social media, social bookmarking, and networking to impact and improve knowledge. Users began to enjoy the services of the library without being physically present at the library. The tools facilitated interconnection among libraries and collaboration, improving library services and extending global best practices. Subsequent technological changes saw the advent of the semantic web, Web 3.0, conceptualized as a third-generation technology upgrade through the 2010s to the 2020s (Balaji et al. 2018). Semantic web technologies are designed to improve and overcome various challenges characterising previous web technologies and involve wireless networks, the Internet of Things (IoT), and blockchain. The newer technologies facilitate the creation, sharing and connection of content through search and analysis at a greater capacity. In web 3.0, computers use artificial intelligence and machine learning to distinguish information in the way humans do to provide faster and more relevant results. Computer technology becomes more intelligent to fulfil the requirements of users.

Cryptocurrencies and the Library As a growing organism, the library adapts to the most innovative changes to improve its practices to meet the ever-increasing demands of information seekers. The increasing numbers of information resources in digital formats and wide broadband Internet access in the community have added pressures to library services and influenced library collections which are mostly available in digital formats or through online access. The developments pose challenges to the library administration as the financial obligations of acquiring online resources and subscribing databases are usually made in unfamiliar settings where both parties lack credibility and knowledge. The problems accord with Bohannon’s view (2016) that as life increasingly moves online, one of the greatest challenges Internet users face is conducting financial transactions in a setting where they do not know or trust the other party. To buttress this, Coghill (2018) notes that the implications for the transfer of funds from libraries to vendors for new purchases and the continuing maintenance of contracts for existing subscriptions to electronic resources are huge. Some of the distrust associated with online transactions could be eliminated through the use of digital or cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin, Ethereum, and Stellar (Hoy 2017). Cryptocurrency is an online digital payment system based on peer-to-peer networking technology. It constitutes a digital token that is exchangeable only in the digital environment using cryptographic hashing and digital signature for verification of



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the transactions to avoid double-spending of the same token (Wang and Vergne 2017). The principles underlying bitcoin were first explained in 2008 by Satoshi Nakamoto (Nakamoto 2008). Nakamoto’s identity is still in doubt with many suggestions put forward. Notwithstanding its imprecise origins, bitcoin has seen rapid development and adoption as an online payment system, particularly for transactions that require anonymity, are vulnerable to fraud, or are legally questionable. Cryptocurrencies are used for online transactions just as monetary currencies like the naira, cedi, dollar, and pound are used for physical cash transactions. All transactions made with cryptocurrencies are tracked in a blockchain ledger system.

Blockchain Technology Blockchain is defined as a database containing all the transactions ever executed in a peer-to-peer network (Atzori 2017). It is a means of storing information in a distributed, tamper-resistant setting. In its simplest form, it is a time-stamped series of immutable records of data that is managed by a cluster of computers not owned by any single entity (Hoy 2017). Each block of data is secured and bound to another using cryptographic principles. The blockchain network has no central authority. It bears a resemblance to a democratised system. Information held on a blockchain exists as a shared and continually reconciled database. The blockchain database is not stored in any single location but rather in millions of computers indicating that the records it keeps are transparent, easily verifiable, and accessible to anyone on the Internet. This feature makes the information stored in the blockchain difficult for hackers to corrupt as no centralised version of the information exists. According to Mougayar (2016), blockchain has three main properties which have helped it gain widespread acclaim: –– Decentralisation –– Transparency, and –– Immutability. Decentralisation is one of the features that make blockchain desirable for institutions and organisations. Most developing nations are accustomed to centralised services with a single entity storing all data, and one must interact solely with the entity to obtain any information required. An example of a centralised system is the banks. One can access money stored in the bank by going through the bank using it physically or online, or doing transactions through bank-related apps. Mougayar advocates that the traditional client-server model is an example of a cen-

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tralised service system. A google search sends a query to the server which returns the relevant information. Though centralised systems have been in use for many years, they have several vulnerabilities. First, all the data is stored in one spot and is an easy target for potential hackers. Second, a software upgrade of a centralised system halts the entire system. Finally, if the centralised entity shuts down for some reason, becomes corrupted or is the subject of a malicious attack, nobody can access the information held. But in a decentralised system, the information is not stored by one single entity. Everyone in the network owns the information, and interaction does not go through a third party. Transparency is the feature that makes the data in blockchain visible to everyone and easily tracked by anyone. There is no secrecy in the data stored in blockchain except for personal identity details retaining user privacy which can be protected by adding anonymity protections in the blockchain using the CoinJoin method. CoinJoin is an attractive means of anonymising blockchain transactions which require no modification to the bitcoin protocol (Bünz et al. 2018). Blockchain possesses immutability as one of its basic features because of its cryptographic hash function. The feature safeguards all documents stored in the blockchain and makes it difficult to tamper with the document. Blockchain is valuable to financial institutions and other organisations that deal with financial issues because it can prevent financial fraud. Blockchain is the technology that establishes the recognition and usability of bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies. Atzori (2017) states that blockchain is the core infrastructure underlying bitcoin and all other cryptocurrencies. After some years, it has been realised that blockchain has other potential uses far beyond the digital currency market (Casino, Dasaklis and Patsakis 2019).

Blockchain and Libraries By 2016, it was clear from the expanding literature that blockchain technology could transform both public and private sectors. However, Brown (2018) explains that its use in libraries was not on the radar of many information professionals. Hirsh and Alman began investigating the use of blockchain in libraries following hearing about its use for credentials at the South By Southwest® Conference (SXSW) in 2016 (ALA Library of the Future 2019). The Institute of Museum and Library Services (IMLS) awarded Hirsh and Alman from the San Jose State University School of Information a grant of $100,000 to investigate possible applications of blockchain in libraries. The outcome of the investigation revealed many opportunities for its use.



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Blockchain technology has the potential for libraries to accomplish much more than housing electronic credentials. The technology enables a broader impact within the community and around the globe. Some suggestions being explored for blockchain applications in libraries include: building an enhanced metadata centre, serving as a Digital Rights Management (DRM) tool, supporting community-based collections, and facilitating partnerships across organisations. John Garland refers to the work of Sue Alman, noting “blockchain technology could be used to build an enhanced metadata system for libraries, to keep track of digital-first sale rights and ownership, to connect networks of libraries and universities, or even to support community-based borrowing and skill sharing programs” (Garland 2018). Digital resources are inherently reproducible, which creates issues for libraries and publishers. Publishers have imposed draconian, often unworkable DRM tools on libraries and consumers to prevent copying of content. Because blockchain creates a unique, verifiable record that can be accessed by anyone, it could be tied to digital materials and used as a method to show the “provable scarcity” of the resource and allow digital materials to be uniquely identified, controlled, and transferred (Griffey 2016). Library facilitation of peer-to-peer sharing beyond books through blockchain technology could help members of the community authenticate the availability of different tools or services for a more efficient sharing economy. A protocol for supporting community-based collections and borrowing could extend the traditional library collection beyond its walls into the community. Libraries could deploy a blockchain-based system layered with smart contract code to facilitate the indexing and sharing of community items including tools and expertise across a network. The blockchain would govern who has borrowed items, and who originally lent them both internally and internationally. Blockchain technology has potential for enabling libraries to partner with museums, universities, and government agencies to share records, authority control, and user-generated content through a blockchain framework. Kushwaha and Singh (2020) affirm that it is potentially possible that companies, schools, libraries, or universities could share information on their staff, patrons, or students with other similar organisations using blockchain. When setting up meetings, working on an important project, or preparing reports, blockchain could provide people with the necessary tools for networking and file sharing, although it has been said that blockchain makes it harder to change shared documents while helping to make them more secure. Chakravorty and Rong (2017) identified the potential for blockchain to disrupt social networking and observed that a user-centric blockchain application could enable end-users to control, trace, and claim ownership of every piece of content they share.

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International Interlibrary Loan (ILL) services connect libraries across the globe to facilitate the exchange of information resources of all kinds among the connected libraries and improve library services towards global best practices. ILL could perhaps be enhanced using blockchain. The International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) introduced a system with vouchers replacing money to improve ILL services. The system could use blockchain technology. Other potential uses of blockchain in academic libraries have been suggested, including its usage in the peer review process and its ability to set up the chain of custody for digital institutional repositories (Smith 2019). Other writers have examined the use of blockchain as a storage facility for educational records (Turkanović et al. 2018) and as a “public record keeping system, linking record keeping to the power of authority, veneration (temples), and control (prisons)” (Lemieux 2019). In addition, blockchain could be used in academic publishing to determine the originality, consistency, and validity of a document or data over its lifecycle because the technology provides standards for accuracy, transparency, and reliability (Novotny et al. 2018). The adoption and use of blockchain in the library would assist in ensuring accurate records management.

The Research Study Objectives The study reported on in this chapter investigated the challenges and opportunities for the application of blockchain technology in library services: with specific reference to federal university libraries in Southeastern Nigeria and it sought to: –– Determine the levels of librarians’ awareness of the potential applications of blockchain technology in library services –– Ascertain the relevance of blockchain in library services and operations, and –– Identify the challenges associated with the use of blockchain in federal university libraries in Southeastern Nigeria.

Participants The target population for the study was a group of 133 academic librarians in the five federal university libraries in Southeastern Nigeria. The libraries were Nnamdi Azikiwe Library, University of Nigeria Nsukka (UNN); Festus AghagboNwako Library, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka (NAU); the University Library, Alex



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Ekwueme Federal University, Ndufu-AlikeIkwo (AE-FUNAI) ; the University Library, Federal University of Technology Owerri (FUTO) and the University Library Michael Okpara University of Agriculture Umudike (MOUAU).

Research Methodology The study adopted a qualitative research approach and a data collection strategy that included interviews and focus group discussions. In each of the libraries studied, interviews were held with three respondents: the University Librarian (UL) and two Deputy University Librarians (DULs), while a focus group discussion was used to collect data from the other five respondents in each university. The qualitative method was chosen because the concept of blockchain is new, and the researcher wanted to interact with the respondents one on one to determine the level of awareness of the emerging technology. Data obtained from the respondents was analysed using content analysis.

The Findings The following questions guided the interviews and focus group discussions: –– What is blockchain technology? –– How do you know about blockchain technology? The majority of the respondents who participated in the focus group discussions said they had never heard of blockchain technology, and only a minority said they had heard of it as the technology behind cryptocurrencies. Those who agreed that they knew about the technology claimed they had learned about it from acquaintances who used bitcoins to conduct business. However, the interviews revealed that most respondents were aware of the concept, describing it as a distributed ledger system with the ability to protect written documents. The technology was first discovered through mention at a conference attended by the librarians, according to the responses. However various comments from participants showed that blockchain technology is a new area and that librarians in the study were mostly unaware of it. The researcher sought the respondents’ views on the relevance of blockchain in library services and operations. The interviews and focus group discussion included the questions: –– Where could blockchain be implemented? –– What role might blockchain play in libraries?

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The study found that most of the respondents in the focus group discussions agreed that blockchain might be used in a commercial endeavour to solve financial problems. “It will help to control the risk involved in making payment for an online transaction” one respondent said. The interviews discovered that survey respondents thought that in addition to being used in businesses for financial goals, blockchain technology might also be used in libraries. As stated by the respondents during the survey, libraries can use blockchain to protect author copyright and employee employment information. “The high rate of fabricating employment records and other sensitive documents in most organisations may be controlled by incorporating blockchain in the system” one interviewee stated. According to the respondents, blockchain technology uptake and implementation in Nigerian libraries remain unknown. Because of the country’s current difficulties, the adoption and application of blockchain technology in Nigerian libraries are dubious, according to the respondents. Libraries in Nigeria are generally underfunded. The 10% of the recurring parent institutional budgetary allocation provided to the library as mandated by Nigerian policy, is insufficient to maintain library operations and support creative library innovations. Other barriers to the adoption and use of blockchain technology in libraries in Southeastern Nigeria, according to the respondents, include lack of a standby generator to combat an erratic power supply, poor broadband connectivity, a lack of adequate skilled personnel, and a lack of sponsorship for updating knowledge.

Analysing and Interpreting the Findings The study’s findings suggested that blockchain technology is relatively new to librarians in Southeastern Nigeria and they are unfamiliar with it (Ojobor, Ojobor, and Oluranti 2022). This finding accords with the literature more generally. For example, Marcal, Rodrigues and Matos (2019), noted that blockchain is a relatively new technology in the realm of information technology. Some respondents had good understandings of the potential application of blockchain, and others knew very little. The wide range of responses among the respondents is not surprising. Unfortunately, most libraries in the country, particularly those under study, face numerous challenges in any implementation because of the unstable nature of the Nigerian economy and the poor budgetary allocation for libraries, which adversely affects library activities and, as a result, deter innovation. Inadequate funding, lack of a backup generator, poor broadband access, underqualified staff, and little emphasis on the importance of updating knowledge are some of the difficulties noted in the study. Lack of resources and the initiative to blockchain workflow in most sections of the library are also challenges.



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Reflections on the Study’s Outcomes Some general reflections on the potential use of blockchain in Nigerian libraries are provided along with comments on staff training, funding and technical issues, The findings of the study revealed that the potential use of blockchain technology to solve the problems that plague library services cannot be overstated. The research indicated that blockchain can alleviate the trust difficulties connected with making online payments, protect author copyright, and ensure correct records management. The findings were similar to those of Kushwaha and Singh (2020), who found that using blockchain for paying vendors, subscribing to journals and manuscripts from publishers, and transferring sensitive records and information to other parties can all help library workers. The findings also supported the idea that blockchain technology might be used to create a fully distributed metadata system for libraries and other associated organisations (Garland 2018). Furthermore, the findings agreed with Coghill’s view (2018) that blockchain technology is best suited for exchanging sensitive data that requires encryption. Because blockchain documents are immutable, transparent, and decentralised, the technology could help to combat the corruption in Nigerian libraries. By keeping all employment records in blockchain, falsification of employment documents, which leads to the system’s ineffectiveness, may be avoided. The expansion of information resources has posed inescapable space and storage issues for the libraries included in the study, resulting in inadequate resource management in the system. However, the study showed that implementing and using blockchain technology is a good way to solve these issues. The potential of blockchain in securing digital institutional repositories (Smith 2019), assuring accurate records management (Novotny et al. 2018), and serving as a DRM tool (Griffey 2016) were reflected in the findings. Dalkir (2017) found that conventional librarianship’s fundamental knowledge and abilities must be supplemented by new technical expertise to best serve 21st-century library customers, which is consistent with the findings of this study. Significant issues related to staff training, funding and technology were highlighted in the study.

Staff Training A major constraining factor to the adoption and use of blockchain in Nigerian libraries is the lack of advanced knowledge of ICT among most library personnel. Mthembu and Ocholla (2019) observed that poor or non-existent training, as well as difficulties in retaining qualified staff in most libraries, deter the adoption of modern technologies in libraries. Due to insufficient skills of personnel, most librar-

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ies are reluctant and hesitate to embrace innovative technologies as they cannot utilize them effectively. Because of this, Dalkir (2017) argued that there is a need for the core knowledge and skills of traditional librarianship to be augmented by new digital technological knowledge. Most of the libraries in the study have inadequate staff training. High-ranking employees, such as ULs and DULs, are routinely given grants to attend training programmes to improve their skills and knowledge. Sometimes employees are told to pay personally for attendance at conferences and workshops, and to seek later reimbursement. Only the highest-ranking employees can afford to do so. As a result, junior personnel have extremely limited opportunities for upgrading their skills and knowledge. According to Mthembu and Ocholla (2019), the difficulty in retaining workers in most libraries prevents exposure to and implementation of current technologies for library management. There are issues related to leadership training and management expertise. Because blockchain technology strongly encourages values such as visibility and transparency, it is not welcomed by some library administrators. Leible et al. (2019) observe that not every administrator supports values of openness as it might make poor or illegal practices and decisions visible. For this reason, many library administrators reject the adoption and use of blockchain technology in their libraries. In Nigerian libraries, inadequate government funding makes it difficult to run the day-to-day operations, let alone provide staff training (Irenoa, Emelian, and Eru 2019).

Funding Issues The study’s findings support Irenoa, Emilian and Eru’s (2019) contention that in most African libraries’ applications of ICT are hampered by a lack of government funding. In addition, initiative, lack of privacy and data storage capacity limit blockchain implementations. Most libraries receive less than the mandated 10% of their institution’s budgetary allocation due to inadequate internally generated revenue and high rates of expenditure (Alabi, Ojebode, and Yusuf 2013). Consequently, inadequate funding leads to underdevelopment of Nigerian libraries (Daniel 2013).

Technical Issues To keep up with the demands of today’s high-powered technologies, libraries need active and effective connectivity. However, where Internet access continues to deteriorate daily, as it does in Nigeria, the adoption and use of innovative technologies are hampered. Another relevant finding, as Zubairu et al. (2020) point out, is the



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country’s poor broadband access. Irregular power supply and poor broadband connectivity are restricting factors to the effective functioning of technological appliances in Nigeria. Intermittent power supply could cause malfunctioning of electronic hardware and shorten the lifespan of technology. Zubairu et al. (2020) observed that broadband connectivity in the country diminishes daily and is very irritating and disruptive to library patrons. Another challenge characterising the adoption and use of blockchain technology in libraries is the data storage capacity limitation in the current blockchain implementations. Taking into account cost efficiency, performance, and flexibility, the real design challenge is to decide what data and computation should be placed on-chain and what data should be stored off-chain. A common practice for storing data in the blockchain ledger is to store raw data off-chain, and to store metadata, small critical data, and hashes of the raw data only on-chain (Xu et al. 2018). According to Mthembu and Ocholla (2019), insufficient or non-existent training hinders the use of digital technologies, and the difficulty in keeping trained employees in most libraries prevents the adoption and usage of current technologies. Finally, the fact that all activity that occurs on a public blockchain is publicly viewable, has led to the raising of concerns regarding user privacy. Excluding illegitimate activity, many users object to their transaction history being public for fear of user profiling or targeted advertising.

Recommendations for the Future Based on the findings of the study, it is recommended that Nigerian policy on budgetary allocation within universities be reviewed to increase the percentage allotted to libraries. It would also be prudent for libraries to devise alternative means for fundraising to supplement funds emanating from institutional budgets. Sufficient funding would enable the library to provide an alternative source of power supply and encourage the adoption of innovative change in the library. There is also a need to organise in-house in-service training for library personnel to improve competency. Library staff should be encouraged to attend seminars, conferences, and workshops organised within or outside their local regions. It is also necessary to determine the storage capacity of the blockchain system. through qualitative and quantitative metrics. Specific metrics to measure complexity, communication capability, resource consumption, and performance could be defined and used for evaluating and improving the software processes because if blockchain implementation is not tested properly, it may fail at some point (Porru, Pinns, Marchesi, and Tonelli, 2017).There is also a need to ensure privacy and anonymity in blockchain

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to safeguard users’ privacy particularly in historical records through the addition of anonymity protections to the blockchain system (Mahmoud, Lescisin, and AlTaei (2019).

Conclusion Although blockchain is still in its experimental stage, renowned scholars have discovered its potential uses in libraries, which include but are not limited to improving metadata systems, protecting authors’ and researchers’ copyright, promoting peer-to-peer sharing, and providing international interlibrary loan services. However, due to factors such as a lack of funding, a lack of qualified personnel, and a lack of privacy in the blockchain, blockchain technology has yet to be confirmed as a technology to be adopted in the libraries surveyed. There is ongoing scepticism about the potential of blockchain in library practices and services. The present situation with the COVID-19 pandemic and the crucial need to restructure workflows to cope with working and learning from home are setbacks to the introduction of blockchain in libraries. Serious investment on the part of universities and relevant public agencies is required and since the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, the issues requiring attention for every organisation, institution, and individual have multiplied and intensified, and consumed huge amounts of energy, money and time. Blockchain has consequently been placed on the back burner (Allen et al. 2020).

References Alabi, Afusat Titilayo, Ojebode Mojisola Olubunmi, and Abdulkareem Adedayo Yusuf. 2013. “Budgeting Systems in Universities in Southwest Nigeria.” Makere Journal of Higher Education 4, no. 2: 203–219. http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/majohe.v4i2.6. Allen, Darcy W.E , Chris Berg, BrendanMarkey-Towler, Mikayla Novak, and Jason Potts. 2020. “Block-chain and theEvolution of Institutional Technologies: Implications for Innovation Policy.” Research Policy 49, no.1. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2019.103865. American Library Association (ALA) Library of the Future. 2019. “Blockchain and the Future of Libraries: An Interview with Sandra Hirsh and Susan Alman.” https://www.alastore.ala.org/ content/blockchain-and-future-libraries-interview-sandra-hirsh-and-susan-alman. [An interview concerning the bookBlockchain, edited by by Sandra Hirsh and Susan Alman and published as vol.3 within the ALA Future Series. Chicago, IL: ALA Neal-Schuman, 2019] . Atzori, Marcella. 2017. “Blockchain Technology and Decentralized Governance: Is the State Still Necessary? Journal of Governance & Regulation 6, no.1: 45–62. https://doi.org/10.22495/jgr_v6_i1_ p5. Available at https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2709713.



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Balaji, B. Preedip, M. S. Vinay, B. G. Shalini, and J. S. Mohan Raju. 2018. “An Integrative Review of Web 3.0 in Academic Libraries.” Library Hi Tech News 35, no. 4: 13–17. DOI: 10.1108/LHTN-12-2017-0092. Available at http://eprints.rclis.org/32658/1/Web-3.0%20review_academic%20libraries.pdf. Bohannon, John. 2016. “The Bitcoin Busts.” Science 351, no. 6278:1144–1146. doi:10.1126/ science.351.6278.1144. Brown, Jessica Leigh. 2018. “Blockchain in the Library? Researchers Explore Potential Applications.” Edsurge: Digital Learning in Higher Education, February 1, 2018. https://www.edsurge.com/ news/2018-02-01-blockchain-in-the-library-researchers-explore-potential-applications. Bünz, B., J. Bootle, D. Boneh, A. Poelstra, P. Wuille, and G. Maxwell. 2017. “Bulletproofs: Short Proofs for Confidential Transactions and More.” 2018 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy (SP): 315‐ 334. https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/document/8418611. Casino, Fran, T. K. Dasaklis, and C. Patsakis, 2019. “A Systematic Literature Review of Blockchain-Based Application: Current Status, Classification, and Open Issues.” Telematics and Informatics 36: 55–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2018.11.006. Chakravorty, Antorweep, and Chunming Rong. 2017. “Ushare: Use Controlled Social Media Based on Blockchain.” IMCOM ‘17: Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Ubiquitous Information Management and Communication.January 2017. Article No. 991–6. https://doi. org/10.1145/3022227.3022325. Coghill, Jeffrey G. 2018. “Blockchain and its Implications for Libraries.” Journal of Electronic Resources in Medical Libraries 15, no. 2: 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1080/15424065.2018.1483218. Dalkir, Kamiz. 2017. Knowledge Management in Theory and Practice. 3rd ed. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Daniel, James. 2013. “Lack of Funds Hampers Library Development in Nigeria – Chief Librarian.” Premium Times, February 18, 2013. https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/top-news/120838lack-of-funds-hampers-library-development-in-nigeria-chief-librarian.html. Garland, John. 2018. “Innovative Technologies for the Library of the Future.” Princh [blog]. https:// princh.com/blog-8-technologies-to-implement-at-the-library-of-the-future/#.YkTNPefMLIU. Griffey, Jason. 2016. “Blockchain & Iintellectual Property.” [Talk to the] Internet Librarian, October 18, 2016. https://speakerdeck.com/griffey/blockchain-and-intellectual-property-internet-librarian-2016. Hoy, Matthew B. 2017. “An Introduction to the Blockchain and its Implications for Libraries and Medicine.” Medical Reference Services Quarterly 36, no. 3: 273–79. https://doi.org/10.1080/0276386 9.2017.1332261. Available at https://tinyurl.com/2p8sdta3. Irenoa, Kenneth Ohis, Bribena Emilian, and John Eru. 2019. “Funding Academic Libraries in Nigeria for Effective Services: Alternatives to Resource Development and Library Management.” Communicate: Journal of Library and Information Science 21, no.1: 104–111. Available at https:// www.researchgate.net/publication/346524142_Funding_Academic_Libraries_in_Nigeria_for_ Effective_Services_Alternatives_to_Resource_Development_and_Library_Management. Kushwaha, Ashwin Kumar, and Ajay Pratap Singh. 2020. “Connecting Blockchain Technology with Libraries: Opportunities and Risks”. Journal of Indian Library Association (JILA) 56, no. 3: 12–19. https://ilaindia.net/jila/index.php/jila/article/view/408/209. Leible, Stephan, Steffen Schlager, Moritz Schubotz, and Bela Gipp. 2019. “A Review on Blockchain Technology and Blockchain Projects Fostering Open Science.” Frontiers in Blockchain 2: Article 16, November 19, 2019. https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fb/oc.2019.00016/. Lemieux, Victoria L. 2019. “Blockchain and Public Record-keeping: Of Temples, Prisons, and the (Re) Configuration of Power.” Frontiers in Blockchain 2: Article 5, July 12, 2019. https://doi.org/10.3389/ fbloc.2019.00005.

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Mahmoud, Qusay H., Michael Lescisin, and May AlTaei. 2019. “Research Challenges and Opportunities in Blockchain and Cryptocurrencies.” Internet Technology Letters 2, no.2: e93. https://doi.org/10.1002/itl2.93. Available at https://www.researchgate. net/profile/Michael-Lescisin/publication/330917374_Research_Challenges_and_ Opportunities_in_Blockchain_and_Cryptocurrencies/links/5c9a49ac299bf111694988e5/ Research-Challenges-and-Opportunities-in-Blockchain-and-Cryptocurrencies.pdf. Malyarov, Nikolai. 2019. “The Impacts of Advanced Technology on Libraries and Education.” Pressreader [blog], August 28, 2019. Originally published in The Insider Magazine.https://blog. pressreader.com/libraries-institutions/the-impacts-of-advanced-technology-on-libraries-and-education. Marcal, João, Luis Rodrigues, and Miguel Matos. 2019. “Adaptive Information Dissemination in the Bitcoin Network. “SAC ‘19: Proceedings of the 34th ACM/SIGAPP Symposium on Applied Computing, April 2019: 276–283. https://doi.org/10.1145/3297280.3297309. Meth, Michael. 2020. “Understanding Blockchain: Opportuities for Libraries.” American Libraries 51, no. 1–2. https://americanlibrariesmagazine.org/2020/01/02/understanding-blockchain-libraries/. Adapted from “Blockchain in Libraries,” Library Technology Reports 55, no. 8, November 2019. Mougayar, William. 2016. The Business Blockchain: Promise, Practice, and Application of the Next Internet Technology. New York: Wiley. Mthembu, Mpilo S., and Dennis N. Ocholla. 2019. “Employment Requirements & Challenges of LIS Graduates in Public Libraries in KZN, South Africa.” [Presentation]. KwaDlangezwa: University of Zululand Department of Information Studies. https://cdn.ymaws.com/www.liasa.org.za/ resource/resmgr/conference/2019_ppts/mthembu_mpilo_mpilo_mthembu_.pdf. Nakamoto, Satoshi. 2008.”Bitcoin: A Peer-To-Peer Electronic Cash System.” Decentralized Business Review 21260. https://www.ussc.gov/sites/default/files/pdf/training/annual-national-trainingseminar/2018/Emerging_Tech_Bitcoin_Crypto.pdf. Novotny, Petr,| Qi Zhang, Richard Hull, Salman Baset, Jim Laredo, Roman Vaculin, Daniel L. Ford, and Donna N. Dillenberger. 2018. “Permissioned Blockchain Technologies for Academic Publishing.” Information Services & Use 3: 159–171. https://content.iospress.com/download/informationservices-and-use/isu180020?id=information-services-and-use%2Fisu180020. Odumody, Nnamdi. 2018. “Rethinking Education in Southeast Nigeria.” Tekedia, November 15, 2018. https://www.tekedia.com/rethinking-education-in-southeast-nigeria/. Ojobor, Rebecca Chidimma, Cletus Ifeanyichukwu Ojobor, and Jonathan Oluranti. 2022. “Blockchain Technology and Organizational Practices: The Case of Nigerian Academic Libraries.” In Blockchain Applications in the Smart Era, edited by Sanjay Misra, Amit Kumar Tyagi. EAI/Springer Innovations in Communication and Computing. New York: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-03089546-4_9. Porru, Simone, Andrea Pinna, Michele Marchesi, and Robert Tonelli. 2017. “Blockchain-oriented Software Engineering: Challenges and New Directions.” IEEE/ACM 39th International Conference on Software Engineering Companion (ICSE-C), 2017, 169–171. doi: 10.1109/ICSE-C.2017.142. Available at https://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1702/1702.05146.pdf. Smith, Carrie. 2019. “Blockchain Reaction: How Library Professionals Are Approaching Blockchain Technology and Its Potential Impact”. American Libraries, March 1, 2019 .https:// americanlibrariesmagazine.org/2019/03/01/library-blockchain-reaction/. Tait, Elizabeth, Konstantina Martzoukou, and Peter Reid. 2016. “Libraries for the Future: The Role of IT Utilities in the Transformation of Academic Libraries.” Palgrave Communications 2:16070 doi: 10.1057/palcomms.2016.70. https://www.nature.com/articles/palcomms201670.pdf?origin=ppub.



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Turkanoviæ, Muhamed, Marko Hölbl, Kristjan Košiè, Marjan Herièko, and Aida Kamišaliæ. 2018. “EduCTX: A Blockchain-Based Higher Education Credit Platform.” IEEE Access 6: 5112-5127.doi: 10.1109/ACCESS.2018.2789929. Available at https://arxiv.org/abs/1710.09918. Wang, Sha, and Jean-Philippe Verge. 2017. “Buzz Factor or Innovation Potential: What Explains Cryptocurrencies’ Returns?” PLoS ONE 12 no.1: e0169556. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0169556. Xu, Q., K.M.M. Aung, Y. Zhu, and K.L Yong. 2018. “A Blockchain-Based Storage System for Data Analytics in the Internet of Things.” In New Advances in the Internet of Things, edited by R. Yager and J. Pascual Espada. Studies in Computational Intelligence, vol 715. New York: Springer. https:// doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-58190-3_8. Available at http://pages.cpsc.ucalgary.ca/~joel.reardon/ blockchain/readings/blockchain_iot.pdf. Zubairu, H.A., I.O. Oyefolahan, F.J. Babakano, S.O. Etuk, and I. Mohammed. 2020. “Assessing the E-readiness of Nigeria for Digital Economy.” American Journal of Computer Science and Information Technology 8, no.2: 50. DOI: 10.36648/2349-3917.8.2.50. Available at https://www.imedpub.com/ articles/assessing-the-ereadiness-of-nigeria-for-digital-economy.php?aid=28626.

Asania Reneilwe Maphoto and Mpubane Emanuel Matlala

2 R  eshaping the Future of Academic Libraries: Insights from South Africa Abstract: Academic libraries are the backbone of universities, enabling and supporting institutions of higher learning. The libraries fulfil the essential roles of providing information and related services and making them accessible to academic communities. The current rapid technological developments of the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) pose challenges for academic libraries. They must reinvent themselves and come up with new ways of rendering services. The COVID-19 pandemic forced many universities to completely shut down or consider using 4IR tools and present their activities online. This chapter investigates the strategies that can be deployed to upgrade and reshape academic libraries’ structure and operational procedures in South Africa and potentially elsewhere. It considers the degree to which the functioning of academic libraries has altered because of the combined effects of the 4IR and the COVID-19 crisis. The response of academic libraries to the radically changed circumstances is examined. A qualitative case study and content analysis were used to collect data from the library websites of the University of KwaZulu-Natal and the University of Limpopo. The findings indicated that the situation had forced both libraries to operate in entirely new ways. The libraries have positively responded to the challenge by adapting their operations. Academic libraries must embrace the use of new technological tools to complement existing traditional approaches. A syncretic combination of traditional and online collections and operations will meet the challenges of providing access to academic library collections and services during COVID-19 and beyond. Keywords: Fourth Industrial Revolution; Academic libraries – South Africa; COVID-19 (Disease)

Introduction The advent of new information and communication technology (ICT) has led to revolutionary developments globally and continues to affect socioeconomic milieux in countries making use of these technologies (Matlala 2020). Technological change is the driver of significant innovation, as organisations embrace new tools to increase the efficiency of their businesses (Ayinde and Kirkwood 2020). The rapid growth in technology impacts all spheres of human activity, with academic libraries being no exception (Safavi 2008). The world is in the era of what is sometimes referred to as https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110772753-004



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the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR). Academic libraries must be proactive and prepare for ensuing technological challenges to meet the needs of contemporary users. Libraries must introduce emerging information technologies into their services (Noh and Chang 2020). Monyela (2020), citing others, notes that the first case of COVID-19 in South Africa was reported on March 5th, 2020. The government put the country on national lockdown to limit the spread of the pandemic. This resulted in the closure of universities and virtual teaching and learning were introduced. The outbreak of COVID-19 came as a wake-up call to the higher education sector in South Africa. Mhlanga and Moloi (2020) argue that the ensuing lockdown motivated digital transformation in the education sector. Pressured by the lockdown, South Africa demonstrated its ability to transform its education sector, enabling it to become part of the 4IR (Mhlanga and Moloi 2020). In South Africa, the lockdown affected many institutions of higher learning, particularly those in rural areas plagued by infrastructural and adoption challenges while activities were seriously limited by COVID-19 pandemic concerns (Mhlanga and Moloi 2020). With the COVID-19 pandemic, organisations were forced to completely suspend their activities, or to consider the use of ICT tools that would enable them to extend their enterprises. This chapter outlines the factors involved in the 4IR and its impact; provides an overview of academic libraries; investigates the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on academic institutions and their libraries; outlines responses to the 4IR and COVID-19; and identifies potential strategies to research, upgrade and reshape the structure and operational procedures of academic libraries in South Africa, and potentially elsewhere in the world. The chapter also describes a study which examined: –– The extent of change in the roles of academic libraries, specifically at the Universities of KwaZulu-Natal (UKZN) and Limpopo (UL) because of the 4IR and the COVID-19 pandemic –– What has necessitated the changing roles of academic libraries and how the institutions have responded to the changes, and –– The challenges posed, and the prospects provoked, by the 4IR and COVID-19 requirements in academic libraries.

The Fourth Industrial Revolution The Fourth Industrial Revolution is a development associated with the proliferation of information technology (IT) in all industries, primary, secondary, and tertiary (Lee et al. 2018). What is called the 4IR, entails the development and appli-

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cation of techno-human smart systems, capable of improving the efficiency and productivity of production systems as well as effecting a general improvement in the quality of life of individuals and communities (Schiuma 2017). In the words of Ahmat and Hanipah (2018), the 4IR is derived from technological innovation. Revolutionary innovations and disruptive technologies and trends including robotics, virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR), artificial intelligence (AI) and the Internet of Things (IoT) are modifying daily activities in workplaces (Holland 2020). Among the various technologies that power the concept of a 4IR, some of which have already been noted, are AI and robotics, ubiquitous linked sensors, VR and AR, additive manufacturing (3D printing), blockchain and distributed ledger technology, advanced materials and nanomaterial, energy capture, storage, and transmission, and new computing technologies, biotechnologies, geoengineering technologies, terotechnology, and space technologies (Schwab 2016, 2017). The World Economic Forum (2016) notes that the 4IR refers to industrial development in which intelligent information technology including AI, VR, AR, IoT, big data, and cloud computing, is hyper-connected to a range of new technologies causing super-intelligent, innovative change in different areas of society. Schwab (2016; 2017) defines the 4IR as a technological revolution that is blurring the lines between physical, digital, and biological spheres. It comes with innovations that are set to disrupt the traditional ways of society, business, and government. The concept of 4IR creates new opportunities and developing institutions may leapfrog between stages of advancement and align with fully developed markets by embracing the use of emerging technologies such as AI, big data analytics, blockchain technology, ubiquitous and mobile Internet, and cheaper, smaller, and stronger sensors (Schwab 2016, 2017). The development of the 4IR has brought with it significant social and economic opportunities but also challenges, requiring appropriate responses from governments (Manda and Backhouse 2017). The overall industrial advance is characterised by a fusion of technologies that is “blurring the lines between the physical, digital, and biological spheres” (Schwab 2016). Similarly, Lee et al. (2017) note, that technology today involves the development, deployment and exploitation of holistic smart systems that integrate technology, humanity and biology, so that they can deal with old and new socio-economic and environmental challenges, taking into account the specific characteristics of the context at hand. Schwab (2016) notes that the fourth revolution is built on the foundation created by previous so-called industrial revolutions. The advancement of the steam engine in the eighteenth century led to the first industrial revolution during which production became mechanized for the first time and drove social change with many people becoming urbanized. The intensified use of electricity resulted in mass production and in what may be seen as the second industrial revolution. The



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third industrial revolution in the 1950s became known as the digital revolution and saw the development of electronics, computers and digital technology tools to automate production. The inception of the 4IR followed in the footsteps of the digital revolution but took a different direction (Schwab 2016). In comparison to the more gradual advancement of previous so-called industrial revolutions, the fourth revolution is growing exponentially in a manner that society has not previously seen. With its characteristics of “velocity, scope, and systems impact”, it transforms the economic sector, industries as well as processes of production and governance (Schwab 2017). The perception of being in the midst of a 4IR is premised on the observation of accelerating technological change, converging technologies, and the velocity, scope and impact of these developments. Xing and Marwala (2017) remark that the 4IR is powered by AI and has been defined as the current developing environment, in which disruptive technologies and trends such as the IoT, robotics, VR, and AI, are changing the ways people live and work. It thus affects workplaces, transforming traditional task-based activities into human-centred occupations, because of the convergence of man and machine. Developments will reduce the subject distance between the humanities and social sciences, as well as including science and technology (Xing and Marwala 2017). Davis (2016) states that the 4IR pilots the fusion of technologies in the physical, digital, and biological world. Others have different perspectives. The 4th Industrial revolution is not mere characteristics of technologies but the concatenation of technologies to ease the tasks done by humans; with potential increases in scale and speed… The 4th IR enhances … technologies embedded with the power of thinking, sensing, moving, learning, coding, decoding and acting independently without mostly the assistance of a human (Ayinde and Kirkwood 2020).

The main advantages of the 4IR are the reduction of costs between producers and markets, the possibilities of AI, integration of systems in different spheres, robotics and Internet connectivity (Xu, David, and Kim 2018). In the resulting advanced forms of production human bodies and the living organism are interconnected with high technologies that make it difficult to differentiate between natural and artificial entities (Schwab 2017). Krésová (2019) points out that, as labour-intensive systems are being substituted by machines, the capacitating and upskilling of workers is of paramount importance, because the 4IR is disrupting the labour market. The 4IR brings risks, prospects and opportunities for information professionals by creating new knowledge and redefining jobs and skills to increase productivity and enhance services. It also improves ergonomics and augments labour by reducing unnecessarily repetitive and routine tasks, thereby accelerating transparency and accountability (Ayinde and Kirkwood 2020). Currently, the most decisive factor of production is

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human capital capacitated with innovative skills. The capacitation of labour will be necessary due to the growing gap between lower- and higher-skilled work, while still bigger threats exist in unemployment, polarisation of workers, and inequality. Soh and Connoy (2021) note that the 4IR is still at a nascent stage. The 4IR brings challenges along with new opportunities. Intelligent efforts and sophisticated human skills are required for the application and implementation of new tools. Schwab asserts that: …the Fourth Industrial Revolution may indeed have the potential to “robotize” humanity and thus to deprive us of our heart and soul. But as a complement to the best parts of human nature—creativity, empathy, stewardship—it can also lift humanity into a new collective and moral consciousness based on a shared sense of destiny (Schwab 2016).

As society paradigms shift, they create changes in social environments which, in turn, affect the usage and established roles of libraries (Noh and Chang 2020). In the 4IR, “only one type of organization will thrive: a human one” (Seidman 2016). 4IR is growing rapidly and poses challenges to academic libraries to come up with new approaches to rendering services. According to Ntotlang “academic libraries are especially challenged to align their service to meet patrons’ needs through the use of technology-mediated tools” (2019, 5). Academic libraries must move forward in a digital era propelled by the explosion of ICT. It offers academic libraries the opportunity to harness the power of digital technologies as a basis for developing new processes and introducing new services to library users. Academic libraries must establish online services to promote accessibility and aid the discharge of broad information resources. In Ntotlang (2019)’s view, it cannot be overstated that library users in the 4IR want to have easily accessible information at their fingertips. “The users are driven by technology; their lives revolve around new and emerging technologies” (Ntotlang 2019, 5).

Academic Libraries and Technological Change Academic libraries must identify initiatives to ensure their effective functioning in an era dominated by advanced digitisation which is changing how human beings live, work, and communicate information. If academic libraries are to provide future generations with adequate information, they need, given their current information resources, services and knowledge, to deal with the crucial matter of how they will be affected by the 4IR and how present procedures of accessing resources will be transformed. In that context, it is essential to examine how the 4IR will impact academic libraries and what should be done to retain and grow their



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competitive advantage. This chapter explores how academic libraries can remain viable and functioning in the midst of the 4IR, with reference to two universities in South Africa, the Universities of KwaZulu-Natal (UKZN) and Limpopo (UL). Neto et al. (2020) state that, even if unnoticed by many members of the public, COVID-19 has been functioning as a catalyst for the global realisation of the 4IR, marking the integration of physical, digital and biological spheres. The 4IR stands out because machines have become active, whereas in earlier industrial revolutions they were passive (Schwab 2017). Organisations today have already been affected by changes brought about by information technology associated with the 4IR. Few organisations have been impacted as profoundly as academic libraries which have experienced change in most areas of their responsibilities and activities. Guliwe (2019) envisages that the present industrial revolution will have seriously disruptive effects, especially on companies, governments, institutions of higher learning, and broadly, welfare systems. The suggestion is that there will be a major shift from labour-intensive to capital-intensive sectors. Proponents of the 4IR argue that some current skills will be rendered obsolete. Since many institutions in South Africa still grapple with the basic challenges of broadband connection and access to the Internet, it will be difficult to adapt to the 4IR which requires investments in new technologies. Not only are academic libraries burdened with breadand-butter issues, but in addition they have few alternatives and must choose either to adapt or perish (Guliwe 2019). The implementation of ICT in libraries has resulted in the radical transformation of the role of library professionals and of the products and services they provide (Tokwe and Mapasure 2016). Modern technology has helped to change libraries from mere warehouses into veritable access centres for sustainable information retrieval. New thinking and new strategies are required to ensure that libraries remain vibrant and sufficiently relevant to satisfy the dynamic information needs of present society. Ahmat and Hanipah (2018) note that academic libraries are expected to be trustworthy information brokers. Academic libraries provide universal access to information and scholarly works in all formats, as well as trustworthy and effective support for political and social engagement. Academic libraries advocate for, and are facilitators of, the 4IR that allows people to create their own devices and objects. Against this background, the work outlined in this chapter was inspired by concerns about the degree to which the roles of academic libraries have changed because of technological advances and the requirements of the COVID-19 pandemic. How have academic libraries responded to the changed circumstances?

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The Role of Academic Libraries Noh and Chang (2020), citing others, mention that the Global Vision meeting of the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA), held in July 2017 in the Netherlands, accentuated the changing roles of libraries in the context of modern technology. The urgency of meeting new and existing needs of users by providing services that incorporate emerging technologies has been noted by many. Academic libraries fulfil the crucial role of providing institutes of higher learning with accessible information and related services. Their value is determined by how well they support the learning, teaching and research taking place in their parent institutions (Wawrzaszek and Wedaman 2008). Similarly, Schulte et al. (2018) describe academic libraries as supporting the teaching, learning and research of the academic population and the provision of programmes that develop the information literacy skills of graduates. Academic libraries serve and support the vision and mission of their parent institutions. Academic libraries are effective if they can provide the actual information services and resources that satisfy the information needs of their users (Tahleho 2016). The success of academic libraries depends on the degree to which they serve their users. Wen opines: Academic libraries are information centers established in support of the mission of their parent institutions to generate knowledge, and people equipped with knowledge in order to serve the society and advance the well-being of mankind. In the digital age, academic libraries face challenges from both within (academia) and without (the business sector) (Wen 2005, Point 1).

Eneya, Mostert, and Ocholla (2020), citing others, state that the use of library services has a significant impact on students’ completion rate. Frances, Fletcher, and Harmer (2011) in discussing the rearranged library note that “academic libraries traditionally tend to be structured with units providing frontline services to clients (reference, liaison, training, collection development) which are supported by ’back office’ units (IT, technical services, human resources, building services)”. In the world today the role of academic libraries is changing in response to evolving technologies. The surveyed literature indicates that academic libraries are reorganising and leaving traditional ways of service provision partly behind for approaches determined by contemporary technology. The blending of physical and technological systems ensures that libraries keep up with new trends and evolving technology, while not entirely losing traditional approaches. An inability to adapt to the availability of 4IR tools would result in inadequate services and a loss of library users.



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Members of academic communities depend on their libraries to access knowledge resources and use the library space to study (Gayton 2007). In the 4IR, library materials have become digitally accessible online, and libraries need to adapt traditional systems accordingly. Previously, academic libraries built academic library collections and marketed them to persuade academics to visit their libraries and access the collections. Traditionally, academic libraries were used for accessing information resources and for their reading space, but the increase in electronic resources has led to declining use of the physical library to access its collection (Gayton 2007). Freeman argues: If faculty, scholars, and students can now obtain information in any format and access it anywhere on campus, then why does the library, as a physical place, play such an important role in the renewal and advancement of an institution’s intellectual life? The answer is straightforward: The library is the only centralized location where new and emerging information technologies can be combined with traditional knowledge resources in a user-focused, service-rich environment that supports today’s social and educational patterns of learning, teaching, and research (2015, 3).

Academic Library Services and COVID-19 Radical changes have impacted information centres and academic libraries since the beginning of the pandemic. Governments throughout the world took varying stances on the lockdown of government services, educational establishments, and public facilities like libraries. IFLA (2020) issued a statement that some governments around the world were ordering the full closure of libraries, advising limited restrictions, or asking library directors to make decisions; others were maintaining amended services. IFLA (2020) further stated that, in the event of full closure of libraries, and in preparation for the eventual re-opening of libraries, it was recommended that resources and services be made available online. Mehta and Wang (2020) noted that the Covid-19 pandemic negatively affected academic library services and the library staff members who provided services in various ways and led to new ways of functioning. Mehta and Wang further argued that the 4IR and the COVID-19 pandemic revolutionised information access and online teaching in institutions of higher learning (2020). The pandemic provided the impetus for change and simultaneously promoted more effective and efficient ways for academic libraries to deliver their services virtually. Academic libraries modified operations, services and procedures to move quickly to virtual service provision. Literature on the use of contemporary technology as influenced by

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COVID-19 is still limited (Mhlanga and Moloi 2020). Parker, Morris, and Hofmeyr (2020) expected that the COVID-19 pandemic would accelerate innovation in communication, work environments, education, and every other aspect of life. Unleashing 4IR tools in academic libraries to combat the effects of COVID-19 has been hindered by several challenges such as poor Internet connectivity and the general state of the available infrastructure. Academic libraries have worked hard to ensure that most of their information resources are available and accessible during the pandemic lockdown (Parker, Morris, and Hofmeyr 2020). To address the sudden demands made on libraries arising from the availability of 4IR tools and necessitated by the COVID-19 pandemic, library staff brainstormed potential actions and informed patrons about changed library services and activities. The South African Department of Sports, Arts and Culture issued Government Gazette number 43507 in July 2020 (South Africa 2020) permitting libraries to operate under lockdown level 3 provided they complied with health protocols and social distancing to prevent the spread of COVID-19. The same department allowed for the opening of libraries provided they reduced operating hours, limited the issuing and returning of library materials, restricted study areas to 30% of the capacity of the library area, and supported online referencing and programming. Institutions of higher learning and academic libraries that did not have ICT tools in place at the start of the COVID-19 lockdown, had to close because they were unprepared for such a complication (Mhlanga and Moloi 2020). The lack of preparedness is common to many organisations on the African continent, due to infrastructural challenges, a lack of access to broadband connections, and the high cost of data. Many academic libraries revealed themselves as trendsetters in the digital field, fitting the new paradigm of the automated age, especially regarding the value of databases and electronic indexing. Academic libraries have adopted significantly different approaches to accommodate the new technologies. The COVID-19 pandemic forced librarians to adapt to the new normal of working and providing services from their homes. The advent of the digital library enabled the institutions to continue and better serve users who, during the pandemic, were not able to visit libraries physically. Technology partnered with librarians and functioned as frontline librarians during the pandemic to ensure the continuing availability of library services. Ocholla and Ocholla (2020) supported the view that academic libraries need technological tools that are flexible, function independently, consider the environment, and work jointly with human librarians. The COVID-19 pandemic has shown the readiness of academic libraries to adapt to the technological age. To continue to fulfil the needs of library users during the pandemic, libraries have designed and adopted library websites as their primary e-discovery tools (Ifijeh and Yusuf 2020).



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Library websites must be accessible 24/7 to their users and provide uninterrupted remote access to their information services. To keep up with the development of technology and its applications in the provision of valuable services to higher education, academic libraries had to remain open to fresh views on the use of 4IR tools in the context of specific information needs during the lockdown. Academic library services must remain accessible anywhere and at any time. Ocholla and Ocholla’s study of twenty-six South African universities focused on their responsiveness to 4IR (2020). The results indicated that users of South African libraries were accessing library services at any time and from anywhere, implying that academic libraries are successfully dealing with technological challenges. Ocholla and Ocholla further stated that libraries have yet to create a compelling digital presence for either learning or research which corresponds to their successful physical learning spaces.

The Responses of the University Libraries of KwaZulu-Natal and Limpopo to the Fourth Industrial Revolution and COVID-19 The Background to the Study An investigation of two academic libraries at the University of KwaZulu-Natal (UKZN) and the University of Limpopo (UL) was conducted. Data was collected from the websites of both UKZN and UL academic libraries. UKZN was formed in 2004 from a merger of the University of Natal and the University of Durban-Westville. It has five campuses in the province of KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa and comprises four colleges each with several schools. It has a student population of 46,925. UL was established in 2005 after the former Medical University of Southern Africa (MEDUNSA) merged with the University of the North. In 2015, however, the two universities demerged, and the University of Limpopo retained its name, while MEDUNSA changed its name to Sefako Makgatho Health Sciences University. UL is located north of Pretoria and has 22,000 students. The study of the two university libraries was conducted using qualitative research and content analysis (Creswell 2014). Data was collected from secondary sources, including desk research by content analysis. Leedy and Ormrod describe content analysis as a “systematic examination of the content of a particular body of material for the purpose of identifying patterns, themes, or biases” (2019, 150). The content analysis method was used to scrutinise the UKZN and UL library web-

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sites (Figures 2.1 and 2.2) to determine the degree of change in the roles of the libraries as a result of the 4IR and COVID-19, to define what motivated the changes, and to establish how the libraries had handled the changes. A desk research study was conducted online using the websites. The study used approaches to the desk research, similar to those applied by Ocholla and Ocholla (2020) in their content analysis of websites of twenty-six South African university libraries, conducted by using public universities’ data from the Department of Higher Education and Training. The study by Ocholla and Ocholla motivated the present researchers to adopt content analysis in the exploration of their research problem.

The Results of the Study The UKZN library website (Figure 2.1) provided, and continues to provide, clear insights into the rendering of library services during the lockdown period. With regard to book retrieval services for example, browsing of physical collections was not allowed; the traditional library collections remained closed; and the student population as well as staff submitted requests for circulating materials at the issue desk, via email or by telephone.

Fig. 2.1: UKZN Library Website.



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Fig. 2.2: UL Library Website

Both the UKZN and UL libraries implemented online library support and assistance (Figures 2.1 and 2.2). The librarians continued to be available and provided virtual support for teaching, learning and researching. The librarians provided online services such as assistance with accessing ebooks and databases from the library homepage through chatbots. Subject librarians could be reached via email and provided online library training and user education via Zoom, and Skype for business and meeting sessions, and online orientation. Librarians assisted academics and students in the purchasing of articles by a pay per view service and scoping reviews. Users were required to pay for the services and purchasing was managed through the institutions. Librarians contacted by email were available for assistance with retrieval of information. Ntlotlang (2019) indicates that the Botswana International University of Science and Technology (BIUST) Library developed similar processes, tools and services to align the university’s research landscape with the dictates of the emerging information-led 4IR. The BIUST library developed technology-mediated tools and used multiple interfaces to reach users in different environments. Websites of the UKZN and UL libraries (Figures 2.1 and 2.2) state that online services and support are the primary modes for the fulfilment of teaching, learning and research requirements. The libraries continued to work remotely with business communication complying with lockdown regulations. The libraries made online library resources, such as ebooks, databases, theses and subject guides, available and users were prompted to sign in with usernames and passwords. Library users

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were provided with details on how to log in to the library website with no data charges for access to South African network providers. Ntlotlang (2019) notes that libraries develop innovative tools that address the needs of technology-driven users and simultaneously create an opportunity for libraries to sustain their roles of providing accessible, relevant information to users in ways that are robust and convenient. Mehta and Wang (2020) stress that electronic resources are considered a large portion of a library’s vital resources and that most libraries have spent justifiable amounts of money on subscribing to them. Key electronic resources come in the form of proprietary databases, academic journals, ebooks, streaming videos and other audiovisual collections, in addition to open access resources. Such resources are made available to patrons over online platforms provided by the academic libraries. On a positive note, the COVID-19 pandemic has led to the creation of an appropriate platform for promoting and marketing the academic libraries’ electronic resources to users and to new undergraduate students who tend to use Google to find information needed for academic activities. There are similar and profound changes in the functions of academic libraries because of the 4IR and the pandemic. The change is sector- and role-specific. The most profound changes have occurred in organisational agility and resilience. In addition to the pandemic and the 4IR, new responses are being made to climate change and placing greater emphasis on sustainability in a rapidly changing world. Significant and rapid adaptation becomes the norm. For example, most UKZN libraries offered virtual services with staff working from home to provide online services to the university community. The staff working from home learned to optimise the virtual platforms available, which proved to be a rewarding learning experience. The 4IR and COVID-19 have redefined librarianship and led librarians and students to discover new ways of working. There are, however, moments of frustration, due to slow Internet connections or interrupted Zoom presentations. Some processes have been affected by monotonous routines and the lack of human contact.

Changing Roles and Responses The outbreak of the COVID-19 virus in 2020 and the recognition of a pandemic, forced the governments of many countries, including South Africa, to implement lockdowns or shutdowns of all non-essential services. The action had a major impact on the academic environment, especially academic libraries, where library resources and services were offered away from the university premises using technological tools. The drastic measures resulted in the changing of work envi-



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ronments and different approaches to the services of librarians, although many resources remained located in-house. Major disruptions across the world caused by COVID-19 affected institutions of higher learning in general, including their libraries. Some librarians not used to virtual work environments or conditions, have suffered, mentally and physically. Some who have been employed for many years felt that the change of daily routines affected their personal lives as individuals and as members of their family units. However, with access to ICT and the Internet, the UKZN and UL libraries were able to continue to serve their university communities. Communication was maintained through email. UL librarians supported library users via email. UKZN librarians had the option of using Skype for business and Zoom for meetings. Training sessions on the use of library resources and how to access and find information were held via Zoom with participants joining remotely. Zoom adheres to the social distancing rule! The challenge is when the technology fails to operate. Glitches are to be expected. Academic libraries in responding to and managing the various challenges found concepts of the 4IR critical to their survival in the era of COVID-19. The nature of work and ways of working in academic libraries and information services have altered and continue to do so. Many changes have already been effected in libraries although there remain divergent views on their nature. In the meantime, the virus together with the tools of the 4IR has made staff members of university libraries turn to Zoom and other online meeting tools and, in general, focus on new skills. UKZN and UL libraries have demonstrated fresh approaches and begun to implement non-essential but useful services that enable library users to access and control library tools, services and resources from portable mobile digital devices, and to apply essential services that facilitate identification, location, retrieval and use of current resources in their daily lives. UKZN libraries have introduced OCLC’s WorldShare Management Services (WMS) as their library management system. WMS provides cloud-based library management and discovery applications in an integrated suite. WMS is known as a global knowledge system that helps patrons to widen access to learning, research, and innovation, for both local and global scholars. WMS enables the delivery of infrastructure and support services designed around learning needs. The introduction of WMS has proven to be effective, making libraries more relevant to the needs and expectations of users. Whatever form change may take, the Internet and related technologies stand as major pillars of modern library services. Due to its architecture and functions, the Internet can facilitate better library service design and provision in many ways. The increasing ubiquity of the Internet enables academic libraries to make their services virtually available in remote places and extend them beyond physical walls and limited opening hours and together with other emerging technologies opens the possibility of seamless interactivity between libraries, librarians and

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users, giving the latter the opportunity to play a part in determining how they will be served. The technologies facilitate simple, efficient, fast and versatile services. Internet-facilitated services enable libraries to offer timely and diverse information resources, going far beyond the realm of physical collections within the library and are restricted only by funding issues for libraries in providing access, and the creativity of users and their available time. Online usage removes or reduces concerns of causing damage, mis-shelving or loss of library materials. Multiple users can potentially access a resource simultaneously provided appropriate licensing protocols are in place. Access to resources by multiple users is subject to licensing policies that might restrict use. Academic libraries have responded to 4IR and COVID-19 by embracing innovative technologies and taking determined steps to develop web pages addressing remote access to electronic resources. Academic libraries have sought to ease the frustrations of patrons not being able to access and use electronic resources remotely. Mehta and Wang (2020) are of the view that creating web pages was not a specific response to the pandemic, but rather a recognition that academic libraries must long-term provide more comprehensive information along with troubleshooting tips for patrons who access the library remotely.

Problems, Prospects, and Future Challenges The possibilities offered by new technologies on the one hand, and the lockdown imposed to contain the pandemic on the other hand, have presented academic libraries with the challenge of how to continue to operate and provide their services. It was either adapt to an unprecedented situation or close operations. Libraries that could not render services remotely, because they had not kept up with modern technology were exposed. Academic libraries needed technological tools to function during the lockdown so that their services could become accessible at any time and from anywhere (Ocholla and Ocholla 2020). Librarians were faced with the critical challenges of remote functioning, reorganising work and services physically, spatially and temporally. Connectivity proved to be a challenge in some areas. Mehta and Wang (2020) confirm that the simultaneous occurrence of advanced technological developments and the COVID-19 pandemic exacerbated the challenges confronting academic libraries while user numbers grew. High demand resources were frequently previously stored in closed reserved sections of the library for on-site use and physical collection. They were not available in an electronic format. Some resources required scanning with attention paid to copyright issues before they could be delivered to users digitally. Services rendered by the ref-



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erence section primarily previously through personal one-on-one assistance were replaced by digital communication. Numerous ICT applications were required along with advanced training for academic librarians. Some librarians needed time to adjust to the tools of the 4IR. With physical resources partly or entirely out of reach, the need to access and use electronic resources increased. Not all patrons were tech-savvy and able to use the variety of academic library searching platforms to locate information. Accessing electronic resources from off-campus increased the challenges. During the COVID-19 alert level 5 lockdown, digitisation and digital preservation projects and processes of academic libraries were suspended as well as some behind-the-scenes activities associated with library initiatives. This affected the delivery of additional electronic or online resources, including the provision of full-text content to patrons. Collaboration with various academic disciplines and administrative portfolios realised some joint projects for activities; others were disadvantaged by the changes. Among the problems to be overcome was poor infrastructure capacity. The 4IR requires an advanced level of technological expertise for librarians to be able to provide quality library services without depending on the routines of the physical library. ICT tools have changed the ways in which people search for and share information, forcing academic libraries to adapt their operations. Staff development is crucial if librarians are to provide efficient and effective services to the academic environment. Ojowhoh (2016) argues that enhanced staff development in academic libraries has a positive effect on services rendered by the academic community. The results of a study on staff development and library services in academic libraries indicated that staff training brought employees up to date with technological changes. Staff functioned more efficiently and were encouraged to provide quality services while experiencing an increase in motivation and job satisfaction. According to Maponya: “The success of academic libraries depends on the capabilities and skills of its staff to serve the needs of the university community more efficiently and effectively” (2004, 17). Professional development is key to providing improved services in the 4IR. Librarians must have or be given proper skills to use the evolving technologies and to support online learning in higher institutions. Library staff need to attend technical workshops and conferences to equip themselves with technological aptitudes, knowledge and skills to develop successful library systems (Frances, Fletcher, and Harmer 2011). It is unequivocal that academic libraries must organise training and workshops to capacitate staff members with precise, relevant knowledge. The 4IR requires people to be lifelong learners, eager to learn, relearn and unlearn. Given the ever-changing technological landscape, library staff must equip themselves with the skills and knowledge needed to optimise use of the available technologi-

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cal infrastructure and to improve services to their patrons. Byrne argues that academic libraries require staff equipped with skills to “recognise and respond to the dynamism of the new service models and operate successfully amid the impermanence of the new tools” (2008, 371). There is a need for integration of human and robotic skills: In accordance with the vision of the Fourth Industrial Revolution, humans and intelligent machines will jointly perform production tasks in the future. Sensors, cameras and self-learning software will be indispensible to this process. The leitmotiv is that robots will have to adapt to humans, and not vice versa. In fact, this principle must be implemented to the extent that the new generation of intelligent industrial robots will learn from their human colleagues who simply demonstrate the necessary actions (Bloem et al. 2014, 14).

Maponya (2004) notes that academic libraries face evolving challenges including diverse staff and student demographics, financial pressures, and increasing public scrutiny and accountability. Limited budgets for libraries make it difficult to implement improvements (Eneya, Mostert, and Ocholla 2020) and to afford the costs of ongoing maintenance and upgrades of library software and hardware (Wen 2005).

Conclusion and Future Actions The 4IR and the consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic and associated institutional lockdowns have increased the need for academic libraries to serve student populations remotely. The availability of digital libraries is of paramount importance. The pandemic forced the acceleration of providing digital services. UKZN and UL academic libraries are at the forefront of providing such services, in line with contemporary ICT developments. The current situation has motivated both the UKZN and UL libraries to operate in new ways. The issues facing staff are considerable. Some have responded by learning and becoming more innovative, familiarising themselves with technological tools while others have become frustrated in the performance of their changed duties. In the face of the combination of scanned copies of materials previously in physical reserve collections, and access to digital repositories. The challenges confronting both UKZN and UL academic libraries are manifest in various aspects. On a positive note, the libraries are reaching out dynamically and engaging with patrons in virtual spaces. It can be concluded that both libraries have adjusted and will continue to adapt to unprecedented requirements, conditions and procedures. Both academic libraries included in the study are fulfilling their potential by providing rich and free electronic content and rendering online services of a high



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standard. Concerning prospects for the future, the use of academic libraries will grow exponentially as the 4IR continues to advance. The study undertaken confirms that the newest technological tools and the consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic have not seriously interfered with the essential roles of academic libraries. The libraries continue to support their patrons on- and off-campus, as they did before the present crisis. Going forward, academic libraries must: –– Reflect not only on current needs but engage with the future and make plans for immediate and future consideration and implementation –– Ensure that students have access to the materials required for use in the 21st-century classroom –– Support virtual learning spaces and enhance university productivity, and –– Take advantage of new ICT tools and ensure library staff, students, faculty and researchers use them effectively. University management, as the custodian of academic activities, must: –– Examine its strengths and optimise all available resources to fulfil its role and meet institutional needs –– Empower its staff to enhance productivity –– Optimise its human capital and staff capabilities to ensure appropriate responses to change, and –– Be ready to respond proactively and productively to emergencies impacting teaching and learning systems.

References Ahmat, Muhammad Akmal, and Rabiahtul Adauwiyah Abu Hanipah. 2018. “Preparing the Libraries for the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4th IR).” Journal PPM: Journal of Malaysian Librarians 12, no. 1: 53–64. http://eprints.rclis.org/34309/1/USM_4th_IR_INDUSTRY_REVOLUTION.pdf. Ayinde, Lateef, and Hal Kirkwood. 2020. “Rethinking the Roles and Skills of Information Professionals in the 4th Industrial Revolution.” Business Information Review 37, no.4: 142–153. https://doi. org/10.1177/0266382120968057. Bloem, Jaap, Menno van Doorn, Sander Duivestein, David Excoffier, René Maasand, and Erik van Ommeren. 2014. The Fourth Industrial Revolution: Things to Tighten the Link between IT and OT. Sogeti VINT Report no.3 of 4. https://www.fr.sogeti.com/globalassets/global/downloads/reports/ vint-research-3-the-fourth-industrial-revolution. Byrne, Alex. 2008. “Web 2.0 strategy in Libraries and Information Services. Australian Library Journal 57, no. 4: 365–376. https://doi.org/10.1080/00049670.2008.10722517. Creswell, John W. 2014. Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches. 4th ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.

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Davis, Nicholas. 2016. “What is the Fourth Industrial Revolution?” Geneva: World Economic Forum. https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/01/what-is-the-fourth-industrial-revolution/. Eneya, Dorothy, Dennis N. Ocholla, and Bertha Janneke Mostert. 2020. “University of Zululand Library and Inclusive Education: Responding to the Needs of Students with Disabilities: Students with Disabilities.” Mousaion: South African Journal of Information Studies 38, no. 1: 1–20. https://doi. org/10.25159/2663-659X/6966. Frances, Maude, Janet Fletcher, and Sue Harmer. 2011. “Reshaping and Rescoping University Libraries to Fit Changing Academic Requirements.” Proceedings of the 32nd Annual International Association of Scientific and Technological University Libraries (IATUL) Conference, May 29th–June 2nd, 2011, Warsaw University of Technology, Poland. https://docs.lib.purdue.edu/cgi/viewcontent. cgi?article=1944&context=iatul. Freeman, Geoffrey T. 2005. “The Library as Place: Changes in Learning Patterns, Collections, Technology, and Use.” in Library as Place: Rethinking Roles, Rethinking Space, by Council on Library and Information Resources (CLIR), 1-9. Washington, DC: CLIR. https://www.clir.org/pubs/reports/ pub129/freeman/. Gayton, Jeffrey T. 2008. “Academic Libraries: ‘Social’ or ‘Communal?’: The Nature and Future of Academic Libraries.” The Journal of Academic Librarianship 34, no.1: 60-66. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.acalib.2007.11.011. Available at https://minds.wisconsin.edu/bitstream/ handle/1793/23259/Academic%20Libraries%20Social%20or%20Communal%20%28Revised%20 Draft%29.pdf?sequence=2&isAllowed=y. Guliwe, Thulani. 2019. “The Fourth Industrial Revolution and the Future of the Labour Intensive Sectors in the Developing Countries: ‘The Hailstorm in a Cup of Tea’.” AfricaGrowth Agenda 16, no.1 :14-18. Sabinet. https://hdl.handle.net/10520/EJC-14771ab30f. Holland, Barbara. 2020. “Emerging Technology and Today’s Libraries.” In: Emerging Trends and Impacts of the Internet of Things in Libraries, edited by Barbara Holland, 1-33. Hershey, PA: IGI Global. Ifijeh, Goodluck, and Felicia Yusuf. 2020. “Covid – 19 Pandemic and the Future of Nigeria’s University System: The Quest for Libraries’ Relevance.” The Journal of Academic Librarianship 46, no.6: 10226. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7426696/. International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA). 2020. “COVID-19 and the Global Library Field: Updates: Key Resources for Libraries in Responding to the Coronavirus Pandemic.” https://www.ifla.org/covid-19-and-the-global-library-field/. Krésová, Dana. 2019. “Can the Fourth Industrial Revolution-Industry 4.0 Hold the Future for Africa’s Industrialisation? Case Study of Kenya.” Master of Science Thesis, Lund University. https://www. lunduniversity.lu.se/lup/publication/8993841. Lee, MinHwa, Joseph Yun, Andreas Pyka, DongKyu Won, Fumio Kodama, Giovanni Schiuma, Hangsik Park et al. 2018. “How to Respond to the Fourth Industrial Revolution, or the Second Information Technology Revolution? Dynamic New Combinations Between Technology, Market, and Society Through Open Innovation.” Journal of Open Innovation: Technology, Market, and Complexity 4, no. 3: 21. https://www.mdpi.com/2199-8531/4/3/21/pdf. Leedy, Paul D. and Jeanne Ellis Ormrod. 2019. Practical Research: Planning and Design. 12th ed. London: Pearson. Manda, More Ickson, and Judy Backhouse. 2017. “Digital Transformation for Inclusive Growth in South Africa: Challenges and Opportunities in the 4th Industrial Revolution.” In 3rd African Conference on Information Systems and Technology (ACIST), Cape Town, South Africa, July 10–11, 2017. https:// www.researchgate.net/publication/318395119_Digital_transformation_for_inclusive_growth_in_ South_Africa_challenges_and_opportunities_in_the_4_th_industrial_revolution.



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Maponya, Pearl M. 2004. “Knowledge Management Practices in Academic Libraries: A Case Study of the University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg Libraries.” http://mapule276883.pbworks.com/f/ Knowledge+management+practices+in+academic+libraries.pdf. Matlala, Mpubane E. 2020. “The Role of the Legal Deposit Library in Bridging the Digital Divide: A Case Study of the Msunduzi Library in Pietermaritzburg, South Africa.” Research in Economics and Management 5, no. 3: 151–171. https://doi.org/10.22158/rem.v5n3p151. Mehta, Dipti, and Xiaocan Wang. 2020. “COVID-19 and Digital Library Services – a Case Study of a University Library”. Digital Library Perspectives 36, no. 4: 351–363. https://doi.org/10.1108/DLP-052020-0030. Mhlanga, David, and Tankiso Moloi. 2020. “COVID-19 and the Digital Transformation of Education: What Are We Learning on 4IR in South Africa?” Education Sciences 10, no. 7: 180. https://doi. org/10.3390/educsci10070180. Monyela, Madireng. 2020. “Cataloguing Education in the Midst of the Coronavirus (COVID-19): The Authors Perspectives.” Library Philosophy and Practice 4396. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/ libphilprac/4396. Neto, Ruy de Castro Sobrosa, Janayna Sobrosa Maia, Samara de Silva Neiva, Michael Dillon Scalia, and José Baltazar Salgueirinho Osório de Andrade. 2020. “The Fourth Industrial Revolution and the Coronavirus: A New Era Catalyzed by a Virus.” Research in Globalization 2: 100024. https://www. sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2590051X20300137. Noh, Younghee. and Chang, Rosa. 2020. “A Study on the Factors of Public Library Use by Residents.” Journal of Librarianship and Information Science 52, no.4: 1110 –1125. https://doi. org/10.1177/0961000620903772. Ntlotlang, Tuelo. 2019. “Technology Mediated Tools as Drivers of Library – Researcher Collaboration: The Case of Botswana International University of Science and Technology (BIUST) Institutional Repository (IR).” Paper presented at 85th World Library and Information Congress of IFLA, 24–30 August 2019 – Athens. Libraries: Dialogue for Change, in Session 233 – Africa Section. http://library.ifla.org/id/eprint/2450/1/233-ntlotlang_en.pdf; https://repository.biust.ac.bw/ handle/123456789/135. Ocholla, Dennis N. , and Lyudmila Ocholla. 2020. “Readiness of Academic Libraries in South Africa to Research, Teaching and Learning Support in the Fourth Industrial Revolution.” Library Management 41, no. 6/7: 355–368. https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/ doi/10.1108/LM-04-2020-0067/full/html. Available at https://www.researchgate.net/profile/ Dennis-Ocholla/publication/342664878_Readiness_of_academic_libraries_in_South_ Africa_to_research_teaching_and_learning_support_in_the_Fourth_Industrial_Revolution/ links/5f4ba97192851c6cfd02299d/Readiness-of-academic-libraries-in-South-Africa-to-researchteaching-and-learning-support-in-the-Fourth-Industrial-Revolution.pdf. Ojowhoh, Rose. 2016. “Staff Development and Library Services in Academic Libraries in Bayelsa and Delta States.” Journal of Information and Knowledge Management 7, no. 1: 129–137. https://www. ajol.info/index.php/iijikm/article/view/144907/134534. Parker, Rubeena, Katherine Morris, and Jane Hofmeyr. 2020. Education, Inequality and Innovation in the Time of COVID-19. Parktown, Johannesburg: JET Education Services. https://www.jet.org.za/ resources/theme-9-final-july-2020-parker-et-al.pdf/@@download/file/Theme%209%20Final%20 report%20Parker%20et%20al.pdf. Safavi, Ali Akbar. 2008. “Developing Countries and E-learning Programme Development.” Journal of Global Information Technology Management 11, no. 3: 47–64. https://doi.org/10.1080/1 097198X.2008.10856473.

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Schiuma, Giovanni. 2017. “Arts Catalyst of Creative Organizations for the Fourth Industrial Revolution.” Journal of Open Innovation: Technology, Market, and Complexity 3, no.44: 20. https://doi. org/10.1186/s40852-017-0072-1. Schulte, Jurgen, Belinda Tiffen, Jackie Edwards, Scott Abbott, and Edward Luca. 2018. “Shaping the Future of Academic Libraries: Authentic Learning for the Next Generation.” College & Research Libraries 79, no. 5: 685–696. https://doi.org/10.5860/crl.79.5.685. Schwab, Klaus. 2016. “The Fourth Industrial Revolution: What It Means, How to Respond.” World Economic Forum. Global Agenda. Fourth Industrial Revolution, January 14, 2016. This article was first published in Foreign Affairs. https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/01/the-fourth-industrialrevolution-what-it-means-and-how-to-respond/. Schwab, Klaus. 2017. The Fourth Industrial Revolution. New York: Currency. Seidman, Dov. 2016. “In the Machine Age, Only One Type of Organization Will Thrive: A Human One.” World Economic Forum. Uplink in Action – Take Action on the SDGs. Forum in Focus. September 14, 2016. https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/09/in-the-machine-age-only-one-type-oforganization-will-thrive-a-human-one/. Soh, Changrok, and Daniel Connolly. 2021. “New Frontiers of Profit and Risk: The Fourth Industrial Revolution’s Impact on Business and Human Rights.” New Political Economy 26, no. 1 (2021): 168–185. https://doi.org/10.1080/13563467.2020.1723514. South Africa Department of Sports, Arts and Culture. 2020. “Government Notices/ Goewermentskennisgewings. No.751. Amendment of Directions Issued in Terms of Regulation 4(10) of the Regulations Made Under Section 27(2) of the Disaster Management Act, 2002 (Act No.57 Of 2002): Allowing Sporting Events, Training and Matches to Resume, Including Opening of Libraries, Museums, Cinemas, Theatres, Galleries and Archives in Compliance with Measures to Prevent and Combat the Spread of Covid-19”. Terms Of Regulation 4(10) of the Regulations Published in Government Notice No.R480. July 6, 2020. Government Gazette no. 43507. http:// www.dac.gov.za/sites/default/files/Legislations%20Files/43507gon661.pdf. Tahleho, Tseole Emmanuel. 2016. “Improving Service Delivery at the National University of Lesotho Library through Knowledge Sharing.” Master of Information Science thesis, University of South Africa, Pretoria. http://hdl.handle.net/10500/21730. Tokwe, Hosea and Sabelo Mapasure. 2016. “Using ICTs Effectively to Leverage Global Communications: The Case of Public Libraries in Zimbabwe.” 22nd Standing Conference of Eastern, Central and Southern Africa Library and Information Associations. SCECSAL XXII Proceedings: Digital Transformation and the Changing Role of Libraries and Information Centres in the Sustainable Development of Africa Mbabane, Swaziland Library and Information Association, 2016. https:// scecsal.org/publications/papers2016/021_tokwe_2016.pdf. Wawrzaszek, SusanV., and David G. Wedaman, 2008. “The Academic Library in a 2.0 World.” EDUCAUSE Center for Applied Research Bulletin. 2008, Issue 19. https://library.educause.edu/ resources/2008/9/the-academic-library-in-a-20-world. Wen, Shixing. 2005. “Implementing Knowledge Management in Academic Libraries: A Pragmatic Approach.” http://www.white-clouds.com/iclc/cliej/cl19wen.htm. Originally published in the Proceedings of the 3rd China-US Library Conference. Xing, Bo, and Tshilidzi Marwala. 2017. “Implications of the Fourth Industrial Age for Higher Education.” The Thinker 73, no. 1: 10–15. https://arxiv.org/pdf/1703.09643. Xu, Min, Jeanne M. David, and Suk Hi Kim. 2018. The Fourth Industrial Revolution: Opportunities and Challenges. International Journal of Financial Research 9, no. 2: 90–95. https://doi.org/10.5430/ijfr. v9n2p90.

Amy P.A. Asimah

3 U  ser Services in Ghanaian Academic Libraries in Response to the COVID-19 Pandemic Abstract: The COVID-19 pandemic has significantly transformed the world and the global higher education sector, including academic library information service provision. This chapter outlines the reaction of academic institutions to the pandemic and examines user services in Ghanaian academic libraries provided in response to the COVID-19 pandemic along with the associated challenges within the framework of a study undertaken of ten academic libraries in Ghana. Details of the services introduced are outlined. The experiences of the Ghanaian libraries contribute to the body of knowledge on the effect of national health crises on academic libraries and provide data on how librarians, library policy makers and managers of educational institutions can best offer excellent virtual user services during difficult times and make appropriate responses to events like pandemics. Keywords: COVID-19 (Disease); Academic libraries – Ghana; Library services for distance education; Digital libraries – Planning; Electronic reference services (Libraries)

Introduction The COVID-19 pandemic broke out in Wuhan, China in December 2019 (Ifejeh and Yusuf 2020; Kandola 2020). The early response from most African countries including Ghana was either sending help to China or repatriating their citizens who were stranded in China, including students. The response changed when the pandemic spread into African countries including Ghana. Ghana recorded its first case of COVID-19 in March 2020 (Frimpong 2020). The early trajectory of the virus and the Ghanaian response have been traced. To curb the spread of the virus, the response of the President of Ghana in his first televised broadcast to the nation on March 15, 2020, was a ban on all public gatherings and the closure of all public facilities and educational institutions, including universities and their libraries, senior high schools and basic schools (Ablordeppey 2020). An abrupt end was put to all academic activities as all students and workers were forced to leave their various institutions. Ghana is located a few degrees north of the equator on the Gulf of Guinea in West Africa. With a population of over 31 million people, Ghana is the second-most populous country in West Africa, after Nigeria. The capital and largest city is Accra; Ghana is a stable unitary presidential constitutional democracy and a member of https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110772753-005

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the Non-Aligned Movement, the African Union, the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), the Group of 24 (G24) and the Commonwealth of Nations. The Ghanaian education system comprises three parts: basic, secondary and tertiary. There are fifteen public universities in Ghana and a growing number of accredited private universities. The Consortium of Academic and Research Libraries in Ghana (CARLIGH) comprises forty-two members, including eight public and nineteen private university libraries, and six technical university libraries. CARLIGH provides access to a network of electronic information resources. Academic libraries in Ghana are established by their patron institutions to provide relevant information resources and services necessary for supporting teaching, learning, and research. They include libraries in Ghanaian universities, technical universities, polytechnics, and colleges of education. The academic libraries of the University of Ghana (UG), University of Health and Allied Sciences (UHAS), the University of Cape Coast (UCC), the University of Professional Studies, Accra (UPSA), Ho Technical University (HTU), Accra Technical University (ATU), Cape Coast Technical University (CCTU), Ashesi University, Evangelical Presbyterian University College (EPUC) and Pentecost University (Pentvars) were selected for this study. Most of the library systems comprise the main library and other branch libraries at various schools, institutes, departments, residence halls and satellite campuses. The focus of the study was on the main libraries of the selected universities. The libraries contain books, periodicals, microfilms, CDs, tapes and electronic resources covering all academic programmes of the various institutions. Teaching and learning in Ghanaian universities have followed traditional methods, with face-to-face classes in lecture halls and seminar rooms. Only a few universities in the country operate electronic learning platforms, involving the uploading and downloading of lecture notes and submission of assignments. Similarly, the university libraries in Ghana operate traditionally, with some provision of off-campus access to electronic resources and some other library services provided via virtual reference options including email, online chat, chatbots, or Ask-a-Librarian platforms. As a result of the stay-at-home order and the bid to curtail the spread of the virus in the country, educational institutions moved quickly to online learning. The COVID-19 pandemic has significantly transformed the global higher education sector, as well as academic library information service provision. As the main providers of information resources and services for teaching, learning and research, all academic libraries in Ghana responded quickly to the public health emergency by discontinuing all on-site visits and services as directed by the President of Ghana. Academic libraries commenced the provision of online services for students, researchers and faculty enabled by Information and Communications Technology (ICT), national and international telecommunication networks, institutional networks and software platforms, social media and institutional websites while the libraries remained

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closed. The libraries were challenged to provide substantial services to disseminate accurate, timely and reliable information to users amidst the pandemic, to support the emergency online teaching and learning, and to assist in maintaining a sustainable society. This chapter describes a study which surveyed ten selected Ghanaian academic libraries to discover new approaches being taken to the provision of user services in response to the COVID-19 pandemic and to identify the challenges.

The Role of Libraries in Emergency Situations Information plays an essential role in public health crises. There is a rich literature on how libraries address, anticipate and respond to different health information education and needs of persons and communities (Dalrymple and Galvin 2020; Guo et al. 2020; Kosciejew 2020; Whiteman et al. 2018; Whitney, Dutcher, and Keselman 2013). Various research has been conducted on the role of libraries during public health emergencies and disasters with considerable focus on libraries’ user services. According to Featherstone, Lyon, and Ruffin (2008), libraries have played major roles in emergency and disaster response such as providing access to collections, disseminating accurate and reliable information to users and institutions, community support, government partnership, education, training and community building. In relation to information services, libraries provide institution and/or community-based disaster information outreach services during disasters and emergencies (Featherstone 2012). The services provided involve gathering emerging and essential health information, evaluating pandemic information services and delivering specific information summaries to meet the needs of health care staff, students, faculty, researchers and the general public during a public health emergency (Kosciejew 2020). In 2014, there was an Ebola Virus Disease (EVD) outbreak in West Africa. It was described as the ”largest, most severe and most complex Ebola epidemic the world has ever seen” (WHO n.d.). The US National Library of Medicine (NLM) together with academic libraries in the affected West African countries responded to the EVD crisis by disseminating health information to the public (Love, Arnesen, and Phillips 2015). They created awareness of the existence of EVD, provided information on how the virus spread, and outlined preventive measures. Although, Ghana did not record any case of EVD, there was a high level of preparedness by the government and the health officials (Adongo et al. 2016). In a similar way, libraries in Ghana championed the creation of awareness of EVD and disseminated information on the spread of the virus and potential preventive measures. Health institutions together with academic libraries continued to provide accurate and timely information to the public which reduced people’s fear of EVD.

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According to Guo et al. (2020), Chinese researchers studied library user services in response to severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) which broke out in China in 2003. Guo et al. (2020) states that academic libraries provided users with the useful information services when the libraries were shut during the SARS epidemic. The timely and accurate information provisions by the academic libraries, according to Feng (2003), eased the fear and panic of the public on SARS and Chinese researchers suggested an extension of Chinese libraries’ disaster emergency information services to an appreciable level. Much has been written on how academic libraries respond to health emergency crises such as EVD, SARS, Zika Virus and H1N1 or swine flu; however there is little information on how libraries should respond to the Coronavirus pandemic because of its novelty. At first libraries focused on disaster preparedness for system and collection protection and not necessarily on the provision of information services during or after public health emergencies. However, the importance of information service provision during and after public health emergency is evidenced by attention given to the topic in scholarly literature and academic conference proceedings (McKnight and Zach 2007). Technological advancement has transformed the global information environment compared to the past. Widespread use of the Internet and modern ICT including tablet computers and smartphones, along with the acceptance and use of social media networks and digital platforms, have allowed academic libraries to employ many new features and innovative services for emergency service provision in public health emergencies (Guo et al. 2020). Most university libraries have employed digital means of providing services and accepted the use of social media platforms in delivering information and reference services. A study by Mehta and Wang (2020) revealed a tremendous shift from traditional service provision to digital library service provision during the COVID-19 pandemic. Allen (2010) observed that from a survey of social media use by over 1200 libraries across Europe, social media platforms like Facebook, blogging, widgets and micro-blogging were used by libraries in advertising the library, improving library image and supporting specified content provision. Social media platforms are helpful in virtual reference and information services, as well as disseminating emerging health information to the general public during health emergency crises (Ifijeh and Yusuf 2020). According to Cook (2015), cited in Ifijeh and Yusuf (2020), the American Public University connects online students with library resources through social media. This is a common trend among libraries in developed countries. However, the use of digital tools and social media platforms for library services is at the cradle stage in most developing countries, including Ghana (Adewoyin, Onuoha, and Ikonne 2017; Ifijeh and Yusuf 2020). Studies by Ahenkorah-Marfo and Akussah (2016), Owusu-Ansah et al. (2015) and Mingle, Lamptey, and Hassan (2014) on social media and Web 2.0 technology use for service provi-

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sion in Ghanaian academic libraries confirmed the slow adaptation of social media and web 2.0 technology for service provision in academic libraries. For academic libraries to meet the information needs of users during the COVID-19 pandemic and to remain relevant post-COVID-19 in support of online teaching and learning, they must adopt new methods of service provision (IwuJames, Haliso, and Ifijeh 2020).

Service Provision in Ghanaian Academic Libraries in Response to COVID-19 User service provision and the emergency service measures in ten Ghanaian academic libraries during the COVID-19 pandemic were examined and the challenges inherent in the adoption of new approaches noted. The findings revealed that 90% of the academic libraries were closed during the pandemic; 40% released Covid-19 information on their library websites; the majority changed their service focus from traditional face-to-face to partially or completely remote online service delivery with remote access, free digital resources, and remote reference services reachable 24/7; and print material services were changed to ebooks for expediency. The challenges included anxiety about being infected with Covid-19; constant maintenance of social distance and disinfecting the library environment whilst working in-house; lack of appropriate ICT; poor internet connectivity; lack of technical skills; and dealing with children while working from home. Details of the conduct of the survey are outlined followed by the findings. The challenges are reported separately subsequently.

The Survey Details As already noted, the ten academic libraries in Ghana selected for the study included the libraries from four public universities, three technical universities and three private universities. The universities were: the University of Ghana (UG), University of Health and Allied Sciences (UHAS), the University of Cape Coast (UCC), the University of Professional Studies, Accra (UPSA), Ho Technical University (HTU), Accra Technical University (ATU), Cape Coast Technical University (CCTU), Ashesi University, Evangelical Presbyterian University College (EPUC) and Pentecost University (Pentvars). Data for the survey was collected by examining the website of each institution and the social media platform provided, and through direct correspondence. The

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survey period covered March to October 2020. The researcher first visited online the official websites of the ten academic libraries to confirm the websites were functional and that user services were provided during the COVID-19 pandemic. The researcher recorded and counted each library’s user services. The official social media platforms of the various academic libraries were also visited online to confirm whether they were active and whether they provided user services during the pandemic. Some of the social media platforms used by the libraries include Facebook, YouTube, WhatsApp, Telegram and others. The researcher accessed the networks to find out whether they were used for library communication, interaction, information sharing or dissemination of information to users. Lastly, the researcher corresponded with the heads of the libraries selected for the study through online questionnaires to confirm the reliability of the survey data from the websites and social media networks. The researcher used her designed survey to obtain data from the websites and the official social media networks. The respondents from the libraries studied pointed out the challenges that the shift to digital library resources and service provision during the pandemic posed to them. While the survey input came from ten individuals, it reflected institutional perspectives because they were the heads of their libraries.

The Survey Findings The findings from the study are examined under various headings including the closure of the libraries, provision of remote access, provision of free access to eresources, remote reference services, and suspension of print-based services.

Closure of Libraries and Release of COVID-19 Information As of March 18, 2020, the survey of the ten academic libraries found that 90% of the libraries were closed. To curb the fast spread of infection caused by large gatherings, the libraries informed their users about preventive measures to adopt towards the virus; 50% of the libraries’ websites issued emergency closure notices; and 40% of the libraries released COVID-19 information on their library websites as suggested by Kosciejew (2020). The correspondence from the libraries authenticated the website investigation that had been undertaken by the researcher and it was determined that, apart from the library websites, various other means were used to inform users about library closures and to provide information on COVID-

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19. For example, UCC used Facebook to inform users about the library closure and COVID-19 preventive measures (Figures 3.1 and 3.2). As teaching and learning moved online during the pandemic, most of the academic libraries surveyed also moved their resources and services online. For example, the services provided by the UG Libraries included off-campus access, research guides, past exam questions, article requests, free electronic resources, subscribed databases A–Z, access to emerging research on COVID-19 and Ask-a-Librarian (Figure 3.3). The UG Libraries also used social media networks such as Facebook, WhatsApp and YouTube to interact with their users and educate them on how to use the online services, for example how to register for off-campus access, how to access past questions and how to obtain peer-reviewed journals (Figure 3.4). Before the COVID-19 pandemic, digital library service provision and the use of social media for library service delivery was minimal in Ghana. However, with the emergence of the pandemic and the stay-at-home order, there was a drastic shift towards the use of Web 2.0 technologies and social media for library service provision. The survey results revealed that some of the academic libraries had previously provided resources and services that could be used off-campus. Some had also used social media for service delivery but not to the extent that it was embraced during the COVID-19 era. It must however be noted that, few of the academic libraries selected for the study were providing off-campus access to library services and resources pre-COVID-19; some however did not engage users through social media platforms even during the pandemic.

Fig. 3.1: UCC Sam Jonah Library Facebook COVID-19 Information.

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Fig. 3.2: UCC Sam Jonah Library Facebook COVID-19 Closure Notice.

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Fig. 3.3: Services on the UG Balme Library Website during COVID-19.

Fig. 3.4: UG Balme Library YouTube Step-by-step Guide for Online Services.

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Remote Access Replaced Face-to-face Services In response to COVID-19, all universities in Ghana were closed which brought an abrupt end to the activities of the second semester of the 2019/2020 academic year. To continue with teaching and learning online and to conclude the second semester, libraries needed to ensure that eresources and services could be used widely. The survey of the academic library websites and of their official social media networks demonstrated that limited-time free electronic resources offered by electronic resource database providers and other channels were generally being used. This finding reflects work undertaken by Mehta and Wang (2020) which revealed the drastic shift from traditional service provision to electronic service provision during the pandemic. The survey of the ten academic libraries found that the library websites were heavily used as off-campus routes to the library resources and services; users could obtain access to subscribed database resources. Generally, the usage mode was: –– Log on to the academic library website directly or via the University website with navigation to the library portal, and click on Off Campus Access –– Enter username and password, usually student or staff ID depending on the operating system, if already registered, to access the electronic resources; if not registered follow the step-by-step instruction given by the system to register, and –– After successful logging on to the system, access the library’s electronic resources. Other resources and services such as open access databases, ebooks, past examination questions, theses/dissertations from the institutional repository and services such as article request, literature search and many others were provided for users through the library websites. Many electronic database vendors provided free limited-time use of eresources in support of society’s COVID-19 prevention and response work. Academic libraries listed and linked free resources for users to access directly without the usual off-campus access requirements. In addition, leading publishers like Elsevier, Oxford, Wiley, Nature, BMJ, CDC, Emerald and Cambridge provided free access to the latest literature on COVID-19 through Google Scholar (Figure 3.5). The survey found that Google Scholar was listed on library websites under the A–Z databases, or Free and Open Databases (Figure 3.6) and the Google Scholar widget was embedded in some online library research guides.

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Fig. 3.5: Free Access to Literature on COVID-19 on UG Website.

Fig. 3.6: Free and Open Databases including Google Scholar on UG Website.

To facilitate users’ access to electronic resources generally, some libraries produced and published user guides to help faculty and students use the library network services and the various digital resources effectively during the COVID-19 preven-

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tion and control stage. The libraries improved online digital resource acquisition methods and increased digital service provision methods.

Free Access to Electronic Resources As already noted, to support the emergency online teaching, learning and research conducted during the pandemic as well as to curtail the spread of the virus, several publishers, internet providers and database vendors launched free access to online academic resources for a limited time. Many academic libraries made these free resources available for users on their websites after testing and confirming successful access. The survey found that during the pandemic the academic libraries launched free ebook sections on their websites and published their availability and step-bystep guide on usage via social media platforms like Facebook, YouTube and Telegram; Figure 3.7 from UCC provides an example of the ebooks made available for use. The libraries collected multimedia academic resources for users and provided guidance in their use.

Fig. 3.7: UCC List of free ebooks available.

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Remote 24/7 Reference Service Provision During the pandemic, library users did not appear to encounter many problems in using resources and services of the library or in obtaining the assistance of

Fig. 3.8: Virtual reference service provision.

librarians although face-to-face services were suspended. The survey revealed that virtual reference services were provided by some of the libraries surveyed and their methods included email, telephone, WhatsApp, Telegram and Chat through library management systems and their online interfaces. 40% of the libraries provided no virtual reference services. The libraries provided virtual reference services on various devices and were reachable 24/7 while the libraries remained closed to prevent the spread of COVID-19 and at the same time met the needs of users with traditional face-to-face services unavailable. According to the survey, 60% of the libraries provided reference and contact information on library websites, Facebook accounts, YouTube and Twitter during the COVID-19 health crises. The survey results which included multiple responses (Figure 3.8) indicate that 20% of the libraries provided telephone reference services and 40% of the libraries offered email reference services to users who needed literature searches or assistance with electronic resources. Concerns of users during the use of electronic resources were sent through emails to library staff and assistance was given at the earliest convenience. 10% of the libraries used Telegram for messaging; 10% used WhatsApp; and 10% used chat approaches provided through library systems. The survey found that research support services were provided online by 60% of the surveyed academic libraries. However, 40% of the libraries

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did not provide adequate online subject service support during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Suspension of Print Material Services Most of the libraries surveyed were closed during the COVID-19 pandemic and suspended book returning services. Most of the libraries sent notices to inform users that books on loan would not be regarded as overdue and would not therefore be subject to penalty, thereby relieving user concerns. It is worth noting that few of the libraries provided print material services during the pandemic The respondents indicated that library staff adopted a non-contact delivery approach to avoid being infected. For instance, HTU reported: “Individual users contacted the library either through phones or email requesting particular books. Such were delivered physically to the persons or were kept at the university security office for the persons to pick up at later time and users’ particulars entered in the signed short loan register provided by the library”. As shown in Table 1, the UG Balme Library website investigation indicated the provision of a print material service. According to the UG library respondent, some users contacted the library by phone or email requesting particular books, and delivery was done physically, but the COVID-19 protocols were observed to prevent infection. These services helped users who were desperately in need of some print materials.

Challenges Encountered The study sought to establish the nature of the challenges encountered by library staff working in-house during the pandemic, and by staff working from home. Table 3 provides details on responses received. The results reflected the personal and institutional perspectives provided by the ten individuals contacted since they were heads of libraries and received complaints or reports from their subordinates on the challenges they faced. The majority, 80%, were anxious about being infected with COVID-19 despite the in-house hygiene protocols observed. 70% of the respondents were constantly maintaining social distance and taking extra care by wearing face masks and frequently washing hands for personal reasons as well as concern for the library collections and their users; and frequently disinfecting the library environment. Some respondents, 30%, had the additional challenge of quarantining library materials that were handled. Fewer respondents, 10%, experienced problems dealing with requests for scanned materials used in teaching and

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learning. Some staff took things for granted and failed to observe the protocols appropriately. Table 3.1: Challenges Encountered by Staff Working In-House. Source: Field data 2020. Responses

Frequency

Percentage

7 7 8 7

70 70 80 70

3 1 1

30 10 10

Constantly maintaining social distance Frequent disinfecting the library environment Anxiety about being infected with COVID-19 despite the in-house hygiene Taking extra care by wearing face and nose mask and hand washing for their health-care, library collections and their users Quarantining library materials that were handled Staff are taking things for granted and hardly observe the protocols Dealing with requests for scanning of materials used in teaching and learning

The researcher was also interested in determining the challenges encountered by library staff working from home during the pandemic. The analyses of the responses are shown in Table 2. Table 3.2: Challenges Encountered by Staff Working from Home. Source: Field data 2020. Responses a. b. c. d. e.

f. g. h.

i. j.

Frequency

Lack of ICT devices at home Intermittent power supply Poor internet connectivity High cost of data for browsing Lack of technical skills to operate computers, access documents saved in clouds off-campus and shared network drives to provide services efficiently from home Inability to have a private working space at home Dealing with children at home while working Negative emotional feelings such as uncertainty, isolation and stress resulting from the inability of library staff to collaborate, support, social network and to join others Newness of telecommuting Lack of personal contact with colleagues

Percentage

5 4 8 10 6

50 40 80 100 60

5 9 6

50 90 60

1 1

10 10

The study showed that the high cost of data and Internet use for browsing was the most encountered challenge for staff working from home. In addition, 90% had to deal with children at home while working and 80% had poor internet connectivity.

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It was clearly shown in the analysis that a large proportion of staff, 60%, lacked ICT skills required and some experienced negative emotional feelings such as uncertainty, isolation and stress resulting from a lack of association with colleagues; 50% lacked ICT devices and private working spaces at home; and 40% of staff had intermittent power supply at home. A few staff, 10%, were new to telecommuting and unable to gain help through personal contact with colleagues. The researcher sought to find out the level of preparedness of the academic libraries for emergency remote service provision. Responses revealed that 70% were partially prepared, 10% indicated they were fully prepared, and 20% were not prepared.

Conclusion and Recommendations The COVID-19 outbreak has redefined the narrative for everyone and led to particular issues in the global educational sector. Traditional face-to-face teaching, learning and research have contracted as educational institutions migrated to virtual learning spaces which directly affected the service provision of academic libraries. According to the website investigation, the analysis of social media access, and direct correspondence with staff from the libraries surveyed, Ghanaian academic libraries have placed great importance on responding to COVID-19 and constantly updated the methods of user service provision starting from rapid library closure to the delivery of innovative online services. The use of social media platforms for the delivery of library services which, according to Ahenkorah-Marfo and Akussah (2016), was low pre-COVID-19 has become well accepted and adopted during the pandemic and will linger on. The study found that library websites and social media platforms especially Facebook, WhatsApp, Telegram and YouTube, were heavily used as a means of interaction between libraries and users and also for the provision of professional services and assistance tailored to individual users. The study revealed some lapses in academic libraries’ preparedness for emergency remote service provision and identified significant challenges encountered by staff in providing services to users during the pandemic. The survey was conducted between March and October 2020 and might not have captured all relevant data including updates on the library websites and social media networks used by the libraries. Offline data was not analysed extensively. The survey was limited to ten academic libraries in Ghana; however, it is considered that the findings reflect the situation throughout Ghana and indeed elsewhere. Recommendations for the future include the provision of education and training services to staff and users in information and media literacy, the enhancement

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of electronic resources and services and the delivery of online services. Fear and panic caused by rumours and an explosion of information are inevitable during public health emergencies. Libraries should help keep the general public calm through education and training services to enable users to improve their information and media literacy; they should strive to make available reliable information sources to reduce misinformation and rumours and provide guidelines on preventive measures. Librarians must be trained and improve their emergency remote service competencies so that virtual reference services, ICT related activities, research and other teaching support services can be provided to users. Academic libraries must enhance their electronic resource services to offer users appropriate resources for study, work and life in general at all times, but particularly during public health emergencies with potential closures. Libraries must enhance the ease of access to electronic resources and provide guidelines for effective use. Libraries have the capacity to help students and faculty in remote teaching and learning processes through the provision of eresources, digital library instruction and effective links to the best tools and resources available. Academic libraries must ensure users have off-campus access to eresources at all times and prioritise online document delivery to satisfy the research needs of faculty, students and staff. Libraries must provide timely responses to virtual reference enquiries, especially when users encounter challenges during library use. through live chat, emails, social media, online request forms and many other means. Libraries have a significant role to play during health crises and emergency situations.

References Ablordeppey, Samuel Doe. 2020. “Ghana Confronts Coronavirus Head On.” Graphic Online, March 15, 2020. https://www.graphic.com.gh/news/general-news/ghana-confronts-coronavirus-head-on. html. Adewoyin, Omobola Olufunke, Uloma Dorris Onuoha, and Chinyere Nkechi Ikonne, 2017. “Social Media Use and Service Delivery by Librarians in Federal Universities in South-west, Nigeria.” Library Philosophy and Practice (e-journal) 1641: 1–15. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/ libphilprac/1641. Adongo, Philip Baba, Philip Teg-Nefaah Tabong, Emmanuel Asampong, Joana Ansong, Magda Robalo, and Richard M. Adanu. 2016. “Beyond Knowledge and Awareness: Addressing Misconceptions in Ghana’s Preparation Towards an Outbreak of Ebola Virus Disease.” PLoS One 11, no.2: e0149627. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0149627. Ahenkorah-Marfo, Michael. and Harry Akussah. 2016. “Changing the Face of Reference and User Services.” Reference Services Review 44, no. 3: 219–236. https://doi.org/10.1108/RSR-01-2016-0001.

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Allen, Katherine. 2010. “Survey Reveals Attitudes Towards Social Media in European Libraries.” Information Today Europe. February 1, 2010. https://www.infotoday.eu/Articles/Editorial/FeaturedArticles/Survey-reveals-attitudes-towards-social-media-in-European-libraries-72075.aspx. Cook, Beth. 2015. “Social Media Helps Online Students Connect with Library Resources.” American Public University Edge, May 4, 2015. https://apuedge.com/social-media-helps-online-studentsconnect-with-library-resources/. Dalrymple, Prudence W., and Brian Galvin, eds. 2020. Growing Community Health Literacy through Libraries: Sharing Global Perspectives. (IFLA Publication Series 168). Berlin: De Gruyter Saur. Featherstone, Robin M. 2012. “The Disaster Information Specialist: An Emerging Role for Health Librarians.” Journal of Library Administration 52, no. 8: 731–753. https://doi.org/10.1080/01930826. 2012.746875. Available at https://tinyurl.com/w7kf6mft. Featherstone, Robin M., Becky J. Lyon, and Angela B. Ruffin. 2008. “Library Roles in Disaster Response: An Oral History Project by the National Library of Medicine.” JMLA: Journal of the Medical Library Association 96, no. 4: 343–350. DOI: 10.3163/1536-5050.96.4.009. Feng, F. 2003. “Strengthening Publicity and Education and Ensuring the Stability of Thoughts: Talking about the Library Work During SARS Epidemic”. Library Science Research and Work, 3: 26–27 Frimpong, Enoch Dafar. 2020. “Ghana Confirms 2 cases of Coronavirus [COVID-19].” Graphic Online, March 13, 2020. https://www.graphic.com.gh/news/general-news/ghana-confirms-2-cases-ofcoronavirus.html. Guo, Yajun, Zinan Yang, Zhishun Yang, Yan Quan Liu, Arlene Bielefield, and Gregory Tharp. 2020. “The Provision of Patron Services in Chinese Academic Libraries Responding to the COVID-19 Pandemic.” Library Hi Tech 39, no. 2: 533–548. https://doi.org/10.1108/LHT-04-2020-0098. Available at https://tinyurl.com/38vvur2k. Ifijeh, Goodluck, and Felicia Yusuf. 2020. “Covid-19 Pandemic and the Future of Nigeria’s University System: The Quest for Libraries’ Relevance.” The Journal of Academic Librarianship 46 (no.6: 102226. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acalib.2020.102226. Iwu-James, Juliana, Yacob Haliso, and Goodluck Ifijeh. 2020. “Leveraging Competitive Intelligence for Successful Marketing of Academic Library Services.” New Review of Academic Librarianship 26, no. 1: 151–164. https://doi.org/10.1080/13614533.2019.1632215. Kandola, Aaron. 2020. “Coronavirus Cause: Origin and How It Spreads.” Medical News Today, June 30, 2020. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/coronavirus-causes. Kosciejew, Marc. 2020. “The Coronavirus Pandemic, Libraries and Information: A Thematic Analysis of Initial International Responses to COVID-19.” Global Knowledge, Memory and Communication 70, no. 4/5: 304–324. https://doi.org/10.1108/GKMC-04-2020-0041. Love, Cynthia B., Stacey J. Arnesen, and Steven J. Phillips. 2015. “Ebola Outbreak Response: The Role of Information Resources and the National Library of Medicine.” Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness 9, no. 1: 82–85. https://doi.org/10.1017/dmp.2014.108. Available at https://www. ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4993197/. McKnight, Michelynn, and Lisi Zach. 2007. “Choices in Chaos: Designing Research to Investigate Librarians’ Information Services Improvised During a Variety of Community-wide Disasters and to Produce Evidence-based Training Materials for Librarians. Evidence Based Library and Information Practice 2, no. 3: 59–75. https://doi.org/10.18438/B8N88F. Mehta, Dipti and Xiaocan Wang. 2020. “COVID-19 and Digital Library Services – a Case Study of a University Library.” Digital Library Perspectives 36, no. 4: 351–363. https://doi.org/10.1108/DLP-052020-0030. Mingle, J.W., R.B. Lamptey, and A. Hassan. 2014. “The Use of Social Media and Web 2.0 for Information Service Delivery in Academic Libraries in Ghana.” In Proceedings of the 1st International Conference

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of the Consortium of Academic and Research Libraries in Ghana (CARLIGH), CSIR/INSTI, Accra, July 14–18, 2014. Theme: Innovation for Access to Information, edited by H. R. Asamoah-Hassan and I. K. Antwi, 184–197. Accra, Ghana: CARLIGH. http://journres1.pbworks.com/w/file/fetch/142674627/ The_Use_of_Social_Media_and_Web_2_0_Tech.pdf. Owusu-Ansah, Christopher, Vuyokazi Gontshi, Lois Mutibwa, and Scholarstica Ukwoma. 2015. “Applications of Social Media and Web 2.0 for Research Support in Selected African Academic Institutions.” Journal of Balkan Libraries Union 3, no. 1: 30–39. http://eprints.rclis.org/39392/. Whiteman, Eliza D., Roxanne Dupuis, Anna U. Morgan, Bernadette D’Alonzo, Caleb Epstein, Heather Klusaritz, and Carolyn C. Cannuscio, 2018. “Public Libraries as Partners for Health.” Preventing Chronic Disease 15: E64. Available at https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5985906/. Whitney, Wanda, Gale A. Dutcher, and Alla Keselman. 2013. “Evaluation of Health Information Outreach: Theory, Practice, and Future Direction.” JMLA: Journal of the Medical Library Association 101, no. 2: 138–146. Available at https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3634377/. World Health Organization (WHO). n.d. “Ebola Virus Disease.” https://www.who.int/health-topics/ ebola#tab=tab_1.

Agnes C. Chikonzo, Masimba C. Muziringa, Collence Takaingenhamo Chisita and Rexwhite Tega Enakrire A

4 R  edefining Academic Library Services During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A View from Zimbabwe

Abstract: At the end of 2019, a novel coronavirus was identified in Wuhan, a city in China. It rapidly spread throughout the world, resulting in a global pandemic declaration by the World Health Organization (WHO) on March 11, 2019. The Government of Zimbabwe (GoZ) reported its first case of COVID-19 on March 20, 2020, and quickly responded by instituting infection prevention and control measures to prevent the spread of COVID-19. The government encouraged the public to remain in their homes, work from home, practise hand hygiene, adopt physical distancing, and wear face masks in all public places. These measures meant that all schools and universities closed for face-to-face contact learning and adopted elearning. Librarians as trusted lieutenants for access to quality information, working with scientists, have a vital role to combat disinformation. This chapter reports on a qualitative content analysis of posts on COVID-19 on the University of Zimbabwe (UZ) digital platforms. The UZ Library responded with an implementation framework and adapted proven techniques to empower researchers and students with tools to address harmful and false information. The chapter presents the key lessons learnt in addressing science disinformation at the peak of the information disorder. The implications of science disinformation to library practice post the pandemic are explored, along with the impact of the pandemic on staff skills development and service delivery in what has become known as the new normal. Keywords: Disinformation; COVID-19 (Disease); Academic libraries – Zimbabwe

Introduction The Coronavirus is an important human and animal pathogen. At the end of November 2019, a novel coronavirus was identified as the cause of a cluster of pneumonia cases in Wuhan, a city in the Hubei Province of China. The virus rapidly spread across all continents, resulting in the World Health Organization (WHO) declaring it as a global pandemic. The disease is designated COVID-19, which stands for coronavirus disease 2019 (Ghebreyesus 2020). Infection control interventions to reduce transmission of COVID-19 include covering the nose and mouth to contain respiratory secretions, early identification and isolation of patients with suspected https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110772753-006



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disease, the use of appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) when caring for patients with COVID-19 and environmental disinfection. To achieve these non-pharmacological interventions, governments across the world instituted lockdown measures (Kumar, Priya, and Srivastava 2021). The lockdowns involved total or partial bans on venturing out of homes for all people, sometimes with the exception of those providing service in critical fields such as health, food and security industries (Koh 2020). As a result of the lockdowns and infection prevention and control measures, nation-wide school closures were implemented globally resulting in loss of schooling and education for millions of children (UNICEF 2022). Although the school closures were important public health interventions in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, they had significant adverse effects on students in a myriad of ways (Conto et al. 2020). The students were not only missing out on education, but were also adversely affected in access to quality, reliable and authentic information. In the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic, there has been a massive production and bombardment of information, much of which is not scientifically correct (Naeem and Bhatti 2020). Fighting the infodemic became the new battlefront in the COVID-19 pandemic. The infodemic is an overabundance of information, both online and offline and includes deliberate attempts to disseminate wrong information to undermine the public health response as well as advancing alternative agendas of groups or individuals (Patel, Kute, and Agarwal 2020; WHO n.d.). This chapter explores the approach, strategy and initiatives of the University of Zimbabwe (UZ) Library in combatting the COVID-19 infodemic among researchers and students.

The Context

Agnes C. Chikonzo, Masimba C. Muziringa, Collence T. Chisita and Rexwhite T. Enakrire

Zimbabwe reported its first confirmed COVID-19 case on March 20, 2020, and the number increased steadily (Murewanhema et al. 2020). In Zimbabwe, from March 20, 2020,  to  August 19, 2021, there were 121,498 confirmed cases of COVID-19 with 4,181 deaths (Murewanhema et al. 2020). As a result of the restrictions and containment measures put by the Government of Zimbabwe (GoZ), all schools and universities closed for face-to-face contact learning and adopted elearning. This meant that all learning was undertaken remotely and on digital platforms. To those students who sometimes experienced access challenges, it meant that sometimes learning took place without the mediation of teachers and the trusted expertise of librarians. During the global pandemic, disinformation and anti-science beliefs emerged strongly with negative effects on the response to COVID-19, vaccine rollout programmes and in addition on concerns about climate change. During the

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peak of the COV|ID-19 pandemic, it was estimated that over 1.6 billion children were out of the classroom globally (Pokhrel and Chhetri 2021). As a result of the closure of schools and colleges, learning and access to information changed dramatically. There was an increase in the use of social media platforms driving access to content. The University of Zimbabwe is the founding and premier institution of higher education in Zimbabwe and was established in 1952. It is located in Mount Pleasant, a suburb in Harare. UZ offers 175 accredited undergraduate programmes and 122 taught master’s programmes along with MPhil and DPhil programmes across nine faculties and the College of Health Sciences.. The institution closed its campus to approximately 21,000 students and staff on March 23, 2020 (Tarisayi and Munyaradzi 2021). During the period from March 2020 to July 2020, there was a state of awe as the COVID-19 pandemic ravaged the population and the total number of infections and deaths increased. Learning and access to content and correct information almost came to a standstill (Nhatuve 2021). It is probable that during this period a lacuna was created in terms of access to correct, scientific and verifiable information. There was an exponential rise in disinformation and misinformation which resulted in a “pandemic of disinformation” (Tagliabue, Galassi, and Mariani 2020). The University gradually transited to learning from home using the Moodle elearning platform complemented by the RemoteXs software to enable expanded remote access to ejournals and ebooks platform. Users were provided with the opportunity to access online resources remotely after registering for the service through the library website. The UZ Library provided access to the digital learning management system together with course materials and provided online guidance in its use. The UZ Library which is mandated to provide access to all information, knowledge and information and communication technologies (ICT) stepped up to bridge the gap in information access created during the early days of the pandemic. UZ developed several online digital platforms which were mapped through the institutions’ website landing page. The University adopted Google Analytics to track the performance of the website pages which had been populated with authentic, quality and verifiable information on the infection, prevention and control of the COVID-19 pandemic. Google Analytics is a web-based service that tracks and reports on the quantum of web traffic at any given time (Plaza 2011).

Library Service Provision during the Pandemic The Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) is the first global pandemic in history in which technology and social media have been used on a massive scale to keep people safe,



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informed, productive and connected (Sathish et al. 2020; WHO 2020). At the same time, the technology keeping the world connected and informed has enabled and amplified an infodemic that continues to undermine the global response and jeopardize measures to control the pandemic (Saltish et al. 2020). During the COVID-19 pandemic, most university libraries were physically closed to users but engaged online with them. Libraries revamped their web pages, reassigned resources to the support of remote access, and planned robust online offerings with the view of fighting a surge in misinformation, disinformation and anti-science by various communities (Rafiq et al. 2021). Librarians are known to be trusted lieutenants in the provision of scholarly information sources (Chisita 2020). As already noted, an infodemic is an excess supply of information, both online and offline. It includes deliberate and purposeful attempts to create, share and disseminate wrong information to undermine the public health response and advance alternative agendas of groups or individuals (Zhang et al. 2021). Mis- and disinformation in medical areas can be harmful to people’s physical and mental health, increase stigmatization, threaten precious health gains and lead to poor observance of public health measures, thus reducing their effectiveness and endangering countries’ ability to stop the COVID-19 pandemic (Jaiswal, LoSchiavo, and Perlman 2020; Vusumuzi, Sisasenkosi, and Nodumo 2020). It is within this context and particularly during the current uncertain times that academic libraries have a collective sacrosanct institutional and national responsibility of societal and educational dimensions. The COVID-19 pandemic and subsequent infodemic have forced academic libraries to rethink, restrategise and adopt a novel pedagogical strategy in the form of metaliteracy. Mackey (2020) viewed metaliteracy as a befitting pedagogical strategy of the post-truth era. Metaliteracy as a model was initially developed to update the Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL) Information Literacy Competency Standards for Higher Education and to realign the American Library Association (ALA) definition of information literacy with 21st century challenges. The ACRL standards written in 2000 were rescinded in 2016 following considerable discussion (Jackman and Weiner 2017). Metaliteracy serves as a pedagogical framework to engage students in the evaluation, production, and sharing of truthful and trusted information. Garrett and Sharot (2017, 15) noted how established beliefs can be extremely resistant to change despite the availability and accessibility of empirical evidence to counter such narratives. This assertion emphasises the need to adapt metaliteracy as a pedagogical strategy that will build and sustain a critical mass of critical thinkers. The importance of metaliteracy and metacognition is emphasised in the revised definition of information literacy and related frameworks (Fulkerson, Ariew, and Jacobson 2017).

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Hill and Mackey (2021) noted that metaliteracy influenced the development of the ACRL Framework for Information Literacy for Higher Education by redefining the learner as a philosophical and dynamic producer of content in collaborative information environments. Digital platforms enable users to access and create as well as share content. The proliferation of Open Educational Resources (OERs) on the digital platforms of academic libraries is testimony of the ability of academic institutions to mobilise their staff to produce content in support of teaching, learning and research. Hill and Mackey (2021) contend that the 21st century has witnessed an unprecedented production of born digital content accessible through mobile devices emphasising m-learning and m-libraries as users expect instant access. New convenient means of access require users to be weaponised with skills to critically evaluate content. Hill and Mackey note that the transition from traditional editorial filters to decentred digital environments, where everyone thinks they are an expert, necessitates the need for a higher level of individual and civic responsibility to create and share information ethically. Durodolu, Chisita, and Dube (2021) state that the challenge of information disorder in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic requires a pedagogical methodology that instils critical thinking skills. They indicate that lessons could be drawn from librarians and related information professionals who have adapted information literacy and metaliteracy programmes for the benefit of their users to counter COVID-19 fake news. Dunn et al. (2021) highlight interventions positioned on social media platforms to limit the spread of misinformation by adding friction to sharing. For example, Twitter has secreted and labelled problematic posts, and in some cases has removed the option to retweet certain posts or share certain links, with the intention of limiting the spread of misinformation without suspending influential users. Libraries and library associations led by the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA), the global voice of the library and information profession, have developed various templates, models and guidelines during the COVID-19 pandemic (IFLA 2020). Lim (2020) notes that various approaches have been used to guide users in evaluating information resources and the use of LibGuides or librarians’ guides represent recommended methods or strategies for evaluating the news. The various guides available suggest a checklist approach to spotting fake news or assessing news sources in a broad sense. LibGuides and other documents prepared by many libraries emphasise evaluation criteria to be used in determining the veracity of information and provide help to their users in discerning fake news with reference to media stories. Some criteria and assistance provided include: –– CAARP (currency, authority, accuracy, relevance, and purpose) or CRAAP test which is useful in evaluating academic resources for discerning fake news



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–– SMART (source, motive, authority, review, two-source test) can be offered by academic libraries to discern fake news with reference to media stories (Okeya 2022, 135) –– How to Fact Check Like a Pro (Gray 2017) provides ten tips for checking fake news, and –– International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) resources, for example, How to Spot Fake News, an infographic checklist of criteria to check in identifying the veracity of information. The criteria include the author’s credentials, media bias, source, currency, and the reader or viewer’s own judgement. The call for applicants for the 2nd WHO training in infodemic management (WHO 2021) identified that the world was faced with a double pandemic of the COVID19 infection and the accompanying infodemic. It noted that there was an urgent need to address the infodemic accompanying the COVID-19 pandemic, as most countries were battling both. As the world accelerated the development and rollout of public health measures, such as the vaccine rollout to achieve herd immunity, making quality health information available, accessible and stimulating its usage became a critical milestone towards ending the pandemic. WHO which is the global leader and watchdog on all matters related to promotion and fostering health and wellbeing has developed activities that support and anchor national pandemic preparedness to mitigate the Covid-19 pandemic and the infodemic (Javed and Chattu 2020). WHO has recognised infodemiology as a strategic field of interest in the post-modern society characterised by hyperconnectivity of individuals, societies, communities and nation-states (WHO n.d.). The term infodemiology is a portmanteau of information and epidemiology. “Infodemiology can be defined as the science of distribution and determinants of information in an electronic medium, specifically the Internet, or in a population, with the ultimate aim to inform public health and public policy” (Eysenbach 2009). The aim is to foster a coordinated and evidence-based approach to ensure universal access to reliable information.

Determining the Nature of the Response to the Pandemic by the University of Zimbabwe This chapter explores the redefinition of library services which occurred as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic at the UZ. The approach taken adopted a qualitative summative content analysis to determine the presence of certain keywords, terms, themes and concepts on information created, shared and disseminated within data on the COVID-19 pandemic generated by the UZ community following the work of

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 Agnes C. Chikonzo, Masimba C. Muziringa, Collence T. Chisita and Rexwhite T. Enakrire

Hsieh and Shannon (2005). Using qualitative summative content analysis, researchers can quantify and analyse the presence, meanings and relationships of certain words, themes, or concepts (Elo and Kyngäs 2008; Mayring 2004; Morgan 1993). Concomitant with the qualitative content analysis, the data from the analysis was examined using implementation study design to determine the effectiveness of academic library interventions in combatting disinformation during the COVID19 pandemic. Implementation study research design is the scientific study of the use of strategies to adopt and integrate evidence-based interventions into community settings or groups of people to improve outcomes that directly benefit the community (Hwang et al. 2020). Implementation research links evidence with practice to advance public health policies and programmes. It helps identify what, why and how interventions work on the ground, where cultural context and other factors can significantly impact their success. It also monitors and evaluates interventions to improve their outcomes (UNICEF n.d.).

Academic libraries provide the engine room for access to authentic, reliable and timely information. The academic library is the anchor providing secure accurate information for academic and learned communities. The emergence of coronavirus was uncharted territory in which academic libraries responded to the duty to serve by providing trusted ways of combatting disinformation and fake news. The UZ Library manages the digital platforms of the University. The library collected posts by the University community related to COVID-19 misinformation published between July 2020 and June 2021. Qualitative content analysis was used to identify the quantum, authenticity and source of the information which was then classified into themes related to the COVID-19 infodemic continuum.

The Data Analysis The analysis of qualitative data can be either a simple or complex procedure depending on the quantum of data involved (Rafiq et al. 2021). The content analysis of the qualitative data at UZ was simplified by developing a keyword framework for analysing all posts on the digital platforms around three key themes. Public health intervention is a complex matter and various measures have been classified by the WHO and others along a continuum of infection prevention and control. WHO has developed general approaches to infection prevention and control and to COVID-19 in particular (WHO n.d.). The three-keyword framework of Infection, Prevention and Control. was adopted for the classification of data to provide a flexible approach. Table 4.1 pro-



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vides a summary of the thematic analysis of the data posted by members of the UZ community for the period July 2020 to June 2021. A total of 12,725 posts were analysed and categorised into the infodemic continuum. All social media by the university uses handles which include Facebook and Twitter. During the COVID-19 pandemic, when the University community published posts on the social media handles, other users would interact through sharing, liking and commenting on the posts. Table 4.1: Infodemic Chart of COVID-19 Infection Prevention and Control (July 2020 to June 2021). Thematic Category

Example of the Infodemic (Verbatim)

COVID-19 Infection

Our environment protects us from the COVID-19, Our genes (Black African) protect us from the COVID-19 infection The COVID-19 infection only affects the white population We already have some for coronaviruses in the country which give us other forms of colds

COVID-19 Prevention

COVID-19 Control

Frequency of Comments, Sharing and Likes 5,233 6,255 5,222 5,243

Use of steaming prevents the COVID-19 infection The use of snuff prevents COVID-19 infection

6,567 4,589

The use of the Zumbane herb (Lippia javanica) prevents COVID-19 infection

8,254

The vaccine will give you COVID-19 The Vaccine will give change your DNA

6,569 5,660

The vaccine will give rise to infertility issues

5,253

The vaccine is part of the mark of the beast

4,243

The vaccine will alter your melanin content and you will begin to look like white

4,360

The academic library has been regarded as a key stakeholder in the delivery of quality information. The UZ conducted internal capacity building training for staff and university stakeholders on infodemic management skills. The focus was on the provision of skills required to provide a host of infodemic management interventions. The expected outcome of the intervention was to equip stakeholders with skills and competencies to detect potential misinformation and to promote self-efficacy for members of the university community. Additionally, the targeted intervention involved the mapping of a critical mass of quality, credible and reputable information through the UZ digital platforms. The information resources listed provided facts and resources on COVID-19 and advice

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to students and staff on minimising the risk of infection. The resources that were developed and made available are presented in Table 4.2. Table 4.2: Evidence-based Resources to Promote Access to Credible Information. Resource

Description

COVID-19 Guidelines https://www.uz.ac.zw/ index.php/about-uz/uz-policies/covid-uzguidelines

The institution developed a COVID-19 Taskforce consisting of various experts and conducted a rigorous rapid evidence synthesis exercise. Various quality documents were developed which included:

I. COVID-19 Infection, Prevention and Control Guide



lines

II. Zimbabwe COVID-19 Case Management Guidelines III. COVID-19 Delta Variant Frequently Asked



Questions

IV. COVID-19 Protocol UpToDate Clinical Database https://www.uz.ac.zw/index.php/researchlibraries/uptodate

The platform provides access to evidence-based information on Covid-19 to the University community.

The Internet has revolutionised access to information with the development of web analysis (Plaza 2011). Through the use of Google Analytics which is a web traffic analyser, the UZ has tracked the performance and visibility of the web pages that have been created as a means of fighting disinformation. Google Analytics provides time series data on web performance (Cutroni 2010). It is also employed because Google Analytics is a free service offered by Google. It generates detailed statistics about the visits to a website and is a user-friendly application with the guarantee of Google technology. This tracking application, external to the website, records traffic by inserting a small piece of HTML code into every page of the website. Google Analytics tells the web owner how visitors found the site and how they interact with it (Hasan, Morris, and Probets 2009). For the period December 2020 to June 2021, Table 4.3 provides web traffic statistics on the key web pages.



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Table 4.3: Website Traffic on COVID-19 Webpages. Month

Most Popular pages

December 2020

COVID-19 Guidelines, Up-ToDate database, Homepage COVID-19 Guidelines, Up-ToDate database, Homepage, News COVID-19 Guidelines, Up-ToDate database, Homepage, eLMS COVID-19 Guidelines, Up-ToDate database, Homepage, eLMS COVID-19 Guidelines, Up-ToDate database, Homepage, eLMS COVID-19 Guidelines, Up-ToDate database, Homepage, eLMS COVID-19 Guidelines, Up-ToDate database, Homepage, eLMS, News

January 2021

February 2021

March 2021

April 2021

May 2021

June 2021

Traffic Visit

Location

8,235 Zimbabwe, Zambia, Kenya 10,267 Zimbabwe, Tanzania, Zambia, South Africa 11,235 Zimbabwe, Zambia, Kenya, South Africa

12,345 Zimbabwe, Zambia, Tanzania

12,678 Zimbabwe, Zambia, Tanzania

13,256 Zimbabwe, Zambia, Tanzania

14,230 Zimbabwe, Zambia, Tanzania, South Africa

The figures illustrate that the availability and accessibility of correct, quality and reputable information on the website provided an impetus for increased traffic for accessing reputable information. The intervention of providing access to reputable information was successful in flattening the curve of use of fake news and disinformation (Durodolu, Chisita, and Dube 2021).

Future Impact While change is occurring, the COVID-19 pandemic continues to ravage the world with outbreaks of new variants, increased infection rates and negative effects on economic activity. The world has witnessed the infodemic pandemic. Infodemiology has emerged as a discipline of strategic importance for the world. The successful management of fake news to stem the tide of COVID-19 has become vital. Libraries are the gatekeepers of access to credible, reputable and quality information that anchor all facets of socio-economic development. The experiences at the UZ and the handling of information on COVID-19 have stimulated the increased need for capacity skills development and the development of a robust framework

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on addressing infodemic applications for COVID-19, and other future pandemics. The skills development will require expertise that goes beyond the boundaries of epidemiology, communication, digital media and community engagement.

Conclusion Misinformation, disinformation and fake news have become global threats to sustainable future socio-economic development as they directly affect communities and nations in their efforts to build sustainable mechanisms for future development. However, infodemiology is an emerging discipline within health information which characterises a sign of our times. It is not so much the availability of information that challenges us, but its aggregation, analysis and dissemination. The field is highly interdisciplinary and requires the collaboration of information scientists, computer scientists, epidemiologists, medical experts, public health informatics experts, behavioural scientists, and statisticians. Metrics and methods developed in other disciplines of infometrics, webometrics, and in the open-source intelligence community may have direct applications in infodemiology. Librarians are at the centre of the continuum from creation, processing, and storage of information to communication, dissemination and effective utilisation. Skills development and cross-cutting collaborations are essential to stem the infodemic tide.

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Rafiq, Muhammad, Syeda Hinta Batool, Amna Farzand Ali, and Midrar Ullah. 2021. “University Libraries Response to COVID-19 Pandemic: A Developing Country Perspective.” Journal of Academic Librarianship 47, no. 1: 102280. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acalib.2020.102280. Sathish, R., R. Manikandan, S. Silvia Priscila, Belina V. J. Sara, and R. Mahaveerakannan. 2020. “A Report on the Impact of Information Technology and Social Media on Covid–19.” 3rd International Conference on Intelligent Sustainable Systems (ICISS), 2020: 224–230. https:// ieeexplore.ieee.org/ielx7/9315857/9315846/09316046.pdf. Tagliabue, Fabio, Luca Galassi, and Pierpaolo Mariani. 2020. “The ‘Pandemic’ of Disinformation in COVID-19.” SN Comprehensive Clinical Medicine 2: 1287–1289. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42399-02000439-1. Tarisayi, Kudzayi Savious, and Everjoy Munyaradzi. 2021. “A Simple Solution Adopted During the Covid-19 Pandemic: Using WhatsApp at a University in Zimbabwe.” Issues in Educational Research 31, no. 2: 644–659. Available at http://www.iier.org.au/iier31/tarisayi.pdf. UNICEF. n.d. “Implementation Research in Health: Bridging the Gap Between Evidence and Practice to Improve Children’s Health.” https://www.unicef.org/health/implementation-

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Laura Millar

5 S eeking Order in Chaotic Times: The Importance of Evidence in the Fight for Truth Abstract: This chapter draws on Laura Millar’s book, A Matter of Facts: The Value of Evidence in an Information Age (2019) and argues that the paradigm for records and archives management must move away from a custodial, after-the-fact approach toward a more participatory and inclusive model. Millar explains the critical distinctions between truth, facts and evidence and examines how digital data and electronic records need to be protected from the moment of creation, to support accountability, identity and memory in society, and she proposes key actions to increase support for the protection of digital records as evidence. The actions include modernising records- and evidence-related legislation and regulations; strengthening ethical frameworks for records and information management; raising public awareness of the value of records and archives; and educating and inspiring the public about the value of records, archives, data and other forms of documentary evidence as sources of proof. The author concludes by arguing that the records professional’s job is to keep the evidence, with its authenticity intact, but that if records professionals are to succeed, they must engage the public more actively in the recordkeeping mission to help protect evidence for today and the future. Keywords: Archives; Records – Management; Data curation; Evidence; Misinformation

Introduction What is truth? What are facts? And why do both truth and facts depend on evidence? And why is it so important, and so challenging, to protect evidence as the source of facts and truth in a digital world? These topics are addressed in this chapter, which draws on the author’s book, A Matter of Facts: The Value of Evidence in an Information Age (Millar 2019). The author hopes that this chapter helps records, information and archives professionals find the strength and focus needed to direct their efforts toward the critical task of changing the traditional paradigm of archival management away from a custodial, after-the-fact approach toward a more participatory and inclusive model. In a digital age, the public needs to be drawn into archival work, to help preserve facts and proof, that is the evidence, to https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110772753-007



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support a more respectful, democratic, socially inclusive and self-aware society. A more inclusive and participatory approach will help build societies that value the order of mutual respect and care over the chaos of factionalism and division.

Living in Chaotic Times In North America, and around the world, people have been living through chaotic times for years, perhaps decades. The chaos conceivably started centuries ago, but that is a conversation for another time. The chaos has turned into a crisis, an evidence crisis as real as the environmental crisis facing the world today (Andersen 2017; D’Ancona 2017; McIntyre 2018). In this crisis, fake news holds power over truth. Oppressive and authoritarian governments are crushing free speech. Faith in governments, in the media, in politicians, in each other, is diminishing. Society is rapidly becoming polarised into us versus them, and people live with a sense of dread, maybe even despair, that what is read or what is seen cannot be trusted. There is no shared sense of truth, which can lead to chaos. Societies throughout the world cannot have equality without truth. There is no justice without truth. There is no peace without truth. But there can be no truth without facts, and no facts without evidence. In October 2003, at a conference for the International Council on Archives (ICA), Archbishop Desmond Tutu spoke to delegates about his work on the South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission (South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission n.d.). The Commission had completed its work by the time of the conference, and the Archbishop reflected on the power of records as sources of authentic proof in South Africa’s quest to replace the apartheid regime with a new environment, one that sought both justice and reconciliation. In his remarks, the Archbishop said: The records are crucial to hold us accountable. They are indispensable as deterrents against a repetition of this ghastliness and they are a powerful incentive for us to say, “Never again.” They are a potent bulwark against human rights violations (Tutu 2003).

Canada held a similar Truth and Reconciliation Commission from 2008 to 2015 (Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada n.d.). The goal of the Canadian commission was to document and illuminate the extent and impact of residential school experiences. From the 1880s to 1996, children, primarily but not only indigenous, were taken from their home communities and moved into residential schools, most of which were operated by religious institutions. In these schools, the children

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lived 24/7 lives, disconnected from their homes, their families, their languages and their culture. The negative impacts have lasted for generations. The vision of the Canadian Truth and Reconciliation Commission was to bring this critical story of Canada’s past into the light, to find a path to justice and reconciliation. Canadians have, perhaps, become more litigious than those in South Africa. There are ongoing debates about the success of the Canadian effort, but the initiative is still new; positive structural changes may take decades to unfold.

Recordkeeping in a Digital Age: What is Truth? Both the South African and Canadian commissions sought truth to achieve justice, in hopes of achieving reconciliation. But what is anyone seeking when he or she is looking for the truth? What is truth? The years from 2016 to 2021 have seen a multitude of challenges to the concept of truth. The coronavirus pandemic that erupted in 2020 has led to millions of deaths from COVID-19. Some people agree that the virus is real. Others are convinced it is a hoax. Despite the overwhelming statistical and scientific proof, many people refuse to accept the value of vaccines, or the risks posed by the disease (Salvi et al. 2021). In American politics, the attempts to manipulate the 2016 US presidential election, along with protests over the result of the 2020 election, have resulted in a frightening divide in the population. Some believe the 2016 elections were manipulated but the 2020 elections were fair. Others believe that the 2016 elections resulted in the right outcome, but the 2020 election was stolen (Ferrara et al. 2020; Persily 2017). In the UK, the British Exit or Brexit referendum in 2016 led to political turmoil. Some politicians presented disinformation in an attempt, which was ultimately successful, to convince voters to choose to leave the European Union rather than remain part of the collective. Among the most egregious public disinformation campaigns involved Facebook and the British consulting firm Cambridge Analytica (Meredith 2018). There is also compelling evidence that foreign governments attempted successfully to interfere in the campaigns. Indeed, some have argued that the manipulation was so significant that the very referendum itself could be called into question (Cadwalladr 2019; McGaughey 2018). The challenges to truth reach even wider. Are Uighur minority populations in China being oppressed, or is that a lie? Are protesters in Hong Kong under threat of imprisonment, or are they free to express their displeasure with the government in Beijing? Are citizens in Myanmar being controlled, or are the international news reports exaggerating the facts? Which story is true? Which is false? And is a false story false by mistake, or false by design?



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Understanding truth is critically important to the work of records professionals, including records managers, archivists and others in the information-records field. The word truth has many meanings. Truth does not mean accurate, precise or fact bound. The word comes from the Old English triewð, which refers to faith, faithfulness, fidelity and loyalty. To be true means to be loyal, faithful and steadfast. With this definition, someone who is true is equivalent to a knight in shining armour, a faithful pet or a devoted spouse. But the concept of truth is much broader than a shorthand definition allows. Philosophers devote whole bookshelves to concepts of truth: personal truth, spiritual truth, conditional truth and on and on. One person’s personal, spiritual or philosophical truth, his or her belief, might be dramatically different from another person’s. Everyone deserves to have his or her personal beliefs respected, as long as the beliefs of others are also respected. The challenge, of course, comes when someone’s beliefs are based on faulty or incorrect facts. Personal truth can be personal, but fact-based truth needs to be based on some external form of information. Which means that to assess the validity of a particular statement, to determine its objective truth, facts are needed.

What are Facts? Facts are actions. Facts are things done. From the Latin factum for event, occurrence, deed or achievement, a fact is something that is known to be true because it actually occurred. The South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission was premised on the truth that segregation and apartheid happened; that non-whites were not allowed to travel with whites; and that coloured people were treated differently from white people. The Canadian Truth and Reconciliation Commission was premised on the truth that indigenous children were sent to church-run schools; that they were mistreated in those environments; and that their family and culture and identity were damaged by the experience. The truths of segregation, apartheid and discrimination are premised on facts, on things done. But if those things were done at some time in the past, how can one know today that they actually occurred? How can one verify and validate the facts and confirm the truth? How can one know what happened if the parties involved, the children, the dispossessed and the segregated are not here to provide testimony, or if the witnesses are no longer able to resurrect their memories easily? To take the next step to validation, evidence is required.

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What is Evidence? The word evidence comes from the Latin evidentia for proof, or, more precisely, from evidens or obvious or apparent. Evidence is a form of proof, whether it be witness testimony, physical objects or documentary sources of confirmation and proof. There cannot be truth if there are no facts. And there cannot be verification of facts if there is no proof. To prove the claims of those oppressed during apartheid, the South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission relied on witness testimony, government records, personal diaries, photographs, films and other sources of proof. To prove the claims of residential school students, the Canadian Truth and Reconciliation Commission turned to testimony from former students, photographs of children in schools, registers of students and teachers and other forms of documentary or testamentary proof. The challenge with evidence is that it is defined differently in different cultures. A signed contract is considered important evidence in one society. A formal ceremony witnessed by several attendees may be defined as evidence in another society. To protect evidence in a global world, it must be recognized that one society’s concept of evidence may not be another society’s concept of evidence. When societies intersect, respecting all types of evidence is crucial. The primary focus in this chapter is on recorded evidence, some form of documentation captured in a physical form, evidence that is taken, secured, preserved and protected to stand ready as a source of proof. Because the proof is captured in some tangible way, it can be used not just when it is created but also later, in a week, a year or a century into the future. But the focus on the tangible does not negate the value of other forms of evidence. The work of memory making and memory keeping is specific to different cultures. That is as it should be, and any distinctions should be respected and supported. But it is not possible to revisit a fact from a century ago if one does not have the proof or evidence of that fact. It is also important to acknowledge that evidence is neither neutral nor objective. On the contrary, records or archives, data and other forms of evidence are always infused with the opinions, perspectives and cultural assumptions of the individuals and agencies responsible for creating, using and managing that evidence. The whole point of keeping evidence is not just to protect the plain facts but also to protect and make available the opinions, ideas and perspectives underlying the facts. It was a fact that, in Canada, indigenous children were removed from their homes and placed in residential schools. It was a fact that people of colour were forcibly segregated from the white population in South Africa. The evidence proves those facts. But the evidence also sheds light on the stories behind those facts. Why



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did the churches in Canada think it was their right to step into other people’s lives in that way? Why did the Canadian government let them do it? Why did the South African government think it was okay to subordinate and oppress people because of their skin colour? Why?

The Evidence Deluge Truth relies on facts and facts rely on evidence. Evidence is subjective and imperfect. The nature of evidence is being transformed as computers dominate the information environment. What should recordkeeping professionals do to protect evidence in a digital age? The world of evidence is changing fundamentally. Recordkeeping must change as well. The greatest challenge with managing and protecting digital records and information is the volume of content, along with the speed with which it is being created, used and changed. The Internet Live Stats website, which tracks daily social media and Internet usage, reports in September 2022 that people send more than 500 million tweets, share more than 64 million photographs on Instagram and conduct more than 57 billion Google searches every day (Internet Live Stats n.d.). How can such a vast quantity of information be captured and preserved? What is the evidence which should be retained? What is ephemeral? What is digital junk? The second challenge is that, with so much evidence, and so much of it in a form that cannot be seen, touched or felt, how can people trust it? The volume of data generated is so great that it cannot be managed. CDs and DVDs are old technologies. Data tapes are crumbling. Digital photographs can be manipulated. What is the difference between data, information and evidence? If it is evidence, how can its trustworthiness be established? Quite simply, it cannot. The third challenge is that all this fragile evidence is living in many different places. People have access to more information now that the sources of proof are no longer locked away in the treasure chest of a king or emperor. But people also need to wade through a great deal of detritus to get to the valuable evidence. There are many digital information channels in use today. One cannot hope to know about them all, let alone use them all. It is impossible to keep up with the deluge of data and evidence that crosses the airwaves. In the digital information ecosystem, people inevitably start to create silos. People go to their own chosen sources of information and evidence and ignore or reject someone else’s sources of information and evidence. After a while, groups form, with a dangerous us-versus-them dynamic. What happens as a result? Division, discord and disharmony come to the fore. Instead of justice and reconcilia-

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tion, vengeance and retribution emerge. Disharmony leaves the average person feeling overwhelmed and unable to consume or understand all the sources of proof or sources of untruth coming their way. People stop believing in facts and focus instead on feelings, which helps foster the post-truth world of today. If computers can be manipulated and data changed, then where are the facts? What are the facts? Was the US election stolen? The facts say no. But tens of millions of people say yes. It is not enough to ignore them. If ignored, they storm the halls of government. Is COVID-19 a lie? Scientists and medical experts do not think so. But enough people do think so, and their reluctance to take public health precautions endangers the recovery of the whole planet. Today evidence is overwhelmingly digital. It is ephemeral and eternal at the same time. To records professionals, the word archives means sources of evidence with enduring value. No date is attached: a document with archival value could have been created this morning or it could have been created a decade ago. But to the average punter, the word archives means old, static, dusty or dry. Similarly, the word records conjures up images of bureaucracy, of stuffy file clerks, of rows and rows of documents. But tweets from a government official’s Twitter account can be defined as records and may stand as proof of government policy. As can be seen from the tweets of the former president of the US, Donald Trump, those tweets are not boring or bureaucratic. They are crucial sources of proof, which can be used as evidence in a court of law (Forgey 2021). The word data implies dynamic, fluid, digital and modern. But the data in a medical database is proof of physical condition and health risks: it stands as evidence. The statistics that drive public policy around the COVID-19 pandemic come directly from medical data: hospital admission records, invoices for medical equipment and, sadly, death certificates. Without the documentary source, the statistics would be meaningless. Protecting evidence is not helped by defining archives as tools for history, considering records as something different from archives and perceiving data as something that is always changing and unworthy of protection. The understanding of evidence must be broadened. Why is evidence so necessary?

Accountability, Identity and Memory Evidence is used for many functions, from validating a decision to tracing the ancestors in a family tree. In essence, evidence supports three purposes, whether for individuals or for communities and societies: accountability, identity and memory. Evidence helps uphold accountability by supporting just and honest dealings between people. Sources of proof help to ensure power brokers are held



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responsible by confirming their responsibilities and validating their decisions. A contract between parties holds the parties accountable for their agreement. A government report confirms a course of action. The report can be used to challenge departments that do not follow the recommended course. Ideally, evidence helps to prevent misdeeds before they happen, but if that does not work, then at least evidence helps the parties involved seek restitution and justice after the fact. Evidence also helps foster a sense of identity and connection. Records and data connect people with their forebears, giving a broader sense of identity. Ship captain’s logs and passenger manifests help the descendants of immigrants know where their family lived before they went to new homes. The diaries and journals of farmers and housewives and shopkeepers tell what life was like for people in the community long ago. The sense of connection that comes from knowing about people’s origins helps build compassion and understanding. After all, everyone came from somewhere. Finally, evidence helps preserve memories and supports the creation of narratives used to share people’s stories of themselves and their worlds. The archives of a poet or painter describe the person behind the art, and family photograph albums pass stories and experiences down to children and grandchildren, keeping details alive in people’s minds long after the individuals involved are gone. People and communities pass on their legacies through crafting and sharing remembrances. Evidence is required to ensure memories are as accurate as possible. Records, information and archives professionals and society at large want to support justice, reconciliation, equality and inclusion in a digital world. What must be done? Four actions are central to change: modernising legislation and regulations around information and evidence management; strengthening ethical frameworks for records and information management, including the use of information and communication technologies; raising public awareness of the enduring value of different sources of evidence; and educating and inspiring the public, from senior managers to schoolchildren, about the value of records, archives and data as invaluable sources of proof.

Modernising Legislation The first action is to modernise legislation and regulations, from access and privacy requirements to the duty to document obligations. The European General Data Protection Regulation or GDPR legislation is a good model, although it has its flaws (GDPR.EU n.d.). The temporary ban on Facebook by the Australian government raised public awareness of challenges of holding Facebook accountable for the

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content on its platform (Clayton 2021). Such newsworthy events demonstrate the need for, and challenge of, trying to hold social media companies more accountable for their part in the dissemination of harmful content. The decision to ban Donald Trump from Twitter at the end of his presidency was not censorship but a step in the direction of ending hate speech. Such changes in communications and information sharing need to be made thoughtfully, as they affect freedom of speech, and the ideal scenario is one where legislative and regulatory changes do not limit freedom of expression but support transparency and honesty. Social media is a source of much of today’s evidence; protecting its evidence is crucial for holding power brokers to account.

Managing Evidence Ethically The second action that must be taken to ensure the future is to support the adoption of ethical approaches for the creation and use of data and evidence, particularly in the use of machine learning or artificial intelligence. Is it right to use algorithms for facial recognition to create and manage the evidence of faces when the algorithms are biased and skewed? Is it right to allow private companies to add tracking devices to online tools such as Siri or Alexa in the age of the Internet of Things? And is it appropriate to let companies harvest the data that is the evidence generated when a machine is listening to people in their homes? Societies need to consider the ethics of records and data management in relation to social and economic imbalances. Attempts in Canada and the United States to have people use online tools to register COVID-19 vaccines, for example, have been fraught with difficulty. The problem is not just a result of hasty planning; all governments deserve credit for working hard to deal with constantly changing medical needs and supply chain problems. But assuming that people have easy access to digital tools and technologies is a mistake. Many people cannot use a computer or a smartphone to book a vaccine appointment. Others might not have telephone access. How can societies manage the work processes, and the evidence and data generated, when they are simultaneously trying to help those who cannot afford up-to-date technologies, do not have access to electricity or do not even have a home, let alone a power plug? Ethics, not income, should drive decisions that affect the world, including decisions around the use of computers and the management of the documentary products they generate.



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Raising Awareness The actions outlined for the future constitute heavy lifting for records and archives professionals who cannot change laws or impose ethical framework by themselves. The next action is to encourage recordkeeping professionals to collaborate with partners and allies. The first natural partners, the usual suspects, are historians. But lawyers, statisticians, economists, human rights advocates and average citizens all need access to evidence. Perhaps the closest allies today are journalists, who immerse themselves in evidence to highlight the news stories of the day. What happens if a news reporter does not have access to sources of evidence, old or new? Newspapers die. Civic engagement shrinks. A local government could stop supporting its archives, because no one is filing access to information requests for public information. A business could say: “No one seems to be using our records or archives. Why should we bother to preserve them?” Records professionals must work more closely with journalists, helping them understand how records and archives operate and why records managers and archivists need the support of journalists. All citizens should pay for local journalism, from subscribing to community newspapers to purchasing copies of locally relevant magazines or books. If more people support the mediators who use evidence, then those mediators will continue to demonstrate the value of records, archives and data in tangible and dynamic ways.

Educating and Inspiring the Public The last action that records professionals, along with educators and others in society, can take is to educate, illuminate and inspire others and bring the next generation into the mission of protecting evidence. One example is a 2018 study reported by the BBC, which involved academics in Uganda and Norway who worked with 10,000 students in Kampala to assess how well children could learn critical thinking skills. The BBC broadcast, cleverly titled You Can Handle the Truth, showed that children as young as ten were able to distinguish between myth and science. They could understand the medical and scientific underpinnings of viruses like HIV/AIDS or, today perhaps, the coronavirus that leads to COVID-19 disease. All the children needed was some basic education and training (BBC 2018). Education in history, social studies and civics is sadly lacking in countries around the world. Children, indeed everyone, must understand that: –– Data are not just bits and bytes –– The Internet is both ephemeral and eternal, and

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–– Evidence is not just a static physical object but might also be a form of digital proof that needs to be managed effectively for as long as necessary.

The Role of the Recordkeeper The records professional’s job is to keep the evidence with its authenticity intact, so that no one can question that it is proof of a fact. The act of capturing and protecting evidence is crucial to ensuring societies have some tangible documentation to help explain not just what happened, yesterday or a century ago, but also why it happened. Recordkeepers must bring their own sense of professionalism and ethics. The work undertaken is not neutral; it is highly political. Recordkeepers are not unbiased actors or impartial, faceless bureaucrats. Recordkeeping decisions draw not only on professional knowledge but also on personal understandings of right and wrong. Recordkeepers are no more or less fallible than other human beings, but they have an obligation to be as professional as possible. If not neutral, they must aspire to be impartial and trustworthy. The task is to protect evidence so that it can be reviewed, used, interpreted and reinterpreted, over and over again, while remaining unassailable evidence comprising facts, opinions and ideas. Recordkeeping professionals must be guided by professional codes of ethics, institutional or government oaths of office and a sense of public duty and service. They must be accountable for all that they do. Mistakes are inevitable. Trustworthy professionals do their best, seek forgiveness when errors are made, ensure mistakes are not repeated and carry on. The future will judge the efforts of today just as the present judges the efforts of the past. Honesty and openness will ensure future understanding of decisions and choices made now. If records professionals focus on their mission, and adhere to a strong ethical framework, then they will act in the best interests of society and not themselves, in the same way as a judge or a doctor acts in the best interests of the defendant and the plaintiff, or the patient and the family, and not in the interests of the judge or the doctor. In this vision of open public service, special thanks go to those archivists who work for truth and reconciliation commissions, human rights tribunals, war crimes courts and institutions with difficult pasts, like churches or governments. Records professionals know that evidence is not neutral and that everyone is full of prejudice. They know that managing evidence is a political act, one of the most important political acts in society.



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Conclusion Records and archives management is a noble profession. It is hard work. It is critically important. Recordkeepers should be proud to have chosen it. They must do everything possible to help the public understand the central importance of evidence, especially in a digital age, as a way out of the chaos of misinformation and untruths, into the order that comes when evidence is available to uphold accountability, support identity and foster memory. As a records management consultant with decades of experience, I am proud to be surrounded by colleagues with integrity and commitment to the public good. All any professional can do is understand his or her biases, hold on to professional ethics and work diligently. No more can be demanded. But it is time to ask more of others: of the public served, and of the leaders and decision makers who can help ensure that evidence is protected for today and the future. Without evidence, the facts cannot be validated. Without facts, the truth cannot be confirmed. To move past the chaos of a post-truth age, evidence must be protected and defended. Let us all work together to achieve this important goal.

References Andersen, Kurt. 2017. Fantasyland: How America Went Haywire: A 500-year History, New York: Random House. BBC. 2018. “You Can Handle the Truth.” The Documentary. BBC World Service. Broadcast June 14, 2018. https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/w3csxgn3. Cadwalladr, Carole. 2019. “Facebook’s Role in Brexit – and the Threat to Democracy.” Ted talk video. 15:06. https://www.ted.com/talks/carole_cadwalladr_facebook_s_role_in_brexit_and_the_threat_ to_democracy. Clayton, James. 2021. ”Facebook Reverses Ban on News Pages in Australia.” BBC News, February 23, 2021. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-australia-56165015. D’Ancona, Matthew. 2017. Post Truth: The New War on Truth and How to Fight Back. London: Ebury Press. Ferrara, Emilio, Herbert Chang, Emily Chen, Goran Muric, and Jaimin Patel. 2020. “Characterizing Social Media Manipulation in the 2020 U.S. Presidential Election.” First Monday 25, no. 11. https:// doi.org/10.5210/fm.v25i11.11431. Forgey, Quint. 2021. “National Archives Can’t Resurrect Trump’s Tweets, Twitter Says.” Politico, April 7, 2021. https://www.politico.com/news/2021/04/07/twitter-national-archivesrealdonaldtrump-479743. GDPR.EU. n.d. “What is GDPR, the EU’s New Data Protection Law?” https://gdpr.eu/what-is-gdpr/. Internet Live Stats. n.d. https://www.internetlivestats.com/.

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McGaughey, Ewan. 2018. “Could Brexit be Void?” King’s Law Journal 29, no. 3: 331–43. https:// doi.org/10.1080/09615768.2018.1555881. Available at https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers. cfm?abstract_id=3232632. McIntyre, Lee C. 2018. Post-truth. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. Meredith, Sam. 2018. “Facebook-Cambridge Analytica: A Timeline of the Data Hijacking Scandal.” April 10, 2018. https://www.cnbc.com/2018/04/10/facebook-cambridge-analytica-a-timeline-of-thedata-hijacking-scandal.html. Millar, Laura. 2019. A Matter of Facts: The Value of Evidence in an Information Age. Chicago, ILL.: ALA Neal-Schuman. Persily, Nathaniel. 2017. “The 2016 U.S. Election: Can Democracy Survive the Internet?” Journal of Democracy 28, no. 2: 63–76. https://www.journalofdemocracy.org/articles/the-2016-u-s-electioncan-democracy-survive-the-internet/. Salvi, Carola, Paola Iannello, Alice Cancer, Mason McClay, Sabrina Rago, Joseph E. Dunsmoor, and Alessandro Antonietti. 2021. “Going Viral: How Fear, Socio-cognitive Polarization and Problemsolving Influence Fake News Detection and Proliferation during COVID-19 Pandemic.” Frontiers in Communication 5: Article 562588. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcomm.2020.562588. South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission. n.d. “TRC Final Report.” https://www.justice.gov. za/trc/report/. Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada. n.d. [Final Report]. https://www.rcaanc-cirnac. gc.ca/eng/1450124405592/1529106060525; “Final Report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada.” https://pm.gc.ca/en/news/backgrounders/2015/12/15/final-reporttruth-and-reconciliation-commission-canada; “TRC Findings.” https://web.archive.org/ web/20200505161532/http://trc.ca/about-us/trc-findings.html. Tutu, Desmond. 2003. “Transcription of Speech by Archbishop Desmond Tutu at the 37th Annual CITRA Conference: 21 October 2003. Archives and Human Rights.” https://www.ica.org/sites/ default/files/ICA_2003-10-21_Desmond-Tutu-speech_EN.pdf.

Olefhile Mosweu

6 T o Wear Gloves or Wash Hands? A Perusal of Archives Preservation Policy in Botswana Abstract: Archival documents have become vital for preservation purposes to ensure their availability and accessibility to users for future use. The regular consultation of archives by users is also a danger to the archives themselves as they inevitably deteriorate through regular use. Some archival institutions require that documents be handled with washed clean hands while others require that users wear gloves. As a preservation measure, national archival institutions normally document policies that govern the handling of archives, including precious manuscripts. This chapter outlines a study which sought through literature review and interviews to determine whether Botswana National Archives and Records Services (BNARS) had a documented archives preservation policy. Secondly, it sought to establish how archival documents were handled, whether with clean washed hands or with gloves. The study was qualitative and used emailed interviews with archivists at BNARS who were purposively selected. The study revealed that BNARS did not have a documented archives preservation policy but a draft Archives Handling Regulations document to guide the preservation programme. Secondly, the study revealed that archives were handled without gloves with the expectation that hands would have been washed clean. The chapter includes future recommendations to document an archives preservation policy to guide and minimise deterioration of archival documents and minimise damage arising from handling. Keywords: Archives – Botswana; Archives – Access and control

Introduction Endeavouring to preserve records and archives has a long history It is mentioned in the Bible in the book of Jeremiah 32:14, which says “Thus says the Lord of hosts, the God of Israel: Take these deeds, both this sealed deed of purchase and this open deed, and put them in an earthenware jar, in order that they may last for a long time”. In this context, the preserved records would later on serve as evidence and proof of the transaction should there be any doubts about the owners of the property. Human activity produces records. The documentary heritage produced from human activities is recorded on media that is damaged by unstable environments, biological factors, careless handling, natural and human-made disasters, inferior https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110772753-008

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paper, impermanent and acidic inks, and technological obsolescence resulting from outdated hardware and software formats that render information inaccessible (Ngulube 2007). Archives are vital to society’s functioning: Archives play a critical role in the preservation of culture and heritage. Future successive generations will know what we valued most as the current generation through the archival material we preserve. In essence, archive material is a conversation with posterity. It, therefore, follows that if our archives lack integrity or reflect biases then this will be an injustice to future generations who may never get to know the true stories of our times (Sibhidla-Saphetha 2013, 74).

In 1970, Botswana’s first President, Seretse Khama in a graduation ceremony at the University of Botswana, Lesotho and Swaziland further illuminated the importance of archives to society, when he said: It should now be our intention to try to retrieve what we can of our past. We should write our own history books to prove that we did have a past, and that it was a past that was just as worth writing and learning about as any other. We must do this for the simple reason that a nation without a past is a lost nation, and a people without a past is a people without a soul (Boddy-Evans 2020).

A fragmented record of the past results in gaps in our knowledge of historical events (Jimerson 2008), hence President Khama’s call for the past to be recorded to retain the soul of a people. The composite material of paper archives by nature is acidic and inevitably leads to deterioration with the passage of time. Other factors that lead to the degradation of archival documents include fluctuations in, or high levels of, temperature and relative humidity; excessive exposure to light; air pollution; water damage; destruction from biological agents such as mould or insects; or abuse and mishandling (IRMT 1999). Archives need to be preserved to ensure longevity of access for current and future users. Archives provide the glue which binds not only the past with the present but forges it into the future. Archival institutions develop and implement preservation policies to guide interactions with archival documents. This chapter describes a study which examined the availability of a documented archives preservation policy and the methods of handling of archival documents at Botswana National Archives and Records Services (BNARS).

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The Context The Botswana National Archives and Records Services (BNARS) was established by an Act of Parliament in 1978 known as the National Archives Act (NARS) (Botswana 1978). BNARS predates the legislation that established it as it commenced operations in 1967 following the movement of the seat of government from Mafikeng, South Africa after attainment of independence by the Republic of Botswana from Britain in 1966. BNARS is mandated by NARS to make provision for the preservation, custody, control and disposal of public archives including public records of Botswana. In 2007, the Act was amended to give BNARS authority to manage records across the public service of Botswana. The amendment extended the definition of a record to include electronic records. With the amendment in 2007, the legislation became known as the National Archives and Records Services Act. A brief overview of the role archives play in society is presented in the next section to further contextualise the study.

The Importance of Archives to Society Archives have a role to play in national development. Archival scholars such as Jimerson (2008), Ngoepe and Keakopa (2011) and Yakel, Duff, Tibbo, Kriesberg and Amber (2012) aver that national archival institutions can contribute towards national development if they adopt vigorous public programmes to publicise their services. A study by Venson, Ngoepe and Ngulube (2014) revealed that public archives contribute towards economic development and political and administrative accountability. Specifically it showed that in South Africa public archives played an important role in society in holding previous administration accountable retrospectively and also by preserving the memory of the nation and cultural heritage which can be used for attracting tourists, storytelling and theatre activity. The same study stated that it was only Botswana and Zimbabwe whose National Development Plans (NDPs) mention efforts towards an improvement of archives and records management systems, while Kenya, South Africa, Tanzania and Zambia’s NDPs were silent. In essence, lack of recognition of national archives as contributing partners in national development means they have been unable to realise their potential. In addition, archives express, hold and support numerous contrasting positions: memory and forgetting, suffering and hope, power and accountability, confinement and liberation, oppression and justice, conformity and diversity, and silence and speaking. Archives often serve the interests of entrenched power, but

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they can also empower marginalized groups in society (Jimerson 2008). Duff, Flinn, Suurtamm and Wallace (2013) point out that archives can be used to serve justice and even deny it. This depends on the decisions made on how archives shaped the past and how they engage with the present. In the case of serving justice, the border dispute between Botswana and Namibia over the island of Sedudu (name used in Botswana) and Kasikili (Namibian name) was settled by the International Court of Justice in 1996 through the use of archival records (Kasikili/Sedudu Island (Botswana/Namibia) 1999). Archives constitute the documentary evidence for actions and can be used to hold decision makers accountable (Briston 2004). Laws and regulations prescribe, circumscribe, or prohibit particular actions, and hold people or entities to an account. Records and archives used to ensure and support accountability can be found in record centres or archives. Parkinson (1993) notes the seminal work of Schellenberg (1956) who underscored the importance of preservation and access to public records in holding government officials accountable for their actions. The need to preserve archives is in no doubt. Their nature dictates that they be jealously guarded as most are rare, special and cannot be sold on the market or purchased from vendors or inside bookshops (Asogwa and Ezema 2012). Developing and implementing archives preservation programmes ensures that archives remain accessible for use by communities both in the short and long terms.

Policies Related to the Preservation of and Access to Archives Archives need to be preserved to ensure longevity of access for current and future users. According to Ngulube (2003), preservation of archives ensures that they are made available for access in the long term. In the words of Cloonan, “Preservation allows for the continuity of the past with the present and the future” (2001, 235). Archival institutions develop and implement preservation policies to ensure continuing availability of materials in their collections through stipulating protection measures and determining conditions of both storage and use. The British Library has identified the benefits of a strong archives preservation policy. It will ––

Clarify the relationship between the organisation’s mission and preservation activity

––

Clarify the scope of preservation activity by identifying the collections to be preserved, their significance and the desired retention period

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Act as a focal point for collaborative working across organisations and in some cases between organisations

––

Clarify relationships with other aspects of collections management such as collections acquisition, access and security

––

Provide a statement of accountability against which performance can be monitored

––

Demonstrate the organisation’s long-term commitment to its collections to funders and users, internal and external

––

Act as a communication tool, internally and externally

––

Provide a basis for the development of preservation strategy and preservation programmes

––

Provide a basis for establishing priorities and justifying investment

––

Demonstrate responsible stewardship for the benefit of current and future users, and

––

Explain to users why certain actions are taken while others are not. (British Library 2013, 2).

Without a dedicated preservation policy, archival documents deteriorate. To regulate access to archives, and facilitate preservation, archival institutions formulate preservation policies. A policy refers to a formal statement of intent which embodies the aims and objectives of an organisation usually over a specified period of time. During planning and decision making processes, reference is made to policy (Chapman 1990). As already noted, archival institutions house collections which over time deteriorate and need to be taken care of through implementing documented preservation measures. Conway (1990, 26) defines archival preservation as “the acquisition, organization, and distribution of resources (human, physical, monetary) to ensure adequate protection of historical information of enduring value for access by present and future generations.” The Public Records Office of Northern Ireland defines archival preservation as: the means by which archives are protected for the use of resent and future generations. It is a word commonly used by record offices, libraries and museums to describe the ways in which their collections are safeguarded and kept in good physical condition. This can be done through a variety of measures aimed both at minimising the risk of loss of records and slowing down, as much as possible, the processes of physical deterioration which affect most archive materials. the measures adopted to protect archives for the use of present and future generations (Northern Ireland 2006, 2).

To promote archival preservation, it is crucial for national archives to implement preservation policies as they are an indispensable tool for organisations that are committed to facilitating the survival of materials in their custody. Policies are important because they set out goals to be achieved as well as guidelines for implementing them (Forde 1998). Ngulube (2005) notes that most of the archival agencies

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in the Eastern and Southern African Regional Branch of the International Council of Archives (ESARBICA) region do not have archives preservation policies. The scope of preservation policies includes provisions for: –– Common standards for records preservation –– Acquisition and selection of records –– Records storage –– Reformatting copying of records –– Public displays and exhibitions –– Disaster planning, and –– Handling of archives (Bhebhe, Masuku, and Ngulube 2013); URMT 1999; Ngulube 2005). In a study which investigated archival preservation practices at the Records and Archives Management Department of Tanzania, Pendo and Mnjama (2014) found that both staff and users mishandled archives. Measures regarding handling archives with gloves or just clean hands is a controversial issue as a preservation policy and was the subject of this study. The controversy is presented in the next section.

Handling Archival Materials As already noted, over the passage of time, archival documents deteriorate. Regarding paper, Ngulube observes that “the stress and treatments applied during printing, converting, handling and storage as well as the process by which the paper is made all affect the useful life of paper” (2003, 44). Among activities that lead to the deterioration of archival documents are poor photocopying practices, excessive use of materials, deliberate acts of vandalism, theft of material, inadequate security and rough handling of archival documents with dirty hands (Mutero 2011). Dealing with these issues calls for deliberate measures to be implemented not only to protect materials in archival storage but also to ensure that all who come into contact with archives in one way or another, such as researchers, archival repository staff and office personnel understand the need to properly handle records and archives carefully. Handling archives in repositories is a controversial issue. Some advocate for archival documents to be handled with gloves while others prefer just clean and washed hands. This is an archival preservation policy matter. The policy on handling archives at the National Archives of the United Kingdom is that it is not necessary to wear gloves unless easily-damaged material, such as photographs, is

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being consulted. Rather, members of staff and patrons are required just to wash their hands and handle archives with clean and dry hands. Activities such as applying hand cream or licking fingers before handling documents are prohibited (UK National Archives n.d.). At the Churchill Archives Centre, the Collections Care and Conservation Policy is that archival material should be handled with gloves as a measure to protect them from deterioration. Users commit to do so when they register as users prior to consulting archival documents. They are even asked to watch a short video on handling archival resources (Churchill Archives Centre 2021). In their seminal paper entitled “Misperceptions about White Gloves”, Baker and Silverman (2005) argue that precious archival materials which included paper based collections and historical books should be handled not with white gloves but washed clean hands. Their argument is that wearing gloves handicaps the person using the archives and leads to more damage than if handled with bare hands. Notably, the Arizona State Library Archives and Public Records (2013) adopts practices referring both to wearing gloves and washing hands. Arizona’s preservation policy on handling archival material is that materials should be handled with washed and dry hands. Users are also encouraged to wear white clean lint free cotton gloves, particularly when using media. IFLA suggests the use of cotton gloves for handling valuable material and the placement of signs indicating that hands must be washed before using materials (Adcock 1998).

The Approach Taken by the Study This study was qualitative in nature and collected data from participants using interviews. The interviews targeted purposively selected participants who were archivists. They were contacted by email with follow-up through telephone calls. The choice of the method adopted was due to the advent of COVID 19 with health protocols which sought to control its spread by calling for social distancing and wearing of masks. Greef (2020) acknowledges that the COVID 19 pandemic has brought challenges to qualitative researchers, including difficulties with normal research processes like obtaining informed consent with an independent person being present during signing. Planned customary face-to-face data gathering methods could not be used. Restrictions related to the pandemic, such as lockdown, restricted travelling and barred physical contact brought difficulties to research conduct. The restrictions prevented face-to-face interviews, hence the preference for emailed interviews as a way to conform to COVID 19 health protocols demanding social distancing and minimal contact between people. Prior to conducting the

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study, permission to undertake it was sought in writing from BNARS and granted. Participants’ consent was requested and given. To maintain confidentiality and preserve privacy, the findings were not linked to participants as individuals. Eight archivists were selected for the study and were coded as Archivist 1 through 8 when invited to participate. Archivists 5 and 7 did not seem able to participate and appeared uninterested when a follow up was made, hence their exclusion from the findings.

The Findings of the Study The study sought firstly to determine whether BNARS had a documented archives preservation policy and secondly to establish how archival documents were being handled, whether with clean washed hands or with gloves. The next section presents the findings.

Availability of a Documented Archives Preservation Policy at BNARS The first objective of the study was to find out whether BNARS had a documented archives preservation policy to guide its preservation practices. Participants’ responses indicated that BNARS is yet to document such a policy. The participants indicated that in the absence of a policy, there were guidelines which informed preservation practices. For example, the archivists reported the following; Archivist 1: No documented Archives Preservation Policy. The BNARS Conservation Policy was approved but never really implemented due to budgetary constraints Archivist 2: The department uses BNARS Regulation of 2011. Archivist 3 and Archivist 4 put forward the BNARS Regulation of 2011, National Archives and Records Services Act of 1978 (Amended 2007) and Handling Rules and Regulations as tools providing guidance in place of an undocumented Archives Preservation Policy. Archivist 6 elaborated further by saying; Even through BNARS does not have a preservation policy it relies on BNARS regulations of 2012, BNARS Act and handling rules, it even relies on the Internet to search information relating to preservation issues. Archivists are expected to provide researchers with education on how to handle archives during the reference service. Archivist 8: We have a draft on General Handling Rules, Guidelines and Procedures For Researchers (2012).

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What emerged from the study was that BNARS did not have a documented Archives Preservation Policy. That said, it does not mean that there was no direction to inform archives preservation practices. Available guiding tools such as the BNARS 2011 Regulations were used to promote proper preservation of archival documents. However, it is of considerable benefit to have an authoritative and focused archives preservation policy to guide all preservation programmes in an archival institution.

Handling of Archival Documents at BNARS The study also sought to establish whether archival documents at BNARS were handled with gloves or with washed clean hands. Responses from the participants are presented below: Archivist 1: Archival documents are handled without gloves. There is not enough budget for that exercise. Archivist 2: Archives are handled without gloves. Archivist 3: Without gloves. It is not mandatory for users and archivists to put on their gloves. We encourage our users to have their hands clean. Archivist 4: Gloves are used to handle archives but it is not mandatory. Archivist 6: Archives are handled without gloves. Customers use their bare hands to come in contact with documents. BNARS bought cotton gloves to be used by customers, the gloves were never issued to customers, now those cotton gloves are used by archivists for processing archives. The problem with gloves not being used was archivists couldn’t reach a consensus on how customers would use the gloves,(if to dispose after use or has to wash them after usage and use them in his/her next visit to the archives). Disposing gloves seems to be costly for the department. BNARS has taken a good initiative to procure gloves for use at the search room but the idea has never been implemented. According to BNARS handling rules customers are expected to wash hands before coming into contact with archives, but this has not been implemented since there is no water basin to be used for washing hands. Archivist 8: It depends on the state of the materials. In our handling rules and regulations manual draft # 5, it says “Use cotton gloves and hold by the edges when working with photographs”. We have lint free cotton gloves that are used by researchers and archivists when the need arises. Researchers are advised to use them when the materials they are handling are fragile and can be damaged by “naked hands”.

Participant responses clearly show that that archival documents are handled without gloves at BNARS. Archives users are expected to wash hands so that they handle archives with clean hands. Lack of resources to enable the washing of hands, with no washing basin, is a challenge. Forde (1998) observes that archival institutions are unable to attract funding to perform basic archival tasks such as the protection of collections and the procurement of necessary materials and

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equipment. Both Mosweu (2019), and Ngoepe and Keakopa (2011) note that heritage institutions generally suffer from insufficient funding for various programmes including public programming.

Conclusion and Recommendations The study determined that an Archives Preservation Policy is yet to be documented at BNARS but other guiding tools such as the Handling Regulations and the BNARS Regulations are used to guide the preservation programme. It also revealed that archives are handled without gloves with the expectation that hands would have been washed clean. Some collections such as fragile archives and photographs have to be handled with gloves to protect them from deterioration. Lack of funding to procure appropriate equipment and materials also emerged as a challenge faced by BNARS in its management of the nation’s heritage. The following recommendations are made to BNARS management for the improvement of the archives preservation programme: –– BNARS develop and document an archives preservation policy to guide preservation efforts to minimise deterioration and prevent damage by managing risks for the storage, handling and display of archival materials –– BNARS finalise the draft Handling and Use of Archives Collection Guidelines to guide the handling of archives. The guidelines would supplement the developed archives preservation policy –– Provide a washing basin and/or hygienic wipes and enforce compulsory cleaning of hands, allocating priority in the budget for their purchase, and –– Ensure that both archivists and users are made aware of the importance of handling archives appropriately with clean washed hands, or with gloves when dictated by particular circumstances or media. Implementing these recommendations will minimise deterioration of archival documents and damage arising from handling. Archival documents will remain accessible and available for current and future users.

References Adcock, Edward P. 1998. IFLA Principles for the Care and Handling of Library Material. Compiled and edited by Edward P. Adcock with the assistance of Marie-Thérèse Varlamoff and Virginie Kremp. International Preservation Issues no.1. Amsterdam: International Federation of Library

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Associations and Institutions Core Programme on Preservation and Conservation and Council on Library and Information Resources. https://www.ifla.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/assets/ pac/ipi/ipi1-en.pdf. Arizona State Library Archives and Public Records. 2013. Media Storage and Handling of Long Term and Permanent Records Guidelines. https://azlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/arm-guidance-media_ storage_and_handling_of_long_term_and_permanent_records_12-29-2014.pdf. Asogwa, Brendan E., and Ifeanyi J. Ezema. 2012. “The Challenges of Preservation of Archives and Records in the Electronic Age.” PNLA Quarterly: The Official Journal of the Pacific Northwest Library Association 76, no. 3: 115–125. https://oarklibrary.com/file/2/9c391659-53fc-4d3e-a5304e722ec3f912/71b665c6-eee0-4b51-84b4-9826d1d3b1aa.pdf#page=116. Baker, Cathleen A., and Randy Silverman. 2005. “Misperceptions about White Gloves.” International Preservation News 37: 4-9. Available at https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/276287599.pdf. Bhebhe, Sindiso, Mehluli Masuku, and Patrick Ngulube. 2013. “Infrastructural Challenges on Archives and Recordkeeping at the National Archives of Zimbabwe.” Journal of the South African Society of Archivists 46: 47–62. https://www.ajol.info/index.php/jsasa/article/view/100088/89344. Boddy-Evans, Alistair. 2020. “Seretse Khama Quotes.” ThoughtCo, August 26, 2020. https://www. thoughtco.com/seretse-khama-quotes-43580. Botswana.1978. National Archives Act. Act 37, 1978. Gaborone: Government Printer. Available at https:// en.unesco.org/sites/default/files/bw_actnatalarchives2002ocr_engorof.pdf. Briston, Heather. 2004. “Keeping an Account: The Role of Archives and Archivists in Accountability.” Presentation given at the International Council on Archives, XV International Congress, Vienna, Austria, August 2004. https://scholarsbank.uoregon.edu/xmlui/handle/1794/2588. British Library. Preservation Advisory Centre. 2013. Building A Preservation Policy. Authors Mirjam M. Foot (revised by Caroline Peach). First published January 2001 as Building blocks for a Preservation Policy. Revised May 2013. https://www.bl.uk/britishlibrary/~/media/bl/global/conservation/ pdf-guides/building-a-preservation-policy.pdf. Chapman, Patricia. 1990. “Guidelines on Preservation and Conservation Policies in the Archives and Libraries Heritage.” General Information Programme and UNISIST United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Paris: Unesco. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/ pf0000086345. Churchill Archives Centre. 2021. “Collections Care and Conservation Policy.” https://archives.chu.cam. ac.uk/about/policies/conservation/. Cloonan, Michele Valerie. 2001. “W(h)ither Preservation?” The Library Quarterly 71, no. 2: 231–242. Available at https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281100217_Whither_preservation. Conway, Paul. 1990. “Archival Preservation Practice in a Nationwide Context.” American Archivist 53: 204–222. Duff, Wendy M., Andrew Flinn, Karen Emily Suurtamm, and David A, Wallace. 2013.“Social Justice Impact of Archives: A Preliminary Investigation.” Archival Science 13, no. 4: 317–348. https://doi. org/10.1007/s10502-012-9198-x. Forde, Helen. 1998. “Preservation and Conservation of Documents; Problems and Solutions.” Janus 1, 32–48. Available at https://www.raco.cat/index.php/lligall/article/download/339434/430388. Greeff, Minrie. 2020. “Conducting Qualitative Research during a Period of Lockdown and Social Distancing.” Africa Unit for Transdisciplinary Health Research (AUTHeR) North-West University. https://www.reasa.africa/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/Final-Qualitative-research-during-theCovid-19-pandemic_Minrie-Greeff.pdf. International Records Management Trust (IRMT). 1999. Managing Public Sector Records: A Study Programme: Preserving Records. London: International Records Management Trust and

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the International Council on Archives Region.” Innovation: Journal of Appropriate Librarianship and Information Work in Southern Africa 48: 42–64. Available at https://www.academia.edu/21982757/ The_role_of_public_archives_in_national_development_in_selected_countries_in_the_East_and_ Southern_Africa_Regional_Branch_of_the_International_Council_on_Archives_region. Yakel, Elizabeth, Wendy Duff, Helen Tibbo, Adam Kriesberg, and Amber Cushing. 2012. “The Economic Impact of Archives: Surveys of Users of Government Archives in Canada and the United States.” The American Archivist 75, no. 2: 297–325. https://doi.org/10.17723/aarc.75.2.002033qg27366gvt.

Charles J. Farrugia

7 N  ational Archives Institutions During Turbulent Times: The Case of COVID-19 Abstract: This chapter examines the reaction of national archival institutions during turbulent times. Do such phases inspire institutions to transform themselves into active participants for social change, or do they often end up shying away as passive observers? The examination analysed the literature on the topic and built on it through organisational observation. The chapter focuses on COVID-19 and its impacts on national archival institutions in Denmark and Malta. There are indications that archival institutions reacted differently during the pandemic. In some cases, the institutions took a break from uninterrupted contact with the public and used the time and resources for much-needed, and often overdue, housekeeping and stocktaking. Others took the opportunity to interact more with the public and tap into new audiences. New outreach approaches were dependent on the availability of technology. The research undertaken for the study is at a preliminary stage but has the potential to pave the way in the future for more in-depth analysis of the changes occurring in underlying attitudes and perspectives of archives institutions. Keywords: Archives – Information technology; Archives – Denmark; Archives – Malta; Archives – Administration; COVID-19 (Disease)

Introduction Many studies have been carried out investigating the reaction of the archival profession in times of war, natural calamities and other forms of social distress. The resulting effects of such disasters top the list in terms of the academic debate they generate. Issues such as displaced archives and the impact these have on much wider phenomena have been under investigation for a number of decades. The International Council on Archives (ICA) was inspired to set up an Expert Group on Shared Archival Heritage (ICA n.d.). This initiative augurs well for a more holistic approach and a shift from traditional regional perspectives to a more international dissection of the issues. Several authors are revaluating the work on such topics as reactions by archival institutions to calamitous situations and using new approaches to revisit the canonical theories that have become sacred to the profession. In one such work, Anne Gilliland revisits concepts such as the physical and moral defence of archives https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110772753-009



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emanating from the views of authoritative persons such as Hilary Jenkinson and Ernst Posner. Gilliland’s work contemplates how historical examples might help the field to prepare today’s archivists for the realities of acting and advocating on behalf of records, archives, and their constituents in situations of conflict and exigency around the globe (2018). The international debate about the reaction of archives and libraries in turbulent times is extensive and far-reaching. In one of her writings, Eira Tansey argues that no one owes their trauma to archivists (2020) and raises valid questions about the extensive efforts in different countries to document trauma. She questions core issues such as the extent documentation can truly reflect the realities of specific situations. Another dimension is the issue of the right to be forgotten and to what extent conscious efforts geared towards the commodification of contemporary collecting might be creating new issues. The list of archival projects dealing with documenting COVID-19 is extensive and has been continually updated in Google docs (Documenting COVID-19 n.d.). This chapter focuses on the COVID-19 pandemic as a phase of world-wide distress (Collins, Florin, and Renn 2020) and contributes to the rising academic debate about how cultural institutions are reacting and should react to the situation. The pandemic has forced an inevitable slowdown or disruption to normal routines. For some, stressed with the burden of overlapping diary appointments, such a pause might initially have looked like a providential welcome break. But counteracting this, was the uncertainty of what comes next, coupled with the risks in terms not only of health but also of financial stability. The development of a number of vaccines to combat the virus brought a ray of hope, although several scientific studies argue that the Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) may be here to stay (Anderson et al. 2020). What is the role of national archival institutions during turbulent times, with particular emphasis on the current reality of the COVID-19 pandemic? Do archival institutions play active roles at times of distress and disruption or shy away into a passive observer’s role? The hypothesis is that archival institutions can take centre stage at such times, as communities often retreat into a soul-searching mode during periods of uncertainty. Disruptive experiences provide an opportunity for archives to draw the spotlight to themselves and redefine their position in society. This study focuses on the reactions of the Rigsarkivet/National Archives of Denmark and the L-Arkivji Nazzjonali ta’ Malta/ National Archives of Malta to COVID-19, and the projects they launched which were triggered by the circumstances of the pandemic.

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Theoretical Background Archives represent the permanent memory of the actions and feelings of people as they act and react to the events of daily life. The role of archives in preserving collective memory is what makes them vital to society, as well as powerful and precious (Farrugia 2018). As already noted, the focus of this chapter is on the role of national archival institutions during turbulent times. For the purposes of this study, turbulent times are defined by circumstances of disruption on a national or international scale that adversely affect the lifestyle of large sectors of the population. In the recent past, war, earthquakes, flooding and other natural disasters have been the most troubled times which created archival dilemmas, some of which are still lingering to be resolved. One ongoing debate is the issue of displaced archives, referred to by terms such as “trophies of war” (Grimsted 2001) or under the more positive umbrella terminology of “shared archival heritage”. Writing about the issue in the foreword to Grimsted’s book two decades ago, Charles Kecskeméti underlined how challenging and difficult such situations are and highlighted the need for international organisations to steer discussions on such topics. In his words, “when passion opposes passion, rational arguments advocating a negotiated agreement can hardly prevail” (Grimsted 2001, xi). At that time, he argued that the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and ICA had to satisfy themselves with a thesaurus rather than the real settlement of issues. The institutions had not resolved anything and resorted instead to focusing on terminology. The debate is ongoing with the coining of the concept of shared archival heritage which is still contested. The COVID-19 pandemic is a case of troubled times of a different dimension. It is a reality affecting all nations and a phenomenon which has reconfigured the way everyone lives (WHO n.d.). It will undoubtedly also reconfigure the archival record for future generations. Due to the dimension of the crisis, the leading international professional organisations have tried to guide the international community and their membership cohorts on how to best deal with the situation. UNESCO took the lead and issued a statement titled “Turning the Threat of COVID-19 into an Opportunity for Greater Support to Documentary Heritage”. The representatives of the various collaborating bodies argued in the opening paragraph of the statement that: The way the world is responding to this unprecedented global crisis will be part of history books. Memory institutions, including national archives, libraries, museums, as well as educational and research bodies, are already recording the decisions and actions being made



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which will help future generations to understand the extent of the pandemic and its impact on societies (UNESCO 2020).

UNESCO produced four principles and directions urging memory institutions to turn the threat of COVID-19 into an opportunity for greater collaboration across borders and investment in documenting mankind’s actions. When it comes to the information professions, the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) produced on its website “Key Resources for Libraries in Responding to the Coronavirus Pandemic” (IFLA 2020). The resources listed touch on a variety of topics, some of which might be considered controversial, as different role players in the system assess the situations from different personal perspectives. Amongst the topics discussed and guidelines provided, there are issues of closing libraries, handling and sanitising materials, social distancing in library environments and options of working remotely. As opposed to normal office work, libraries and archives contain physical artefacts that make several workflow processes impossible to conduct remotely. Notwithstanding, most archives tried to shift to online work through devising roster systems for their staff. The sudden need to work from home also resulted in a renewed focus on cataloguing and a more positive perspective towards what work archivists and librarians could do from their own homes. The position document issued by the ICA (2020), appealed for three important principles to be put into action during the pandemic. The first principle was that decisions must be documented. The second was that records and data should be secured and preserved in all sectors and the final point highlighted was that security, preservation and access to digital content should be facilitated during the shutdown. The statement argued that: Archives are the custodians of the 1918 influenza pandemic records, which are being studied by scientists around the world and these institutions will eventually be the stewards for records related to the COVID-19 pandemic. The economic and societal impact of the current pandemic needs to be evidenced, not only to prevent and/or anticipate similar events but to understand the effect this event will have on current and future generations…Records and archives are more than paper documents marked ‘official record.’ ...As the economic impact of COVID-19 is felt around the world, it will also be critical to secure, capture and preserve the records of defunct companies and/or private entities. This way, the social, cultural and even economic significance of former undertakings can live on (ICA 2020).

One can say that as a result of the pandemic, most institutions forced themselves towards better use of information technology to interact with the outer world, taking advantage of the opportunities provided. When compared with other players in the information domain such as libraries and museums, archives might previously

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have been considered less competitive in occupying digital space (EURBICA 2020). The International Internet Preservation Consortium recognised the importance of maintaining archival content related to the pandemic and its Content Development Group established a collection, Novel Coronavirus (COVID-19), in collaboration with Archive-It to preserve web content related to COVID-19. Identification of seed websites and initial web crawling began in February 2020, and the collection will continue to add new content as needed during the course of the pandemic and its containment. High priority subtopics include: coronavirus origins; information about the spread of infection; regional or local containment efforts, including vaccine development and implementation of vaccinations; medical and scientific aspects; social aspects; economic aspects; and political aspects. Websites from anywhere in the world and in any language are in scope (Archive-It n.d.).

Side-by-side with archives and libraries, it is worth looking at museums and the extent the pandemic is affecting their modus operandi. What is most interesting with museums is the impact on collecting policies rather than the services which were also severely hit due to decline in audiences. An article by Sandro Debono revisited the concept of “rapid response collecting”, an initiative developed after the September 11, 2001 New York disaster, commonly known as 9/11, which emphasised collecting historical artefacts in real time. Such processes form part of the collecting policies of a number of museums and aim to empower museums to collect the ephemeral momentous documents and artefacts that might be difficult to acquire once the phenomenon is over. Debono quotes Aaron Bryant, a curator at the National Museum of African American History and Culture who argued that “It is critical that we collect so this moment does not get lost. … History is happening right before us. … If we don’t collect this stuff, who knows what happens to it” (Debono 2021, 179).

The Design and Conduct of the Study The approach taken in the study examining the reactions of archival institutions during the pandemic built on the available literature and applied a case study style. The outcomes were supplemented by observations from the author’s own experience in the field as a practising national archivist. The focus was on case studies of two successful projects that turned the COVID-19 pandemic into an opportunity for interacting with audiences and redefining the traditional canons of archival practice. The projects related to preservation and accessibility.



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The case studies came from two European national archive institutions: the Danish Coronavirus web collection of the Rigsarkivet/Danish National Archives (Kjellberg 2020) and the COVID pandemic theme under the Memorja Project of the L-Arkivji Nazzjonali ta’ Malta/National Archives of Malta (NAM) (Vella 2020). What follows is an explanation of the rationale of the two projects and the archival perspectives that can be derived from them.

Case Study 1: National Archives of Denmark One of the national archives that embarked on a COVID-inspired project is the Rigsarkivet/ Danish National Archives. The institution closed its reading rooms due to the national lockdown and consequently the COVID project was an important way to keep active communication with the general community. The Danish web collection on coronavirus is part of a project embarked upon by the main memory institutions in the country collecting general documentation on the Corona lockdown in Denmark in 2020 (Schostag 2020). The stakeholders in the project were the Rigsarkivet/National Archives, the Nationalmuseet/ National Museum, the Arbejdermuseet/Workers Museum, local archives and the Det Kongelige Bibliotek/Royal Danish Library. The plan to capture COVID lockdown documentation was supposed to be conducted in phases. The first focused on the “here and now” collection of documentation during the corona lockdown and was to be followed by a more systematic development of collecting material from authorities and public bodies. The first phase of the project consisted of a national call to all Danes to contribute to the COVID lockdown documentation by sending photos and narratives from their daily life while enduring the lockdown. The call under the banner “Days with Corona” was mainly led by the Dansk Folkemindesamling/Danish Folklore Archives run by the Nationalmuseet/National Museum and the Det Kongelige Bibliotek/Royal Danish Library. The initial effort was supplemented by Netarkivet/Netarchive, the organisation responsible for preserving the Danish part of the Internet as part of the Danish legal deposit act, in the form of a public call for help by nominating URLs of web pages related to coronavirus, social media profiles, hashtags, memes and any other relevant material (Schostag 2020).

Case Study 2: National Archives of Malta A second institution to embark on a similar project was the L-Arkivji Nazzjonali ta’ Malta/ National Archives of Malta (NAM) (Debono 2020; Vella 2020). In this case,

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the initiative fitted in as a thematic focus under an already established memory project. The initial phase of the COVID-19 Pandemic Memory Project was to collect any material, for example journals and photographs, which documented people’s experiences during the pandemic. Calls for public collaboration were issued through various means, such as social media, virtual interviews on local television programmes and newspaper articles. The goal was to connect with many people from different backgrounds and to build a rich collection which would enable researchers, in the near and distant futures, to look at the situation through different perspectives. Anyone interested in donating their material was subsequently directed to contact the NAM via email in order to avoid any direct contact. A PDF document with further information about the project was sent to enquirers in response. A donation declaration form authorising the NAM to provide access to the deposited material for research and educational purposes was also included. The response by the public was enthusiastic. A total of 71 persons interested in the project contacted NAM within the first six months from the first campaign during the first three months of the pandemic. The respondents included families, the elderly, Maltese citizens, foreigners living abroad, educators including teachers and lecturers, poets, music composers, religious personnel, photographers, social workers and students. In addition, a large variety of material had already been deposited at NAM. Materials included journals, photographic albums, poems, philosophical ramblings, paintings and video recordings. The project continued to a second phase. Following a more structured approach, interviews were conducted to capture an additional perspective through which one can view the effects of the pandemic on local society. All who were directly involved in the management of the pandemic, including government officials, healthcare workers, business owners, police officers and people who had been infected by COVID-19 were included. NAM decided to showcase an innovative approach whereby interviews would be conducted in a virtual manner to serve as an example highlighting the application and effectiveness of an unusual fieldwork methodology in oral history research. In addition, the recording of information through virtual means would also further reflect the difficult situation and be especially beneficial to the researcher.

Comparing the Case Studies and the Countries From a comparison of the two case studies and the two countries, it was possible to extract certain patterns of thinking with regard to the aims of the projects; the acquisition process by which materials were collected; the marketing strategies



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for publicising the projects; the public relations activities explaining the value and purpose of archives projects; and the types of materials acquired and accessioned.

Project Aims The patterns that COVID-19 imposed on national archives institutions seem to have been similar in the two countries under review, Denmark and Malta. Both the Danish National Archives and the National Archives of Malta stated that the importance of preserving corona pandemic evidence emanated from two needs: firstly, to document and preserve what happened; and secondly as an effective tool in branding the archives institutions, establishing their role and purpose and demonstrating the relevance of national archives institutions within society.

The Acquisitions Process The same effect was also traced when it came to the acquisition process. The main challenge the COVID-19 event posed was the fact that documentation had to be acquired as events were unfolding. This has put on the institution the need for analysis and discipline in distinguishing between what can be acquired instantaneously and what can wait. The collecting approaches were different between Denmark and Malta. The Danes chose a specific website for content delivery and included a form seeking basic personal details about the contributor, photo title, date when the image was taken and the creator of the photo. The same platform was used to acquire the necessary consent details. In the Maltese case study, the infrastructure on an on-going oral archives project called Memorja (Farrugia 2018) was used. It encourages more formal interviews. Due to the challenge of conducting face-to-face interviews, the emphasis was put on the first phase of the project, that of collecting written diaries and ephemera.

Marketing Strategies Both institutions used all possible social media platforms and other means of dissemination including to get a public appeal out, inviting private individuals to donate COVID-related material. The Denmark campaign used the slogan: “Your story of the corona crisis is an important part of Danish history!” A similar call for action in Malta was: “Do you wish to join our efforts to make sure that persons born in 50 years from now may know our life during this pandemic?” The messages were

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repeated in press releases, TV interviews and social media via Facebook, Instagram and LinkedIn. Facebook seemed to be the most popular primarily because it was easy to use and widely available. Many of the Facebook postings remain. The institutions highlighted the downside of platforms such as Facebook. Topping the list of the difficulties is the fact that there are extensive cohorts of the population that do not use Facebook. The popularity of Facebook and other social media platforms such as Twitter and Instagram varies from country to country, and according to age. Amongst the marketing challenges was the difficulty of defining a target audience. COVID-19 affected all populations all over the world. Thus, contrary to most themes under memory projects that can focus on a defined sub-set of the population, the impact of the pandemic needed to be captured in its widest dimension. Using social media demands a constant online presence. People expect immediate reactions if not answers. Achieving satisfactory outcomes takes time and resources which can only be acquired gradually and not overnight.

Public Relations A significant difference in metrics emerged between the members of the public who showed initial interest in participating and the actual numbers who kept their word and followed through. In the case of Denmark, from around 30,000 people who clicked on the Facebook advertisement and related webpage, only 275 contributed to the initiative. In the case of Malta, the clicks on the Facebook advertisement totalled 10,000 of whom 71 initially contributed to the initiative. In both countries under 1% of people expressing interest followed through. The team in Denmark thinks that the reasons for the funnelling down of numbers might have been the formal requirements for making the donation. The detailed information requested, and the required consent form might have not gone down well with an audience accustomed to one-click social media processes such as the use of Likes and Share. While contributors might be discouraged by consent processes, public institutions cannot abdicate their legal and ethical responsibilities in view of European Union General Data Protection Regulation and other considerations. The challenge is to strike a balance between regulatory frameworks and the potential benefit of such projects to the community. People’s use of social media is enthusiastic and ubiquitous and must be harnessed by archival activism.



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Material Obtained When it comes to the material received by the two initiatives, there are also common patterns. Most of the accessions came from private persons and, as much as possible, no appraisal was done of the donated material. Most donations consisted of pictures from everyday life, highlighting how people adjusted their home working environments, public signs, special occasions, and people wearing protective equipment. The two projects are ongoing. The main target of the National Danish Archives is to work on the second dimension of the project, focusing on structured active acquisition from private and public companies. The Danish National Archives is reaching out to private companies to submit documentation to show how the pandemic affected their businesses and how they dealt with it. A select number of private companies have been approached and have helped in planning this phase of the project. A similar approach was taken in Malta and a number of private companies took inspiration from the NAM project and launched internal initiatives. Two such organisations are CareMalta and the Richmond Foundation. The interaction with various organisations led to enhanced recognition of the value of archives and is one of the great benefits of such projects. Apart from organisations looking to national archive institutions for inspiration, the refined marketing infrastructure of the organisations was brought into play to assist the archives.

Conclusion The pandemic is ongoing and developing at times in very unpredictable ways. The international and national responses have been scaled down as its impact is normalised. The disparities between countries, both in terms of the severity of the pandemic and the responses by authorities and the public vary considerably. The study was undertaken at a time when the institutions involved were continuously adapting themselves to the realities of time, without having time to take an evidence-based approach in a gradually planned manner. The suggested outcomes and changes in the role of archives may not be reliable. There has been insufficient time to develop tried and tested methodologies or to take advantage of historical evidence. A systematic survey of similar initiatives taken by other national archives could be conducted to examine wider initiatives in other parts of the world. Further study of the impact of projects documenting COVID-19’s implications would help determine their impact on traditional services being provided and on the views

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and perspectives users might have in relation to the institutions themselves. The two national archives included in the study were able to think creatively and to launch new initiatives even during troubled times. Their initiatives were warmly welcomed by the media in the respective countries and garnered wide publicity and facilitated reaching out into the community. There are indications that those who participated in the projects feel that they contributed to the nation’s history at a crucial phase in its trajectory. There is not enough available evidence as yet to determine what will be the long-standing impact, if any, of the initiatives.

References Anderson, Roy M., Hans Heesterbeek, Don Klinkenberg, and T. Déirdre Hollingsworth. 2020. “How Will Country-based Mitigation Measures Influence the Course of the COVID-19 Epidemic?” The Lancet 395, 10228: 931–934. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30567-5. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/ articles/PMC7158572/. Archive-It. n.d. “Novel Coronavirus (COVID-19).” Collected by International Internet Preservation Committee. https://archive-it.org/collections/13529. Bowley, Graham. 2020. “Museums Collect Protest Signs to Preserve History in Real Time.” New York Times, June 15, 2020. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/10/arts/design/museums-protest-signs. html. Collins, Aengus, Marie-Valentine Florin, and Ortwin Renn. 2020. “COVID-19 Risk Governance: Drivers, Responses and Lessons to Be Learned.” Journal of Risk Research 23, no. 77–8: 1073–1082. https://doi.org/10.1080/13669877.2020.1760332. Available at https://www.scienceopen.com/ document?vid=b099c7f3-cb75-4a56-ae3e-eaa61fe8184d. Debono, James. 2020. “How Malta is Building its COVID-19 Time Capsule.” Malta Today, May 13, 2020. https://www.maltatoday.com.mt/news/national/102250/how_malta_is_building_its_covid19_ time_capsule#.Y19_Y3ZBxX4. Debono, Sandro. 2001. “Collecting Pandemic Phenomena: Reflections on Rapid Response Collecting and the Art Museum.” Collections: A Journal for Museum and Archives Professionals 17, no. 2: 179–185. https://doi.org/10.1177/1550190620980844. Documenting COVID-19. n.d. https://docs.google.com/document/d/1v5tso8spFq6SpW53h2OJULcdRoP EbyI6xpah31kW-H0/edit. European Regional Branch of the International Council on Archives (EURBICA). 2020. Message from the Chairperson. [Blog] March 26, 2020. https://www.facebook.com/Eurbica/photos/a.942515442548 083/1849608781838740 . Farrugia, Charles J. 2018. “Whose Voices Count? From Public Records to Public Memory.” In Research, Practice and Creative Endeavour that Aim to Shape and Influence Policy and Programs: Proceedings 16th CIRN Conference 24–26 October 2018 Monash University Prato Centre, Italy. Edited by Larry Stillman, and Misita Anwar, 263–271. Melbourne: Centre for Social and Community Informatics, Faculty of IT, Monash University. https://www.um.edu.mt/library/ oar/bitstream/123456789/45763/1/Whose_voices_count_From_public_records_to_public_ memory_2018.pdf.



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Gilliland, Anne J. 2018. “To What Lengths the ‘Physical and Moral Defence of the Record’ in Times of Conflict and Exigency?” Archives and Records 39, no. 2: 117–138. https://doi.org/10.1080/23257962 .2017.1348940. Grimsted, Patricia Kennedy. 2001. Trophies of War and Empire : The Archival Heritage of Ukraine, World War II, and the International Politics of Restitution. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute. International Council on Archives (ICA). n.d. “Expert Group on Shared Archival Heritage – EGSAH: Terms of Reference.” https://www.ica.org/en/expert-group-on-shared-archival-heritage-egsah. International Council on Archives (ICA). 2020. “COVID-19: The Duty to Document Does Not Cease in a Crisis, it Becomes More Essential.” https://www.ica.org/sites/default/files/COVID_the_duty_to_ document_is_essential.pdf. International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA). 2020. “COVID-19 and the Global Library Field. Updates. Key Resources for Libraries in Responding to the Coronavirus Pandemic.” https://www.ifla.org/COVID-19-and-libraries. Kjellberg, Jetta H. 2020. “Preservation of Corona-evidence at the Danish National Archives.” YouTube. Webinar on October 21, 2020. 47.57 minutes. DLM Forum. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=GmVt0BszBAY. Schostag, Sabine. 2020. “The Danish Coronavirus Web Collection – Coronavirus on the Curators’ Minds.” International Internet Preservation Consortium. IIPC. Netpreserve.org. [Blog] July 29, 2020. https://netpreserveblog.wordpress.com/2020/07/29/the-danish-coronavirus-web-collection/. Tansey, Eira. 2020. “No One Owes Their Trauma to Archivists, or, to the Commodification of Contemporaneous Collecting.” [Blog]. June 4, 2020. https://eiratansey.com/2020/06/05/no-oneowes-their-trauma-to-archivists-or-the-commodification-of-contemporaneous-collecting. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO). 2020. “Turning the Threat of COVID-19 into an Opportunity for Greater Support to Documentary Heritage.” https://www. unesco.org/en/articles/turning-threat-covid-19-opportunity-greater-support-documentaryheritage. Vella, Fiona 2020. “Closing the Distance.” [Interview with Charles Farrugia]. Times of Malta, April 17, 2020. https://timesofmalta.com/articles/view/closing-the-distance.785981. World Health Organization (WHO). n.d. Coronavirus (COVID-19) Dashboard. https://COVID19.who.int/.

Justice Kasiroori and Josiline Phiri Chigwada

8 T he Impact of Library Resources on Block Release Students’ Academic Achievement in Zimbabwe Abstract: This chapter reports on a research project using learning analytics and big data to establish the correlation between usage of the library and its resources at the Bindura University of Science Education (BUSE) in Zimbabwe and the academic grade gained by students undertaking block release programmes, which involved attending campus in back-to-back blocks of time, while also learning online when not on campus. Data was collected from usage statistics of library services from the library management system, proxy log files and online interaction of learners with the library on various social networks. The data was integrated into a data warehouse and a single dataset generated for analysis. Data analysis was conducted through machine learning technologies using decision trees for the classification and analysis of the data. The findings showed a weak correlation between usage of library resources and academic achievement for the block release students. Block release students used physical resources more frequently than the electronic resources. It is suggested that learning analytics should include all data generated by learners at their institutions and that libraries should be more visible in the support of teaching and learning. Keywords: Research – Data processing; Teaching and learning in higher education; Data analysis; Academic libraries – Evaluation

Introduction Student demographics and modes of study in tertiary education are shifting all over the world and more people are studying part-time and pursuing distance learning (Buruga and Osamai 2019), or undertaking block release mode, attending campus in back-to-back blocks of time, while also learning online when not on campus (Kwandayi and Muyambo 2022; Makombe, Mapfumo, and Makoni 2016). The changing trends are magnified in the African context where the number of mature students is growing. The block release mode of learning has gained traction in the Southern Africa Region (Makombe, Mapfumo, and Makoni 2016). In the same way that the mode of learning for block release students differs from that of conventional students, so too do their patterns of library use and the challenges they face in accessing library resources. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110772753-010

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The library is often referred to as the heart of the university or academic institution as it has the duty of supporting research, teaching and learning at an academic institution. The advent of the Internet has brought great challenges to the library as students resort to using the Internet as a major, and sometimes sole, source of information. Search engines like Google are popular with students; social networks are heavily used; and online wikis like Wikipedia are seen as authoritative sources of information by many students (Ford 2016; Sahoo and Sharma 2015). The library faces the task of changing its role and service provision particularly in relation to the support of use of digital media and proving its impact in the academic environment especially given the hostile economic environment that has seen budget cuts in the education sector. Since the mid-90s, the declining trend in library use in some parts of the world has been well-documented and librarians are being challenged to prove the relevance of libraries given that the Internet has become a major source of information (Alabi and Omoike 2020; Dresang 2006). The biggest challenge is that the difference libraries make is less tangible and harder to measure (Ball 2019; Creaser 2018).

The Changing Academic Library The role of the library in an academic institution is to support its research, teaching and learning processes. The library fulfils its role through many activities including collecting, archiving and disseminating of information and information resources. Library and information resources serve the informational, academic and sometimes entertainment needs of users. Traditionally, library resources were printed books, encyclopaedias, journals, newspapers and other documents which were housed in a building and could be accessed only by visiting the library. The situation has however changed, and library resources can now be accessed electronically and remotely. Digital sources of information include, but are not limited to, online libraries and journals, encyclopaedias, wikis, blogs, audiovisual resources, images, and institutional repositories. Digital resources are hosted on institutional infrastructure, shared regional, national or international sites or commercial sites like YouTube for videos. Library resources encompass the whole spectrum of information sources and reference services and include social media, books and journals in electronic and print form, digital libraries and many other resources that the library holds or to which it provides access on behalf of its users. For the purposes of the discussion in this chapter, research library resources include reference services, or any assistance rendered to users from a specific institution and preclude resources that are available freely on the Internet or through open access.

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The academic library serves a wide variety of users. Students undertaking block release constitute a growing demographic in institutions of higher learning, particularly in African countries. Issues include lack of access to a nearby library with relevant textbooks and journals; poor Internet connectivity; limited assistance from library staff; lack of training in accessing online library resources; and geographical isolation from the parent institution (Buruga and Osamai 2019; Huwiler 2015). Block release students use distance learning extensively and many use library resources provided by alternative academic institutions located near them or general search engines and Internet resources to find and use open access resources (Huwiler 2015). Alternative library use presents a problem in that the usage patterns of distance learning students are unknown to the parent institution. In developed countries the challenge of access to remote information resources has been partially addressed by the use of federated access which is a form of single sign-on that allows users to use one credential to authenticate access across multiple systems and websites. Many libraries are part of consortial agreements which support such access (Garibyan, McLeish, and Paschoud 2014). Supporting distance learning students effectively and understanding how support is best provided remotely are becoming increasingly important in academic libraries. Budget cuts are affecting academic institutions and their libraries. Academic libraries must provide evidence of their impact on student performance and ultimate academic success to ensure their continuing financial support.

Learning Analytics Big data analytics is “the research into large amounts of data in order to reveal hidden patterns and secret correlations” (Hadi et al. 2015, 16). A more encompassing definition of big data has been offered: “Information assets characterized by such a High Volume, Velocity and Variety to require specific Technology and Analytical Methods for its transformation into Value” (De Mauro, Greco, and Grimaldi 2015, 103). The use of big data analytics in institutions of higher education has been termed learning analytics. Learning analytics (LA) is a new field in academia that refers to the measurement and collection of data about students’ learning patterns with the objective of delivering an improved teaching and learning environment. Most of the literature agrees that LA makes positive contributions to learners’ experiences (Gašević, Kovanović, and Joksimović 2018; Jordaan and Van der Merwe 2015; Lemmens and Henn 2016; Lim and Tinio 2018; Perry et al 2018; Prinsloo and Slade 2016; Sclater and Mullan 2017). In contrast, Viberg et al (2018) and Mwalumbwe and Mtebe

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(2017) are more sceptical and found little evidence in their research to demonstrate improvements in learners’ practices. It is important to note that Viberg et al (2018) conducted their research using a literature review and Mwalumbwe and Mtebe (2017) used analysis of logs from a learning management system. LA incorporates the plethora of digital platforms with which today’s learner engages during the course of academic activity. The digital resources used include various elearning platforms, library eresources, library management systems, student registration systems, university websites, social media and various online activities. It might be concluded that LA using big data is yet to be fully understood and researched to produce concrete evidence that will support its widespread adoption in institutions of higher education. Yet universities are slowly beginning to harvest valuable insights and discover interesting patterns from the data, thereby permitting institutions of higher education to gain a fine-grained understanding of the student academic journey and ideas for improving and strengthening the student experience.

Learning Analytics and Libraries The use of LA in institutions of higher education has provided a spotlight on their capacity to assist and improve the learning environment whilst maximising outcomes for learners. The library can use LA to improve learning practices by reconstructing the ways by which it supports teaching and learning processes (Viberg et al. 2018). The library in the 21st century emphasises interactivity and participation of users in library planning and service development. Social media are used by libraries to market their services (Jones and Harvey 2019). Libraries collect lots of data during the execution of their functions (Jantti 2016). Many scholars have examined the data available in evaluating their offerings to students and used the resulting data analysis to illuminate the library’s service delivery. It is important to note that most analysis and evaluative research undertaken does not utilise the big data that is available to the library. Zhan and Winden (2017) argue that the library is perfectly set-up to collect, manage and use big data and extend their roles within the community as a result. Since the advent of digitisation of library collections, it is now possible to mine library data as a whole or in part to evaluate and measure service delivery and to use various data analysis methods (Ball 2019). The extensive acquisition of digital data by libraries and projects involving the conversion of older knowledge to digital formats helps the library to provide a service, widens the availability of resources, and at the same time creates data for further analysis.

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Despite the collection of large quantities of big data by libraries, library data is not typically included in institutional enterprise reporting systems and data warehouses meaning that the critical act of student use of library information resources is omitted from LA by default (Jantti 2016). Zhan and Widen (2018) proffered the view that big data is under-utilised in libraries. This view is supported by Al-Barashdi and Al-Karousi (2016). Gašević, Kovanović, and Joksimović (2017), posit that LA is defined at the intersection of three disciplines: data science, big data and computer science. In the research undertaken, LA was defined as the analysis of large volumes of historical and dynamic student data, in order to discover actionable insights with the objective of improving the academic process for the student.

Challenges in Using Learning Analytics There are challenges in using LA. The first is that the data and information are fragmented and must be collected from various sources like library management systems or learning management systems and formatted in readiness for data analysis. Records of students’ interactions with the library and social networks are not in a format which can be used directly. Information must be extracted from the data sources and represented in a suitable structural format for analysis. This poses a major technical challenge to libraries and institutions of higher education. Scholars have highlighted the ethical issues related to the use of student data by institutions, particularly in terms of student consent and privacy (Jones and Salo 2018; Princeloo and Slade 2016; Shacklock 2016). Various recommendations have been proposed to ensure that institutions of higher education have clear ethical policies and codes of practices to govern the use of student data in analytics and other digital systems (Shacklock 2016). Areas that can be addressed by such policies include student privacy and security of data and consent and should be updated whenever there is a change to the data used or the analytics undertaken (Shacklock 2016). Jordaan and Van der Merwe (2015) proposed a number of best practices that institutions of higher education must have in place before embarking on the LA journey.

The Research Project The research project was conducted at the Bindura University of Science Education (BUSE). The University is located in Bindura in Zimbabwe and began as a college of the University of Zimbabwe in 1995 to overcome the shortage of science teachers

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in Zimbabwe. It became a university in its own right in 2000. BUSE has 15,000 students and five faculties: Agriculture and Environmental Science, Social Sciences and Humanities, Commerce, Science Education, and Science and Engineering. The BUSE Library holds over 40,000 physical items, mainly books, and 100,000 eresources including ebooks and ejournals which are available through various academic and publisher databases like Elsevier’s Scopus, IEEE Xplore, Sage journals, Taylor & Francis Online and Research4life. The library provides training, guides to use and various support services. Students undertaking study at BUSE include block release students who attend lectures in the form of hybrid teaching and learning. They spend a minimum of two weeks on campus and then go back to their places of residence while learning online. The project analysing the impact of the library on students undertaking block release sought to: –– Link the role of academic libraries with learning analytics –– Ascertain the association between usage of library resources and the grades of students undertaking block release programmes –– Determine the challenges faced by block release students in accessing library resources, and –– Establish the challenges using learning analytics in institutions of higher learning and academic libraries. A survey using a qualitative approach and a case study methodology was conducted. Usage of library resources was determined by examining use of electronic resources, borrowing of books, registrations in the library and assistance received through various library platforms like WhatsApp, Facebook, Live Chat facility and email. Data spanning a five-year period from 2015 to 2020 was collected from various sources at the university. The sources included log files, student records, library management system records, and social media. The data collected was in different formats mostly in SQL, CSV and log file format and text. The proxy servers created a new entry for each search done. All searches done within twenty minutes were characterised as a single interaction for each user. The log files were parsed using Python. For the data from social media platforms and live chat, only the initial interaction on a topic or query was recorded, the rationale being that such interactions would count as a single visit to the library. The statistics were then captured in a CSV file. The data in all the other data sources was integrated using the student registration number as the unique identifier. For the services which the student did not use, a zero was added to remove all the null values. Students who did not have any interaction with the library were eliminated from the study. RapidMiner a tool that allows automatic modelling of datasets to provide for the best machine learning was used. Eight machine learning models were run: Naïve

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Bayes, Generalised Linear Model, Logistic Regression, Fast Large Margin, Deep Learning, Decision Tree, and Gradient Boosted Trees. The best performing models were the Decision Tree, Random Forest and Gradient Boosted. The Decision Tree algorithm was chosen as it was the best performing model.

The Findings Exploratory Data Analysis (EDA) processes were run to ensure that the data was of high quality. The first EDA process was to compare the grades of the students at graduation. The group with the highest number of students was the group gaining a Credit with 3298 students accounting for 45.09% of the total students. The group gaining a Merit had 3193 students representing 43.66% of the cohort, and the Pass groups had 602 students and 8.23%. The Fail group comprised seven students representing just under 1%. The highest mark that could be attained was Distinction which was gained by 213 students or 2.91%. Figure 8.1 shows the visual representation of the results across the graduating cohorts.

Fig. 8.1: Visual representation of the grades attained at graduation.

A correlation matrix was run on the dataset with the results for all variables to determine the relationships between the variables and the dependent variable. A

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correlation heat map is presented in Figure 8.2 to show the correlations between the various items in the dataset vis-à-vis the final mark or the grade.

Fig. 8.2: The correlation heat map.

The Correlation Heat Map in Figure 8.2 presents an overview of the correlation between library resource usage and the attainment of a grade. The following variables were examined: download data, browsing data, items borrowed, logins into library systems and logins into eresources platforms. The heat map shows a strong correlation between library systems logins and items browsed and also items downloaded. There is however a negative relationship between eresource logins and items downloaded or items browsed. The days between visits variable does not show a significant correlation to any of the variables. The heat map reveals that

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only three variables have a positive relationship to the final grade of the student. At 0.11, 0.15 and 0.28 the variables library systems logins, count of items borrowed and days between eresource logins, are the only variables that show a limited positive relationship with the variable final mark. All other variables have a negative relationship with the dependent variable. The data from the items borrowed was categorised for further analysis. The categories were labelled Very High, High, Medium, Low and Very low. The usage patterns based on the items borrowed from the library were then assigned to each category by range. The ranges were as follows; fewer than five transactions were put in the Very Low category; more than five but fewer than fifteen transactions were categorised as Low; more than fifteen but fewer than fifty transactions were categorised as Medium; more than fifty transactions but fewer than one hundred transactions were categorised as High and all transactions above one hundred were categorised as being Very High. Table 8.1: Number of items borrowed by category. Category

Frequency

Very Low Low Medium High Very High

7138 75 49 34 17

Table 8.1 provides details on the students’ use of the library’s physical resources. The Very Low category accounts for 97.6% of the statistics. The use of physical resources was juxtaposed with the usage of electronic resources to arrive at the preferred mode of library resources usage. The preferred mode of library resources usage was determined by comparing the number of items borrowed against the total items downloaded. Given that block release students are not on campus for the same time as conventional students, it is important to see how much they interacted with the library and its resources. The average time calculated included the time between use of eresources, borrowing of physical items and use of library computers. Visits to the library were calculated using the times students borrowed items or logged into the library computers. The library does not have a gate counter whereby students are logged on entry to the library. On average, block release students used library resources every 6.93 days (Table 8.1). Figure 8.3 shows that most students do not spend much time between use of library resources. The first step was to run a check

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Fig. 8.3: Comparison of days between usage of library resources.

on the correlation between the various aspects of eresources, including download data, browsing data and the number of items downloaded. The correlation checks between total download and the final grade showed that the correlation between total downloads and the final mark was 0.087. This implies a weak relationship between the resources downloads and the attainment of a higher grade. The correlation between the borrowing of physical resources and the grade was also run and the correlation between the two was 0.15. This shows a positive correlation albeit a low one. The relationship between library systems usage and grade was also examined to identify any relationship between the use of library systems, the online catalogue, discovery services, reference services and others, and the grade attained by students. The result showed a positive correlation between library systems usage and the grade attained, but again the correlation is very low.

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Fig. 8.4: Comparison of item downloads vs physical items used.

A comparison on the usage of eresources and physical resource usage was conducted. Block release students preferred physical items to eresources, despite the apparent advantages of access provided by electronic resources. Figure 8.4 shows a comparison of the modes of library resource usage. Whether the preference is due to personal reasons, barriers to access or some other cause would need to be further assessed. After several analyses of the variables, and examining each of the library usage elements separately, it was found that all had a weak correlation with the final mark or grade. Collectively the findings showed that the correlation between library resource usage and the overall grade attained by students was weak. The only feature that had a significant relationship was the number of days between eresource logins. The findings showed that the use of the physical library by block release students was low, probably because the time spent on campus was limited. The findings echo the research into student library use by Buruga and Osamai (2019), Garwe and Thondhlana (2019), and Huwiler (2015). In particular, students who study remotely or spend limited times on campus face unique challenges in accessing library resources. One would expect that difficulties in physical access should be offset by the availability of electronic resources given that libraries provide off-campus access to eresources. On the contrary, the use of eresources was also low. Overall, the use of library resources was very low. The use of library systems in particular was low, although the use of computers on the other hand was very high. The average time spent by block release students between logins was significantly low. The block release students logged onto the library eresource platforms frequently although the logins did not translate into an increase in downloads.

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The low usage of eresources by block release students mirrors the findings of Mawere and Sai (2018) who drew attention to generally low eresources usage in Zimbabwean academic institutions. The reasons for low use of eresources and an apparent preference for physical items from the library might relate to the various challenges faced by the Zimbabwean scholar. The difficulties include high cost of data, poor network infrastructure, poor marketing strategies and power supply issues. (Mawere and Sai 2018). If the usage of the library resources is low, how does it relate to the student’s grade? The study found a weak correlation between the grade received and the usage of library resources. It would be easy to infer that the library played little to no role in the student’s attainment of a good grade in class. However, the role of the library is to facilitate access to information through the provision of physical information resources, eresources, computers and software. The impact of the library resources usage would be more fully ascertained through access to other data like university proxy logs indicating all online interaction by students

Conclusion and Future Action The research project used learning analytics to examine the impact of the library on block release students at Bindura University of Science Education (BUSE). It focused on establishing the relationship between the usage of various library resources and the grade attained by the students. Various metrics already collected by the library measure the usage of the various library resources and were used in the research. No strong correlation between the use of library resources and the grade acquired by block release students was found. Conversely, the grade acquired by block release students was independent of the library resources. The approach taken proved useful and provided insights into student behaviour. The findings corroborate conclusions by previous researchers who identified the low usage of library resources in academic institutions as a major challenge facing academic libraries. The fact that many students obtained good grades without library use is challenging to interpret. The grades acquired might relate to the forms of assessment used and the styles of teaching and learning adopted within the institution. It might also mean that students obtained information required from other sources such as Google, Wikipedia and other Internet-based sources, including pirate libraries which host a wide range of data and information. Another explanation could be that students are accessing open access content and bypassing usage of the library systems. The LA used for the study might not have tracked all information use.

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The study highlighted further questions which need to be addressed. What are the students using as sources of information? Understanding current information use would shine a light on whether the library should change its focus. In addition to LA, a survey and/or an observational study could be conducted to learn more about student behaviour and library use. Anecdotally, it has been said that block release students visit the library frequently during their block sessions. Why are the students visiting the library and the library systems and what are they using? It would also be useful to examine library resource usage in individual courses, and not just across the full degree. Suggestions for future action emerged from the study undertaken. Further investment in information and communications technology infrastructure for remote access is required. Libraries and institutions of higher education must invest in infrastructure to ensure availability of library services to all students. Remote access should be the default mode of availability for library resources. Availability of regional libraries or hubs would facilitate access to resources for students when they are not on campus. The distance to the library should be shortened for the student. Learning analytics should also be used holistically and comprehensively through the integration of all aspects that contribute to the learners’ academic achievement. Libraries and academic institutions should ensure they are capturing all usage statistics including usage from sister institutions, perhaps. through implementation of federated identity and access management. Libraries must embrace the Internet and the availability of alternative sources of information including material on open access. Libraries in Zimbabwe must expand their offerings beyond data and information produced by the institution. All libraries must be digital and at the forefront of assisting students and ensuring they discover legal sources of information, obtain easy access to a wide range of information resources and use information effectively to extend their own knowledge and learning and gain good grades in their formal studies.

References Alabi, Raliat, and Omoike, Adenike. 2020. “Emerging Challenges in the Provision of Electronic Information Services on the African Continent: The Role of Librarians.” Library Philosophy and Practice (ejournal): 4480. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libphilprac/4480/. Al-Barashdi, Hafidha, and Rahma Al-Karousi. 2019. “Big Data in Academic Libraries: Literature Review and Future Research Directions.” Journal of Information Studies & Technology (JIS&T) 2018, no.2. https://doi.org/10.5339/jist.2018.13. Ball, Rafael. 2019. “Big Data and Their Impact on Libraries.” American Journal of Information Science and Technology 3, no. 1: 1–9. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajist.20190301.11.

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Buruga, Bosco Apparatus, and Moses Odeke Osami. 2019. “Operational Challenges of Providing Library Services to Distance Education Learners in a Higher Education System in Uganda.” Library Philosophy and Practice, 2499. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libphilprac/2499. Creaser, Claire. 2018. “Assessing the Impact of Libraries – the Role of ISO 16439.” Information and Learning Sciences 119, no.1–2: 87–93. https://doi.org/10.1108/ILS-05-2017-0037. Available at https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/c6a3/dbe327fa9cdc198a7e662bf57bcefdce7ed5.pdf. De Mauro, Andrea, Marco Greco, and Michele Grimaldi. 2015. “What is Big Data? A Consensual Definition and a Review of Key Research Topics.” AIP Conference Proceedings 1644: 97–104. https:// doi.org/10.1063/1.4907823. Insert Available at https://www.dhi.ac.uk/san/waysofbeing/data/ data-crone-demauro-2015.pdf. Dresang, Eliza T. 2006. “Intellectual Freedom and Libraries: Complexity and Change in the Twenty‐First Century Digital Environment.” The Library Quarterly: Information, Community, Policy 76, no. 2: 169–92. https://doi.org/10.1086/506576. Ford, Heather. 2016. “Foreword: Wikipedia and the Sum of All Human Information.” Nordisk Tidsskrift for Informationsvidenskab og Kulturformidling 5, no.1: 9–13. https://doi.org/10.7146/ntik.v5i1.25878. Garibyan, Masha, Simon McLeish, and John Paschoud. 2014. Access and Identity Management for Libraries: Controlling Access to Online Information. London: FACET Publishing. Garwe, Evelyn Chiyevo, and Juliet Thondhlana. 2018. “Higher Education Systems and Institutions, Zimbabwe.” In Encyclopedia of International Higher Education Systems and Institutions. https://doi. org/10.1007/978-94-017-9553-1_479-1. Gašević, Dragan, Vitomir Kovanović, and Srećko Joksimović. 2017. “Piecing the Learning Analytics Puzzle: A Consolidated Model of a Field of Research and Practice.” Learning: Research and Practice 3, no.1: 63–78. https://doi.org/10.1080/23735082.2017.1286142. Available at https:// www.researchgate.net/profile/Vitomir-Kovanovic/publication/312846891_Piecing_the_ Learning_Analytics_Puzzle_A_Consolidated_Model_of_a_Field_of_Research_and_Practice/ links/5bbb405c4585159e8d8c2b05/Piecing-the-Learning-Analytics-Puzzle-A-Consolidated-Modelof-a-Field-of-Research-and-Practice.pdf. Hadi, 1hiba Jasim, Ammar Hameed Shnain, Sarah Hadishaheed, and Azizahbt Haji Ahmad. 2015. “Big Data and Five V’s Characteristics.” International Journal of Advances in Electronics and Computer Science 2, no. 1: 16–23. http://www.iraj.in/journal/journal_file/journal_pdf/12-105142063747116-23.pdf#:~:text=Abstract-%20Big%20Datais%20used%20to%20refer%20tovery%20 large,and%20secret%20correlations%20named%20as%20Big%20Data%20analytics. Huwiler, Anja G. 2015. “Library Services for Distance Students: Opportunities and Challenges.” Journal of Library & Information Services in Distance Learning 9, no.4: 275–288. https://doi.org/10.1080/1 533290X.2015.1111283. Jantti, Margie. 2016. “Libraries and Big Data: A New View on Impact and Affect.” In Quality and the Academic Library: Reviewing, Assessing and Enhancing Service Provision, edited by Jeremy Atkinson, 267–273. Cambridge, MA: Chandos Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-8021057.00026-9. Jones, Kyle M.L., and Dorothea Salo. 2018. “Learning Analytics and the Academic Library: Professional Ethics Commitments at a Crossroads.” College & Research Libraries 79, no. 3: 304–323. https://doi. org/10.5860/crl.79.3.304. Jones, Michael J., and Morgan Harvey. 2019. “Library 2.0: The Effectiveness of Social Media as a Marketing Tool for Libraries in Educational Institutions.” Journal of Librarianship and Information Science 51, no.1: 3–19. https://doi.org/10.1177/0961000616668959. Jordaan, Dolf, and Antoinette van der Merwe. 2015. “Best Practices for Learning Analytics Initiatives in Higher Education.” In Moving Beyond the Hype : A Contextualised View of Learning with

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Technology in Higher Education, edited by W.R. Kilfoil, 53–58. Pretoria: Universities South Africa. Available at https://repository.up.ac.za/bitstream/handle/2263/50576/Jordaan_Best_2015. pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y. Kwandayi, Hardson, and Tenson M. Muyambo. 2022. “Using Practice Questions Based on Bloom’s Taxonomy to Improve Quality of Learning of Block Release Students in Zimbabwe: A Case Study Of Public Policy Analysis Module.” The Independent Journal Of Teaching And Learning 17, no. 1: 60–72. https://hdl.handle.net/10520/ejc-jitl1-v17-n1-a5. Lemmens, Juan-Claude, and Michael Henn. 2016. “Learning Analytics: A South African Higher Education Perspective.” In Institutional Research in South Africa: Interesting Contexts and Practices, edited by Nicolene J. Muller, and Jan Botha, 231–253. Stellenbosch: Sun Press. Lim, Cher Ping, and Victoria L. Tinio, eds. 2018. “Learning Analytics for the Global South.” Authors: Dragan Gašević; Paul Prinsloo; Bodong Chen and Yizhou Fan; Ma. Mercedes T. Rodrigo; Cristóbal Cobo and Cecilia Aguerrebere. DL4D. Digital Learning for Development. Quezon City, Philippines: Foundation for Information Technology Education and Development. http://dl4d. org/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/Learning-Analytics-Full-Paper-2.pdf. Makombe, Patrick, John. S. Mapfumo, and Richard Makoni. 2016. “Effectiveness Of Block-Release (Part-Time) Education: A Case Study Of The Faculty Of Education At Africa University.” International Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Studies 3, no. 2: 17–36. https://www. ijrhss.org/pdf/v3-i2/4.pdf. Mawere, Talent, and Kundai O.S. Sai. 2018. “An Investigation on E-resource Utilisation Among University Students in a Developing Country: A Case of Great Zimbabwe University.” SAJIM: South African Journal of Information Management 20, no.1: a860. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajim.v20i1.860. Mwalumbwe, Iman, and Joel S. Mtebe. 2017. “Using Learning Analytics to Predict Students’ Performance in Moodle Learning Management Systems: A Case of Mbeya University of Science and Technology.” EJISDC: The Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries 79, no.1: 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1681-4835.2017.tb00577.x. Available at https://onlinelibrary. wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/j.1681-4835.2017.tb00577.x. Perry, Michael R., Kristin A. Briney, Abigail Goben, Andrew Asher, Kyle M. L. Jones, M. Brooke Robertshaw, and Dorothea Salo. 2018. “Learning Analytics.” SPEC Kit 360. Washington, DC: Association of Research Libraries. https://doi.org/10.29242/spec.360. Prinsloo, Paul, and Sharon Slade. 2016. “Student Vulnerability, Agency, and Learning Analytics: An Exploration.” Journal of Learning Analytics 3: 159–182. https://doi.org/10.18608/jla.2016.31.10. Sahoo, DiptiRanjan, and Dhara Sharma. 2015. “Social Networking Tools for Library Services.” International Journal of Innovative Science, Engineering & Technology 2, no.3: 702–714. https://ijiset. com/vol2/v2s3/IJISET_V2_I3_114.pdf. Sclater, Neill, and Joel. Mullan. 2017. Learning Analytics and Student Success – Assessing the Evidence: Jisc Briefing. London: Jisc. https://repository.jisc.ac.uk/6560/1/learning-analytics_and_student_ success.pdf. Shacklock, Xanthe. 2016. From Bricks to Clicks: The Potential of Data and Analytics in Higher Education. London: UK Higher Education Commission. https://www.policyconnect.org.uk/media/1128/ download. Viberg, Olga, Mathias Hatakka, Olof Bältera, and Anna Mavroudia. 2018. “The Current Landscape of Learning Analytics in Higher Education.” Computers in Human Behavior 89: 98–110. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.07.027. Zhan, Ming, and Gunilla Widén. 2017. “Public Libraries: Roles in Big Data.” Electronic Library 36, no.1: 133–145. https://doi.org/10.1108/EL-06-2016-0134.

Adeyinka Tella

9 E xploration of Data Sharing and Information Exchange among Nigerian Library and Information Science Researchers Abstract: This chapter examines data sharing and reuse and associated issues. It explores how LIS researchers in Nigeria engage in data sharing practices along with the problems and challenges encountered. The chapter tracks a study which examined data sharing practices and information exchange behaviour among Nigerian LIS researchers. Data was collected through an open-ended survey of twenty LIS researchers selected from four library schools in south-west and north-central Nigeria. The findings showed that data sharing among LIS researchers is gaining pace. Aside from conferences, workshops, seminars, and scholarly publications, LIS researchers shared data through social media and other online platforms. LIS researchers reused data for teaching and learning, replication of studies, new studies, and investigation of new problems. Challenges associated with data sharing were found to be inadequate access because of policy and guidelines failures, inadequate skills, and fear of placing data in the public domain. Keywords: Data management; Library and information science – Research; Library and information science – Nigeria

Introduction Advances in technology have increased the popularity of data and the need for effective creation, use and reuse of data. Data sharing is increasingly perceived to be beneficial to knowledge production and is gradually being required by federal funding agencies, private funders, and journals (Mannheimer et al. 2018). The developments have led to the emergence of many concepts relating to data including data science, data analytics, data exchange, big data, and data sharing. Provision of access to data is the rationale behind making research findings available in the published literature to enable other scholars and researchers to reuse and process the data for other purposes and reanalyse findings. There have been services implementation and policy developments to motivate researchers to share their data. Some higher education institutions have made it compulsory for researchers to make data more widely available (Higman and Pinfield 2015). https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110772753-011

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Librarians and other information professionals have over the years agitated for data sharing and information exchange (Borgman, Wallis, and Enyedy 2007; Wallis, Rolando, and Borgman 2013). There are rationales behind the pressure for data sharing. The reasons include, but are not limited to, enabling access to research data to improve the integrity of the research process by enabling others to reproduce research results in novel ways (Warren 2016). Some journals mandate data supply prior to acceptance of content for publication. This chapter reports on a study which sought to examine data sharing practices among LIS researchers in Nigeria to develop an understanding of data sharing behaviour, communication and information exchange dynamics, and knowledge discovery mechanisms for effective and productive data sharing and reuse. The specific objectives were to: –– Determine the data sharing practices of LIS researchers in Nigeria –– Identify communication and exchange dynamics and knowledge discovery mechanisms for effective data sharing by LIS researchers –– Determine the reuse of data among LIS researchers and the purposes for reuse, and –– Identify the challenges associated with data sharing among LIS researchers in Nigeria.

What is Data Sharing? Data sharing is the practice of making data used for scholarly research available to other investigators. It is an exchange process where open, freely available data formats and process patterns are known and shared. The data used for research can be made available to others through numerous mechanisms. Data sharing can be described as the processes involved in the exchange of data by researchers and scholars for further reuse (Ibrahim and Tella 2020). Guédon (2015) pointed out that across the centuries researchers have learned to share their papers; now they must learn to share their data. The types of data that can be shared include, but are not limited to, raw data, data entries in a database, analysable data, reports generated from data, publications, registry results and language summaries, clinical reports, and metadata. Some funding institutions, publication outlets, and agencies have policies regarding data sharing since transparency and openness are considered by many to be part of the scientific method (Tella and Onyancha 2020). Some journals and funding agencies require authors of peer-reviewed papers to share supplemental information which sometimes includes source code or statistical methods, and raw



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data essential to develop, understand, or produce published research. Many scientific research policies and guidelines are not subject to data sharing requirements or have liberal exceptions. When there is no binding requirement, data sharing is at the discretion of the scholars themselves. Some institutions and governments forbid and restrict data sharing to protect the proprietary interest, national security, and subject/patient/victim confidentiality. Data sharing may be restricted to protect scholars and institutions from using data for political reasons. There are ideal practices in data sharing in use. Some research organisations feel strongly about data sharing. For instance, Stanford University’s WaveLab has a philosophy about the need for reproducible research and the disclosure of all algorithms and source code necessary to reproduce the research (Buckheit et al. 2005). Problems and difficulties encountered when trying to reproduce research were identified (Buckheit and Donoho 1995) and steps taken to ensure storage and sharing of data. Researchers became convinced of the importance of disclosing source code and sharing of data. Rimmer (2005) outlined some of the controversial issues attached to the sharing of data and noted that genomic databases should be a global public good. The European Union is pushing for a set of research norms and behaviours encapsulated in the concept of Responsible Research and Innovation (RRI) which includes an emphasis on ensuring free and open access to research outputs, including data. In moving towards RRI, It is suggested that the principles, measures and guidelines be structured into these groups –– Formulation of general and common ethical issues –– Formulation of project specific guidelines, procedures, handling, monitoring, and –– Formulation of data specific issues (Von Schomberg 2011, 118). Discussions of principles relating to open data propose various models and approaches. The principle of availability and access means that data must be available as a whole and at no more than a reasonable reproduction cost, preferably over the Internet, in a convenient and modifiable form. The principle of reusability and redistribution concerns the provision of data under terms that permit reuse and redistribution including synthesis with other datasets. The principle of universal participation implies that others must be able to use, reuse, and redistribute with no discrimination against fields of endeavour or persons or groups Transparency is an important principle (Lyon 2016). Some data sharing policies advocate for the FAIR guiding principles for data management: “Findability, Accessibility, Interoperability, and Reusability” to guide data producers and publishers (Wilkinson et al. 2016). These principles highlight the need for sharing data in a format that is

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machine-readable, with sufficient metadata to be understandable by humans and machines, and with a licence that makes it clear how data may be reused. McGrath and Nilsonne (2018) examined the reasons for sharing of data: “Earlier debate has pointed to the value of data sharing for discouraging research fraud and permitting critical scrutiny. We elaborate on this discussion by highlighting the value of data sharing for cumulative science, for re-use, and to maximise the value of the participants’ contribution.” Critical scrutiny is an essential part of the scientific process, and likely to reduce the risk of falsification and fabrication, at the same time strengthening scientific integrity, argued Ten Cate et al. (2013) and Pusic (2014). Cumulative science refers to the iterative process by which evidence is gathered leading to progressive growth of knowledge. More complete understandings are developed with conclusions assessed against prior evidence leading to clearer support for some theories over others. The first requirement for cumulative science is that results are reported. New theories and methods may prompt a re-evaluation of earlier data. Access to existing data is vital to assessing and interpreting data in the light of the current state of knowledge. Reuse of existing data may serve to investigate new and old questions in a new way or to validate findings made in relation to other datasets. Resources can be saved, and risks to participants reduced when existing data is used instead of gathering new data. Data sharing can help researchers fulfil ethical obligations towards research participants to realise the most value from their data. Research participants run risks with potential damage from a lack of privacy, but the expected knowledge benefit exceeds the risks. If data is lost and not made available, there is no benefit to knowledge growth, and the research cannot be justified from an ethical point of view (Pusic 2014). Through the sharing of data, use of the data is optimised leading to the achievement of significant gains (Poldrack and Gorgolewski 2014). The value gained from data reuse may be seen as a benefit to participants in research studies, particularly when such value can lead to improvements for the population from which participants have been drawn, for example, in terms of improved health care or teaching practices. Besides, data sharing in academia can verify research, accelerate the pace of research, encourage the development of new research questions and design, make results of publicly funded research available, help to avoid duplication of research, provide resources for student research, advance research and innovation, and lessen the burden on research subjects (Borgman 2012; Lyon 2016). In addition, data sharing can promote research transparency and reduce misconduct, increase researcher visibility and research partnerships, and maximise the payoff of public investments in research and education (Fry et al. 2008; Piwowar and Vision 2013; Perrino et al. 2013). Sharing data helps to create richer multivariate datasets, which in turn allows for more significant insights to be extracted.



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Data Reuse Reuse is the action or practice of using an item again, whether conventionally for its original purpose, or creatively for repurposing to fulfil a different function. Reuse by taking, but not reprocessing, previously used items help save time, money, energy and resources. Data is reused when it is collected for one use and then used a second time (Francis and Francis 2017). Data is repurposed when the second use has a different aim from the first. Sun and Khoo (2018) posited that as long as data is used for purposes other than that for which it was originally collected, data is reused. The term “secondary use of research data” is sometimes used to refer to this type of reuse. Yoon explained that data reuse refers to the secondary use of data not for its original purpose but for studying new problems (2015, 2017). Law (2005) refers to the use of research data to study a problem that was not the focus of the original data collection. Data might originally have been collected for administrative, health or educational purposes, as part of census data, or as part of a previous study (Ponk 2019; Van de Sandt et al. 2019). The secondary analysis may involve the combination of one data set with another, address new questions or use new analytical methods for evaluation (Szabo and Strang 1997). According to Rolland and Lee (2013), data reuse is the work done by the recipient of the shared data. It involves identification of a dataset of interest, receipt of the dataset and appropriate use of the data for analysis. Data reuse techniques eliminate repeated accesses to the same data, saving such data in internal registers and/or in faster access memories than where the data was originally stored. Frequently accessed data can be saved in registers and reused subsequently. Data availability is enhanced and access to the main storage avoided. The UK Data Service provides guidance on data sharing and reuse and notes: Data sharing is increasingly encouraged or required by research funders and journal publishers, but also from within the research community itself. Research funders want to maximise the scientific outputs and benefits to society from their investments and make sure that data can be reused for future research (UK Data Service n.d.).

Data reuse encourages scientific enquiry and debate and the improvement and validation of research methods; maximises transparency and accountability through scrutiny of research findings; promotes innovation and potential new data uses; leads to new collaborations between data users and data creators; reduces the cost of duplicating data collection; increases the impact and visibility of research; and provides credit to the researcher as well as improved resources for education and training (Ansorge 2013).

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Issues and Challenges in Data Sharing While benefits associated with data sharing have been identified, the literature has also listed many challenges. Issues include difficulties in anonymising participants; concerns that critical views on workplace or clinical environments might not be shared for fear of reprisals; and an unwillingness of participants to offer information for exposure in the public domain (Saunders, Kitzinger, and Kitzinger 2015). Further concerns may relate to disciplinary and paradigmatic boundaries. For example, in Science, Technology, Engineering and Medicine (STEM) disciplines, views and arguments concerning the possibility and value of aggregating data involving large data sets, may exist and be different from those in research in medical education conducted using interviews (Braver, Thoemmes, and Rosenthal 2014). Papa noted additional issues: standards/protocols, security, exchange, updating, pricing, network administration, equipment upgrades requirements, sustainable funding, and technically qualified personnel (2012). It has been observed from the literature that specific and idiosyncratic values of the original study context are evoked to dominate arguments for and against sharing data, particularly in qualitatively driven research. In relation to stakeholder views on data sharing, Mozersky et al. (2020) found no studies in the United States that explored research participants’ perspectives on sharing their qualitative data. The authors present findings from interviews with thirty individuals who participated in sensitive qualitative studies to explore understandings and concerns regarding qualitative data sharing. An overwhelming majority supported sharing qualitative data as long as the data was deidentified and shared only among researchers. However, the participants raised concerns about confidentiality and potential misuse of data by secondary users if shared beyond the research community. The concerns did not however deter them from participating in research. Notably, participants hoped data would be shared and expected or assumed that it would. If individuals view data sharing as an extension or integral part of their participation in qualitative research, researchers may have a stronger obligation to share data than previously thought. Mozersky et al. (2019) recommended guidelines and tools to assist researchers and institutional review board members in ethical and responsible sharing of qualitative data. The capacity to reuse research data is currently considered a crucial benefit for the wider research community. Researchers irrespective of disciplines are faced with pressure to share research data so that it can be reused. Van de Sandt et al. presented definitions of use and reuse, described the research landscape and concluded that “we define (re)use as the use of any research resource regardless of when it is used, the purpose, the characteristics of the data and its use” (Van de Sandt et al. 2019, 14). New terminology will help shape open science strategies.



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Shen (2016) presented the results of a research data assessment and landscape study in the institutional context of Virginia Tech to determine the data sharing and reuse practices of academic faculty researchers. Faculty researchers were asked to self-reflect on sharing and reuse from the perspectives of both data producers and data users. The localised and sporadic data management and documentation practices of researchers contribute to the obstacles often encountered when reusing existing data. Wallis, Roland, and Borgman undertook a ten-year study of data reuse at the Center for Embedded Network Sensing (CENS), a National Science Foundation Science and Technology Center (2013). The study found that CENS researchers were willing to share their data, but few were asked to do so, and in only a few areas did their funders or journals require them to deposit data. Few repositories existed to accept the data. Data sharing tended to occur only through interpersonal exchanges. CENS researchers obtained data from repositories, and occasionally from registries and individuals, to provide context, calibration, or other forms of background for their studies. Neither CENS researchers nor those who request access to CENS data appeared to use external data for primary research or replication of studies. CENS researchers were willing to share data if they received credit and retained the rights to publish their results. Practices of releasing, sharing, and reusing of data reaffirmed the gift culture of scholarship, in which goods are bartered between trusted colleagues rather than treated as commodities. Tenopir et al. (2011) explored where and how researchers are willing to share data, along with the motivation and disincentives for sharing. The results showed minimal sharing, which was historically affected by availability of time, funding, staffing, policies, standards, competition, ownership, conventions, discourse, and technical capabilities, as well as other limiting factors.

Data Sharing in Libraries and in Library and Information Science Availability of data assists both researchers and librarians and information professionals become more engaged in the research enterprise. Librarians and information professionals become integral partners in research. Librarians and information professionals develop skills that bridge traditional liaison work with the increasingly data-driven requirement of scientific research, supporting researchers in data management, and assisting users to discover data across various collections and resources (MacMillan 2014). Libraries and librarians play a significant role in facilitating data sharing.

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Mannheimer et al. (2018) described how data repositories and academic libraries can partner with researchers to support three challenges associated with data sharing: –– Obtaining informed consent from participants for data sharing and scholarly reuse –– Ensuring that qualitative data are legally and ethically shared, and –– Sharing data that cannot be de-identified. Three continuing challenges of sharing qualitative data that data repositories and academic libraries cannot specifically address were also outlined by Mannheimer et al.: –– Research using qualitative big data –– Copyright concerns, and –– Risk of decontextualization. While data repositories and academic libraries cannot provide easy solutions to all challenges, they can partner with researchers and connect them with other relevant specialists to find solutions. Data repositories and librarians can help researchers address challenges associated with ethical and lawful qualitative data sharing. As the active campaigning for wider availability of data continues, it is high time for the librarian agitators to practise the actions they are espousing and share their own data, and exchange information related to their published research. Similarly, sharing data is important to motivate users of information to follow standards of data sharing practices and strictly adhere to them. The existing literature contains some empirical and documentary evidence on knowledge and information sharing behaviour among LIS researchers in Nigeria. Little empirical evidence focuses on data sharing practices in Nigeria, even though transforming data into evidence for policymaking and business opportunities requires enhanced capacities to discover, access, and integrate diverse data in a distributed context has been emphasised. The literature indicated limited knowledge of the support that the discovery, reuse, repurposing, and integration of data in creative ways can provide to address new questions or grand challenges in LIS research. It is essential to understand how library and information scientists communicate, exchange and interact with data to create benefits and value that impact information service practices, government policies and knowledge enhancement in the context of LIS research in Nigeria. Librarians have played a key role not only in providing data for others but also in taking action to ensure reuse of data, as noted in the introduction to this chapter. Librarians and other information professionals have promoted data sharing and information exchange (Borgman, Wallis, and Enyedy 2007; Wallis, Rolando, and



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Borgman 2013). Library practitioners and researchers, librarians, archivists, records managers and other information professionals share data for reuse themselves in seeking to understand user behaviour, collection development, library design, training projects, improvement of service delivery, strategic planning and other activities. In LIS research, data is reused to reproduce research, replicate research, verify or validate research, and integrate with other data. Librarians and LIS researchers have promoted reuse of LIS data in various ways: Providing access to the data underlying research results in published literature allows others to reproduce those results or analyze the data in new ways. Health sciences librarians and information professionals have long been advocates of data sharing. It is time for us to practice what we preach and share the data associated with our published research. (Read et al. 2018, 155).

Few studies have focused on knowledge and information sharing among librarians and LIS researchers (Ahmed and Bin Mohammad Noor 2021; Marouf 2016). Even fewer have focused on data sharing among LIS information professionals and LIS researchers in Africa and Nigeria in particular. Most of the available studies used quantitative methods and collected data through questionnaires. It is important to understand data sharing practices and information exchange behaviours among Nigerian LIS researchers, to create awareness of the importance of data sharing, and to increase the practice of data reuse and to change behaviour among LIS researchers – hence the study.

The Design of the Study of Data Reuse of LIS Researchers in Nigeria This section outlines the methods adopted for the study and includes details of the design, choice of participants, administration, and data collection and analysis.

Methodology The study adopted a purely qualitative method and focused on obtaining data through an open-ended survey. The method was chosen because qualitative methods usually give room for in-depth and additional probing and questioning of respondents with both respondents and researchers to understand motivation and feelings. Understanding what the LIS researchers perceived as data sharing, and gaining insight into data sharing behaviour, were essential to useful outcomes.

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The design was chosen because the descriptive results would enable the researcher to make inferences from the data obtained. The qualitative method is inexpensive especially when it is self-administered. The use of an open-ended survey enabled the researcher to gather relevant data on data sharing practices. Although many types of qualitative methods are available (Creswell and Poth 2018), the open-ended survey was chosen because it is one of the most common qualitative research methods and because it was considered the most practical method during the second wave of the pandemic when social distancing was being observed.

Choice of Participants The LIS researchers in the study were the library and information science experts conducting research in LIS and included lecturers in library schools. The lecturers were information science lecturers in the South-west and North-central Nigerian library schools located in the following states: Ekiti, Kwara, Ogun, and Oyo. A library school was purposively selected from each of these four states. The study did not extend beyond the library schools in these states. The lockdown and pandemic limited the extension of the study to other regions of the country. The number of lecturers in each of the library schools varied with six at Ekiti, fifteen at Kwara, twelve at Ogun, and fifteen at Oyo. The study targeted five lecturers from each of the library schools, making a total of twenty LIS researchers for the study which represented 41.6% of the staff in the four library schools. Informed consent of the respondents was sought and each delightedly expressed an intention and a willingness to take part. Participants were permitted to withdraw if their involvement proved difficult.

The Instrument An open-ended survey included questions relating to the four objectives: –– Data sharing practices –– Communication, exchange dynamics and knowledge discovery mechanisms –– Extent and purpose of data reuse, and –– Challenges in data sharing. The survey contained instructions on how to respond and defined the concept of data sharing for the respondents to ensure an effective understanding. Prior observation had revealed that most of the respondents had been engaging in data sharing without understanding what it was.



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Survey Administration A planned initial interview with each participant by the researcher did not proceed because of COVID-19 which restricted physical contact with the respondents. Alternatively, an open-ended questionnaire was mailed to respective respondents who were asked to complete the survey and return it to the researcher at the earliest possible time. Eighteen of the twenty surveys distributed were correctly completed and returned for analysis.

The Results Data Sharing Practices The first objective of the study was to determine data sharing practices among LIS researchers in Nigeria. The respondents were asked about their perceptions of data sharing and the avenues through which they shared data. Overall, the results revealed that LIS researchers in Nigeria share their data. Just over three quarters of the participants, fifteen out of eighteen, indicated they were sharing data but explained that they were only beginning to do so. Sharing data was only beginning to gain pace. One respondent among those who indicated they shared data stated: It has not been usual in LIS, but based on the current policy of some journals, researchers are requested to attach their dataset or the data used in their research along with their academic papers when submitting for publication. This practice is increasing the popularity of data sharing among the LIS researchers.

Another respondent added: Sharing of data has not been a common practice among Nigerian LIS researchers, however, it has started gaining pace now but not all LIS researchers are engaging in the practice. I can say just a limited percentage of Nigeria LIS researchers of about (25%) regularly engage in data sharing practice, and I hope that the percentage will increase in the future.

The results indicated that the primary avenue for data sharing among LIS researchers, was through scholarly communications, publications, seminars, workshops, and conferences. One respondent stated that: The advancement in information and communication technologies has increased the avenue through which LIS researchers just like their counterparts in other parts of the world share

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their data. Due to this development, we now see colleagues sharing their data through the institutional repositories, personal repositories, institutional websites, personal websites, personal blogs, social media (such as Facebook, LinkedIn, WhatsApp), online forums, online research databases such as Google Scholar, ResearchGate, Academia.edu, Kudos, Publon, etc.

The results indicated that data sharing was gaining pace with LIS researchers although a limited percentage of LIS researchers in Nigeria was involved in the study. LIS researchers were sharing data through social media and other online platforms in addition to conferences, workshops, seminars, and scholarly publications.

Communication, Exchange Dynamics and Knowledge Discovery Mechanisms The second objective of the study was to identify the LIS researchers’ communication and exchange dynamics and knowledge discovery mechanisms for effective data sharing. The findings revealed that communication and exchange centred on their publications and sharing of published data with colleagues through journal articles in print peer-reviewed journals, scholarly books, and edited collections. Sixteen of the eighteen respondents made this response. One explained that: Through communication and exchange of ideas in scholarly communication, I have an understanding about events that I am not familiar with in my discipline and this most often has gingered and aroused my interest to investigate such areas. Through the reading of the scholarly communication shared by colleagues, I have discovered some knowledge that is now one of my research areas of interest.

Another respondent stated: I believe so much in exchange of ideas through paper writing. However, it is not a best practice to continually exchange ideas in journal outlets in one’s discipline only. I published in other journals not focusing on LIS and I read research reports published in other disciplines and journals outside of LIS. Based on this, I have been able to discover interesting research areas that I have applied to and still applying. In other words, this practice has broadened my knowledge of research in LIS concerning other disciplines. Therefore, I consider sharing data of this kind of research very important as new knowledge is discovered by others through the reading and exchange communication, and it also increases knowledge discovery in that areas too.

The results showed that LIS researchers’ communication dynamics and knowledge discovery focused on scholarly publication and discovery of new ideas through



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diversification into research in other disciplines making it possible to publish and communicate research in journals in other disciplines outside LIS. This finding contrasted with the report by Mannheimer, Sterman, and Borda (2016) whose study reported three significant factors contributing to data discovery: publishing in discipline-specific repositories; indexing in more than one location on the web; and using persistent identifiers.

Extent and Purpose of Data Reuse The third objective was to determine the reuse of data among LIS researchers and for what purpose. To achieve the objective, respondents were asked about their reuse of data and the reasons. The findings revealed that LIS researchers in Nigeria were in the practice of reusing shared data from their colleagues. Data reused included facts and figures for teaching and learning in LIS and it was used to illustrate research arguments, certify the credibility of research results, provide context and background, conduct primary research, replicate studies, examine new problems or calibrate other findings. All eighteen respondents supported reuse of the data shared. One respondent said: Yes, there is the issue of the reuse of shared data among LIS researchers, however, this is not paramount because the percentage of LIS researchers who conduct regular researches are limited. LIS researchers in Nigeria are engaged in reuse for the original purpose which is also conventional reuse or to fulfils a different function i.e., for creative reuse or repurposing. Therefore, in Nigeria LIS research today, there is conventional reuse that relates to replication, reproduction, or reanalysis. This means that the purpose for reusing the shared date is the same as it was in the first time. Creative reuse, on the other hand, differs from the previous because the intention is distinguishable from the original purpose.

The study found that LIS researchers in Nigeria were engaging in the reuse of data for teaching and learning, replication, and new studies or problems. Using research data for purposes other than that for which it was originally intended is in line with the findings of others (Faniel and Jacobsen 2011).

Challenges in Data Sharing The fourth objective of the study was to identify the challenges associated with data sharing among LIS researchers in Nigeria. Respondents were asked to indicate the challenges encountered. All eighteen respondents reported challenges including lack of skills, inadequate access to data because of poor policies and guidelines,

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unwillingness to provide access because of fears of putting it in the public domain. One respondent emphasised that: Mostly there is the issue of difficulty, to discover, access and reuse data. Furthermore, issues such as difficulty in integration with one’s data, misinterpretation, investing longer hours than conducting new research, lack of trust in other researchers’ data, lack of common standard and format, inadequate data description information, inadequate skills for data processing, the difficulty in sharing due to lack of skills, among others.

Clearly the study found there were challenges associated with data sharing and the findings corroborated previous work by Van de Sandt et al. (2019) who identified barriers such as difficulty in accessing and working with datasets, a lack of knowledge about institutional licences, and a need to facilitate sharing and reuse of datasets generated by researchers internally.

Limitations The study included universities with library schools in only two geopolitical zones, the south-west and the north-central, of the six geopolitical zones in Nigeria. Extending the study to universities in the remaining four geopolitical zones would bring worthwhile and valuable insights which could be generalised to LIS researchers in all universities in Nigeria, and perhaps to researchers in other disciplines. Data in the study was collected using a self-reported open-ended instrument and the sample size was limited to twenty LIS researchers from four library schools (with eighteen respondents) and might not be representative of the entire population of LIS researchers in Nigeria. Extension of the study to other library schools, and the use of alternative research methods, would elucidate and validate the findings. Future research should examine specific areas, domains, or academic disciplines to determine how to capture and preserve data and its associated contexts and values effectively to enable future reuse and sharing of data.

Conclusion and Going Forward This chapter examined data sharing and data reuse and the associated issues and challenges and commented on the role of libraries and librarians in supporting data reuse. The details of a study of data sharing practices and information exchange behaviour among Nigerian LIS researchers were provided. The study’s findings showed that data sharing by LIS researchers was gaining pace in Nigeria.



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Aside from conferences, workshops, seminars, and scholarly publications, LIS researchers indicated they were sharing data through social media and other online platforms. The communication dynamics and knowledge discovery of LIS researchers focused on scholarly publications. LIS researchers in Nigeria engaged in the reuse of data for teaching and learning, replication of studies, the conduct of similar studies, and for addressing new problems. Challenges associated with data sharing among LIS researchers in Nigeria were identified as inadequate access to data because of poor policies and guidelines, insufficient skills, and fear of putting the data in the public domain. The study contributed to understanding how LIS researchers in Nigeria engage in data sharing and the problems and challenges encountered. Based on the findings of the study and an examination of the international literature on data sharing and reuse, the following future actions are suggested. Universities and their libraries and library schools must: –– Promote a university culture that values and rewards good data practice –– Foster data reuse in research generally and LIS research in particular through creating data stores with data appropriately indexed and catalogued to ensure its easy and effective discovery –– Develop policies with clear definitions of data use and reuse –– Establish metrics for a comprehensive scholarly record of individuals, institutions, and organisations –– Mandate deposit of data for reuse –– Promote the reuse and sharing of data through hosting events like datathons where LIS researchers demonstrate reuse through case studies and are encouraged to reuse data in innovative ways –– Showcase data sharing and its contribution to new problem solving and successful research outcomes –– Sponsor interactive data activities and focus group exercises involving researchers in related disciplines or with interconnected questions –– Encourage engagement of peer review of the data of other researchers and the identification of data reuse possibilities, and –– Ensure researchers and particularly LIS researchers understand current and future trends in data sharing through further education and training.

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Joachim Schöpfel and Otmane Azeroual

10 E thical Dimensions of Research Information Management: A New Challenge for Information Professionals Abstract: The evaluation and monitoring of research performance are major challenges of research management. Research information management (RIM) systems are designed to assess this performance and to contribute to the steady improvement of research. Based on former studies on RIM systems, a recent exploratory survey on ethical aspects of current research information systems and expert interviews with members of euroCRIS, the International Organisation for Research Information, this chapter provides an overview of ethical dimensions of RIM, together with original empirical evidence on how RIM systems represent ethical aspects of research projects and how their development, implementation and functioning should comply with usual ethical standards of scientific research. Special attention is paid to the role of academic librarians in RIM, in particular regarding the quality of bibliographic records, the standards of data and the management of institutional repositories, data repositories and other open archives. Keywords: Research information management; Research – Information services; Research ethics; Research methods

A New Application of Professional Ethics Ethics is a practical science. The topic is treated theoretically, but primarily serves to apply knowledge gained and less to gain knowledge. The ethical point of view is not a new topic for librarians. As the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) Code of Ethics for Librarians and Other Information Professionals [hereinafter IFLA Code of Ethics] says it in its preamble: “Librarianship is, in its very essence, an ethical activity embodying a value-rich approach to professional work with information” (IFLA 2012). Based on the concept of human rights, particularly as expressed in the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights (United Nations n.d.), the IFLA Code of Ethics proclaims six core principles to provide: …a set of suggestions on the conduct of professionals… Librarians and information workers … reject the denial and restriction of access to information and ideas most particularly through censorship; …promote inclusion and the eradication of discrimination [through the provision of] equitable services for everyone; … respect personal privacy and the protection of personal https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110772753-012



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data; … support and participate in transparency; …provide …support for the principles of open access, open source, and open licenses; …are strictly committed to neutrality and an unbiased stance regarding collection, access and service; [and] oppose discrimination in any aspect of employment (IFLA n.d.).

The IFLA Code of Ethics applies to the work environment of librarians and to their professional conduct. In the field of academic librarianship, the code applies to their relationships with students, faculty, scientists and other staff, and to the configuration and usage of library systems, digital platforms, and institutional repositories, especially regarding privacy and the protection of personal data. Other ethical principles are at play when it comes to developing new library services, to defining acquisition policies or to managing library holdings and collections. Information professionals have promoted the need for ethics and integrity. Nevertheless, academic librarians have been less involved in research ethics as advisors, reviewers, members of ethics committees or trainers, except perhaps for one particular issue, plagiarism. Research ethics, most often, is taken care of by experienced senior scientists and legal experts, because of the high risks and stakes. But there is a domain which may become a new ethical challenge for academic librarians and other information professionals working in the sector of higher education and research The emerging area is research information management (RIM). RIM refers to the aggregation, curation, and utilisation of information about research and the metadata on research projects and activities, including information about scientists, institutions, publications, patents, and outputs (Bryant et al. 2017). The main objective of RIM is to produce useful insights and knowledge for the monitoring and assessment of the research activity of scientific institutions, infrastructures and human resources. Academic librarians are already part of the game. Handling metadata on scientific authors and publications along with their institutional affiliations is part of regular day-to-day activity in the environment of catalogues, databases, and institutional repositories. Metadata contributes to the monitoring and assessment of research activity through the production of performance indicators based on scientometrics and, more recently, altmetrics. However, RIM raises new ethical issues, especially in the environment of open science (Schöpfel, Azeroual, and Jungbauer-Gans 2020). What does this mean for academic librarians? How can librarians contribute to dealing with the new challenges?

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Research Ethics in the Context of Open Science “Doing good science in a good manner” is perhaps the simplest way to describe the fundamental ethical values of research (DuBois and Antes 2018). This broad and universal approach to science requires the definition and the acceptance of common standards of excellence and some general rules like, among others, the management of conflicts of interest, the protection of human participants and animal subjects, the honest reporting of findings and the proper citation of sources. More general terms are used to describe good scientific conduct, such as personal integrity, rigour, honesty, objectivity, respect, carefulness, trust and accountability. On the other dark side of research ethics, there are various examples of scientific misconduct, often described in terms of proscribed undesirable behaviour such as falsifying research data, not properly disclosing conflicts of interest, biased reporting of results, inappropriately assigning authorship credit, plagiarism, and lack of respect for human subject requirements (Martinson, Anderson, and De Vries 2005). Scientific misconduct is frequently labelled a violation of good scientific practice associated with the behaviour of particular individuals and deemed a personal responsibility of researchers. The focus is on the individual scientist. However, open science unfolds new perspectives, shifting the focus from the individual scientist to the environment, to the research process, the work conditions, the infrastructures, the legal and administrative rules, in short, to the ecosystem of science. The basic idea is that changing the rules and the tools will change individual behaviour and improve scientific performance. Open science has been defined in various ways. Some definitions are broad and inclusive; others are narrow and specific; and some are more useful than others. Some definitions are simple, for example, the open knowledge definition “means the freedom to use, reuse, and redistribute without restrictions beyond a requirement for attribution and share-alike right” (Molloy 2011) or “efforts to make the scientific process more open and inclusive for all relevant actors” (Dai, Shin, and Smith 2018, 5). The European Commission defined open science as “the transformation, opening up and democratisation of science, research and innovation”, with three objectives: making science more efficient, transparent and interdisciplinary, changing the interaction between science and society, and enabling broader societal impact and innovation (Ramjoué 2015, 169). As an umbrella term, open science denotes, above all, open access to publications and data sharing, and also includes open-source software, open peer review, citizen science and open educational resources. Each aspect of open science has its own rules, procedures, environments, technologies, and values. Nevertheless, the open science movement as a whole affirms and encourages some common, fundamental ethical principles, such as transparency and integrity, openness, inclusiveness, removing



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barriers, and the freedom to use research results (Rentier 2019). Beyond its political, technological and economic purposes, the open science movement explicitly highlights and reinforces research ethics. The improvement of transparency, integrity, openness and sharing has become a goal of research policy in its own right. As a goal of policy, the procedures for ensuring ethical research call for follow-up and monitoring. Does the public investment in open science attain the objectives set? How efficient are new research policies? How effective are changes in rules and procedures and new infrastructures in ensuring open science and improved research outcomes? Monitoring of open science has until recently focussed mainly on open access to journal articles, and less on sharing of research data. There are international initiatives and projects to promote transparency and integrity in science and scientific publishing, and to disseminate best practices and increase efficiency and effectiveness in science. The mission of the Center for Scientific Integrity, the parent organisation of Retraction Watch “is to promote transparency and integrity in science and scientific publishing, and to disseminate best practices and increase efficiency in science” (n.d.). The Center for Open Science sponsors various projects and transparency initiatives (Center for Open Science n.d.). There is no systematic assessment on a larger scale of research integrity, transparency and other ethical principles. One reason is probably that there are no common and shared indicators in the field of ethical principles and that, at least for the moment, RIM usually measures key performance in terms of publications, data, patents, citations and awards, while ethical principles and scientific misconduct remain out of scope. Without assessment of related metrics, there is no way to provide reliable data for the monitoring of open science policy in the field of research ethics. Deeply committed to the principles of freedom of information and open access, academic librarians and other information professionals working in higher education and research institutions and organisations are among the most active stakeholders of the open science movement. Many articles, books, communications, posters, conferences, and training events illustrate significant professional engagement by librarians and information workers in support of open access to scientific results. Librarians and information workers are becoming heavily involved in research data management, data sharing and the administration of data repositories. How do librarians and information workers contribute to the improvement of ethical standards and in particular, to the monitoring of ethical principles? How can they identify misinformation and false research and help prevent its distribution and sharing? How can librarians and information workers help prevent misuse of research information and the activities of researchers from becoming malinformation which causes harm to others? A small exploratory survey of RIM experts was conducted by the authors of this chapter and is reported on later in the chapter. A majority of experts think that

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open science will increase the need for ethical assessment. The question remains. What is the role of information professionals in contributing to ethical assessment of research? Because of their ethical values, information professionals already play their part as collection managers, members of research teams and authors, as professional trainers and colleagues. RIM and the administration and exploitation of research information systems can provide them with a new field of action.

What is Research Information Management? Universities and research institutions are facing the challenge of building up and establishing professional RIM systems with databases and federated information systems. In this chapter, RIM is understood to be CRIS (Current Research Information System). CRIS is the term receiving widespread use in European countries, while RIM is used in the US. “CRIS is a  database  or other  information system  to store, manage and exchange contextual metadata for the research activity funded by a research funder or conducted at a research-performing organisation (or aggregation thereof)” (Wikipedia 2022a). The focus of RIM is the support of scientists in managing the research information that has been collected. At the same time, the establishment of a university-wide RIM system will maintain and increase the attractiveness and competitiveness of the university. In addition, research information systems are gaining in significance. Scientific institutions are experiencing increasing demands from sponsors on research reporting and scientists themselves are anxious to make their research more easily accessible to the scientific community, available publicly, interoperable and recyclable. Research information includes all metadata that arise in connection with research activities, such as information about publications, third-party funds, project data and people involved. Since this information is often stored in several systems, RIM is required to bundle the information in a structured manner, simplify the creation of reports and enable value-added services as well as support the exchange of data and the networking of research information from different sources. Another value-added service can be a publication list, for example, which can be transferred to various applications and guarantee the researcher a certain mobility of the data. “The CRIS provides a single portal bringing corporate and academic research activity together, reducing duplicate data entry, increasing data quality, identifying authority sources of information and recording complex relationships between researchers, projects, outputs and impacts” (Clements and Proven 2015, Abstract). Relevant research information in a RIM database includes data on:



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People, with name, job title, affiliation and skills Organisations and research facilities, with name, type, and location Projects, with name, duration, funding, and programme details, and Outputs comprising publications, research data, and patents.

Research information is not to be confused with research data or output. With the help of RIM, the entire research process in scientific institutions can be supported and the research context can be documented. RIM should, for example, be able to link particular projects with funding and research results and enable evaluation and assessment within an institution as well as comparison with other institutions. In addition, RIM can be used to manage research projects, results, resources and funding. RIM offers the possibility of structured recording of information about an institution’s research performance. Modern developments in standardisation, interoperability and evaluation options are characteristic of RIM. Many standards or data models for RIM specify which data is to be recorded in which format (Azeroual and Herbig 2020). The result is simplified and more effective research reporting because data is captured only once and not multiple times. Academic libraries are convenient places for RIM, and academic librarians are becoming more involved in RIM projects, but in a different way from their involvement with institutional repositories and digital libraries. Librarians are less involved in the development and administration of research information systems, but more engaged with issues of standardisation, data maintenance, and the connections to catalogues and repositories, playing a role that can be described as a metadata manager. Librarians are key to the success of any RIM project, making a special contribution to guaranteeing the reliability of information on publication, data, scientists and organisations (Schöpfel and Azeroual 2021). When a library catalogue or an institutional repository is defined as a data provider and connected to a RIM system, poor quality of the original library or repository data will produce misinformation for RIM and reduce its value, trustworthiness and acceptance. Libraries can emphasise the added value of their services in the collection of publications in RIM. Libraries must publicise their services and provide training so that their services are understood, and the corresponding resources and databases must be available. Rebecca Bryant from OCLC recognised the status of libraries as partners in institutional RIM because they have a high level of expertise in metadata, standards, open access, research data management and identifiers, and are able to support the goals of RIM. Yet, academic libraries will seldom assume primary responsibility for RIM. They are part of the team. RIM is more than metadata management and systems are usually managed by information technology or research management departments within academic institutions (Bryant et al. 2017).

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However, the specialised knowledge and value of libraries should not be forgotten. Bundling the strengths of various actors can contribute to the success of RIM in an institution. The OCLC report observed that: RIM intersects with many aspects of traditional library services in discovery, acquisition, dissemination, and analysis of scholarly activities, and does so through the nexus with institutional data systems, faculty workflows, and institutional partners… RIM adoption offers libraries new opportunities to support institutional and researcher goals (Bryant et al. 2017, 5).

RIM brings additional added value through increased user-friendliness, minimisation of manual entries, correction functions, standardised exports in reference management programs, integration of services on campus, automatic checking of secondary open access publications and the publication of regular papers or preprints in institutional repositories directly from RIM. In the area of publication support, automatic checking of authorisation for secondary publication via Sherpa Romeo provides added value. Sherpa Romeo is an “online resource that aggregates and analyses publisher open access policies from around the world and provides summaries of publisher copyright and open access archiving policies on a journalby-journal basis” (Jisc n.d.).

Research Ethics in Research Information Management Research ethics has already been discussed in the context of open science earlier in this chapter. Ethical questions are important in all phases of the research process, from planning through implementation to publication, and must be considered throughout any project. Ethical obligations do not exist only at the beginning of a project, but affect the entire life-cycle, for example, publication, patent, employee and third-party project data, among others. There are particular ethical issues in qualitative research, where a personal relationship is entered into between researcher and investigator (Miethe 2010). The way researchers work has changed and increasing volumes of data and information are being generated, usually in digital formats, for storage and management. The data and the information generated constitute the basis of knowledge growth and future research processes and are linked to other data. Professional RIM is becoming increasingly important. Due to the increased social importance of research processes and outcomes, questions of research ethics have become more relevant in RIM. Ethical guidelines must be observed, especially when collecting



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research information and data to avoid misinformation, and as already noted, misuse of the data and malinformation must be prevented. When disseminating and publishing research information, care must be taken to ensure that data protection and ethical issues are considered. Care must be taken to ensure that damage does not arise from improper use of data. Sensitive personal and medical data must be accessible to third parties only under particularly strict security requirements. Researchers must adequately secure research data and keep it for an appropriate period of time. If there are understandable reasons not to save research data, the researchers should explain them. Research ethical principles, standards and regulations are intended to ensure that damage can be avoided while at the same time guaranteeing freedom of research. As Weyns (2020) noted, there is a growing consensus that new ethical principles are required with the advent of information systems that make autonomous decisions.

Fig. 10.1: Ethical principles for scientific research.

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In Spring 2021, an exploratory survey was conducted with sixteen experts in the field of RIM to gain insights into ethical issues. Most of the experts were system providers; others were project managers or system administrators. Most were working in the academic sector. The purpose was to learn more about how the experts thought about and dealt with research ethics in the field of RIM. One question was about the relevance of ethical principles. The experts were asked to identify which of the principles of research ethics, such as human subject protection or respect for intellectual property, they considered the most important and relevant. A closed list containing fourteen principles was provided; the results are shown in Figure 10.1. The results indicated that objectivity was considered the most relevant principle of research ethics by all sixteen in the survey, followed by integrity, human subject protection, openness and honesty. Fairness, trust, animal care or simply carefulness were deemed less relevant. Another question related to individual misconduct. The experts considered four unethical behaviours as particularly harmful for research: falsifying or cooking research data, plagiarism, omitting observations, and failing to present data. The principles and behaviours highlighted should be given priority for monitoring and follow-up in RIM, but to date this has not been the case. At the time of the survey, few RIM systems handled information about ethical issues, and most of the experts considered that the systems were not well prepared for the area. One reason is that the usual data models focus on performance indicators and metrics of research output. Information about ethical issues generally is not part of conventional key performance indicators. While there may be a common understanding of relevant ethical principles and scientific misconduct, up to now there has been no agreed list of relevant indicators corresponding to those principles and misbehaviours. More discussion between RIM experts and ethics committees is needed to progress the matter, paying particular attention to the value and the reliability of the data and information. Research ethics, especially individual misconduct, is a critical and sensitive issue that requires, perhaps even more than research output, trustworthy and sustainable RIM. In the open science environment, professionals and scientists highlight the importance of the FAIR principles in data quality. FAIR stands for Findable, Accessible, Interoperable and Reusable (Mons et al. 2020; Wilkinson et al. 2016). FAIR principles focus on properties of data that enable increased data exchange and remove ethical questions, power differences and historical contexts. The Global Indigenous Data Alliance (GIDA) has set up the CARE principles for handling indigenous research data as an important supplement to the FAIR principles (GIDA n.d.). CARE stands for Collective Benefit, Authority to Control, Responsibility and Ethics (Carroll et al. 2020). As already noted, the future use of research data can have negative consequences, which the researcher must prevent by taking appropriate mea-



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sures. The CARE principles expand the ethical responsibility of harm prevention to include the obligation to align the use of data to explicitly positive effects. Similar, appropriate principles should be developed for research data and RIM. The administration, backup, storage and sustainable provision of research information must be conducted according to recognised standards and meet high requirements. The Common European Research Information Format (CERIF) was developed with the support of the European Commission as a standard for research information to support information interchange within CRIS (Eurocris n.d.) and is recommended for use in the European Union (EU) (Jeffery et al. 2014). It is a model for the organisation and exchange of research information on conceptual, logical and physical levels. The data model includes organisations, projects, funding and other components of the research process and connections to it. The linked data model is used for interoperability between different research information systems. CERIF is used as a model for homogeneous access to heterogeneous data systems through defining data exchange formats. The ultimate goal of CERIF is to provide interoperability between the electronic infrastructure and the research data and to promote integration and exchange through standardisation. The challenge for CERIF is the extension of the data model to include relevant data in an ethical appropriate and responsible way. Information professionals in charge of publication and research data management produce or at least manage some of the data and play a significant role in guaranteeing the quality of information about retractions, ethical reviews or plagiarism. The previously mentioned IFLA Code of Ethics and the commitment of information professionals to ethical principles and values, places them in a privileged position to raise awareness of the need for appropriate handling of data and indicators to ensure ethical use. In addition to data economy, ethics, and the effective retrieval and processing of information using standards, the curation of research information is of great importance. “Data curation is the organization and integration of data collected from various sources. It involves annotation, publication and presentation of the data such that the value of the data is maintained over time, and the data remains available for reuse and preservation” (Wikipedia 2022b). The curating of data is an adjusted process in which new knowledge is generated from different internal and external sources based on coordinated, normalised databases such as research data management to ensure data quality. Data curators not only collect and manage data, but, where possible, establish tried and tested procedures for managing the data and often present the data in a visual format such as a diagram, dashboard or report (Azeroual 2021). To optimise the processes, uniform quality criteria must be used for both the source data and the metadata, commencing as early as possible in the data processing life-cycle, to save costs and enable precise data analysis.

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Towards Good Infraethics Infraethics is a term which has emerged to refer to ethical infrastructure (Floridi 2013), “the formal and informal means by which society regulates the use of power by both public and private institutions to ensure it serves the common good” (The Ethics Centre n.d.). “Every infraethics may be dual-use only in principle: in fact, if it is a good infraethics, it means that it is oriented towards facilitating the occurrence of what is morally good. At its best, an infraethics is the grease that lubricates the moral mechanism in the right way and successfully” (Floridi 2017, 392). RIM systems can be considered as a special kind of ethical infrastructure or enabler of infraethics (Schöpfel, Azeroual, and Jungbauer-Gans 2020). A sustainable data governance strategy or a data quality framework ensures compliance with quality, security and processing standards for research data in institutions and libraries. It contains guidelines and procedures for handling data, provides orientation for employees, reduces the risks for institutions and libraries and supports the transformation to a data-oriented culture. With established data governance, high data quality can be achieved, and the potential of research data can be exploited. Data quality also plays a major role in the acceptance of RIM among system users (Azeroual et al. 2020). The goals of introducing a system include process optimisation and automation as well as faster access to information and improved information quality. If expectations are not met due to poor data quality, the dissatisfaction generated can be projected onto the system. The consequence can be that RIM is not accepted by users or not trusted. Users may work to build a parallel database, which in turn leads to further deterioration in the data quality. The link between data quality and system acceptance is all the more obvious and important when it comes to sensitive data. As producers and providers of data for the system, information professionals must be careful when dealing with ethical issues related to sensitive data, because of its potential harm to persons and organisations. Figure 10.1 provides the feedback from experts in the exploratory survey on the most important ethical principle in RIM. The experts surveyed were also asked about the next priority for the people developing, implementing or managing the systems. The results are contained in Figure 10.2.



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Fig. 10.2: Next priorities for research information management systems.

The top priorities on which a total of ten people strongly agreed or agreed were adaptation of data models and the development of new services and functionalities. The survey respondents next identified pertinent data source selection as one of the main future priorities with eight people strongly agreeing or agreeing. Pertinent data source selection requires common agreement on what should be measured, the metrics, and how, the assessment strategies to be used. Some potential metrics are based on publications mentioning ethical review and retraction; others are based on the work of ethics committees examining the number and content of reviews; still others focus on job profiles reviewing expertise and skills. Some metrics can be assessed through scientometric assessment, via databases, platforms or repositories, while others require organisational monitoring. Up to now, there has been no common agreement on metrics, which remains a challenge. Any future discussion must be aware of the importance of the quality and the reliability of data and data sources. Misinformation, unreliable data, incomplete or erroneous information on ethical issues or misconduct must be avoided, because of the risks to persons and organisations. Data sources must be carefully selected and kept under permanent and continuous quality control. The challenges of metrics and assessment include other dimensions, usage and exploitation. RIM systems are decision tools. Their purpose is not only to monitor research performance of individuals and organisations but also help make informed decisions about institutional strategies, project funding, recruitment, career advancement and salary. As already stated, poor metadata quality in library catalogues, databases and institutional repositories can constitute misinformation and be harmful for people and organisations. But there are risks and potential scientific misconduct when good data about people and organisational becomes malinformation and is used to harm people. What is the impact of figures

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on retractions? Who has access to data on falsifying research results or plagiarism? How much time will, and should data be stored in the system? How does the system protect the data rights of people involved, especially the rights to access and to erasure? These issues are legal issues, especially in the member states of the EU with its specific rules and laws on data privacy embedded in the General Data Protection Regulations (GDPR) (EU n.d.). Academic librarians produce and handle data that will be exploited by RIM and they have a moral ethical responsibility for the quality of the data. The IFLA Code of Ethics states in Point 5, Neutrality, Personal Integrity and Professional Skills: “Librarians and other information workers define and publish their policies for selection, organisation, preservation, provision, and dissemination of information” and “aim at the highest standards of service quality” (IFLA 2012). This ethical commitment and the requirement for transparency in Point 3 of the Code, Privacy, Secrecy and Transparency, should guide academic librarians when they are part of a project or administration team. They may not be in charge of the RIM system, but as stakeholders, they have a role to play in assuring the ethical compliance of RIM. RIM systems can constitute good infraethics or bad infraethics, depending on the quality and the handling and use of the underlying data. The contribution of academic librarians is important to avoid misinformation and to limit the risk of malinformation.

The Potential Role of Information Professionals In a world of increasing information disorder and fake news, information professionals and in particular academic librarians have a role to play, not only because of their professional skills, job profiles and missions but also because of their values and their global and universal commitment to basic ethical principles, including the commitment to privacy, service quality and transparency. All involved in data handling must take responsibility in relation to their specific roles. Data providers, for instance, should “evaluate the consequences of disseminating specific types of data, in terms of potential infringement of privacy laws, the replicability and reliability of the datasets at hand, and the wider implications of data sharing for local communities” (Leonelli 2016, 7). It is obvious that the general requirements of data science ethics apply to the specific case of data-intensive research information systems, and to their development, management and usage. RIM may not be the first priority of academic librarians. They have other priorities, and even if members of project teams that prepare, implement and run such systems, librarians do not often lead the projects. But even so, their specific



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knowledge of metadata, their professional practice of ensuring appropriate curation, privacy and quality of data, and their commitment to ethical principles establish them as essential players in RIM on three levels. Information professionals must: –– Guarantee and guard the quality of metadata of people, organisations and research products provided by catalogues, databases and institutional repositories –– Raise awareness of privacy issues and ensure the protection of personal data provided by the library-based systems, and –– Be aware and take care of the potential misuse of data associated with people, organisations and research products, not only in relation to misinformation and erroneous data but also malinformation and misuse of valid data. RIM may not be the first priority of academic librarians. Yet, RIM systems are essential for academic institutions. Academic librarians must be aware of the challenges and the risks and play their roles in contributing to limiting misinformation and malinformation. In so doing, they will ensure that RIM systems become good infraethics.

References Azeroual, Otmane. 2021. “Datenqualität und -kuratierung als Voraussetzung für Open Research Data/ Data Quality and Curation as a Prerequisite for Open Research Data.” Information – Wissenschaft & Praxis 72, no. 4: 204–211. https://doi.org/10.1515/iwp-2021-2158. Azeroual, Otmane, and Nico Herbig. 2020. “Mapping and Semantic Interoperability of the German RCD Data Model with the Europe-wide Accepted CERIF.” Information Services and Use 40, no. 1–2: 87–113. https://doi.org/10.3233/ISU-200076. Azeroual, Otmane, Gunther Saake, Mohammad Abuosba, and Joachim Schöpfel. 2020. “Data Quality as a Critical Success Factor for User Acceptance of Research Information Systems.” Data 5, no. 2 :35. https://doi.org/10.3390/data5020035. Bryant, Rebecca, Anna Clements, Carol Feltes, David Groenewegen, Simon Huggard, Holly Mercer, Roxanne Missingham, Maliaca Oxnam, Anne Rauh, and John Wright2017. Research Information Management: Defining RIM and the Library’s Role. Dublin, Ohio: OCLC, https://doi.org/10.25333/ C3NK88; https://www.oclc.org/research/publications/2017/oclcresearch-defining-rim.html. Carroll, Stephanie Russo, Ibrahim Garba, Oscar L. Figueroa-Rodríguez, Jarita Holbrook, Raymond Lovett, Simeon Materechera, Mark Parsons, Kay Raseroka, Desi Rodriguez-Lonebear, Robyn Rowe et al. 2020. “The CARE Principles for Indigenous Data Governance.” Data Science Journal 19, no. 43 : 12. https://doi.org/10.5334/dsj-2020-043. Center for Open Science. n.d. https://www.cos.io/. Clements, Anna, and Jackie Proven. 2015. “The Emerging Role of Institutional CRIS in Facilitating Open Scholarship.” [PowerPoint Presentation] at LIBER Annual Conference London, June

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25th, 2015. http://hdl.handle.net/11366/393. Abstract https://dspacecris.eurocris.org/ bitstream/11366/393/2/LIBER2015-Abstract-Emerging_Role_CRIS_Open_Scholarship.pdf. Dai, Qian, Eunjung Shin, and Carthage Smith. 2018. “Open and Inclusive Collaboration in Science: A Framework.” OECD Science, Technology and Industry Working Papers, no. 2018/07. Paris: OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/2dbff737-en. DuBois, James M., and Alison L. Antes. 2018. “Five Dimensions of Research Ethics: A Stakeholder Framework for Creating a Climate of Research Integrity.” Academic Medicine 93, no. 4: 550–555. https://doi.org/10.1097/ACM.0000000000001966. The Ethics Centre. 2020. “Ethics Explainer: Ethical Infrastructure https://ethics.org.au/ethics-explainerethical-infrastructure/. Eurocris. n.d. “Main Features of CERIF: Common European Research Information Forman (CERIF).” n.d. https://eurocris.org/services/main-features-cerif. European Union (EU). n.d. “GDPR.EU: Complete Guide to GDPR Compliance.” https://gdpr.eu/. Floridi, Luciano. 2013. “Distributed Morality in an Information Society.” Science and Engineering Ethics 19: 727–743. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11948-012-9413-4. Floridi, Luciano. 2017.“Infraethics – on the Conditions of Possibility of Morality.” Philosophy & Technology 30, no. 4: 391–394. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13347-017-0291-1. Global Indigenous Data Alliance (GIDA). n.d. “Care Principles for Indigenous Data Governance.” https://www.gida-global.org/care. International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA). 2012. “IFLA Code of Ethics for Librarians and other Information Workers (full version).” Prepared by Loida Garcia-Febo, Anne Hustad, Hermann Rösch, Paul Sturges and Amelie Vallotton (FAIFE working group). https:// www.ifla.org/publications/ifla-code-of-ethics-for-librarians-and-other-information-workers-fullversion/. Jeffery, Keith G., Nicolas Houssos, Brigitte Jörg, and Anne Asserson. 2014. “Research Information Management: The CERIF Approach.” International Journal of Metadata, Semantics and Ontologies 9, no. 1: 5–14. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJMSO.2014.059142. Jisc. n.d. “Sherpa Romeo.” https://v2.sherpa.ac.uk/romeo/. Leonelli, Sabina. 2016. “Locating Ethics in Data Science: Responsibility and Accountability in Global and Distributed Knowledge Production Systems.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 374, no. 2083: 20160122. https://doi.org/10.1098/ rsta.2016.0122. Martinson, Brian C., Melissa S. Anderson, and Raymond De Vries. 2005, “Scientists Behaving Badly”. Nature 435, no. 7043: 737–738. https://doi.org/10.1038/435737a Miethe, Ingrid. 2010. “Forschungsethik.” In Handbuch Qualitative Forschungsmethoden in der Erziehungswissenschaft, edited by Barbara Friebertshäuser, Antje Langer, and Annedore Prengel, 927–938. Weinheim: Beltz Juventa. Molloy, Jennifer C. 2011. “The Open Knowledge Foundation: Open Data Means Better Science.” PLoS Biology 9, no. 12: e1001195. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1001195. Mons, Barend, Erik Schultes, Fenghong Liu, and Annika Jacobsen. 2020. “The FAIR Principles: First Generation Implementation Choices and Challenges.” Data Intelligence 2, no. 1–2: 1–9. https:// doi.org/10.1162/dint_e_00023. Ramjoué, Celina. 2015. “Towards Open Science: The Vision of the European Commission.” Information Services & Use 35, no. 3: 167–170. https://doi.org/doi:10.3233/isu-150777. Rentier, Bernard. 2019. Open Science, the Challenge of Transparency/ Science ouverte, le défi de la transparence.” Brussels: L’Académie Royale de Belgique. https://academie-editions.be/ accueil/369-open-science-the-challenge-of-transparency.html.



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Retraction Watch. n.d. “Center for Scientific Integrity.” https://retractionwatch.com/the-center-forscientific-integrity/. Schöpfel, Joachim, Otmane Azeroual, and Monika Jungbauer-Gans. “Research Ethics, Open Science and CRIS.” 2020. MDPI Publications 8, no. 4: 51. MDPI Special Issue Publication Ethics and Research Integrity. https://doi.org/10.3390/publications8040051. Schöpfel, Joachim, and Otmane Azeroual. 2021. “Current Research Information Systems and Institutional Repositories: From Data Ingestion to Convergence and Merger.” In Future Directions in Digital Information. Predictions, Practice, Participation, edited by David Baker and Lucy Ellis, 19–37. Oxford: Chandos Publishing. United Nations (UN). n.d. “Universal Declaration of Human Rights.” https://www.un.org/en/about-us/ universal-declaration-of-human-rights. Weyns, Danny. 2020. “Towards a Code of Ethics for Autonomous and Self-adaptive Systems.” In Proceedings of the IEEE/ACM 15th International Symposium on Software Engineering for Adaptive and Self-Managing Systems (SEAMS ‘20), 163–165. New York, NY: Association for Computing Machinery. https://doi.org/10.1145/3387939.3391567. Wikipedia. 2022a. “Current Research Information System.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Current_ research_information_system. Wikipedia. 2022b. “Data Curation.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_curation. Wilkinson, Mark D., Michel Dumontier, IJsbrand Jan Aalbersberg, Gabrielle Appleton, Myles Axton, Arie Baak, Niklas Blomberg, Jan-Willem Boiten, Luiz Bonino da Silva Santos, Philip E. Bourne, et al. 2016. “The FAIR Guiding Principles for Scientific Data Management and Stewardship.” Scientific Data 3, no. 1: 160018. https://doi.org/10.1038/sdata.2016.18 Available at https://www.ncbi.nlm. nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4792175/.

Raliat Alabi, Adenike Damilola Omoike and Daniel Olusegun Ikegune

11 I nformation Services in Academic Libraries in an Era of Information Disorder

Abstract: The changing information technology environment has led to a proliferation of multiple information resources in numerous formats which has been described as an information explosion leading to information disorder. Academic libraries are positioned to provide specialised information services to ensure accurate and appropriate information provision crucial to their users who have a gamut of information needs and few skills and knowledge to find their way through the information maze. Timely and accurate information is needed for academic success. Providing the right information to the right user at the right time in the right format is crucial (Khan and Khan 2016). Wilson’s model of information behaviour and Ranganathan’s five laws of library science have guided the content of this chapter. In this information age, to serve library users effectively, timely information services optimising the use of information and communications technology (ICT) include reference services, referral services, current awareness services, selective dissemination of information, literature searching, document delivery, translation services, and online public access catalogues. Academic libraries must reinvent themselves to provide timely and appropriate information resources in a period of disruption. Keywords: Academic libraries – Information services; Library users; Library services – Africa; Fake news; Misinformation

Introduction Information disorder has caused harm to many information users. Meeting users’ information needs is the ultimate goal of academic libraries through effective service delivery to support teaching, learning and research. It is the responsibility of librarians to guide users in the use of the available library information resources in a timely and accurate manner to meet information needs and prevent users from accessing and using inappropriate information. Libraries and information professionals have the capacity to apply the use of ICT appropriately to meet user needs and reduce the impact of information disorder on users. Academic libraries provide specialised information services through the management of information https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110772753-013



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resources. This chapter focuses on information users, the types of information resources used, and the provision of information resources and services in academic libraries and the efforts they are making in the reduction of information disorder. The approach taken is guided by two theoretical models related to information use, Wilson’s model of information behaviour and Ranganathan’s five laws of library science. Some libraries and librarians are slow to react to the changes required and do not always observe Ranganathan’s advice “do not waste the time of the user” (Wikipedia 2023).

Models of Information Use A model may be described as a framework for thinking about a problem. It can evolve into a statement of the relationships among theoretical propositions. Many models have been developed analysing information user behaviour, and information seeking and searching. Two models based on the work of Thomas D. Wilson and the work of S.R. Ranganathan have contributed to understandings within this chapter.

Wilson’s Model of Information Behaviour Wilson’s model has developed over the years from early iterations undertaken in researching information behaviour. His second model was described in 1981. Later versions have been amended noting the contributions of others to understanding information behaviour. Wilson stated that information-seeking behaviour arises as a consequence of a need perceived by an information user, who, in order to satisfy that need, makes demands upon formal or informal information sources or services which result in success or failure to find relevant information. If successful, the individual then makes use of the information found and may either fully or partially satisfy the perceived need, or indeed fail to satisfy the need and have to reiterate the search process. The model also establishes that part of the information-seeking behaviour may involve other people through information exchange and that information perceived as useful may be passed to other people as well as being used, or instead of being used, by the person her/himself. The relevance of the model to this chapter is that meeting information needs satisfactorily can come only from a deep understanding of user behaviour and needs and the development of innovative formal and informal services to satisfy those needs (Wilson 1999).

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Ranganathan’s Five Laws of Library Science Ranganathan proposed five laws of library science in 1931 which outlined the principles of operating a library system. They have been used and amended by many over the years. His simple approach was encapsulated in: –– Books are for use –– Every person his or her book –– Every book its reader –– Save the time of the reader, and –– A library is a growing organism. Ranganathan’s perceptions of library use, and readers were based on the primacy of tracking user behaviour and focused on information needs. He presented important insights and understandings of the behaviour of library users. The first law focuses on use and while it used the term books, updated versions have replaced the term with knowledge, social media, or information resources. The second law emphasises the centrality of the user, and the need to match the user with a particular information resource. The third law takes the reverse perspective and focuses on the information resource and the need to match it with a user. The fourth law stresses that information services must fulfil user needs. For example, user assistance or reference service is one of the means of satisfying user needs. The fifth law marks the evolving role of the library with the library transforming itself to meet changes in users and user needs. Ranganathan in his seminal book Reference Service (Ranganathan 1961) identified different types of readers that come to the library. He probed the psychology of readers, analysed them, considered their minds, thinking, mental composition and temperament. Ranganathan categorised users by close observation from the time they enter the library until they leave the premises. His views were derived from both psychological and pragmatic approaches. Based on the psychological traits and observations, Ranganathan identified the following types of reader coming to the library. Each type characterised a pattern of user behaviour. Similar user behaviour can be experienced in the present information environment. Six types of readers with different behaviour patterns were identified: –– Obsession –– Superiority complex (self-reader) –– Inferiority complex (meek reader) –– Traumatic complex –– Mere ignorance (complaining reader), and –– Thief/fraud.



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Ranganathan determined the behavioural types and narrated several cases for each type of reader and provided details on how to understand the needs of each and how to serve their needs. For example, he presented a case of the difficult obsessed reader contextually as an insurance agent struggling to use the library catalogue. The case narrates how the reference librarian came to his help and connected him with the information required. All types of readers can be provided with the attention they require. Ranganathan observed that “the floor of a library is always believed to be a place of great equality” (Reddy, Krishnamurthy and Asundi, 2018, 85). The relevance of the Ranganathan model is that the entire activity and philosophy of the library in the provision of information resources must fulfil Ranganathan’s laws.

The Information Explosion and Libraries “The information explosion is the rapid increase in the amount of published information or data and the effects of this abundance. As the amount of available data grows, the problem of managing the information becomes more difficult, which can lead to information overload” (Wikipedia 2022). The proliferation of information has emerged from all sources with ever-increasing developmental activities, knowledge creation and research being undertaken by various stakeholders ranging from governments to commercial entities. Smart phones, laptops, electronic mail, and extending Internet through telecommunication growth, and social media have posed serious issues for information providers and information users. The rapid growth and changing nature of information and communication technologies (ICT) has exposed information disorder in Africa and the world at large. Walker, Mercea and Bastos describe a rapidly changing and hostile data environment. The escalating issue of data access…is thrown into sharp relief by the strategic use of bots, trolls, fake news, strategies of false amplification. As social media platforms increase obstacles to independent scholarship, researchers are faced with the stark choice of either limiting their use of trace data or developing new methods of data collection (2019, 1531).

Information disorder has emerged as a result of the information explosion and is caused by fake news, also referred as disinformation, misinformation, and malinformation. The commonality among the information disorder genres is that they use a combination of assorted modus operandi to spread deceptive information. The end result is deformity in news content, posing a serious danger to dispassionate decision-making by users of information and library services. While a vast panoply

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of information is available, finding answers to questions and solutions to problems is challenging. Evaluating information resources, differentiating fact from fiction, and establishing what is disinformation and fake and what is valid and real set challenges for all (Wikipedia 2022). Misinformation, disinformation and erroneous or manipulated information cause harm to persons, communities, institutions and countries. Many Africans are victims of information disorder. Unguided and inexperienced users have become bewildered and use erroneous information to take inappropriate decisions in the business, political, religious and academic sectors. Academic libraries are perfectly positioned to provide quality access to information that is original and well organised. Kumar outlines the roles of libraries in the process of serving their communities to include selecting and collecting information, organising information, and serving users (2017, 1). The academic library is an institution of knowledge where information resources and materials are acquired, stored, processed, classified, organised, shelved and managed for information users to retrieve and use to meet their information needs. Users of academic libraries are secure in the knowledge when they come to libraries with their queries that they will receive sound advice and accurate answers from reference librarians and other library staff. Librarians serve as the custodians of the information resources in the libraries; as qualified and professional librarians they are in the position of providing adequate and accurate information services to users. Academic libraries play a major role in the provision of information to users. “A nation without functional libraries and information centres may lack access to information that would enable her sustainable development. In this era of globalization, in which the world is connected, information gains its power through permanent storage and wide distribution” (Adebayo, Ahmed, and Adeniran 2018, 2). It is no doubt that libraries are some of the organisations that can help a nation to achieve and sustain development.

The Use of Information and Communications Technology (ICT) in Libraries ICT can be used to assist in dealing with the era of information disorder in the 21st century and render it manageable. The enhanced use of ICT in libraries has impacted greatly on the quality of information provided. Libraries are able to organise information resources in a suitable way for easy retrieval through the allocation of metadata, cataloguing and classification, using tools based on subjects and disciplines with appropriate classification schemes to enable proper and adequate provision of library services to library users from all disciplines.



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The adoption of appropriate ICT in libraries is a way of improving information services provided by libraries. In an era where people need to access timely information with ease, the application of ICT to library operations can help. Appropriate applications of ICT can be a catalyst for change; an enabling tool for locating, storing, retrieving and disseminating information; and strategic assistance for sustainable development (Adebayo, Ahmed and Adeniran 2018). Libraries use various aspects of ICT including integrated library systems (ILS), also known as integrated library management systems (ILMS), online tutorials and guides, effective use of websites, reference chat services; current awareness services (CAS); selective dissemination of information (SDI) services; digital exhibitions and displays; computerised interactive searching; referral services, electronic document delivery service (EDDS), translation services, online public access catalogues and their successors overarching discovery systems, databases and article indexing services, and lending services. ICT is indispensable in providing value-added library services. However, many institutions and organisations including libraries face diverse challenges in the process of integrating ICT into their activities. Effective information provision and access are paramount to development and growth of any nation. It is vital that effort be made to ensure active implementation of ICT in all sectors of the nation. The world has become a global village, and, with ICT, many library users can access a vast sea of information without necessarily investing much time or energy. Distribution of information is facilitated through the use of ICT. Information services can be targeted to users’ needs. The capacity of ICT allows the library to develop entirely new ways of thinking about the services they provide.

Use of Information Resources by Library Users Information users in libraries can be classified under various categories according to gender, age, area of employment ranging from clergy through business to politics, type of work undertaken, or type of use. Within an academic setting, users can be categorised according to involvement including students, lecturers, administrators and researchers, and level of programme including undergraduate and postgraduate. Users have diverse information needs and are always in need of information resources to meet specific needs. They seek information for decision-making, or problem-solving, for entertainment and for knowledge acquisition. Users sometimes seek information in structured ways or haphazardly, even in an academic environment. Users may be ignorant of the best way to obtain information as a result of a lack of library orientation, user education, or awareness of the different types of information services provided by libraries.

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Scholars have proposed various definitions of information need. “Information need: A gap in a person’s knowledge that, when experienced at the conscious level as a question, gives rise to a search for an answer. If the need is urgent, the search may be pursued with diligence until the desire is fulfilled” (Suraj 2005, 399). Information resources consist of information content, people, machinery, facilities or equipment that enable library users to satisfy their information needs. They are variously defined. Information is the result of processing, manipulating and organizing data in a way that adds to the knowledge of the receiver. Information, which is a catalyst for change, has become as important as life itself. … Generally, resources are aids to the researcher. They are those materials, strategies, manipulations, apparatuses or consultations that help the researcher to enhance research and development. Information resources therefore include all forms of information carriers that can be used to promote and encourage effective research activities and developmental projects (Chimah and Nwokocha 2015, 44).

Information resources can also be defined as “information and related resources, such as personnel, equipment, funds, and information technology” (Lewin and Sprehe 1996, 52), referring to a legal definition. Haruna and Oyelekan recognise library resources as “those materials which enable libraries to carry out functions effectively. They are made up of books and other information bearing media” (2010, 6). Information resources have always played an important role in libraries and information centres. Without adequate and quality information resources, libraries may not be able to achieve their desire of meeting the information needs of their patrons. The information resources in academic libraries are in print and non-print resources. The printed formats are monographs, serials, technical reports, maps, directories, and atlases. Non-print materials include audio tapes and cassettes, photographic records, video cassettes, films, microfilms, computers. CD-ROMs and other digital resources. With some located within the library and some located increasingly remotely. Information is often used very differently from the way the creator intended. Information will be viewed within the context of need, accessibility, and function. Ibrahim (2017) quotes a definition by Sada of information (2012) as “data of value in planning, decision-making, and evaluation of any program… data that have been subjected to some processing functions capable of answering a user’s query be it recorded, summarised or simply collected that would help decision-making.” Nwachukwu, Lucky, and Salami in a study of library use in a public library noted: Use is the single criterion, which could be used to determine the reason for retaining a document within the collection of a library; and use is essential in guiding the collection development effort of a library. The use of a library can be obtained from the demand of its items.



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The library tries to meet the needs of its users who may not be satisfied with the output they are getting from the system. The package or item provided to the user may not satisfy these needs….Public information centers should be designed to serve actual need as well as anticipation to meet these actual needs (2014, 2).

Information Service Provision in Academic Libraries As already observed, users vary from library to library and information needs are wide-ranging and changing. Information resource use matches user types and needs. The services rendered in a library likewise differ from one library to another, depending on the type of library, the type of users and the parent body’s objectives. Library information services can be viewed from two main perspectives: the provision of information needed by users, and an awareness of users about available information resources and an ability to find the information appropriate to needs by themselves. In an educational environment, information services overlap teaching and learning services because librarians often educate users while offering information services to users. Information services encompass services through which librarians directly supply users with information but also interfaces created by librarians through which users can independently find information they need. Users come to libraries with queries to meet their information needs. Information services are provided by reference and other professional librarians. Librarians ensure that relevant and accurate information materials for users are provided in a timely fashion. One of the major roles of academic libraries is the provision of information services to library clients to serve both educational and personal development. Lending credence to this assertion, Afolabi and Abidoye noted in the Nigerian context: The primary role of libraries is to provide information service to support the educational, recreation, cultural, economic and technological endeavours of members in their respective communities. The National Policy on Education (2004) identified the library as one of the most important aspect[s] of educational support services. They are used as media for disseminating information and enhancing literature search and as tool for the development of intellectual compatibilities and promotion of cultural and social integration (2011, 113).

An information service is: A service provided by, or for, a special library which draws attention to information possessed in the library or information department in anticipation of demand; this is done by preparing and circulating news sheets, literature surveys, reading lists, abstracts, particulars of articles

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in current periodicals etc. which it is anticipated will be of interest to potential users of the services (Haruna and Oyelekan 2010, 13).

Ibrahim (2017) in a thesis on legislative libraries defined information services as “activities rendered … to ensure access and maximum effective utilization of information resources” (2017, 9) and argued that information services “should be designed to facilitate the use of information resources, to remove barriers, to invite use and to invite reading towards the achieving of goals of every individual” (2017, 32). Information services are continuous processes undertaken by library staff to enable library users to access and use information efficiently and effectively. Users must be equipped with efficient techniques for accessing information resources to meet their information needs. To eradicate the era of information disorder in the 21st century, there is a need for libraries to employ reliable and potential tools made available through ICT to support timely information that will lead to good decision-making and contribute to required actions and support for individuals and society at large, as well as economic, social and political sustainability. ICT has paved the way for libraries to provide creative enhancements of service delivery to users. Some of the information services provided in academic libraries have been outlined earlier in this chapter. In addition to the library’s collections which range from print through audiovisual materials to ebooks and eresources provided locally or remotely, the services provided by libraries include: –– Reprography and printing, widely used in libraries globally, with copying of material being overtaken by printing from database content or on demand –– Information retrieval system for material held locally or remotely in linked or separate databases, with some CD-ROM databases still available, in various disciplines such as law, sciences, medicine, technology, agriculture, and humanities, although increasingly content is made available online from local or remote storage –– Indexing and abstracting services of local institutional content to provide summaries of documents and the assignment of metadata, keywords and descriptors for storing and accessing documents –– Institutional repositories in academic or research libraries constituting the online archive for collection, preservation and dissemination of digital copies of the intellectual output of academic or research of institutions ranging from journal articles to digital versions of theses and dissertations –– Document scanning services, for scanning text and images from printed content, establishing personal and organisational digital and virtual libraries –– Selective dissemination of information (SDI) and current awareness services, providing anticipatory services whereby useful information from a range of



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information resources, keeping users up-to-date in their fields of specialisation and in related subjects Reference and information services, increasingly based on digital versions of resources previously available in print, like encyclopaedias and statistical compilations and offered face-to-face, via email or online chat Document delivery services with material needed for research and information but not available in the library being obtained from other libraries, or provided to them, usually in digital format Library website publicising services for specific clientele and in specific subject areas Web publishing services Subject guides providing guidance to specific topics or resources, using LibGuides software or other data curation services Social media including Facebook pages Digital exhibitions or displays on topics of interest to users, and Online training programmes in the use of specific information resources, in specific subject areas, or for specific levels of use ranging from undergraduate to senior research, including the provision of videos.

Reducing Information Disorder Libraries are singular in their mission to provide all people with the unbiased and relevant information and essential services that drive opportunities and progress: “libraries can be catalysts for opportunity and progress” (ALA 2015). The roles libraries play in preserving library information resources and the types of services they offer will guide users through information disorder. Fake news is the false news available online, much of it in social media, that traditional gatekeepers such as librarians and journalists can no longer keep in check. Others define fake news broadly and include anything that has not undergone some review process. Sullivan (2019) posits that fake news or misinformation comes to stand in for anything that contrasts with libraries. Libraries are often outsourcing much of the control that goes into collection building and as part of regional groups may be losing control of their service provision. Can libraries become the nemesis of fake news? The International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) in its Code of Ethics states: “The core mission of librarians and other information workers is to ensure access to information for all for personal development, education, cultural enrichment, leisure, economic activity and informed participation in and enhancement of democracy”. The Code states that “Librarians and other

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information workers are strictly committed to neutrality and an unbiased stance regarding collection, access and service” (IFLA 2012). Dempsey encourages librarians to fight misinformation Librarians are all about information education—how to find it, how to verify it, how to use it, and how to cite it. So why are you not already at the forefront of this movement? Why aren’t more of you creating portals of information, sharing fact-checking advice on social media, promoting your text- or chat-reference services for quick answers, and creating programs with names such as How to Find the Truth? Studies have proven that people see librarians as trustworthy, and they respect libraries in general. Why not use some of this clout to step up and start teaching how to separate fact from fiction?... It’s vital to prove your continued value, and this is a timely, powerful way to do it. It’s one thing to repeat the old trope, “People need libraries now more than ever,” and it’s another thing to get out there and prove it (2017).

Johnson (2017) claims that, even if librarians have been at the forefront in dealing with fake news, they have failed. On the contrary, studies such as Elías (2019) and Fuller (2018) submit that libraries have also experienced a phenomenon of increasing disintermediation, with the massive availability of information from a variety of sources undermining their authority and questioning their usefulness in an apparently free digital world. Studies have found that the problem with misinformation is that people are deceived due to their inability to determine the credibility of information (Burkhardt 2017; Cooke 2017; Farkas 2018). Information is capable of inciting emotion, shaping one’s perception of reality and influencing decision-making in matters of life and death. Amobi (2020) states that it is necessary that information shared must be factual and accurate, even in the most trying of times, such as the present. Disinformation can be more dangerous than cyber-attacks and spread faster than governments, social media or media outlets can react to its dispersion. Most studies have found that information literacy instruction has been the main answer to fake news or misinformation. Studies have further shown that librarians have played a proactive role in combatting fake news or misinformation through a variety of ways including displays, guidelines, tutorials, workshops and credit-bearing courses (Eva and Shea 2018; LaPierre and Kitzie 2019; Neely-Sardon and Tignor 2018; Wade and Hornick 2018). Sullivan (2019) notes that librarians use information obtained from conferences, publications and resources to gain new ideas and to double down on their efforts to fight all forms of information disorder. When discussing fake news or misinformation more generally, librarians are painfully aware that there is a problem to be addressed but have not always been clear about the nature of that problem (Sullivan 2019, 92). Some see fake news as the latest iteration of the larger problem of online false news that traditional gatekeepers such as librarians or journalists are no longer able to keep in check (Banks 2016;



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Becker 2016; Commisso 2017; Mackey and Jacobson 2016). There are suggestions that the specific skills promoted for fighting fake news concern the critical evaluation of information and its sources (Sullivan 2019). Several studies have shown that social media is one of the greatest purveyors and enablers of information disorder, with WhatsApp, Facebook, Twitter and Instagram being the dominant platforms that aid the distribution of disinformation (Amobi et al 2019). Some are positive about the role of librarians in dealing with fake news but recognise the problems. Confusion reigns and credibility has fallen to an all-time low. Some people only want the information that they believe is true and that will support conclusions that they have already made. Those people rarely change their beliefs and do not really want help—just support. Librarians can help them find that kind of information, but we cannot change their beliefs. … We can help the majority by providing them with authenticated information sources, teaching them how to find and evaluate information, and welcoming them into our environment, no matter who they are. In other words, we can help them by being the librarians that we always have been and always will be (Sosulski and Tyckoson 2018, 182).

Studies have established that librarians have incorporated assessment of fake news and news literacy into existing library orientation courses (Jeffries et al 2017), offered optional workshops for students (Neely-Sardon and Tignor 2018; Rush 2018; Wade and Hornick 2018), developed course modules (Auberry 2018) and more. These are some of the measures adopted by librarians to checkmate fake news and misinformation.

Conclusion The information explosion presents significant problems to information users. Academic libraries are positioned to provide specialised information services embedded in various activities to ensure the information needs of their users are understood, and that services provided meet needs. Providing the right information in the right format to the right user at the right time must be the driving philosophy of librarianship. Librarians must identify their users and ascertain their information behaviour and needs. With the understanding gained, libraries can provide services and information resources to meet the needs. Academic libraries must use ICT effectively to develop guides to the discovery of quality information and to provide innovative information services delivering timely and appropriate information. Librarians must train themselves and gain the skills required to educate users through library orientation and user education programmes and communicate with their users through social media, the library’s website and publicity within the library.

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Libraries must demonstrate excellence and organise advocacy programmes to educate students, lecturers and library users on the importance of evaluating information and impart skills in differentiating between quality information and mis- and disinformation. The library is the right place where authentic and reliable information materials are available. The library is a growing organism and can equip itself to ensure that every information resource finds its user and that every information user finds the resources needed. Strategic plans must be developed for academic library services in Africa so that they can cater for present and future users’ needs and expectations. Users’ needs are changing and satisfying them is the primary reason libraries exist. No sacrifice is too great to achieve this.

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Mackey, Thomas P., and Trudi Jacobson. 2016. “How Can We Learn to Reject Fake News in the Digital World?” The Conversation, December 5, 2016. http://theconversation.com/how-can-we-learntoreject-fake-news-in-the-digital-world-69706. Neely-Sardon, Angeleen, and Mia Tignor. 2018. “Focus on the Facts: A News and Information Literacy Instructional Program.” Reference Librarian 59, no. 3: 108–121. https://doi.org/10.1080/02763877. 2018.1468849. Nwachukwu, V. N., Abdulsalami T. Lucky, and Paulina F. Salami, 2014. “Availability, Accessibility and Use of Information Resources and Services Among Information Seekers of Lafia Public Library in Nasarawa State.” Information and Knowledge Management, 4, no. 10: 1–12. https://www.iiste.org/ Journals/index.php/IKM/article/view/16477/16810. Ranganathan, S. R. 1931. The Five Laws of Library Science. Madras: Madras Library Association. Some content available at http://hdl.handle.net/10150/105454. Ranganathan, S.R. 1961. Reference Service. 2nd ed. Bombay, Asia Publishing House. Reddy, B.S., Krishnamurthy, M., and Asundi, A.Y. 2018. “Information Use, User, User Needs and Seeking Behaviour: A Review.” DESIDOC Journal of Library & Information Technology, 38, no. 2: 82–87. https://doi.org/10.14429/djlit.38.2.12098. Rush, Lucinda. 2018. “Examining Student Perceptions of their Knowledge, Roles, and Power in the Information Cycle: Findings from a ‘Fake News’ Event.” Journal of Information Literacy 12, no.2: 121–130. https://doi.org/10.11645/12.2.2484. Sada, S.A. 2012. “Information Needs, Resources and Services Utilization to Legislators for Effective Policy Making in North-Western State Houses of Assembly of Nigeria.” Unpublished Master in Library Science dissertation, Bayero University, Kano. Sosulski, Nicolette Warisse, and David A. Tyckoson. 2018. “A Reference for That: Reference in the Age of Disinformation.” Reference & User Services Quarterly 57 no.3: 178–182. http://dx.doi. org/10.5860/rusq.57.3.6602. Sullivan, Matthew C. 2019. “Libraries and Fake News: What’s the Problem? What’s the Plan?” Communications in Information Literacy 13, no. 1: 91–113. https://doi.org/10.15760/ comminfolit.2019.13.1.7. Suraj, V.J., ed. 2005. “Information Need.” Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Library and Information Science. Delhi: Gyan Publishing House. Wade, Steven, and Julie Hornick. 2018. “Stop! Don’t Share That Story! Designing a Pop-up Undergraduate Workshop on Fake News.” Reference Librarian 59, no. 4: 188–194. https://doi. org/108/02763877.2018.1498430. Walker, S., Mercea, D., and Bastos, M. 2019. “The Disinformation Landscape and the Lockdown of Social Platforms.” Information Communication and Society 22, no.11: 1531–1543. https://doi.org/10. 1080/1369118X.2019.1648536 Wikipedia. 2022. “Information Explosion.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_explosion. Wikipedia. 2023. “Five Laws of Library Science.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_laws_of_library_ science. Wilson, T.D. 1999. “Models in Information Behaviour Research.” Journal of Documentation 55, no. 3: 249–270. https://doi.org/10.1108/EUM0000000007145. Available at https://web.archive.org/ web/20171105232322/http://www.informationr.net/tdw/publ/papers/1999JDoc.html.

Bhojaraju Gunjal

12 T he Role of Academic Libraries in a Pandemic Era Abstract: The unforeseen emergence of COVID-19 throughout the world has destroyed the livelihood of the whole world and affected the education system along with libraries and information services. Academic libraries cater for teaching, learning, and research activities in their institutions and play a prominent role in storing, organising, and providing access to information resources for their stakeholders. Libraries play an important role and can adopt new developments in information and communications technology (ICT) along with other tools and techniques to enhance their contributions to teaching, learning, research and institutional visibility. This chapter delineates the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on higher education institutions (HEIs) and their libraries and identifies some of the many issues and challenges. The pandemic has revealed numerous opportunities for library and information professionals and exposed innovations that can be implemented in rendering library services to library users during the devastating situation. The chapter briefly explains how libraries can make use of appropriate tools and technologies, adapt to new trends, seize opportunities, and take advantage of emerging communication channels. The important role of library staff, by which libraries can provide innovative library services to all its stakeholders in both offline and virtual modes, is explored. Keywords: Academic libraries; Academic libraries – India; COVID-19 (Disease); Information services; Information retrieval

Introduction Coronavirus refers to a family of viruses. COVID-19 is the infectious disease caused by a newly discovered type of coronavirus. The unexpected pandemic has affected the entire world, damaged lives and livelihoods and impacted educational and cultural institutions, libraries and their services. Libraries collect, store, organise, manage, and provide access to information resources for their stakeholders. The International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) has taken a leadership role in providing guidelines to libraries as they deal with the results of the pandemic (IFLA 2020). Academic libraries play a significant role within higher education institutions (HEIs) and use a variety of information and communications technology (ICT) in https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110772753-014

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serving their communities. Along with integrated library systems, libraries use knowledge organisation systems (KOS) architecture and a range of software applications to enhance information retrieval (IR), accessibility, research visibility, and to ensure innovative and effective service delivery. This chapter explores the issues and challenges associated with COVID-19 and its impact on libraries and identifies the opportunities which have emerged as libraries respond to the devastating situation and investigate the potential for innovative service development. Throughout the world, governments have provided guidelines for the operation of libraries and educational institutions which must be observed by libraries, library staff and users. Emerging trends in library provision are identified, opportunities explored, and communication channels suggested. The role of library staff in providing innovative library services to all stakeholders in face-to-face and virtual modes is discussed along with optimising the use of ICT.

The Impact of COVID-19 on Education and Library Services The International Association of Universities (IAU) has released two editions of its Global Survey Report on the Impact of COVID-19 on higher education. An initial survey was undertaken to understand the disruption caused by COVID-19 on higher education and to investigate the first measures undertaken by higher education institutions around the world in response to the crisis. The IAU launched the second edition to monitor the situation one year into the pandemic and gathered institutional responses in a survey in February 2021 on all aspects of higher education mission and functioning, namely, governance, teaching and learning, research and community/societal engagement. The survey gathered replies from 496 HEIs in 112 countries and worldwide, highlighted several positive outcomes, where the crisis brought about new opportunities and possibilities and generated concern about the future for some institutions. The report presenting an overview and focusing on the main results was officially launched at a webinar held on 1 March 2022. As far as education is concerned, and due to school and university closures, many young people have been deprived of the opportunity to benefit from education. University leaders, students and staff have been faced with ongoing challenges to address, yet also with new opportunities to explore. The contexts in which universities operate remain rather unpredictable, and the sector needs to continue to be very flexible and innovative. The current situation calls for an in-depth reflection on how to ‘build back better’. The pandemic has accelerated change, including in higher education, and there is a need for thorough understanding



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and exchange about where we are today and how to prepare the future. Education has to be reimagined in order to better fulfil the expectations of society (IAU Report 2022).

On-campus life was disrupted by the pandemic with the need for physical distancing leading to closure of campuses. There was a sudden shift from classroom teaching to emergency remote learning and teaching. Outreach to students was substantially affected. Support for students undertaking remote access was required and difficult to provide, and some students had no access because of technological deficiencies. Increased use of digital tools presented problems for teachers, learners and support staff through the requirement of additional skills. Many staff were working from home. The impacts varied according to academic discipline. Changes were made in curricula and assessment. Library staff were required to make immediate responses to the adverse effects of COVID-19 on the education system. Teaching, learning, research, and community engagement all changed significantly. Figure 12.1 depicts the various perspectives on responding to the pandemic: Academic, Research, Library, and Innovation and Technology.

Fig. 12.1: Impact of pandemic on different perspectives of higher education.

All activities in teaching, learning, research and community engagement conducted by the library, ranging from mode of access to facilities and services have

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been impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic and are summarised under each of the four perspectives in Table 12.1. Table 12.1: Impact of COVID-19 on activities of library users and staff. Area / Innovation and Perspectives Technology Perspective

Academic Perspective

Research Perspective

Mode of access

Online and Digital learning • Enabling technology, process, tools and techniques

Challenges

Building infrastructure Faculty/ Students Research Schofor need to lar needs to • Technology plat• adapt to tools • adapt to forms enablement and techniques tools and techniques • Adoption of • Up-skilling for • Up-skilling Innovative imparting and for research Processes receiving of tea- services, and ching activities accessing facilities • Technology for • Engage in • Engage in online and digital teaching and research actieducation learning vities activities

Content / Resources Access

Enabling digital content and its access

Offline to Virtual Hybrid mode mode • Classroom • To conduct teaching and research learning activi- activities ties have been replaced by distance teaching and learning

Academic information, Access collections, Borrowing, Services

Library Perspective Offline to Virtual mode • Transformed from print to digital resource access

Library Staff needs to • Adapt to tools and techniques in providing services • Up-skilling library staff for rendering services

• Community engagement via webinars and virtual workshops

Search dataEnable platform ready to bases, manuals, access resources for acadeguides and mic, student and research instructions support



12 The Role of Academic Libraries in a Pandemic Era 

Area / Innovation and Perspectives Technology Perspective

Academic Perspective

Research Perspective

Library Perspective

• Teaching and learning enablement on MOOCs, Coursera, SWAYAM • Exams over virtual mode

Access resources, Help over webinars, telephone, website

Access over offline and virtual mode through LMS software, library website, remote access, webinars, mobile Apps

Contact-less access

Enable platform for contact-less access

Providing access to labs and equipment with social distancing mode

Adapted to organise events virtually such as user orientation programs, author workshops, curriculum / research support, technology support and webinars from various publishers and suppliers

Platforms

Seamless access to resources over different platforms

Adaption

Tools and techniques, Contact-less Process and methods access

Facilities Providing access to and Services resources that caters to teaching and learning, and research

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Enabling virtual mode for classroom sessions, Attending Examination, Assignment, Marks

The Role of Academic Libraries in the Pandemic Era Academic libraries play a prominent role in HEIs in supporting teaching, learning, research and community service. Traditionally libraries have collected print materials, and more recently eresources, acquired through purchase or licence which are held locally or accessed remotely; organised and described information resource collections to ensure effective discovery and access; stored the collections in physical buildings, locally on servers, or in the cloud; and provided information services to ensure effective information access and use. Academic libraries serve all their stakeholders through a range of programmes meeting the needs of undergraduate and graduate students, faculty, researchers and administrative and support staff. The role of academic libraries has been changing for some years prior to the pandemic. A report in 2011 summarised the changes then occurring in academic libraries: –– Users are going elsewhere for information – is the library becoming invisible? –– The library is a space for more than just books

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–– Evolving metrics must align with value added to users –– Libraries will never beat Google –– Users are switching faster than librarians to new modes of working with information –– The library is becoming a social learning space –– Libraries have increasing and conflicting demands, and –– Should libraries seek to do everything, straddling two eras? (University Leadership Council 2011) The harbingers of change spoke truly. The Center for the Future of Libraries works to identify trends relevant to libraries and librarianship, and has identified Artificial Intelligence, Blockchain, Digital natives, Flipped learning, and Micro-mobility as some of the trends, along with the Coronavirus (Center for the Future of Libraries n.d.). Libraries have used ICT to implement their roles effectively and implemented ILSs and specialised software for teaching and learning. KOS architecture has enhanced IR so that users can locate easily, and satisfactorily access information resources required for teaching, learning and research. Library classification systems, thesauri, subject heading and authority schemes, metadata standards and ontologies are being deployed in digital libraries to ensure quality database construction and management. Systems need to be carefully chosen and implemented appropriately (Gunjal and Shi 2008). The impact of the many changes caused by new ICT in libraries, the new behaviours being adopted by users, and the transformed role of the library and the emergence of new services all need to be dealt with appropriately. Library and information professionals must think out-of-the-box to provide new value-added services using state-of-the-art technologies and adopt innovative implementation strategies to ensure services provided meet the needs of its user community (Gunjal 2020). It is imperative that library professionals embed themselves into different kinds of roles to provide innovative services to their user communities. Systematic assessment tools must be used to gauge satisfaction with library services and to collect feedback regularly from users. Effective performance evaluation will help in improving the services and frame strategic planning of future library initiatives (Gunjal 2020). It has been even more challenging to engage user communities during the COVID-19 pandemic situation and difficult in some ways to develop innovative library services. In the post-pandemic period, it will continue to be difficult. Library staff have worked hard to equip themselves with new knowledge and plans to support all their users. They have provided services and facilities in the areas of academic support, research support, innovation and technology support and accreditation and ranking.



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Academic Support Services provided to support the academic mission and engage with the various stakeholders within the institution include user orientation programmes for new students at undergraduate and graduate levels, which can be offered face-to-face under normal circumstances or online. Lending and circulation services allow users to borrow books and other library materials, either really or virtually, to support their teaching and learning needs. Information resources not held by the library can be obtained from other libraries through document search and delivery services. The supply is often achieved through digital document delivery. Libraries provide all kinds of teaching and learning aids and curriculum support through the provision of open electronic resources (OER), links to learning management systems and training in their use, and construction of electronic or course reserves. The library also provides building facilities and equipment including learning commons, computers and printers.

Research Support The academic library provides many services to help faculty and research scholars. Library staff assist with the preparation of grants and the identification of funding opportunities. They provide specialised software assistance, reference management systems for manipulation of citations, guides to specific topics like copyright or disciplinary subjects linked to the curriculum frequently using LibGuide software which provides structured approaches to the identification of appropriate materials for use in specific subject areas. Academic libraries also provide digitisation services, data curation services, and advice and assistance in data management, data visualisation and analysis. Librarians can help users find information particularly open access versions of resources trapped behind paywalls. Specialised building facilities provide targeted spaces within the library for researchers. Researchers are assisted in finding the best publication opportunities for their research, the use of research rankings, and researcher identification. The library provides advice on the avoidance of plagiarism both in the support of research and in the support of academic activity within the institution. Training in effective search methods is also provided.

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Innovation and Technology Support The library uses a wide range of ICT in providing all of its services and library staff provide specialised assistance to stakeholders with the emerging tools, spaces, and expertise to support learning, teaching and research activities. Library facilities provide equipment, training and assistance with scanning and 3D printing facilities. Library staff provide some virtual reality services and simulation software. High-end printing facilities are made available by some libraries to enable on-demand printing of books and similar learning and research outputs.

Accreditation and Ranking Libraries play prominent roles in showcasing the visibility of HEIs through many activities ranging from digital exhibitions and displays, websites which expose institution-wide achievements to institutional repositories which enhance research visibility through storing research output and making it available and searchable worldwide. Library staff assist with faculty profile management and assist in raising the profiles of individual faculty members as well as the institution as a whole. The various ranking systems in place for institutions are addressed.

Specialised Tools Supporting Solutions During the Pandemic The pandemic scenario gave birth to new processes, tools, techniques, and methods to respond to new situations and support the offering of new services. Some have already been mentioned but are summarised here. They include: –– Webinar tools including Zoom and Microsoft Teams for conducting virtual events –– Shared workspaces using cloud storage like Google Drive and One Drive for document preparation and sharing among peers or the workforce, and –– Contactless transactions in libraries to maintain social distancing.



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Issues and Challenges for Academic Libraries in the Pandemic Era It is inevitable for libraries that COVID-19 has raised many issues and challenges for library staff in providing services to its stakeholders. The novel and devastating situation has provided both opportunities and threats to libraries and library and information professionals. New tools and techniques have had to be invented or old ones adapted to enable libraries to deliver services to their clienteles. Guidelines have been provided by governments throughout the world on the health measures to be adopted by library staff and users which must be observed. IFLA has provided guidelines (IFLA 2020) and individual IFLA sections have drawn attention to the various issues and provided webinars and training. Some governments have provided guidelines on the educational measures to be implemented in response to COVID-19. The Indian government, for example, has produced learning enhancement guidelines (India. Ministry of Education 2020). The closure of educational institutions and libraries during the pandemic led to increased demands for electronic resources for remote access. Use skyrocketed. New tools and techniques were required. Libraries changed their communication methods and sought new channels and support mechanisms to handle queries by stakeholders in virtual mode and to provide guidance in use of remote resources. Libraries implemented contact-less services providing reference advice and assistance and online renewals and reservations in virtual mode. Self-assisted services were strengthened. Unified payment interfaces (UPI) were introduced for fines and the collections of fees. Libraries made use of tools to provide the subscribed eresources and other possible information by remote access from the library website. Library staff helped stakeholders by updating the content on the website on a regular basis, and attending to queries by email, chat, phone, and other modes of virtual meeting. Services like the Google Classroom and Zoom were used to organise events, virtual user orientation programmes, author workshops, and research support. Libraries collaborated with various publishers to provide webinars. Issues arose in relation to skills and knowledge areas in delivering the various services outlined in the previous section, but new tools and techniques were acquired to assist faculty members in showcasing their work and enhancing research visibility while at the same time promoting research integrity, raising faculty profiles and the overall institutional profile. There was demand from users for new services and with the reopening of libraries, services were provided both face-to-face and virtually, leading to increased workloads. Steps and plans for the reopening of libraries including the

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deployment of staff and the repositioning of services had to be prepared for the next new normal stage.

Ongoing Measures to Manage the Impact of COVID-19 Rapid and drastic change led to massive transformation of the education system and its activities including the library arena. The result was havoc and chaos. Many forums and organisations around the world organised events and conducted studies to analyse the impact of COVID-19, determine the issues and challenges; and develop solutions for the situation. The work of the IAU and IFLA has already been mentioned. Some other studies are summarised below. –– World Economic Forum Future of Jobs Survey 2020 indicated that the pace of technology adoption was expected to continue unabated with skills gaps remaining high. The top skills and skill groups in demand were critical thinking and analysis as well as problem-solving, and skills in self-management such as active learning, resilience, stress tolerance and flexibility. Online learning and training would continue to grow. Learning curricula were expected to blend different approaches, drawing on internal and external expertise, and use new education technology tools, focusing on both formal and informal methods of skills acquisition. Long-delayed improvements to education and training systems would need be decisively tackled (WEF 2020). –– The Times Higher Education (THE) organized a webinar on the upskilling and reskilling of India’s present and future workforce through digital education. The concepts of skilling, reskilling, and upskilling are the buzz words, and their importance was felt during the pandemic. The concepts are applicable to the education sector as all stakeholders struggle to learn new skills to adapt to different ways in handling new activities related to teaching, learning, research, communication and training. Some emerging key trends noted at the webinar were: –– Flexible continuous digital education for upskilling and reskilling of the present and future workforce –– Sharing of knowledge and best practices by experts from academia and industry, and –– Embedding skills education in teaching, learning, and assessment creates more employable graduates (THE 2021). –– Cox and Felix (2020) delineated six visions of success for academic libraries in a post COVID-19 world. They presented the library as: a physical and virtual



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student success hub; hybrid programming and services; special collections and archives going digital first; collaborative creativity; library space as a network; and new ways of working. –– The University of Edinburgh defines Digital education is the innovative use of digital tools and technologies during teaching and learning and is often referred to as Technology Enhanced Learning (TEL) or e-Learning. Exploring the use of digital technologies gives educators the opportunity to design engaging learning opportunities in the courses they teach, and these can take the form of blended or fully online courses and programmes (University of Edinburgh 2021).

The University provides on its website helpful details on blended learning, online learning and future learning trends. –– Drishti India outlined in 2021 the impact of the pandemic on Indian education in completely shifting the education system into a digital mode of learning and questioned whether it was substituting real learning or not. The report also commented on various government initiatives for elearning, including the collaboratively operating National Programme on Technology Enhanced Learning (NPTEL) which provides web and video courses in all major branches of engineering and physical sciences at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels and management courses at the postgraduate level. Technology was viewed as a saviour delivering a wide range of flexible cost-effective programmes in an environment suiting the users, but on the other side of the coin prevented learning from others and required significant personal technology investment with issues of inequitable access and participation. (Drishti 2021). –– India’s National Education Policy 2020 outlined the vision of India’s education system, emphasising the importance of online and digital education, and the need to ensure equitable use of technology with key initiatives in building digital infrastructure, content and capacity. Technology in education is a journey and not a destination and capacity will be needed to orchestrate the various ecosystem players to implement policy objectives. A dedicated unit for the purpose of orchestrating the building of digital infrastructure, digital content and capacity building will be created in the Ministry to look after the e-education needs of both school and higher education. Since technology is rapidly evolving and needs specialists to deliver high quality e-learning, a vibrant ecosystem has to be encouraged to create solutions that not only solve India’s challenges of scale, diversity, equity, but also evolve in keeping with the rapid changes in technology, whose half-life reduces with each passing year. This centre will, therefore, consist of experts drawn from the field of administration, education, educational

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technology, digital pedagogy and assessment, e-governance, etc. (India. Ministry of Human Resource Development 2020, 60).

–– The work of IFLA has already been mentioned and national library associations such as ALA (2020) have provided advice to help libraries in rendering services to their clienteles during the pandemic.

Conclusion Libraries play a prominent role in collecting, storing, organising, and providing access to information resources. Academic libraries support their institutions and their stakeholders in teaching, learning, research and community service activities. Libraries continued to provide services during the COVID-19 pandemic even though institutions were closed. Educational programmes changed substantially to meet the constraints of the new environment. Libraries responded by finding fresh applications for existing tools and technologies, devising innovative services with new tools, following emerging trends, taking advantage of communication channels, equipping library staff with up-to-date skills and knowledge, and providing state-of-the-art library services to all stakeholders in both offline and virtual mode. Overall, the pandemic situation has given birth to devastating circumstances and posed challenges to the education system including libraries in delivering services to its stakeholders. There is a need to plan strategically and take careful steps forward to ensure a sound future which copes with pandemics and other natural disasters along with the reopening of libraries and traditional and cutting-edge educational programmes in the new normal. Government and educational decision makers are providing guidelines and policies to HEIs to build digital infrastructure and enable elearning. Digital learning is here to stay, even though there are issues and challenges. All must adapt to new modes of learning; libraries and their staff must find new roles and new ways to meet user needs.

Acknowledgements The author thankfully acknowledges all the resources referred to in preparation for this chapter.



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References American Library Association (ALA). 2020. “Pandemic Preparedness: Resources for Libraries.” https:// www.ala.org/tools/atoz/pandemic-preparedness. American Library Association. Center for the Future of Libraries. n.d. “Trends.” https://www.ala.org/ tools/future/trends. Cox, Christopher, and Elliot Felix. 2020. “Visions of Success: Academic Libraries in a Post COVID-19 World.” Library Journal, December 16, 2020. https://www.libraryjournal.com/story/Visions-ofSuccess-Academic-Libraries-in-Post-COVID-19-World. Drishti: The Vision Foundation, India. 2021. “Digital Education: Learning Amid the Pandemic.” Daily Editorial, January 22, 2021. https://www.drishtiias.com/daily-updates/daily-news-editorials/ digital-education-learning-amid-the-pandemic. Gunjal, Bhojaraju. 2020. “Engaging User Community through Innovative Library Service.” In Next Generation Libraries: Emerging Technologies, Community Engagement & Future Librarianship, edited by Bhojaraju Gunjal, DibyaKishor Pradhan, Vinod Kumar Mishra, Puspita Mishra and Kshirod Das, 263–272. New Delhi: Ess Publications. Gunjal, Bhojaraju, and Hao Shi. 2008. “A Study of Knowledge Organisation System in Digital Libraries: An IRS Perspective” In Proceedings of the 2008 International Conference on Information & Knowledge Engineering, IKE 2008, July 14–17, 2008 Las Vegas, Nevada, USA, edited by Hamid R. Arabnia, and Ray R. Hashemi, 176–182. Providence RI: CSREA. Available at https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Bhojaraju-Gunjal/publication/221058112_A_ Study_of_Knowledge_Organisation_System_in_Digital_Libraries_An_IRS_Perspective/ links/0912f50bdf38ba5577000000/A-Study-of-Knowledge-Organisation-System-in-DigitalLibraries-An-IRS-Perspective.pdf. India. Ministry of Education. Department of School Education and Literacy. 2020. “Students’ Learning Enhancement Guidelines.” New Delhi: National Council for Educational Research and Training. https://cdnbbsr.s3waas.gov.in/s3850af92f8d9903e7a4e0559a98ecc857/ uploads/2020/08/2020082185.pdf. India. Ministry of Human Resource Development. 2020. “National Education Policy.” https://www. education.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/NEP_Final_English_0.pdf. International Association of Universities (IAU). 2021. “Higher Education One Year into the COVID-19 Pandemic: Second IAU Global Survey Report.” Trine Jensen, Giorgio Marinoni and Hilligje van’t Land. https://www.iau-aiu.net/The-Second-IAU-Global-Survey-Report-on-the-Impact-of-COVID19#:~:text=The%20report%20offers%20a%20very,focusing%20on%20the%20main%20results; https://www.iau-aiu.net/IMG/pdf/2022_iau_global_survey_report.pdf. International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA). 2020. “COVID-19 and the Global Library Field. Updates. Key Resources for Libraries in responding to the Coronavirus Pandemic.” https://www.ifla.org/covid-19-and-the-global-library-field/. Times Higher Education (THE). 2021. “ Upskilling and Reskilling Will Be Key for India’s Future Workforce.” Video. https://www.timeshighereducation.com/hub/coursera/p/upskilling-andreskilling-will-be-key-indias-future-workforce. University Leadership Council. 2011. Redefining the Academic Library: Managing the Migration to Digital Library Services. Washington DC: The Advisory Board Company. https://www.eab.com/Researchand-Insights/Academic-Affairs-Forum/Studies/2011/Redefining-the-Academic-Library. University of Edinburgh. Institute for Academic Development. 2018. “What is Digital Education? Defining Digital Education, Plus University of Edinburgh Strategy and Vision in this Area.” https://

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www.ed.ac.uk/institute-academic-development/learning-teaching/staff/digital-ed/what-isdigital-education. World Economic Forum (WEF). 2020. “The Future of Jobs Report 2020.” https://www.weforum.org/ reports/the-future-of-jobs-report-2020/digest.

Kwame Kodua-Ntim and Madeleine C. Fombad

13 C  hallenges with Open Access Institutional Repositories in Ghana Abstract: The libraries of institutions of higher education have developed institutional repositories to manage their research output and showcase the work of their institutions. A variety of software has been used. Most libraries have structured the repositories so that they are available through open access (OA) to the world. Some institutions have mandated that faculty and research staff place their publications in the repositories. Not all has been plain sailing and many issues and challenges have emerged. This chapter examines the nature of open access institutional repositories (OAIRs), outlines their development in Ghana and discusses issues which have arisen. It also reports on a study undertaken of institutional repositories in Ghana and suggests ways to go forward to ensure effective implementation of institutional repositories. Keywords: Institutional repositories; Open access; Academic libraries – Ghana

Introduction An institutional repository is an archive for collecting, preserving, and disseminating digital copies of the intellectual output of an institution, particularly a research institution. An open repository or open access (OA) repository is a digital platform that holds research output and provides free, immediate and permanent access to research results for anyone to use, download and distribute. An Open Access Institutional Repository (OAIR) enables an institution to record and manage its research output. An OAIR exposes institutional research to others and facilitates the use and promotion of institutional scholarly communication. This chapter explores the nature and development of OAIRs with a particular emphasis on the situation in Ghana. The research output of academic and research institutions may take the form of writing an article in a scholarly journal, delivering a presentation at a conference, recording or publishing verbal presentations, posting an entry on a social media channel or producing a book or a chapter in a book. All research output in some kind of documentary or public format can be deposited in an institutional repository. The process of disseminating information to academic communities is referred to as scholarly communication (Dlamini and Snyman 2017). The Association of College & Research Libraries (ACRL) in the US describes scholarly communication as: https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110772753-015

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the system through which research and other scholarly writings are created, evaluated for quality, disseminated to the scholarly community, and preserved for future use. The system includes both formal means of communication, such as publication in peer-reviewed journals, and informal channels, such as electronic mailing lists (ACRL 2003).

ACRL has prepared a scholarly communication toolkit (ACRL 2022). There are varying estimates of the percentage of world research undertaken in Africa with figures from 1-5% reported. There is a similar disparity in figures concerning the percentage of world population for Africa with reports of 12-17%. While it depends on the bases of the calculations, it is fair to say that African research is completely underperforming in relation to its size. What is the problem? Much of the research work undertaken in Africa does not make it into academic journals. In addition, the low budgets of most African academic institutions prohibit the purchase of extensive journal collections for the use of researchers and the dissemination of research results. African research content, if and when published, is out of reach of most university libraries. Individual researchers and students find it difficult to access research output. Another consideration is that with inadequate research funding it is important to avoid duplication. Many researchers in Africa conduct their work in isolation without having access to the body of knowledge in a given area, and without a platform for knowledge sharing, resulting in poor research outcomes and duplication (Okumu 2015).

What Constitutes Open Access? Open access (OA) is a set of principles and a range of practices through which research outputs are distributed online, free of access charges or other barriers. A discussion of various definitions of OA provides: “‘Open Access’ may be defined as where digital content is fully, freely, immediately and permanently available and can be viewed and reused with minimal restrictions” (Pinfield et al. 2014). OA can provide free and unrestricted access to academic publications through the Internet, or free availability at the point of use of electronic academic articles. OA can be achieved through two strategies, OA journals and OA repositories, with both aim at advocating for the provision of free access to information to assist the spread of knowledge and equitable access for researchers and libraries globally, and more particularly in developing countries (Fox and Hanlon 2015). The OA movement emerged with the development of the World Wide Web (WWW), known as the Web, as a system for accessing documents in the 1990s and researchers found a new platform for research dissemination on the Internet (Ezema and Onyancha 2016). Research library associations worldwide have pro-



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moted the use of open access. The Scholarly Publishing and Academic Resources Coalition (SPARC) has been key to developing OA initiatives. The Budapest Open Access Initiative has been an important step in promoting the need for open access. Another initiative encouraging OA has related to the emphasis on copyright statements made in relation to content creation with the establishment of Creative Commons licences. “Creative Commons licenses give everyone from individual creators to large institutions a standardized way to grant the public permission to use their creative work under copyright law” (Creative Commons n.d.). There are various types of OA. Two main routes are the gold road and the green road. “Gold open access (OA) is where an article or book chapter is published immediately as OA in an online journal or book. In contrast, green open access is where the author publishes an article in a journal and then deposits, or ‘self-archives’, a version of this article in a freely accessible subject or institutional repository” (Schmitz 2022). The green road allows authors to make their research output available through personal websites or OA repositories. In OA publishing, the end-user is not charged to access journal articles in contrast to the normal publishing model where payments are made for purchases. The creator of content is charged for content. Various funding strategies are used to meet the costs involved, such as direct author fees, institutional memberships sponsoring all or part of author fees, funding agency payments of author fees and grants to OA publishers, and institutional grants, are used to cover the cost of publishing and distributing of OA content for free access by the end user (Dulle, Minish-Majanja, and Cloete 2010). OA is increasingly breaking down access barriers which for years have slowed down universal availability of information and is providing researchers with the opportunity to access information which is freely available (Nwagwu and Ojemeni 2015). Funding authorities are increasingly requiring recipients of research funding to make their results available publicly to ensure wider dissemination of what is frequently publicly funded projects. A study by Solomon and Björk (2012) observed that research grantors were requesting OA publishing from grantees. The National Institutes of Health (NIH) in the US require OA publishing for all its funded research to ensure wider access to information through the reduction of costs of expensive journal subscriptions for health researchers (Ezema and Onyancha 2016).

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Open Access Institutional Repositories Repositories have been defined as: A repository may be defined as a set of systems and services which facilitates the ingest, storage, management, retrieval, display, and reuse of digital objects. Repositories may be set up by institutions, subject communities, research funders, or other groups. They may provide access to a variety of digital objects, including peer-reviewed journal articles, book chapters, theses, datasets, learning objects, or rich media files (Pinfield 2009, 165).

Repositories may be general, subject-based or institutionally located. OAIR are primarily attached to academic institutions. Several key subject repositories exist including arXiv, which contains scholarly articles in the fields of physics, mathematics, computer science, quantitative biology, quantitative finance, statistics, electrical engineering and systems science, and economics, and SSRN, which contains over 1,1 million articles in a broad range of social sciences disciplines. Repositories may include post-prints, that is articles already published, pre-prints prior to publication, theses and dissertations, manuals, teaching materials or other documents that authors or their institutions wish to make publicly available without financial or other access barriers. According to Adeyemi et al., quoting others, an OAIR is an “online locus for collecting, preserving and disseminating in digital form the intellectual output an institution” (2017). Ibinaiye et al. consider that, regardless of intent or source, the OAIR may be any collection of digital material hosted, owned, managed or disseminated by a college or university (2015). The content could include research articles in a university before receiving peer review, pre-prints, and digital versions of theses and dissertations. An OAIR can include other digital assets produced as part of normal academic life, such as administrative records, course notes, or objects of learning (Adeyemi et al. 2017). Consequently, each institution can define its own version of a repository; the content may be purely academic but may include administrative, teaching and research material, both published and unpublished, and be cumulative and perpetual, accessible and interoperable and contribute to the system of academic communication (Adeyemi et al. 2017). OAIRs create international exposure for the academic research of an institution, offer open access to institutional research output through self-archiving, and store and preserve other electronic institutional resources, including unpublished or grey literature produced outside traditional paths. OAIRs offer critical components that expand access to research and increase competition while reducing the monopoly power of journals, thus providing economic relief to the institutions and libraries supporting them. OAIRs act as concrete indicators of the excellence of a university and increase the prestige, reputation and public value of the institution.



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Institutional repositories provide the current scholarly publishing model with an immediate and useful addition, while promoting creativity in a new disaggregated publishing system that will develop and improve over time (Kakai, Musoke, and Okello-Obura 2018). In the current scholarly journal framework, OAIRs provide a strategic solution to system and scholarly communication problems (Adeyemi et al. 2017). In research-intensive institutions, OAIRs are now part of the technical infrastructure and a preferred option for open access to research output. Cullen and Chawner (2010) state that the reasons for the establishment of an OAIR vary from one institution to another and from one discipline to another. Academic libraries benefit from involvement in OAIR initiatives and they can emphasise the importance of scholarly communication. Other potential benefits concentrate on institutional and individual reputation status, public interest, improving teaching and scholarship performance in colleges and universities, enhancing open access, engaging the college community, enhancing student partnerships, remaining responsive to evolving community needs and open archiving. OAIRs have many advantages and can provide many resources for use by institutions and academics. OA articles are cited significantly more than non-OA articles, even when other factors are taken into account (Kodua-Ntim and Fombad 2021). A growing number of institutions and funding agencies for research are beginning to set OA criteria. Other literature supports that open access online articles enjoy significantly higher citation rates than traditionally published articles with adequate indexing and search mechanisms in place (Chisita and Chiparausha 2019; Kodua-Ntim and Fombad 2020).

Collaborating with Others The activity by research library associations in working together to achieve change has already been mentioned. The International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) made a statement on OA in 2003 which encouraged collaboration and has worked with many organisations since. IFLA (the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions) is committed to ensuring the widest possible access to information for all peoples …IFLA acknowledges that the discovery, contention, elaboration and application of research in all fields will enhance progress, sustainability and human well being. Peer reviewed scholarly literature is a vital element in the processes of research and scholarship. It is supported by a range of research documentation, which includes pre-prints, technical reports and records of research data. IFLA declares that the world-wide network of library and information services provides access to past, present and future scholarly literature and research documentation; ensures

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its preservation; assists users in discovery and use; and offers educational programs to enable users to develop lifelong literacies. IFLA affirms that comprehensive open access to scholarly literature and research documentation is vital to the understanding of our world and to the identification of solutions to global challenges and particularly the reduction of information inequality. Open access guarantees the integrity of the system of scholarly communication by ensuring that all research and scholarship will be available in perpetuity for unrestricted examination and, where relevant, elaboration or refutation (IFLA 2003).

Two significant collaborative activities have been the development of the Directory of Open Access Repositories, OpenDOAR and the Registry of Open Access Repositories (ROAR). OpenDOAR is a quality-assured, global directory of open access repositories. It hosts repositories that provide free, open access to academic outputs and resources. Each repository record within OpenDOAR has been carefully reviewed and processed to offer a trusted service for the community (OpenDOAR 2021). Sherpa Romeo is an online resource that aggregates and analyses publisher open access policies from around the world and provides summaries of publisher copyright and open access archiving policies on a journal-by-journal basis. Sherpa Romeo  provides a summary of publishers’ open access archiving conditions for individual journals which guides authors when seeking appropriate publishing opportunities and creators of institutional repositories when checking conditions of open access. ROAR provides timely information about the growth and status of repositories throughout the world.

The Developments of Open Access Institutional Repositories in Africa When comparing the number of OAIRs in other countries, as shown in the most recent international repository databases such as OpenDOAR, ROAR and webometrics, it is evident that African countries are lagging behind in developing and using OAIRs. Only a few academic institutions in Africa have taken up the challenge of making their in-house research output accessible through an OAIR to the global world (Chisita and Chiparausha 2021). Limited work has been carried out to investigate the reasons for perceived underdevelopment and underuse of OAIR in the continent of Africa. Most of the studies in Africa have been conducted in South Africa, Kenya and Nigeria. Nevertheless, the number of OAIRs in African universities has increased significantly in recent years (Kodua-Ntim and Fombad 2021). Before 2006, Africa moved from a single archive to 13 by the end of 2007, 35



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by 2010, 136 by 2015, 158 by 2018 and 174 by 2021. There are indications that the numbers will continue the grow (OpenDOAR 2021). The significant growth indicates that Africa accepts the idea of institutional repositories and that there is an increasing awareness of their usefulness in the African context. Nevertheless, most African countries have not established OAIRs in their universities. Of the 55 sovereign countries in Africa, only 22 have OAIR (OpenDOAR 2021. As has already been pointed out, the bulk of OAIRs in Africa are in South Africa, Kenya and Nigeria. In October 2022, OpenDOAR noted almost 6000 institutional repositories in existence, with developed countries dominating the numbers. Most African countries are in the early stages of the OA movement; it is obvious that the growth rate of repositories in African countries is relatively low compared to other developed countries The contribution of all African countries is less than that of the United States alone, which has 922 repositories as of October 2022. In 2000, the Association of African Universities (AAU) initiated the Database of African Theses and Dissertations-Research (DATAD-R) project to improve access to and use of African scholarly works, and to ensure that members of the Association set up an OAIR. DATAD Online was launched and is now a DSpace repository. In 2003, eight universities in Africa established African Virtual Open Initiatives and Resources (AVOIR), a new network for capacity building in network engineering to create free and open source technology to promote electronic learning and business transactions in Africa as a first step, according to Keats (2008). AVOIR built the Knowledge Environment for Web-based Learning (KEWL), which was used to deliver the postgraduate programme in Telecommunications Policy and Regulation, funded by the Tanzania-based Network of Telecommunications Policy and Regulation in Africa (NetTelAfrica). It is clear that African universities have been acquainted with open source software for some time particularly when the libraries embraced OAIR (Samzugi 2017). Pinfield et al. identified the challenges facing OAIR in Africa as funding shortages, language barriers, inadequate ICT infrastructure, and lack of qualified personnel (2014). The technological challenges have led to low web usage and lack of access to global scientific information on the web (Kodua-Ntim and Fombad 2020) resulting in a skewed distribution of knowledge in favour of the West. Other hindrances to OAIR have related to institutional inertia because of doubt of the acceptability by some institutions of open access publication for promotion, retention of tenure and access to research grants. While there has been an emerging awareness of the value of OA and the value of the creation of a new publication channel, developments have been slow (Singeh, Abrizah, and Karim 2013). That the development of OAIRs has so far been primarily concentrated in institutions in the developed world has been consistently noted (Chisita and Chiparau-

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sha 2019). Some issues could be solved if libraries shifted their focus from their own needs to those of the faculty. The benefits provided by institutional repositories need to be fully exploited by educational and research institutions (Adeyemi et al. 2017). Inadequate advocacy has been seen as the major challenge. Advocacy is needed and the library should be the centre for dissemination of information and advocacy (Ezema and Onyancha 2016). All stakeholders in OAIR including academic staff, librarians and students must be involved for such advocacy to be effective. Advocacy attracts contributors as well as stakeholders. Unfortunately, a high percentage of stakeholders in Africa has little or no knowledge which would provide the basis for advocacy (Dlamini and Snyman 2017). For maximum benefit, OAIR needs a relatively fast and reliable Internet connection. Sadly, in Ghana, this is not the case. Given the increase in Internet use in Ghana, the bandwidth in most universities and research institutions is insufficient. The requirement for improved ICT connectivity and infrastructure to support the usage of OAIR in university libraries has been noted by many (Adeyemi et al. 2017). Costs of improvements are considerable. The African Tertiary Institutions Connectivity Survey (ATICS) showed that the average African university paid fifty times more for bandwidth than their educational counterparts in the rest of the world and that there were failures to monitor, let alone manage the existing bandwidth (Gakio 2006). The low availability of Internet bandwidth is an obstacle for OAIR. In developing countries, the high cost of Internet bandwidth makes it very difficult for academic institutions in the field to provide enough bandwidth to host OAIR. Ideally, OAIR needs dedicated Internet access and the cost of such dedicated services exceeds the ability of most institutions to pay (Agyen-Gyasi et al. 2010). Bandwidth is the life-blood of the information economy in the world, but it is most scarce where it is most needed. Africa’s developing nations need low-cost connectivity to accelerate their socio-economic development. While little infrastructure is needed to set up an OAIR, much more is needed to obtain the full benefit. Accessibility criteria include the entire institution’s network coverage, provision of access points, network equipment and other devices that are too large to be implemented by some organizations (Agyen-Gyasi et al. 2010).



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Institutional Repositories in Ghana: The Survey The Methods Adopted There are fifteen national public universities in Ghana. and ten technical universities. A study was undertaken of institutional repositories in universities in Ghana. Using a mixed-methods design, quantitative and qualitative data were concurrently collected in a single phase. Five university libraries in Ghana, were purposively selected because they met certain operational criteria in respect of infrastructure and resources, the number of qualified and permanent staff, how well equipped they were and the operational status of their OAIRs. The universities chosen were the University of Ghana (UG), Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST), University of Cape Coast (UCC), University for Development Studies (UDS) and Ashesi University (AU). The target population of the study was the 3451 academic staff along with the library staff who served as OAIR managers at the five selected universities: 3439 academic staff were identified for the quantitative phase, and twelve library staff for the qualitative phase. The population was deemed to be uniform, because the researchers believed the participants were stakeholders who sought to enhance the learning environment through instruction, applied research, scholarly activity and community service, all of which support the mission of a university. Academic staff have various ranks. The participants were stratified prior to being randomly selected, so that each rank would be fairly represented. The study used a statistical power analysis software package known as the Sample Size Calculator of Creative Research System to calculate the sample size for each rank. Of the 3439 academic staff, 1085 were randomly selected to participate in the quantitative study. 998 respondents completed the questionnaire which had been distributed face to face, with a response rate of 91.98 per cent. For the qualitative phase, twelve library staff who were OAIR managers were selected. Data collection techniques were dictated by the chosen research design. After carefully examining the background literature and determining the research questions, the type of information the researcher wished to obtain, the paradigm and the purpose of the study as well as related studies, the researcher chose a questionnaire for the quantitative phase and semi-structured interviews using an interview guide for the qualitative phase as instruments. The quantitative and qualitative data were collected together, using both questionnaires and interviews. The data was presented in frequencies, and percentages, using mean and standard deviations on a five-point Likert scale. The research question was to find out the challenges of OAIR usage among respondents in Ghana.

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The Results Ten issues were identified as providing challenges in use of OAIRs and are listed in Table 13.1. Table 13.1: Descriptive analysis of challenges of OAIR among respondents. Challenges with the use of OAIR Inadequate advocacy Inadequate ICT connectivity and infrastructure Insufficient technological skills Copyright issues Lack of knowledge or awareness of OAIR Inadequate funding Institutional culture and politics Absence of incentives Inadequate power supply Lack of institutional repository policy Mean of Means

Means

Standard Deviation

4.42 4.40 4.24 4.12 4.09 4.03 4.00 3.97 3.85 3.79 4.09

.821 .736 .955 .979 .996 .837 .819 .906 .956 .880 .889

The challenges with the use of OAIR in university libraries ranged from lack of policy and inadequate power supply to inadequate advocacy and poor ICT connectivity and infrastructure. Some of the respondents expressed the following concerns: Lack of adequate ICT platforms, slow Internet speed and electricity and no information on OAIR existence. The libraries have their operational schedule, different from that of users. There is a lack of understanding and lack of interest by users. There are unstable Internet connectivity and power fluctuations. There should be more education and training on OAIR.

Academic staff included in the survey indicated they did not have much information about OAIR which made it difficult for them to consider it. The OAIR managers, when asked about the major challenges associated with the use of OAIR in university libraries, noted that inadequate advocacy, inadequate ICT connectivity and infrastructure, insufficient technological skills, copyright issues, lack of knowledge or awareness of OAIR and inadequate funding were common issues. They also commented on challenges such as institutional culture and politics, absence of incentives, inadequate power supply and lack of institutional repository policy.



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Some of the OAIR managers believed the major challenges related to personnel, financial restrictions, lack of technological know-how and insufficient support from IT staff. One staff member, for example remarked that: Challenges have to do with personnel, here we have someone in charge of the technical aspect and I am for managerial aspect. There is a workload and getting the right people for the job is the problem. Not everybody can perceive what is there. Also network issues.

Managing the service to work efficiently is also an issue. Another issue related to the presentation of theses. Hard copies rather than soft made the archiving more difficult. Others interviewed commented on: Financial, technological know-how and IT staff. OAIR was hosted on our server and we had a problem with our server. Continuously we had tender strikes. We then decided to move to cloud space. It was difficult because most of our files got lost. Now we are using DSpace direct, which we pay for the cloud space. Any changes in terms of the interface the people do for us. This is less stressful compared to the past one. You were not able to upload the document as fast as you want.

Another interviewee commented: The challenges, sometimes there are power fluctuations and the system will be down and sometimes users do not know how to use it. Maybe how to search for an item in the repository is the problem.

Another complained about power, manpower, equipment and technology, unwillingness from the faculty and management commitment. Other comments included: One is technological change, IT staff to maintain the server and power outages. We also need more staff in our unit, more hands to be at standby. Our work is tedious. We have a mismatch of staff and work and it’s a major challenge not allowing us to get to equilibrium. The issue of power and the Internet from the administration side is also a problem.

Some of the interviewees, especially the technical staff, complained about colleagues at other universities advancing ahead of them both in software and IT expertise. Other comments included: We are using open software. For those who are to maintain the platform, we need to be abreast of new technological advancements to help maintain it. We wish the academic staff could push their work on the platform without us doing the mediation for them that will shoot up the repository. In the beginning, it was infrastructure, functioning there was an issue of support in terms of strong policies that require people to do what they are supposed to do. Though we have a

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university OA policy, we do not have a policy on OAIR. It was also staffing in the sense of the structure that we run which is a digital library so the transition from the traditional library module into a digital library. Staffing was one of our challenges, especially the training of new staff. Also, the lack of institutional support.

Going Forward with Institutional Repositories in Ghana The most important requirement for electronic networking that affects OAIR is the provision of an effective telecommunications service, along with a reliable power supply. Telecommunications infrastructure remains underdeveloped and expensive in most African countries. Although the situation in Ghana has changed, more needs to be done to get the situation to the level of developed countries. The high cost of bandwidth in Africa is because satellite broadband is used against a much cheaper fibre optic network. Universities in Ghana are hindered by monopolies and inefficiencies in telecommunications that limit communication and interaction with colleagues at home and abroad, and retard research activity. Sadly, universities with limited financial resources in developing countries end up paying more for the same bandwidth than do their counterparts in the developed world. Electricity supply is a major problem in Ghana as in other African countries. Ensuring efficient functioning of OAIR systems in Ghana is a difficult and expensive venture as backup generators must be enlisted through additional funds. The study reported that staff involved had insufficient technological skills. Stakeholders involved were reluctant to change from traditional ways of providing library services. Having inappropriate and insufficient technology was also among the challenges hindering the usage of OAIR in university libraries. Copyright issues and intellectual property rights were raised as problems with concerns about the exclusive rights in copyright, patents, trademarks, industrial designs, trade secrets and trade names. The author’s right to reproduce work includes the right to convert the work from the paper format to digital or electronic format. This right is especially important since the development of OAIR might entail scanning of previously published work in paper format and converting it into digital format for uploading in OAIR. Unless the conversion is done with the permission of the copyright holder or under a statutory exception as fair dealing, it might constitute a copyright infringement and affect the use of OAIR (Adeyemi et al. 2017). Sometimes researchers are apprehensive about infringing publishers’ rights and lack adequate awareness about their intellectual property rights (Jain 2012). Publishers often see OAIR as a potential obstacle and a threat to business. The management of intellectual



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property issues must evolve (Jain 2012) and the activities of international agencies are securing changes in publishers’ agreements which will lead to improvements. Maintaining OAIRs costs money; they are not free. Costs include staff; technology including hardware and software, although many institutions use open source software; services provided; and storage and maintenance costs. Staffing includes those with direct responsibility for the daily operations of the services and those who have new responsibilities added to their positions to support the service. The latter includes staff who may take on marketing roles, staff who contribute metadata and staff who provide training. Operational costs include marketing materials, software upgrades, hardware and other ongoing maintenance costs. Funding is a major problem but also an issue of planning and priorities. The state of ICT infrastructure in academic and research institutions in developing countries like Ghana is low and requires a complete overhaul to sustain the development of OAIR (Kodua-Ntim and Fombad 2021). Effective advocacy and promotion are crucial for the successful implementation of OAIR. The full benefits can be achieved only if the stakeholders involved are fully aware of the potential benefits. Institutional culture and politics need to change and major transformation can be achieved only through strong leadership by library managers and advocates. Management commitment and support are vital for successful OAIR implementation to ensure effective preservation and maintenance, information technology infrastructure, digital rights management and institutional mandate (Lagzian, Abrizah, and Wee 2015). Incentives might help obtain content from faculty and researchers. In the absence of any specific or financial incentive, academics might be persuaded that availability of research outputs on an OAIR would give greater exposure to their work. Perhaps incentives linked to academic rewards could be introduced to encourage staff to deposit their research output in the OAIR. It is essential that OAIR policies be developed within institutions and implemented, along with mandating deposit of content to guide the usage of OAIR in university libraries. OAIR policy documents must cover such matters as what to accept or reject, copyright issues, self or mediated archiving, submission and withdrawal policies, and any other issue necessary to govern the operation of OAIR (Adeyemi et al. 2017). Libraries must be allocated resources for the implementation of OAIRs, including marketing, promotion and publicity to highlight the importance of OAIRs, and they must be easy to use. Training for staff and users is required. Additional funding must be allocated to address issues of infrastructure, Internet connectivity and power supply. And new institutional OAIR policies can address issues on depositing content, intellectual property rights, and modes of ingest for research documents. Strong leaders can ensure effective implementation.

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by the 4th International Conference on African Digital Libraries and Archives – ICADLA 4 at Kwame Nkrumah Complex, Institute of African Studies, University of Ghana, Legon. https:// www.researchgate.net/publication/308798211_Open_Access_Institutional_Repositories_A_ Requirement_For_Academic_Libraries_In_The_21ST_Century_A_Case_Study_of_Four_African_ Universities. International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA). 2003. “IFLA Statement on Open Access to Scholarly Literature and Research Documentation [2003].” https://www. ifla.org/publications/ifla-statement-on-open-access-to-scholarly-literature-and-researchdocumentation-2003//. Jain, Priti. 2012. “Promoting Open Access to Research in Academic Libraries.” Library Philosophy and Practice 737: 1–13. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libphilprac/737. Kakai, Miriam, Maria G.N. Musoke, and Constant Okello-Obura. 2018. “Open Access Institutional Repositories in Universities in East Africa.” Information and Learning Sciences 119, no. 11: 667–681. https://doi.org/10.1108/ILS-07-2018-0066. Keats, Derek. 2006. “African Virtual Open Initiatives and Resources (AVOIR): A Network for Capacity Building in Software Engineering in Africas. United Nations workshop for African Parliamentary Information Systems Cape Town June 27–30, 2006. [PowerPoint presentation]. https://tinyurl. com/mr3srarc. Kodua-Ntim, Kwame, and Madeleine Fombad. 2021. “A Model for Open Access Institutional Repositories Usage for University Libraries in Ghana.” Information Development 37, no. 4: 579–596. https://doi.org/10.1177/0266666920937343. Kodua-Ntim, Kwame, and Madeleine C. Fombad. 2020. “Strategies for the Use of Open Access Institutional Repositories at Universities in Ghana. Library Management 41, no. 6/7: 515–530. https://doi.org/10.1108/LM-02-2020-0023. Lagzian, Fatemeh, A. Abrizah, and Mee Chin Wee. 2015. “Critical Success Factors for Institutional Repositories’ Implementation.” The Electronic Library 33, no.2: 196–209. https://doi.org/10.1108/ EL-04-2013-0058. Nwagwu, Williams Ezinwa, and Obinna Ojemeni. 2015. “Penetration of Nigerian Predatory Biomedical Open Access Journals 2007–2012: A Bibliometric Study.” Learned Publishing 28, no. 1: 23–34. https://doi.org/10.1087/20150105. Okumu, Okenga Daniel. 2015. “Adoption of Institutional Repositories in the Dissemination of Scholarly Information in Universities in Kenya, with reference to the United States International University-Africa.” A Research Project Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Award of the Degree of Master of Library and Information Science, Department of Library and Information Science, University of Nairobi. http://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/ bitstream/handle/11295/93088/Ogenga_Adoption%20of%20institutional%20repositories. pdf?sequence=3&isAllowed=y. OpenDOAR. n.d. “About OpenDOAR.” https://v2.sherpa.ac.uk/opendoar/about.html. Pinfield, Stephen. 2009. “Journals and Repositories: An Evolving Relationship?” Learned Publishing 22, no. 3: 165–175. https://doi.org/10.1087/2009302. Available at https://core.ac.uk/download/ pdf/162670661.pdf. Pinfield, Stephen, Jennifer Salter, Peter A. Bath, Bill Hubbard, Peter Millington, Jane H.S, Anders, and Azhar Hussain. 2014. “Open‐access Repositories Worldwide, 2005–2012: Past Growth, Current Characteristics, and Future Possibilities.” JASIST: Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology 65, no.12: 2404–2421. https://doi.org/10.1002/asi.23131. Available at https:// eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/76839/. Registry of Open Access Repositories (ROAR). n.d. Website. http://roar.eprints.org/.

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Samzugi, Athuman. 2017. “The Role of Institutional Repositories in Promoting Grey Literature in Academic Libraries in Tanzania.” University of Dar es Salaam Library Journal 12, no. 2: 3–21. https:// www.ajol.info/index.php/udslj/article/view/184574/173931. Schmitz, Jasmin. 2022. “Gold Open Access and Green Open Access: What’s the Difference?” PUBLISSO: Publishing Advice FAQs. https://www.publisso.de/en/advice/publishing-advice-faqs/differencebetween-gold-and-green-open-access/. Singeh, Feria Wirba, A. Abrizah, and Noor Harun Abdul Karim. 2013. “What Inhibits Authors to Self-archive in Open Access Repositories? A Malaysian Case. Information Development 29, no. 1: 124–135. https://doi.org/10.1177/0266666912450450. Solomon, David J., and Bo-Christer Björk. 2012. “A Study of Open Access Journals Using Article Processing Charges.” Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 63, no.8: 1485–1495. https://doi.org/10.1002/asi.22673.

Michelle Kowalsky

14 A  dvocating for Value-Added Content and Tools in Library Databases and Beyond Abstract: Libraries are known for their provision of quality and scholarly information to researchers, students, and often the general public. In moving toward electronic resources, libraries rely on specialized databases which collect and index content from books, journals, newspapers, and other sources to support professional access to and end-user searching of these materials. Both librarians and users need to advocate for the value of databases as well as encourage the creation, maintenance, and improvement of the holdings of both free and commercial database products. In offering reviewed, vetted, and professionally selected information resources, librarians and their institutions help dissolve patterns of disinformation, misinformation, and bias which may circulate through other means of communication. Researchers’ scholarly processes serve as a fact-checking mechanism for their publications; libraries serve as a testing mechanism for both academic and popular topics by providing a wide range of quality sources from which personal views can be formed and decisions made. This chapter discusses the need for a wide range of electronic library databases, the current state of database information creation, the benefits, and challenges of home-grown or commercial database products, and the reliance of users on the value-added aspects of these tools. Now more than ever, aggregation and organization of the best resources available will mitigate information disorder throughout society and improve the effectiveness of the educational endeavor for researchers, educators, and students alike. Keywords: Databases – Abstracting and indexing; Libraries – Information resource management; Disinformation; Database management in libraries

Introduction Libraries are one of the world’s most important institutions dedicated to countering disinformation. In a library, users can find information on many different perspectives of a topic in collections selected by information professionals. Citizens rely on the expertise of librarians to both gather and collect the best information possible, and as a result, libraries and their partner institutions are viewed as society’s trustworthy centers for knowledge. It is expected that sources found in a library, or in adjacent places of higher learning such as universities, or institutions of cultural preservation such as museums, would be more scholarly and reliable, and therehttps://doi.org/10.1515/9783110772753-016

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fore less likely to contain misinformation than information found in other public spaces like the open web. As libraries move their collections to electronic formats, maintenance of electronic databases of information accessing the contents of the collections become even more important. In archiving society’s written output, its audio and video productions, and its many types of images into formats which can be accessed by future generations, information scientists are actively preserving current as well as past knowledge. People expect that the most valuable items will be conserved, and that less valuable items will disappear over time, as they have over the course of history. Yet attempts to censor the process or influence the selection or selection efforts of professionals also abound throughout history and our present day. There are many influences on what information resources are saved and why. The philosophical underpinning of libraries suggests that all information is recorded for posterity; patrons can rest assured that multiple aspects of an issue are being saved, indexed, and made available to users across the many libraries of the world. Researchers have many options to learn, review, critique, and synthesize their understandings of any topic or phenomenon. In many countries, researchers will turn to their university and local libraries to find information by searching their electronic collections, which are usually made up of paid subscriptions to databases of content from a variety of journal publishers and electronic book vendors. In this context, a library database is an online searchable collection of information purchased by a library from a content vendor so that the library can provide access to scholarly peer-reviewed articles, newspaper and journal articles, and other information resources to its users. Library databases provide a range of storage and retrieval mechanisms for accessing the world’s knowledge, and database features help users to discover relationships between ideas and their authors. Libraries and their databases indexing collected content provide a safe space for learners to review all the available information on an issue so that they can draw their own conclusions. Without appropriate quality resource discovery tools, users may rely on the information most conveniently available to them, or they may focus solely on the most immediate or prolific information directed at them by outside sources. Cooke (2017), Sullivan (2019) and others have discussed multiple concerns regarding people’s information seeking and use patterns and the potential solutions for further education to counter satisficing behaviors. Pointing users toward libraries and curated databases serves to counter disorder in information and society at large. Some individuals, groups, or even the media seek to provide information to influence the masses on particular issues. By organizing what is known and verified, libraries become a refuge for reason and common sense. They offer better access to more resources than can be provided by providers with ulterior motives.



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In seeking further details on topics or issues, people can consult the volumes of reviewed information available in library databases. An informed citizenry will be able to make good decisions for individuals as well as society at large.

Characteristics of Databases One of the customary publications for librarians to produce as part of their roles is a curated bibliography, or list of sources which helps researchers identify the seminal works on a particular topic. Such publications reinforce the importance of sharing scholarly and professional information with others, and emphasise the expertise of information professionals to complement, inform, extend, and influence a discipline’s knowledge base (Borrego, Ardanuy, and Urbano 2018). The topic guides become infinitely more useful if the works being recommended are easily obtainable by the reader. Specifically, online databases serve both to index subject content and to act as repositories for the most recent versions of a work, as well as the most recent works about a subject, and ideally reach back in time to older works on a topic as well. Databases are most valuable to users when they include permanent links to the full content of a text, although abstracts, subject headings, and a controlled format of database records certainly help to improve the research experience for users and the maintenance experience for data managers. Rafi, Zheng, and Khurshid (2019), and Izuagbe et al. (2021) explain that use of scholarly databases has a significant impact on academic research and on faculty researchers themselves, who are motivated to use them to inform and improve their own scholarship. For many reasons, databases are a more trusted source of information than the open web, mostly since they collect published and edited works and provide content which has already passed at least one layer of peer review. Databases help to fight disinformation by providing users with an authoritative collection of information to search. Not all databases have accurate or perfect information, but the extra layer of certainty that databases provide over the free web, in which anyone can publish anything online, is valued by researchers in all fields. In developed countries, commercial library databases are widely available and offer excellent dashboards which point to resources held in many types of libraries or on the open web. Moyane et al. (2020) identify inadequate library infrastructure and state or university budgets, along with competition among institutions for limited resources and qualified staff, as some of the reasons many nations are unable to offer proper databases to their researchers. Higher education scholars have come to rely on database tools to aid

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in their discovery of new materials and new topics for research. In countries which cannot afford expensive third-party products, extensive use of indexing and collecting tools which are free, such as Google Scholar, help researchers discover new materials and to make comparisons of content across sources. Librarians recognize that many modern research projects no longer entail reading many long works as an initial step, as it may have been for learned communities in times past. Instead, scholars browse large quantities of materials online and can ponder content and potential argument directions. They find that online databases provide a comfortable reading and research experience. Librarians provide reference services, research assistance, and instruction to users and are able to extend users’ awareness of the reach and impact of database products on knowledge creation. Rafi, Zheng, and Khurshid (2020) confirm the need for explicit technological knowledge along with human-centered knowledge in organizing and promoting these resources. The conversion of materials from print and analog to digital format enhances information sharing and acknowledges the wide range of types of users and use. The information profession can reach out to enhance global contributions and contribute to an increased quality of life for all. Commercial database products should not be the only option; open educational resources and free indexing tools also make the world’s knowledge more widely accessible than in the past. Educators using various resources, software and tools can encourage their use and provide feedback for improvements and communicate the profession’s values of objectivity and accuracy.

Value of Databases Comprehensive, research-based, and professionally collected online resources showcase the best materials, both scholarly and professional, to those who perform empirical and secondary research. The resources are ideally updated regularly and seamlessly, follow universal standards for design, and allow users easy access and interaction without intervention or assistance. Islam, Atiquil, and Sheikh (2020) suggest that research databases are indispensable for modern research, and that graduate students reported high levels of satisfaction when they found database resources provided during the course of their studies useful and easy to use. Online searchable resources on the web which provide free indexing and web pointers or referring links can make accessible many seminal full-text books, articles, and reports which may not be otherwise discoverable. Databases have the capacity to store in their records information about websites, videos, and other materials, and provide a searching mechanism which can help people retrieve items for later use.



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Professionals in many interdisciplinary fields describe best practices and current knowledge in database construction and use, especially for scholarship and education at the college level. Institutions, organizations, or for-profit companies which search the internet to ingest free content use many of these best practices, but often with uneven results (D’Aquin et al. 2022). Tsay, Tseng, and Wu (2019) note that search engines provide more resources than proprietary databases licensed through vendors, perhaps since they aggregate the contents of institutional repositories and a variety of other information sources. Most information professionals would agree that it is necessary to consult both free and commercial databases to ensure wider coverage. Many organizations create and maintain databases of various kinds of content. HathiTrust, for example, hosts a database to which people research historical copyright holders and contribute content for material no longer in the public domain. The Directory of Open Access Journals creates a database of open access journals and articles. Many universities create institutional repositories and post preprint and other versions of academic articles written by their faculty members. Repositories of American government documents, which can include extensive research by the Congressional Research Service which supports national legislators, are free to use and the content can be reproduced or quoted without securing permission. Theses and dissertations as well as student papers from all levels of education have been posted freely on the web. These sources and many others are often available with metadata to facilitate harvesting by any organization that wishes to provide online access to freely available content or share information with its users. Information resources are scattered in multiple places online and in various libraries’ holdings. While many libraries follow internationally accepted standards, indexes and pointers to holdings are not necessarily consistent across institutions. Finding aids are not easily translated. Much free content whether aggregated in databases or not is not discoverable for the average web searcher. Carson and Alexander (2020) emphasize the importance of access for walk-in and public users but uncovered the unevenness of access to databases even in libraries with previous or concurrent public access its print materials, networked computers, and physical facilities. Many quality resources are not easily findable online even when users have specialized or subsidized access to them through libraries at major universities or in government collections of even the most open-minded societies. The changing uses of terms and keywords, and less frequent use of controlled vocabularies, create a type of chaos. Information systems and their preferred algorithms may be unwittingly causing difficulties for users attempting to find existing information. Curated, online, free resources are only as good as the quality of the organizational steps taken to make them widely discoverable and accessible now and in the future.

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Online resources are necessary for the work of students, librarians, educators, and the general public alike. Information seekers require guides to the extensive bodies of literature in their fields. Without them, discovery and access may decline. Superficial searches reveal only the most recent or the most popular items through automatic retrieval based on the deployment of simple algorithms and organizational methods. Concerns have been raised by Durant and Horava (2015). Yet users can still wish for a product or service which will provide hyperlinked access, in one place, to articles from multiple publishers and content vendors. Savvy vendors will provide search interfaces with enough complexity for advanced users while simultaneously allowing an obvious starting place for new users. Publishers and vendors will have agreements in place so that full-text articles and books are served to users according to particular content availability and licenses provided by each institution, school, university, or library.

Research Practice Any user who has tried to procure all of the published information on even a very specific topic knows that it is nearly impossible to directly find nor browse among the hundreds of thousands of article repositories worldwide, much less the many personal or institutional websites where multiple versions of the grey literature, non-traditional documentation and research reports reside. Library databases are necessary for information on interdisciplinary subjects, as well as for in-depth research on a narrowly defined topic. Young researchers or those new to inquiry understand the need for finding aids which assist in the process of culling and exposing materials that are known to exist, especially as library holdings are modernized using information technology (Patrickson Stewart and Newman 2017). The cooperation and collaboration of libraries around the world help to make available the works from their localities and nations to each other and expand the horizon of available knowledge. Librarians at traditional research universities today participate in the digital version of collecting information resources, describing them, and sharing the records through various local, regional, and national services, with ultimate discovery via services like WorldCat. The same philosophy of traditional library service focused on collecting all available human knowledge continues. The promise of a common, open, and free collection of non-proprietary academic publications is difficult to achieve in practice (Miszczyński 2022). Uniform resource locators (URLs), metadata, and indexing schemes which point from database records to both licensed and free resources must be properly procured and continually maintained. As journal publications and their backfiles are bought and



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sold by for-profit companies, keeping track of resources becomes cumbersome even with automated tools. Many scholarly resources may not be indexed by Google or other search engines if web coding or indexing software has blocked access or if company interests are in conflict. Many scholarly publications are in the hidden web or deep web behind subscription paywalls or password logins for many countries (Blatchford 2020). Backfiles of content previously available from publishers in printed formats may not appear online unless a business deal has been confirmed with an online distributor. Similarly, quality content on nongovernmental organizational websites, items linked to national and state government home pages, freely available information generated by large nonprofits, or intelligence offered gratis by multinational corporations might never be found without specialized databases to alert people to the existence of the information and point to a method for access. Development of finding aids, however, requires staff who possess the time, technical expertise, and shared goals to create such resources (Akarslan 2022).

Database Users This brings us back to the users of databases, who may be professors, authors, students, government officials, professionals in a variety of fields, and members of the general public. Users both need and expect quality content, and finding it is what libraries and librarians help them to do. Library users frequently are unable to locate materials for themselves without assistance from others. Users need to update their searching skill sets continually as a prerequisite to use (Gusenbauer and Haddaway 2021), whether through a formal course or through other means including advanced peer sharing with others on how to proceed. Even experienced researchers are lured into clicking on something questionable if it is marketed well or promoted effectively via search engine results. Items which use the keywords describing elusive information that everyone wants to know are tempting to users, as can be seen online in various religious, medical, or political contexts. Information seekers need to learn how to search for themselves, using the quality content that the library’s sources provide for them, while also evaluating the content once located. While many will receive training in higher education as they learn to become information producers themselves, the mastery of information literacy skills is uneven. Within schools moving toward online curricular materials, and with the elimination of school librarians’ positions, students’ opportunities for guided practice in using databases are reduced (Lance and Kachel 2021). Service desks in libraries are often unmanned due to budget cuts and policy directions. Whole generations of potential questions remain unasked because there is

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no one of whom to inquire. Databases provide a self-service function, but in a more complex way than one-box search engines. Ideally, databases show the relationships between information resources and provide an organizational system and standardized format which adds value. As information resources are born digital, and electronic access is preferred, users must spend more energy discerning the difference between quality evidence-based information resources and user-generated content expressing speculation and opinion. In a society where screen time is heavy and continuous use is demanded by work, social connections, and even play, users seek to make decisions on information as quickly as possible so that they can move on to the many other activities which require their time (Carr 2010). The danger is in seeing all online activities as equal. Some users spend the same amount of energy and interest in seeking quality information as in other online tasks. In directing users toward databases of curated and vetted information, vendors, libraries, and educators each play a role in enabling successful outcomes to inquiries by providing a structure through which valuable information can flow.

Challenges of Database Provision and Use In a narrow information services field, database vendors and information conglomerates seek, license, and ingest increasing amounts of content into their products to remain competitive. The companies involved merge, acquire, obtain, sell, and buy information from a wide spectrum of information sources, providing disparate items through a suite of searching and browsing features which allow users a familiar interface from which to access content. Individual researchers, their libraries, and their academic institutions have come to rely on database vendors to provide content. Library research databases, despite their expensive subscription models, provide a compelling product which approximates the scope and operational abilities of their free rivals, but provide full text journal access through appropriate licensing as an added value (Martín-Martín et al. 2018). Issues related to copyright and licensing remain (Wu 2021). In addition, the open access movement provides a challenge to both journal publishers and database aggregators alike, in its quest to make quality research available for free, in perpetuity, and with fewer restrictions on authors. The constant motion of provider and creator initiatives presents continual challenges to librarians and information professionals, who need to keep pace with change to assist users and train the next generation. As products change their content every few months, or revise their interfaces and search algorithms sig-



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nificantly, users become temporarily disoriented and struggle to conduct effective searches. An increase in the use of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning, accompanied by the reduction of human review for new content, has helped database vendors and information conglomerates to expand their holdings quickly and efficiently. Yet this same practice becomes troubling for users, who sift through information of varying and uneven quality, type, and categorization to find useful items. Asemi, Ko, and Nowkarizi (2021) review options applying AI to library systems and acknowledge that additional work needs to be done. In an era where recent and newer is considered of most value, excellent resources which are only a few months old can be easily overlooked, resulting in unwitting yet systematic information dysphoria. Information professionals have always encountered challenges in providing equitable access to quality information. The digital age has changed the venue in which the struggles appear. The difficulties created by newer methods of discovery including algorithm creation, user tagging, and automated ingestion are different from the errors, omissions, or tendencies of humans who did the work of selection, classification, and access in the past. While user frustration may occur (Barifah and Landoni 2020), continuous quality improvement must still be pursued. Enhanced usability and universal accessibility bring value to a database product. The costs and benefits of cleaning up controlled vocabulary and implementing linked open data have been discussed thoroughly in the literature (Jesus and Castro 2019; Ullah et al. 2018; Southwick, Lampert, and Southwick 2015). The complexity of indexing transitions may make database maintenance, conversion, and updating seem like more work than they are worth momentarily, but long term advantages for libraries have already been identified. Willis and O’Reilly (2020) found that library database vendors require increasing adjustments to their interfaces in order to add value for users with disabilities who rely on screen readers. Even if the content in a database is the best in its class, database producers must overcome user interface challenges for their products to be used effectively. Promotional products and user education materials are not enough to make up for a weak database product. Yu (2017) argues that vendor leaflets or promotional items which libraries provide to patrons are forgettable and wasteful. While libraries with limited budgets may appreciate free posters, pens, or other gifts from vendors to enhance user awareness of electronic resources, they do not improve usage of the vendor’s database. Excellent branding strategies or engaging marketing materials cannot make up for a lack of quality content or functionality of the database itself. If the library’s discovery tools are not the primary search step for users (Greenberg and Bar-Ilan 2017), then vendors must take note and channel their energies into making their databases becoming indispensable tools for researchers at all levels.

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Improving Databases Librarians, teachers, and lecturers often rely on vendor-provided materials like videos, web pages, and interactive tutorials to enhance user education about academic databases. Researchers appreciate vendors’ and librarians’ detailed material showing novice users the most efficient ways to use database search interfaces. Increasingly, users need personalized versions of educational materials, and reminders that one-stop shopping for academic information may not be possible. Many factors including instructor and student skills, available resources, task specificity and motivation affect education processes and create challenges in both teaching and procuring all of the resources that users may need (Goodsett 2020). As Wanyama, McQuaid, and Kittler (2022) have shown, the places that users search for information determine what they will find, and choices involving limited database products can have unintended and adverse effects on research endeavors. Librarians can create automated tools to find, confirm, and promote available information from all sources and make them available to novice searchers as well as to experienced researchers. New publishing models may complicate these tasks, as products from multiple vendors may not easily be combined in database discovery layers or purchased federated search products (Lingam 2020). Librarians must consider the costs of supplementing freely available, open access articles of quality with purchased backfiles of important journals and licensed database access available to users through institutional logins. Kimball (2020) recommends that library staff check journal title holdings in competing database products before purchase, especially if only one can be chosen because of budget constraints. Group purchasing and management of academic database content through regional or national groupings of libraries may help libraries provide more content to users. Shared services may speed up resolution of questions involving disappearing resources, such as those transferred between owners or publishers as a result of business mergers and acquisitions. Challenges continue as libraries keep up to date with database vendors’ ongoing contracts and deals with publisher providers. Gasparotto (2018) suggests methods for librarians to communicate changes in searching, finding, and discovering new materials across the open web, which can yield better results than some of the more well-known algorithms in search engines. Gregg et al. (2019) suggest that all stakeholders involved should work toward shared solutions which improve access to quality scholarship around the world. Smaller publishers and vendors may not have technological personnel to integrate newer technologies into their workflows, or to provide appropriate metadata for their products to aggregating vendors. Librarians with technical skills do what they can to inform, persuade, and assist companies in ensuring their content will interface with modern appli-



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cation programmes and library system search interfaces (Naveed, Siddique, and Mahmood 2022). The information scholarly authors produce must be widely circulated to potential users regardless of their ability to pay. Libraries and their professional organizations may need to contact, encourage, or criticize vendors to convince them of the value of investment in proper indexing, database construction, universal design, or back-end algorithm development. These efforts will increase the diversity of information available to users and help educational institutions expand their offerings for researchers (Clarke and Schoonmaker 2020).

Conclusion Scholars and patrons engaging in information seeking must be encouraged to expand the range of information resources discovered and accessed to include international resources and potentially sources produced in languages other than their own. By demonstrating the ability to thoroughly research, critique, collect, and annotate the information available on a topic, academics demonstrate their commitment to scholarly habits, appropriate use of research methods, and attainment of skills. Students must be encouraged to reach out beyond reliance on sources easily available through their own universities and libraries. Librarians must be supported in their quest to enhance knowledge growth and development. Vicente and Martins (2021) advocate for the democratization of educational and financial systems so that individuals can learn to forge their own paths to improve their own lives through information. Users must demand access to new and diverse materials as a basic human right. A variety of information sources helps citizens make good decisions based on evaluation of all available viewpoints. Increasing awareness of the importance of quality databases, and of methods of procuring access to valuable materials for all, will help citizens to make better decisions and educators to communicate more effectively with students as they train the next generation of thinkers. Libraries of all types will be able to find and promote quality information resources via links through search interfaces and websites. Through effective information resource discovery, library users can work with librarians to purchase or procure items for immediate use or the improvement of local collections. While all information will not be free, the profession of librarianship can help to uncover and identify sources which demonstrate best quality, accuracy, and authoritativeness toward the purposes of shared global education. Librarians and other information professionals use their critical thinking skills to serve the public by offering high quality sources; and they work to design and create repositories which make compelling cases for use of accurate and objective

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information. Library databases are value-added products and services for higher learning, as well as useful tools to combat inaccurate information which threatens the growth of a sustainable society. Teachers, students, and citizens must demand value-added improvements to the content and tools of the many databases which already exist, or which need to be created, in their subject domain or in their geographic region. Through connecting people with the information, they need. confusion is reduced, and true social change can take place through the independent and informed actions of citizens around the world.

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Mamotshabo Johanna Boloka

15 P  ublic Library Infrastructure During COVID-19 in Limpopo Province Abstract: Information services provision in rural areas of Limpopo Province in South Africa is considered poor even under normal circumstances. The COVID-19 pandemic required libraries to have proper infrastructure to continue providing information services. This chapter examines infrastructure and library and information service provision in Limpopo during the pandemic. It reports on a qualitative study assessing the services available in rural areas of Limpopo Province. The study used the Delphi technique. Questions were sent to experts in public librarianship and the responses transcribed. There are few public libraries in the rural areas of Limpopo Province and the infrastructure in them is poor. The participants in the survey indicated that information service provision was put on hold from March 2020 during the pandemic. It is argued that public libraries require reliable information and communications technology (ICT) infrastructure for users to access library and information services (LIS) remotely. The chapter concludes with recommendations for improved ICT infrastructure including use of an effective library management system (LMS), the acquisition of online databases, and the creation of specialised website pages. Keywords: Public libraries – South Africa; Public libraries – Information technology; Public libraries – Developing countries; COVID-19 (Disease)

Public Libraries and their Services The IFLA/UNESCO Public Library Manifesto states that: The public library is the local centre of information, making all kinds of knowledge and information readily available to its users. It is an essential component of knowledge societies, continuously adapting to new means of communication to fulfil their mandate of providing universal access to and enabling meaningful use of information for all people. It provides publicly accessible space for the production of knowledge, sharing and exchange of information and culture, and promotion of civic engagement… The services of the public library are provided on the basis of equality of access for all, regardless of age, ethnicity, gender, religion, nationality, language, social status, and any other characteristic. Specific services and materials must be provided for those users who cannot, for whatever reason, use the regular services and materials, for example linguistic minorities, people with disabilities, poor digital or computer skills, poor literacy abilities or people in hospital or prison (IFLA-UNESCO Public Library Manifesto 2022). https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110772753-017

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The 2022 Manifesto updated the 1994 version and included additions to reflect the changes in technology and society to ensure that the Manifesto continued to reflect the realities and mission of public libraries today. The 1994 version was used as background to this chapter. The latest version emphasises the importance of technology and information infrastructure. Public libraries or community libraries are vital components of their villages, towns, cities or regions. They “promote reading and literature to all ages and the whole of society, enabling learning and literacy from the cradle to grave” (Mnkeni-Saurombe and Zimu 2013, 42). Public libraries have a role to play to augment reading materials available in schools. Akparobore (2011) affirms that “public libraries can richly compliment the educational activities by assisting adults in no longer of school age, developing their attitudes, extending the knowledge and by acquiring, needed technical or vocational skills”. The importance of public libraries is emphasised by the South African Department of Arts and Culture statement that: The constitutional right of access to information implies equal access to the knowledge infrastructure, technologies and networks of the 21st century. the constitutional right of access to information implies equal access to the knowledge infrastructure, technologies and networks of the 21st century (South Africa. DAC 2018, 58).

The Department of Arts and Culture highlighted that “the power derived from access to information and knowledge in South Africa and other information societies and knowledge economies is one that has been overlooked and underrated in discourses on freedom and justice” (South Africa. DAC 2018, 3). Public libraries have been for centuries an integral part of society and offered free places for equal access to resources for leisure and educational purposes (Balapanidou 2015, 1) but they have many challenges.

Library Infrastructure Appropriate infrastructure plays a major role in ensuring that libraries achieve their goals of providing information and effective access to their users. According to Iwhiwhu and Okorodudu (2012), library infrastructure includes the buildings and all facilities, chairs, bookshelves, tables, toilets, information and communications technology (ICT), library spaces, restaurants, coffee rooms, lighting, ventilation, parking spaces, library management systems, fans, and air conditioning. Awana (2007) asserted that library infrastructure is facilities and equipment that help in achieving effectiveness of the services rendered by the library. Infrastruc-



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ture is important in library services to enable librarians to deliver quality services to library users. It may also enhance librarians’ careers and productivity. Library infrastructure comprises essential facilities and tools that enhance the library’s ability in delivering quality services to its patrons (Omeluzor, Oyovwe-Tinuoye, and Emeka-Ukwu 2017). Libraries of all types need infrastructure ranging from power generation equipment, through computers, Internet facilities, photocopiers, scanners, purpose-built library buildings, furniture and fittings, to vehicles. All enable libraries to keep pace with developments in the information profession and advancements in technology in the delivery of information services. According to Ogbuagu, Ubi and Effiom (2014) library infrastructure includes power generation machinery, electrical installations, ICT, furniture, fittings, and library buildings. The importance of effective functioning of library infrastructure in the management and discharging of essential library services to the patrons has been acknowledged by many (Audunson et al. 2019; Omeluzor, Nwosu, and Ugochi 2018) along with other writers already cited. Inadequate infrastructure and facilities are among the factors that prevented the sixteen public libraries in Delta State, Nigeria from accomplishing their role of providing quality information services to the rural people of Delta State (Omeluzor, Oyovwe-Tinuoye, and Emeka-Ukwu 2017). In the South African context, the final draft of the National Policy for Library and Information Services in South Africa, citing Larkin, provided a useful definition of infrastructure: Infrastructures are material forms that allow for the possibility of exchange over space. They are the physical networks through which goods, ideas, waste, power, people, and finance are trafficked … [they] are matter that enable the movement of other matter … they are things and also the relation between things (Larkin 2013, 327)

The National Policy statement continued with: The elements of infrastructure are: Physical environment: Library buildings, including public service areas, classrooms, study spaces, computer laboratories, library halls, staff workrooms, bathrooms, kitchens, gardens, paths, parking areas and surrounds Digital environment: ICT infrastructure, including connectivity, servers and storage devices (South Africa. DAC 2018, 63).

Adequate library infrastructure is a pre-requisite for the smooth operation of libraries in rural areas. It would be expected that public libraries would continue to offer library services despite the COVID-19 pandemic and that the infrastructure operating in public libraries would support the ongoing provision of library services. Proper infrastructure is essential for users to effectively access and use a

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network. Internet connectivity remains the major challenge in rural communities in South Africa due to poor network coverage and unreliable and ineffective telecommunications infrastructure (Fourie and Meyer 2016) and there are significant obstacles for access by young people (Mugwisi 2015, 38). Public libraries in disadvantaged rural communities in South Africa offer fewer support services and, on average, have weaker technological infrastructure and lag behind compared to their counterparts in urban environments (Stilwell 2016). “Access to and use of the Internet appears to be higher in developed countries as compared to developing countries which are usually late adopters when it comes to ICTs” (Chiwara, Chinyamurindi, and Mjoli 2017, 2). There is further affirmation from others that ICT and digital infrastructure are not fully developed in rural villages (Strand and Britz 2018). Internet access is among the many challenges facing African libraries. Burgess (2017) confirms that unreliable Internet access is problematic in rural communities. In South Africa, the infrastructural backlogs have been evident in communities occupied by Black people during apartheid. In Nigeria, poor technological infrastructure has been one of the challenges faced in providing information services (Ifijeh and Yusuf 2020). With poor road infrastructure in most disadvantaged rural communities, the provision of mobile libraries which would enable rural villagers to access information and knowledge poses profound challenges (Mojapelo and Ngoepe 2020, 103). Chigwada (2020) indicates that with COVID-19, libraries in Zimbabwe were faced with challenges of Internet connectivity as well as an inability of users to use online services. There has been for many years a lack of essential infrastructure for information services provision throughout Africa and Iwhiwhu and Okorodudu (2012) highlighted lack of ICT services in the Edo State Central Library in Nigeria. Mojapelo (2020) noted that some public libraries had networked computers for Internet access and use but that there was still a need for improving ICT infrastructure to ensure proper digital access in public libraries to mitigate the diverse socio-economic challenges faced in rural areas. However, establishing effective library services in a rural setting is a complex and difficult task in view of the daunting challenges such as lack of funding, electricity, water, roads and digital infrastructure (Mojapelo and Ngoepe 2020, 96). There are libraries operating without phones and fax machines, which are significant communication tools. With COVID-19 regulations, libraries were closed throughout the world and many devised new strategies and developed new services to meet users’ requirements (Solis and Kear 2020). People still needed access to information on a daily basis. “Owing to the advancement of information and communications technologies (ICTs), the Internet technology provides a powerful medium for users to effectively retrieve and disseminate information in this digital era by pushing buttons”



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(Mojapelo 2020). “The Internet together with its applications has proved to be a remarkably convenient, cheap and affordable avenue for bringing people together where they share data, information and knowledge, thereby enlarging the range of human capabilities” (Selemani and Chawinga 2017). In poor and developing countries, community libraries are essential to bridge the digital divide. However, South Africa is still challenged by the huge disparities in the digital divide between rural and urban people. Public libraries have a major role to play in bridging the digital divide (Ghosh 2005, 181). ICT has the capacity to open up new ways of interactive communication between the citizen, public libraries and civil society at large and public libraries must improve their ICT infrastructure.

Infrastructure Funding for Public Libraries in South Africa In the South African context, there are grants to the Department of Arts and Culture for public library infrastructure for projects that assist in addressing infrastructure backlogs (South Africa. DAC 2013, ix). The national government is already improving infrastructure through the Community Library Services Conditional Grant and is expected to continue doing so going forward (South Africa. DAC 2013, ix). The Library Council identified the following strategic priority areas for the public library infrastructure grants programme: –– Library buildings and spaces –– Mobile libraries –– Information and communications technology projects, and –– Cooperative library development activities To ensure proper infrastructure in community libraries, the South African government allocated the Conditional Grant for community libraries to the Department of Arts and Culture. The funds are distributed to add to funds from provincial and municipal sources for public libraries. Details are reported on the National Archives & Records Service of South Africa (NARSS) website. The Goal of the Conditional Grant is to enable South African society to gain access to knowledge and information that will improve their socio-economic status. The purpose of the Conditional Grant is to transform urban and rural community library infrastructure, facilities and services primarily targeting previously disadvantaged communities through a recapitalised programme at provincial level in support of local government and national initiatives (South Africa. NARSS. 2016). The same website outlines the following outcomes of the Conditional Grant:

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Improved coordination and collaboration between national, provincial and local government on library services; Transformed and equitable library and information services delivered to all rural and urban communities; Improved library infrastructure and services that reflect the specific needs of the communities they serve; Improved staff capacity at urban and rural libraries to respond appropriately to community knowledge and information needs; and Improved culture of reading (South Africa. NARSS 2016).

Other details on the Public and Communities Conditional Grant are available on the South African Libraries website (South African Libraries n.d.). Specialised projects have provided funding from time to time. The Mzansi Libraries-Online Project provided Internet infrastructure and capacity training in 677 public libraries across the nine provinces in a project from 2015 to 2018 (National Library of South Africa 2016; South Africa. DAC 2018, 41).

The Context The study described in this chapter assessed public library infrastructure for information services provision during COVID-19 in Limpopo Province. The contextual details are outlined.

Limpopo Province Limpopo Province is one of the nine provinces in South Africa and  is the northernmost. It is named after the  Limpopo River which forms the province’s western and northern borders and was formed in a merger of three former homelands, namely, Lebowa, Venda and Gazankulu. The capital and largest city in the province is  Polokwane, formerly known as Pietersburg (Maluleka 2017, 7)). The province was formed from the northern region of Transvaal Province in 1994, and initially named Northern Transvaal. The following year, it was renamed Northern Province, which remained the name until 2003, when it was formally changed to Limpopo after deliberation by the provincial government and amendment of the  South African Constitution. An alternate name considered for the province was Mapungubwe. Figure 15.1 shows Limpopo Province on the map of South Africa. Limpopo Province has five district municipalities: Capricorn, Mopani, Sekhukhune, Vhembe and Waterberg.



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Fig. 15.1: Map of South Africa (South Africa. 2012. Census 2011, 10).

Public Libraries in Limpopo Province The provision of library and information services (LIS) in Limpopo Province is patchy and inadequate, as in most rural communities of South Africa. Ledwaba (2018) indicated that there were 1,612 public libraries throughout the nine provinces in South Africa. However, despite Limpopo having a higher population and larger geographic area, the province had the lowest number of public libraries, a fact also noted by Mojapelo (2017) who indicated that the inheritance of uneven allocation of community libraries during apartheid remained visible and that provision of LIS was patchy in Limpopo province as a whole. Limpopo was designated for the Blacks during apartheid. Unfortunately, to keep the Black population illiterate, community libraries did not feature anywhere in the homelands. With only 80 public libraries to serve a population of more than five million, it is apparent that most disadvantaged rural communities in Limpopo lack access to information because of inadequate provision of public libraries (Mojapelo 2017, 3, citing others). There are significant inadequacies in public libraries in Limpopo. With a shortage of community libraries in South Africa in general and in Limpopo in particular, citizens need to wake up and do it for themselves (Mojapelo 2020). The infrastructure situation reflects the issues already mentioned. The inadequacy of infrastruc-

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ture support throughout Limpopo Province and elsewhere has caused major problems, particularly during the pandemic and led to this study.

Examining Infrastructure Provision during the Pandemic Objectives of the Study The study assessed public library infrastructure for information services provision during the pandemic in Limpopo Province. The specific objectives were: –– Assess information service provision during lockdown in Limpopo Province –– Assess the available public library infrastructure for information services provision in Limpopo Province –– Determine challenges involved in providing information during COVID-19 pandemic in Limpopo Province, and –– Offer guidelines on how to continue providing information despite COVID-19 in Limpopo Province.

Research Methodology and Scope of the Study The study adopted a qualitative approach and employed the Delphi technique. Data was collected through interviews from three LIS experts in Limpopo Province. The experts were chosen on the basis of their remarkable contribution in public libraries in the Limpopo Province. Three rounds of questions were sent to the three experts through emails. The researcher collected data until consensus was reached. Emails were considered convenient due to COVID-19 regulations as well as ensuring safety between the researcher and the participants. Each Delphi participant was emailed separately and was unaware of other participants in the study. To ensure confidentiality, the participants were labelled A, B and C. The data in the responses was thematically analysed.

The Participants Participant A had practised as a public librarian for more than seven years in the Department of Sport, Arts and Culture in Limpopo Province. He was once appoin-



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ted as the Chair-Elect of the Library and Information Association of South Africa (LIASA) Limpopo Branch and has since been active, serving as Secretary of the Branch. His passion is to see libraries finding their rightful place in the development and transformation of the country’s economy through partnership with stakeholders. He believes that librarians should by all means keep up with the pace which comes with the Fourth Industrial Revolution to remain relevant in the provision of information. Participant B was a professor in library and information services in one of the universities within Limpopo Province and had contributed significantly to the LIS field through publications. Participant C was a librarian in one of the public libraries within Limpopo Province with over twenty years in the LIS field. Information service provision was one of her key responsibilities.

Findings and Discussion Assessing Information Service Provision during Lockdown Participants were asked to comment on the provision of public library and information services provision during lockdown. As libraries were closed, the lockdown affected the provision of information services. Their responses were as follows: Participant A: “Lockdown has had a negative impact on the provision of public library and information services” Participant B: “Even though I did not have a chance of visiting any public library, I think the public libraries should have developed their websites to inform the users about how to access materials from the library” Participant C: “The provision of public library and information services during lockdown is an issue since most of libraries are still not operational due to non-compliance according to the COVID-19 regulations. Most of the libraries daily operations are limited to pick-ups and drop off of library materials to avoid physical contact”

Access to information was limited in rural areas due to COVID-19 restrictions. Public library information services required online platforms for access to information services. Monyela (2020) suggests that libraries could consider increasing funding for technology and Internet access, reprioritise existing funds for Internet connectivity, and partner with network suppliers, offering them publicity in return to Internet provision.

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Public Library Infrastructure for Information Services Provision The participants were in agreement that public library infrastructure in rural areas was challenging. In responses, they indicted that: Participant A: “Public library infrastructure for information service provision is necessary for providing users with access to information to satisfy their information needs” Participant B: “From my observation most public libraries are not designed in such a way that they will be able to serve the information needs of the communities in the current environment. The buildings are small and the provision of the internet to the public is still minimal, and they don’t have electronic materials which users can access remotely” Participant C: “The public library infrastructure for information service provision needs to be reviewed due to the fact that it was built 32 years ago therefore there is a real need to either extend or relocate to cater for the large number of students that are visiting the library daily”

The participants’ responses gave an idea of how challenging it was to provide service during COVID-19 because of poor infrastructure in libraries. Community libraries had a significant role to play in offering technology-enhanced services and improving ICT literacies of users but Internet facilities made it impossible for the users to access global information from online databases. “Libraries serve as a place for free public Internet access and support” (Stilwell 2016, 123). Physical infrastructure is important in libraries. Initially, the Department of Arts and Culture did not have an infrastructure person to ensure that the Conditional Grant was fully utilised. Projects, particularly infrastructure including library buildings, were not completed on time (Mojapelo 2017). This had a negative impact on access to public library and information services and improvements must be made to project management and fund expenditure. Challenges Involved in Providing Information During COVID-19 Participants were asked to outline the challenges in providing information services. Their responses were as follows: Participant A: “Lack of protective personal equipment to protect both library staff and library users. Outdated traditional communication between library staff and library users. Libraries investing more on physical collection than digital collection. Existing poor innovations/library programs to transfer literacy skills to library users” Participant B: “Small buildings, minimal internet access and lack of electronic materials. Therefore, in the current environment, for one to access library materials, one should physically go to the library”



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Participant C: “The shortage of personal protective equipment such as desk screens to demarcate between the personnel and the library users”

ICT offers public libraries exciting opportunities to provide new ways of accessing current information (McMenemy 2009, 96). In South Africa, only 10% of the population has access to the Internet. The Department of Arts and Culture drafted the South African Public Library and Information Services Bill, 2012, in an attempt to take the provision of public library services seriously. The Bill aimed to ensure consistency in the delivery of public library and information services in the country and put in place measures to ensure redress of the inequalities in the provision of public library and information services provide for principles, norms and standards for the provision of public library and information services. A report was prepared costing the services (South Africa. DAC 2013). The report was an eye opener to government officials. Lack of access to public libraries in rural communities remains a major challenge to this day. Adedokun and Zulu (2022, 128) agree that “it is logical to question why many communities in South Africa still need libraries, in such times when Google and other search engines are readily available for people to access information”. Physical libraries are still needed to save people from buying expensive data in South Africa, especially is rural settings where the unemployment rate is high.

Factors Enabling Public Libraries to Provide Information Service During Lockdown Participants were asked about the factors affecting service provision. The following were the responses: Participant A: “Minimised risk factors to safeguard library staff. Enhanced library training programs which equipped library users with set of library skills to access information independently. Libraries which invested in the digital collection. Use of Online facilities to bridge communication between library staff and library users” Participant B: “The problem is that public libraries were not even mentioned when lockdown levels were being adjusted. But the reliable website and access to electronic materials can be some of the factors that may enhance service delivery in public libraries” Participant C: “If the borrowing of library materials could be increased to 20 per member and the number of days can be increased to 1 month and be renewed for another 2 weeks to allow members not to visit the library regularly”.

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Guidelines on How to Continue Providing Information Despite Lockdown Participants were asked to provide suggestions on how to continue providing information services despite the pandemic. Their responses were as follows: Participant A: “Librarians need to ensure that they incorporate technology in providing information services and also develop library programs which aims to transform patrons’ skills to cope independently in the digital environment” Participant B: “If the library could have a reliable website from which users can be able to search what is in the library. However, the problem is that one has to visit the library to come and fetch the materials. I once had a vision of using drone technology through which books could be delivered to the library users during lockdown. The user gets to the library website, searches through the catalogue and then sends a request for materials needed and the materials are delivered by drone to the user’s doorstep” Participant C: “I suggest that libraries must look into the issue of ebooks, unlimited WiFi connection since we are not certain of how long it will be before COVID-19 pandemic is over and everything can be back to normality. The ebooks will ensure that library users have access to information regardless of lockdown or visiting the library premises”

The responses suggested the need to move from operating traditionally to online to accommodate cases where library users are unable to visit libraries. Additionally, access to online resources is convenient for all so that users need not travel to the library. This will be effective for those who have access to Internet at home but might cause challenges to those without effective online access. Mojapelo (2020) identified the need for modernisation and upgrading of public libraries particularly in terms of ICT applications. Staff proficiency is also required. The informational, cultural and leisure needs of underprivileged rural masses must be met. The number of registered library users in rural areas would increase with improved ICT and infrastructure.

Conclusion This chapter has outlined the infrastructure needs in public libraries in Limpopo Province, particularly as they provided information services to meet library and information needs during COVID-19. Public library services in Limpopo Province are underdeveloped and access to information in public libraries is limited. There are significant gaps in infrastructure. Further investments need to be made in technology for provision of and access to information through the library Conditional Grant from the Department of Arts and Culture. Provincial library services in Limpopo must make greater investments in technology. The Msanzi Libraries



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Online project serves as a model to bridge the existing digital divide between rural and urban users and its great work should be continued and extended. Public libraries must use effective library management systems, develop their websites and provide functional library pages to share information with users. Public libraries must enhance their collections through building institutional repositories, subscribing to online databases and purchasing ebooks. Remote access to information is an ongoing need and public libraries must have the infrastructure to provide services to meet the changing requirements of their users.

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Omeluzor, Saturday U., Chidi C. Nwosu, and Ugochi Esther Molokwu. 2018. “Effects of Library Infrastructure on Turnover Intentions of Librarians: A Study of University Libraries in South-South and South-East of Nigeria.” Library Philosophy and Practice (e-journal): 1967. https:// digitalcommons.unl.edu/libphilprac/1967/. Omeluzor, Saturday U., Gloria O. Oyevwe-Tinuoye, and Uche Emeka-Ukwu. 2017. “An Assessment of Rural Libraries and Information Services for Rural Development: A Study of Delta State, Nigeria.” The Electronic Library 35, no. 3: 445–471. https://doi.org/10.1108/EL-08-2015-0145. Available at https://tinyurl.com/3p6cy5h7. Saleem, A., S. Z .Shabana-Tabusum, and M. Sadik Batcha. 2013. “Application and Uses of Information Communication Technology (ICT) in Academic Libraries: An Overview. International Journal of Library Science 2, no. 3: 49–52. doi:10.5923/j.library.20130203.01. http://article.sapub.org/pdf/10.5 923.j.library.20130203.01.pdf. Selemani, Apatsa, and Winner Chawinga. 2017. “Information and Communication Technologies in Academic Libraries.” Innovation 55: 42–66. https://hdl.handle.net/10520/EJC-f3762c13f. Solis, Jacqueline, and Robin L. Kear. 2020. “Online Activities of Croatian Public Libraries during COVID-19 Spring Lockdown.” International Information & Library Review 52, no. 4: 318–319. https:// doi.org/10.1080/10572317.2020.1834246. South Africa. Department of Arts and Culture (DAC). 2013. “Costing the South African Public Library and Information Services Bill: Project Report.” Project team: Conrad Barberton, Jonathan Carter, and Carmen Abdol. Pretoria: Cornerstone Economic Research. https://docslib.org/doc/12458875/ costing-the-south-african-public-library-and-information-services-bill. South Africa. Department of Arts and Culture (DAC). National Council for Library and Information Services. 2018. “National Policy for Library and Information Services in South Africa: The Final Draft.” Managed by the National Library of South Africa. Technical Team: Muxe Nkondo, Genevieve Hart, and Mary Nassimbeni. https://cdn.ymaws.com/www.liasa.org.za/resource/ resmgr/documents_/draft_national_linrary_and_i.pdf. South Africa. National Archives & Records Service of South Africa (NARSS). 2016. “Community Library Conditional Grant Programme.” http://www.nationalarchives.gov.za/node/734. South Africa. Statistics South Africa. 2012. “Census 2011. Statistical release. P0301.4. https://www. statssa.gov.za/publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf. South African Libraries. n.d. “Public and Community Libraries Conditional Grant.” http://www. nlsa.ac.za/condgrant/index.php/component/content/article/2-uncategorised/2-public-andcommunity-libraries-conditional-grant. Stilwell, Christine. 2016. “Public Libraries and Social Inclusion: An Update from South Africa.” Perspectives on Libraries as Institutions of Human Rights and Social Justice. Advances in Librarianship 41: 119–146. https://doi.org/10.1108/S0065-283020160000041006. Strand, Karla J., and Johannes Britz. 2018. “The Evolving Role of Public Libraries in South Africa in Addressing Information Poverty: A Historical Context.” Library Management 39, no. 6–7: 364–74. https://doi.org/10.1108/LM-08-2017-0072.

Andrew Mugenyi and Acquinatta Nomusa Zimu-Biyela

16 K  nowledge Sharing Among Nurses in Developing Countries During COVID-19 Abstract: The coronavirus pandemic ushered in new problems and torrents of knowledge to all healthcare workers. In a short time frame, many challenges not previously encountered emerged. When pandemics strike, healthcare workers, especially nurses, are crucial players in the response. They are at the front line working towards prevention as well as cure. Considerable knowledge and experience are required to combat the impact of pandemics, to control and prevent infection, to treat the sick, and to adopt strategies to minimise death, collaborating with the community, with businesses and with families. Excellent knowledge management (KM), knowledge sharing (KS) and experience sharing practices are required. They are the weapons used by health professionals, including nurses, to remain up-to-date and deliver quality health care services during pandemics. Defeating COVID-19 particularly in developing countries has required significant sharing of knowledge and experiences. Have nurses in Africa shared knowledge sufficiently? This chapter outlines an analysis of knowledge sharing about COVID19 among nurses in Africa using Actor-Network Theory (ANT). ANT focuses on transformative practices that describe the making of connections, assemblages, or associations. Suggestions for improvements are made. Keywords: COVID-19 (Disease); Public health personnel; Knowledge management – Africa; Nursing – Study and teaching (Continuing education)

Introduction Since 2020, the world has faced a pandemic that has claimed the lives of more than six and a half million people and more than 630 million infections as of October 2022 (Worldometer n.d.). The vast amount of knowledge generated about COVID-19 caused many healthcare professionals and government officials to be on tenterhooks about the best ways of managing and sharing knowledge effectively (Buheji and Buhaid 2020). COVID-19 was first reported in the Chinese city of Wuhan, an emerging business hub and the capital city of the Hubei Province in central China (Ogolodom et al. 2020). The pandemic defied geographical boundaries, with the number of infections steadily increasing each week (Ogolodom et al. 2020). COVID19 is a member of the coronaviruses found in animals and made its way into

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human beings with symptoms that include a common cold in addition to severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS). Dealing with COVID-19 rapidly became a formidable task and overcoming the issues difficult to reckon with because of the aggressive infection rate that subjected all of humanity to the severe vulnerability of its attack. The sharing of value-based and evidence-based knowledge among nurses plays a vital role in the fight against any pandemic and especially COVID-19 (Schwerdtle et al. 2020). Buheji and Buhaid (2020) state that nurses have accumulated health care knowledge, including knowledge about pandemics. Because nurses have extensive professional experience, they have built up information and knowledge about infection control, prevention, treatment and rehabilitation. Their tacit knowledge is not codified and there seems to be a perpetual lack of preparedness when pandemics strike. According to Hewlett and Hewlett (2005), Africa has not taken lessons from the challenges of previous pandemics such as Ebola in Central Africa, particularly in Uganda and Congo. Nurses have faced similar challenges during the 21st-century outbreak of the coronavirus pandemic as they did with Ebola. Hewlett and Hewlett (2005) indicate that there was a high death rate from Ebola of frontline healthcare workers. Nurses worked under difficult conditions with a lack of essential infection control tools, inadequate resources, exposure to risks of infections, potential death, stigmatisation, and discrimination. Nurses also had to deal with patients who believed that malevolent spirits caused Ebola. Similar issues emerged during COVID-19. Learning from previous experiences seemed limited. This chapter explores the challenges nurses encountered when sharing knowledge during the COVID-19 outbreak.

Knowledge Sharing and Knowledge Management Knowledge sharing is an activity through which knowledge (namely, information, skills, or expertise) is exchanged among people, friends, peers, families, communities … or within or between organizations… It bridges the individual and organizational knowledge… [and] is part of the knowledge management process (Wikipedia 2022b).

“Knowledge management (KM) is the collection of methods relating to creating, sharing, using and managing the knowledge and information of an organization” (Wikipedia 2022a). Research has shown that knowledge sharing by nurses leads to better health provision (Buheji and Buhaid 2020). Knowledge assets form the basis of the knowledge sharing process and knowledge assets are the resources that an organisation can use to leverage its knowledge pool and create a sustainable knowledge-sharing environment (Chou and He 2004). Knowledge assets

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are experientially gained through hands-on experience and work routines performed by the members of an organisation. The result is tacit knowledge which is reflected in the actions and practices of any organisation. Knowledge assets lead to conceptual assets which are more explicit and transmitted through images, symbols and language, and finally, systematic knowledge assets emerge which are systemised and arranged through information and communications technology (ICT), product specifications, manuals and documents (Kamasak, Bulutlar, and Yucelen 2009). Bratianu states that knowledge moves from one person to another continuously by sharing it. Knowledge transfer or knowledge flow can be done in several ways: knowledge sharing involves the transfer of knowledge from one person or persons to another or others through identifiable channels; and knowledge diffusion concerns the adaptations and applications of knowledge documented in scientific publications and patents (Bratianu 2015). Gaál et al. identified three knowledge sharing generations that incorporate the mechanisms and tools used by organisations. The first generation uses codification and storage to share conceptual and systematised knowledge and is easily supported by ICT. The second generation incorporates a social component, personalisation, and depends on how people cooperate and communicate. Tacit knowledge in the second generation is used as the starting point for new employees who obtain knowledge from the already established employees. The third generation of knowledge sharing encompasses social networking sites within and outside an organisation which become systematised knowledge assets (Gaál et al. 2015). KM systems comprise the following processes: –– Awareness: knowledge seekers and sources should recognise the existence of others –– Access: rendering the time and place for seekers and sources to connect with one another –– Application: guaranteeing that the knowledge seeker and source have a common ground in content and understand the necessity to share their insights, and –– Perception: creating an atmosphere where knowledge sharing behaviours between seekers and sources are respected and valued (Gaál at al. 2015). Omotayo underscores that the following KM processes must be taken into cognisance when managing organisational knowledge: –– Recognition by management of organisational knowledge is central to the organisational strategy –– Organisation must grasp the potential of its knowledge assets and develop strategies for optimising them



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–– Organisational use of knowledge and learning must support existing core competencies and the creation of new ones, and –– Appointment, evaluation and rewarding of individuals must be conducted on the basis of their contribution to developing and sharing organisational knowledge (Omotayo 2015). The fourth industrial revolution has seen a rapid development in ICT that has dramatically affected how human beings communicate. The use of social networking sites has enabled the free flow of information, data, knowledge and opinion from near and far and has spread important information in real time to improve the lives of many people in any given community, and at the same time also spread misinformation and disinformation to damage people’s lives. Knowledge sharing has reached new heights of excellence as well as depths of mediocrity. Some writers indicate that knowledge sharing processes can be facilitated through learning. Innovative organisations are those that promote both adaptive and generative learning (Smith 2001) and encourage organisational members to learn to recreate and capacitate themselves. In this context, Peter Senge’s learning disciplines become important: –– Systems thinking: comprehending the whole and examining the interrelationships of the parts –– Personal mastery: individual learning focusing on vision –– Mental models: ingrained internal images which shape behaviour and decisions –– Building shared vision: group commitment to a common vision of the future, and –– Team learning: acting, thinking and growing together.

Implementation of Knowledge Sharing The important role played by effective knowledge management and knowledge sharing within organisations has been known for some time. But implementation has been slow. Nurses from developing countries have shown limited KS abilities and practices. Some have attributed failures in performance to poor KS and KM practices. There have been various medical errors such as severe injury to patients, inaccurate diagnoses, incorrect treatments, increased multi-drug resistance and unexpected deaths (Asemahagn 2014). Developing countries suffer enormously when pandemics break out within their communities, and the problems they face regarding KS among nurses in the healthcare sector tend to be similar (Omotayo

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2015). Some of the reasons why nurses in developing countries struggle to share knowledge are inadequate infrastructure including ICT, insufficient training, poor peer education, imperfect information and knowledge management, and a lack of a KS culture among nurses (Asemahagn 2014). Other limiting factors noted in reports on the application of KM and KS include lack of financial resources, inadequate staff training, lack of clearly defined guidelines, insufficient technology, organisations failing to incentivise (Aharony 2011), limited knowledge management expertise and the absence of a knowledge sharing culture (Parirokh, Daneshgar and Fattahi 2008). Other factors affecting KS include employees who hoard and withhold knowledge (Chigada and Ngulube 2015), mistrust amongst staff (Jacobs and Roodt 2011), and unhealthy competition or rivalry (Chigada and Ngulube 2015).

Knowledge Sharing and COVID-19 The World Health Organization (WHO) published an interactive timeline to update the world on significant activities relating to COVID-19 and to showcase WHO actions on information, science, leadership, advice, response, and resourcing in relation to all aspects of the pandemic (WHO 2021). In Africa, COVID-19 arrived at a time when member states of the African Union were making inroads to build systems that promoted science, technology, and innovation (STI), in line with three agendas, namely the Science, Technology, and Innovation Strategy for Africa 2024 (STISA-2024) (African Union 2020); the African Union Agenda 2063 (African Union n.d. a); and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) programme (African Union n.d. b). African countries took a strong stance on combatting COVID-19 and used some of the strategies being developed in the three agendas already determined for the African Union. Knowledge systems, innovation, and emerging technologies were seen to be essential for responding to the pandemic. Changes to behaviour were required along with the development of resilient systems relying on formal and informal medical, social, and economic knowledge. COVID-19 quickly reshaped how Africans thought about their knowledge systems and how different African countries could remodel scientific knowledge and innovation, and use emerging ICT to contribute to better management of responses to pandemics and other disasters (AUDA 2020). In South Africa, the emphasis was placed on data-driven decision making because of the uncertain and fast-moving nature of the pandemic (South Africa. NDA 2020). Beyond the crucial information on the COVID-19 outbreak and the infected populations, data provided real-time snapshots on what policies should be implemented



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and outlined the behaviour of specific groups of healthcare professionals. Data on the nurses’ knowledge of the pandemic, their attitudes and practices related to the disease and preventive measures such as social distancing and misinformation were considered critical in controlling the spread of the pandemic (South Africa. NDA 2020). There were many initiatives taken but it was unclear how they filtered down to frontline healthcare workers, or whether they were packaged systematically to facilitate KS among nurses. Nurses need to be able to identify and quantify relevant resources for sharing knowledge about pandemics more effectively and efficiently by tapping into their knowledge gained tacitly and explicitly (Kamasak, Bulutlar, and Yucelen 2009). The Ebola outbreak has already been referred to and in Central Africa, it demonstrated the nurses’ ability to harness both tacit and explicit knowledge in their efforts to treat and contain the disease (Hewlett and Hewlett 2005). To use local solutions to solve local problems, healthcare professionals in Africa must consider integrating traditional and biomedical treatments in curbing and limiting the spread of the disease (Hewlett and Hewlett 2005). It was essential that the knowledge shared about COVID-19 should be about its transmission, symptoms, prevention, containment and treatment. A survey by Frontline talk – South African healthcare workers’ response to the Covid-19 pandemic reported that nurses were regarded as the backbone of South Africa’s healthcare system but that they lagged behind in critical training regarding treatment guidelines and had little confidence in their knowledge about the disease. Nurses indicated a lower knowledge base than other medical professionals surveyed. The lack of adequate knowledge experienced by the nurses reduced their ability to share knowledge among themselves and with the community, and created a significant challenge in the fight against COVID-19 (Mkize 2020). The fundamental importance of tacit knowledge in any organisation has already been acknowledged. It helps the organisation have a competitive edge. However, embedded knowledge and its ambiguity make it challenging to communicate clearly to others, which eventually decreases its transferability (Al-Alawi, Al-Marzooqi, and Mohammed 2007). Individuals face challenges when sharing tacit knowledge, including perception, language barrier, time, value, and distance (Mahroeian and Forozia 2012). These challenges are commonly faced by any individual when sharing knowledge and absorbing the knowledge that will best define their priorities. Tacit knowledge that is codified becomes complicated during sharing, especially with a third party (Mahroeian and Forozia 2012). Codification limits an individual’s ability to fully grasp the contents embedded within a particular knowledge piece (Al-Alawi, Al-Marzooqi and Mohammed 2007). Resources such as ICT tools, for example, the Internet, smartphones, laptops, and desktop computers, play a crucial role in knowledge sharing (Al-Alawi, Al-Marzooqi,

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and Mohammed 2007). The inability to provide such resources significantly affects the ability of different individuals to engage in knowledge sharing actively and effectively (Buheji and Buhaid 2020). Most developing nations have poor access to the Internet; most healthcare facilities are underfunded; individuals with the appropriate knowledge are difficult to find; and the tools necessary to conduct knowledge sharing including smart mobile devices and Internet infrastructure are viewed as luxuries rather than necessities (Buheji and Buhaid 2020). The development of ICT has enabled knowledge to be shared remotely and in real time. In an era with COVID19, the use of social media must be encouraged so that knowledge can flow freely from one person to another remotely (Mahroeian and Forozia 2012). However, it is essential to highlight the dangers of social media, which has been used to spread false information about COVID-19 and to instil fear in the community about vaccinations. Social media must be used cleverly to guarantee the sharing of trustworthy, evidence-based data-driven knowledge.

Examining Knowledge Sharing by Nurses during COVID-19 Objectives A study was undertaken to analyse the extent of knowledge sharing by nurses in dealing with COVID-19. The study addressed the following objectives: –– Ascertain the requisite knowledge assets appropriate for knowledge sharing during pandemics, notably the COVID-19 pandemic –– Review the mechanisms and tools used by nurses when sharing knowledge about COVID-19 among themselves –– Determine the challenges faced by nurses in developing countries when sharing knowledge about COVID-19, and –– Make recommendations for future improvements in sharing knowledge about COVID-19.

Research Methodology The literature on knowledge sharing, COVID-19 and pandemics in general was reviewed and analysed, using secondary sources of information including documents, journal articles, online sources, and conference papers. A total of 33 doc-



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uments were analysed that were relevant to the study. The information and data found were retained as quotations or entire passages, and case examples through content analysis to gain an insight into how healthcare professionals, especially nurses in developing nations, shared knowledge. How did knowledge sharing help nurses in fighting COVID-19? What were the challenges nurses faced when sharing knowledge? According to Mnkeni-Saurombe and Zimu (2015), the analysis of documents by using a qualitative research method allows a study to use documents to gain insight and then develop empirical meaning. Reviewing documents helps a study determine patterns, themes, or biases within the documents (Mnkeni-Saurombe and Zimu 2015). Bowen (2009) asserts that document analysis is an orderly way for reviewing documents that are both printed and electronic. Just like any other qualitative research method, document analysis entails examining and interpreting data to obtain meaning, gain understanding, and develop empirical knowledge (Corbin and Strauss 2008).

Actor-Network Theory (ANT) The study used the Actor-Network Theory (ANT), a social theory that examines the interchange between human and non-human systems in an actor-network that allows technical, organisational, and social aspects to be examined and studied together. ANT explores the shifting connections between the network’s actors or members. The shifting connections are examined using moments of translation which involve an alignment of interests of the actors in a network with that of an actor (Twum-Darko and Harker 2017). The moments of translation, according to Sarker, Sarker and Sidorova include: –– “Problematization” where the problem is identified and ways in which to solve the problem are initiated. In this case, the challenges that nurses face when sharing knowledge about COVID-19 in developing nations such as the lack of ICT tools and the lack of adequate skills, and the ways in which the challenges can be overcome to remedy deficiencies in sharing knowledge about pandemics –– “Interessement” which involves a process of negotiation between the leading focal actor, which is knowledge sharing in this case and the identified actors who happen to be the nurses, to align their interests. The identified challenges in knowledge sharing during COVID-19 must align with the nurse’s interests in addressing shortfalls in their knowledge sharing capabilities, and –– “Enrollment” where each actor commits to the programme and shared values, experiences, and knowledge. The nurses, in this case, must share knowledge

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about COVID-19 among themselves to help grow their job experiences and broaden their existing knowledge (Sarker, Sarker, and Sidorova 2006, 54). Following successful translation, mobilisation is undertaken to ensure that adequate resources, expertise, and skills are mobilised to ensure that the nurses have the necessary tools, such as appropriate ICT, to share knowledge about COVID-19 and to mitigate the challenges they face. Twum-Darko and Harker (2017) argue that studies in information science have tended to focus on one perspective at the expense of the others. KS as a phenomenon in KM should be explained using a framework that combines categories of influence from both organisational and individual levels (Twum-Darko and Harker 2017). Buheji and Buhaid’s knowledge sharing model (2020) and Hewlett and Hewlett’s proposed cultural model (2005) were deemed useful to gain insight into healthworkers’ knowledge sharing activities in developing countries, particularly in Africa. Buheji and Buhaid’s framework optimises higher learning experiences in knowledge sharing which enable the accumulation of tacit knowledge. Knowledge sharing among nurses focuses on managing the nurses’ tacit knowledge, which is later turned into explicit knowledge and ultimately helps the nurses with interprofessional relationships and multidisciplinary teamwork which finally brings innovative knowledge. Hewlett and Hewlett (2005) advocate for a cultural model where treatment and combatting diseases can be conducted using modern science and traditional means. Nurses from developing nations and especially Africa, have grown up in communities where they have been exposed to traditional remedies when dealing with diseases. They are encouraged to be more sensitive to cultural beliefs and to incorporate cultural knowledge for use and sharing. The ANT model advocates using human and non-human actors. The ANT model provided a useful approach for the study and contributed to understanding the improvements to establish an effective platform for knowledge sharing among nurses in developing countries, and in Africa, in relation to COVID-19.

The Findings – The Nurse Experience COVID-19 has presented challenges to nurses in their pursuit of the appropriate knowledge to understand the disease and how to offer treatment. Most standardised systems used to fight past pandemics have been reviewed. Nurses have adjusted and prepared themselves for new patient safety programmes in line with the WHO guidelines on prevention and safety. Nurses have obtained up-to-date



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knowledge on COVID-19. Once they acquired the knowledge, they shared it with others and ensured that the knowledge shared was relevant to the fight against COVID-19. To keep nurses motivated and focused on sharing acquired knowledge, they must be encouraged to share experiences through highlighting the seriousness of the pandemic. Nurses must equip themselves with the latest knowledge and data about COVID-19, especially from trusted sources like WHO and other legal entities mandated with the fight against COVID-19. Knowledge assets must be implemented effectively to harness knowledge through different channels such as print media, electronic media, government gazettes, and policy documents aimed at making knowledge sharing part of the workplace. Nurses must be encouraged to use social media to communicate necessary knowledge. Since one of the key measures preventing the spread was social distancing, the use of social media platforms such as Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, and TikTok could be used as knowledge sharing platforms without running the risk of close contact and also used to counteract misinformation and fake knowledge that had become rampant since the outbreak of COVID-19. Wang and Wu (2020) recommend using KS policies as a guiding framework when making important decisions about what knowledge of COVID-19 is driven by facts and data and the mechanisms through which the KS process should be conducted. Communities of practice (COPs) are viewed as vital when sharing tacit knowledge. Groups of people with like interests and concerns can interact regularly, share their knowledge and learn effectively. COPs can be used innovatively by integrating them with social media technologies, but people need to be educated on separating trustworthy information from untrustworthy information to share knowledge that will not cause confusion and harm. Nurses were the group of healthcare workers most deprived of knowledge about COVID-19 in Africa but the backbone of providing healthcare services. There were deficiencies in all knowledge areas with particular concerns around vaccinations. The issues and concerns of frontline health care workers in dealing with COVID-19 have been well-documented (Chersich et al 2020). Many have lamented that they did not receive training on how to roll out the vaccine, including knowledge about the long-term effects of the vaccine. Africa must overcome its scarcity of resources such as the technologies needed during pandemics, and skills are needed to use technology and knowledge effectively to fight the pandemic. The Department of Health has taken steps to address the deficiency, but more can be done through the provision of adequate skills, training in knowledge management, workshops, and seminars, and mechanisms that ensure knowledge sharing forms part of the nurses’ daily work routines. It is crucial that quality information flows effectively

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from WHO to the African Union to frontline healthcare workers and on to rural communities in Africa. Healthcare facilities and organisations in developing nations must adopt adequate KS policies within their workplaces to improve the ability of their healthcare workers to share knowledge effectively and efficiently. Time can be set aside as part of daily work routines. Wang and Wu (2020) argue that policies can provide a guiding framework on what knowledge must be shared and which must not be shared. Adequate provision of ICT and other resources, improved skills and competencies, and training in KS are part of organisational as well as personal responsibilities and should form the backbone of KS in healthcare facilities to enable nurses to understand that knowledge must be shared and knowledge deficiencies reduced in future pandemic situations. Chigada and Ngulube (2015) assert that knowledge retention is also important. It involves all systems and activities that capture and preserve knowledge and allow it to remain in the organisational system once introduced. It is important to note that in the absence of retention strategies, tacit knowledge tends to vanish.

Conclusion Knowledge sharing is a critical aspect of knowledge management. If any organisation is to succeed, it must implement structures that aid in the proper transfer of knowledge from one person to another. COVID-19 came with many challenges, especially concerning the amount of knowledge available. Initially, as the pandemic spread and became a huge problem globally, there was little knowledge on COVID-19. As time went by, the amount of knowledge grew exponentially. Nurses as frontline workers in the fight against COVID-19 had to come to grips with the vast quantities of knowledge being generated about the disease on its prevention, control, and treatment. Providing effective advice on topics as varied as social distancing and vaccinations and dealing with issues of working and schooling from home proved difficult. How to share the available knowledge on COVID19 effectively and adequately among the nurses proved challenging. It is crucial to develop learning organisations, communities of practice, and knowledge sharing cultures to trap and share knowledge throughout healthcare facilities and through their staff. Nurses have struggled throughout the world, and particularly in developing countries to find effective ways to share accurate knowledge. Clear policies, proper resourcing, and innovative use of ICT will all help. Nurses must be equipped to deal with future pandemics and other medical emergency situations in the future.



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References African Union. n.d. a. “Agenda 2063: The Africa We Want: Overview.” https://au.int/agenda2063/ overview. African Union. n.d. b. “Agenda 2063-SDGs.” Economic Development, Trade, Industry, Mining (ETIM). https://au.int/en/ea/statistics/a2063sdgs. African Union. 2020. “Science, Technology and Innovation Strategy for Africa 2024.” https://au.int/en/ documents/20200625/science-technology-and-innovation-strategy-africa-2024. African Union Development Agency (AUDA). 2020. “Harnessing Innovation and Emerging Technologies to Address the Impact of COVID-19 in Africa: White Paper.” African Union High Level Panel on Emerging Technologies. Johannesburg: AUDA-NEPAD. https://www.nepad.org/ publication/white-paper-harnessing-innovation-and-emerging-technologies-address-impact-of. Aharony, Noa. 2011. “Librarians’ Attitudes Towards Knowledge Management.” College & Research Libraries 72, no. 2: 111–126. https://doi.org/10.5860/crl-87. Al-Alawi, Adel Ismail, Nayla Yousif Al-Marzooqi, Yasmeen Fraidoon Mohammed. 2007. “Organisational Culture and Knowledge Sharing: Critical Success Factors.” Journal of Knowledge Management 11 no. 2: 22–42. https://doi.org/10.1108/13673270710738898. Alavi, Maryam, and Dorothy E. Leidner. 2001. “Knowledge Management and Knowledge Management Systems: Conceptual Foundations and Research Issues: Review.” MIS Quarterly 25, no. 1: 107–136. Available at http://www.cs.unibo.it/gaspari/www/teaching/14_KM_KMsystems_Alavi_MISQ.pdf. Asemahagn, Mulusew Andualem. 2014. “Knowledge and Experience Sharing Practices Among Health Professionals in Hospitals Under the Addis Ababa Health Bureau, Ethiopia.” BCM Health Services Research 14: Article no. 431. https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6963-14-431. Bowen, Glenn A. 2009. “Document Analysis as a Qualitative Research Method.” Qualitative Research Journal 9, no. 2: 27–40. https://doi.org/10.3316/QRJ0902027. Available at https://biotap.utk.edu/ wp-content/uploads/2019/02/document-analysis.pdf. Bratianu, Constantin. 2015. Organisational Knowledge Dynamics: Managing Knowledge Creation, Acquisition, Sharing, and Transformation. Eastleigh: IGI Global. https://www.igi-global.com/ gateway/book/123104. Buheji, Mohamed, and Nawal Buhaid. 2020. “Capturing Accumulated Knowledge and Learning of COVID-19 Pandemic from Front-Line Nurse.” Human Resource Management Research 10, no. 2: 27–32. doi:10.5923/j.hrmr.20201002.01. Available at http://article.sapub. org/10.5923.j.hrmr.20201002.01.html. Chersich, Matthew F., Glenda Gray, Lee Fairlie, Quentin Eichbaum, Susannah Mayhew, Brian Allwood, Rene English et al. 2020. “COVID-19 in Africa: Care and Protection for Frontline Healthcare Workers.” Global Health 16: 46. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12992-020-00574-3. Chigada, Joel, and Patrick Ngulube. 2015. “Knowledge Management Practices at Selected Banks in South Africa.” South African Journal of Information Management 17, no.1: Art. 634. http://dx.doi. org/10.4102/sajim.v17i1.634. Chou, Shih-Wei, and Mong-Young He. 2004. “Facilitating Knowledge Creation by Knowledge Assets.” In Proceedings of the 37th Annual Hawaii International Conference on Systems Sciences, 2004, Hawaii, 9: 242c. 10.1109/HICSS.2004.1265584. https://dl.acm.org/doi/abs/10.5555/962756.963230. Corbin, Juliet M., and Anselm C. Strauss. 2008. Basics of Qualitative Research: Techniques and Procedures for Developing Grounded Theory. 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

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Gaál, Zoltán, Lajos Szabo, Nora Obermayer-Kovács, and Anikó Csepregi. 2015. “Exploring the Role of Social Media in Knowledge Sharing.” EJKM: Electronic Journal of Knowledge Management 13, no. 3: 185–197. https://academic-publishing.org/index.php/ejkm/article/view/1055/1018. Hewlett, Bonnie L., and Barry S. Hewlett. 2005. “Providing Care and Facing Death: Nursing During Ebola Outbreaks in Central Africa.” Journal of Transcultural Nursing 16, no.4: 289-297. https://doi. org/10.1177/1043659605278935. Kamaşak, Rifat, Füsun Bulutlar, and Murat Yücelen. 2009. “Knowledge Asset Management: Knowledge Assets and Their Influence on the Development of Organisational Strategies.” 7th International Knowledge, Economy and Management Congress, Yalova, Turkey, 1977–1984. Available at https:// tinyurl.com/3cxf5znc. Mahroeian, Hamidreza, and Amirreza Forozia. 2012. “Challenges in Managing Tacit Knowledge: A Study on Difficulties in Diffusion of Tacit Knowledge in Organisations.” International Journal of Business and Social Science 3, no. 19: 303–308. http://www.ijbssnet.com/journals/Vol_3_No_19_ October_2012/34.pdf. Mkize, Vuyo. 2020. “Nurses Battling to Cope with Covid-19.” City Press, August 9, 2020. https://www. news24.com/citypress/news/nurses-battling-to-cope-with-covid-19-20200808. Mnkeni-Saurombe, Nampombe, and Nomusa Zimu. 2015. “Towards Tackling Inequalities in South Africa: The Role of Community Libraries.” Information Development 31, no. 1: 40–52. https://doi. org/10.1177/0266666913501681. Available at http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11910/2856. Ogolodom, M. P., A. N. Mbaba, N. Alazigha, O.F. Erondu, N.O. Egbe, I. Golden, D.C. Ugwuanyi, G.I. Achi, and C.M. Eke. 2020. “Knowledge, Attitudes, and Fears of Healthcare Workers towards the Corona Virus Disease (COVID-19) Pandemic in South-South Nigeria.” Health Science Journal. Special Issue 1: 002. 1–10. DOI: 10.36648/1791-809X.S1.002. https://www.itmedicalteam.pl/articles/ knowledge-attitudes-and-fears-of-healthcare-workers-towards-the-corona-virus-disease-covid19pandemic-in-southsouth-nigeria.pdf. Omotayo, Funmilola Olubunmi. 2015. “Knowledge Management as an Important Tool in Organisational Management: A Review of Literature.” Library Philosophy and Practice (e-journal): 1238. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libphilprac/1238. Sarker, Suprateek, Saonee Sarker, and Anna Sidorova. 2006. “Understanding Business Process Change Failure: An Actor-Network Perspective. Journal of Management Information Systems 23, no. 1: 51–86. https://doi.org/10.2753/MIS0742-1222230102. Schwerdtle, Patricia Nayna, Clifford J. Connell, Susan Lee, Virginia Plummer, Philip L. Russo, Ruth Endacott, and Lisa Kuhn. 2020. “Nurse Expertise: A Critical Resource in the COVID-19 Pandemic Response.” Annals of Global Health 86, no. 1: 49, 1–5. http://doi.org/10.5334/aogh.2898. Smith, Mark K. 2001. “Peter Senge and the Learning Organization.” Infed.Org: Education, Community-building and Change.” Last updated April 4, 2013. https://infed.org/mobi/peter-sengeand-the-learning-organization/. South Africa. National Development Agency (NDA). 2020. “South Africa’s Social Development Sector Response to Covid-19.” by Bongani Magongo, Joshua Lam, Ignacio del Busto, Chris Chibwana, Lerato Rametse, Sindy Li, and Emily Coppel. Johannesburg: NDA and IDInsight. Available at https://tinyurl.com/4msay4wk. Twum-Darko, Michael, and Lee-Anne Lesley Harker. 2017. “Understanding Knowledge Sharing in an Organisation: A Perspective of Actor-Network Theory.” International Journal of Knowledge Management 13, no. 1: 53–74. https://doi.org/10.4018/IJKM.2017010104. Available at https://www. igi-global.com/gateway/article/181290.



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Tanya du Plessis, Dimpho Z. Gamede, Kevin M. Letsoalo and Neo Ramatsebe

17 O  ne Journal’s Journey through the Fourth Industrial Revolution Abstract: The digital age presents multiple societal opportunities and challenges associated with the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR). The 4IR is a well–researched phenomenon in many disciplines. This chapter reports on an investigation into one journal in the field of information and knowledge management (IKM) to determine if it contained specific content on the pillars of the 4IR which would contribute to enabling an effective information society. Articles from the IKM journal Information Technology & People for the years 2015 to 2019 were sampled, captured, coded and categorised. Purposive sampling was used to select the journal and random sampling was used to choose the articles. Big data and systems integration emerged from the analysis as the two most significant 4IR pillars addressed in the journal. Additive manufacturing received no attention. The trend analysis indicated a growing research interest in areas such as simulation, autonomous systems, cybersecurity and the Internet of Things. Researchers and information professionals must increase research output in areas related to the 4IR pillars to combat the challenges associated with the digital age. Keywords: Fourth Industrial Revolution; Information Management; Knowledge Management; Bibliometrics

Introduction Some say the term the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) was first used in Germany in 2011 (Wikipedia 2022), which makes it a comparatively recent concept. The term was popularised by the World Economic Forum and its founder Klaus Schwab (2016) who defined the 4IR as a technological revolution blurring the lines between physical, digital, and biological spheres and disrupting the traditional ways of society, business, and government with innovations involving intelligent information technology. The 4IR has changed how business is done and the way people live across the world. It may be developing at a fast pace, but there is still much to be learned by the public as well as business, commerce and industry on how to use and incorporate into the workplace the disruptive technologies associated with the 4IR. Organisations and their employees need to be prepared. This chapter presents some of the findings of a larger project aimed at answering the research https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110772753-019



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question: What is the prominence of the so-called nine pillars of the 4IR in IKM related journals? What support is being provided to the user in preparing for the Fourth Industrial Revolution? This chapter presents the findings of an analysis of publication trends on 4IR research in a scholarly journal linked to the discipline of information and knowledge management (IKM). The 4IR is a well-researched phenomenon in many subject areas, including IKM. This chapter reports on whether articles published in the journal, Information Technology & People, contain specific research on the nine pillars of the 4IR. The nine pillars include the Internet of Things (IoT), cloud computing, autonomous and robotics systems, big data analytics, augmented reality, cybersecurity, simulation, system integration, and additive manufacturing (Figure 17.1). This chapter includes an overview of the 4IR and IKM, details of the research methods used in the study, the findings and discussion of the study, and implications for future action.

Fig. 17.1: Nine pillars of the 4IR (Palka and Ciukaj 2019. Reproduced under license CC BY-NC-ND 3.0).

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The Fourth Industrial Revolution and Information and Knowledge Management The 4IR is identified by a progressive and extensive application of a growing list of emerging interdependent technologies, which include robotics, virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR), artificial intelligence (AI) and the Internet of Things (IoT), additive manufacturing (3D printing), blockchain and distributed ledger technology, advanced materials and nanomaterial, energy capture, storage, and transmission, and new computing technologies, biotechnologies, geoengineering technologies, terotechnology, and space technologies (Schwab 2016, 2017). Included in the list of technologies are ubiquitous linked sensors, autonomous systems, big data, cloud computing, cybersecurity, systems integration, and simulation. Some of the technologies are considered as the pillars of the 4IR as already noted and the importance of integrating the various technologies into new ways of living and working has been propounded by many (Ballaro and Moriarty 2019; Brynjolfsson and McAfee 2014; Christensen 2013; Muscio and Ciffolilli 2020; Rüßmann et al. 2015; Safrankova et al. 2020; Seseni and Mbohwa 2019). Most argue that it is anticipated that the 4IR will bring significant disruptive change to the professions as they currently operate. Many attribute employee redundancy and job losses to the introduction of the 4IR in workplaces. It is important however to note that developments in 4IR technologies are driven by people; it is people at the centre of the use of data, the Internet and the flow of information. The effective integration of technologies in organisations requires human insight (Hussain 2019; Thomas 2019). Humankind has been adopting new technologies and adapting to them for centuries. The principles of information and knowledge management can be applied to ensure the appropriate implementation and application of the various technologies available. IKM assists organisations in decision making and continuous learning and is known as a tool for adding value to organisations and enterprises (Maçada et al. 2013; Schniederjans, Curado, and Khalajhedayati 2020). If used appropriately, knowledge can enhance the competitiveness and performance of an organisation. For these reasons it is important to manage the information as well as knowledge (Seseni and Mbohwa 2019). Dalkir stated: A good definition of knowledge management would incorporate both the capturing and sharing of knowledge perspectives, together with the valuing of intellectual assets. For example: Knowledge management is the deliberate and systematic coordination of an organization’s people, technology and processes and organizational structure in order to add value through reuse and innovation. This is achieved through the promotion of creating, sharing, and applying knowledge as well as through the feeding of valuable lessons learned and best



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practices into corporate memory in order to foster continued organizational learning (Dalkir 2017, 4).

The 4IR and IKM both assist organisations by steering them into the future. IKM assists organisations through identifying, organising, storing, sharing and disseminating knowledge within an organisation, integrating internal knowledge with external knowledge, and applying it to improving organisational performance. IKM is one of the disciplines that can assist society in preparing for and dealing with the 4IR. Enterprise information management is seen as a strategic approach. Information has emerged as a commodity and enterprises will seek ways to ensure that it is enriched, and its value does not decrease (Burrows 2013; Gevaudan 2019; Hwang 2019; Maçada et al. 2013; Schniederjans, Curado and Khalajhedayati 2020; Stock and Seliger 2016). As the world moved into the age of the 4IR, it has moved into an information age; it is essential that IKM operates effectively in the 4IR and that the 4IR and IKM can together explore what the future looks like (Blyth 2015; Kang et al. 2018; León 2017; Mathewson 2015; Savić 2018; Sutherland 2020; Telang 2019; Xu, Adavid, and Kim 2018). Researchers, such as Cárdenas, Ramírez, and Molano (2018), Meski et al. (2019) and Schnierderjans, Curado, and Khalajhedayati (2020) have linked the 4IR and IKM. They state that integrating knowledge and data in a smart way allows for artificial intelligence to be integrated into the workplace and makes creating decision support systems possible. Knowledge management has both great and positive effects on digitising supply chains. This chapter links the 4IR and IKM by analysing the trends and frequency of the publication of topics related to the pillars of the 4IR in an IKM related journal. How the links were made is explained in the following section tracking the journey, and outlining the research undertaken and the methodology adopted.

Tracking the Journal Journey An IKM related journal, Information Technology & People published by Emerald was the journal chosen for the study because of its strong reputation and its subject focus. “Information Technology & People publishes work that is dedicated to understanding the implications of information technology as a tool, resource and format for people in society as much as in their daily work in organizations.” Issues of the journal from 2015 to 2019 were analysed. The method chosen to examine the content was a mono–method quantitative study through content analysis. The research design choice was based on pragmatism in which deductive reasoning

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was used with no predicted outcome envisaged. The research strategy was operationalised by coding on an Excel spreadsheet using category sheets (Appendix A). The category sheets were used to identify the nine pillars in their different forms in the journal with one sheet associated with each: autonomous systems, big data, augmented reality, internet of things, cloud computing, cybersecurity, system integration, additive manufacturing and simulation. Each category sheet had eight sections: definition of underlying variable, indicators, time, subject of category, scope of category, content of category, reported causes, and reported effects. Purposive and random sampling were used for the study. Purposive sampling was used to select the journal used. The journal was Information Technology & People; it was chosen because it was a peer reviewed scholarly publication associated with IKM and ranked highly in the International Scientific Indexing (ISI) journal rankings. The journal is available on the Emerald Insight platform. It has high citations according to the SCOPUS ranking. In selecting articles in the journal published between the years 2015 to 2019, random sampling was used. A total of 752 articles was published in the targeted journal between 2015 and 2019. From these, 255 articles were randomly chosen equally and in a proportional manner over the time period, at a 95% confidence level, leaving a 5% margin error and 50% response distribution. Quantitative data was collected, and content analysis was the research instrument used. Content analysis is based on determining the presence of certain words, concepts or themes. Researchers use content analysis to quantify and analyse the meaning and relationship of words, concepts or themes (Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health 2019). The data was collected using an Excel spreadsheet template with coding to calculate the sum of articles on the 4IR pillars in the journal. Since the journal articles sampled were from 2015 to 2019, each year had a spreadsheet template with coding. The title and abstract of the articles were captured and coded with “1” in the case that a pillar was present or “0” in the case that it was absent, using the eight sections of the category sheets as a guideline. To ensure that the coding was accurate, three of the four researchers checked the coding done by peer researchers. The fourth researcher then reviewed the accuracy of the three peer researchers’ application of the category sheets. To answer the research question, the occurrence of the 4IR pillars for each year from the 2015 to 2019 time period was calculated to obtain the total for each year and also for the full five-year period. The calculations were used to identify trends and patterns of the 4IR occurrences. The percentage of the annual increase over the five-year period was also calculated.



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The Journal’s Fourth Industrial Revolution Content The research question was: What is the prominence of the nine pillars of the 4IR in IKM related journals to support the user in preparing for the Fourth Industrial Revolution? This section presents the findings of the trend analysis of the articles sampled from Information Technology & People. Table 17.1 provides the instances where 4IR pillars appeared in the abstracts of sampled articles from the journal for each of the years examined, emphasising annual occurrences. Table 17.1: Occurrences of the 4IR pillars in Information Technology & People. Pillars Autonomous Systems Big Data Augmented Reality Internet of Things Cloud Computing Cyber Security Systems Integration Additive Manufacturing Simulation Total

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

0 1 1 2 0 0 4 0 1 9

0 4 2 1 0 1 10 0 0 18

1 4 1 1 0 0 7 0 0 14

1 11 1 3 1 1 14 0 0 32

5 12 1 1 4 7 5 0 3 38

Table 17.1 shows a gradual increase in the occurrences of the 4IR pillars from the period 2015 until 2019 although there was a significant contraction in the year 2017. The annual growth from 2015 to 2019 averages 2.8%, indicating a gradual but noteworthy increase in the instances of articles related to 4IR pillars from the sampled journal abstracts. The increases are shown graphically in Figure 17.2 and indicate a strong upwards trajectory.

Fig. 17.2: Annual trends of increases in 4IR content

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The increase can be attributed to an enhanced awareness and interest in the 4IR coupled with curiosity about the impact of 4IR technologies and how businesses across the globe can benefit from their use. From 2015, some components such as artificial intelligence under autonomous systems became more prevalent and their impact felt more widely throughout the world, especially in manufacturing industries where some twenty million jobs were anticipated to be lost due to AI and robots in the succeeding ten years (Grabowska 2020; Machado, Winroth, and Da Silva 2020; Oosthuizen 2017; Oxford Economics 2019). It is likely that the numbers of articles on 4IR will continue to increase from 2020 onwards as a result of expected rapid growth in the advent of 4IR technologies into the everyday lives of citizens. More research into developments is crucial for understanding the 4IR and most importantly into what must be done to prepare the user not only to survive but thrive in the 4IR. Table 17.2 is an alternative representation of the findings tabulated to emphasise the occurrences of the individual 4IR pillars. Additive manufacturing had no occurrences across the period analysed; simulation had but four; and cloud computing five. Systems integration with forty occurrences recorded the highest number, and big data was the second highest with thirty-two instances. Table 17.2: Findings by 4IR pillar from Information Technology & People  

2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 Total

AutoBig Augmented Internet Cloud Cyber Systems Additive Simulation nomous Data Reality of Things Com- Security IntegManuSystems puting ration facturing 0 0 1 1 5 7

1 4 4 11 12 32

1 2 1 1 1 6

2 1 1 3 1 8

0 0 0 1 4 5

0 1 0 1 7 9

4 10 7 14 5 40

0 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 3 4

Systems integration comprised 36% of the total occurrences, followed by big data at 28.8% (Figure 17.3). The outlier factor can be attributed to the fact that the characteristics and indicators that gave rise to both big data and systems integration as pillars of 4IR were established long before the advent of the 4IR. The term big data has been in use since the 1990s with Francis X. Diebold using it in 2000 and attributing its origins to John Mashey (Wiktionary 2022). Over a decade later, the term would be used more frequently with the growth of computing power. With the advent of the 4IR, technologies to mine, transform and analyse the vast quantities of data available became more necessary and significant. The research area in big



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data is broad as it encompasses medicine, management and marketing amongst others. Big data is defined by its characteristics and dimensions such as volume, veracity and velocity amongst others (Ahmed and Ameen 2017). The newer pillars of knowledge within the 4IR such as additive manufacturing, simulation and cloud computing were represented in the contents of the journal and growing at a steady rate. It is likely that developments in these 4IR pillars will grow at a more exponential rate in the future. Triggered growth in other aspects of topics included may well occur (Figure 17.3).

Fig. 17.3: Percentage distributions of the 4IR pillars.

Two hundred and fifty-five abstracts were sampled from Information Technology & People. One hundred and eleven, or 43.5% of the total, referred to the 4IR pillars. Over half of the articles, 56.5% related to other topics and did not mention any of the identified aspects of the 4IR pillars. The results of the study reveal an increasing trend in research output referring to the 4IR pillars in the five-year period examined in one scholarly journal linked to IKM.

Limitations The study was conducted on one journal only and the findings may not be generalisable to other IKM journals. The study described in this chapter reports on one

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section only of the data collected as part of a larger data set and study. The coding system and content analysis examined the abstracts and not the entire journal article. The details from the abstracts were deemed sufficient. The coding was conducted by three individuals who checked for any inconsistencies with the process ensuring reliability of the data collection. Before coding began, there were certain expectations of the outcomes. The expectations included lower numbers of articles related to the 4IR than the reality proved. Researchers had also expected the pillars to be discussed more explicitly especially as they related to preparing the user for the 4IR. Big data was accurately expected to have a large research output because of the significant role played by data and big data in the field in the creation of information, in the discipline of IKM and in research generally. Such expectations might be regarded as bias, which was resolved by multiple intercoder data collection and checking.

Conclusion The findings of the study, although based on one journal only, suggest that IKM is progressively supporting activities to be undertaken by the intermediaries who read the journal in preparing people for the 4IR. Research output produced by IKM on the 4IR pillars has risen over the identified five-year publication cycle. Broad research on areas such as big data and systems integration has taken place and been reported on in the period between 2015 and 2019 in the journal Information Technology & People. The quantitative data collected shows an upward trend in the publication patterns of research on various aspects of the 4IR. What remains unknown is whether the findings reflect a general trend in the publication patterns of other IKM related journals and whether further significant changes in the publication patterns will occur going forward. However, it is likely that research output on the 4IR pillars will see further increases in the future. What also is to be determined is the impact of the research on practical implementation of technologies related to the 4IR for the betterment of all. A trend analysis of the research output of other IKM journals would facilitate generalisation of the results. It remains crucial that research work about the 4IR and its pillars in the field of IKM continue and expand with technological developments in the 4IR advancing exponentially. Research output in areas such as additive manufacturing and simulation ought to be increased to equal or exceed the more popular areas such as big data. The final words of this chapter which has tracked one journal’s journey through IKM and the 4IR pillars echo those of Schwab (2016) who said “we must develop a comprehensive and globally shared view of how technology is affecting our lives



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and reshaping our economic, social, cultural, and human environments. There has never been a time of greater promise, or greater peril”.

Acknowledgement Without the guidance and expertise of Prof. Martie Mearns from the University of Johannesburg in South Africa, this paper would not have been possible.

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Grabowska, Sandra. 2020. “Smart Factories in The Age of Industry 4.0.” Management Systems in Production Engineering 28, no. 2: 90–96. DOI 10.2478/mspe-2020-001. Available at https:// yadda.icm.edu.pl/baztech/element/bwmeta1.element.baztech-3c553238-d7a5-4677-896e8c9a0f7b462d. Hussain, Abid. 2019. “Industrial Revolution 4.0: Implication to Libraries and Librarians.” Library Hi Tech News 37, no. 1: 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1108/LHTN-05-2019-0033. Available at https://tinyurl. com/5n7eksa4. Hwang, Gyuhee. 2019. “Challenges for Innovative HRD in the Era of the 4th Industrial Revolution.” Asian Journal of Innovation and Policy 8, no. 2: 288–301. https://doi.org/10.7545/ajip.2019.8.2.288. Kang, Ji Hun, Dong Hwan Kim, Seong Ho Park, and Jung Hwan Baek. 2018. “Age of Data in Contemporary Research Articles Published in Representative General Radiology Journals.” Korean Journal of Radiology 19, no. 6: 1172–1178. https://synapse.koreamed.org/articles/1105326. León, Luis Alvarez F. 2017. “Architectures of the Information Age.” Journal of Cultural Economy 10, no. 2: 217–222. https://doi.org/10.1080/17530350.2016.1242432. Maçada, Antônio Carlos Gastaud, Jaciane Cristina Costa, Mírian Oliveira, and Carla Curado. 2013. “Information Management and Knowledge Sharing in Supply Chains Operating in Brazil.” International Journal of Automotive Technology Management 13, no. 1: 18–35. https://doi. org/10.1504/IJATM.2013.052777. Machado, Carla Gonçalves, Mats Peter Winroth, and Elias Hans Dener Ribeiro da Silva. 2020. “Sustainable Manufacturing in Industry 4.0: An Emerging Research Agenda.” International Journal of Production Research 58, no. 5: 1462–1484. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207543.2019.165 2777. Mathewson, Adrienne. 2015. “Information Literacy in the Digital Age.” San José State University. School of Information. The Student Research Journal 5, no. 2: 1–2. https://doi.org/10.31979/25752499.050201. Meski, Oussama, Farouk Belkadi, Florent Laroche, Asma Ladj, and Benoit Furet. 2019. “Integrated Data and Knowledge Management as Key Factor for Industry 4.0.” IEEE Engineering Management Review 47, no. 4: 94–100. doi: 10.1109/EMR.2019.2948589. https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/ document/8879600. Muscio, Alessandro, and Andrea Ciffolilli. 2020. “What Drives the Capacity to Integrate Industry 4.0 Technologies? Evidence from European R&D Projects.” Economics of Innovation and New Technology 29, no. 2: 169–183. https://doi.org/10.1080/10438599.2019.1597413. Oosthuizen, Jacobus H. 2017. The Determinants of the Fourth Industrial Revolution Leadership Dexterity: Proposed Framework for 4IR-intelligence and Subsequent 4IR Leadership Development. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/315114030. Oxford Economics. 2019. How Robots Change the World: What Automation Really Means for Jobs and Productivity. Oxford: Oxford Economics. www.oxfordeconomics.com/recent-releases/how-robotschange-the-world. Palka, Dorota, and Jolanta Ciukaj. 2019. “Prospects for Development Movement in the Industry Concept 4.0.” Multidisciplinary Aspects of Production Engineering 2, no. 1: 315–326. DOI:10.2478/ mape-2019-0031. License CC BY-NC-ND 3.0. https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/2064894. Rüßmann, Michael, Markus Lorenz, Philipp Gerbert, Manuela Waldner, Jan Justus, Pascal Engel, and Michael Harnisch. 2015. Industry 4.0: The Future of Productivity and Growth in Manufacturing Industries. Boston: The Boston Consulting Group. https://www.bcg.com/publications/2015/ engineered_products_project_business_industry_4_future_productivity_growth_manufacturing_ industries.



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Safrankova, Jana M., Martin Sikyr, and Renata Skypalova. 2020. “Innovations in Workforce Management: Challenges in the Fourth Industrial Revolution.” Marketing and Management of Innovations 2: 85–94. http://doi.org/10.21272/mmi.2020.2-06. Savić, Dobrica. 2018. “Rethinking the Role of Grey Literature in the Fourth Industrial Revolution.” Grey Journal 14 (Special Winter Issue): 7–14. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/300829778.pdf. Schniederjans, Dara G., Carla Curado, and Mehrnaz Khalajhedayati. 2020. “Supply Chain Digitisation Trends: An integration of Knowledge Management.” International Journal of Production Economics 220: 107439. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpe.2019.07.012. Schwab, Klaus. 2016. “The Fourth Industrial Revolution: What It Means, How to Respond.” World Economic Forum. Global Agenda. Fourth Industrial Revolution, January 14, 2016. This article was first published in Foreign Affairs. https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/01/the-fourth-industrialrevolution-what-it-means-and-how-to-respond/. Schwab, Klaus. 2017. The Fourth Industrial Revolution. New York: Currency. Seseni, Lawrence, and Charles Mbohwa. 2019. “SMEs Managing Organisational Knowledge in the 4IR Era: A Case Study of Developing Countries.” Proceedings of the International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Operations Management, Bangkok, Thailand, March 5–7, 2019: ID639 3014–3022. http://www.ieomsociety.org/ieom2019/papers/639.pdf. Stock, Tim, and Guenther Seliger. 2016. “Opportunities of Sustainable Manufacturing in Industry 4.0.” Procedia CIRP 40: 536–541. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procir.2016.01.129. Sutherland, Ewan. 2020. “The Fourth Industrial Revolution: The Case of South Africa.” South African Journal of Political Studies 47, no. 2: 233–252. https://doi.org/10.1080/02589346.2019.1696003. Telang, Ajay. 2019. “Fourth Industrial Revolution and Health Professions Education.” Archives of Medicine & Health Sciences 7, no. 2: 265–266. https://www.amhsjournal.org/text. asp?2019/7/2/265/273060. Thomas, Tamara. 2019? “Preparing for Tomorrow’s 4IR Workplace with Skills and Knowledge Gained Today.” Adtech Group [Blog]. www.advtech.co.za/preparing-for-tomorrows-4ir-workplace-withskills-and-knowledge-gained-today. Wikipedia. 2022. “Fourth Industrial Revolution.” April 15, 2023. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourth_ Industrial_Revolution. Wiktionary. 2022. “Big Data.” March 17, 2023. https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/big_data. Xu, Min, Jeanne M. David, and Suk Hi Kim. 2018. “The Fourth Industrial Revolution: Opportunities and Challenges.” International Journal of Financial Research 9, no. 2: 90–91. https://doi.org/10.5430/ijfr. v9n2p90.

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Appendix A: Category sheets 4IR Pillar: Autonomous Systems Category

Autonomous Systems

1. Definition of under- An autonomous system is a system that is capable of functioning in real lying variable: world environments without any external regulators, for a certain amount of time. In the context of Information and Knowledge Management, an autonomous system gathers information, and then uses that information to find a solution that will be used to resolve a problem. In essence, an autonomous system is based on input – process – output. 2. Indicators: The use of autonomous systems to streamline tasks. The ability of autonomous systems to perform certain tasks that humans cannot perform. The benefits and challenges of using autonomous systems for real world issues. 3. Time: 2015–2019 4. Subject of category: Robotics Artificial Intelligence Smart Cities Machine Learning 5. Scope of category: Emerald Insight (Information and Knowledge Management journals) and SCOPUS Library and Information Science journals (8 identified journals; abstracts & keywords). 6. Content of category: Empirical studies reported on in identified scholarly journals 7. Reported causes: System malfunction; Lack of emotional intelligence. 8. Reported effects: Lack of human error; Increased productivity; Integrated data systems

4IR Pillar: Big data Category:

Big Data

1. Definition of under- Data that exceeds the processing capacity of conventional database lying variable: systems because it bears a varied undertone, as it consists of different types of digitized data. Data is big because it is unstructured, there is a lot of it and it is being generated at a fast pace. As a result of this fast pace of generating it, current technology cannot be applied to probe it, to enable it produce answers to data driven questions within a faster turnaround time. 2. Indicators: The features of big data are: volume, velocity and variety (the 3V’s); and variability, validity and veracity. 3. Time: 2015–2019



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Big Data

4. Subject of category: Big data; Data science – discusses various topics, therefore, focus should be on big data; Data analytics; Data mining; Opinion Mining (OM) Unstructured data – transactional data, log data, events, emails, social media, sensor data, external feeds, radio frequency identification (RFID) scans/point of sale (POS) data, free-form text, geospatial data, audio and still images/videos. 5. Scope of category: Emerald Insight (Information and Knowledge Management journals) and SCOPUS Library and Information Science journals (8 identified journals; abstracts & keywords) 6. Content of category: Empirical studies reported on in identified scholarly journals 7. Reported causes: The type, speed and amount of data being generated daily. 8. Reported effects: Organisations not being able to leverage data to create a competitive edge.

4IR Pillar: Augmented reality Category:

Augmented Reality

1. Definition of under- Augmented Reality (AR) is the blending of interactive elements such as lying variable: visual overlays and sensory projections into our real-world environments 2. Indicators: Futuristic technology Holograms 3. Time: 2015–2019 4. Subject of category: Augmented reality technologies Interactive digital elements Sensory projections Emerald Insight (Information and Knowledge Management journals) and SCOPUS Library and Information Science journals (8 identified journals; abstracts & keywords) 6. Content of category: Empirical studies reported on in identified scholarly journals 7. Reported causes: Futuristic technology, adds to the world you see but does not replace it, it is not virtual reality 8. Reported effects: Creating a convenient and natural immersion, political and ethical issues. 5. Scope of category:

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4IR Pillar: Internet of Things Category:

The Internet of Things (IoT)

1. Definition of under- The Internet of Things refers to the rapidly growing network of connected lying variable: objects that feature an IP address for internet connectivity, and the communication that occurs between these objects and other Internet-enabled devices and systems. These objects are able to collect and exchange data and objects include thermostats, cars, lights, refrigerators, and other appliances. IoT devices are able to “talk” to each other, the same way computers and smartphones can send and receive information without human interaction. 2. Indicators: Architecture relevant to the IoT Applications and implications of the IoT The social impact of the IoT Challenges associated with the adoption of the IoT 3. Time: 2015–2019 4. Subject of category: Hardware, software and architecture of the IoT Applications of the IoT including: – Smart infrastructure & logistics – Healthcare – Social applications Business models in support of the IoT The benefits of the IoT Challenges such as security and privacy risks associated with the IoT. 5. Scope of category: Emerald Insight (Information and Knowledge Management journals) and SCOPUS Library and Information Science journals (8 identified journals; abstracts & keywords) 6. Content of category: Empirical studies reported on in identified scholarly journals 7. Reported causes: Improvement of efficiency of everyday life through the IoT; Breech of privacy through connected devices; Broad adoption of IoT principles and technology 8. Reported effects: Lack of user awareness of the risks involved; Malware leading to loss of privacy and confidentiality; Infrastructure incompatibility.

4IR Pillar: Cloud computing Category

Cloud Computing

1. Definition of underlying variable:

In the context of information and knowledge management, cloud computing enables effective knowledge sharing and easy access to data and information from any compatible computing device, for informed decision making. Cloud computing in this context further improves intelligence outputs, considering the implications of misinformation.



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Cloud Computing

Effective use of cloud computing platforms for knowledge sharing; Improved decision making through streamlined data and information access; Increased intelligence outputs, through the use of cloud computing. Time: 2015–2019 Subject of category: Cloud computing service models – Software as a Service (SaaS) – Platform as a Service (PaaS) – Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) Cloud computing deployment models – Private cloud – Public cloud – Hybrid cloud – Ethical hacking – Privacy Scope of category: Emerald Insight (Information and Knowledge Management journals) and SCOPUS Library and Information Science journals (8 identified journals; abstracts & keywords) Content of category: Empirical studies reported on in identified scholarly journals Reported causes: Decentralised data repository; delayed or uninformed decision making; vulnerability of sensitive data and information; inability to respond to market threats due to ineffective intelligence outputs Reported effects: Centralised data repository; improved decision making; improved security of sensitive data and information; effective intelligence outputs to reduce market threats

2. Indicators:

3. 4.

5.

6. 7.

8.

4IR Pillar: Cyber Security Category:

Cyber Security

1. Definition of underlying variable:

In this context, cyber security is the application of protecting computer networks and systems from either theft or damage, specifically on hardware, software and or any other electronic data. Cyber security focuses on the practices, processes and technologies that are designed and developed to protect devices, programs and data from damage, unauthorized access and from malicious attacks Vulnerability management and hardware protection mechanisms; secure operating systems; End user security training; digital hygiene; password hygiene; anti-virus software; caution against phishing attacks; rise of use and connected technologies 2015–2019

2. Indicators:

3. Time:

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Cyber Security

4. Subject of category: Internet security Automotive security Cyberwarfare Computer security Mobile security network security Social media ethics 5. Scope of category: Emerald Insight (Information and Knowledge Management journals) and SCOPUS Library and Information Science journals (8 identified journals; abstracts & keywords) 6. Content of category: Emerald Insight (Information and Knowledge Management journals) and SCOPUS Library and Information Science journals (8 identified journals; abstracts & keywords) 7. Reported causes: Backdoor in a computer system; denial-of-service attack; direct-access attacks; eavesdropping; phishing; multi-vector polymorphic attacks; privilege escalation; social engineering; spoofing; tampering; business competitions; hackers 8. Reported effects: Global and home depot breaches; office of personnel management data breach; global surveillance disclosure; electrical blackouts; paralysed computer networks and systems; financial cost of security breaches.

4IR Pillar: Systems Integration Category:

Systems Integration

1. Definition of underly- In this context, System Integration is a process commonly implemented in ing variable: the fields of engineering and information technology. It involves the combination of various computing systems and software packages in order to create a larger system, and this is what drives Industry 4.0 to work at its optimum. System Integration increases value to a system by creating new functionalities through the combination of sub-systems and software applications. Examples of System Integration include the automation of home appliances and electrical systems. 2. Indicators: Implications and effects of System integration: Awareness of the movement towards automation of process and procedure. 3. Time: 2015–2019 4. Subject of category: Information systems, Software integration, Enterprise integration, computerization, middleware technology, semantic interoperability, information fusion, software integration, software systems, digital technology. “integration/integrated” linked to the following: management systems, automation, software.



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Systems Integration

Emerald Insight (Information and Knowledge Management journals) and SCOPUS Library and Information Science journals (8 identified journals; abstracts & keywords). 6. Content of category: Empirical studies reported on in identified ISI journals. 7. Reported causes: Excessive movement to automation; Social impact with movement to automation by systems integration. 8. Reported effects: Ethical considerations; effects on productivity; effects on job market. 5. Scope of category:

4IR Pillar: Additive Manufacturing Category:

Additive Manufacturing Additive manufacturing (AM) is the industrial production name for 3D printing, a computer controlled process that creates three dimensional objects by depositing materials, usually in layers. Using computer aided design (CAD) or 3D object scanners, additive manufacturing allows for the creation of objects with precise geometric shapes. These are built layer by layer which is in contrast to traditional manufacturing that often requires machining or other techniques to remove surplus material Indicators: Applications and implications of AM Advances in AM Challenges and benefits of AM Possible impact and consequences of AM Time: 2015–2019 Subject of category: 3D modelling 3D printing Computer-aided design Reverse engineering 7 Categories of AM – Vat polymerisation – Material jetting – Binder jetting – Material extrusion – Powder bed fusion – Sheet lamination – Directed energy deposition Scope of category: Emerald Insight (Information and Knowledge Management journals) and SCOPUS Library and Information Science journals (8 identified journals; abstracts & keywords) Content of category: Empirical studies reported on in identified scholarly journals Reported causes: Current reality of AM; Futuristic predictions for AM; Research and development in AM; Misconceptions of AM

Category: 1. Definition of underlying variable:

2.

3. 4.

5.

6. 7.

Additive Manufacturing

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Category:

Additive Manufacturing

8. Reported effects:

Intellectual property legislation; ethics in 3D printing; health and safety in AM; hazardous emissions and controls; social and environmental impacts of AM

4IR Pillar: Simulation Category:

Simulation

1. Definition of underlying variable:

In the 4IR context, simulation is the use of technology such as Artificial Intelligence (AI) to synchronise or imitate real world situations and human like behaviours. The objective is to create a visualisation or imitation of the space and/or time needed to perform a complex task or solve a complex problem. This environment encourages a synergetic approach to complex problem solving, for example, a living lab is a visualisation of the real world through the analysis of big data in order to test solutions to real world problems Artificial Intelligence simulation models Artificial Intelligence imitation models Visualisation of big data Virtual testing / experimentation Human and AI synergy Synchronised complex problem solving Dynamic gaming processes Living lab scenarios Mock-up testing 2015–2019 Process modelling Process simulation Simulation life-cycle Verification and validation Animation and motion analysis Service/component-based composition Service/component-based integration Big data processing and cloud computing Performance optimisation Collaboration environments Simulation standards and languages – Simulation of Continuous Systems (SIMCOS) – Continuous System Simulation Language (CSSL) – Advanced Continuous Simulation Language, or ACSL Block diagrams Bond graphs

2. Indicators:

3. Time: 4. Subject of category:



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Category:

Simulation

Subject of category:

Commercialisation life cycle fatigue testing Stress legends Emerald Insight (Information and Knowledge Management journals) and SCOPUS Library and Information Science journals (8 identified journals; abstracts & keywords). Empirical studies reported on in identified scholarly journals Time estimate inadequacies. Achievability of goals Lack of essential skills Solution engineering Lack of related user participation Obsolete documentation What if analysis systems Prediction testing Ethical considerations Advanced training and deep learning Automating existing processes Business innovation Disrupting markets and business models Design thinking Mysterious results.

5. Scope of category:

6. Content of category: 7. Reported causes:

8. Reported effects:

Siviwe Bangani and Omwoyo Bosire Onyancha

18 A  n Altmetrics Study of Researchers at North-West University Abstract: This chapter reports on a study examining the visibility and social impact of National Research Foundation (NRF)-rated researchers at North-West University (NWU). NWU is a public research university located on three campuses in South Africa. The study examined research output from 2006 to 2017 using two academic social network platforms, ResearchGate (RG) and Mendeley, as sources of data. Researchers with RG and Mendeley profiles were identified and the researchers’ altmetrics associated with each of the two data sources explored. The majority of NWU’s NRF-rated researchers had embraced the two platforms confirming their importance to elite researchers although some of the researchers’ profiles appeared to be inactive. The number of reads and readerships in RG and Mendeley did not correlate well with the NRF rating categories. From the results of the study, the academic platforms could not be relied on to predict researcher rankings that are based on peer review. Enhancing researchers’ visibility and impact in their environments is complex and multi-faceted. Librarians must conduct workshops, training and advocacy campaigns to assist researchers in their endeavours. Keywords: Altmetrics; Bibliometrics; Academic social networks; Research – South Africa

Introduction Academic social networks (ASNs) have developed alongside general social media and networking sites as digital platforms which meet the specific needs of the academic community. They allow researchers with similar interests to communicate with each other, publicise their work, gain access to information and potentially forge links for collaboration. Researchers establish profiles on the networks and share academic research with others. Most networks are free. Researchers are increasingly using ASNs (Bhardwaj 2017). There are many reasons why use among researchers has grown exponentially in the past few years. Many researchers wish to collaborate, share findings and perspectives on topical issues, acquire new knowledge, keep track of research developments, and expose research to wider audiences beyond the academy (Meishar-Tal and Pieterse 2017). Besides the advantages of ASNs to researchers, bibliometricians have viewed ASNs as an opportunity to assess the impact of research in its early stages and https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110772753-020



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beyond the academy using altmetrics indicators (Asemi and Heydari 2018; Bhardwaj 2017). Bibliometrics is the analysis of books, journal articles and other documentary communication using statistical methods to examine inter-relationships and impact and frequently involves citation analysis. Altmetrics uses nontraditional approaches to assess impact. An altmetrics study sought to establish the visibility and impact of National Research Foundation (NRF)-rated researchers at North-West University (NWU) from 2006 to 2017 using two academic social networks, ResearchGate and Mendeley as sources of data (Bangani and Onyancha 2021). North-West University is one of the largest universities in South Africa with the third largest student population of almost 54,000 students. It is a public research university located on three campuses in Potchefstroom, Mahikeng and Vanderbijlpark. The National Research Foundation (NRF) rating is a South African researcher rating system that mainly utilises the peer-review system to rate researchers based on the recent output and impact of their research. “The rating of individuals is based primarily on the quality and impact of their research outputs over the past eight years” (South Africa NRF n.d.). The study identified NRF-rated researchers with RG and Mendeley profiles and examined the metrics for each researcher on each platform to determine visibility and assess the social impact of their research, and to make comparisons of the metrics with the NRF rating.

Academic Social Networks Many academic social networks have emerged across the world. One list of ASNs includes: Academia.edu, ORCID-Best For Digital Identification, Scopus Author Identifier (Elsevier), Publons (Clarivate Analytics and part of Web of Science), ResearchGate, Xing an online job network in German-speaking countries, Google Scholar-Best For Citations, LinkedIn and Impact Story (SCI Journal 2022). Other listings of ASNs include Mendeley and Altmetric. ResearchGate (RG) and Mendeley are among the popular ASNs used by researchers and bibliometricians alike. This study focused on ResearchGate and Mendeley.

ResearchGate ResearchGate was founded in 2008 by Ijad Madisch, Sören Hofmayer, and Horst Fickenscher with the platform’s first membership cohort comprising friends and colleagues of its founders. In 2008 there were 10,000 members and by 2012 the number had grown to 2,000,000 (ResearchGate 2021). Investors have included Bill

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Gates, the Wellcome Trust and Goldman Sachs, and by 2021, RG had more than 20,000,000 members. RG boasts over 135 million pages and positions itself as a professional network for scientists and researchers to discover research, connect with community, advance and measure impact (ResearchGate 2022). Martín-Martín et al. (2016) identified at least eight altmetrics indicators in RG: reads, which combines views and downloads, RG Score, citations, total number of publications, following, followers, profile views and impact points. Since then, RG has added the H-Index and recommendations. In this study, the reads altmetrics indicator will be used because of its ease of access and relevance to measure the impact of researchers. Ortega (2015, 41) points out that RG is suitable for obtaining author-level altmetrics such as reads, number of publications and citations. Orduna-Malea et al. (2017) are highly critical of the RG score as it supposedly relies primarily on activity related to asking and answering questions in RG. The number of publications and reads altmetrics indicators will be used in this study.

Mendeley According to Bhardwaj (2017), Mendeley was started in 2007 in London by three German doctoral students. It was an independent company until its purchase by Elsevier in 2013. Mendeley is a free reference manager that can help you store, organize, note, share and cite references and research data, automatically generate bibliographies, collaborate easily with other researchers online, easily import papers from other research software, find relevant papers based on what you’re reading, access your papers from anywhere online (Elsevier n.d.).

Mendeley positions itself: “Simplify your workflow, accelerate your research.” There are four altmetrics indicators available on Mendeley (Martín-Martín et al. 2016). They are readership or readers, publications, followers and following. Researchers point out that Mendeley is suitable for researchers to share, collaborate, and discover research output (Ortega 2015, 42; Wouters and Costas 2012, 27).

Altmetrics Priem (2014) and Roemer and Borchardt (2015) trace altmetrics or alternative metrics from the early 1990s through the development of the World Wide Web and the early 2000s with the development of social media networks. It built on work undertaken in bibliometrics, defined by the National Library of Medicine (US)



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(NLM) in its subject headings list quoting the American Library Association ALA Glossary of Library and Information Science as “the use of statistical methods in the analysis of a body of literature to reveal the historical development of subject fields and patterns of authorship, publication, and use” (National Library of Medicine n.d.). Among other bibliometrics concepts that Bornmann (2014) associates with altmetrics are webometrics, web-based bibliometrics and web citations which are all web or social media-based metrics. With the development of social media, there was a necessity for bibliometricians to develop a term that would distinguish the academic impact measures from the societal impact measures hence the coining of the term altmetrics (Bangani and Onyancha 2021). The term altmetrics has its roots from two words, the English word “alternative” and the Greek word “metrics” (Priem 2014). It was coined by Priem in 2010 (Roemer and Borchardt 2015). Priem et al. (2010) would go on to write a document entitled “Altmetrics: A Manifesto”. In this manifesto, they called for diversity in the way research impact is measured. They called for altmetrics to be considered as part of the tools of research impact measurements. The manifesto popularised the use of the term altmetrics to the research community (Roemer and Borchardt 2015). Shema, Bar-Ilan, and Thelwall (2014) described altmetrics as web-based metrics used to determine the societal impact of scholarly research. Altmetrics measure societal impact of research using social media indicators such as views, reads, readership, downloads, followership and many more (Roemer and Borchardt 2015). The biggest advantage of altmetrics is that they accumulate almost immediately from the moment the paper is published (Fairclough and Thelwall 2015; Priem 2014). Other advantages include broadness, speed and diversity (Priem 2014). Some of the limitations of altmetrics are that they are easy to manipulate; it is difficult to determine their origin; and they may be biased towards Internet savvy academics (Thelwall et al. 2016). For the purposes of this study, altmetrics refer to web and social media indicators accumulated by research output that are used to measure the societal impact of research.

Societal Impact of Research Ireland has developed important research strategies through the work of Science Foundation Ireland (SFI) which have guided funding and education over the last two decades, culminating in its latest plan Shaping our Future: Delivering Today: Preparing for Tomorrow: Science Foundation Ireland Strategy 2025 (SFI [2021]). Reporting on the economic and social impact of work undertaken is emphasised. Earlier work involved a focus on defining the impact of research:

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Impact … may be considered as: The direct and indirect ‘influence’ of research or its ‘effect on’ an individual, a community, or society as a whole, including benefits to our economic, social, human and natural capital…Impact… embraces all the diverse ways in which research-related knowledge and skills benefit individuals, organisations and nations. A broad definition has the benefit of inclusivity of all disciplines and multi-disciplinary research areas. It can encourage researchers and funders to think about the broader implications of the research from the outset, as priorities shift, or when research raises unexpected discoveries during the life of the programme… there is also a distinction between the terms ‘relevance’ and ‘impact’ with respect to research programmes. Impact considers both the relevance of the research to the challenges faced by stakeholders and society, AND implementation or use of the results (Hartland and O’Connor 2015, 5).

Research impact is a demonstration of the usefulness of research in the academic program and beyond. It can be demonstrated at different levels including at researcher level, faculty and institutional level, country level, and international level. Impacts of research can be academic, societal, health, commercial, policy, environmental, social, and cultural. In examining the impact of research, the University City Dublin’s Beyond Publications Committee took a broad view: “The contribution of UCD’s research to the advancement of knowledge for the benefit of academia, the economy, society, culture, industry, public policy, health, the environment or quality of life.” Societal impact is the impact of research on the life, attitudes, behaviours, culture, welfare, practices, knowledge and understanding of communities. In other words, the direct and indirect ‘influence’ of UCD’s research or its ‘effect on’ individuals, communities, the creation of knowledge, the development of policy, or the creation of a new product, service or technology (University College Dublin 2014, 4).

The most common measures of societal impact are altmetrics indicators which demonstrate societal interest of the community in academic research (Bornmann 2014; Thelwall et al. 2016). Research impact demonstrates the value of research to funders, governments, industry, community, and academic institutions. The reasons for measuring impact include showing return on investment, budgeting and ensuring accountability to research funders (Hartland and O’Connor 2015). Many research funders expect researchers to indicate the impact of their research not only academically but also to the society at large.



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Evaluating Research Through Academic Social Networks As already pointed out, RG and Mendeley are two of the most prominent ASN platforms used by researchers and bibliometricians for research. While researchers use the platforms to enhance the visibility and impact of their research, bibliometricians use them to evaluate research output. Broadly, there are three things that studies on specific ASNs seek to achieve. Firstly, they correlate findings with other platforms or bibliographic databases such as Google Scholar, Scopus and/or Web of Science (WoS) to ascertain if there is a relationship between various altmetrics indicators and citation data. In other words, they seek to determine whether a specific ASN, RG and/or Mendeley, can be used to predict future citations. Such studies include Asemi and Heydari (2018), Costas, Zahedi, and Wouters (2014), Elsayed (2016), Meishar-Tal and Pieterse (2017), Ortega (2015) and Shrivastava and Mahajan (2016). Secondly, studies seek to determine the visibility and impact of research and researchers from certain institutions in RG and/or Mendeley. The aim of these studies is to rank, compare or determine the availability of research or researchers from various institutions on the platforms. The studies include Asnafi (2017), Batooli, Ravandi, and Bidgoli (2016), Nemati-Anaraki, Razmgir and Moradzadeh (2020), Onyancha (2015), Shrivastava and Mahajan (2017), Stachowiak (2014), Thelwall and Wilson (2015) and Yan and Zhang (2018). Thirdly, other studies compare the various ASN platforms. These studies explain the importance of using the various ASN platforms to evaluate research or proffer advice on the various altmetrics indicators, their benefits, disadvantages and how they can be used to evaluate research beyond the academy. The studies include Bhardwaj (2017), Bornmann (2014), and Martín-Martín et al. (2016). Asemi and Heydari (2018) extracted 165 articles by Iranian researchers on the Web of Science and found 164 of them indexed on Mendeley. Newer articles received more readerships than older ones. The researchers determined the average readership of Iranian researchers on Mendeley to be 216.56. While using Spearman’s correlation analysis to determine correlations between Mendeley and RG with citations in WoS, Asemi and Heydari (2018), determined the relationship to be weak but positive, although Mendeley readership showed a better relationship compared to RG. Similarly, studies by Costas, Zahedi and Wouters (2014) and Ortega (2015) found weak correlations between citations and altmetrics indicators. However, other authors such as Thelwall and Wilson (2015), Fairclough and Thelwall (2015), Shrivasta and Mahajan (2016) and Asemi and Heydari (2018) found stronger relationships between citations and Mendeley readership. Thelwall and Wilson (2015) researched Mendeley readerships of forty-five medical fields using Scopus documents and found that citations and Mendeley readership correlated strongly.

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Ansari et al. (2019) compared the visibility and impact of researchers from four medical universities in Iran: the Kurdistan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences and Ilam University of Medical Sciences. The researchers found that on average Iranian medical researchers in the four medical schools had 13.07 documents in RG. The findings confirm that medical researchers hold RG in high regard. Other studies report similar findings. While studying the uptake of physics researchers at the University of Delhi in India, Shrivastava and Mahajan (2017) found the uptake of RG at this university to be low. However, the relationship between the papers added to RG and academic impact was high. Similarly, a study of sixty-one United States universities on RG found high correlation between research productivity, citations, profile views and followers and RG scores which prompted the researchers to conclude that RG mirrors the research activity of institutions (Yan and Zhang 2018). ASNs are popular with researchers from South Africa (Onyancha 2015). Onyancha’s study compared RG, Web of Science and the Webometrics Ranking of World Universities (WRWU) and found the uptake of RG in South African universities to be fairly good with strong correlations between the coverage of South African research on RG and WoS (Onyancha 2015). Kerchhoff conducted a study of the Institute for Poverty, Land and Agrarian Studies (PLAAS) at the University of Western Cape and determined that 86% of PLAAS researchers who responded to the survey had an RG profile, cementing RG as a popular ASN platform among researchers (2017). Although many studies have looked into the visibility and impact of researchers in ASNs, most have tended to compare ASNs with citations from bibliographic databases. Most of the studies emanate from either Western countries or Asia with very few from Africa generally and more particularly South Africa.

Methodology of the Study Examining Visibility and Social Impact of NWU Researchers NWU’s annual research reports from 2006 to 2017 were obtained digitally. Where there were gaps, the documents were sourced from the research office of NWU. Each research report contained a list of NRF-rated researchers for the particular year by rating category. The lists were treated as separate even in cases where the same researcher was rated in the same or different categories for several years meaning that many researchers were counted several times. For example, if researcher A was C-rated in 2006 and B-rated in 2007, s/he was counted twice. As a C-rated researcher in 2006 and B-rated researcher in 2007. Similarly, the researcher would be counted for each year even if s/he retained a C rating in 2006 and 2007.



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The number of rated researchers was 1,707. Once the documents were sourced and analysed, the list of researchers was transferred to MS-Excel spreadsheets. Two Excel files were created, one representing RG and the other Mendeley. Both files were divided into twelve spreadsheets each representing a year covered by the study. The spreadsheets captured information on the name of the NRF-rated researcher/s, rating category, availability (either on RG or Mendeley), title of documents, citations (either on RG or Mendeley), Reads (RG) or Readership (Mendeley), journal, conference, book/chapter, and notes. Searches were conducted using the authors’ surnames and initials on Mendeley and RG to determine visibility and social impact. To ensure that the data was correct, the affiliation details of the authors of the documents was checked against the NWU’s annual research reports from 2006 to 2017. The researcher profiles on RG and Mendeley were also compared with those provided in the NWU’s annual research reports. The relevant information was entered into the Excel spreadsheets. Data was analysed and reported using tables and graphs.

The Study’s Findings The study’s findings are reported under the two objectives of the study, visibility of researchers, and social impact.

Visibility of Researchers in Academic Social Networks The study examined the use and visibility of rated researchers in RG and Mendeley.

Visibility of Rated Researchers on RG Table 18.1 shows that most rated researchers have embraced RG as evidenced by the high percentage who have profiles on the platform. The proportion of researchers with profiles increased in the last five years covered by the study, 2013 to 2017, compared to the earlier years, 2006 to 2012, during which there was almost a balance between researchers with and those without RG profiles although 2011 stood as an outlier. However, it was noted that a large number of researchers had profiles that were not populated or partially populated. There were sixty-three profiles spread over the course of the twelve years that were not populated at all; forty-one profiles were partially populated with one to five items. 1,091 or 64% of NWU’s rated

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researchers had some visibility in RG, although as already noted 104 of the group had profiles that were not populated or partially populated, comprising just over 6% of all rated researchers or almost 10% of all rated researchers with RG profiles. Table 18.2 depicts NWU’s researchers in RG by rating category. The rating categories are: A – Leading international researchers B – Internationally acclaimed researchers C – Established researchers P – Prestigious Awards Y – Promising young researchers (South Africa. National Research Foundation n.d.) All 27 A-rated and the 15 P-rated researchers had RG profiles; 62.2% (or 117 out of 188) of B-rated researchers had RG profiles; 65.8% (or 759 out of 1154) of C-rated researchers had RG profiles; 53.6% (or 15 out of 28) of L-rated researchers had RG profiles; and 53.6% (or 158 out of 295) of Y-rated researchers had RG profiles. However as pointed out, not all profiles were populated. Forty-nine C-rated researchers’ profiles were not populated over the twelve-year period, and thirty were partially populated with fewer than five records. The other group with the highest number of unpopulated profiles were Y-rated researchers with nine, followed by L-rated researchers with four, and B-rated researchers with one. Partially populated profiles for -rated and L-rated researchers were respectively. nine and two. Table 18.1: Numbers and percentages of rated researchers with RG profiles. Year 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2006–2017

With RG Profile/s

Without RG Profile/s

% With RG Profile

% Without RG Profile

Total

35 51 56 67 70 80 72 113 124 121 141 161 1,091

47 44 47 49 47 45 68 56 66 25 54 68 616

42.7 53.7 54.4 57.8 59.8 64 51.4 66.9 65.3 82.9 72.3 70.3 63.9

57.3 46.3 45.6 42.2 40.2 36 48.6 33.1 34.7 17.1 27.7 29.7 36.1

82 95 103 116 117 125 140 169 190 146 195 229 1,707



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Table 18.2: Visibility of researchers in RG by rating category. Year

A-rated

B-rated

C-rated

L-rated

P-rated

Y-rated

Total

2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3

3 4 4 5 7 8 11 10 10 14

25 34 37 44 47 59 54 80 89 80

0 3 4 3 3 1 0 1 0 0

0 1 1 1 1 1 0 2 2 2

5 7 8 12 10 9 5 17 20 22

35 51 56 67 70 80 72 113 124 121

2 2 27 27

17 24 117 188

100 110 759 1,154

0 0 15 28

2 2 15 15

20 23 158 295

141 161 1,091 1,707

2015 2016 2017 Total Total No. of rated researchers

Visibility of Rated Researchers on Mendeley Tables 18.3 and 18.4 show that rated researchers embraced Mendeley wholeheartedly with close to 85% (1443 out of 1707) having Mendeley profiles. The percentage of rated researchers with Mendeley profiles from 2014 to 2017 was close to 90% indicating that researchers realised the importance of being visible in academic social networking sites. However, nineteen researchers chose to restrict access to their Mendeley profiles to only those researchers that follow them. All A-rated and P-rated researchers had Mendeley profiles compared to 163 or 86.7% of 188 B-rated researchers, 996 or 86.3% of 1,154 C-rated researchers, 24 or 85.7% of 28 L-rated researchers, and 218 or 73.9% of 295 Y-rated researchers. Table 18.3: Numbers and percentages of rated researchers with Mendeley profiles. Year

With Mendeley Profile

2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

56 76 87 96 97 103

Without Mendeley % With Mendeley % Without Profile Profile Mendeley Profile 26 19 16 20 20 22

68.3 80 84.5 82.8 82.9 82.4

31.7 20 15.5 17.2 17.1 17.6

Total 82 95 103 116 117 125

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With Mendeley Profile

2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2006–2017

Without Mendeley % With Mendeley % Without Profile Profile Mendeley Profile

118 136 170 128 173 203 1,443

22 33 20 18 22 26 264

84.3 80.5 89.5 87.7 88.7 88.7 84.5

15.7 19.5 10.5 12.3 11.3 11.3 15.5

Total 140 169 190 146 195 229 1,707

Table 18.4: Visibility of researchers in Mendeley by rating category. Year 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Total Total No. of rated researchers

A-rated

B-rated

C-rated

L-rated

P-rated

Y-rated

Total

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 2 2 27 27

5 6 9 8 12 12 15 14 15 14 24 29 163 188

40 56 58 62 59 74 91 94 121 91 116 134 996 1,154

2 4 3 3 4 1 0 2 1 0 2 2 24 28

1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 2 2 2 2 15 15

6 7 14 20 19 14 8 21 28 20 27 34 218 295

56 76 87 96 97 103 118 136 170 128 173 203 1,443 1,707

Social Impact of Rated Researchers The study used two altmetrics indicators of rated researchers’ output as proxies for social impact: reads in RG and readership data for Mendeley.

Social Impact of Rated Researchers in RG Figure 18.1 shows that there were 6,026 documents added by NWU’s rated researchers to RG. The documents increased by more than 638% from 131 in 2006 to 967 in 2017. Particularly sharp increases can be noticed from 2009 to 2011, 2012 to 2013 and 2016 to 2017. The number of rated researchers grew from 35 to 161 (360%)



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during the period covered by the study. The increases in research outputs cannot be explained only by the increased numbers of rated researchers. In terms of reads in RG, the most read document in 2006 had 2,343 reads followed by 1,861 in 2007, 3,585 in 2008, 5,047 in 2009, 1,360 in 2010, 5,730 in 2011, 3,119 in 2012, 2,043 in 2013, 3,283 in 2014, 3,775 in 2015, 5,287 in 2016, and 3,538 in 2017. Table 18.5 shows RG reads by rating category. RG reads increased sharply from 2013 to 2017. A-rated researchers received 10,644 reads in RG; B-rated researchers received 83,236 reads; C-rated researchers received 482,862; L-rated researchers received 3,662 reads, P-rated researchers received 5,975, and Y-rated researchers received 90,540. The average reads per rating category were as follows: 394.2 reads per A-rated researcher; 711.4 per B-rated researcher; 636.2 per C-rated researchers; 244.1 per L-rated researcher; 398.3 per P-rated researcher; and 573 per Y-rated researcher. On average, B-rated researchers’ output received the most reads, followed by C-rated, Y-rated, P-rated, A-rated, and L-rated researchers’ output. The researchers could not find any plausible explanation for these trends.

Fig. 18.1: Documents by rated researchers in RG.

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Table 18.5: Reads by category of rated researchers in RG. Year 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Total No. rated researchers

A-rated

B-rated

C-rated

L-rated

P-rated

Y-rated

950 546 634 207 300 1,270 498 1,123 911 1,598 1,278 1,329 10,644 27

670 1,024 1253 1,179 1,371 5,987 1,751 1,579 4,670 7,061 27,611 29,080 83,236 117

11,844 8,071 21,216 30,200 13,275 39,532 31,022 62,130 74,449 83,572 53,450 54,101 482,862 759

0 1,800 334 628 107 0 0 123 0 0 0 670 3,662 15

0 43 252 53 66 161 0 1,213 344 1,603 1,010 1,230 5,975 15

4,565 2,356 2,000 4,369 7,099 2,012 969 9,699 17,188 14,328 12,757 13,198 90,540 158

Total 18,029 13,840 25,689 36,636 22,218 48,962 34,240 75,867 97,562 108,162 96,106 99,608 676,919 1,091

Social Impact of Rated Researchers in Mendeley NWU’s rated researchers increased their output in Mendeley since 2006 as shown in Figure 18.2. In 2006, there were 159 documents published by NWU authors in Mendeley while there were 931 in 2017, an increase of 486%. Sharp increases can be noticed from 2009 to 2011, 2012 to 2013 and 2016 to 2017. The number of rated researchers grew from 56 to 203, 263%, during this period. The increase in research outputs cannot be explained only by the increase in the number of rated researchers. No plausible reason could be proffered as to why the Mendeley and RG’s increases between 2009 to 2011, 2012 to 2013 and 2016 to 2017 follow a similar trajectory. The document with the most readership in Mendeley in 2006 had 340 followed by 227 in 2007, 197 in 2008, 329 in 2009, 603 in 2010, 406 in 2011, 372 in 2012, 272 in 2013, 881 in 2014, 229 in 2015, 1,707 in 2016, and 3,538 in 2017. Table 18.6 indicates that Mendeley readership data was on the upward trend from a low of 4,012 in 2006 to a high of 30,934 in 2017. The Mendeley readership data shows a marked increase from 2013 to 2017. Output of A-rated researchers attracted 3,018 readerships; B-rated researchers 23,870; C-rated researchers attracted 95,159 readerships; L-rated researchers 1,120 readerships; P-rated researchers 2,068 readerships; and Y-rated researchers 17,386 readerships. The averages were 111.8 readerships per



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A-rated researcher, 146.4 per B-rated researcher, 95.5 per C-rated researcher, 46.7 per L-rated researcher, 137.9 per P-rated researcher, and 79.8 per Y-rated researcher.

Fig. 18.2: Documents by rated researchers in Mendeley. Table 18.6: Readership by category of rated researchers in Mendeley. Year 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Total No. rated researchers

A-rated

B-rated

C-rated

L-rated

P-rated

Y-rated

Total

17 27 98 28 57 117 82 287 242 257 186 1,620 3,018 27

502 633 681 416 309 693 735 1,165 1,256 1,117 6,183 10,180 23,870 163

2,913 1,949 3,629 3,492 4,376 7,004 6,830 10,565 13,911 11,758 13,054 15,678 95,159 996

91 62 185 146 283 12 0 190 151 0 0 0 1,120 24

96 21 30 26 8 0 487 242 338 244 183 393 2,068 15

393 471 688 1,027 1,380 1,597 889 1,987 2,576 1,641 1,674 3,063 17,386 218

4,012 3,163 5,311 5,135 6,413 9,423 9.023 14,436 18,474 15,017 21,280 30,934 142,621 1,443

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What do the Findings Mean? Discussion of the study is divided into the two areas examined, visibility of rated researchers and social impact measured by reads or readership.

Visibility of Rated Researchers Tables 18.1 and 18.3 reflect differences in penetration levels between RG and Mendeley. There is a 20% difference between the two platforms in terms of their penetration levels, with 64% of rated researchers at NWU embracing RG while close to 85% have profiles in Mendeley. One hundred percent of A- and P-rated researchers embraced the two ASN platforms. The results for other rating categories are mixed, with 62.2% of B-rated researchers having RG profiles and 86.7% Mendeley profiles; C-rated researchers with RG profiles stood at 65.8% while 86.3% of C-rated researchers had Mendeley profiles; 53.6% of L-rated researchers had RG profiles and 85.7% Mendeley profiles; 53.6% of Y-rated researchers had RG profiles and 73.9% Mendeley. The higher levels of acceptance of Mendeley over RG might be attributed to the fact that Mendeley is owned by an established publishing house, Elsevier, that the researchers trust. Many may have published in Elsevier journals and platforms. RG on the other hand does not have any discernible relationship with a publishing house which can make some researchers more comfortable. Researchers may also not be comfortable with the extent of openness shown by RG versus Mendeley. With regards to the penetration levels, the results of the study are mixed. The results differ from those reported by Batooli, Ravandi, and Bidgoli (2016) and Bhardwaj (2017) at the Kashan University of Medical Sciences in Iran and the University of Delhi in India, respectively. The penetration levels of RG by rated researchers found in this study are much higher than those reported by Stachowiak (2014) and Onyancha (2015) but lower than those of Elsayed (2016). In Stachowiak’s (2014) study, only 14% of researchers at Nicolaus Copernicus University in Poland had RG profiles while Kerchhoff (2017) found that 86% of PLAAS researchers who responded to a survey had an RG profile. The results of this study compare well with Banshal et al. (2018) who reported 61% for RG and 64% for Web of Science. The results of this study mean that the penetration levels of NWU’s researchers in RG may have increased since they were reported by Onyancha (2015). Another noticeable trend was that researchers established profiles but did not populate them in RG and restricted their profiles in Mendeley. As a result, out of 1,091 profiles in RG, almost 10% of the 1,091 profiles were partially populated or not populated, and nineteen profiles in Mendeley were restricted to those who followed the researchers. Unpopulated profiles on RG were also noticed in other



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studies. Martín-Martín et al. (2016) found that 17% of researchers’ profiles in Mendeley were empty with no documentation uploaded. The number of unpopulated profiles in RG in Shrivastava and Mahajan’s work (2017) was 28.32%. Although having a profile in RG and Mendeley enhances the visibility and impact of researchers and their output, unpopulated profiles may cause frustration for those who are attempting to access or evaluate research. Restricting a profile limits the accessibility of research. However, the results of this study compare well with those of Nández and Borrego (2013) who found that 75% of researchers at twelve Catalan universities did not upload a single document to Academia.edu although they had profiles. The fact that the extent of penetration of the two ASN platforms by rated researchers at NWU has increased in the past five years in both platforms is a sign that the penetration levels are set to increase further in the upcoming years.

Social Impact of Researchers Tables 18.5 and 18.6 show that rated researchers’ documents in RG scored many more reads at 676,919 than did documents in Mendeley which recorded 142,621 readerships. Growth rates were also significantly higher in RG than in Mendeley. Reads of rated researchers’ work in RG were 112.3 on average compared to 83.6 in Mendeley. The differential might be attributed to the way the two platforms calculate reads. While RG reads are counted each time somebody opens a summary or document, whether logging in or not, Mendeley readerships are based on the number of times the documents are saved into a researchers’ library or profile (Martín-Martín et al. 2016). This approach leads to RG reads accumulating more easily than Mendeley readerships. The size of the platforms also plays a role. RG tends to have more members than Mendeley (Martín-Martín et al. 2016). RG is also easily accessible to the general public, and it tends to attract a wider readership than Mendeley which targets researchers (Thelwall et al. 2017). The B-rated researchers had the highest number of readerships per researcher, followed by P-rated researchers, A-rated researchers, C-rated researchers, Y-rated researchers, and L-rated researchers. The results agree with the findings of other studies. Batooli et al. (2016) found that between 1997 and 2014, 395 Scopus indexed articles by researchers from the Kashan University of Medical Sciences accumulated 20,799 reads in RG while 234 articles in Mendeley were read 901 times. The average read per output stood at 52.7 in RG and 3.9 in Mendeley. Other researchers, Asemi and Heydari (2018), determined that 164 Iranian researchers’ documented output from 1989 to 2015 had accumulated 35,516 readerships in Mendeley and 64,697 reads in RG. Another

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interesting finding of this study is that the trends in terms of average number of reads per output by age were similar between the two platforms. Older documents attracted less readership than the newer ones. Thelwall and Kousha (2017) also found that older articles in RG attract, on average, fewer reads than the newer articles. This suggests more social impact of new documents in both RG and Mendeley compared to older content. Both RG and Mendeley are new platforms (Bhardwaj 2017), and new documents have the advantage of being sometimes entered into them before being published in pre-print format. The older documents on the other hand had to be uploaded years after they had been published. By then they might have lost the excitement factor of a new publication to readers. Thelwall and Kousha (2017) attribute the results to a natural preference by researchers for reading more current studies.

Future Actions The results provide suggestions for future actions to be taken by libraries and librarians to improve visibility of research outputs of their institutions and to enhance the impact of research within the research community and the world at large. They are: –– Academic librarians must keep abreast of developments in the academic social networks sphere Knowledge is power and academic librarians must stay abreast of the fast-developing academic social networks trends. Knowledgeable academic librarians will be able to promote, recommend, and assist researchers populate and navigate the different academic social networks platforms. –– Develop knowledge of different altmetrics and bibliometrics Academic librarians must develop knowledge and understanding of the meaning of different metric indicators and their use by the wider research community. They can do so by attending workshops, seminars, symposiums, and conferences or any meeting where these areas are discussed, but reading widely to develop their knowledge base, and by participating within the research communities of their institutions. Academic librarians can organise knowledge transfer workshops among themselves to share their knowledge of bibliometrics and altmetrics. –– Create personal profiles in the different academic social networks platforms Academic librarians must themselves participate and be visible in academic social networks to ensure that they understand the research environment and are part of it, as well as understanding from first-hand experience the bene-



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fits and challenges of each of the social networking platforms. Librarians will develop the necessary expertise to educate others. Organise researcher profiling and research visibility workshops Academic librarians with high levels of expertise in academic social networks must provide workshops to educate researchers and postgraduate students as they navigate the maze of academic social networks platforms. Some libraries including the NWU Library and Information Service (NWU LIS) has been involved in such activities for the past few years. NWU LIS provides a range of research support services including details about altmetrics and bibliometrics on its website (NWU LIS n.d.) along with webinars and workshops (Makate 2019). Onyancha (2018) highlighted several other libraries in South Africa that run workshops including libraries at the Universities of Cape Town, Pretoria, Zululand, Pretoria and Stellenbosch. Academic libraries can enlist the services of external experts to conduct workshops on altmetrics and bibliometrics Experts from industry or other academic libraries can be called upon to assist where necessary. As part of NWU LIS strategy, for example, the library enlists the services of World-Wide Information Services (WWIS) (representing WoS) and Scopus to conduct bibliometrics workshops in all three of its campuses, annually (Makate 2019). Experts in altmetrics can be identified and asked to conduct workshops. Conduct advocacy campaigns and other activities to increase profiling and visibility among researchers Academic librarians are well placed to take a leading role in promoting profiling and visibility among researchers and postgraduate students. Where necessary, researchers and postgraduate students can be assisted to create profiles in different academic networking platforms for visibility and impact purposes. NWU LIS is currently involved in campaigns to assist researchers create ORCID and Scopus profiles. Reports of the extent of profiling in the two platforms in the research study were sent to the office of the Vice-Chancellor: Research and Innovation. For its part, as already mentioned, NWU LIS provides research support through web pages including a section on measuring research and impact (NWU LIS n.d.). Library managers must include researcher profiling as part of faculty liaison librarians’ job descriptions Knowledge and skills in the use of academic social networks should form part of each faculty liaison librarian’s job description and performance. If academic librarians are to support research effectively, they must be able to advise researchers about social networking platforms as part of their roles.

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–– Ensure that up-to-date subscriptions to various bibliometrics and altmetrics platforms and databases are held Onyancha (2018) advises that libraries must keep their subscriptions to the various bibliometrics and altmetrics databases up-to-date to ensure access to researchers for self-evaluation purposes. –– Conduct research and publish about different aspects of altmetrics and bibliometrics Academic librarians can be involved in activities that support researchers, but they can also be researchers themselves. As such, Onyancha (2018) postulates that librarians must also consider conducting altmetrics and bibliometrics studies. –– Assist faculties and departments with bibliometrics and altmetrics reports Faculties and departments conduct research evaluations. Faculty liaison librarians can assist and play the role of experts when it comes to evaluations based on bibliometrics and altmetrics databases and platforms. The first author of this chapter was involved in preparing bibliometrics reports for the Education Faculty at the Mafikeng Campus of NWU for their annual research awards for most cited paper, most recognised paper internationally, most productive researcher and other categories. –– Use bibliometrics and altmetrics indicators as input to management decisions as well as proving the value of libraries Bibliometrics can assist librarians make collection development decisions through indications of usage patterns of materials in the library. Bibliometrics can help librarians to track publishing output and its impact (Thomson Reuters 2008:2). Libraries in South Africa are faced with financial challenges that necessitate that decisions are taken based on scientific and objective indicators. Bibliometrics and altmetrics can and do assist libraries to decide which resources or types of resources to prefer and which ones to discard or cancel. Bibliometrics and altmetrics can also help libraries to prove their value to the universities that are concerned about value for money.

Final Words The study described in this chapter examined profiles of rated researchers on two ASN platforms, RG and Mendeley. The results indicated that NWU’s rated researchers are more visible in Mendeley than in RG. The reasons included the fact that the former is owned by Elsevier, a publishing company with a reputation for quality within the academy. However, significant percentages of researchers had inactive



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profiles on both databases. There were significantly more reads in RG than Mendeley which was determined to be in line with previous studies in the area. Two explanations are that reads in RG are counted each time somebody clicks and opens a document in RG while Mendeley readership counts the saves to a researcher’s Mendeley profile. In Mendeley, researchers must show an intention to interact with the document rather than simple clicking and opening it. RG is also bigger compared to Mendeley. Based on these results, it can be concluded that RG has more visibility and social impact than Mendeley although the latter is better at academic impact. The results demonstrated the usefulness of altmetrics indicators such as reads as indicators of social impact. Visibility of research extends to the wider community. Research output is no longer accessible only to researchers but also to the wider community. Libraries and librarians have the potential to extend their roles in strengthening research visibility and social impact of their institutions.

References Ansari, Masoumeh, Mohammad Fallah, Alireza Noruzi, and Masoud Rasolabadi. 2019. “Comparing the Presence of Researchers of Medical Universities of Western Provinces of Iran on ResearchGate and Scopus.” Webology 16, no. 2: 257–274. http://www.webology.org/2019/v16n2/a202.pdf. Asemi, Asefeh, and Mahboobeh Heydari. 2018. “Correlation Between the Articles Citations in Web of Science (WoS) and the Readership Rate in Mendeley and Research Gate (RG).” Journal of Scientometric Research 7, no. 3: 145–152. DOI: 10.5530/jscires.7.3.25. Asnafi, Amir Reza. 2017. “Presence of the Iranian Library and the Information Science Departments in ResearchGate.” DESIDOC Journal of Library & Information Technology 37, no. 4: 259–263. Available at https://scholar.archive.org/work/zrujep22s5fi5fes645druu274/access/wayback/http:// publications.drdo.gov.in/ojs/index.php/djlit/article/download/10561/5984. Bangani, Siviwe. and Omwoyo Bosire Onyancha. 2021. “Evaluation of the National Research Foundation-rated Researchers’ Output at a South African University.” Global Knowledge, Memory and Communication 70, no. 1/2: 187–202. https://doi.org/10.1108/GKMC-02-2020-0017. Banshal, Sumit Kumara, Vivek Kumarb Singh, Golama Kaderye, Pranab Kumara Muhuri, and Belém Priegoc Sánchez. 2018. “An Altmetric Analysis of Scholarly Articles from India.” Journal of Intelligent & Fuzzy Systems 34: 3111–3118. https://doi.org/10.3233/JIFS-169495. Batooli, Zahra, Somaye Nadi Ravandi, and Mohammad Sabahi Bidgoli. 2016. “Evaluation of Scientific Output of Kas-han University of Medical Sciences in Scopus Citation Database based on Scopus, ResearchGate, and Mendeley Scientometric Measures.” Electronic Physician 8, no. 2: 2048–56. DOI: 10.19082/2048. Available at https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27054017/. Bhardwaj, Raj Kumar. 2017. “Academic Social Networking Sites: Comparative Analysis of ResearchGate, Academia.edu, Mendeley and Zotero.” Information and Learning Science 118, no. 5/6: 298–316. https://doi.org/10.1108/ILS-03-2017-0012. Bornmann, Lutz. 2014. “Do Altmetrics Point to the Broader Impact of Research? An Overview of Benefits and Disadvantages of Altmetrics.” Journal of Informetrics 8 : 895–903. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.joi.2014.09.005. Available at https://arxiv.org/abs/1406.7091.

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Oluyemi Folorunso Ayanbode and Williams E. Nwagwu

19 K  nowledge Management Strategies in Clinical Settings, Southwest Nigeria Abstract: Clinical settings focus on delivering quality health care to patients in hospital and other settings. The creation and sharing of insights, ideas and expertise are crucial to effective care and treatment. This chapter reports on a study conducted in 2017 which investigated knowledge management (KM) strategies used by members of therapy teams including doctors, nurses, nutritionists, clinical psychologists, social workers and occupational therapists in two psychiatric hospitals in south-west Nigeria. Quantitative and qualitative data were collected with a self-administered questionnaire and interviews to understand what knowledge was shared and how, and to investigate whether workers were rewarded for activities undertaken in carrying out research and in sharing knowledge. A key question to answer was what mechanisms could be put in place to improve patient care through encouraging members of therapy teams to be more innovative and productive. Keywords: Knowledge management; Therapy teams; Psychiatric hospitals – Nigeria

Introduction Organisations have begun to recognise the importance of managing knowledge within their environments. Healthcare facilities, including hospitals, have shared in valuing effective knowledge management. This chapter focuses on psychiatric hospitals in Southwest Nigeria, which were established over one hundred years ago. The study described in this chapter was conducted in 2017 in the Neuropsychiatric Hospital, Abeokuta, and the Federal Neuropsychiatric Hospital, Yaba, in Southwest Nigeria (Ayanbode and Nwagwu 2020). Psychiatric hospitals are clinical settings where the provision of mental healthcare services is a function of high task interdependence and teamwork (Menninger 1998), a strategy of continuous professional development, and a need for a knowledge-friendly culture to foster quality, evidence-based clinical practices (Dizon, Grimmer-Somers, and Kumar 2012). Collaboration is the hallmark of healthcare professionals, particularly those who are saddled with the responsibility of effective treatment in mental health (Menninger 1998). Mental health disorders are complex and require clinical care by a multidisciplinary team. The therapies used in treatments are wide-ranging, including drug https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110772753-021

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therapy, electroconvulsive therapy, psychotherapy, psychoanalysis, psychodynamic psychotherapy, behavioural, cognitive and interpersonal approaches; the skills, knowledge and experience of team members are diverse and include psychologists, psychiatrists, nurses, social workers, occupational therapists, nutritionists, and various members of allied health specialties. Therapy team members (TTMs) work closely together in the best interests of the people in their care. It had been observed that employees in clinical settings in Nigeria deploy different approaches to create, share and retain knowledge for individual and collective purposes (Olasina 2012; Oyetunde and Ayeni 2014; Udousoro 2014). The strategies used in psychiatric hospitals in Nigeria had not been clearly documented to provide clear policy guidelines for the effective deployment of knowledge management strategies. This study investigated the strategies used to create, share and retain knowledge in psychiatric hospitals in Southwest Nigeria, including codification and personalisation.

Knowledge and Knowledge Management Knowledge is variously understood but can be described as “a fluid mix of framed experience, values, contextual information, and expert insight that provides a framework for evaluating and incorporating new experiences and information” (Davenport and Prusak 1998, 5). Knowledge is expert and context dependent. From an individual perspective, knowledge is human and highly personalised, a product of combined expertise, an effort of network and collaboration (Smith 2001, 312). Cheng (2015) observes that knowledge is the comprehension that people build as they interact with information, either individually or collectively. Such comprehension is dependent on collaboration and the degree of interaction with human and material resources, which enable refertilisation and motivation for new knowledge. Diversities of tacit and explicit knowledge exist in clinical settings and are indispensable to effective care and treatment of patients, and continuous professional development of the clinical experts. Tacit knowledge is sometimes called implicit knowledge. It involves insight and intuition and is difficult to express, verbalise, write down or transfer. Explicit knowledge on the other hand can be articulated, documented, explained and communicated. From an organisational perspective, knowledge is described as an asset for competitive advantage, innovation, transformation and sustainability (Mubaraka, Jirgi, and Mamman 2013; Omotayo 2015). In organisations, knowledge is found in repositories, routines, processes, practices, norms, and cultures (Omotayo 2015, 4),



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and can be increased through effective knowledge activities. According to Slavković and Babić Increasing knowledge in the organization can be done in two ways: by creating knowledge, which includes internal development of new knowledge or the improvement of existing knowledge, and by capturing knowledge, which refers to the inflow of external knowledge into the organization (2013, 89).

Knowledge is basic to value creation in an organisation and must be managed carefully (Dhamdhere 2015, 35). Knowledge management (KM) has many definitions but refers primarily to the methods and processes related to creating, sharing, using and managing the knowledge and information of an organisation. Effective knowledge management is considered necessary not only for competitive advantage, but also for the development of individuals. Knowledge resources will grow at the rate at which individuals are willing to share their expertise, creativity, intuition, experience, and wisdom with colleagues within and across organisations (Kim and Mauborgne 1998, 324). Effective utilisation of knowledge resources and capabilities involves investing in human or technology oriented strategies and is indispensable for sound KM practices which positively drive individual and organisational performance and foster outstanding performance (Rehman, Rehman, and Ilyas 2015, 68). KM strategies refer to the overall approaches an organisation adopts to align its knowledge resources and capabilities with intellectual requirements to reduce any knowledge gap between what ought to be known and what is known (Zanjani, Mehrasa, and Modiri 2008, 392). Activities employed in managing knowledge include codification, building of repositories, collaboration, establishing online forums of experts, developing communities of practice (CoPs), teaming, and human resource management (HRM) (Omotayo 2015). Organisations look to manage their knowledge through adequate acquisition, retention, creation and sharing processes including those related to HRM, CoPs, mentoring, apprenticeship, subject matter experts, leveraging the experience of retirees and storytelling (Chigada 2014, 159). Kankanhalli et al. (2003, 225) say that organisations have unique patterns in their approaches to KM depending on whether they are product-based or service-based, and whether they operate in a context of high or low volatility. According to Geisler and Wickramasinghe (2015, 44), approaches to KM are mainly categorised as people-centric or technology-centric. The two approaches are also referred to as personalisation and codification approaches (Jahn 2013). An organisation may adopt a combined or integrated strategy of personalisation and codification with varying ratios of the two, for example, 80/20, with either component comprising the percentage (Blunt 2001).

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Others take a different view. At Knowledge Praxis, Barclay and Murray (2000, 8) adopted a three-part categorisation involving mechanistic, cultural or behavioural, and systematic approaches to knowledge management, and noted that new knowledge could be derived from the use of mechanistic methods. According to Mentzas et al. (2003, 17), KM efforts may fall under one of two approaches which need to be integrated: the product-centric and the process-centric approaches. The two approaches are distinct and imply a different strategic focus with the use of different software tools. They comment that: The product-centric approach is more likely to be followed by those companies with a business strategy based on standardized and mature products. The processes for developing and selling such products involve well-understood and well organised tasks, and the product knowledge is relatively rigid and thus more easily codified. In such cases, developing a strategy around the “knowledge as a product” approach seems more suitable. The process-centric approach is more likely to be followed by those companies with a value proposition based on developing highly customized and/or extremely innovative products or services that meet unique customer needs. Because these needs vary dramatically, codified knowledge is of limited value. In those cases, adopting a “knowledge as a process” approach, which mainly supports the sharing of knowledge, expertise and judgement, seems more appropriate (Mentzas et al. 2003, 17).

The management of both internal and external environmental knowledge is considered significant to effective healthcare service delivery in clinical settings (Slavković and Babić 2013). Research has indicated the importance of the use of personalisation or people-centric approaches in clinical settings (Albro 2011; Asemahagn 2016; Bordoloi and Islam 2012; Gatero 2010; Gordon, Deland and Kelly 2015; Kanerva, Kivinen and Lammintakanen 2015; Olasina 2012; Oyetunde and Ayeni 2014). Likewise, credence has been given to the effective deployment of codification strategies (Borousan et al. 2012; Udousoro 2014).

Codification Strategies in Knowledge Management in Clinical Settings A systems or technological approach to KM has necessitated the design, adoption and implementation of knowledge management systems (KMS). KMS support tacit and explicit knowledge and they collect and contain information for building new knowledge. They are evolving as powerful tools for competitive advantage. Technology-centric or approaches to KM have been applied effectively in hospital settings (Ghosh and Scott 2008). Codification approaches to KM in clinical settings exist, such as keeping a repository of best practices, data warehousing and data



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mining, knowledge mapping and use of electronic libraries with access to research databases or knowledge portals such as HINARI to support research activities and acquisition of knowledge, stimulating the creation, transfer, storage, retrieval, integration, and application of knowledge (Loebbecke and Crowston 2012). HINARI is a World Health Organization (WHO) programme which collaborates with major publishers to provide access to published biomedical and health information for low- and middle-income countries. Knowledge portals store knowledge and make it easily available to users (Kažimír, Bureš, and Otčenášková 2012, 7). Other codification practices include the storage of patient case notes in hospital databases, many on a regional or national basis, the use of electronic patient record systems, and the use of information technology to review and update all kinds of health and medical data (Mentzas et al. 2003; Udousoro 2014). Hansen, Nohria, and Tierney (1999) found that the construction of an electronic repository allowed many people to access and retrieve codified knowledge without having to contact the creator of the knowledge. Repositories foster the achievement of optimal knowledge reuse and productivity. Codification strategies include the use of different ICT to update, collate, store and retrieve data or information and the capture and preservation of tacit and explicit knowledge for future reuse. Ali (2018) noted that codification ensures knowledge is subsequently made accessible to professionals who are interested in reusing and applying it to support clinical problem solving. A technology-centric approach “enhances and enables knowledge generation, codification (know-how), and transfer” (Ruggles 1997, 8). Ngulube and Lwoga confirmed that a technology-centric approach is strategic to the management and integration of both tacit and explicit knowledge. Knowledge captured mechanistically through the use of collaborative technologies is stored and available for future retrieval and the generation of new knowledge (Barclay and Murray 2000, 8). Such an approach is strategic to the management and integration of tacit and explicit knowledge (Ngulube and Lwoga 2007, 121). The use of KMS such as electronic patients’ record systems supports codification of knowledge. A case study of implementing KMS in healthcare in Malaysia by Borousan et al. (2012, 491–492), revealed the use of KMS in hospitals and the accrued benefits. According to them, a KMS can assist hospitals to improve the five KM stages of accumulation, sharing, utilisation, internalisation, and creation of knowledge, not only within the hospital but also collaboratively among regional hospitals. Through effective use of KMS, 94.34% of users agreed “they were able to learn what is necessary for new tasks”; and 95.29% agreed they referred to best practices and applied them to their tasks. In the knowledge creation phase, 95.28% of users agreed they could apply knowledge in KMS to perform their new tasks without duplicating work already done. A study of health care organisations in Iran

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found that 15% of those surveyed recorded high use of clinical information systems for information exchange inside their institutions (Kahouei et al. 2015, 1). Nabutete (2013) stated that codification of knowledge in online repositories is required to make hospital information and knowledge available for reuse, making the tasks for nurses, doctors, and other health professionals easier and enhancing productivity. But healthcare professionals in psychiatric hospitals in Southwest Nigeria have considerable difficulty in gaining access to knowledge portals and the Internet. The lack of Internet access may be an indication of underfunding of the health sector in Nigeria or non-availability of technological infrastructures in psychiatric hospitals in Nigeria. Internet issues are common throughout Africa. Asemahagn (2016) found that the majority, 70%, of healthcare professionals reported no Internet access in hospitals in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Ajuwon (2015) noted that the Internet is a popular source of information for both healthcare providers and consumers. Ajuwon however found that the University College Hospital Ibadan did not provide Internet access for employees in their offices or consulting rooms due to funding constraints (2006). Only 36% of physicians had their own private Internet connections and the majority did not have access at work.

Personalisation Strategies in Knowledge Management in Clinical Settings In organisations that adopt personalisation or people-centric strategies in KM, collaboration, teamwork, mentoring, CoPs, and a more open learning-focused culture are found. People and not technology are the focus and technology is adopted as an enabler (Blunt 2001, 15). Many different personalisation approaches to KM exist in hospitals. Oyetunde and Ayeni (2014) found that encouraging staff to attend workshops and conferences, providing training and career advancement opportunities, and study leave for training were KM retention strategies employed by hospitals in Lagos, Nigeria. This is in line with the work of Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995), who noted that tacit knowledge is externalised during workshops which incorporate presentations, lectures, discussions and demonstrations through which knowledge is externalised. Gordon, Deland, and Kelly (2015) discovered that good communication among care team members in a hospital is a strategy for sharing effectively knowledge of best practices of patient care and treatment, and Kanerva, Kivinen, and Lammintakanen’s (2015) findings showed that effective communication existed among healthcare professionals in psychiatric hospitals, and that it was beneficial to knowledge creation and sharing among healthcare professionals. Communication takes many forms including speech, signs, nonverbal gestures, and documents.



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Good communication is highly valued in hospitals where clinical information in different formats must be passed from one health professional to another to ensure successful patient care and treatment. Communication is from senior professionals to junior professionals and vice versa, and from one disciplinary team member to another. Effective communication positively impacts on team interaction, the sharing of clinical knowledge, and job efficiency. Gordon, Deland, and Kelly (2015) found that communication among care team members in a hospital is a strategy to share knowledge or information effectively to have better understandings about patient care, treatment and other needs. According to the Institute for Healthcare Communication (2011), communication among healthcare professionals impacts on the quality of working interaction, job satisfaction and healthcare service delivery. Similarly, Gooch (2016) noted that effective communication within hospitals promotes the development and sustainability of a culture of safety. A culture of safety in a psychiatric hospital is all about accurate dissemination of the right information and knowledge among therapy team members and patients at the right time which will reduce medical errors. Collaborative technologies are often deployed in hospitals to foster effective communication among healthcare professionals. CoPs may be real or virtual. Anthony et al. (2009) stated that CoPs become virtual when the mode of interaction uses primarily ICT without community members physically congregating for meetings or discussions. According to Ahmed and Akram (2011, 49), unlike teams, membership in CoPs is voluntary according to an individual’s interest in the topic and association with the community. The focus is on collaboration for improved learning and sharing of best practices without limitations by barriers of distance. Effective collaboration is the hallmark of quality mental health care service delivery. Guptill (2005, 11) identified CoPs as one of the five major components of knowledge management in health care. Lathlean and Le May (2002) and Gabbay and Le May (2004) noted that CoPs foster the sharing of clinical evidence and new knowledge among the multidisciplinary healthcare professionals who are community members, and leverage on their tacit knowledge base. Similarly, the findings of Higginson, Walters, and Fulop (2012) confirmed the existence of mortality and morbidity meetings and case presentations as KM strategies established for clinical reviews and sharing of clinical practices updates. Ikeazota concluded that The use of communities of practice is to facilitate quality improvements, provide some process support, coaching and logistic assistance, and generate high levels of satisfaction on the job and knowledge translation among participants. Communities of practice may take time to maintain, but the benefits of them far outweigh the challenges (2016, 356).

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El Morr and Subercaze (2010, 500) noted that in hospitals, medical professionals’ continuing practice is dependent on ongoing education to update their knowledge. Evidence based practice is aimed at integrating clinical professionals’ expertise and the best external evidence available in research. The findings of a study by Foster et al. (2016, 6) on physician decision making in benign and malignant breast disease management showed that multidisciplinary case conferences had a significant impact on physician decision making. Case conference meetings are an indispensable KM strategy used in all hospitals. A case study of a patient presented by a team of experts in anonymity exchanges and generates clinical information, knowledge, and best practices among professional colleagues. It incorporates storytelling and conversation modes of experientially based knowledge sharing. Wenger, McDermott, and Snyder’s (2002) community of practice theory applies in psychiatric hospital settings where experts physically congregated for meetings to share clinical stories through interactive face-to-face meetings relaying responses of patients to treatment, along with complications that arose and how they were resolved. The socialisation process of knowledge conversion is enhanced during participation in case conference meetings. Experiences and expertise shared during such meetings are highly beneficial to less experienced professional colleagues for reuse in the future. Kalid and Mahmood (2010) noted that experientially based knowledge is an invaluable asset which can be shared through storytelling. In psychiatric hospitals, other types of formal meetings like consultants’ ward rounds are means of sharing, transferring and creation of new ideas, insights and experience. Knowledge experts are often referred to as knowledge specialists or subject matter experts. They are people grounded in their specialisations and are individuals from whom knowledge can be elicited. Knowledge experts are found in all departments in the hospital and might be external to the hospital. Chigada (2014) found that use of subject matter experts was the most vital strategy for safeguarding knowledge; Gatero (2010) found that medical professionals at Kenyatta National Hospital regularly consulted experienced professional colleagues for clinical insights and knowledge and that the practice promoted coaching and mentorship for continuing professional development. Steffen (2016) also noted that use of knowledge specialists or experts is a strategy for knowledge capturing and sharing. In psychiatric hospitals, knowledge experts or specialists are regarded as human repositories of expertise, skills, insights and experiences. Their knowledge is in the form of tacit knowledge. Such people are regularly consulted in times of treatment complications and by less experienced staff to gain insights. The consultation of knowledge experts is vital to the sharing and transfer of tacit knowledge on which psychiatric hospitals depend.



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Resident doctors work with the consultants and learn in a practical way details about effective diagnosis and treatment of patients. Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995, 63) confirmed that apprentices work with their masters and learn craftsmanship not through language but through practical experiences. In psychiatric hospitals, the residency programme for doctors and internship training for pharmacists, clinical psychologists, social workers and occupational therapists adopt mentoring and apprenticeship strategies of acquiring, sharing and transferring knowledge and skills. According to Ylihärsilä (2007, 24), with time, the apprentice learns to work independently and can have her or his own apprentices. Working in pairs could also be considered mutual apprenticeship and is an effective form of transferring knowledge through socialisation. An effective knowledge sharing culture is collectivistic rather than individualistic and staff must be motivated to participate. Asemahagn (2014, 6) found that around 62% and 80% of health professionals in hospitals in Ethiopia agreed respectively on the importance of internal and external motivation for effective knowledge sharing practices among staff. A knowledge friendly culture enables effective communication, openness, continuous learning, teamwork, and collaboration and must be encouraged in psychiatric hospitals. Bordoloi and Islam (2012) found that patient care teams existed in a large public hospital in Thailand and that physicians attested to their positive impact on both healthcare delivery and knowledge sharing among the team members. However, this differs from the finding in a university setting by Mosha (2017, 215) who found that team building was limited among the staff of the universities. Teaming is a common phenomenon in hospital settings where expertise of professionals from different specialties is mutually deployed for effective service delivery. Albro (2011, 40) found that interdisciplinary collaboration provided an opportunity for gaining new insights and treatment practices. A team building strategy is simply collaboration and there is an undeniable relationship between collaboration and knowledge management. The practice is in line with the findings of O’Daniel and Rosenstein (2008, 272) who noted that collaboration among doctors, nurses, and other healthcare professionals not only reduced medical errors, but also optimally fostered cross-fertilisation of knowledge for continuous improvement in decision making. According to Abubakar et al. (2017, 6), the relationship between collaboration and knowledge management is direct, because collaboration is affected by the degree of bonding among team members, which is also in line with the assertion of Chen, Elnaghi and Hatzakis (2011, 4) who noted that collaborative interactions such as open dialogue, social interaction and coactivity fostered knowledge creation. The critical importance of HRM strategies in effective knowledge management has been mentioned. Rewards and incentives are forms of motivation that

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can foster optimisation of knowledge creation, sharing and retention processes. When employees are motivated to conduct research, new knowledge is created, and such knowledge becomes internalised. Retention policies must ensure that staff are nurtured and motivated to remain working in an organisation and that their knowledge is captured. The retention of competent employees is the retention of knowledge. Employing a qualified and competent workforce and executing a programme to retain employees are essential components of successful workforce planning (Minnesota Hospital Association (2012, 1; Wamundila 2008). In a study of employee retention in the healthcare sector in Hyderabad conducted by Kavita and Matta (2013), while a plan to retain workers existed in the hospital, the retention rate was highest among the paramedical staff. According to the authors, hospitals are organisations that need 100% competency unlike other organisations. Employees leaving the organisation take with them valuable knowledge and expertise acquired through experience. There is a dire need to ensure a high employee retention rate in hospitals. It becomes extremely taxing to replace a skilled worker with one who has skills of the same order. Omotayo (2015) noted that staff retention should be an important component of an organisation’s KM strategy to avoid the loss of valuable tacit knowledge. Staff will inevitably retire, and their tacit knowledge may remain untapped. Poole and Sheehan (2006) opine that retirees should be re-engaged as consultants due to their knowledge of the workplace. Wamundila and Ngulube (2011) stated that knowledge retention strategies include education, training, CoPs, professional networks, documentation and use of appropriate technology to capture knowledge.

Undertaking the Study The study’s objectives were to examine the codification and personalisation strategies of TTMs in psychiatric hospitals in Southwest Nigeria. Two federal psychiatric hospitals in Southwest Nigeria were purposively selected based on ease of access: the Neuropsychiatric Hospital, Abeokuta, and the Federal Neuropsychiatric Hospital, Yaba. The results would be used to assist hospital management in appraising its deployment of knowledge management strategies, and the establishment of policies and best practice in codification and personalisation to trigger increased innovation and productivity among staff, and improved patient care.



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Methodology The study was conducted within both the positivist and constructivist paradigms, and employed both quantitative and qualitative techniques with a descriptive sample survey research design. Interviews were conducted to collect qualitative data to corroborate the quantitative findings.

Participants in the Study Two federal psychiatric hospitals in the Southwest Nigeria were purposively selected based on ease of access. At the time of the study in 2017, the two hospitals had 2,632 employees, of which 990 were members of therapy teams including doctors, nurses, nutritionists, clinical psychologists, social workers and occupational therapists. A proportionate-to-size stratified sampling technique was used to select the sample of 496 TTMs participating in the study. The sample size of each stratum was proportionate to the population size of the TTMs in the particular stratum (Table 19.1). Table 19.1: Participants in the Study. NPH = Neuropsychiatric Hospital; FPH = Federal Neuropsychiatric Hospital. Categories of Respondents Doctors Nurses Psychologists Social Workers Occupational therapists Nutritionists

NPH Abeokuta (A)

Sample size of (A)

45 338 6 10 37 5 441

23 169 3 5 19 3 221

FPH Yaba Sample (B) size of (B) 67 400 18 22 40 2 549

34 200 9 11 20 1 275

Total Sample Size 57 369 12 16 39 4 496

Data Collection Data was collected through the use of a structured questionnaire. A 5-point Likert scale was used to measure the variables, ranging from strongly agree (SA = 5), agree (A = 4), undecided (U = 3), disagree (D = 2) to strongly disagree (SD = 1). For ease of presentation and interpretation, responses given as SA and A were combined to form A, and D and SD were combined to form D. The structured questionnaire contained questions on the demographic characteristics of team members and the

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KM strategies deployed in their hospitals. The questionnaire was pre-tested on ten medical and para-medical professionals from the Community Mental Health Hospital, Oke Ilewo, Abeokuta to refine it and subsequently distributed to 496 respondents. 283 responses were accurately completed and returned, constituting a response rate of 57.06 per cent. The failure to complete the questionnaire and the comparatively low response rate were due to the busy work schedule of the participants. A semi-structured interview was also used to collect data from four departmental heads among the TTMs who took part from the two selected departments. The interview guide was pre-tested on three members of staff selected from the School of Psychiatric Nursing, Abeokuta.

The Respondents One hundred and sixty-five, 58.3%, of the respondents were employees of NPH Aro Abeokuta, while 118, 41.7%, were employees of FNPH Yaba Lagos. Members of the teams were predominantly female and the rate of participation of females to males was 2:1. The mean age of all respondents was 38.68 years, with 18.0% under 30 years, 35.0% aged 30–39 years, 34.6% aged 40–49 years, 11.3% aged 50–59 years, and 1.1% over 59 years. The six main categories of the respondents were: doctors, 12.7%; nurses, 71.4%; occupational therapists, 7.1%; clinical psychologists, 3.9%; social workers, 3.9%, and nutritionists, 1.1%. The mean number of years of experience was 10.55 years. Twenty-four point seven percent of the respondents had under five years’ work experience; 34% had six to ten years of working experience; 20.9% had eleven to fifteen years; 9.5% had sixteen to twenty years; 6.7% twenty-one to twenty-five years; 2.1% twenty-six to thirty years; 1.8% had thirty-one to thirty-five years; and only one person, 0,4%, had more than thirty-five years of experience.

The Results Participants were asked to identify approaches to knowledge management that existed in their hospitals and the results were categorised according to whether they were technology-centric, also known as codification, or people-centric, using personalisation approaches,



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Technology-Centric Approach or Codification Table 19.2 identifies the various responses aligned with the technology-centric approach. The strategies in use are listed along with the responses reported according to A, agreed or strongly agreed, U undecided or D, disagreed or strongly disagreed. Table 19.2: Use of strategies related to a technology-centric approach (N=283). Strategy

A%

U%

D%

Computerised repositories of best practices of mental health care services are maintained by my hospital In my hospital, knowledge in documented form e.g. patient case notes, is stored in hospital databases. My hospital promotes access to research databases/knowledge portals such as HINARI Access to the Internet is provided by my hospital My hospital manages its knowledge through the combined harness of available technology and human intellectual capability In my hospital, information technologies are used to update data. In my hospital, information technologies are used to review data In my hospital, information technologies are used to facilitate communication among workers.

73.1

18.0

8.9

70.0

14.8

15.2

65.4

21.6

13.0

17.3 74.2

19.1 15.9

63.6 9.9

66.4

17.3

16.3

61.1

20.5

18.4

61.2

19.7

19.1

As seen in Table 19.2, most participants responded positively to confirm the existence of technology-centric approaches to KM in the psychiatric hospitals examined. The maintenance of computerised repositories of best practices of mental health care services was confirmed by 73.1% with easy access to best practices for reuse in the future. Patient case notes were routinely stored in hospital databases; access to research databases and knowledge portals such as HINARI was provided. ICT was used to update and review data and to facilitate communication among workers. Knowledge captured mechanistically through the use of collaborative technologies was being stored and made retrievable for future use and for generation of new insights, ideas and expertise. The exception was provision of access to the Internet by the hospitals to which the majority, 63.6%, responded negatively. In the psychiatric hospitals surveyed, it was observed that the majority of the employees owned personal Internet connections through diverse modems and access through cyber cafes. Internet access is crucial to retrieval of information or knowledge about evidence based mental healthcare practices available in online

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journals and electronic knowledge repositories like HINARI. Though the hospitals provided access to electronic knowledge portals through subscriptions, the utility of such knowledge portals is dependent on access to the Internet. The high cost of owning personal connections will deter use and invariably affect knowledge management practices. A high proportion, 74.2%, of the respondents, indicated that knowledge was managed through the “combined harness of available technology and human intellectual capability”, and demonstrated the dual existence of codification and personalisation strategies within psychiatric hospitals in Southwest Nigeria. The combined application of collaborative technologies and relevant human resource management actions, including communities of practice, coaching, mentoring and teamwork, had been adopted in psychiatric hospitals in Southwest Nigeria. The nature of services being rendered may have dictated this indispensable combined approach.

People-Centric Approach or Personalisation Table 19.3 presents the responses of participants to strategies related to a people-centric or personalised approach to knowledge management. The strategies are listed along with the responses reported according to A, agreed or strongly agreed, U, undecided or D, disagreed or strongly disagreed. Table 19.3: Use of strategies related to a people-centric approach (N=283). Strategy

A%

U%

D%

Knowledge sharing to create new one [knowledge] is accepted as part of services in my hospital There is a culture intended to promote knowledge sharing in my hospital In my hospital, workers are rewarded for carrying out research In my hospital, workers are rewarded for sharing knowledge In my hospital, activity such as knowledge acquisition is an explicit criterion for assessing worker’s performance My hospital regularly fosters effective working together with colleagues as a process of knowledge management My hospital uses strategic alliances with other hospitals to acquire knowledge My hospital encourages workers to participate in task interdependence forum during which experts create insight that is uniquely experience dependent

83.0

13.5

3.5

73.2

17.0

9.8

41.4

33.1

25.5

41.4 61.4

32.8 22.7

25.8 15.9

74.6

17.0

9.4

61.9

22.2

15.9

74.9

17.0

8.1



 311

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Strategy

A%

U%

D%

Team building approach for the purpose of knowledge sharing exists in my hospital There is regular organization of internal forums for knowledge spreading e.g. workshops My hospital offers on-the-job training to workers in order to keep skills current Workers are sponsored to conferences where they acquire knowledge Research is regularly initiated in order that workers may create new knowledge in the hospital Journals club is a knowledge acquisition strategy available in the hospital Case conference meeting is knowledge management strategy that exists in my hospital In my hospital, experts are consulted as stores of knowledge Experts form online groups of people who interact in on-going bases in order to learn Learning by practical experience exists in the hospital through which personal expert insight that is experience dependent is transferred My hospital encourages experienced workers to transfer their knowledge to less experienced workers Policies intended to improve workers’ retention exist in my hospital Contractual appointment to retain experts exists in my hospital Consultancy services are often rendered by retired therapy team members There is effective communication among senior and junior workers in my hospital There is effective communication among workers of the same status in my hospital

77.7

14.5

7.8

82.7

9.9

7.4

81.3

9.5

9.2

64.3

18.0

17.7

64.7

24.0

11.3

56.2

17.0

26.8

88.4

6.0

5.6

75.6 55.1

15.9 26.9

8.5 18.0

76.7

15.9

7.4

83.7

7.8

8.5

60.8

23.7

15.5

55.9

21.8

22.3

41.7

27.2

31.1

61.3

13.7

5.0

87.6

8.5

3.9

In the two psychiatric hospitals surveyed, nine people-centric approaches or personalisation strategies to knowledge management were found to be extensively put to use and the results depicted in Table 3 show that most respondents were positive to the majority of the statements on the people-centric strategies for KM available in their hospitals. A negative finding was that less than half, 41.4%, of the respondents indicated that workers were rewarded both for carrying out research and for sharing knowledge. Rewards and incentives were not extensively deployed. A further result of

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less than half of the responses was that 41.7% indicated that consultancy services were often rendered by retired therapy team members. A large percentage, 83%, of the respondents indicated that knowledge sharing was accepted as part of the services in their hospital and strongly suggests the existence of a knowledge sharing culture. Seventy-seven point seven per cent of the respondents indicated that a team building approach for the purpose of knowledge sharing existed in their hospital, strongly supporting the existence of good collaboration. The high proportion, 82.7% indicating regular organisation of internal forums and workshops for knowledge spreading along with 81.3% agreeing that on the job training was offered to workers to keep skills current suggest the existence of effective CoPs, good human resource management and appropriate training. The strategy receiving the highest support from respondents, 88.4%, was the case conference meeting. Just over 55.1% indicated that experts formed online groups to learn. Communities of practice and internal meetings and forums exist both face-to-face and virtually in psychiatric hospitals in Southwest Nigeria. A high proportion, 74.6%, agreed that the hospital regularly fostered effectively working together with colleagues as a process of knowledge management. The interdisciplinary collaboration was aimed at harnessing the expertise of all professionals and working together was seen as a useful means of achieving effective knowledge creation, sharing and retention. Consultation of experts as stores of knowledge was a regular practice with 75.6% agreement, and 76.7% agreed that learning by practical experience from insights of personal experts was undertaken. Eighty-three point seven percent agreed that the hospital encouraged experienced workers to transfer their knowledge to less experienced workers with tacit knowledge shared and transferred through apprenticeship and mentorship. Apprenticeship and mentorship were KM strategies found to be in place. Support was given to the existence of policies intended to improve workers’ retention with 60.8%. The policies included sponsorship for conference, seminar and workshop attendance, on the job training, career development programmes, knowledge transfer initiatives, succession planning, knowledge repositories of best practice, contractual appointments, mentorship/ apprenticeships, coaching, promotion of task interdependence forums, enhancement of effective communication, rewards or incentives for carrying out research and accessing consultancy services as needed; 87.6% agreed that there was effective communication among workers.



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The Interviews Interviews were undertaken as part of the study and revealed the importance of collaboration and teamwork in psychiatric hospitals. All the respondents confirmed that working as members of a team resulted in useful exchanges of ideas across disciplines and emphasised its importance. With teamwork, no single person was responsible for the treatment of a patient; collaborative efforts and an interplay of multidisciplinary skills were involved, with expertise and information shared and new knowledge created. In psychiatric hospitals, every member of the therapy team is an expert who has his or her own knowledge to offer with the opportunity for cross-fertilisation of ideas. The interviews revealed the significance of formal meetings in psychiatric hospitals and established that monthly departmental briefings, elders’ forums, clinical meetings, monthly nursing teaching forums, residency training, consultant ward rounds, consultant reviews, nursing care plans, slip charts, case conferences, journals clubs, psychotherapy classes, continuing education programmes every Wednesdays, and research classes were all held and led to knowledge creation, sharing, transfer and retention strategies in psychiatric hospitals in Southwest Nigeria. The various meetings triggered discussion on topics of interest and exchanges of knowledge on issues related to patients’ treatment and other best practices. Findings from the interviews revealed the significance of communication to KM. Information shared about a patient’s treatment response or reaction to medication would result in the acquisition of new insights. Communication in clear and understandable language was considered essential to both day-to-day operations of professionals and knowledge creation and sharing. Clinical services were seen to be the embodiment of communication, both oral and written, horizontally and vertically, to share vital information needed to make informed decisions and to take immediate necessary actions. Good communication was regarded as vital to enabling knowledge management.

Conclusion The results of the survey of psychiatric hospitals in Southwest Nigeria indicated that they deployed codification and personalisation approaches to knowledge management extensively. The strategies in play related to both codification and personalisation and included building or consulting computerised repositories of best practices of mental healthcare services, provision of access to research databases and knowledge portals such as HINARI, use of information technologies for update

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and review of data, documentation, mentorship, coaching, apprenticeship, communication, team building, workshops, seminars, on the job training, case conferences, research group meetings, consultant ward rounds, monthly departmental briefings, elders’ forums, clinical meetings, monthly nursing teaching forums, residency training, consultant reviews, nursing care plans, slip charts, psychotherapy classes, continuing education programmes every Wednesday, employee retention policies, consultation of knowledge experts and communities of practice. It was evident that most strategies were embedded in the everyday activities of members of the therapy teams and that they had adopted high levels of professionalism in mental healthcare with constant involvement in the various activities. The results indicated that members of the therapy teams valued the personalisation approach to knowledge creation, sharing, transfer and retention. Many of the KM strategies in use were people-centric rather than technology-centric. The people involved seemed to have cravings for face-to-face interactions or social interaction to exchange medical information or knowledge, most of which is tacit in nature. Limitations in practices in the psychiatric hospitals emerged from the study. There were no reward or incentive strategies in place; consultancy services by retired therapy team members were not apparent; provision of Internet access by the hospitals was extremely limited. The management of psychiatric hospital needs to focus on establishing supportive policies in these areas to trigger further innovation and productivity within the therapy teams, and ultimately to improve patient care and treatment. Both the background literature and the survey revealed that rewards or incentives, training, supportive technological infrastructure, a knowledge friendly culture, leadership support, good human resource management, mentorship, apprenticeship, electronic repositories of knowledge, communities of practice and specialised competencies are required to facilitate knowledge creation, sharing, transfer and retention in psychiatric hospitals. All members of the therapy teams engaged in knowledge creation, sharing, transfer and retention. The future focus must be on the provision of adequate infrastructure and an enabling environment to optimise effective implementation of knowledge management initiatives. Further sponsorship of workshops and conference and seminar attendance, at both local and international level to increase KM competence should be the priority for hospital management. Regular intervention must trigger the application of KM practices in the hospitals. Codification and personalisation approaches to knowledge management were found to be practised in the hospitals. Personalisation is invaluable to tacit knowledge creation and sharing, but codification must also be encouraged and implemented and ICT applied effectively. Hislop (2013, 207) recommends the codification of knowledge so that it can be transferred and shared among people through ICT. It is imperative that structured policies incorporating all stakeholders in mental



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healthcare services be put in place to ensure adequate provision of Internet access and reward initiatives for creating and sharing knowledge.

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Tom Kwanya

20 F rom Collections to Connections: Transforming Libraries to Knowledge Centres Abstract: The environment in which libraries operate has changed radically. Many empirical studies have confirmed that libraries all over the world are losing their crowns as premier information service providers. Libraries have responded to threats by espousing diverse information services and products. Many responses have concentrated on how to improve the content of, and access to, collections. This chapter argues that libraries will thrive by transforming themselves into knowledge centres anchored on conversations facilitated by multifaceted connections. The topics discussed include the nature and trends of changes faced by libraries; the role and place of library collections in the emerging information universe; and how libraries can be transformed into knowledge centres through multidimensional connections and conversations. New models that libraries may consider using to become centres of knowledge-laden conversations are presented. Arguments for a new order are developed using evidence and facts from the literature to make the case for libraries to shift their focus from static collections to dynamic and conversation-enabling connections. Keywords: Instructional materials centres; Digital libraries; Libraries – Automation; Librarians – Effect of technology on; Apomediation

Introduction Conversations about the future of libraries are ongoing. Many facets of the library as an institution and service provider are under scrutiny. One dominant theme in the discussions is the fading image of the library as the centre of the information universe. In the words of Chad and Miller, the “library’s information provider crown is slipping” (2005, 4). Although the symbolical fall of the library from grace to grass has been misunderstood and exaggerated (Chad and Miller 2005), there are many competitors seeking to inherit its crown. Many people hold the view that techno-based information platforms exemplified by Google, have angled to dislodge the library from its coveted position. However, MacColl (2006) has argued that the perceived competition between libraries and search engines like Google, is misplaced because both facilities serve different purposes. He contends that Google is a universal search facility providing information which people ordinarily do not https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110772753-022



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seek from libraries. Robinson (2008) echoed this view and explained that libraries need not get into competition with Google. Conversely, they should rethink their service models and value propositions. According to Watstein and Mitchell (2006), there has been evident change in the interests, behaviours, habits and expectations of modern library users. Vårheim, Steinmo, and Ide (2008) noted that many library users in the new millennium appreciate libraries as places where people meet and find help. In this view, the collection of a library is of secondary interest to the users. Lankes, Silverstein, and Nicholson (2007) explained that unfortunately libraries have been evaluated through numeric counts of collection size and how effectively collections have circulated. In the emerging information landscape, this focus is unlikely to yield appropriate benefit to the users. According to Maness (2006), libraries are facilities of community service which should not change with the community but allow communities to change them. Anderson (2011) stated that libraries ought to focus on improving their services rather than trying to change their users. Critically, libraries should not just deal with individual needs, but enable communities to seek, find and use knowledge. Noh (2015) envisioned the library of the future as having infinite creative spaces anchored on social informatics. Users of such libraries interact with each other and the librarians to create services and products which add value to the whole community (Maness 2006). Libraries could do better by focusing on activities which bring members of its user community to interact socially and collaboratively to confront personal and organisational challenges (Aabø and Audunson 2012). The library can be the third place, after home and work, where people meet regularly to socialise and share. Users meeting in physical and virtual library spaces participate in diverse conversations and activities depending on their needs and interests, oscillate between high and low intensity activities, and float between diverse profiles of student, family member, friend, neighbour, and citizen, all at the same time (Aabø and Audunson 2012). Massis (2011) proposed the adoption of joint-use library models as a means of maximising the benefits of libraries to communities. Libraries should facilitate the creation of real-life knowledge such as how to survive a natural disaster in specific communities (Hagar 2015), or respond to crises (Stenstrom, Cole, and Hanson 2019). Libraries can create social trust in communities (Ebrahimi and Najmi 2013). Mose and Mose (2021) underscore the variability in the profiles of library users. Focusing on the needs of retirees, they explain that libraries should strive to offer something for everyone, not everything for just a few. Neglected potential users of libraries are people who are new in a community (Kumaran 2009), as well as vulnerable populations, like the homeless (Dennis, Abbott, and Sell 2020; Stenstrom, Cole, and Hanson 2019).

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The foregoing arguments provide evidence that for the library to reinvent and assert itself in the new information universe, it must shift its focus from collections. This view is informed by the understanding that information collections are available from alternative sources, including online services like Google. It is the thesis of this chapter that libraries must transform themselves into knowledge centres to be relevant for modern and future user communities. Since knowledge is created and shared through conversations, libraries in the knowledge age must facilitate conversations which may span millennia or be short-lived (Lankes, Silverstein, and Nicholson 2007). Librarians must not only facilitate conversations, but collect, manage and disseminate conversations through programmes such as reference interviews or speaker series. What is a conversation? A conversation is an exchange of thoughts and ideas between people. Conversations happen when people interact and collaborate with each other to share experiences on specific issues of mutual interest. Conversations are one of the most natural and universal means of exchanging knowledge. Conversations occur between two or more people but can also occur within an individual (Lankes, Silverstein, and Nicholson 2007). Conversation parties can be individuals, companies, groups, or states. Librarians do not have to arbitrate the conversations. As apomediaries, librarians step in only when needed to enhance the conversations (Kwanya, Stilwell, and Underwood 2013). Libraries, both physical and virtual, should be environments which are conducive to conversations among their communities of users. The environments should be safe, comfortable, and transparent (Kwanya, Stilwell, and Underwood 2015; Lankes, Silverstein, and Nicholson 2007). Such environments stimulate the creation of participatory networks of users which harness the powers of wisdom of the crowd, folksonomies, mashups, permanent betas, and open catalogues, enabling tagging and annotations and ultimately giving birth to participatory librarianship characterised by conversation-based programming (Johnston 2016; Johnston 2018). Librarians can participate through social media with users through listening, participation, transparency, policy, and strategy, and libraries can become places where conversations are happening (Schrier 2011).

Library Collections Lee (2000) describes a library collection as the accumulation of information resources created by an information professional to meet the information needs of a user community. It is the sum total of all information holdings of a library. According to Okolo et al. (2019), a facility is named a library because it holds a collection



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of information resources which are useful to specific users. Levine-Clark (2014) states that the definition of the term library carries with it the connotation of a collection of books. The term library emerged from the Latin word liber which means book. To many people, libraries are about collecting, organising and disseminating books. Okolo et al. (2019) argue that librarianship, developed as a profession from the need for people with specialised skills to manage library collections. Nwosu and Udo-Anyanwu (2015) assert that regardless of the beauty of its buildings, expertise of its staff, and quality of services it offers, a facility cannot be called a library without any collections. All library services, products and spaces are considered subservient to collections in the minds of many librarians and library users. To them, the library is fundamentally about information collections regardless of their format. Okolo et al. (2019) assert that collections are the heartbeat of the library. According to Buckland (1989), library collections serve four major roles: preservation of information materials for current and future use; providing convenient access to and dispensing of information resources; identifying and locating documents through appropriate bibliographic descriptions, systems and tools; and enhancing the symbolic status and prestige of the parent institution as a citadel of scholarship. Libraries have boasted about the size of their collections: the bigger the collection the greater the prestige (Jones 2007). Institutions, especially academic ones, invested considerable resources in building their library collections as a means of attracting funding, students and staff. Tucker and Torrence (2004) state that collection development is one of the key performance or competency areas in librarianship and involves identifying the information needs of library users; selecting information materials which in the opinion of the librarian are able to satisfy the information needs of the users; and acquiring the selected materials. Lee (2005) points out that, traditionally, collection development has not meaningfully involved library users. Librarians created and controlled collections with minimal input from users. Even when users made suggestions, the final decision for purchase was with the librarian and based on many considerations key among which was the available budget. Over the years, the formats of information resources have changed drastically. But the collection development process has remained the same (Gregory 2019). Lee (2005) argues that in the traditional sense, a library’s collection ought to be stable and freelyaccessible but dynamic and ephemeral information sources on the Internet are considered unsuitable for collection by libraries. One of the significant elements of collection development involves preservation of the collection as a means of making it permanent. Traditionally only materials selected and processed by the librarians were considered part of the collection. However, Levine-Clark (2014) argues that libraries need to be information-rich, just like Google or Amazon, and able to give their users prompt access to anything they need. “If Amazon.com can

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supply the unusual book they want, why can’t the local public library?” (Gregory 2019, 5). “[I]t seems highly likely that the very idea of the ‘collection’ will be overhauled if not obviated over the next ten years, in favour of more dynamic access to a virtually unlimited flow of information products” (Anderson 2011, 215), Regardless of the collection approach applied, Lee (2005) argues that modern library users need user‐centred and flexible collections rather than library‐centred and fixed collections. Modern collections must include dynamic content such as streaming media and online videos (Gregory 2019). Another pertinent issue about library collections is the concept of ownership. In the past, libraries purchased and owned their collections (Levine-Clark 2014). This view echoes Lee (2000) who argued that in the traditional sense, a library collection was tangible, owned and stored in a specific location or space. Remotely accessed resources not stored directly in library systems were not perceived as being part of its collection. The ownership model has changed as libraries opt for licences to access and lease materials, and purchase relevant materials anchored on a demand driven access model (Albitz, Avery, and Zabel 2014). Library consortia have emerged to facilitate federated collection development approaches based on sharing of resources. Besides cost considerations, Connell (2010) has argued that libraries should also be concerned about environmental issues associated with maintaining physical resources and work to reduce their carbon footprint. One obvious way of achieving this is by reducing the volume of print collections. In the digital era, the librarian selects sources and does not necessarily have to house them physically onsite, which is an excellent way of addressing environmental concerns exemplified by climate change and global warming (Gregory 2019). Dempsey, Malpas, and Lavoie (2014) argue that dominant collection development approaches used by libraries focus on obtaining information resources from outside the library into the library community with minimal efforts to take content from the library community to the outside world. Libraries are able to enhance the image and prestige of their institutions, especially in academic settings, by increasing the volume, variety and visibility of content their users contribute to the outside world. Libraries can facilitate user-generated content creation and sharing through social networking. Gregory (2019) asserts that librarians ought to become more active in the creation, maintenance, and promotion of locally-created content. As social institutions, libraries should find it natural to become involved in the social networking movement as a means of enhancing content generation by their user communities. Although the library will continue to be associated with collections in the digital age, the understanding of the concept of what constitutes a library collection will take on a radically different meaning (Levine-Clark 2014). The collection will comprise anything and everything that the library identifies as able to meet the needs



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of its community. Such collections will be built to facilitate discovery of knowledge and will be as broad as possible (Finch and Flenner 2017). Anderson (2011) predicted that by 2021, most libraries would still have traditional collections, but their value would be minimal because libraries would be unable to meet the changing information needs of library patrons with static preselected information sources. Future users would require a constant flow of real-time information impossible to anticipate by either librarians or users. Many scholars and practitioners (Blume 2019; Crawford et al. 2020; Hallam, Reel, and Heisserer-Miller 2021; Levenson and Hess 2020; Morris and Presnell 2019; Mwilongo, Luambano, and Lwehabura 2020) recommend “just in time” instead of “just in case” approaches to collection development. While the former is flexible, user-centred and cost-effective, the latter is rigid, costly and controlled by librarians. By applying the just in time collection development approach, libraries have a higher chance of providing access to the widest yet most relevant range of information resources covering diverse perspectives on the interests of their communities. Various concerns about library collections emerge from the foregoing perspectives. One is the understanding of what constitutes a library collection. It is evident from the literature reviewed that library collections traditionally were expected to be stable or static information resources. Such a rigid view is untenable in the digital era where dynamic information can be generated and shared in real time. There must be a shift to information sources which can sustainably meet the ever-changing information needs of users. Another concern relates to the collection development process. While some changes are occurring, collection development remains controlled by librarians. User input remains in most circumstances limited to mere suggestions which are weighed against other considerations. User involvement continues to be peripheral in the collection development process however progressive the approach is. Significantly, collection development has focused on external acquisition with little emphasis on creating and exposing internally-created content. The impact of libraries and their parent institutions is limited; they consume more content than they produce. This chapter argues that libraries should shift their focus from building collections to building connections which can transform them into knowledge centres and subsequently overcome the limitations.

Knowledge Centres Knowledge centres are “the repositories of the intellect of ages stored in the form of recorded information for use of present and future generations to come” (Mansur 2012, 166). A knowledge centre is a knowledge integration system and corrobora-

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tion engine designed to facilitate an evolving multi-disciplinary dialog leading to new insights and discoveries and to bring the benefits of collective wisdom to the organisation’s decisions (Mohanavel and Ravindran 2010, 1) . The systems contain the collective wisdom of the organisation, community or society. Paulussen (2012) regards a knowledge centre as a specialised centre facilitating the creation, organisation, sharing, use and preservation of information on a specialised theme or a related set of themes. Guntuku et al. (2011) assert that a facility can only be considered a knowledge centre if it translates information into knowledge. Subramanian and Arivanandan (2009) argue that knowledge centres do not have to be anchored on technology. They explain that in rural communities, a knowledge centre can be used to share tacit knowledge such as indigenous farming techniques or skills on how to prepare indigenous cuisine. There is considerable literature on knowledge centres aimed at preserving Indigenous knowledge with many of the centres located in remote rural areas all over the world. The culture and languages of many Indigenous communities around the world are threatened with extinction and indigenous knowledge centres have been created in many communities to help preserve unique indigenous knowledge (Stevens 2008). Ngulube (2002) highlighted the use of specialised resource centres to preserve Indigenous knowledge in eastern and southern Africa. Sillitoe and Marzano (2009) state that knowledge centres support research on diverse aspects of Indigenous knowledge, including its place in and contribution to socioeconomic development. Owusu-Ansah and Mji (2013) echo the view and urge Indigenous people to add their voices to global issues through Indigenous knowledge research. In this chapter, a knowledge centre is defined as a physical or virtual space where people interact to share both tacit and explicit knowledge. Tacit knowledge is defined as the intangible but highly valuable knowledge resident in people’s talents and experiences. Explicit knowledge, on the other hand, is defined as codified knowledge which is available in documents and artefacts. Tacit knowledge exchange requires the presence and interaction with the people who hold the knowledge. Explicit knowledge can be shared through information-bearing documents such as papers, books, and manuals. Knowledge centres can provide either general or specialised knowledge or both. Knowledge centres can be set up in specific geocultural contexts which influence their structure, services and products. The aim of a knowledge centre is to facilitate the creation or collection, organisation, sharing or diffusion, use and perpetuation of knowledge which is considered valuable in a given context. Characteristics of knowledge centres are summarised in Table 20.1.



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Table 20.1: Characteristics of knowledge centres. Description

Characteristics

Place or location Composition Structure Products Services Activities Geocultural setting Orientation Role of intermediaries Environment

Physico-virtual Networked knowledge sources Flexible, mashups Collective wisdom Connections Conversations Contextualised User-centred, user-driven Apomediation Mutually safe, collaborative

Libraries as Knowledge Centres That there is a close relationship between libraries and knowledge centres is not in doubt. Lawrence (2007) describes a knowledge centre as a specialised facility in a library. Servin and De Brún ask and answer the question: What is a knowledge centre? In short, an enhanced version of a library. The “enhancement” lies in a wider focus on knowledge as well as on information: a knowledge centre typically provides a focus for collecting, organising and disseminating both knowledge and information. This does not necessarily mean that the knowledge centre will actually perform all of these activities itself. Rather, it will create a framework and provide leadership, co-ordination, guidance and expertise (Servin and De Brún 2005, 34).

India’s National Knowledge Commission (2007) perceives knowledge centres as part of libraries which, in addition to other roles, facilitate learning. Nakata et al. (2007) and Pilot (2005) argue that knowledge centres are part of libraries, particularly in public library settings. Libraries can serve as knowledge centres but there are differences between the two; transformation on several fronts must occur for libraries to become effective knowledge centres. Table 20.2 contrasts and compares libraries with knowledge centres.

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Table 20.2: Contrasting and comparing libraries and knowledge centres. Description

Knowledge centres

Libraries

Place or location Composition Structure Products Services Activities Geocultural setting Orientation Role of intermediaries Environment

Physico-virtual Networked knowledge sources Flexible, mash-ups Collective wisdom Connections Conversations Contextualised User-centred, user-driven Apomediation Mutually safe, collaborative

Physico-virtual Information resources Clear boundaries Collected information Collections Reading Generalised Librarian-driven Intermediation Competitive

Libraries manage information resources. Library collections are composed of physical and digital information resources which patrons use to meet diverse information needs whilst knowledge centres hold a network of knowledge sources. It is important to note that original, tacit knowledge resides in people. If libraries focus solely on information resources which hold explicit knowledge, they miss the opportunity to facilitate the sharing, use and validation of the rare yet valuable tacit knowledge. If one accepts the estimate that tacit knowledge comprises over 70% of global human knowledge, a focus on explicit knowledge omits a significant portion of knowledge. In terms of structure, libraries are clearly demarcated in terms of roles and processes and use various protocols to ensure order and minimise conflicts. In knowledge centres, it is not easy to point out clear roles and protocols because knowledge flows in multiple pathways where library patrons play both producer and consumer roles interchangeably. Each activity and its role cannot be predetermined but created instantly at the point of use. Libraries tend to be keen on maintaining order and control over what both patrons and librarians can do in the library or with library resources. Knowledge however thrives in flexible and less controlled ecosystems through unanticipated, serendipitous innovation and creativity. While knowledge centres trade in collective wisdom, the currency in library engagements is information. In knowledge centres, the community of users collaboratively creates knowledge and transform information to knowledge by applying it to real life scenarios. Over time, knowledge is transformed into wisdom through extensive application to solve both practical and philosophical challenges in the environment. In libraries, individuals create knowledge, and most libraries are configured to support individual work. Even when group work is facilitated, the



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groups are often short-term and normally do not last long enough to generate wisdom. In knowledge centres, however, knowledge is created collaboratively, continuously and sustainably, and translated into wisdom with continual use. Libraries frequently prioritise collections. As already noted, many libraries boast about the volume and variety of their collections. Rich collections are indeed valuable but physical and documentary collections can be repositories of static and dated information. Knowledge centres, on the other hand, recognise that important knowledge resides in people and prioritise linking to people who make connections and hold conversations. While library patrons spend time reading the collection, knowledge centre users interact, learn and share. Knowledge centres empower communities to support each other thereby enhancing capacity to serve members in the long tail. Libraries are interested in meeting the needs of the majority and are constrained by resource, time and human limitations to address patrons in the long tail. Libraries rely on librarians to drive the information agenda whereas knowledge centres are not only user-centred, but also user-driven. Librarians act as infomediaries linking users with the information they need; knowledge centres apply apomediation where members of the community are empowered to self-serve while also serving each other. Librarians working as apomediaries in knowledge centres play an indirect, subtle, supportive role at the point of need (Kwanya, Stilwell, and Underwood 2014; Nakitare et al. 2020).

Sources of Knowledge There are several sources of tacit and explicit knowledge. Libraries can be true knowledge centres only if they can manage both. Major sources of knowledge are instinct, intuition, perception, reason, memory, testimony, introspection, observation, authority, and faith, dreams and visions.

Instinct Instinct is a way of behaving, feeling or thinking which is not learned. It is a natural ability and something one knows without learning. It is inherited and unalterable; an inborn pattern of behaviour, a powerful motivation or impact (Lighthall 1930). Any behaviour is deemed instinctive if it is not based on prior experience. One example of instinctive behaviour is how a new-born child learns to suckle the mother’s breasts (Birchley 2015). Instinct is a unique source of tacit knowledge.

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Intuition Knowledge can be obtained without the use of rational processes. Intuition enables people to obtain knowledge without reasoning or perception through the senses. Intuition is the power of understanding something without thinking and resembles a feeling. People might say something like “I have a feeling he is not telling the truth” without being sure of why. Intuition provides people with views, understandings, judgements, or beliefs that they cannot in every case verify empirically or justify rationally (Shapiro and Spence 1997). Intuition is a natural ability or power that makes it possible to know something without proof or evidence and a feeling that guides a person to act a certain way without fully understanding why. Intuition is an original, independent source of tacit knowledge, and is credited with unique kinds of knowledge that other sources do not provide (Hales 2012; Smith 2009).

Perception Knowledge can be perceived through human sense organs of touch, sight, hearing, smell and taste. Human beings are constantly using their senses to explore and perceive their environment. Some schools of thought opine that experience and perception are the primary sources of both tacit and explicit knowledge. People learn that candy is sweet, and so are sugar and jam, while lemons and onions are not. The sun is bright and blinding. Glowing coals in the fireplace are beautiful if you do not touch them. Sounds soothe, warn, or frighten. Through millions of single sense events people build a fabric of empirical information which helps them to interpret, survive in, and control the world about them (Cassam 2008; Pillow 1989).

Reasoning Knowledge can be obtained through reasoning by deducing facts from existing knowledge or discovering new truths. Reasoning enables people to collect facts, generalise about issues, unravel cause and effect relationships, and draw conclusions, propositions and proofs; reasoning is a source of explicit knowledge.

Memory Knowledge can be obtained from memory, which is a means of knowing what happened in the past. History influences the future, and memory serves as a source of



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knowledge which can be applied in the present and into the future (Tulving 1989). Some philosophers are of the view that memory stores previous knowledge but does not produce any new knowledge. Others consider that memory can produce new knowledge when historical data is applied in a new environment and assigned a new meaning. Memory is a source of explicit knowledge but when it is undocumented, it is a source of tacit knowledge.

Testimony Knowledge can be obtained from the experiences and testimonies of others (Coady 1992). Asking a person the time, and receiving an answer, is an example of coming to know something on the basis of testimony. Learning about happenings in distant lands by reading a newspaper is an example of acquiring knowledge on the basis of testimony. The credibility of testimony as a source of knowledge is dependent on whether it comes from a reliable source. Testimony can be a source of both tacit and explicit knowledge.

Introspection Introspection is knowledge of oneself obtained through personal self-evaluation. Introspection is the capacity to inspect, metaphorically speaking, the inside of one’s mind. Introspection is closely related to self-reflection and is contrasted with external observation. Through introspection, one knows what mental state one is in: whether one is thirsty, tired, excited, or depressed (Spener 2015). Some philosophers consider that introspection is less prone to error. Other scholars have argued that introspection can be erroneous because human beings sometimes do not understand themselves fully (Smithies 2013). When appropriately applied, introspection is an invaluable source of tacit knowledge.

Observation People can obtain knowledge by observing phenomena or how things are done. Observation provides both tacit and explicit knowledge without manipulation (Van Lent and Laird 2001). People can be passive or active observers of phenomena or events which influences the quality of knowledge they obtain.

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Authority Knowledge can be obtained from authorities or specialists in their respective domains. It is derived from written works, documentation and reports of others. Authoritative knowledge is used in all academic activities with reference made to authorities, writers and authors in specific fields. Both tacit and explicit knowledge may be obtained from authoritative experts.

Faith, Dreams and Visions Both tacit and explicit knowledge can be obtained through revelation from supernatural sources or beings (Sloan 1994). This type of knowledge is commonly found in religion. People professing this knowledge must surrender themselves to the source of such revelations, that is, the supernatural being, who is eternally superior and cannot be said to lie or make a mistake (Fales 2020). In Christianity, for instance, dreams, visions and even the Bible have come to be accepted as forms of revealed knowledge. In the Islamic tradition, the Koran is held to be an authoritative and revealed source of knowledge. In African traditional religions, the status of self-revelation is given to deities, ancestors, divination of oracles and dreams. This chapter argues that by focusing on collections, libraries manage only explicit knowledge from works of specialists and authorities. Collections may also hold explicit knowledge in the form of memory and testimonies. Libraries connect users to collections and enable them to acquire explicit knowledge. There is a need for people to connect to other people to obtain first-hand knowledge through observation. Library users can obtain valuable tacit knowledge by accessing people with unique experiences and memories directly. Libraries, as true knowledge centres, should endeavour to connect people to each other through diverse forms of social networking. Some knowledge can be obtained only from supernatural sources. Libraries should design environments in which patrons can connect with supernatural sources, for example, creating special rooms to be used for worship, prayer and meditation. The same facilities could be used by patrons to connect with themselves and obtain knowledge through introspection. Libraries can serve as knowledge centres if they enable connections between patrons and collections; patrons and other patrons; patrons and supernatural deities; and patrons with themselves. Libraries can facilitate, organise, preserve, and promote conversations between members of the library community, becoming knowledge centres and serving as centres of conversations.



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Transformation Strategies from Libraries to Knowledge Centres Three suggestions for libraries to consider in their efforts to transform themselves into knowledge centres relate to the concepts of human libraries, communities of practice and knowledge cafes.

Human Libraries According to Kudo et al. (2011), the concept of human libraries was developed as a Danish not for profit organisation in the year 2000. According to Johannsen (2015), a human library is an innovative method designed to promote dialogue, reduce prejudices, and encourage understanding. The concept was originally created to help in addressing stereotypes by hosting people who were differently abled in some way to demystify unfounded beliefs. The stereotypes could be about people living with disabilities such as albinism, medical conditions, or mental health concerns. Other form unfounded beliefs about people who are different in some way (Fonseca 2018; Kwan 2020). In this chapter, a human library is perceived as a space, virtual or physical, for dialogue and interaction between library patrons and people on loan. The library can lend a human book, for instance, a person living with albinism, to talk about the disability. Participants or readers register to attend the reading sessions which may be dialogues with one book and one reader, or lectures with one book and many readers. The model can be adapted to fit any library context and can take the form of expert lectures, counselling sessions, storytelling events, and call-in reference sessions with special guests, among others. Application of the model can develop social networks to support conversations that create, validate and diffuse knowledge. Kudo et al. (2011) applied the model in libraries in Japan and found that it enhanced knowledge and empathy of readers; increased self-reflexivity of books; and transcended self-other images of librarians. The model has been applied in many countries since its development in 2000 (Watson 2015). At the time of writing, there appears to be no human library in Africa. It is a concept which librarians in Africa and elsewhere could adopt and adapt to create and sustain knowledge-laden conversations.

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Communities of Practice Communities of Practice (CoP) is a common knowledge management technique of which many librarians are aware. “Communities of practice are groups of people who share a concern or a passion for something they do and learn how to do it better as they interact regularly” (Wenger 2011, 1). Eckert (2006) explains that CoPs emerge in response to common interests or positions, and influence members’ participation in, and orientation to, the world around them. Three attributes characterise CoPs: domain or knowledge area of interest; community created by shared relationships; and close interactions and practice of the domain by the community. CoPs are groups of closely connected persons who have a common interest in a specific domain or interest area and who interact regularly to improve practice. Libraries are natural hosts of CoPs which they can use to create and promote conversations. Despite the potential, Koloniari and Fassoulis (2017) argue that librarians have not adopted CoPs, which could facilitate effective tacit knowledge and expertise sharing. Diverse forms of CoPs including knowledge ambassadors (Kibe and Kwanya 2015); book clubs and discussion groups (Stephenson et al. 2014); users of maker-spaces (Curry 2017); and study groups (Burns, Howard, and Kimmel 2016) would enhance the knowledge management capacity of libraries.

Knowledge Café “A knowledge café may be defined as a way of bringing together a group of people who have some sort of common interest and who will be able to benefit from talking together and listening to each other on the subject of issues related to and surrounding that common interest” (Remenyi 2004, 4), In this chapter, a knowledge café is defined as a special event bringing together people to discuss, share or test new ideas. Each knowledge café focuses on a specific topical issue. Singh (2017) explains that a knowledge café encourages sharing of knowledge through conversations amongst the participants. Besides creating opportunities for people to learn new things, a knowledge café provides opportunities for networking and socialisation which can drive knowledge management processes. A knowledge café can enhance learning and networking through serendipity. A knowledge café is an appropriate learning model for adults (Baim 2016). Knowledge cafés are informal, facilitated events, or roundtables. Libraries can organise and host knowledge café events on strategic or topical issues and encourage conversations which librarians can collect, collate, refine and share. Librarians can serve as facilitators and/or allow experienced members of the community to facilitate.



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Conclusion This chapter has recognised the significant role collections play in the traditional definition of the library and acknowledged that the collections hold rich knowledge of immense benefit to library communities. Important as they may be, collections alone do not promote knowledge creation and diffusion. Libraries exist in the knowledge age, and regardless of their typology, can make meaningful contributions to their communities and society by serving as knowledge centres which function as citadels of knowledge management. Libraries can best transform themselves into knowledge centres by facilitating multiple forms of connections which result in knowledge-laden conversations. Patrons can connect with themselves, other patrons, librarians and supernatural deities to generate and share knowledge through conversations. Human libraries, communities of practice and knowledge cafés can be used to model and nurture conversations in the library. The ultimate vision of modern libraries is the facilitation of conversations through operating as knowledge centres.

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Australia. https://espace.curtin.edu.au/bitstream/handle/20.500.11937/1344/234254_ Watson%202015.pdf?sequence=2. Watstein, Sarah Barbara, and Eleanor Mitchell. 2006 “Do Libraries Matter?” Reference Services Review 34, no. 2: 181–184. https://doi.org/10.1108/00907320610669416. Wenger, Etienne. 2011. “Communities of Practice: A Brief Introduction.” https://scholarsbank.uoregon. edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/1794/11736/A%20brief%20introduction%20to%20CoP.pdf.

Adeyinka Tella, Sunday Segun Bamidele, Oluwakemi Titilola Olaniyi, and Yusuf Ayodeji Ajani

21 L ibrary and Information Science Graduate Skills Needed in the Fourth Industrial Revolution: A Nigerian Perspective

Abstract: The unemployment rate in Nigeria and other African countries is frightening with a current rate of about 33%. With unemployment highest among young people, it is vital that appropriate educational opportunities are provided to students to ensure that Africa has the skills and knowledge required for its ongoing development. Graduates in library and information science (LIS) have a contribution to make, particularly in meeting the challenges of the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR). This chapter examines the knowledge and skills required for successful employment of LIS graduates, the capacity of library schools to impart the knowledge and skills required, and the barriers to progress. It also addresses what can be done to provide quality educational outcomes, makes suggestions for ongoing improvement and outlines a study of Nigerian LIS graduates which found a mismatch between the skills possessed and the skills required. Keywords: Library education – Nigeria; Librarians – Education; Library schools – Nigeria

Background Unemployment in Africa rose steadily from 14% in 2017 to 33% in 2021 (Trading Economics n.d.). According to econometric models, Nigeria’s unemployment rate will continue to trend at 33% in 2022 and 2023 (Statista n.d.). Unemployment is highest among young people at over 50% including graduates in library and information science (LIS) with bachelor’s degrees who are between the ages of 18 and 35. The report by the World Economic Forum (WEF) in 2017 The Future of Jobs and Skills in Africa: Preparing the Region for the Fourth Industrial Revolution noted that Sub-Saharan Africa had a global share of high-skilled employment of 6%, compared to a global average of 24% (WEF 2017, 3). “With more than 60% of its population under the age of 25, Sub-Saharan Africa is the world’s youngest region.By 2030, the continent’s working-age population is set to increase by two-thirds, from 370 million adults in 2010 to over 600 million in 2030” (WEF 2017, 5). With the disruphttps://doi.org/10.1515/9783110772753-023



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tion of employment and skills brought on by the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR), it was predicted that by 2020, 39% of fundamental skills required across occupations in South Africa alone would be completely different (WEF 2017, 5). The Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) has brought about many changes which are affecting all aspects of society, including job chances for young graduates. Many occupations are being lost, while new jobs are being created that demand new skills in the 4IR. More than 65% of students graduating from higher education institutions today are expected to work in wholly new jobs that did not exist a decade ago (WEF 2018). “[W]orkers will need to have the appropriate skills enabling them to thrive in the workplace of the future and the ability to continue to retrain throughout their lives …by 2022, the skills required to perform most jobs will have shifted significantly (WEF 2018, 12). Many vocations in demand did not exist fifteen or even ten years ago. Significant advances have been brought about by automation and robotics in many industries. Global labour markets have experienced massive upheavals as technological innovations rapidly shifted the boundary between human and machine-based work responsibilities. The 2020 WEF Future of Jobs Report stated: It is now urgent to enact a GlobalReset towards a socio-economic system that is more fair, sustainable and equitable, one where social mobility is reinvigorated, social cohesion restored, and economic prosperity is compatible with a healthy planet. If this opportunity is missed, we will face lost generations of adults and youth who will be raised into growing inequality, discord and lost potential…inequality is likely to be exacerbated by the dual impact of technology and the pandemic recession (WEF 2020, 3, 5).

Information and communications technologies (ICT) have been deployed across society and impacted on all aspects of the economy. The bulk of transactional and other vital services is conducted digitally or electronically. For some, the increasing rate at which jobs are being replaced by automated systems, along with the wave of industrial employment disruption, is indicative of the divergent potential for either a god-like future for humanity or a collapse in the need for a significant amount of current human expertise and endeavour (Harari, Reaves, and Viswesvaran 2014). Lack of knowledge and skills has become a significant barrier in many organisations. The requirements imposed in many position descriptions are stringent and challenging, and choosing the best candidate for the job is a difficult endeavour (Chen and Nega 2019; Madu 2017). Employee turnover has increased in most organisations. The African education system faces a huge challenge in preparing graduates for an uncertain future. Many teaching institutions are unconcerned about the growth of their graduate students. LIS graduates must have the essential attitudes, skills and knowledge to perform their tasks effectively in the changing workplace and play clear and relevant roles in the information industry and society at large in what has been described as the new normal. This chapter examines the

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4IR and reports on a study undertaken in Nigeria to examine the skills and training possessed by LIS graduates after graduation from library school, and the skills required by LIS graduates in working effectively now and in the future.

The Fourth Industrial Revolution The Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) refers to the rapid societal changes occurring in the 21st century asa result of ubiquitous, ongoing developments in information technology, connectivity, and automation and is being experienced all over the world. Beyond mere mechanisation and automation, it encapsulates the rise of robotic technologies, machine learning, augmented and virtual reality, artificial intelligence, blockchain, and cloud computing. The world is currently in the 4IR age, which is a technological revolution that will fundamentally and gradually alter human behaviour patterns (Tella 2020). It has already radically disrupted the human experience and collective human endeavour. The 4IR will be unlike any other in terms of scale, scope, and complexity, and there will be an increase in ambiguity, volatility, instability, disruptive innovation, and uncertainty. There are various discussions, interpretations, and conceptualisations of what 4IR includes, depending on the discipline or industry. However, most people link 4IR with technology (Johal et al. 2018; Xing and Marwala 2017). The term 4IR was popularised in 2015 by Klaus Schwab, the WEF’s founder and executive chairman, when he acknowledged the emergence of 4IR as a technological revolution that would drastically disrupt the way people live, work, and interact, and designated it a revolution marked by a fusion of technologies that blurred the barriers between the physical, digital, and biological domains (Schwab 2015, 2017). He emphasised the importance of connectivity and the possibilities for natural environment regeneration and greater industrial efficiency through better collaboration (Schwab 2017). The 4IR is described on the WEF website: The Fourth Industrial Revolution represents a fundamental change in the way we create, exchange, and distribute value. It is a technological shift merging our physical, digital, and biological worlds into one. The fast-developing technologies pushing it forward …are promising smart solutions for intractable challenges. But this revolution also calls for governing these solutions in ways that empower, foster collaboration, and help build a more sustainable foundation for social and economic development (WEF 2022).

The shift required to deal with the 4IR is unlike anything humankind has ever seen in terms of magnitude, scope, and intricacy. Nobody knows how it will play out, but one thing is certain: a comprehensive and integrated response is required, encom-



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passing all players in the global polity, from the public and business sectors to academia and civil society. The 4IR disturbances started quietly but have been steadily increasing. They are following the traditional paradigm of technological change: slower than expected at first, but with an eventual impact that is broader, more diverse, and more ubiquitous than anyone could have envisioned. This could be one of the reasons why there has not been extensive discussion on the influence of 4IR in the long run. Some African countries are still seeing a surge of transformation as a result of the third industrial revolution. The 4IR is evolving at an exponential rather than a linear rate, with substantial implications for employment, services, education, and entertainment (Alade, Windapo, and Wachira-Towey 2021). There have been three industrial revolutions before the current 4IR. The industrial revolution framework, according to Groumpos (2020), consists of three revolutions. The first was the steam engine and industrialisation; the second concerned electricity and mass production; and the third related to ICT and computers, networks, and information technology. The 4IR is recognised as a continuation of the third, although it is viewed as a breakthrough rather than a continuation due to the disruption caused and its predicted breadth, depth, scale, and speed. Technology has always been at the cutting edge of human advancement throughout history, including past industrial revolutions (Ameen, Hosany, and Tarhini 2021). The 4IR is providing a significant opportunity for individuals in a variety of businesses.

The Fourth Industrial Revolution and the World of Work According to Susskind and Susskind (2017), technology is shaping the workforce and leading to the emergence of new job roles, with many individuals facing redundancy and entire professions likely to be absorbed by technology in a short period. This could be the first time in history that a technology breakthrough has resulted in a net loss of graduate opportunities and a corresponding and quick decline in overall employment. Businesses and educational institutions must reconsider their employer-employee relationships. Organisational control and work styles are experiencing stress and strain (Mpofu and Nicolaides 2019). The 4IR, like each of the other industrial revolutions, offers both opportunities and risks to individuals and the sectors in which they work (Penprase 2018). Even though the 4IR label is not widely used in corporate training, the list of essential competencies is comparable to what large organisations and executives claim they desire in their employees (Njuguna and Landry 2020). Rather than tech-

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nical knowledge or experience, the highlighted competencies are often so-called soft skills such as creativity, empathy, problem-solving, critical thinking, leadership, and teamwork. According to Wolf (2015), as the world organisation confronts and considers the socio-technological imaginary, graduates will be required to demonstrate sound skills to cope with the vast changes in the economic, political, and social milieus in which value will be fashioned and traded in novel ways. The synthesis of numerous technologies, the Internet of things (IoT), robotics, big data, augmented and virtual reality, cloud computing, genetic editing, and 3D printing, among other things, pose diverse dangers to the development of local enterprises and the world of work in the 4IR. The impacts and hazards connected with 4IR technologies, such as data protection, algorithmic bias, discrimination, and privacy, are exponentially exacerbated as 4IR technologies spread. There is a conviction that as entrepreneurs begin to develop creative ideas and talents, there will be benefits that will improve the quality of life for many graduates around the world and that income levels will rise (Jee 2017). Individuals with unique notions and designs, or even billionaire investors, will become uncommon resources as a result, and skilled graduates will become more important to organisational success than finance (Brynjolfsson, McAfee, and Spence 2014; Brynjolfsson and McAfee 2015). Individuals must work to endure and provide a respectable living for their families and themselves. As firms seek qualified graduates, the employment market will become increasingly segregated, as low-skilled graduates will be replaced by technology. Very well-paid occupations, on the other hand, will demand a bigger number of graduates with skill sets that are unlikely to be substituted. An exacerbated dichotomy may worsen workplace difficulties and contribute to an increase in social conflict (Wolf 2015). Some graduates around the world are finding it difficult to obtain work. Some librarians are being replaced by robots, automated systems, and learning technologies. Some librarians are losing their jobs, which is expected to cause labour discontent and agitation, but new sorts of library positions with new sets of skill requirements are emerging. All libraries and librarians must work together and play important roles in supporting educational projects around the world. To manage information successfully, LIS graduates will need to move between digital domains and offline realities through coupled advanced technologies (Deja, Rak, and Bell 2021). The use of robots has helped organisations, such as libraries, by making operations and routines easier to carry out (Nagy et al. 2018). However, as technology increasingly replaces human employees, there is a likelihood of significantly greater inequality and discrimination than there is now (Reaves 2019; WEF 2020). With the changing world, library schools must consider how to identify new skills that will be relevant and valuable to students.



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Skills of Library and Information Science Graduates According to the findings of empirical studies conducted in Africa, LIS graduates are deemed to be underprepared for future career roles. In Kenya, for example, Kavulya (2007) found that many employers of LIS graduates believed the graduates were unfit or underprepared for the job. In Zimbabwe, according to the Nziramasanga Commission Report, graduates from higher education institutions were unprepared for the labour market (Dakwa 2016). Widespread criticism of LIS graduates has increased pressure on LIS education and training programmes around the world, including Zimbabwe, to equip graduates with generic employability skills to enable them to contribute to their future workplaces and “perform successfully as citizens in the knowledge economy” (Nel and Neale-Shutte 2013, 437), allowing them to stay relevant in their jobs and maintain promotion opportunities (Hollis-Turner 2015). A study conducted on the IT knowledge and skills needed by academic librarians in the digital library environment revealed that 70 to 75% of job advertisements in the academic library sector emphasised a need for advanced IT skills, including knowledge of integrated library systems, advanced computer skills, digitisation, web design and development, information retrieval, institutional repositories, and curation of research data and other digital content. Librarians require IT knowledge and skills to a significant extent in the academic library environment. Chanetsa and Ngulube (2016) in a survey of subject learning support librarians found that key requirements included presentation skills, information literacy and course design, reference and research skills, as well as information and search retrieval skills. Web design, online cataloguing, details of classification schemes, HTML knowledge, virtual reference, online chats, use of mobile technologies such as cell phones and tablets in education, and construction of subject portals in teaching, learning, and research were topics on which knowledge and skills were needed by over one third of the respondents. Baro and Eze (2016) investigated librarians’ ICT and information literacy (IL) skills in Nigerian Colleges of Education to see what obstacles they experienced in learning the skills. The librarians responding evaluated their IL abilities as average. Another notable study by Nkamnebe et al. (2015) of ICT skills possessed by librarians in the universities in Anambra State, Nigeria, revealed low levels of skills. Ayoku and Okafor (2015) examined the relevance and adequacy of IT skills in some Nigerian universities in a digital environment and found that many respondents had knowledge and skills of email use and word processing but lacked knowledge of search engines and directories other than Google and Yahoo. Bajpai and Madhusudhan (2019) examined skills in colleges libraries at the University of Delhi and found library professionals had above average skills in infor-

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mation retrieval and accessing, searching, and using ejournals, and average skills in electronic document delivery and networked interlibrary loans, online indexing and abstracting services, digital reference services, development of an institutional repository, and alerting or selective dissemination of information services. Grgic and Zivkovic surveyed the skills and competencies needed by reference librarians in Croatian academic libraries. General searching skills were rated as being important by 82.9%, followed by IT skills with 34.1% and traditional reference interviews with 14.6%. Important technology skills needed were found to be online searching with 90%, web maintenance with 50% and social media with 25%. Technology skills identified as being less important were web design, software and hardware troubleshooting, chat and instant messaging, with 5% or less. The findings of the various studies indicate growing gaps between the needs of work contexts and LIS education and training. The quality of LIS education must be examined to identify gaps in the curriculum and solutions recommended to empower students to meet the demands placed on graduates entering the 4IR labour market. There is a supply demand mismatch in the LIS area, with increased demands on the LIS labour force on the one hand, and traditional professional education programmes’ products on the other. The mismatch has caused unhappiness among LIS organisations and legislators, and has led to accusations that the products of professional library school systems are not ready for the workplace. Chidiadi (2020) claimed that LIS education and training programmes would fail and diverge from their primary objective of developing qualified human capital for society and the profession if the problems under consideration were not addressed. The relevance and, ultimately, the viability of LIS academic subjects would be jeopardised. With the arrival of the 4IR, it is critical that the skills of LIS graduates be examined to determine whether or not they are appropriate.

A Skills Framework for Librarians The librarian of the 21st century, according to Salter (2003) and Missingham (2006), must respond to new circumstances and critical self-analysis. Myburgh (2003) stated that a broad, theoretical framework is required rather than relying on a narrow set of skills. Because LIS graduates must be ready to respond to new and unexplored situations during their careers, an effective knowledge base is more likely to give the most helpful guidance to a rookie information worker than a collection of rapidly dated abilities. According to Van House and Sutton (1996), LIS is in a battle with other professions and academic fields for control of information functions. To develop new skills, a new niche must be discovered. LIS education is



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not constrained to the continuation of current programmes, and it does not need to continue current forms of education. A strong knowledge base, methodologies, attitudes, practices, and instruments must be developed and applied to new issue areas which will survive. Myburgh (2003) advocated for the creation of a new strategy for graduate skill development that takes into account the needs of employers and different career stages. To tackle the current global problems posed by the 4IR, the possession of skills required of LIS graduates must be strengthened (Withorn et al. 2021). An Economist Intelligence Unit (2018) report lists critical thinking, the ability to communicate effectively, to solve problems creatively, to work collaboratively, and to adapt to changing priorities as the skills most needed by employers. Chigona, Gillwald, and Unwin (2019) and Sutherland (2020) noted that employers demand leadership, administrative know-how, and information and communication technology (ICT) competencies. Lowden et al. (2011) suggested that multidisciplinary competencies such as project management, communication, presentation, pedagogy, and skills related to technology, business, planning, designing, and general management are integral to efficient workflows and service provision in the transitory labour environment. Changes in library services and collections have necessitated the acquisition of a wide range of information and skills. Much has been said about the new soft skills that LIS graduates will need. However, as 4IR evolves in tackling the difficulties and opportunities of digital transformation, new job specifications and professional abilities required will emerge as shown in Table 21.1 (Lee et al. 2018; WEF 2018). Table 21.1: Comparing top ten skills demand 2018 vs. 2022 (WEF 2018, 12)Today: 2018 Analytical thinking and innovation Complex problem solving

Trending: 2020

Analytical thinking and innovation Active learning and learning strategies Critical thinking and Creativity, originality, analysis and initiative Attention to detail, trustComplex problemworthiness solving Active learning and learning Technology design strategies and programming Emotional intelligence Leadership and social influence Coordination and time Systems analysis and management evaluation

Declining: 2022 Manual dexterity endurance and precision Memory, verbal, auditory, and spatial abilities Management of financial, material resources Management of personnel Technology installation and maintenance Quality control and safety awareness Technology use, monitoring, and control

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Today: 2018

Trending: 2020

Creativity, originality, and initiative Reasoning, problem-solving, and ideation Leadership and social influence

Critical thinking and Reading, writing, math, and active listening analysis Emotional Intelligence Coordination and time management Reasoning, problem-solving, and ideation

Declining: 2022

Visual auditory and speech abilities

Examining Skills of Nigerian Library and Information Science Graduates A study was undertaken of the skills possessed by Nigerian LIS graduates after graduation from library schools, as well as the skills required to ensure relevance in the 4IR employment market.

Objectives The specific objectives of the study were: –– Identify the skills possessed by LIS graduates in the 4IR era –– Ascertain the relevant skills required and needed by LIS graduates in the 4IR era –– Determine the future training needed in the 4IR era and identify the consequences of inadequate preparation of LIS graduates –– Determine how library schools will prepare graduates for the 4IR era, and –– Identify the challenges associated with the preparation of LIS graduates for possession of 4IR skills.

Methodology The study adopted a survey design methodology. A survey is commonly used in LIS information system research to collect self-report data from study participants. A survey may focus on information about individuals, or it might aim to collect the opinions of respondents. A survey was considered appropriate in this instance because a substantial percentage of LIS alumni could be included and it enabled generalisation of the outcomes.



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The questionnaire included elements related to the study’s five objectives. The questionnaire was divided into two parts with demographic data concerning the respondents in Part A. Part B was divided into five sections, each related to one of the five goals of the study. –– Part 1 focused on current skills possessed by LIS graduates, with ten skills identified from the literature, and three alternative responses for each: Yes, Partially, No. Example: Which of the following do you consider as the current skills you possess as LIS graduates? Communication skills…..the respondents’ response: Yes, Partially or No –– Part 2 related to the relevant 4IR skills, with ten 4IR skills listed. The respondents were asked to specify the skills relevant in the 4IR job market by checking the boxes –– Part 3 focused on the consequences of failing to prepare LIS graduates sufficiently for the digitally driven 4IR. The respondents indicated their level of agreement with each of the five points and, if relevant, offered additional outcomes –– Part 4 included information about how LIS graduates might prepare for the 4IR. It was open-ended and asked for suggestions about improvements to their training and preparation for the 4IR job market, and –– Part 5 concentrated on the issues of preparing LIS graduates for the 4IR. The respondents were asked to highlight issues connected with preparing LIS graduates for the 4IR job market. Graduates of Nigerian universities with Bachelor degrees in LIS formed the study’s target demographic. The study focused on graduates from universities in the south-west and north-central regions. The researcher connected with LIS students through an online alumni forum. Four different forums enabled access to the respondents who were LIS graduates from four library schools in the two regions with a total of 288 LIS graduates. A questionnaire was delivered using online platforms to 158 LIS graduates. The questionnaire developed for the collection of data on the study was posted to a contact person in each of the four LIS graduate forums identified. After informing the link individuals of the goal of the activity, an agreement was reached for uploading the questionnaire to the respective forums. The researchers’ email addresses were distributed for return of the completed questionnaire. Due to the second wave of COVID-19, when strict adherence to all COVID-19 regulations, particularly social distance, was required, face-to-face delivery of the questionnaire was not possible. The respondents were given four weeks to complete and submit the questionnaires. One hundred and fifty-eight questionnaires were returned after the four weeks, with 150 correctly completed and suitable for data analysis. The survey was conducted between October 2020 and February 2021.

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Results The qualitative data was thematically analysed, while the quantitative data was analysed using percentage and frequency counts, with the results displayed in tables.

Current Skills of LIS Graduates The objective was to identify the skills possessed by LIS graduates. To achieve the objective, respondents were asked to indicate which of the listed skills they possessed as LIS graduates. The results are presented in Table 21.2. Table 21.2: Skills Possessed by LIS Graduates. Current Skills

Yes

Communication Teamwork Problem-solving Ethics and professionalism Lifelong learning Critical thinking Leadership Creativity Technology Management

148 142 56 102 87 12 121 12 25 127

Yes % Partially Partially % 98.7 94.7 37.3 68 58 8 80.7 8 16.7 84.7

2 6 12 12 2 2 9 2 5 15

1.3 4 8 8 18.6 1.3 6 1.3 3.3 10

No

No %

0 2 82 36 35 136 20 136 120 8

0 1.4 54 24 23 90 13.3 90.7 80 5.3

According to the findings in Table 20.2, LIS graduates had skills such as communication, teamwork, ethics and professionalism, lifelong learning, and leadership, but they lacked problem-solving, critical thinking, creativity, and technology skills. LIS graduates lacked the technology-related abilities considered necessary in the 4IR job market.

Skills Required by LIS Graduates in 4IR Respondents were asked whether or not they could confidently state they possessed relevant skills for the 4IR job market and then asked to choose which 4IR skills they deemed relevant in the 4IR from a list of twenty. Tables 21.3 and 21.4 show the results.



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Table 21.3: Confidence of Skills Relevance in the 4IR Job Market. YES

Partially

Can you confidently state that you have the current 4IR skills 23 (15.3%) 117(78%) needed in the global job market?

NO 10 (6.7%)

The majority of LIS graduates (78 per cent) were unsure that they had the essential abilities to secure a position in the 4IR job market. Table 21.4: Skills Required for the 4IR Job Market. 4IR Skills Needed

YES

YES % Partially Partially % NO

NO %

Analytical thinking and innovation Active learning and learning strategies Creativity, originality and initiative Technology design and programming Critical thinking and analysis Complex problem solving Leadership and social influence Emotional intelligence Reasoning, problem solving and ideation System analysis and evaluation Technical Skills – Knowledge and capabilities to perform specialized tasks Entrepreneurship – Knowledge, and abilities that support success in creating and building a workplace opportunity or idea Soft Skills – Personal attributes, social skills, and communication abilities that support interpersonal relationships and interactions with others Workforce readiness – Foundational to individuals’ entry and ongoing success in the workplace, ranging from initial job search to maintaining continuous employment People Management Coordinating with Others Judgement and decision making Service orientation Negotiation Cognitive flexibility

11 120 12 25 13 52 121 42 50 25 5

7.3 80 8 16.7 8.7 34.7 80.7 28 33.3 16.7 3.3

2 12 2 5 4 12 9 18 28 5 1

1.3 8 1.3 3.3 2.7 8 6 12 18.7 3.3 0.7

137 18 136 120 133 86 20 90 72 120 144

91.3 12 90.7 80 88.7 57.3 13.3 60 48 80 96

87

58

11

7.3

52

34.7

80

53.3

12

8

58

38.7

12

8

2

1.3 136

90.7

130 120 77 55 15 47

86.7 80 51.3 36.7 10 31.3

11 9 12 13 15 22

7.3 9 6 21 8 61 8.7 87 10 120 14.7 81

6 14 40.7 58 80 54

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 Adeyinka Tella, Sunday Segun Bamidele, Oluwakemi Titilola Olaniyi, and Yusuf Ayodeji Ajani

Table 21.4 shows the skills required and possessed by the graduates. For each of the twenty skills considered relevant for the 4IR job market, seven were identified by more than 50% of the respondents as being held, and twelve as not held The results showed that LIS graduates possessed active learning and learning strategies, leadership and social influence, entrepreneurship knowledge and abilities, soft skills, and people management skills. LIS graduates possessed a few general 4IR related skills but lacked the core skills needed.

Consequences of Poor Preparation The consequences of poor preparation and lack of training were explored and the results are provided in Table 21.5. Table 21.5: Consequences of Inadequate Preparation. Consequence Greater income inequality Increased unemployment Increased government expenditure More mass migrations Loss of already acquired jobs due to relevance and under-performance

Agree Agree % 137 142 137 20 150

91.3 94.6 91.3 80.0 100

Not Not Sure % Disagree Disagree % Sure 7 5 3 17 0

4.6 3.3 2.0 11.3 0

6 3 10 13 0

4.0 2.0 6.6 8.6 0

Inequality, unemployment, higher costs, mass migration, and job loss were all seen in Table 21.5 to be repercussions of failing to teach 4IR skills as part of the LIS school curriculum. All were deemed important. Failure to prepare students appropriately has serious short-term and long-term implications.

Library School Preparation of Graduates for the 4IR General unhappiness with their education and training was expressed by respondents. They were asked to suggest improvements in library education in Nigeria. Some of the comments were: It’s not a big deal; all library schools in Nigeria need to do is adopt the system of library schools in advanced nations of the world, such as the I-School in Canada, library schools in the United



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States of America, the United Kingdom, Australia, and others, and borrow a leaf from them on how to best prepare LIS graduates for the new era. Now that library schools are aware of the skills they have been teaching students, as well as the skills that are necessary or needed to be thought about in the new period, the onus is on them to bundle the new talents into a new curriculum to be established. Our library schools are weak in so many ways. Most schools, in particular, lack the necessary facilities for practical learning. There aren’t enough laboratory areas to teach students practicals, and those that are offered aren’t enough. Similarly, manpower to teach students the new abilities described in the 4IR literature is unavailable, and the majority of people now teaching in library schools lack the expertise of how new technologies work and hence are unable to instruct students. These challenges may be remedied if facilities and infrastructure such as laboratories for teaching practice are accessible, as well as staff to educate the students. Then the tale will change, and we will see LIS graduates competing favourably with LIS graduates from other areas of the world.

The survey showed that LIS schools in Nigeria had much to learn from schools in other countries. They required facilities upgrades, staff with enhanced knowledge and curriculum redesign with greater emphasis on ICT.

Challenges of Preparing LIS Graduates The final part of the survey examined the challenges associated with the preparation of LIS graduates for work in the 4IR world in Nigeria. The results suggested numerous challenges. There was a lack of funding, student lethargy, insufficient instructor motivation, and a shortage of personnel to teach the new 4IR skills, as well as an outdated and obsolete curriculum, inappropriate mindset, recalcitrance in the adoption of new technologies, and a conservative approach of LIS teachers. Comments from respondents included: LIS institutions in Nigeria will have to go above and beyond to train LIS graduates for 4IR positions. The reason for this is that we have far too many problems. It all starts with compensation. The salaries paid to library school teachers and other university lecturers in Nigeria are mediocre at best. As a result, Nigerian LIS schools have lost a large number of students to LIS institutions in neighbouring African countries and advanced countries. Not only that, but the majority of teachers at Nigerian library schools nowadays are merely wage-earners rather than professionals in their respective professions. So, who is left to teach the 4IR skills to the students? The LIS school curriculum, in my opinion, is at the heart of the problem. I always read through the curriculum, even though I have graduated and before graduating. Because the Nigerian LIS curriculum does not include much of this, teaching 4IR skills to LIS graduates may be impossible.

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I believe that the basic difficulty in educating LIS graduates for 4IR positions is a lack of desire to adopt new technology. We’ve been hearing and reading in the literature about how libraries in advanced countries, including Africa, are incorporating new technologies such as robots, artificial intelligence, the Internet of Things, big data, virtual reality, cloud computing, maker-spaces, blockchain, and other similar technologies into their operations. Unfortunately, none of our library schools or libraries is ready to ring the bell and implement one or two of these technologies. How can we teach it, how can students be inspired to study about what they haven’t seen?

The study examined through empirical analysis, LIS graduates and the skills required in the 4IR. It concentrated on four library schools in the south-west and north-central regions of Nigeria. Extending the study to other library schools in the rest of the country might yield worthwhile and helpful results. Future research could investigate a qualitative skills evaluation, focus on specific skills, examine the work environment, and investigate the library schools themselves to explore the skills required and the solutions possible.

Conclusion This chapter has provided an overview of the Fourth Industrial Revolution and outlined a study examining the status quo of the preparedness of LIS graduates and LIS schools in Nigeria for the new world of work. The study polled 158 LIS graduates via online forums and platforms and revealed that few had technology-related abilities or the new soft skills required for the 4IR job market, with 78% indicating a lack of appropriate 4IR skills and competencies. The consequences of lack of skills and knowledge are inequality, unemployment, higher costs, mass migration, and job losses. Students and teaching staff need greater motivation; recruitment of new teaching staff with technology skills is required; mindsets must be altered; and clear strategies outlined for the future. Going forward, Nigerian library schools must model their development on successful library schools elsewhere in the world (Moran and Marchionini 2012); curricula must be revised with input from the relevant educational and library communities; new programmes must include a strong focus on ICT and clear student outcomes; the government, through the Ministry of Education, must allocate more funds to provide upgraded facilities and equipment and to increase salaries for teaching staff; the library community must develop clear strategies for staff development and training and incentives to motivate LIS students. As Stephen Curry said: “Success is not an accident; success is a choice” and Dale Carnegie noted: “Most of the important things in the world have been accomplished by people who have kept on trying when there seemed no hope at all.”



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Contributors

Contributors

Ajani, Yusuf Ayodejii Free-lance librarian working with multiple library schools and non-governmental organisations in Illorin, Kwara State in Nigeria. Yusuf is a research assistant and part-time lecturer at the University of Ilorin. Previous places of employment include the Kwara State College of Education, the Kwara State Library, the Kwara State Polytechnic Library, and the Al-Hikmah University.Yusuf is a public speaker who engages audiences in critical thinking. He earned a Masters’ degree from the Department of Library and Information Sciences, University of Illorin. He is a team player with a focussed interest in information systems and knowledge management. Alabi, Raliat Law Librarian, Faculty of Law, Kwara State University, Malete, Nigeria. Raliat studied Library and Information Science at the University of Ibadan, Oyo State Nigeria. She gained a Bachelor of Law Degree from Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria and a Barrister at Law at the Nigerian Law School, Abuja, Nigeria. She has worked in various capacities as a teacher, librarian and law librarian and participated in the planning and establishment of law libraries in various law faculties throughout Nigeria. Raliat has published articles in both local and international journals. Her research interests include law library administration and management and use of information and communications technology in law library operations. Asimah, Amy P. A. Client Service Librarian, Evangelical Presbyterian University College, Ho, Ghana and Head of the Library’s E-Resource Unit. Amy holds a Bachelor of Education Arts (History) degree from the University of Cape Coast and a Master of Arts degree in Information Studies from the University of Ghana. She was judged the best graduating Master of Arts student in Information

Studies for the 2015/2016 academic year and is a PhD candidate at the Department of Information Science, University of South Africa. She has worked in academic libraries for the past ten years, beginning as a Senior Library Assistant and rising through the ranks to become Assistant Librarian. She assists researchers and the university community at large by providing support ranging from literature exploration to publishing in peer-reviewed journals. Amy supports heritage restoration and archival information management through proposal development, field implementation, monitoring and project evaluation. She is the leader of a three-member team who won a Gerda Henkel Stiftung/Foundation grant entitled “Renovation of Repository and Conservation of Archival Records at Ho Regional PRAAD Offices” in 2020. She is a chartered member of the Ghana Library Association. Her recent scholarly work has focused on library management software, digital libraries and excellent customer service in academic libraries in Ghana. Ayanbode, Oluyemi Folorunso Chief Librarian, Neuropsychiatric Hospital Aro Abeokuta, Nigeria, and Head, Technical Section of the library. Oluyemi has a BLIS in Library Archival and Information Studies and an MInfSc from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria, and a PhD in Information Science (knowledge management specialisation) from the University of South Africa. He has reviewed and authored notable library science related publications and presented many papers at both international and national conferences. His publications appear in Information Development, INDILINGA – African Journal of Indigenous Knowledge Systems, Mousaion: South African Journal of Information Studies, and IRCAB Journal of Social and Management Sciences. Oluyemi’s research interests include bibliotherapy, digitisation, human computer interaction, indigenous knowledge, information and knowledge management social informatics,

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 Contributors

and social media use. He is a Certified Librarian of Nigeria and a member of the Nigerian Library Association. Azeroual, Otmane Researcher, Deutsche Zentrum für Hochschul- und Wissenschaftsforschung/German Centre for Higher Education Research and Science Studies (DZHW). After studying business information systems at the Hochschule für Technik und Wirtschaft Berlin/University of Applied Sciences (HTW), Otmane obtained his PhD in engineering informatics with the Research Group Databases and Software Engineering at the Otto-von-Guericke-Universität Magdeburg. His research and teaching activities address digital corporate transformation, database systems, software engineering, artificial intelligence, data science and project management. As a member of the research information organization euroCRIS, he supports international universities and non-university institutions as well as their researchers with applied solutions to ensure the data quality of research of note in computer science. He is widely published and the editor of various internationally renowned journals. ORCID: 0000-0002-5225-389X. Bamidele, Segun Sunday College Librarian, Kwara State College of Education, Oro, Kwara State, Nigeria. Segun has obtained Diploma, Bachelor and Master degrees in library and information science. He started his career as a library attendant and steadily worked his way to senior positions. He has worked with the Kwara State Library Board, Nigeria, and the Kwara State Polytechnic Library. Segun is a PhD student in the Department of Library and Information Science, University of Ilorin, Nigeria. Bangani, Siviwe Director, Research Services, Stellenbosch University Library and Information Service, South Africa. Siviwe is a PhD student in information science at the University of South Africa. He is passionate about research and has published articles and presented papers in journals

and conferences in the areas of open access, institutional repositories, bibliometrics and altmetrics, community engagement, information literacy and research data management. Siviwe is an active peer-reviewer for various South African Department of Higher Education and Training approved international and national journals such as Global Knowledge, Memory and Communication; Information Development; Information Discovery and Delivery; Open Learning: The Journal of Open, Distance and e-Learning; The Journal of Academic Librarianship; and Mousaion: South African Journal of Information Studies. Boloka, Mamotshabo Johanna Lecturer and PhD candidate, Department of Information Science in the University of South Africa. Mamotshabo holds a Master of Arts in Information Science from the University of South Africa and a Bachelor of Information Studies from the University of Limpopo. Her areas of interest include information retrieval, cataloguing and classification, indexing and abstracting, public/community librarianship, as well as user studies in the library and information services field. She has published several articles in accredited journals and is a reviewer for local and international journals in library and information science. Chigwada, Josiline Post Doctoral Research Fellow, University of South Africa (UNISA). Josiline has sixteen years of experience in academic librarianship. Her librarianship journey began in 2002 when she joined the National University of Science and Technology in Zimbabwe for the Bachelor of Science Honours degree in Library and Information Science. She graduated with a first-class degree and was the best female student in the Faculty of Communication and Information Science in 2006. She was conferred with a Master of Science degree in Library and Information Science in 2009 from the same university. She holds a Doctor of Literature and Philosophy in Information Science from the University of South Africa. Before joining



UNISA, Josiline worked at the Chinhoyi University of Technology as Deputy Librarian, Bindura University of Science Education as an Assistant Librarian, Sub Librarian, and Acting Deputy Librarian, and also at the University of Zimbabwe as the Law Librarian. Her research interests are open science, research data management, digital libraries, big data, indigenous knowledge systems, open access, marketing library products and services, and the changing roles of librarians. She has published several book chapters, journal articles, conference proceedings and presented at various national, regional and international conferences. Josiline is a Mendeley certified librarian, Mendeley Advisor, an Altimetric Ambassador and a CORE ambassador.  Chikonzo, Agnes C. University Librarian, University of Zimbabwe. Agnes holds a PhD in Information Science from the University of Pretoria, and a Master of Library and Information Science from the University of Botswana where she was awarded the Indian High Commissioner’s Prize for the Best Student and Student of Good Conduct in the Faculty of Humanities. She also holds a Post Graduate Diploma in Library and Information Science with distinction from the same University and a Bachelor of Arts Degree from the University of Zimbabwe. In her time as University Librarian, she has had the opportunity to lead the library team as it explores new avenues for information delivery. The Library has maintained its position as a leading library in the country. Her research interests pertain particularly to information and communications technology. She has published extensively internationally on information and communications technology, and information needs and seeking behaviour for HIV and AIDS, and contributed to several book chapters. Chisita, Collence Takaingenhamo Senior Lecturer, Department of Information Systems at the Durban University of Technology, South Africa. Collence has been a Post-Doctoral fellow and is currently a Research Fellow at the University of South Africa. He holds a PhD

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 363

in Information Sciences from the University of Pretoria, a Master in Information Sciences, Bachelor of English and Communications, Higher Diploma in Information Sciences, and a Diploma in Public Relations and Communications. He is a renowned writer and speaker who has presented papers at various forums including the Euro African Cooperation on ICT Research (Euro-Africa ICT), Promoting African European Research Infrastructure Partnerships (PAERIP), the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA), among others. Collence is a member of several library associations, including CILIP and the Zimbabwe Library Association, and is Secretary of IFLA’s Indigenous Matters Section (IFLA-IMS) and the African Library & Information Associations and Institutions (AfLIA)’s Library Education & Training Institutions Section. Du Plessis, Tanya Associate Professor, Department of Information and Knowledge Management, University of Johannesburg. Tanya holds a B.Bibl. (Cum Laude) and an M. Bibl. (Cum Laude) from North-West University and she completed a D Litt et Phil in 2005 from the University of Johannesburg. She is a postgraduate research supervisor of Masters and Doctoral students, Chair of the Departmental Academic Research Ethics Committee, and lectures honours and undergraduate third year Information and Knowledge Management modules. Tanya has published widely and is on the editorial board of two journals. Her teaching profile is aimed at preparing students for the world of work based on the principles of design thinking. Enakrire, Rexwhite Tega Research Fellow, Department of Information Science, University of South Africa, Pretoria. Rexwhite’s qualifications include a PhD from the University of Zululand, South Africa), a Post Graduate Diploma in Education, a BSc, MSc, and Diploma in Library Science from the Delta State University, Nigeria. Rexwhite has attended several national and international training programmes and conferences. He is a seasoned

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 Contributors

tutor, graduate research assistant, lecturer, researcher and librarian with over twelve years’ experience. His research interests include information and communications technologies, information and knowledge management, indigenous knowledge systems, knowledge sharing, information ethics and research methodology both qualitative and quantitative. Farrugia, Charles J. National Archivist of Malta, and Head, Department of Library, Information and Archive Sciences, University of Malta. Charles graduated in history from the University of Malta and in archives and records management from three UK higher education institutions, the University of Newcastle at Northumbria, University College London and the University of Aberystwyth in Wales. He has worked for over thirty years at the National Archives of Malta, taking charge of its transition from a small hall in the Palace in Valletta to the current network of six buildings. In 2005 he established records management and archives courses at the University of Malta. Charles has addressed world-wide conferences and in 2009 hosted and organised the International Conference on the Round Table of Archives (CITRA) in Malta. His activity outside Malta resulted in his holding the Chairmanship of the Association of Commonwealth Archivists and Records Managers for nine years, and he currently occupies the post of Chairman of the European Branch of the International Council on Archives. Charles has published extensively in Malta and internationally. Fombad, Madeleine C. Full Professor, Department of Information Science at the University of South Africa. Madeleine holds Master’s Degrees in Law from the University of Yaoundé II, Cameroon, and Library and Information Studies from the University of Botswana, and a PhD in knowledge management from the University of Pretoria South Africa. She completed a postdoctoral fellowship on collaborative governance. She works in partnership with the Institute for Corporate

Citizenship at the University of South Africa. Her broad research interests include knowledge management, particularly for sustainable development and corporate governance. Gamede, Dimpho Z. Graduated with a BA in Public Management and Governance in 2019 from the University of Johannesburg and went on to graduate with a BCom honours degree in Information and Knowledge Management in 2020 from the same university. Dimpho tutored final year students in the Information and Knowledge Management undergraduate course at the University of Johannesburg in 2020 and was certified as a tutor by the College Reading & Learning Association (CRLA) International Tutor Training Program Certification (ITTPC) in 2020. Gunjal, Bhojaraju Chief Library Officer, Library, Indian Institute of Technology, Hyderabad Telangana. Prior to this position, he was Deputy Librarian, Central Library, National Institute of Technology Rourkela, Odisha, India; Deputy Librarian at Thapar University, Patiala, Punjab, and Knowledge Management Consultant at TATA Consultancy Services, Bangalore. He has over twenty-three years of professional experience in library management, knowledge management, enterprise content management, and project management in academic and information technology sectors using enterprise content management tools such as SharePoint, Documentum, and InQuira. His academic background is a PhD in Library and Information Science from the University of Mysore, and an MLISc from Karnataka University, Dharwad, securing a gold medal. Bhojaraju was an Endeavour Research Fellow in 2008 and visited Australia to conduct research at the School of Computer Science and Mathematics, Victoria University, Melbourne. He has published and presented widely nationally and internationally, attended various professional training programs, organised events and won many awards. ORCID: 0000-0002-9658-1473.



Ikegune, Daniel Olusegun Librarian, KolaDaisi University, Ibadan, Nigeria. Daniel is a Master’s graduate from the University of lbadan. He holds degrees which are uniquely relevant to information and information resources manufacturing, with a Bachelor of Education in Educational Management/ Economics in 2009 from Tai Solarin University of Education, Ijagun, Ijebu-Ode, Ogun State, and a Masters in Library, Archival and Information Studies in 2014, and a Masters in Publishing and Copyright Studies in 2021, from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. He is a member of Nigerian Library Association. His research interests include knowledge management, library administration and management, leadership styles, preservation and conservation of information and archival resources, reading habits, marketing of library services and textbook publishing. Daniel has attended workshops held by the Nigerian Publishers Association aimed at creating a crop of small-scale scholarly publishers who are highly educated and with the right brief for scholarly publishing in Nigeria. He is a prolific writer and erudite researcher and has published articles in several journals and book chapters both locally and internationally. Kasiroori, Justice Lecturer, University of Zimbabwe, Department of Analytics and Informatics. Justice is a qualified data analyst with academic and professional qualifications in data analytics. His research interests include library technologies, practical applications of big data and enhancing academic process using big data and data analytics. He has been involved in library technology and information and communications technology applications for the past twelve years. Kodua-Ntim, Kwame Assistant Librarian, University of Cape Coast, Ghana. He is a chartered librarian of Ghana and assigned to the Department of Information Technology and Research Support of the Cape

Contributors 

 365

Coast University library system. Kwame manages the virtual library services of the University Library. He has a PhD in Information Science from the University of South Africa, an MA and MPhil in Information Studies from the University of Ghana and a Bachelor of Management Studies from the University of Cape Coast. Kowalsky, Michelle Librarian and professor, Rowan University in New Jersey, US. Michelle holds an EdD from Pepperdine University and an MLS from Rutgers University, and is a National Board Certified Teacher of Library Media. She is the business librarian at Rowan and works in research and instructional services to assist undergraduates, graduate students, and faculty in learning the art and science of research. She has been a teacher and librarian for over twenty years, and worked in college libraries, school libraries, corporate libraries, and public libraries throughout her career. Her research interests as an education and library and information science professor focus on the intersection between libraries, learning, and technologies. She has written with John Woodruff a book titled Creating Inclusive Library Environments: A Planning Guide for Serving Patrons with Disabilities (Chicago: ALA, 2016) and with Robert S. Fleming a book titled Survival Skills for Thesis and Dissertation Candidates (London: Springer Nature, 2021). Kwanya, Tom Associate Professor, Department of Information and Knowledge Management at the Technical University of Kenya. He is currently also serving as the Director of the School of Information and Communication Studies. Prior to becoming a full-time academic in 2013, he worked as a consultant on public information and knowledge management. Key consultancy positions held include service as a World Bank communication consultant seconded to the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of Southern Sudan, Juba; knowledge management consultant for the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of

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 Contributors

Women (UN Women); public information specialist and team leader of the Public Sector Information Project for the Republic of South Sudan, Juba; and facilitator of a five-day professional course on the fundamentals of organisational knowledge management on behalf of the African Advanced Level Telecommunications Institute (AFRALTI) in Kenya, Mozambique, the Gambia, Sierra Leone and Liberia. Tom holds a BSc (Information Science), Moi University, Kenya, an MA (Communication Studies), University of Nairobi, Kenya and a PhD (Information Studies), from the University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Letsoala, Kevin M. Business Analyst/Consultant, Faranani DocTec Midrand. Kevin holds a BCom Hons degree from the University of Johannesburg and has also completed a short course on artificial intelligence at the same institution and a certification in content server business analysis from Open Text. Kevin’s prior work experience includes serving as formerly a student assistant at the University of Johannesburg. Maphoto, Asania Reneilwe Lecturer, Department of Information Systems at Durban University of Technology, South Africa. Asania previously worked as a temporary lecturer in the Department of Information Studies at the University of Zululand. She is a PhD candidate in the Department of Information Studies at the University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg Campus, and holds a degree in Information Studies from the University of Limpopo and a Master of Information Studies from the University of KwaZulu-Natal. Asania has an interdisciplinary background and varied research interests, which include information-seeking behaviour, library services, and information, knowledge and records management. Asania has contributed to and published articles extensively in South African Department of Higher Education and Training accredited journals and conference proceedings and presented papers at local and international conferences.

Matlala, Mpubane Emanuel Lecturer, Department of Finance and Information Management at Durban University of Technology, South Africa. Mpubane is a PhD Candidate in the Department of Information Studies at the University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg Campus, South Africa. He holds a degree in information studies from the University of Limpopo, a Post-Graduate Diploma in Records and Archives Management and Master of Information Studies from the University of KwaZulu-Natal. Mpubane has a multi-disciplinary background and varied research interests, which include records management, preservation of electronic records, information and knowledge management. He has contributed to and published articles extensively in South African Department of Higher Education and Training accredited journals and conference proceedings and delivered papers at local and international conferences. Millar, Laura Records, archives, and information management consultant and independent scholar for over 35 years. Laura received her Master of Archival Studies degree from the University of British Columbia, Canada, in 1984 and her PhD in Archive Studies from University College London, United Kingdom, in 1996. Laura consulted with the International Records Management Trust for many years, serving as Managing Editor and contributor for the Management of Public Sector Records training project, completed in 1999, and as General Editor and contributing author for the International Records Management Trust’s Training in Electronic Records Management programme, completed in 2009. Laura has served as a consultant on records and information management with agencies, associations, governments, universities and organisations in Bermuda, Canada, Ghana, Hong Kong Malawi and Trinidad and Tobago. She taught for many years in the fields of records and archives management, as well as in editing and publishing, and is the author



of dozens of publications and presentations on various topics related to records, archives, editing and education. Her books include The Story Behind the Book: Preserving Authors’ and Publishers’ Archives (Vancouver: CCSP Press, 2009) and Archives: Principles and Practices (London: Facet, 2010, rev. ed. 2017). Laura was awarded the Society of American Archivists’ 2011 Waldo Gifford Leland Award for Archives: Principles and Practices, for ‘writing of superior excellence and usefulness in the field of archival history, theory, or practice.’ Her latest book, A Matter of Facts: The Value of Evidence in an Information Age (Chicago: ALA Neal-Schuman, 2019), written for a public audience, has been praised as offering ‘a compelling case for the fundamental importance of evidence.’ Laura is a Fellow of the Association of Canadian Archivists and an Honorary Senior Research Associate at University College London. She is a frequent guest speaker at professional and public events, addressing the value of records, archives and other sources of evidence as tools for accountability, identity and memory in society. Minishi-Majanja, Mabel K. Professor of Information Science, University of South Africa. Mabel holds a BA in Librarianship from the University of North London, 1979, a Postgraduate Diploma in Education from Kenyatta University 1987, a Master of Library Science from the University of Pittsburgh, 1993, and a DPhil in library and information science from the University of Zululand KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa in 2003. Mabel’s research interests include library science education and training in Africa and information and communications technology. ORCID: 0000-0003-0253-3081. Mosweu, Olefhile Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Department of Information and Knowledge Management, School of Consumer Intelligence, and Information Systems, University of Johannesburg, South Africa, in the College of Business and Economics. Olefhile regularly reviews academic works and is an editorial board

Contributors 

 367

member of the Journal of the South African Society of Archivists, and the ESARBICA Journal: Journal of the Eastern and Southern Regional Branch of International Council of Archives editorial team. He is a National Research Foundation of South Africa C2 rated researcher. He is also an external examiner for the Department of Information Science, University of South Africa. His research interests are archival education, digital records management, research methodology, and the impact of Industry 4.0 on records management. Olefhile was a Research Assistant and member of Team Africa in the International Research on Permanent Authentic Records in Electronic Systems (InterPARES Project) from 2013 to 2018. Mugenyi, Andrew Cataloguing Librarian, International Library of African Music (ILAM), Rhodes University, Eastern Cape, South Africa. Andrew is passionate about research, metadata, collection development, information and communications management, knowledge management and sharing, library use in academic and special libraries, and current trends in library and information science. He completed a Diploma in Library and Information Studies from Kyambogo University in 2002, and a bachelor’s degree in library and information science from the University of Fort Hare in South Africa in 2019. Andrew is working towards a Masters of Information Science from the University of South Africa. Muziringa, Masimba C. Deputy Librarian, Research and Learning, University of Zimbabwe. Masimba is a PhD candidate at the University of Zimbabwe and holds MSc and BSc Honours degrees in Library and Information Science from the National University of Science and Technology Zimbabwe. He has specialist training in implementation science from the King’s College London, UK, and has implemented various research outcomes into policy projects and programmes. His research interests include evidence-based healthcare, implementation science, knowledge management and open science.

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 Contributors

Nwagwu, Williams Ezinwa Associate Professor, Department of Data and Information Science, University of Ibadan, Nigeria. Williams specialises in science communication, scholarly publishing and scientometrics, and teaches courses that include information behaviour and knowledge management. He is a Research Associate in the Department of Information Science, University of South Africa, and has held visiting fellowships in several universities including the University of Western Ontario, Canada, Duke University in North Carolina US and the University of Washington US. He is an author of over one hundred papers in core journals of the Web of Science and over thirty conference papers. Williams is on the editorial board of the South African Journal of Library and Information Science, World Journal of Science and Technology and Sustainable Development, among others. Until March 2019, Williams was the Head of Knowledge Management at the Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa (CODESRIA) based in Dakar, Senegal. Ojobor, Rebecca Chidimma Academic Librarian, Nnamdi Azikiwe Library, University of Nigeria. Rebecca is a graduate of library and information science of the University of Nigeria. She obtained her MLS in 2014 and her PhD in 2020 from the Department of Library and Information Science, University of Nigeria Nsukka. She began her career in the private sector in 2007, and in 2019 gained employment at the University of Nigeria, where she works as a lecturer and academic librarian in the Special Information and Technology Unit, Nnamdi Azikiwe Library. She is devoted to lifelong learning and has a strong enthusiasm for librarianship. Rebecca is a member of the Nigerian Library Association, conducts research herself, and is a reviewer for various journals, gaining a reviewer’s certificate from most journals for her work as a peer reviewer. She has contributed to book chapters published by reputable publishers and has written numerous journal articles. Rebecca is happily married with children.

Olaniyi-Adegoke, Oluwakemi Titilola Librarian, Federal College of Education (Technical) Library, Akoka, Lagos, Nigeria. Oluwakemi has published papers both in national and international refereed journals along with some chapters in books. Omoike, Adenike Damilola Senior Librarian, Cataloguing Section, Kenneth Dike Library, University of lbadan, Nigeria. Adenike graduated with a Bachelor’s degree in political science in 2005 and an MLS from the University of Ibadan in 2009. She is a member of the Nigerian Library Association and a Chartered Librarian of Nigeria. Her research interests are in information and communications technology applications, and library administration and management. Adenike has published extensively on cataloguing both locally and internationally, with journal articles and chapters in books. She is a seasoned librarian who has always taken a keen interest in training upcoming and potential librarians in library routines, administration and operations which foster the growth of talent and establish contemporary librarians firmly in their profession with innovative practices. Onyancha, Omwoyo Bosire Research Professor, Department of Information Science, University of South Africa. Omwoyo holds a PhD in Library and Information Science from the University of Zululand, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, and is a C2 rated researcher in South Africa. He was previously Deputy Librarian at the University of Eastern Africa, Baraton, Kenya. His areas of research interest include altmetrics, information and communications technology, information resource and services management, knowledge management, scientometrics and user education. ORCID: 0000-0002-9232-4939. Ramatsebe, Neo SAP Certified Associate Consultant with a background in information management. He works closely with clients to understand their



business needs and to develop customised solutions. Neo holds a BCom Hons from the University of Johannesburg and a certificate in business systems analysis from the University of Capetown. Neo worked as a student assistant at the University of Johannesburg. He was an SAP Young Professionals Program Trainee in 2022, an application support intern at Deutsche Telekom Healthcare in 2021 and 2022 undertaking work at Netcare Hospitals and National Renal Care, and a student assistant at the University of Johannesburg in 2020. Schöpfel, Joachim Associate Professor in information and communication sciences, Université de Lille/ University of Lille in France. Joachim is interested in scientific and technical information in the wider environment of academic publishing, research assessment and open science. His research focuses on organisational strategies of open access publishing, research data repositories and research information management. He is a board member of the International Organisation for Research Information (euroCRIS), the Networked Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations (NDLTD) and the Grey Literature Network Service (Greynet International). He is working as an independent consultant with the Ourouk Consulting company in Paris. Joachim holds a PhD in psychology from Universität Hamburg/University of Hamburg in Germany. ORCID: 0000-0002-4000-807X. Tella, Adeyinka Professor, Department of Library and Information Science, University of Ilorin,

Contributors 

 369

Nigeria and Research Fellow in the Department of Information Science at the University of South Africa, following a stint as a visiting researcher with the Department. Adeyinka was a Commonwealth scholar who finished his PhD at the University of Botswana in 2009. He is a three-times winner in 2014, 2017 and 2018 of the Dr. T.M. Salisu Most Published Librarian Award made by the Nigerian Library Association and a 2007 winner of a Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa (CODESRIA) small grant for thesis writing for the PhD student category. Adeyinka has authored many articles in high impact Web of Science/Scopus rated journals and as at November 2022 had scored an H-index of 33, an i10-index of 71 and 5021 citations. He edits or is on the editorial board of many recognised journals. Zimu-Biyela, Acquinatta Nomusa Academic and Researcher, Department of Information Science, University of South Africa. She holds Bachelor’s degrees in Arts and Education, a Post-Graduate Diploma in Information Science from the University of Transkei, a Master of Library and Information Science from the University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, and a doctoral degree from the University of South Africa (2016). Her academic interests include information organisation and retrieval, archives and records management, knowledge management and indigenous knowledge systems, community information centres and community libraries and empowerment of women.