Indian Rock Paintings of the Great Lakes 9781442653740

Table of contents :
Foreword
Content
Editorial Note
The Quest
The Aboriginal Artist
The Sites
Anthropological Background
Appendixes
Bibliography
Pictograph Sites
Index
Acknowledgments

Citation preview

I N D I A N R O C K PAINTINGS O F T H E G R E A T L A K E S This book describes in word and illustration the results of an exciting quest on the part of its authors to discover and record Indian rock paintings of North­ ern Ontario and Minnesota. Numerous drawings were made from these pictographs at a hundred different sites; the originals range in age from four to five hundred years to a thousand, and were done with the simplest materials: fingers for brushes, fine clay impregnated with ferrous oxide giving the char­ acteristic red paint. Where an overhanging rock protected a vertical face from dripping water or on dry, naked rock faces the Indians recorded the forest life with which they lived in intimate association—deer, caribou, rabbit, heron, trout, canoes, animal tracks—and also abstractions which puzzle and intrigue the modern viewer. Many of the paintings could only have been done from a canoe or a convenient rock ledge. Selwyn Dewdney travelled many thousands of miles by canoe to make the drawings of the pictographs which illustrate every page of this fascinating and attractive book. He provides also a general analysis of the materials used by the Indians, of their subjectmatter and the artistic rendering given to it, and his artist's journal records in detail the sites he visited, the paintings he found at each, the comparisons among them that came to mind, the references to rock paintings in early literature of the Northwest. Kenneth E. Kidd contributes a valuable essay on the anthropological background of the area, linking the rock paintings with early cave art in, for example, France and Spain, describing the life of the Indians in the Shield country, and commenting on what the picto­ graphs reveal of their makers' attitudes to their external world and of their thinking. This is a book which will appeal to a wide audience: to those interest­ ed in primitive art forms and in Canadian art in general, to all students of the early history of North America, to travellers who in increasing numbers follow the canoe trails of the Shield lakes and rivers. is a well-known Canadian artist and author. A Bachelor of Arts from the University of Toronto and an Associate of the Ontario College of Art, Mr. Dewdney is a former high school teacher, and is currently art therapist in three London, Ont, hospitals and executive director of the Artists' Workshop of London. He has published a novel and a map-reading story for children, and has done book illustrations for numerous school texts, as well as several histor­ ical murals. Readers of this book will at once realize that his second home is a canoe on the waters of the Northwest. SELWYN DEWDNEY

K E N N E T H E A R L K I D D is Curator Of Ethnology at the Royal Ontario Museum. A graduate of the University of Toronto, he has done extensive work in archaeol­ ogy in Ontario, notably at the French mission site of Ste Marie I , work which he described in The Excavation of Ste Marie I . He is a member of the Quetico Scientific Advisory Committee, and has been a vice-president of the Society for American Archaeology.

The Agawa Site, Lak e Superior,

Near Devil's Bay , Lake of th e Wood s

INDIAN ROCK PAINTING S OF T H E GREAT LAKE S By Selwyn Dewdney and Kenneth E. Kidd

PUBLISHED FO

R TH E QUETIC O FOUNDATIO

BY U N I V E R S I T Y O

F T O R O N T O PRES

S

N

Copyright, Canada , 196 2 University of Toronto Press Printed in Canada

Quetico Foundation Series 1. T H E I N D I A N S O F Q U E T I C O . B y E. S. Coatsworth 2. Q U E T I C O G E O L O G Y . B y V . B . Mee n 3. C A N O E T R A I L S T H R O U G H Q U E T I C O . B y Keith Denis 4. I N D I A

N ROC

K PAINTING

S O

F T H E GREA T LAKES

Selwyn Dewdne y an d Kenneth E. Kidd

.B

y

The author s gratefull y acknowledg e th e generou s assistance an d advic e o f man y individual s an d organizations o n whic h th e fou r year s o f extensiv e fiel d wor k were s o dependent . Th e Quetic o Foundatio n i s greatl y indebted t o th e Governmen t o f Ontari o for it s financia l assistance in the publication of thi s book.

Foreword THIS BOO K i s the outcom e o f a n excitin g and challengin g quest b y M r . Selwyn Dewdney, artis t an d author , an d M r . Kenneth E . Kidd , Curator , Departmen t of Ethnology , Royal Ontari o Museum, to discove r an d recor d th e India n roc k paintings, o r pictograph s a s the y ar e no w called , o f Norther n Ontario . Thes e pictographs, whic h ma y b e foun d o n th e roc k face s alon g th e waterway s o f the Canadia n Shiel d fro m Lak e Mazinaw , nort h o f Belleville , t o th e Ontario Manitoba boundary , provid e evidenc e o f th e cultura l achievement s o f th e early inhabitant s o f ou r Province . No doubt , th e smal l symbol s arouse d th e speculative interes t an d curiosit y of th e earl y voyageur s an d other s wh o hav e followed them . Bu t i t i s onl y today , throug h th e effort s o f th e author s o f thi s volume, a s wel l a s th e Quetic o Foundation , th e Roya l Ontari o Museum , an d the Department s o f the Governmen t o f Ontario , that the y ar e bein g presente d to a wider audience . Numbering wel l ove r a thousan d individua l drawings , th e pictograph s have bee n obtaine d fro m approximatel y on e hundre d sites , th e majorit y i n the regio n west o f th e Lakehead . Their origi n date s bac k perhap s a s muc h a s four hundre d t o fiv e hundre d years . M r . Dewdney himsel f record s tha t "n o artist eve r handle d simple r tool s o r material s tha n thos e employe d b y thes e ancient picture-writer s o f th e Shiel d region . Thei r paint cam e fro m th e earth ; their finger s serve d fo r brushes . Whereve r o n a watersid e clif f th e over hanging roc k protecte d a vertica l fac e fro m seepag e o r drippin g wate r an d the su n coul d dr y i t quickl y afte r a storm , o n nake d roc k face s wher e eve n the tenaciou s lichen s foun d to o littl e moistur e fo r survival , th e India n chos e his canvas . A majorit y o f th e recorde d site s coul d onl y hav e bee n painte d from hi s bar k cano e a t varyin g wate r levels ; a fe w onl y fro m convenien t rock ledges. " Although trace s o f blac k an d whit e ca n b e discerne d a t severa l sites , re d is the predominan t colour . Fine clay s impregnated wit h ferrou s oxid e undoubt edly for m th e ingredient s fo r the red . The binde r whic h ha s give n the painting s such enduring quality is, however, a mystery to thi s day . The pictograph s var y greatl y i n symmetr y an d detail . I n som e instance s the scene s depicte d ar e marke d b y realis m an d beauty , whil e i n other s th e drawings ar e abstrac t and , b y conventiona l standards , crude . The y conve y an absorptio n wit h fores t life—deer , caribou , rabbits , heron , trout , anima l v

tracks, hand-prints , an d canoes—al l o f whic h were par t o f th e realitie s o f th e day i n which the artis t lived . A larg e numbe r o f pictograph s ar e t o b e foun d withi n Quetic o Park' s 1,750 squar e miles . I n orde r bette r t o assur e th e preservatio n o f thi s natura l wilderness, i t wa s m y privileg e two year s ago , alon g wit h th e Presiden t o f th e United States , to establis h a Committee consistin g of resident s o f bot h Ontari o and o f th e Unite d States . Th e Committe e i s makin g a notabl e contributio n to th e establishmen t o f a co-ordinate d developmen t pla n fo r th e Quetico Superior Are a o n bot h side s o f th e internationa l border . Th e Quetic o Founda tion materiall y assiste d i n fosterin g th e establishmen t o f thi s Committee . In additio n t o thi s work , th e Quetic o Foundatio n ha s bee n engage d i n a variety o f studie s an d educationa l projects . Thi s volum e i s th e fourt h i n th e series tha t ha s bee n published . Th e Governmen t o f Ontari o i s please d t o have bee n associate d wit h th e Foundatio n an d th e Roya l Ontari o Museu m in thi s work . Th e publicatio n o f thi s volum e shoul d hel p t o quicke n interest i n ou r earl y histor y an d stimulat e furthe r researc h an d study . Lindsay, Ontari o Prime October 18 , 1961

vi

L E S L I E M . FROS T

Minister of Ontario

Contents Foreword, Honourabl e Lesli e M . Fros t v Editorial Note vii

i

The Quest 1 How I t Bega n 2 The Typica l Sit e 4 The Searc h 6 Recording Technique s 8 Dating Clue s 9 Interpretive an d Ethnologica l Clue s 1

1

The A boriginal A rtist 1 Preamble 1 Surface an d Organizatio n 1 Painting Medi a an d Technique s 1 Form, Content , an d Styl e 1

5 6 6 7 8

The Sites 2 Regional Division s 2 Quetico-Superior Countr y 2 Border Land s Wes t 3 Lake o f th e Wood s 4 Northwestern Hinterlan d 5 West-Central Hinterlan d 6 Nipigon Countr y 7 Northeast Superio r Shor e 7 Eastern Hinterlan d 8 Voyageur Highway : Eas t 9 Southeast Ontari o 9

1 2 3 8 0 5 6 4 7 4 2 4

Anthropological Background:

1

Appendixes 111 Bibliography 11 Pictograph Site s 12 Index 12

Kennet h E . K i d d 10

8 1 3 vii

Editorial Note Pronunciations The curren t standardize d spellin g o f th e wor d "Ojibwa, " traditionall y pronounced an d frequentl y stil l spelle d O j i b w y , illustrate s th e confusio n over th e renderin g o f aborigina l India n word s fo r English-speakin g readers . Chippewa, Chippeway , an d Otchipw e ar e othe r variant s o f th e sam e word . The followin g ke y t o pronunciatio n o f Ojibwa(y ) word s appearin g i n th e text wa s devise d b y a traine d linguist , M r s. Jean H . Rogers, an d i s base d o n her stud y o f th e languag e a s spoke n b y a norther n ban d o f Ojibw a a t Round Lake . A s sh e warns : "Thi s ke y i s a n attemp t t o giv e th e closes t equivalents t o Ojibw a sound s tha t exis t i n English . I t i s no t phoneticall y accurate, bu t th e bes t tha t ca n b e don e withi n th e limitation s o f Englis h sounds an d Englis h spelling." KEY

Vowels ey

a ay a ow a iw a ia ua

s i n "key" Consonant s i n "say" s s i n "bowl" z s i n "ewe" z s i n "pin " h s i n "cut " (befor

sc

ha ha ha a a

s i n "chin " s i n "she " s i n "azure" s i n "buzz" s i n "hill" e a consonant h sounds like the ch in "loch" or i n the Germa n "nacht")

Each Ojibw a word , o n it s firs t appearanc e i n th e text , i s italicized , an d hyphenated t o avoi d confusio n betwee n th e syllables . Thereafte r i t i s treate d as a familiar word . Illustrations A l l th e drawing s reproduce d i n red , wit h th e exceptio n o f th e Mclnne s drawing o n pag e 7 2 an d th e Agaw a dee r o n pag e 83 , ar e draw n t o th e scal e of on e inc h t o th e foot , makin g the m on e twelft h actua l size . A n attemp t ha s been mad e t o indicat e th e relativ e strengt h o f th e paintin g b y heav y o r ligh t shading, thoug h th e faintes t hav e bee n exaggerate d fo r visibility' s sake . Th e reproduced photograph s o f wate r colour s fro m th e Museu m collectio n are also , fo r th e mos t part , greatl y reduce d i n scale , bu t no t consistently . Readers intereste d i n th e actua l siz e o f th e original s wil l find i n mos t case s that adjacen t lin e drawings i n red provid e th e neede d clue . Othe r photograph s including th e eigh t quadracolours , unles s designate d otherwise , wer e take n by Selwy n Dewdney. viii

The Quest

How It Began About fiftee n mile s southeas t o f Kenora, i n th e wate r labyrint h o f channels, bays , an d island s s o typical of Lak e o f th e Woods , yo u wil l com e to th e outle t o f Blindfol d Lake . Nearby, o n th e nort h shore , i s a ver tical roc k abov e a slopin g ledge , it s face scattere d wit h India n paintings . A s a bo y I kne w th e place . Ye t I gave th e picture s onl y a glance , bein g far mor e fascinate d b y th e offering s on th e ledge , remnant s o f rotte d clothing, chippe d an d ruste d enamel ware, an d trace s o f tobacco . 2

Fifteen year s late r an d 40 0 mile s farther eas t I ra n acros s othe r India n paintings o n th e Fair y Poin t rock s o f Lake Missinaibi . Later , revisitin g th e place wit h m y wife , I mad e quic k sketches o f a fe w o f th e symbols — depressingly inaccurat e ones , I wa s t o learn year s later . Ye t ove r al l th e years tha t I kne w o f thes e tw o site s it neve r occurre d t o m e tha t ther e might b e others . In 1955 , a s a boo k illustrato r i n search o f fresh sourc e materia l o n th e costume o f earl y Indian s i n Canada , I calle d on Kennet h E . K i d d , Curato r

of Ethnolog y a t th e Roya l Ontari o Museum. Recognizin g eac h othe r a s acquaintances fro m colleg e days , w e lunched together . Only tha t summe r K e n had viewe d the impressiv e L a c la Croi x painting s in Quetic o Provincia l Park . H e al ready ha d report s o f othe r site s i n the area , an d wa s happ y t o hea r fro m me o f anothe r two . Woul d I , h e asked, b e intereste d i n recordin g th e Quetico sites ? It wa s Kennet h Kidd' s visio n o f a systemati c recordin g programm e that launche d an d sustaine d th e pro -

ject. Withi n th e yea r h e ha d enliste d the suppor t o f th e Quetic o Founda tion an d th e co-operatio n o f Ontario' s Department o f Land s an d Forests . I n the summe r o f '5 7 I recorde d eleve n sites i n th e Quetic o area , an d i n suc ceeding summers adde d t o the numbe r in ever-widenin g area s o f Ontario' s northland. Toda y th e wor k K e n initiated ha s resulte d i n m y recordin g well ove r a hundre d sites , an d ex tension o f th e projec t fa r beyon d Ontario's boundaries . So far th e highes t incidenc e o f site s has bee n betwee n Lak e Superio r an d 3

the Manitob a boundary . Her e (p . 3 ) the land is so laced with natural water ways tha t on e ma y paddl e i n almos t any direction , interrupte d onl y b y brief carries . Her e i s on e o f th e continent's mos t accessibl e fishing an d hunting paradises , wher e increasin g numbers o f wilderness-hungry visitors annually rene w thei r sanity . Her e privacy ma y stil l b e found , an d th e sense o f isolation ; wher e th e onl y mechanized soun d i s th e reassurin g throb o f a Beave r aircraf t o n fire pro tection patrol . Here , i n th e earl y morning calm one ma y paddl e aroun d a rock y poin t t o glid e silentl y withi n hand reac h o f a loomin g cliff , an d stare i n wonder a t th e mysteriou s re d markings o f a vanishe d culture . Scores o f suc h experience s hav e yet t o ro b m e o f th e feelin g o f Photograph by Klaus Prufer

suspense, o f havin g bee n touche d b y fingers ou t o f th e past . No r ca n al l the detail s i n th e page s tha t follo w adequately conve y th e intimac y o f a visit to on e suc h actual place. The Typical Site The photograph s o n th e opposit e page an d belo w were take n a t a small pictograph sit e o n Twi n Lakes , jus t north o f Highwa y 1 7 an d thirt y mile s east o f Kenora . I n th e Canadia n Shield woodland s o f Norther n O n tario, ther e ar e thousand s o f suc h outcroppings o f rock—usually granit e or gneiss—wit h vertica l face s a t th e water's edge . Few place s hav e suc h larg e area s of bar e roc k a s ar e see n here . N o r mally liche n growt h o f variou s sort s covers th e whol e surface : coars e

Photograph by Klaus Prufer

leafy "roc k tripe " o n th e uppe r faces ; crustose types , mediu m t o fine i n texture an d ofte n o f brillian t colour , on th e lowe r an d mor e vertica l faces ; and, whereve r seepag e i s constant , a fine-grained blac k variet y tha t look s much mor e lik e a stai n tha n a lichen.

In bot h photograph s th e ligh t areas of roc k ar e th e lichen-fre e ones . Her e the onl y covering agents ar e th e light , pink stai n o f oxidize d iron, th e occa sional whit e strea k o f precipitate d lime, and—rarely , a s here—th e mys terious re d marking s o f the aborigine . 5

Where th e lim e deposit s for m a background th e stronge r painting s stand ou t vividly, an d can be photo graphed i n black an d white success fully. Sometime s lim e solution s hav e seeped dow n ove r th e paintings , obscuring the m unles s on e moisten s them wit h water . Usuall y th e iro n oxide o f th e pigmen t overlie s th e same compoun d tha t stain s th e sur face fro m th e weatherin g o f minut e particles o f iro n or e in the rock . If , then, th e pigment i s weak, i t is diffi cult t o see, and impossible to photo graph withou t colou r film. Sinc e the underlying colou r i s essentiall y th e same i t i s doubtfu l whethe r colou r filters woul d hel p t o increas e th e contrast. Normally th e roc k get s enoug h moisture fo r lichen growth . It is only when, a s i n thi s case , a n overhan g ensures tha t rai n an d groundwate r seeping fro m abov e wil l dri p clea r of a surfac e tha t lichens are discouraged. However, a slantin g rain wil l we t th e rock beneat h a n overhang , s o tha t frequent exposur e to the drying action of th e su n is also needed t o discourage lichen growth . Th e Twin Lake s sit e has a souther n exposure . Other s may face th e risin g o r the settin g sun . S o far I hav e see n onl y thre e site s o n which th e su n never shines . I n suc h cases th e fuzz y gree n liche n whic h often obscure s the m is easily scrubbed off, unlik e mos t o f the crustose type s on sun-expose d faces , whic h ar e extremely tenacious . Lichen s originat e in a symbiosi s o f alga e wit h fungu s spores—both carrie d throug h th e air . Such a pair , lodge d b y acciden t o n the sam e roc k nodule , or in the sam e microscopic pore , lea d a precariou s 6

existence a t bes t i n normally lichen free surfaces . A t wate r leve l th e actio n o f ice and wave s tend s t o kee p th e roc k clean. Th e remarkable thin g i s tha t such erosiv e agent s see m t o have had little effec t o n the pictographs on sites where the y hav e obviousl y bee n s o exposed fo r decades o r longer. As a matte r o f record mos t o f the paintings ar e fro m tw o to five fee t above th e present wate r levels . Here , for instance , wher e th e photograp h shows m e working a t a tracing , the y are withi n eas y reac h o f a perso n sitting o r standin g i n a canoe . It i s difficul t t o generaliz e abou t the typica l locatio n fo r a site . The example illustrate d her e mark s a minor portag e int o a n insignifican t lake. W e do tend t o find large r num bers o f pictographs on the larger cliff s facing th e more travelle d waterways ; but thi s i s contradicte d to o ofte n by obviously importan t site s o n smal l rocks i n out-of-the-way places . Only tw o generalization s ca n b e made. Th e one colou r favoure d o n every sit e i s the "Indian red " charac teristic o f aborigina l painting s th e world over . A limite d use of white is made o n two sites, o f yellow o n one , and o f black on another. A l l site s so far foun d hav e bee n clos e t o water , and al l reports o f sites awa y fro m the water hav e bee n trace d t o natura l stains o f oxidized iron . The Search How doe s on e g o abou t finding Indian roc k paintings ? This questio n was uppermost i n my mind a s m y wife , thre e sons , an d I drove nort h an d wes t earl y i n the

summer o f 195 7 t o Frenc h Lake , th e Canadian acces s poin t t o Quetic o Provincial Park . There , i n a smal l colony of Park officers, biologists, and one botanist , m y wif e se t u p house keeping i n a smal l prefabricate d hu t while 1 set u p m y drawin g table , go t out m y maps, an d proceede d t o chec k the report s I ha d brough t fro m th e Museum wit h loca l information . That summe r establishe d th e pat tern I wa s t o follow , wit h late r refine ments, fo r th e nex t thre e years . People hearin g o f m y wor k wrot e i n reports; I proceede d t o th e neares t jumping-off point , wher e I checke d and pin-pointe d th e report s I ha d and collecte d ne w ones . Everywher e we wen t w e talke d t o anyon e an d everyone: campers , Land s and Forest s personnel, old-tim e residents , store keepers, youngsters , touris t operators , and abov e all , local Indians . We neve r kne w wher e informatio n might po p up . A nav y recrui t hitch hiking fro m th e Y u k o n t o Halifa x gave u s a locatio n to chec k i n Britis h Columbia; th e Twi n Lake s sit e w e F. H. Nohlgren reports a site on the Saskatchewan River

Photograph by Klaus Prufer

got fro m th e twelve-year-ol d so n o f a Ranger. W e ha d n o way , either , o f separating fac t fro m fancy . Report s of a painte d moos e si x fee t hig h turned ou t t o b e base d o n a tin y painting tha t I coul d cove r wit h m y hand. Pictograph s o n unname d lake s were reporte d a s bein g o n th e shor e of a nearb y name d one . A s experienc e grew , a fe w working rules establishe d themselves . Wher e there's smok e there' s fire ; th e mor e smoke, th e bigge r th e fire. Expec t even th e expert s t o disagree ; al l memories ar e fallible . A n d , not least , pictographs—like fish—are wher e you find them ! It i s th e origina l Canadian s wh o are th e best-informe d i n mos t locali ties. There' s a specia l fascinatio n about th e wa y a n Ojibw a trappe r locates a site . Firs t h e wil l searc h your ma p wit h hi s finger til l h e finds the are a o f hi s registere d tra p line . A s yo u watch the finger mov e you can tell tha t h e i s visualizin g a froze n shore alon g hi s route , recallin g landmarks a s h e searche s hi s memor y fo r Ojibwa at Northwest Bay pinpoint a site on Footprint Lake Photograph by Peter Dewdney

the on e o f man y roc k face s wher e former inhabitant s pu t thei r enig matical re d marks . H e pause s an d asks fo r a pencil , takin g th e on e yo u offer t o retrac e hi s winte r trail . H e stops again , an d ask s fo r somethin g in Ojibwa . A frien d pulls out a pocket knife an d open s th e smal l blade . Th e Indian move s th e knif e poin t care fully, the n make s a microscopi c mark on th e exac t spot—a s h e remember s it. A timbe r cruise r o r wood s inspec tor wil l b e equall y precise; but b y an d large h e know s o f fewe r sites . Ye t even the y an d th e Indian s ar e no t infallible, an d canno t alway s plac e a location exactly . A l l ar e lon g o n memory, havin g traine d themselve s by lon g experienc e t o recal l specifi c landmarks. Access t o th e site s varie s tremen dously. Sometime s w e coul d driv e i n our Volk s statio n wagon , wit h cano e on top , t o withi n a five-minute paddl e of a site . A t other s w e migh t borro w a "kicker"—bus h ter m fo r outboar d motor boat—fro m th e neares t Land s and Forest s Range r Statio n fo r a fifteen-mile tri p b y wate r fro m th e end o f th e road . A n d agai n th e sit e might b e sixt y mile s from th e neares t road o r rail . I n suc h case s w e hole d up an d worke d o n drawing s unti l a Lands an d Forest s aircraf t wa s goin g that wa y o n a fire patro l o r a gru b run, an d ha d roo m fo r tw o me n an d a canoe . The n they woul d dro p u s off for a fe w hour s o r a da y t o pic k u s up o n their return . During th e first summer , whe n I was base d i n Quetic o Park , mos t o f the travellin g wa s don e b y canoe , with on e o f m y son s i n the bow . Two 8

very smal l an d unreporte d site s wer e discovered i n thi s way ; bu t onl y eleven site s wer e recorde d altogether . In subsequen t summer s I too k ad vantage o f ever y mechanize d mean s available, an d covere d thre e time s a s many sites . No r di d thi s preclud e th e location o f othe r unreporte d sites . O n two occasion s w e eve n spotte d a sit e from th e air ! Such a fea t wa s necessaril y rare , and exclusivel y th e resul t o f th e general ruddines s o f th e rock . A t a distance thi s i s eas y t o confus e wit h a rust y orang e lichen , whic h mor e than onc e ha s le d u s astray . Th e pictographs themselve s ar e s o small , and ofte n s o faint, that they ar e rarel y visible mor e tha n fifty fee t away ; an d on on e occasio n I passe d a painting , while workin g o n other s i n th e vicinity, a t leas t a doze n time s befor e I spotte d it . Lightin g variation s ac count largel y fo r thi s kin d o f ex perience. A fain t paintin g o n a ligh t rock, wit h th e ful l glar e o f a noon-da y sun above , intensifie d b y reflectio n from th e wate r below , ca n becom e practically invisible . Though I hav e recorde d a hundre d sites i n Ontari o an d norther n Minne sota, ther e ar e man y mor e t o record . Beyond, i n th e Province s o f Quebec , Manitoba, an d Saskatchewa n ther e are score s o f others—man y o f the m unreported. A n y reader wh o ca n pass on information—o r eve n rumours — will b e doin g thi s wor k a grea t service. Recording Techniques The drawing s an d painting s o f th e Shield pictograph s reproduce d i n thi s book ar e base d o n direc t copie s o f

Photograph by Klaus Prufer Photograph

the symbol s a s wel l a s o n photo graphs. I n th e beginnin g I ha d n o precedent t o g o b y an d ha d t o wor k out method s base d o n tria l an d error . I bega n b y usin g strin g "co-ordi nates" stretche d acros s th e roc k a t right angle s t o eac h other , secure d b y knots i n roc k crevices , b y chewin g gum, an d b y other devices . By tediou s measurements fro m salien t point s o f each paintin g t o th e strin g I coul d make a n accurat e scal e copy . Late r I base d m y copie s o n a three-inc h grid lightl y chalke d o n th e rock , an d washed of f afterwards . Experimenting wit h transfe r tech niques i n m y secon d summe r I dis covered tha t Japanes e rice-paper , when sponge d ove r wet rock , not onl y clings beautifull y t o ever y irregularit y of almos t an y surface , bu t als o be comes almos t totall y transparent . Using a hig h qualit y Cont e chal k I could mak e direc t tracing s o f al l bu t the ver y faintes t paintings . Notation s as t o liche n growth , cracks , heigh t

by Peter Dewdney

above water , an d s o on , coul d b e made directl y on thi s paper . Approaching a ne w sit e I firs t made quic k sketche s o f th e feature s of eac h fac e (i.e. , a roc k plan e ove r which painting s wer e groupe d o r scattered), an d measure d th e dis tances betwee n faces , designatin g each, fro m lef t t o right , b y a Roma n numeral. The n I mad e th e tracings , which coul d i f necessar y b e packe d away wet . Colou r photograph s fol lowed, an d an y tim e tha t wa s lef t wa s spent notin g suc h extra s a s compas s bearing o f th e face , dept h o f th e water, heigh t o f th e cliff , an d s o on . Site number s (e.g. , Sit e #33 ) merel y followed th e sequenc e i n whic h I re corded th e sites ; bu t d o indicat e a n increasing accurac y du e t o practice . Dating Clues Although i t wa s no t m y wor k t o make estimate s o f th e ag e o f th e pictographs, I wa s responsibl e fo r re cording an y datin g clue s a sit e migh t 9

Schoolcraft, 1851 ; unlocated site

Lawson, 1885 ; Lake of the Woods

Mclnnes, 1902 ; unlocated Cliff Lak e site

offer. Outsid e of skin-diving I covered all th e angle s I coul d thin k of , with particular attentio n t o liche n growth , lime deposits , an d weathering effects . I als o note d carefull y th e strengt h of the pigment , fo r whatever valu e tha t might hav e a s a dating clue . In a numbe r o f instance s site s I have recorde d ha d already bee n illus trated: th e Agaw a sit e befor e 185 0 by Schoolcraft , tw o b y Lawso n i n 1885, and a dozen other s by Mclnnes around th e tur n o f thi s century . Examples appear in the margin. C o m parisons o f thes e wit h m y record s should yiel d furthe r historica l clues . In a fe w case s th e painting s them selves offe r historica l clues , picturin g forms borrowe d fro m th e invadin g European culture . The paintin g o f on e symbo l ove r an earlie r on e i s s o rar e i n thes e paintings (thoug h commo n i n ex amples o n othe r continents ) tha t i t seems o f littl e use . Mor e promisin g is th e overrunnin g o f some painting s by variou s specie s o f lichen. Through studies mad e b y Rolan d Beschel , a botanist currentl y a t Queen' s Univer sity, i n Switzerland , Greenland , an d the Canadia n Arctic , considerabl e knowledge ha s accumulate d o f th e rates o f liche n growt h fo r variou s species. On e species , fo r instance , tentatively identifie d b y Professo r Beschel fro m colou r photograph s taken a t .5 metres as Rinodina oreina, an extremely slow-growing species, has overrun th e greate r par t o f Fac e I I on Sit e #27. The pigmen t underneat h is extraordinaril y strong—a s stron g to al l appearances a s the same colou r freshly squeeze d fro m a n artist's tub e today. I f the lichen is Rinodina oreina

Evidence of Europea n contact {see pages 56, 42 , 86 )

the pain t i s a t leas t a centur y old , yet apparentl y unweathered . Lime deposit s var y i n thicknes s from a quarte r o f a n inc h t o a barel y discernible film . O n th e Cuttl e Lak e site a fil m ove r on e pictograp h i s th e background fo r anothe r painte d ove r it (p . 6 1 ) . Sinc e lime i s a constituen t (though sometime s a minut e one ) o f most rocks , it seem s likel y tha t man y of thes e deposit s com e fro m groun d water tha t ha s dissolve d the lim e a s it passe d throug h th e rocks . I t i s jus t possible, too , tha t phosphat e o f lim e from bir d dropping s ha s bee n dis solved a t a greate r height , an d re emerged fro m th e crac k wher e th e deposit begins . Her e agai n ar e pos sible datin g clues . During th e firs t summe r I mad e a point o f collectin g pigmen t sample s from smeare d area s wher e th e pain t seemed thick . I wa s astonishe d t o find tha t I coul d ge t onl y a fe w re luctant crumb s b y scrapin g wit h a

steel knife . Wit h rock s softe r tha n granite th e pigmen t i s no t s o difficul t to detach , bu t agai n an d agai n I hav e found i t s o bonde d t o th e roc k tha t it defie d m y effort s t o remov e it . Compared wit h commercia l pigments used i n this century , th e India n pain t stands u p fa r better . I n tw o instance s initials have been painted on the sam e site a s India n paintings. In bot h case s the moder n pain t i s alread y wearin g thin. A concentrate d stud y o f suc h fac tors b y specialists , coverin g a grou p of site s suc h a s th e nin e i n Whitefis h Bay o n Lak e o f th e Woods , migh t contribute substantiall y to reasonabl e conclusions abou t th e ag e o f th e Shield paintings. Interpretive and Ethnological Clues Few wh o vie w a n India n roc k painting ca n refrai n fro m asking : What doe s i t mean ? Onc e ther e i s any kin d o f break-throug h i n datin g 11

Ojibwa birchbar k scroll s Courtesy, Keit h Dalgettey

the Shiel d pictograph s i t wil l begi n to b e possibl e t o relat e specifi c site s to specifi c histori c o r prehistori c cul tures. Thi s i n tur n wil l provid e som e basis fo r workin g ou t interpretation s of a t leas t th e painting s don e withi n the las t thre e centuries . For ther e i s a considerable bod y of knowledge abou t pictographi c ma terial o n rock , hide , an d birchbark , some o f i t recorde d i n th e Unite d States a t a tim e whe n livin g Indian s were stil l using , and coul d interpre t it . I a m indebte d t o Fran k B . Hubachek fo r m y first glimps e o f thi s material durin g a visi t I mad e t o th e Wilderness Researc h Cente r i n M i n nesota i n '57 . Earl y i n th e nineteent h century, Copway , Kohl , Warren , an d Schoolcraft accumulate d a grea t dea l of valuabl e information ; this wa s fol lowed b y th e mor e systemati c wor k of Maller y an d Hoffman . Very littl e wa s the n know n abou t the Shiel d countr y nort h o f Lak e Superior, an d mos t o f the pictograph s coming fro m th e Grea t Lake s regio n were Ojibw a birchbar k inscription s from th e Shiel d countr y sout h an d west o f Superior. Th e questio n arose : Were ther e an y survivin g remnant s 12

of knowledg e o r practic e amon g th e Ojibwa nort h o f th e Grea t Lakes ? I f so, the y migh t be relate d t o th e Shiel d rock painting s an d m y field wor k ought t o includ e a searc h fo r suc h material. There wer e tw o broa d type s o f birchbark inscriptions . Smal l sheet s usually les s tha n five b y twelv e inche s were inscribe d wit h character s tha t served a s reminder s fo r incantation s that woul d heighte n th e owner' s prowess i n hunting , love , o r war . These wer e designe d fo r individual s who bough t the m fro m a "doctor " a s "prescriptions" fo r thei r ailments . A second kin d o f scrol l wa s muc h large r (up t o si x fee t i n length ) an d fa r more complex . Thi s wa s a sor t o f combined textboo k an d prayer-book , that gav e direction s fo r th e initiatio n ritual o f th e Mi-day-wi-win (Gran d Medicine Society ) an d als o outline d the basi c Mi-day beliefs —all i n th e form o f picture-writing. A t Quetic o Par k tha t first summe r I ha d barel y returne d fro m m y Bass wood visi t whe n a Par k Officer , Keit h Dalgetty, brough t ove r fro m For t Frances hi s collectio n o f eigh t son g scrolls, al l tha t wa s lef t o f a cach e

of a hundred o r mor e tha t ha d turne d up year s earlie r o n th e nort h shor e o f Rainy Lake . Tw o summer s late r i n the Englis h Rive r countr y I wa s given —for th e Museum— a larg e Mida y scroll lef t ownerles s b y th e deat h o f Francis Fisher , on e o f th e las t prac tising Mida y "priests " i n th e area . A n d th e followin g yea r I wa s show n one o f severa l othe r larg e Mida y scrolls i n the possessio n o f a Lak e o f the Wood s practitione r (pag e 109) . Another responsibilit y I felt , alon g with a natura l curiosity , was t o lear n what I coul d abou t curren t India n knowledge—if any—abou t th e origi n or meanin g o f th e roc k paintings . It soo n becam e clea r that n o livin g Indian kne w who mad e th e paintings , when the y wer e made , o r wha t the y signified. Ther e wer e onl y th e vagues t echoes o f an y traditio n abou t them ; most o f th e littl e I coul d glea n wa s hearsay o r conjecture . It wa s otherwise , however , whe n I bega n t o inquir e abou t association s with th e watersid e rock s on whic h th e paintings appeared . Year s ag o a veteran prospector , Jac k Ennis , whom I ha d me t o n a bus h sketchin g tri p and staye d wit h a while , tol d m e stories h e ha d hear d fro m th e Indian s of hairy-face d men wh o paddled thei r

canoes int o th e crevice s o f th e rock s along th e nort h Superio r shores . Jac k cited thes e storie s a s evidenc e tha t the Viking s ha d bee n i n the area . Bu t it i s clea r t o m e no w tha t h e ha d ru n into th e little-heede d belie f i n th e May-may-gway-shL The wor d i s variousl y translate d into English . Amon g th e Cree , wher e these mysteriou s creature s ar e de scribed a s littl e men onl y tw o or thre e feet hig h livin g insid e th e rock , th e English i s "fairy. " Amon g th e Ojibw a various translations ru n from "ghost, " "spirit," an d "merman, " eve n t o "monkey." Whe n I consulte d Cano n Sanderson (wh o wa s bor n a Cre e bu t has spen t al l his ministerial life amon g the Saulteau x an d Ojibwa ) fo r a literal translation , h e sai d th e firs t two syllable s mea n "wonderful, " bu t he ha d n o clu e to the others . Th e best rendering i n Englis h I coul d hazar d from th e score s o f description s I hav e listened t o woul d b e "Rockmedicin e Man." Authorities disagre e o n details , bu t some feature s o f th e Maymaygway shi ar e commo n ove r wid e areas . They ar e sai d to liv e behind watersid e rock faces , especiall y thos e wher e cracks o r shallo w cave s sugges t a n entrance. The y ar e fon d o f fish, an d

Ojibwa birchbark scrolls Courtesy, Keith Dalgettey

frequently—more ou t o f mischie f than need—stea l fis h fro m India n nets. Sinc e the y cu t th e fis h ou t o f the ne t instea d o f removin g them nor mally th e Indian s ge t annoyed . Fre quently on e i s tol d o f Indians , determined t o pu t a n en d t o this , who visi t thei r net s i n th e gra y o f early daw n t o catc h th e Maymay gwayshi i n th e act . Th e Maymay gwayshi, headin g fo r th e hom e cliff , are oblige d t o pas s clos e t o th e Indians. A s the y approac h the y pu t their head s dow n i n th e botto m o f the canoe . Why ? Becaus e the y ar e ashamed o f thei r faces . I n th e sout h and eas t thi s i s becaus e thei r face s are covere d wit h fu r o r hair—"lik e a monkey " on e Nipigo n India n tol d me, holdin g hi s tw o hand s u p s o finger an d thum b encircle d eac h eye . In th e nort h an d wes t ther e i s n o facial hair , th e sham e bein g du e t o lack o f a sof t par t t o thei r nose . Specially gifte d Ojibw a shamans , I wa s told , ha d th e powe r t o ente r the roc k an d exchang e tobacc o fo r an extremel y poten t "roc k medicine. " M a n y Indian s t o thi s da y leav e to bacco gift s o n th e ledge s o r i n th e water a s the y pas s certain rocks—"for good luck, " the y usuall y explain . Direct connection s betwee n th e rock painting s an d th e Maymay gwayshi ar e muc h harde r t o com e by. T o dat e I hav e onl y a scatterin g of comment s wit h fe w confirmations . A Dee r Lak e India n tol d me , fo r instance, tha t a roc k paintin g o f a

14

man wit h hi s arm s hel d lik e thi s (an d he hel d his own in a loose "surrender " position) signifie d a Maymaygway shi. Anothe r o n Rain y Lak e tol d m e that th e Maymaygwaysh i reache d their hand s ou t o f th e wate r t o leav e the re d handprint s o n th e rock . A nd it i s stil l a practic e o n Lake-of-the Woods t o leav e offering s o f clothing, tobacco, an d "prayer-sticks " o n th e rocks a t th e foo t o f a pictograph decorated face . Another mythologica l creatur e o f great interes t tha t ma y als o b e asso ciated frequentl y wit h th e pictograp h sites i s Mi-shi-pi-zhiw, literall y th e Great Lynx , actuall y th e Ojibw a demi-god o f th e water . A t Agaw a w e have a n authenticate d likenes s o f thi s sinister deit y o f swif t o r trouble d waters. I n 185 1 Henr y Schoolcraft , the India n Agen t a t th e America n Sault St e Mari e whos e collectio n of Ojibwa legend s wa s th e basi s fo r Longfellow's Hiawatha, publishe d hi s Intellectual Capacity and Character of the Indian Race. Include d i n i t were birchbar k rendering s o f two pic tograph site s painte d b y a n Ojibw a shaman-warrior wh o claime d th e special protectio n o f Mishipizhiw , and prove d i t b y leadin g a wa r part y from th e sout h t o th e nort h shor e o f Lake Superior . Ther e i s n o roo m here fo r th e materia l I collecte d i n interviews abou t th e Grea t Lynx , stil l feared an d revere d wes t an d nort h o f the Sault . But more wil l b e sai d abou t the Agaw a painting s (page s 7 9 - 8 3 ) .

The Aboriginal Artist

Preamble Since we do not ye t kno w when th e paintings unde r stud y wer e made , nor o f wha t cultur e o r culture s the y were a n expression, any comment s o n the unknow n artist s mus t b e highl y speculative. I t would , fo r instance , make a n enormou s differenc e t o ou r attitude i f we found tha t th e painting s were th e resul t o f te n successiv e cultures spannin g a s man y thousand s of years , compare d wit h th e produc t of on e cultur e withi n th e spac e o f a century. No r do w e know whether th e paintings ar e th e casua l excursion s on to rock of persons habituall y working o n othe r surface s suc h a s hide , pottery, o r bark , o r wer e don e ex clusively (an d i f so, rarely ) o n stone . Yet fo r th e artist-recorder' s ey e th e Shield site s d o offe r evidenc e o f th e aboriginal artist' s choic e o f workin g surface, o f spatia l organization, of his painting medi a an d techniques , an d of hi s attitud e a s expresse d i n th e form, content , an d styl e o f hi s work . Surface and Organization We hav e alread y note d th e artist' s preference fo r a vertica l roc k fac e close t o th e water . Th e site s them selves sho w a bewilderin g variety o f locations, outsid e o f thi s on e factor , and s o i t i s wit h th e characte r o f th e faces themselves . Som e are roug h an d pitted o r coarse-grained ; som e ar e glaciated surfaces , som e fractur e planes fro m earlie r roc k falls . Vein s of contrastin g colou r cros s some ; cracks ma r others . Sometime s irregu lar faces ar e chose n within hand-reac h of smooth , regula r ones . Ther e i s simply n o evidenc e o f an y patter n o f choice. 16

When i t come s t o spatia l organization o f th e materia l o n th e chose n face ther e i s agai n th e wides t variety . Normally desig n concern s th e artis t when spac e become s limited . Wher e any lichen-fre e vertica l fac e suffice s there i s n o spatia l discipline : th e painter ca n pu t on e symbo l here an d another thre e fee t away . H e ca n begin a pictograp h o n on e plane , an d finish i t aroun d th e corne r o n th e next. A t Agawa, wher e w e kno w that certain symbol s ar e relate d t o eac h other, w e fin d som e separate d b y a s much a s fift y feet . Yet th e viewe r wil l fin d a s h e turn s the page s that organization and desig n are no t entirel y absent. At Cache Bay, Painted Narrows , R ed Rock, Hegma n Lake, an d a doze n othe r site s ther e are group s o f obviousl y relate d material tha t for m compact , well designed compositions . W e eve n fin d a fe w instance s wher e th e natura l flaws o f th e surfac e ar e incorporate d into th e whol e concept , a s i n th e example belo w fro m Crooke d Lake . B y an d large , however , w e canno t find i n thes e painting s an y specia l

concern fo r eithe r th e natur e o f th e painting surfac e o r th e arrangemen t of th e symbols . Painting Media and Techniques There ca n b e n o doub t tha t almos t all th e Shiel d pictograph s wer e painted wit h re d ochres ; a majorit y by usin g a finge r fo r a brush . Bu t what binde r wa s used ? Red wa s th e sacre d colou r fo r th e aborigine i n man y area s o f Nort h America. Iron-staine d earth s an d rusted iro n ore s usuall y occurre d locally o r coul d b e obtaine d b y trade . Colours rang e fro m a rust y orange , misnamed vermilio n b y some , t o a purplish brick-red , varying in strengt h according t o th e proportio n o f clay . O n nearl y ever y sit e finger-wid e outlines ma y b e found ; on onl y a fe w are ther e line s to o fin e fo r a finger mark; an d eve n som e o f th e large r forms sho w clea r evidenc e tha t th e original outlin e wa s finger-painted . Large area s wer e likel y smeare d b y the sam e hand s tha t lef t thei r print s on othe r faces . We ca n scarcel y suppos e tha t th e same bindin g agen t wa s use d b y every India n wh o painte d a rock . But it ma y b e tha t som e binder s wer e more permanen t tha n others . Cer tainly mos t o f th e pigmen t no w i s difficult t o scrap e of f wit h a knife . Why? I foun d a clu e t o th e answe r i n a non-Indian paintin g on the R e d Roc k site. Applie d whil e drippin g with th e binder—presumably th e linsee d oi l commonly use d unti l this mid-century —the burn t sienn a pigment , thoug h still strong , rubbe d of f easily , leaving only a fain t pin k stai n o n th e rock .

Here, surely , th e pigmen t wa s s o suspended i n oil that i t was separate d by a thi n fil m fro m direc t contac t with th e roc k grains . It seem s reasonabl e t o deduc e tha t the water-solubl e fis h glue s o r eg g fluid availabl e t o th e Indian s woul d create mor e opportunit y o f contact , molecule fo r molecule , wit h th e roc k grains tha n th e equall y availabl e sturgeon oi l o r bea r grease . B y th e same reasonin g littl e o r n o binde r (i.e., wate r alone)—i f n o rai n ble w on th e fac e whil e the pain t wa s drying —would provid e th e idea l condition for suc h bonding . The initial s painte d b y th e vanda l in blac k commercia l paint acros s th e likeness o f Mishipizhi w a t Agaw a can tel l u s a grea t deal . Date d 1937 , we ca n alread y se e th e "red " man' s paint gleamin g through th e weathere d texture o f th e "white " man's . Here , facing wes t o n th e eas t shor e o f Lak e Superior, th e clif f i s expose d t o th e fierce gale s o f th e world' s larges t freshwater lake . Waves an d shore-ic e from below , a drivin g rain , sleet , an d snow fro m abov e expos e thi s sit e t o extremes o f weatherin g beyon d an y other. W e know that the India n paint ings ar e a t leas t a centur y an d a hal f old. Wh y hav e the y endured , stil l clearly discernible , for s o long ? There ar e mysterie s her e tha t theories suc h a s min e d o no t alto gether satisfy . Ye t commo n sens e suggests tha t variou s technique s an d materials woul d hav e bee n impro vised a s circumstance s an d motive s varied. Som e happ y combination s may hav e endure d fo r a thousan d years wher e mor e recen t painting s weathered awa y completely. 17

Form, Content, and Style The diagra m abov e form s a roug h classification o f al l th e symbol s re corded i n th e hundre d od d site s ex amined s o far : mor e tha n 1,00 0 separate marks . O f these , roughl y half bea r n o recognizabl e likenes s t o any know n form an d I designat e the m as abstractions . Man y o f the m ar e single stroke s occurrin g i n group s o r series tha t sugges t tall y marks . Th e remainder rang e fro m simpl e t o rela tively comple x forms . The othe r hal f o f th e symbol s sub divide roughl y int o fiv e groups : miscellaneous man-mad e objects , hand-prints, othe r huma n subjec t 18

matter, animals , an d composite—pre sumably mythological—creatures . D o al l thes e variation s i n for m represent varying cultures ove r a wide time span , o r ar e the y th e expressio n of a single , bu t highl y variable , cul ture? Sinc e ou r presen t knowledg e i s so limite d w e mus t examin e them , and reac h conclusion s abou t th e me n who painte d them , i n th e broades t of term s only. We ar e furthe r handicappe d b y th e current confusio n abou t the standard s by whic h a wor k o f ar t ma y b e judged. I t ha s bee n highl y instructiv e to not e th e reaction s t o th e Shiel d

paintings o f m y fello w artist s (in cluding the avant-gard e types) , whic h range al l th e wa y fro m undisguise d boredom t o rea l enthusiasm . N o suc h confusio n existe d i n th e mind o f Fran z Boas , whose Primitive Art remain s on e o f th e mos t intel ligent an d well-informe d attempts ye t made t o evaluat e th e ar t o f aboriginal cultures. I n referrin g t o th e "picto graphic representation s o f th e Plain s Indians" h e state s tha t "thei r picto graphy neve r rise s t o th e dignit y o f an art. " Ther e ca n b e littl e doubt tha t he woul d b e eve n les s dispose d t o accept th e Shiel d painting s a s "art. " Few artist s woul d disput e tha t th e Bushman paintin g fro m Sout h Afric a reproduced belo w ha s a greate r appeal a s a huma n expressio n tha n the Shiel d paintin g show n besid e it . Yet th e presenc e o f s o obviou s a delight i n huma n energ y i n th e on e contrasts s o strongl y wit h it s absenc e in th e othe r tha t w e ar e compelle d t o ask why . W e canno t assum e tha t th e American India n wa s mor e stupi d o r insensitive than th e African . W e must , I think , assum e tha t hi s motive fo r making th e paintin g differed . Here Boa s has somethin g construc tive t o say . I n comparin g th e decora Bushman painting, after Christensen Shiel

tion o f ordinar y clothin g amon g th e A m u r tribe s o f Siberi a wit h tha t o f their shamans ' costume s h e remarks , " . . . th e painted dresses of the shaman s are roughl y executed . The y represen t mythological concept s an d hav e a value solel y on account o f their mean ing. The interest doe s not cente r i n the form." This give s us a useful vantag e poin t from whic h t o vie w th e variation s o f the Shiel d pictographs . Whe n we tur n to th e rendering s o f huma n an d animal subjec t matte r w e ge t clea r indications o f a paralle l trend. Ou t of thirty-five drawing s o f cervid s barel y half sho w sufficien t interes t i n th e subject t o revea l whethe r the y ar e deer, moose, elk , or caribou; and only five revea l th e deligh t i n for m tha t i s so apparen t i n th e Europea n cav e paintings a t Lascau x an d Altamira . We hav e alread y note d th e lac k of action i n huma n renderings . Whe n we loo k fo r facia l details , o r indica tions o f hai r o r head-dres s w e find the sam e lac k o f interest , wit h onl y rare exceptions . Hand s an d fee t ar e ignored o r indicate d i n th e mos t rudimentary way . A secon d quit e differen t tendenc y appears amon g th e recognizabl y ani d painting, Quetico Lake

mate forms , bot h anima l and human : distortion s o startlin g a s t o b e un accountable fo r b y indifferen t draughtsmanship. Thi s tendency lead s us awa y fro m simpl e naturalis m int o a serie s o f increasingly fantastic form s in whic h th e form s w e kno w ar e los t in a worl d o f antlere d dragons , horned, fish-taile d humans, an d othe r nameless creatures . Beyon d thes e forms, veile d fro m ou r understandin g by a curtai n o f abstraction , lie s th e wide rang e o f unrecognizabl e sym bols; som e o f them , perhaps , simpli fied linea r version s o f dream-figures ; others suggestin g unknow n artifacts ; others agai n reminiscen t o f ou r ow n arithmetical symbols . But i n eve n th e most forma l symbols , wher e sym metry i s obviousl y intended, n o car e is take n t o achiev e mor e tha n a care less correspondenc e betwee n dupli cated forms . N o r ca n w e sa y wher e distortion end s an d formalizatio n begins. Considering Boas' s distinctio n be tween form, a s th e visua l aspec t o f a painting , an d content, a s th e i n tended meaning , w e ma y conclud e that ther e i s stron g evidenc e i n th e Shield painting s o f a n interes t i n content tha t almos t constantl y override s the interes t i n form . W e ma y furthe r suggest tha t th e tren d t o distortio n and fantas y relate s t o th e Indian' s known obsessio n wit h th e importanc e of dreams . To al l appearance s th e aborigina l artist wa s gropin g towar d th e ex pression o f th e magica l aspec t o f hi s life, rathe r tha n takin g pleasur e i n the worl d o f form aroun d him . Essentially, however , th e origi n an d pur pose o f thes e deceptivel y simpl e paintings remain a mystery.

The Sites

Regional Divisions The Canadian Shield roc k painting s described i n thi s boo k ar e limite d t o those s o fa r recorde d i n Ontari o an d adjacent Minnesota . In th e page s that follow, eac h sit e wil l b e deal t wit h i n as muc h detai l a s spac e allows . Actually, a smal l boo k coul d b e written abou t an y on e o f th e large r sites. Regional division s o n th e ma p above ar e purel y arbitrary , a s a con venience fo r th e reade r wh o wishe s 22

to kee p trac k o f th e genera l locatio n of th e sit e unde r discussion . C o m mencing wit h th e Quetico-Superio r region wher e th e wor k began , w e shall mov e westwar d alon g the borde r country t o Lak e o f th e Woods , an d northward int o Patrici a District . From ther e ou r surve y wil l tur n east ward throug h th e hinterlan d t o th e Nipigon country , thenc e t o th e Que bec boundary , an d southeas t t o th e huge sit e a t B o n Ech o o n Lak e Mazinaw.

Quetico-Superior Country I hav e alread y mentione d settin g up ou r bas e cam p a t Frenc h Lak e in Quetico Provincia l Par k tha t firs t summer o f 1957 . A fe w day s afte r arrival, a n airlif t vi a th e Par k "gru b run" brough t m y so n Ke e an d m e t o Basswood Lak e a t th e sout h en d o f the Park . A n hou r late r w e wer e paddling north , headin g fo r Agne s Lake vi a Summer, Sultry , and Silenc e lakes, alon g a rout e ringe d b y penci l marks o n ou r ma p tha t indicate d th e likelihood o f pictograp h site s (p . 3 ) . M y diar y notes o n Jul y 9 tha t "W e have no w passe d throug h tw o area s

marked o n ou r map s fo r possibl e sites. Ther e ha s bee n n o sig n o f any thing remotel y resemblin g a pict. " B y noo n o f th e followin g da y w e were ou t o n Agne s Lake , headin g south, ou r "hope s high , heightene d by enormous cliff s o n right—awesom e overhang—magnificent colours. " Bu t alas: "W e examine d ever y clif f fac e minutely a s w e passed , fro m water line a s hig h a s w e coul d see , an d n o trace o f picts . . . . n o pict s o n th e cliffs south-wes t o f th e Narrows . . . . One islan d wa s left . . . . Paddlin g around th e eas t sid e w e foun d a fe w

undistinguished-looking faces . . . and at th e bas e o f on e th e bares t indica tion o f a pictograph . Ke e too k thre e colour shot s an d I on e b . & w . I measured an d sketche d it. " S o th e first—and mos t unspectacular—sit e was recorded . We paddle d nort h agai n o n Agnes , I wit h th e sinkin g feelin g tha t tha t year's exceptionall y hig h wate r ha d covered al l th e site s bu t this . I t wa s with draggin g paddle-strokes tha t w e explored a grou p o f island s i n th e centre o f th e lake . The n w e wer e suddenly starin g a t Sit e #2 : fourtee n symbols of varying strengt h i n various shades o f dul l red . A bear , a canoe , and severa l hand smear s wer e eas y t o identify. Th e res t wer e to o abstrac t or amorphous , wit h on e exception . The latte r se t ou r imagination s going in a wa y tha t make s m e smil e now , but als o makes m e less impatient wit h wild interpretation s fro m th e un initiated. T o m y the n untutore d eye s it looke d lik e a mon k an d a monste r together i n a boat . Sinc e then I hav e seen variation s o n th e sam e theme : in al l likelihoo d tw o Maymaygway shi i n a canoe , wit h upraise d arms . In thi s cas e I ha d ye t t o lear n th e subtle distinctio n of shad e an d colour between th e India n pigmen t an d natural rus t stain s o n th e rock , an d imagination di d th e rest . With tw o site s figuratively unde r our belt s w e se t ou t hopefull y fo r

Site #4

Williams Lake . Thi s wa s th e mos t definite repor t o n ou r list . W e ha d even see n photograph s o f th e paint ings. A l l report s bu t on e agree d tha t they wer e o n a sizable cliff a t th e wes t end. Th e exceptio n place d i t o n a neighbouring unname d lake . A s th e reader wil l hav e guesse d w e foun d that th e minorit y repor t wa s right . Here w e recorded three thunderbirds , a canoe , tw o simpl e abstractions, an d a weir d littl e moose . Th e nex t da y we foun d ou r fourt h sit e o n th e littl e unnamed lak e betwee n Agne s an d Kawnipi. The Neguago n Reserv e o n L a c l a Croix, jus t wes t an d sout h o f Quetico Park, i s onl y a few mile s north o f th e pictographs o n th e bi g "Painte d Rock." Ther e I interviewe d Charli e Ottertail, on e o f th e fe w olde r Indians wh o stil l cherishe d hi s ances tors' way s an d beliefs . Th e su n ha d set an d th e ligh t wa s di m insid e th e Ottertail cabin . " A small dar k room," to quot e fro m m y diary , "th e frai l but stil l vita l India n o n th e floo r under a gre y blanket , risin g o n on e elbow t o speak , sinkin g back betwee n speeches . . . a lea n intelligen t face. " Yet ther e wa s littl e h e kne w abou t the pictographs : onl y that he was sur e they ha d bee n ther e whe n th e treat y of 187 3 wa s signed . For shee r naturalis m ther e ar e n o other painting s o f moos e tha t I hav e seen i n the Shiel d countr y to compar e

with th e thre e o n thi s site . A l l ar e surely b y th e sam e hand , a s i s th e little antelope—o r deer . Unique , too , are th e pipe-smokin g figures; on e be side a n hour-glas s figure an d tracks , the othe r no t fa r fro m th e initial s " L . R . 1781. " Each pose s its mysteries . Initials an d dat e ar e pecke d faintl y into th e har d granite . Th e L i s coloured, seemingl y wit h th e identica l pigment use d fo r th e pipe-smoker . The latte r ha s th e suggestio n o f a feather head-dress . I s i t hai r tha t i s indicated o n th e othe r pipe-smoker ? In Schoolcraft' s glossar y o f picto graph symbol s a n hour-glas s figure i s interpreted a s a "headles s man. " Ye t Kohl, anothe r earl y studen t o f th e Ojibwa, quote s a n informan t a s say ing: "I f i t wer e a n eas y matte r . . . to gues s wha t th e sign s mea n the y would soo n steal ou r birchbar k books . Hence al l ou r ideas , thought s an d persons ar e represente d i n variou s mysterious disguises. " Many reader s wil l alread y hav e some familiarit y wit h th e Europea n cave paintings , notabl y thos e a t A l t a mira an d Lascaux . Merel y a noddin g acquaintance wit h thes e palaeolithi c masterpieces make s i t clea r t o a n artist tha t thei r cultura l milie u con trasted strongl y wit h that of the Shiel d artists. Eve n th e La c l a Croi x moos e lack th e free-floatin g line s and flowin g rhythms o f th e bette r cav e paintings .

pip e bow l i n wate r colou r repro duction i s inaccurate ; line drawing i s more reliable. S.D.

NOTE:

A n d whil e w e ca n n o mor e gues s a t the "caveman's " consciou s purpos e than w e ca n a t ou r ow n aborigine's , there ca n b e n o doub t abou t th e pleasure th e forme r too k i n mos t o f the form s h e chos e t o depict . Paintings o f hand s ar e interprete d by Schoolcraf t a s "hav e done" ; b y Copway a s a sig n o f death . Eithe r way w e migh t interpre t th e grou p o f handprints a t L a c l a Croi x tha t sur round a small , bu t unmistakabl e fo x

as the record of a successful war

vparty, led by a chief with either the Personal or clan name of Fox. I still

Above: Lac la Croix moose Face II

Below: Blindfold Lake site, Face II

like—but recogniz e a s shee r con jecture—my translatio n o f th e exten sive smearin g o f pigmen t belo w thi s group a s sayin g i n effect : "Se e wha t we hav e don e wit h th e bloo d o f ou r enemies!" It wa s fro m thes e smearing s tha t I scraped sample s o f pigmen t fo r analysis i n Toronto . Th e finding s identified th e pigmen t a s ferri c oxide , but th e trace s o f organi c materia l which woul d indicat e th e binde r wer e so sligh t tha t carbon-datin g wa s ou t of th e question . O n to p o f tha t ther e was n o guarante e tha t th e minut e

quantities foun d di d no t represen t stray materia l ou t o f th e ai r tha t ha d lodged accidentall y o n th e surfac e o f the paint . I a m hopin g eventuall y t o find a sla b o f roc k tha t ha s falle n from a sit e s o tha t a microscopi c study ca n b e mad e o f th e pigmen t i n relation t o th e roc k grain , an d t o what exten t an d ho w permanentl y i t bonds itsel f t o th e rock . I hav e dubbe d th e pictograph s illustrated abov e a s th e "Warrio r Group" o n th e assumptio n tha t th e half-length huma n figur e i s holdin g a weapon. Faint but fascinating material

is scattere d ove r thi s face : a mound like form , a caribo u (o r elk? ) head , and th e suggestion—to o fain t t o b e certain—of a human figure in a lodge. I recorde d thi s sit e i n m y first summer, an d wa s stil l usin g th e tedious technique s o f strin g co ordinates an d chalkin g ou t grids , previously described . The norther n face s here coul d b e recorde d fro m rock s underneath; bu t i t was otherwis e wit h the Warrio r Grou p an d th e F o x Group, painte d o n a shee r fac e tha t rises overhea d som e thirt y feet , an d descends a n estimate d eigh t t o te n feet underwater . Her e the y coul d only hav e bee n painte d fro m th e water, perhap s i n earl y sprin g fro m the ice ; mor e likel y i n summe r fro m a canoe . The da y w e recorde d the m a brisk south win d brough t wave s sweepin g vigorously alon g th e roc k face . W e had a rop e alon g the bas e o f th e clif f

that gav e u s som e contro l o f th e canoe, bu t m y so n Pete r ha d als o t o make sur e th e cano e wa s no t slappe d against th e rock . W e ha d ou r hand s full: h e wit h paddl e an d rope , I wit h chalk an d tap e an d sketch-book , while th e wate r tosse d u s u p an d down an d splashe d m y pape r an d colours wit h aggravatin g persistence . The L a c la Croi x sit e i s i n a mag nificent setting : grea t block s o f th e granite bedroc k risin g i n step s abov e the wate r a hundred feet o r more . It i s a myster y t o m e wh y no t on e mention i n th e literatur e ha s bee n found s o fa r o f a sit e o n th e mai n water rout e t o th e West , passe d an nually i n th e heigh t o f th e fur-trad e days by a thousand canoes . The Crooke d Lak e site , o n th e Minnesota sid e o f th e borde r water s south o f Quetico , does appear i n th e records, bu t o n accoun t o f Siou x arrows stuc k i n a clef t hig h abov e 29

the water , mentione d b y th e explore r Mackenzie amon g others . Here , where Crooke d Lak e narrow s imper ceptibly int o th e lowe r Bas s wood River, a grea t bul k o f granit e lean s ominously ove r th e water , it s wall s streaked wit h a ric h mosai c o f iro n stains, vari-coloure d lichens , an d vivid deposit s o f precipitate d lime . Here man' s ar t i s ap t t o b e un noticed, modestl y appearin g som e fifty yard s sout h of this colour display. Under on e grea t overhan g ar e th e "Sturgeon i n Net" illustrated on pag e 16, an d nearb y tw o horne d figures . One o f th e latte r i s show n i n half tone o n th e opposit e page . Th e othe r was s o fain t tha t I faile d t o notic e i t even whil e workin g o n its neighbours. Farther alon g i s th e "Eccentri c Moose," wit h bel l exaggerate d int o a sort o f beard ; nearb y a bul l moos e beside a pelican ( ? ) . Anothe r pelican appears besid e a n unusuall y dee p canoe wit h a "medicine-flag " (? ) a t the bo w (o r stern) . Ther e i s a n el k here; an d a n elegan t hero n besid e a disc. Mos t interestin g o f all , t o me , is th e tre e beside th e lodge , within th e latter a "bird-man, " whic h Kennet h K i d d suggest s coul d b e a shama n i n a steam-bat h ritual . Thi s i s th e onl y recorded Shield pictograph that clearly portrays a plan t form . Cache Bay , a n extensio n o f Lak e Saganaga a t th e southeas t corne r o f Quetico, wa s th e firs t sit e Pete r an d

water colour reproductions of various Crooked Lake pictographs

I recorde d i n '58. Here i s a pleasingly compact grou p o f huma n figures , canoes, an d tall y mark s tucke d awa y in th e hear t o f th e cur l o f quie t wate r called L i l y Pa d Bay , o n a n incon spicuous roc k fa r fro m th e bus y high way o f th e voyageur s t o th e south . Farther east , o n Norther n Light s Lake, w e recorde d tw o othe r sites , one o f the m pin-pointe d fo r u s b y Jock Richardso n of Saginag a Trading Post. A l l a n Ruxto n o f Land s an d Forests ferrie d u s in . Sit e #1 4 i s o n a hig h roc k visibl e acros s th e bay . Note th e wa y th e moose' s stac k i s rendered i n th e uppe r drawing . Sit e #13 face s a channe l i n Nelso n Ba y — a scatterin g o f somewha t obscur e symbols, obviousl y by anothe r hand . There ar e petroglyphs , too , a t Cache Bay , reported b y Gerr y Payn e and stil l waitin g to b e recorded . Neither Ke e no r I wa s impresse d by th e rock s w e passed a s w e paddle d

Above: examples from Northern Lights Lake, Sites #13, #1 4

Right: Cache Bay group

south alon g th e eas t shor e o f Dark y Lake's southernmos t arm . Comin g t o yet anothe r rock , almos t hidde n b y a grove o f young birch trees , we looked up an d gasped . Hig h abov e th e birches a grea t blac k overhan g wa s poised. As we glided close r the scree n of foliag e move d asid e an d revealed , clear an d startling , th e "Heartles s Moose" wit h a hol e wher e he r hear t should hav e been , he r bul l cal f fol lowing, th e whol e surrounded b y tall y marks, tracks , an d a vertica l ro w o f discs. M u c h els e o f interes t wa s there : the half-figur e o f a ma n aimin g what was surel y a rifle , a grou p o f canoe s protected b y a likel y versio n o f M i shipizhiw, an d anothe r cano e besid e a secon d serpentin e form , painte d across tw o crack s wit h typica l dis regard fo r th e paintin g surface . Since the n th e scout s a t Moos e Lake i n Minnesot a hav e reporte d

Darky Lak e cow moos e and calf. Note splayed hooves and dew-claws of cow' s forefoot

A likel y Mishipizhi w a t Dark y Lak e

another smal l sit e o n th e opposit e shore tha t w e ha d missed . O n th e sam e tri p tha t Ke e an d I recorded th e Dark y Lak e sit e w e paddled eas t t o Agne s Lake , record ing thre e mino r site s tha t ar e no t illustrated here . A t th e Narrow s int o Burt Lak e w e foun d extensiv e iro n stains temptingl y suggestiv e o f a n early For d car ! Nearby , however , were tw o genuin e handprint s an d some othe r fade d material . Fro m there o n w e ha d n o report s t o searc h for, an d wer e delighte d t o ru n acros s

Darky Lake : man with gun, and projectile?

34

two littl e moos e o n th e waterwa y south o f Hurlbur t Lake . Finally , o n the wes t shor e o f Agnes, just opposit e the littl e islan d wher e w e awaite d our airlift , w e foun d tw o painte d rab bits, an d nearb y fou r animal s tha t I judged t o b e India n i n origin : thes e pecked o r pounde d int o th e roc k bu t so shallowl y tha t w e paddle d pas t them withou t seein g the m a t first, although w e kne w the y wer e there . These ar e th e onl y petroglyph s I have foun d t o dat e o n a vertica l rock face. A t Nett Lake , Cach e Bay, Shoal

Lake, Sunse t Channe l o n Lak e o f the Woods , an d Footprin t Lak e there are othe r roc k carvings , bu t al l ar e cut int o horizonta l roc k faces . During m y firs t summe r i n Quetico Park I hear d vagu e rumour s o f a site o n th e northwes t corner . I n '5 8 Ernest Oberholtzer , naturalis t an d revered champio n o f conservatio n i n the Unite d States , tol d m e i n Ranie r of a sit e o n Quetic o Lake . Late r Lloyd Raw n o f Land s an d Forest s a t Fort France s pin-pointe d i t fo r me . But i t wa s no t unti l '5 9 tha t Pete r and I wer e abl e t o hitc h a n airlif t i n to th e Narrow s t o fin d th e picto graphs tha t ar e illustrate d below . A beautifully clea r group , unde r a lo w but bulk y overhang , i t containe d a number o f unusua l feature s fro m th e caribou (o r elk ) head , an d on e o f th e few huma n figure s wit h it s se x clearly indicated, t o th e lon g canoe i n whic h one o f th e occupant s appear s t o b e standing wit h uprigh t arms .

Experienced pictograph-hunter s b y now, w e looke d thoroughly alon g th e rock face s t o th e eas t an d west , an d were rewarde d wit h a secon d site , with tw o larg e an d quit e incompre hensible shapes . W e finishe d th e tracings t o th e distan t thro b o f ou r Beaver, an d I ha d barel y focusse d the camer a fo r th e firs t photograp h when A r t Colfe r droppe d ou t o f th e sky. I recal l that tri p a s th e on e whe n Peter pai d fo r ou r rid e b y spottin g a thin wis p o f smok e fro m a lightnin g fire fa r below . W e circle d twic e be fore A r t o r I coul d spo t it ; an d minutes late r a radio-alerte d cre w was o n it s wa y fro m Par k Head quarters t o tak e car e o f it . A t leas t fiv e mino r site s remai n t o be recorde d i n Quetic o Park , al l small, bu t eac h wit h it s contributio n to mak e t o ou r tota l knowledge . Ely, Minnesota , is the smal l mining and touris t communit y through whic h is funnelle d th e amazin g floo d o f

Quetico Lake, pictographs

Hegman Lake group

city-surfeited American s wh o eac h summer hea d nort h int o th e roadles s lake countr y o f Superio r Nationa l Forest, ove r th e borde r int o Quetic o Park, an d eve n beyond . Universit y professors, garag e mechanics , bo y scouts, an d harasse d housewive s i n their thousand s arriv e i n E l y ; som e with thei r ow n gear , som e t o ge t every articl e an d ite m they nee d fro m the bi g canoe outfitters . Mos t o f the m leave mechanizatio n behin d an d g o in th e har d way—b y canoe . Ely i s th e hom e o f Si g Olson , bushman, scholar , conservationist , whose Singing Wilderness quietl y an d sensitively render s th e essenc e o f wilderness living . Here , too , live s B i l l Trygg, ex-ranger , studen t o f India n lore, an d champio n o f India n rights . A fe w mile s nort h o n th e shor e o f 36

Basswood Lak e i s th e modes t grou p of building s that house s th e Quetico Superior Wildernes s Research Center , where it s Director , Cliffor d Ahlgren , is quietl y buildin g a n internationa l reputation fo r forestr y research . Nex t door i s Fran k B . Hubachek , anothe r passionate champio n o f conservation , a founde r o f th e Researc h Center , and sponso r o f man y far-sighte d wilderness researc h project s o n bot h sides o f th e border . Si g Olso n wa s among th e first t o brin g th e Shiel d pictographs t o th e Roya l Ontari o Museum's attention ; B i l l Tryg g tracked dow n a n obscur e sit e o n Island Rive r i n th e hear t o f Superio r National Forest ; an d " H u b " ha s warmly supporte d th e pictograp h re cording projec t sinc e it s inception . The Hegma n Lak e sit e i s perhap s the mos t photogeni c o f al l I hav e re corded. A small , well-designe d group, it i s painte d i n stron g colou r agains t a lighter-than-usua l granit e back ground. Her e wa s th e first sit e I ha d encountered tha t wa s wel l abov e th e water: a somewha t awkwar d on e t o record, fo r Pete r an d Andr e Vallieres, his French-Canadia n frien d wh o wa s with us tha t summer , ha d t o hol d m e by th e shirt-tail s s o tha t I coul d lea n out fa r enoug h fro m th e roc k fac e t o focus th e camera . Not e th e splaye d hooves an d de w claw s o f th e moos e which w e have see n onl y once before , on th e Dark y Lak e site . As w e left , Andr e pointe d ou t a huge, detache d sla b o f granit e belo w the picture s tha t gav e fort h a dul l hollow soun d whe n tappe d wit h a rock. On th e wes t shor e o f Burntsid e Lake, onl y a shor t driv e wes t o f E l y,

Burntside Lake warriors

young Ji m Anderso n showe d m e a most unusua l site , o n a smal l fac e screened fro m th e lak e b y a health y growth of trees. "This," I remarke d i n m y notes , "is th e curiouses t t o date . . . . Th e colour i s clearl y differen t fro m al l others an d als o its manner o f application. On e gets the impressio n of a dy e rather tha n a pigment , applie d wit h a small stif f brus h . . . [some ] line s have a sharp , clea r edge , eve n wher e the roc k is rough." The colou r wa s a dul l wine-gray , The style , too , wa s different : a littl e group o f fightin g figure s wit h bow s and arrows ; anothe r grou p tha t seemed t o b e dancing ; a hea d wit h eyes, nose , mouth , an d a Plain s typ e of head-dress . Mos t astonishin g o f all was a tin y abstractio n o f a moose , a masterpiece o f condensation . Here , surely, clos e t o th e souther n edg e o f the Shield , w e se e th e influenc e o f an impingin g culture. A shor t air-ho p east of E ly through the courtes y o f the U.S . Fores t Service

Center brough t m e t o Sit e #1 7 o n a widening o f Kawashiw i River . O f much tha t wa s fragmentar y an d ob scure th e symbo l reproduce d her e stood out clea r though faint . A n Ojib wa o n nearb y Towe r Reserv e calle d it a "rocking-chair"—an d laughed! A Red Lak e (Ontario ) Ojibw a wa s sur e that i t represente d a deadfal l trap . It wa s a lon g winding lumber roa d that too k m y wif e an d me , guide d b y B i l l Trygg , t o th e Islan d Rive r in th e hear t o f Superio r Nationa l Forest. Her e o n a n imposin g block of gabbro w e foun d a smal l cross, an d a barely discernibl e handprint . Earlier, wit h a piec e o f weathere d haematite, B i l l ha d demonstrate d hi s ingenious theor y o f ho w th e picto graphs wer e painted . Chalkin g a lin e on a granit e boulde r wit h th e ore , h e wet hi s finge r an d broadene d th e stroke t o a strong , clea r finger-width .

Kawashiwi River, south of Alic e Lak e

The Namakan Stone, and associate d pictographs remaining on site

Border Lands West Between th e Quetico-Superio r are a and Lak e o f th e Wood s th e borde r country pictograph s thi n out . I n M i n nesota n o mor e roc k painting s hav e shown u p wes t o f Hegma n Lake . Bu t there ar e roc k carving s o n Spiri t Island i n Net t Lake , a shallo w bod y of wate r wit h hundred s o f acre s o f wild ric e i n th e hear t o f a thrivin g Indian community . Scattere d ove r th e flat roc k alon g th e nort h shor e ar e dozens o f figure s pecke d int o th e glacially polishe d rock . O n th e Canadia n sid e o f Namaka n Narrows, an d o n a nearb y islan d o f Namakan Lake , I recorde d thre e site s in 1958 . M y wif e an d I wit h ou r seven-year-old Christophe r paddle d in fro m th e eas t en d o f Rain y Lake . Our objective : a sit e mentione d b y a 38

United State s geologist , Josep h Nor wood. Conspicuou s o n th e Canadia n shore o f th e Narrow s i s a serpent like vei n o f whit e feldspar , agains t a background o f dar k schist . Norwood, to borro w a quotatio n fro m Grac e Lee Nute' s The Voyageufs Highway, said o f thi s tha t i t "mus t b e highl y esteemed b y them , fro m th e quantit y of vermilio n bestowed o n it , an d th e number o f animal s depicte d o n th e face o f th e rock. " Thi s report , mad e in 1849 , i s th e earlies t printe d com ment I hav e ye t foun d o n a specifi c Shield site . Earlier tha t summe r w e ha d drive n from E l y t o Cran e Lak e o n th e American side , i n a n attemp t to trac k down persisten t rumour s o f a sit e o n that lake . Th e report s wer e wel l founded, bu t i n a n unexpecte d way .

At north entrance, Namakan Narrows

A t Arthu r Pohlman' s plac e I stare d in undisguise d amazemen t a t a sla b of roc k fro m th e Namaka n sit e lean ing agains t th e wal l o f hi s garage : painted o n i t a white moos e an d a red fish-lik e form . Pohlma n an d hi s brother-in-law, D r. J. A. Bolz, autho r of Portage into the Past, ha d foun d the 100-poun d sla b i n imminen t danger o f fallin g int o th e water , ha d rescued it , an d wer e onl y to o happ y to accep t m y offe r t o delive r it t o th e Royal Ontari o Museum . Ther e th e Namakan Ston e no w rests . The opposit e pag e show s th e wa y in whic h th e stone , in situ, relate s t o the neighbourin g pictographs . Whit e pigment wa s als o used o n the peculia r symbols t o th e right . I t look s a s i f the artis t ra n ou t o f pigmen t o r wa s interrupted whil e paintin g th e large eared moos e (? ) below . Whateve r the interruption , i t reveale d hi s pro cedure i n painting a larg e area . Paintings o n a roug h granit e wal l around th e corne r ar e ver y simple—a canoe, stic k figures , crosses—al l badly weathered .

A t th e nort h en d o f th e Narrows , Site #2 3 i s painte d unde r a wid e overhang o n a roc k s o dar k tha t a black an d whit e photograp h woul d show nothing . A curiou s group , tha t seems t o hav e a stor y t o tell . I coul d not decid e whethe r th e moose' s hea d had scale d of f o r ha d neve r bee n painted. Site #25 i s on a n eight-foo t wal l of rock o n a smal l islan d nea r Berger' s fish camp . Visitin g M r s . Berge r w e found a gran d ol d pionee r woma n baking cookie s for he r grandchildren . She showe d us hundred s o f artifact s picked u p o n neighbourin g sand s during lo w wate r i n th e spring . Th e whole eas t en d o f Namaka n Lak e must onc e hav e bee n a n India n para dise. Where Namaka n water s pou r int o Rainy Lak e w e foun d som e pigmen t

Site on Namakan Lake island

stains o n a facin g rock , bu t nothin g we coul d cal l a site . N o r i n a circui t of Rain y Lak e o n anothe r occasio n were w e abl e t o fin d an y painting s o n the sout h o r eas t shore s o f Rainy . Here i n th e Rain y Lak e area , an d along th e Rain y River , evidenc e ca n be foun d o f thousand s o f year s o f human occupation . Almos t ever y amateur collectio n o f artifact s i n th e country include s a t leas t tw o o r thre e projectile point s fro m th e O l d Copper culture. A t Pither' s Poin t Walte r Kenyon, diggin g fo r th e Roya l O n tario Museu m i n a n ancien t mound , found a coppe r fish-hoo k 5,00 0 year s old. Only a fe w mile s eas t o f For t Frances i s th e Painte d Narrow s site , on a smal l islan d nea r th e railwa y causeway. Amon g a numbe r o f larg e and ver y fain t painting s appear s th e group illustrate d here : a n upside down canoe , a huma n figure , thre e detached heads(?) , an d tw o weir d composite figures, bot h wit h thre e feet. Th e mor e centra l o f thes e i s a perfect exampl e o f the typ e o f strange linear figures suggestiv e o f huma n o r animal forms , bu t wit h dream-lik e appendages an d projection s tha t giv e them a n altogethe r incomprehensibl e character. A s far a s I kno w these ar e unique t o th e Shiel d pictographs . Such grouping s a s thi s an d thos e we hav e alread y see n a t Dark y Lak e and Cach e Bay seem t o hav e a story telling purpose—perhap s her e th e record o f a drowning. Lake of the Woods When th e Lak e o f th e Wood s ha s been combe d a s thoroughl y a s th e Quetico-Superior countr y th e picto -

graph score s fo r th e tw o region s should stan d abou t even . T o dat e I have recorde d thirtee n roc k paintin g sites, tw o petroglyp h site s an d on e lichenoglyph, th e ter m I hav e coine d for pictograph s scrape d i n lichen coated rock . Whitefish Ba y is properly a lak e i n its ow n right , onc e regarde d a s suc h by th e Indians . Her e hal f th e site s ar e concentrated. M y secon d purel y arbitrary divisio n take s i n th e lak e north an d wes t o f Aulneau Peninsula;

and th e lak e sout h o f Aulnea u form s the third . According t o som e historians , th e Siouan-speaking Assiniboine s wer e migrating ou t o f thi s are a int o th e prairies fro m A.D . 170 0 on , unde r pressure from the Algonkian-speaking Ojibwa, wh o hav e occupie d th e lak e since th e mid-eighteent h century . It i s a curiou s fac t tha t th e tw o sites I foun d th e mos t difficul t t o locate o n th e whol e lak e wer e amon g the fe w i n al l o f Canad a t o b e liste d 41

Left: Sunset Channel

Right: Picture Rock Point

by Mallery , probabl y b y wa y o f Lawson, wh o ha s lef t u s partia l records o f them . B y th e thir d summe r ou r expedi tion ha d becom e almos t completel y mechanized, dependin g mor e an d more o n motorboa t an d aircraft . I n this case , thoug h th e Land s an d Forests transporte d u s t o a camp-sit e on Sunse t Channel , the location s were so vagu e tha t w e too k t o th e canoe , my wif e an d tw o son s addin g thre e pairs o f eye s t o sca n th e shores . Th e first da y w e circumnavigate d in numerable island s nort h o f Sunse t Channel, an d woul d hav e bee n utterl y discouraged bu t fo r a visi t t o a n isolated fish cam p wher e th e fisherman tol d u s o f marking s o n a ree f just sout h o f th e Channel . After sup per tha t evenin g Iren e suggeste d tha t we paddl e alon g th e shor e o f Clif f Island, t o whic h w e had alread y given some attention , jus t t o double-check . A fe w mile s from cam p w e foun d th e group o f painting s show n here .

The petroglyp h sit e wa s eas y t o find fro m there ; Maller y ha d place d it hal f a mil e eas t o f th e paintings , and a s soo n as w e saw the fisherman's reef a t th e en d o f th e hal f mil e w e knew we had found it. This book doe s not cove r th e roc k carvin g site s bu t I migh t remar k i n passin g tha t th e characters wer e quit e differen t fro m those a t Net t Lake . O n Machin' s point i n Shoa l Lak e th e nex t yea r I recorded furthe r petroglyph s an d pin pointed a thir d sit e northwes t o f Rainy Lak e fo r a futur e visit . The painting s o n Pictur e Roc k Point, Wester n Peninsula, are painte d on a thick , roug h encrustatio n o f lime, and , wit h th e exceptio n o f th e human figure, ar e obscure . Bu t here , as o n mos t othe r Lak e o f th e Wood s sites, w e foun d offering s o n a water lapped ledge : neatl y folde d clothin g and a towel , topped b y a littl e pil e o f tobacco. Ther e wer e offerings , too , i n a crac k belo w the equall y modest sit e at Portag e Bay , a fe w mile s west .

South o f Aulnea u Peninsul a I hav e so fa r recorde d onl y tw o roc k paint ing sites . O f these th e pictograph s o n Painted Roc k Islan d ar e wel l known , situated a s the y ar e o n th e boa t chan nel betwee n tha t islan d an d Spli t Rock. Shee r luc k brough t u s t o th e Obabikon Channe l site . In th e summe r o f '6 0 fire s wer e s o prevalent tha t i t wa s a n impositio n to ask fo r hel p fro m th e harasse d staf f of Land s an d Forests . S o I turne d t o B i l l Fadde n o f Siou x Narrows , an ex perienced guid e an d old-timer , wh o took t o pictograph-huntin g wit h al l the enthusias m o f a youn g archaeolo gist. Stoppin g over a t Siou x Narrow s on m y wa y wes t I enliste d hi s hel p in trackin g down three site s i n White fish Bay ; o n m y retur n tw o week s later h e ha d discovere d thre e others . Speeding u p th e channe l fro m Sabaskong Ba y int o Obabiko n Ba y we caugh t a glimps e o f re d throug h the tree s rathe r hig h u p o n th e eas t shore. O n shore , expectin g t o fin d

another exampl e o f iro n stains , w e were happil y astonishe d t o discove r the painting s show n here : tw o ser pentine figures , on e wit h antlers , th e other wit h horns, symmetricall y facing a larg e turtle . T o th e left , rathe r crudely painted o n very rough granite , was a serpen t fiftee n fee t long , wit h open mouth , ears , an d thre e larg e flippers—a veritabl e Ogopogo . A dee p clef t betwee n th e ledg e w e stood o n and th e roc k wal l wa s almos t filled wit h dir t an d rubble . Lyin g o n the ground were an ancient, weathere d overcoat, an d variou s rag s tha t ha d rotted beyon d recognition . Northward, i n Obabiko n Narrows, is a lichenoglyp h o n a boulder , a devil-face tha t raise s interestin g ques tions abou t th e origina l o f th e non Indian painte d fac e a t th e Devil' s Gap, nea r Kenora . The Painte d Roc k Islan d sit e i s o n a roc k tha t project s fro m th e slop e of the surroundin g shor e lik e a grea t flat-roofed dorme r window . Here wa s

one o f the fe w sites that faced directly north, and , a s on e woul d expect , wa s extensively overgrow n wit h lichen . Fortunately mos t o f thi s wa s fairl y easy t o scru b of f wit h vigorou s sponging. W e foun d n o trac e o f an y offerings here . This i s th e on e sit e tha t migh t b e related i n form an d apparen t conten t to th e Mida y birchbar k scrolls . Th e sacred bea r stand s abov e a rectangu lar structur e besid e a horne d figure , who migh t represen t a powerfu l M i day leader . A lin e lead s directl y t o the typica l drawin g of a Mida y lodge . To th e righ t may be see n a n elaborat e layout o f rectangula r form s wit h "paths" fro m som e t o others . Far t o th e left , badl y obscure d b y lichen an d weathering , ar e othe r sug gestions o f lodge s o r enclosures . I n the centr e a weir d abstractio n sug gests a mor e tha n huma n form . Finally, t o th e lowe r left , float s a horned serpent-sturgeon , wit h pro jecting spine s th e lengt h o f it s back . A mos t unusua l painting!

Painted Rock Island, detail of figur e

It wa s a n awkwar d sit e t o record . We ra n rope s dow n fro m tree s hig h up o n th e shor e a t eithe r en d o f th e rock, an d s o secure d th e end s o f a long, heav y pol e tha t I coul d us e a s a roug h scaffol d fro m whic h t o work . If I ha d bee n th e origina l artis t I should hav e preferre d t o pain t thi s from m y cano e a t a tim e whe n th e water wa s si x or eigh t fee t higher . One ite m a n intensiv e dating stud y might include is the variatio n in water levels o f th e large r lakes . Here , o n international waters , ther e shoul d b e records goin g back a century or more , that migh t sugges t a t leas t a minima l possible date . Sinc e eve n no w ther e is evidenc e o f continuin g practice o f the ol d way s amon g th e Lak e o f th e Woods Indian s som e painting s migh t be relativel y recent. Y e t the evidenc e of pigmen t erosio n an d liche n growt h here sugges t tha t thi s sit e i s on e o f the older , rather tha n th e mor e recen t ones. I hav e deliberatel y lef t th e mos t fascinating o f th e Lak e o f th e Wood s

Painted Rock Island, detail of figure

sites t o th e last : th e cluste r o f seve n sites i n Whitefis h Bay . Her e th e master designe r o f wate r labyrinths , after tryin g hi s han d a t Quetic o an d elsewhere, go t dow n t o wor k o n hi s magnum opus . Eve n old-timer s stic k to th e channel s the y know ; and som e of th e younge r India n guide s hav e been know n t o ge t confused . The Blindfol d site , som e mile s north o f the Ba y but o n th e sam e sid e of th e lake , I ha d know n a s a boy . Bruce an d Doroth y Johnston , sum mer camper s fro m Winnipeg , ha d sent me, vi a the Museum , th e location and a descriptio n o f th e Siou x Nar rows site . Bu t rumour s an d report s from variou s source s o f a t leas t tw o of th e othe r site s gav e onl y th e vaguest locations , and I a m quit e sur e that withou t B i l l Fadden' s knowledg e of th e ba y an d kee n interes t i n hunt ing fo r site s I shoul d stil l b e lookin g for a t leas t a coupl e o f them . Strangely, fe w residents , summe r or permanent , kne w o f thes e paint ings. Actually , unles s on e i s paddling, or driftin g i n a n outboar d motorboat , the passerb y ha s a poo r chanc e o f seeing anythin g interestin g alon g th e shore. I t i s a sa d commentar y o n ou r holiday habit s tha t spee d ha s becom e such a mani a tha t w e ar e denyin g ourselves som e o f th e greates t pleasures t o b e foun d i n suc h waters , not leas t th e thril l o f rediscoverin g for onesel f thes e mystifyin g remnant s of prehistory . Yet I kee p remindin g mysel f tha t as a bo y a t th e Blindfol d site , inter -

ested thoug h I wa s i n the India n pas t even then , i t wa s th e offering s I sa w on th e ledg e belo w that staye d i n m y memory. Perhap s th e ver y incompre hensibility o f thes e painting s tend s t o close of f ou r interest . Certainl y th e Blindfold painting s ar e a s difficul t t o read a s an y others . What, fo r instance , i s th e affai r o n a tripo d t o th e lowe r left ? A drum ? If so , i t i s quit e unlik e th e India n drums w e kno w o f today . I n th e centre (no t illustrate d here ) i s a crude littl e moose , whos e forebod y has almos t disappeared unde r seepag e that ma y offe r a datin g clue . O n th e extreme righ t of this face a monstrou s form beneat h tw o upturne d canoe s suggests th e siniste r Mishipizhiw . The rea l interest , however , centre s in th e symmetrica l groupin g show n on th e opposit e page . A moose , un doubtedly, o n th e left . Bu t what kin d of a creatur e d o w e se e o n th e right ? I coul d no t resis t th e temptatio n o f placing underneat h thi s creatur e on e recorded i n th e Lak e Baika l regio n of south-centra l Siberi a b y A . P . Okladnikov, a U.S.S.R . archaeologis t who ha s mad e extensiv e studie s o f rock paintings and carvings in Eurasia. The finger-paintin g technique , th e curious protuberanc e o n th e snout , and th e creste d bac k al l provid e a n amazing coincidenc e o f conceptio n and execution . It woul d b e ridiculous, of course , t o assum e eve n th e mos t tenuous o f cultura l links . About thre e mile s southeas t o f Sioux Narrow s Pos t Office , facin g

A drum?

After Okladnikov, recorded i n the Lake Baika l region

Mishipizhiw?

An early European fort?

west a t th e norther n en d o f a bulk y outcrop o f granit e i s Sit e #28 . B i g blocks o f rock-fal l a t th e bas e o f th e site gav e m e a footing for th e record ing work , a s the y probabl y di d origi nally fo r th e painting . The drawin g in the to p lef t margin is surel y an Indian' s impressio n of a n early Europea n fort , suc h a s L a Verendrye ma y hav e buil t o n M a s sacre Island . H o w els e ca n on e i n terpret th e flag , wit h a bal l o n to p of th e mast , an d th e suggestio n o f a patter n o n th e fla g itself ? Th e triangular pennan t flyin g fro m th e mast o f an unusually deep an d heavylooking "canoe " strongl y reinforce s this impression of an intruding culture. O n Fac e I I w e se e handprints , a small ma n besid e a serpent-monster , the latte r wit h jaw s an d fore-flipper , and wha t appear s t o b e a dee r i n a canoe. Tha t th e latte r i s no t s o strange a concep t t o th e India n a s i t might b e t o other s i s demonstrate d in birchbar k pictograph s illustrate d and interprete d i n Densmore' s Chippewa Customs. Her e tw o familie s ar e shown, eac h i n it s ow n canoe . I n th e one a larg e bea r i s followe d b y thre e small ones , wit h a catfis h i n the stern . In th e othe r thre e eagle s ar e followe d by a bear . Th e animal s represen t th e clan o f eac h person , th e childre n i n heriting thei r father' s clan . I t i s inter esting t o not e tha t th e ol d India n fashion, no w disappeared, wa s for th e head o f th e famil y t o tak e th e bo w position, a s a hunte r logicall y would . I recorde d thi s sit e i n th e summe r of '58 . Tw o year s later , o n th e wa y to greene r field s wit h B i l l Fadden , I stopped of f a s w e passe d i t t o tak e further photographs . I n th e interva l

Face II of Sioux Narrows site

since my last visi t someone ha d placed some clothing , a bundle o f sticks , and tobacco o n th e rock s a t th e base . The stick s wer e thumb-thick , peeled , and daube d wit h re d an d blu e paint . What coul d the y mean ? While I wa s ou t west , B i l l mad e enquiries o f the loca l Ojibw a an d wa s told tha t thes e bundle s wer e place d on th e rock s wit h clothin g an d to bacco whe n someon e wa s sick , dif ferent colour s bein g place d o n th e sticks fo r differen t illnesses . We foun d simila r "prayer-sticks " on thre e othe r Whitefis h Ba y site s and nowher e else . A r e thes e a sur vival o f a n ancien t practice , o r th e result o f a recen t cul t amon g th e quite numerous non-Christia n Indians of th e area ? So far a s I know no othe r instances o f thi s practic e hav e bee n observed. I n Shoa l Lake , wher e Presbyterian Christianit y i s dominant , only on e India n ha d hear d o f th e practice, an d seeme d no t to o wel l informed abou t it s significance . M u ch remains t o b e learne d here . If I ha d ha d an y doubt s abou t th e connection betwee n th e pictograph s and th e offerings , the y wer e resolve d at th e thre e othe r sites . I n th e Devil' s Bay site , th e Anni e Islan d site , an d the on e jus t sout h o f Devil' s Bay , th e offerings wer e alway s directl y belo w the pictographs , a s here . B i l l Fadde n had als o been tol d tha t there wer e alway s jus t fort y prayer sticks. I n th e tw o site s wher e th e bundle wa s intac t thi s wa s true ; i n the other s th e bindin g strin g ha d rotted an d som e o f th e stick s ha d floated awa y i n th e water . B i l l als o remembered seein g a n ol d India n i n a bar k cano e wit h hi s famil y man y

Face II of Siou x Narrows site

years ag o flinging wate r wit h hi s paddle o n th e roc k a t th e Devil' s Hole an d talkin g loudly , a s i f t o a n unseen person . The sit e o n th e northeas t poin t o f Hayter Peninsul a had a differen t kin d of surpris e t o offer—two , i n fact. Th e 49

first wa s a new kin d o f symbol, which from it s obviou s resemblanc e t o a checker-board I wa s inclined t o eye suspiciously. Yet it was i n the authen -

Undeciphered paintings 25 feet above the water, Hayter Peninsul a site

tic colour , an d th e squares were fille d in a n irregular fashion . H a d th e tw o appeared i n a Europea n cav e the y might have bee n dubbe d "tectiforms. " They d o suggest, fo r what i t may b e worth, a weavin g texture. Her e ther e were n o prayer-sticks ; bu t a n old china cu p and other odd s an d end s were visibl e i n a horizonta l crac k nearby. Our recordin g wor k done , I was just packin g camera s an d kit when I noticed tha t B i l l wa s stil l scannin g the rocks . I t wa s a nove l experienc e to wor k wit h someon e mor e anxiou s than I t o fin d anothe r pictograph . B i l l pointe d t o a roc k tha t stoo d above an d back fro m th e watersid e face w e had bee n workin g at. A mos t unpromising place ; I gav e i t onl y a careless glance . "Would tha t be anything up there?" B i l l wante d t o know , pointin g t o a rusty stai n halfwa y u p the other face . A coupl e o f hand an d toeholds too k me u p easily enough—an d ther e was another grou p o f paintings! Whoever ha d painte d the m mus t have ha d som e difficulty , o r have bee n very short-sighted ; fo r t o lea n fa r enough ou t t o focu s o n th e rock , standing o n a mer e bi t o f a ledge , one neede d bot h hands . Fortunatel y Peter wa s alon g that day , an d w e had lots o f rope . B i l l anchore d th e rop e at th e top of the cliff, an d Peter, wit h a bowlin e aroun d hi s shoulders, had both hand s fre e t o wor k o n th e tracings an d photograph s a s I hande d up th e materials fro m below . A t th e nort h en d of Anni e Islan d we almos t misse d th e sol e bu t fasci nating pictograp h o n a beautifu l granite wall : a vertica l zig-za g o f

finger-width colou r that ende d i n th e Devil' head o f a Maymaygwayshi . Amon g thunderbir the rock s below , lik e a shorebird' s nest, w e foun d anothe r deposi t o f clothing, prayer-sticks , an d tobacco , all a s fres h a s i f the y ha d bee n pu t there yesterday . Smal l wonde r tha t we nearly missed the painting , for th e wall wa s streake d wit h blac k liche n whose edges wer e scallope d in rhythm with th e undulation s o f th e picto graph, offerin g perfec t camouflage . The sam e da y tha t w e recorde d these tw o site s w e hunte d hig h an d low fo r a sit e i n Devil' s Bay . I t wa s a beautifu l da y an d w e foun d th e obvious rock , but thoug h w e scanne d and scanne d ther e wa s nothin g o n it . Two week s late r w e returne d an d found i t immediatel y in th e centr e o f the self-sam e rock , ver y fain t bu t clear. S o muc h for th e effec t o f glar e on visibility ! Apart fro m bein g somewha t large r than an y thunderbir d hithert o re corded, there was nothing too notabl e about thi s site . I hav e ye t t o lear n wh y Devil' s Bay i s s o named . Ye t i n Sabaskon g Bay ther e i s a smal l rock y islan d i n the centr e o f whic h i s a hug e "nest " of boulders , obviousl y a n artifact — though a laboriou s one—an d th e island i s name d Devi l Birdsnes t Island. Indian s a s fa r eas t a s Lak e Nipigon refe r t o suc h constructions a s "Thunderbird's Nests. " I hav e hear d of others , bu t thi s i s the onl y on e I'v e seen. The Devil' s Hol e i s n o mor e tha n a deep , almos t horizonta l fissure , averaging abou t fiv e inche s i n width , in th e granit e outcro p jus t nort h o f Devil's Ba y o n th e wes t shor e o f th e

s Bay d

Annie Island site, associated with "prayer sticks"

Devil's Hole Faces lb an d II I

southern ar m o f Whitefish . Th e ad jacent painting s seem t o b e merel y smears, excep t fo r on e smal l abstrac tion. Som e sevent y fee t farthe r sout h is a fa r mor e interestin g group : a series o f larg e abstraction s tha t hav e an unusua l consistenc y o f styl e an d dimensions, but leave the viewe r clue less. I n th e fissure , I ough t t o add , which goe s farthe r bac k tha n th e ey e can see , ar e trace s o f offerings , frag ments o f chinaware , an d s o on . B y fa r th e mos t interestin g featur e of Sit e # 99 , jus t sout h o f Devil' s Bay, i s th e bison . I n th e summe r o f '58 I go t win d o f a sit e o n Mameig wess Lak e sai d t o hav e a buffal o represented o n it . Thoug h i t wa s of f my itinerar y I drov e i n fro m High way 1 7 wes t o f Ignac e t o hav e a look a t it , arrivin g a t Jorgensen' s

Devil's Hole, Fac e l a

camp in a heavy rain. Th e Jorgensen s not onl y treate d u s t o lunc h bu t len t us thei r boa t an d heav y slicker s t o run acros s th e lak e to th e site . In drivin g rain , wit h littl e shelte r from th e overhangs , Klau s Prufe r an d I photographe d th e mai n features . I t was disappointin g to fin d o n m y re turn t o d o a proper recordin g job th e next summe r tha t wha t w e ha d take n for biso n on our first visi t was actually a moose . The firs t unmistakabl e biso n I found painte d o n a roc k wa s fa r t o the north , o n th e Bloodvei n River . Here o n Whitefis h Bay , an d a bar e hundred mile s eas t o f biso n countr y was another . Thi s i s no t a s accurat e a drawin g a s th e Bloodvei n Bison , but mor e alive . Anothe r seem s t o have bee n painte d t o it s left , bu t i t

Whitefish Ba y bison {see also page 96 )

is impossibl e t o tel l whethe r roc k erosion o r deliberat e distortio n ac counts for th e peculia r neck an d head . Two anima l form s an d a baker' s dozen o f handprint s mak e u p th e other markings . O n a ledg e belo w was a mos t handsom e offerin g wit h prayer-sticks. W e carefull y lifte d on e corner o f th e neatl y pile d clothin g t o find tha t i t wa s al l clean an d i n good repair. N o attemp t ha d bee n mad e t o foist of f second-rat e article s o n th e mysterious healers . A n impressiv e armad a saile d fro m Sioux Narrow s o n Augus t 8 , 1959 : the flagship , a bi g Lands an d Forest s diesel, bearin g myself , Irene , an d Christopher, followin g th e Johnston s

who ha d pin-pointe d th e sit e earlie r in th e summer , an d a thir d high powered moto r launc h bearin g American friends . A n hou r late r th e flotilla la y t o i n a maz e o f island s in the centr e o f Whitefis h Bay , com pletely "a t sea. " Nevertheles s w e finally mad e ou r wa y throug h th e labyrinth t o th e mos t remarkabl e sit e of th e summer , o n appropriatel y named Pictur e Roc k Island , whic h we mistakenl y identifie d a t th e tim e as Fergus Island. For individualit y o f setting this wa s supreme—an eagle' s eyri e rather tha n an artist' s easel , fifty fee t an d mor e above th e lake . The re d o f th e paint ings is clearly visibl e 50 0 yards away . 53

Then, a s on e approaches , th e re d dis appears behin d th e li p o f a twenty foot-wide ledge . Looking u p tha t da y th e plac e seemed inaccessible ; a shee r dro p t o the wate r protecte d tha t approac h completely an d ther e wa s n o wa y down fro m th e top . However, with th e will ther e prove d t o b e a circuitou s way, an d th e bigges t difficult y wa s i n getting wate r u p fo r th e tracings . O n Fac e I th e turtle , unusuall y naturalistic compare d wit h other s elsewhere, i s clea r an d strong . Th e undulating for m i n th e centre , whic h may hav e los t significant details unde r the lichen , repeat s a them e tha t occurs wit h variation s o n si x othe r sites—notably th e Anni e Islan d sit e we hav e jus t looke d at . Th e ladder like for m an d th e handprint s ar e sai d by som e non-Indian s i n th e localit y to refe r t o a rai d o n Ladde r Lak e b y the " R e d Hand, " a ban d o f maraud ing Indian s in Minnesota in the 1880' s or 90's . O n Fac e I I th e reverse d brackets wit h vertica l bar betwee n i s a for m tha t wil l b e see n agai n a t R e d Rock an d Picture d Lake . I s th e animal canine , wit h th e Samoye d tai l of a n Eskim o dog ? I f so , i t i s ver y recent, fo r th e onl y do g known to th e early native s hereabou t wa s a smal l hunting animal . Ye t i t ma y no t b e a dog a t all ; we hav e alread y see n ho w readily, fo r reason s unknow n t o us , natural form s coul d b e distorted . A child' s handprint appear s amon g the others—o r i s i t simpl y a smal l painted hand ? O n thi s sit e i t i s diffi cult t o tel l whethe r th e hand s wer e printed o r painted . I ca n offe r n o comment o n th e bafflin g for m a t th e centre right . 54

Face II I ha s thre e exceptiona l forms. Th e lowe r lef t figur e seem s intended fo r a bird : not e th e sug gestion o f feathe r tip s o n th e wings . The ladder-Maltese-cros s characte r in th e centr e an d th e seemin g com bination o f tw o abstracte d anima l forms o n th e righ t ar e typica l Shiel d abstractions. Bu t th e faint , lime obscured huma n figur e i s almos t a brother t o th e centra l figur e a t Blind fold, an d share s wit h hal f a doze n others th e artist' s curiou s disinclina tion t o clos e of f th e lowe r part o f th e body. It shoul d als o b e mentione d tha t the roc k itsel f i s mos t unusual : a smooth concav e curv e o f glaciall y sculptured granite . Th e pigmen t seems indissolubl y bonde d t o th e rock—for ho w lon g i s anybody' s guess. Northwestern Hinterland The arbitrar y divisio n w e hav e made betwee n wester n an d north western hinterland s follow s th e northern lin e o f th e C . N . R . throug h Minaki, Siou x Lookout , an d A r m -

strong. Althoug h eac h yea r road s snake thei r wa y farthe r nort h o f thi s line int o th e untouche d wilderness , quick acces s ha s bee n almos t entirel y restricted t o ai r travel . O f a n esti mated tota l o f sixt y importan t site s in th e regio n onl y a thir d hav e bee n recorded. Th e whol e vas t are a i s currently administered , for forest pro tection, wild-lif e stud y an d control , and s o on, from Siou x Lookout . Fires raging i n thi s are a durin g th e sum mers o f 196 0 an d '6 1 hav e mad e airlifts fo r othe r purpose s impossible, and al l w e hav e i n th e page s tha t follow i s a samplin g of the total , mos t of the m collecte d during the summe r of 1959 . In th e neighbourin g Shield countr y of norther n Manitob a I alread y hav e the sam e scatterin g o f report s tha t prefaced th e findin g o f man y other s in Ontario . A brie f reconnaissanc e trip I mad e t o L a c l a Rong e i n northern Saskatchewa n tell s the sam e story. M u c h remain s t o b e done . The northernmos t reporte d sit e i n Ontario i s nort h o f th e fifty-fourt h parallel o n th e Sachig o River , nea r Manitoba, a sit e I paddle d pas t un knowingly o n a tri p wit h m y fathe r

Cochrane Rive r Face V I

in 1928 . Thi s sit e an d fou r other s were reporte d b y Edwar d Rogers , anthropologist a t th e Roya l Ontari o Museum, wh o wit h hi s linguisticall y gifted wife , Jean , spen t th e bette r par t of a yea r wit h a n Ojibw a ban d i n the Roun d Lak e area . Farthe r sout h I ow e Joh n Macfi e o f Land s an d Forests th e location s o f a doze n site s from Arter y Lak e t o th e Vermilio n River. Finally , th e ubiquitou s M c Innes turne d u p site s a t Clif f an d Route Lakes . One o f the luckies t breaks I ha d in the summe r o f '5 9 wa s th e chanc e t o fly wit h Jak e Siegel , th e Land s an d Forests pilo t a t R e d Lake . A super b flyer wit h a widesprea d reputatio n for fir e protection , h e wa s th e firs t man I'v e me t wh o literall y wouldn' t hurt a fly ; Peter an d I sa w hi m care fully her d one , trappe d i n th e take off, acros s th e windshiel d wit h hi s hand t o th e ope n window—an d freedom! F o r suc h a ma n th e fir e tha t destroyed million s o f livin g creature s was a persona l enemy . Th e followin g year o n th e evenin g o f m y arriva l a t Red Lak e I learne d tha t h e ha d mad e twenty-five separat e flight s tha t day , carrying i n me n an d supplies . I shoul d make i t clea r tha t I coul d only ge t airlift s b y prearrangemen t with headquarters , an d onl y the n i f a Beave r aircraf t wer e goin g i n th e same genera l directio n that I neede d to go , o n a n assigne d fir e patro l o r fire towe r gru b run . The grea t advantag e o f pictograph hunting b y aircraf t i s tha t i n a singl e circling o f a lak e on e ca n spo t ever y likely outcrop , an d unstra p one' s canoe fift y fee t fro m th e likeliest , saving hours o f shore exploration.

Of th e nin e face s o n th e Cochran e River site , a fe w mile s nort h o f Dee r Lake, an d th e mos t northerl y sit e I have s o fa r recorde d i n Ontario , al l but th e first, fourth , an d fifth sho w only vestigia l trace s an d ar e no t illustrated here . I t i s a pit y tha t thi s site i s s o remote . Face s V A and V B offer almos t th e ful l rang e o f datin g clues: over-painting , lichen-encroachment, exfoliation , an d a wid e rang e of pigmen t intensitie s an d hues . The mos t interestin g drawin g i s the winge d figure, unfortunatel y ob scured o n th e righ t sid e o f th e hea d by chipping . A bir d wit h a huma n head? Wa s th e hea d originall y sym metrical, wit h th e appendage s o n either sid e representing a special hairdo? Whethe r s o o r not , w e shal l find two huma n figures o n th e Bloodvei n River sit e tha t sugges t th e sam e idea . While a t nearb y Dee r Lak e waiting for th e plan e t o pic k us u p I spen t two hour s interviewin g John Meezis , one o f th e olde r Indians , an d a thir d hour a t th e school . Th e summe r teacher, Mis s Todd , le t m e tak e charge o f he r seventee n childre n (ages si x t o fifteen) fo r a drawin g experiment. Th e grea t majority, whe n asked t o dra w a moose , a fish, a bird , and a man , produce d wha t an y othe r Canadian schoolchil d migh t hav e drawn. Bu t fou r o f th e olde r children drew femal e figures a s hour-glas s forms wit h appende d hea d an d limbs ; and thre e o f th e fou r dre w th e arm s in a surrende r position . The Bloodvei n Rive r sit e wa s on e of thos e rar e experience s tha t ar e th e supreme rewar d o f pictograph-hunt ing. Here , som e eight y mile s north west o f R e d Lake , i n th e Lak e

Cochrane Rive r pictographs

Winnipeg water-shed , wa s a beauti fully proportione d bison , an d a human figur e wit h th e mos t detai l I have ye t recorded . There wa s muc h els e beside : th e two curiou s "wigglers " o n Fac e I , the cano e o n Fac e I I wit h figure s i n the sam e manne r a s o n Lak e Nipigo n and fa r t o th e sout h a t Sit e # 2 o n Agnes Lake in Quetico Park. Fac e II I is a puzzlin g conglomeratio n o f over painting an d abstraction s i n whic h little can be deciphered . I woul d gues s that th e anima l o n th e uppe r lef t i s a porcupine . The norther n exposur e wa s un expected, an d th e questio n arise s ho w the roc k cam e t o b e lichen-fre e a t the tim e i t wa s chose n fo r a site . Peter an d I scrubbe d of f whol e yard s of th e fuzz y gree n specie s tha t ha d grown ove r a goo d hal f o f th e paintings. Note th e hair-d o o n th e littl e ma n on Fac e II , ver y lik e tha t o n th e Cochrane Rive r "Eagle-man. " O n th e opposit e pag e i s a cop y o f the Bloodvei n bison . Th e sit e i s per haps a hundre d mile s nort h o f th e

parklands wher e th e biso n herds onc e roamed; bu t th e artis t show s a familiarity wit h th e anima l tha t sug gests eithe r frequen t huntin g excur sions southward , o r hi s ow n souther n origin. There seeme d t o be—an d I s o recorded it— a vagu e indicatio n o f the hear t i n this bison , bu t I wa s stil l

Bloodvein bison

puzzling ove r i t whe n i t wa s tim e t o go. The photographs conve y the sam e impression withou t bein g an y mor e decisive. A peculia r featur e o f th e feet i s the wa y in which th e hoove s ar e rendered a s ovals . I wa s startle d a few month s later , leafin g throug h a book o n th e Lascau x cav e paintings , to fin d exactl y th e sam e treatment .

Overleaf th e "Bloodvei n Shaman " is illustrated . I s o dubbe d i t th e fol lowing winte r afte r goin g throug h al l the Ojibw a birchbar k drawing s I could fin d recorde d i n th e literature . Frequently i n th e scrol l pictograph s zig-zag lines like thos e emergin g fro m the hea d o f thi s figur e ar e interprete d as thought s o r magica l powe r enter -

Face II (see text, page 58)

Bloodvein shama n

ing, o r emanatin g from , th e person' s eyes, ears , mouth , o r head . Again , on a numbe r o f Mida y scroll s the Miday pries t i s show n holdin g th e otter-skin o r othe r medicine-ba g from which h e an d hi s fello w Midaywi win "shoot " powe r int o initiates . The line s a t th e sid e o f th e hea d I woul d gues s t o b e th e sam e kin d o f hair arrangemen t a s w e se e o n Fac e 60

II an d o n th e "Eagle-man, " bu t i n more detail . The larg e cano e beneat h an d th e porcupine t o th e lef t migh t represen t the fightin g prowes s an d cla n o f th e shaman. Bu t I mus t emphasiz e tha t these ar e onl y guesses . The Sharpston e Lak e sit e wa s spotted fro m th e ai r b y Pete r whil e Jake an d I wer e lookin g i n othe r

Lower Manito u Narrows (see page 72 )

Cuttle Lake, detail o f liche n and pigment, Fac e I

Sharpstone Lake site

directions fo r a hearsa y sit e w e ha d picked up from a Little Gran d Rapids Indian. I t provide d a wid e shel f o f rock tha t mad e a n ideal landing-dock for th e plan e whil e Jak e waite d th e half hou r i t took t o trac e an d photograph th e rathe r sparse , fain t mark ings. Sinc e I stoo d i n a foot o f water and coul d barel y reac h th e highe r paintings thi s wa s obviously painte d from a cano e whe n th e wate r wa s higher. Som e o f th e paintin g ha s gone; fo r here , a s s o ofte n occur s with granite , larg e slice s hal f a n inc h thick ha d flake d of f b y exfoliation . H a d ther e bee n mor e tim e w e might have foun d a sla b o r tw o with pig ment o n it in the shallo w water ; but the win d wa s changing , an d Jake' s plane wa s i n n o positio n t o ignor e the fact . We wer e ver y thankfu l fo r th e accuracy wit h whic h a R e d Lak e Indian pin-pointe d a sit e o n a littl e

Sites west of Rex Lake

sliver o f a lake wes t o f Rex, north of the Englis h River . Luckil y enoug h the lak e wa s too smal l fo r the pilo t to chanc e a take-of f wit h Peter , myself, an d canoe aboard . Consequentl y we mad e a rendezvous fo r the end o f the afternoo n o n R ex Lake, an d o n the wa y there spotte d a secon d site . Site #6 5 wa s next t o a watersid e rock shelte r wher e Pete r slep t i n the shade whil e I recorde d th e modes t group o f two handprints, a circle , an upside-down canoe , an d a fe w other vague markings . Sit e #6 6 wa s a n even mor e modes t one : onl y a hand print, tall y marks , an d tw o vagu e figures. A t Grass y Narrows , an d south ward a t tw o sites o n Delane y Lake , we recorde d tw o likel y Maymay gwayshi, a rudimentar y moose , an d a cock y littl e turtl e tha t ha d a ver y human loo k abou t him . The rea l pictograph fin d o f th e summe r wa s

Samples from Delaney Lake

not o n an y rock , bu t inscribe d o n a seventy-inch birchbar k scroll , lef t ownerless b y th e deat h o f th e las t great Mida y practitione r i n th e area , Francis Fisher. Twelve human figures , all armless , an d si x wate r creature s appear o n this , quit e unlik e anythin g in th e roc k paintings . Bu t tw o bear s are rendere d i n a n identica l wa y t o those show n o n th e Shiel d picto graphs. When Chie f Tabowaykeezhi k learned o f th e existenc e an d purpos e of th e Museu m he gav e th e scrol l t o me, alon g wit h th e lat e Mida y "priest's" medicin e bag , t o b e pre served fo r posterit y i n Toronto . White Dog , jus t of f th e Englis h River, i s the onl y sit e wher e th e loca l Indians ha d an y interpretatio n t o offer fo r th e pictographs . Th e anima l (painted i n the usua l re d ochre ) wa s a whit e dog , th e huma n figur e a woman. Thi s cam e ou t whil e talkin g

Left: Grassy Narrows

Right: White Do g

to a grou p o n th e doc k t o whic h ou r Beaver wa s tied . " H o w ca n yo u tel l it's a woman? " I aske d on e Indian . He dre w himself u p wit h som e dignity to reply : " I a m a man" A t anothe r plac e an d tim e a Nipigon India n told m e o f the "Whit e Dog Feast " i n whic h a smal l do g was eate n b y member s o f th e Miday wiwin a s par t o f th e ritual : "The y don't say , we'r e eatin g a dog . The y say we'r e eatin g a bear . The y don' t cook i t ver y much—the y ea t th e blood an d everything—bu t I hear d they drin k medicin e before. " Th e bear, I migh t add , i s th e centra l figure o f the Mida y ceremonies . M y secon d visi t t o R e d Lak e yielded a sit e o n tha t lak e itself , t o which I wa s take n b y Bo b Sheppard , a Provincia l Polic e Office r wh o ha d an unusua l interes t in , an d under standing of , th e loca l Indians . Th e site wa s smal l an d clos e t o th e water ,

on a fac e tha t slope d outward a t suc h an angl e tha t I ha d quit e a tim e getting the pape r t o clin g t o th e rock . The R e d Lak e highwa y run s pas t Cliff Lake , o n whic h Mclnne s re corded a sit e I hav e ye t t o trac k down. Wit h th e hel p o f Jo e Vocelka , who run s a popula r touris t cam p there, w e reache d th e on e sit e know n on th e Lake . "Lot s o f pain t bu t littl e to decipher, " m y diar y notes . "Dis appointed, w e poke d th e nos e o f ou r borrowed craf t int o ever y ba y an d inlet excep t th e northwes t ar m where , we ha d bee n assured , ther e wasn' t a rock yo u coul d spi t at . No t a sig n o f Mclnnes' site . . . . " Before i t was floode d L ac Seul wa s one o f the paradis e lake s of the north , with countles s sand y beaches , grea t stands o f whit e pine , windin g creeks , and lus h swamp s wher e th e wil d ric e grew thic k an d thousand s o f duck s bred. Her e wer e endles s mile s o f browsing fo r moose , an d latterl y deer, wit h depth s wher e grea t sturgeon an d fa t lak e trou t lurked . With th e floodin g a t leas t fiv e picto graph site s disappeared ; an d th e onl y clue t o wha t the y wer e lik e i s i n th e peripheral ones . Th e O l d Coppe r people wer e here , an d wh o know s what othe r wanderer s befor e them . Archaeologically th e surfac e ha s barely bee n scratched . Here I spen t tw o idylli c summer s in m y lat e teens , an d paddle d sout h on on e occasio n to pas s withi n yard s of th e Rout e Lak e paintings . Year s later, starin g a t th e pai r o f figure s shown o n thi s painting , I wa s a s mystified a s an y reade r wil l be . Wha t strange subtletie s o f aborigina l cul ture wer e manifeste d here ?

Red Lake pictographs

Route Lake pictographs

Route Lake, detail

Until recentl y the are a betwee n L ac Seul an d Lak e Nipigo n nort h o f th e C . N . R . ha s bee n a s difficul t o f acces s as othe r part s o f th e northwester n hinterland. Howeve r th e ne w roa d from Siou x Lookou t t o Armstron g will ope n u p th e Pickl e Cro w road , and b e o f grea t hel p i n recordin g th e sites reporte d i n th e area . Flyin g ou t of Siou x Lookou t I hav e bee n abl e so far t o recor d only fou r whic h mus t suffice t o represen t th e man y others . I hav e Joh n Macfi e t o than k fo r his meticulou s sketche s an d note s o n

the Vermilio n Rive r sit e just sout h of Carling Lake . Here , thoug h ther e i s only a sprinklin g o f badl y weathere d drawings, th e settin g is most unusual . In a n alcov e o f th e glaciate d granite , against a glistenin g white reredo s o f encrusted lime , th e littl e re d markings appear lik e tin y icons . Passin g Indians stil l leav e tobacco i n the littl e niche tha t i s show n below. A geologica l surve y part y ra n int o two site s o n Vincen t Lak e whil e I was i n "th e Sioux " an d passe d the m on t o th e Distric t Forester . Ther e wa s 65

Left: Vincent Lake Right: Schist Lake

room fo r m e o n th e airlif t tha t dropped of f thei r supplies . M u c h o f the materia l wa s fragmentar y an d obscure, excep t som e arithmetical looking crosse s an d bar s o n Sit e #56A. Reports o f site s i n the Savan t Lak e area wer e to o vagu e t o justif y a n airlift. Bu t I had , a s I thought , a fairly reliabl e locatio n o n Fairchil d Lake, on e o f a confusingl y simila r series fillin g a thirty-mil e east-wes t fault. Flyin g sout h fro m Carlin g I spotted a promisin g glow o f re d o n a rock 80 0 fee t below . We lande d lon g enough t o verif y th e site , the n high tailed i t fo r hom e i n th e threa t o f a

gathering storm . I mad e a sketc h o f the landmark s fro m th e air , assumin g that thi s wa s Fairchil d Lake . H o w wrong th e assumptio n wa s becam e clear tw o day s late r whe n w e fle w over Fairchil d i n a n Otter . Buffete d by on e rai n squal l afte r anothe r w e vainly scanne d th e lak e belo w fo r landmarks that weren't there . Th e sit e turned u p te n mile s west o f Fairchild , on Schis t Lake—a n unreporte d sit e that w e ha d foun d b y shee r mis management! West-Central Hinterland From Lak e o f th e Wood s eastwar d to Lak e Nipigon , sout h o f th e

Carling Lake (Vermilio n River )

niche uvh*t* local Indians plqc* tobacco

northern lin e o f th e C . N . R . , ther e i s road acces s t o withi n a n eas y wate r journey o f mos t o f the sites . It wa s a great time-saver , however, to fl y int o Dryberr y Lak e fro m Kenora, an d t o b e abl e t o surve y th e outcrop location s fro m th e air , be fore pickin g th e mos t likel y on e t o land beside . I n thi s cas e w e ha d onl y the nam e o f th e lak e t o g o by , an d a guess b y a ma n wh o ha d hear d tha t it wa s i n th e nort h en d o f th e lake . But th e site s w e ha d picke d fro m th e air wer e unrewardin g an d i t wa s many a wear y mil e tha t Pete r an d I paddled, encourage d briefl y b y find ing on e sligh t site o n th e nort h shore , before w e move d int o th e northeas t arm an d finall y sighte d a huge , lo w overhang o n th e wes t shore . A s w e approached , th e whol e fac e glowed wit h re d colou r an d I kne w we ha d locate d Mclnnes ' site . Wha t we sa w was muc h a s h e ha d recorde d it. Onl y th e "eagle " was missin g from his drawing , a puzzlin g feature , fo r if it ha d bee n painte d sinc e hi s visi t i t

would reasonabl y hav e bee n i n th e strongest colou r o n th e face , an d th e contrary wa s true . Th e answe r seem s to b e tha t Mclnne s ignore d the form s that wer e indistinct , and perhap s als o those tha t wer e puzzlin g t o him . But we mus t als o remembe r tha t h e wa s there a s a geologist, and that al l kinds of interruption s wer e possibl e t o make hi s recor d incomplete . The serpentin e for m her e w e hav e seen i n variou s version s before , bu t nowhere els e i n outline . Th e bir d form whic h I hav e guesse d t o b e a n eagle look s rathe r mor e lik e a loon , erect an d stretchin g it s wing s o n th e water. However , unlik e Gertrud e Stein wh o wrote , " A rose i s a ros e i s a rose, " th e India n woul d b e mor e likely t o say , " A bird i s a loo n i s a n eagle i s a ma n i s a manitou! " A greate r contras t i n th e moo d of Mameigwess Lak e coul d scarcel y b e imagined tha n th e da y alread y men tioned whe n w e photographe d i t i n a driving rain , an d th e da y o f ou r return. Thi s time , a s w e approache d Dryberry Lake site

Mameigwess Lake - ?

by borrowe d kicke r fro m ou r road's end sto p a t Campin g Lake , th e da y was ho t an d sultr y an d th e wate r stil l as glass . We entere d th e eas t en d o f Mameigwess Lak e i n a n uncann y stillness tha t wa s someho w enhance d by th e crysta l clarit y o f th e water , where eve n a t tw o paddle-length s depth w e coul d se e th e sand y bottom , and watc h smal l school s o f pickere l swimming dee p below . When w e looke d closel y a t ou r "bison" ther e coul d b e n o doub t about it s havin g bee n intende d fo r a moose. Thi n lim e deposit s ha d al l but obliterate d th e identifyin g hea d and bell . Yet it remained a n intriguing pictograph, surrounde d a s i t seeme d by flying spears . A n d wer e th e hin d legs draw n i n two position s t o conve y a sens e o f motion ? A s i t stand s w e canno t b e sur e whether th e secon d pai r o f leg s might no t hav e bee n intende d fo r arrows. Wit h th e almos t standar d lack o f motio n i n anima l rendering s on nearl y ever y othe r sit e th e forme r is mos t unlikely . What th e psychologist s cal l pro jection i s a rea l proble m i n recording these sites . F o r instance , o n m y brie f visit t o th e Jorgensen s th e previou s year the y ha d mentione d a ma n wit h a bo w an d arrow , an d I wa s sur e I recognized on e a t th e time . Y e t o n my retur n neithe r Pete r no r I coul d find eve n a hin t o f one . Th e tempta tion i s particularl y stron g i n case s like thi s wher e obscurit y an d over painting contriv e t o sugges t al l man ner o f combinations . A lette r I ha d fro m R . H . Neeland of St . Thomas , Ontario , ha s som e

Indian Lake

interesting comment s t o mak e o n a visit h e mad e t o th e lake , the n calle d Rangatang, man y year s ago . "Our guide , wh o kne w th e loca l Indians, sai d tha t h e ha d trie d t o ge t some explanatio n of the picture s fro m them, bu t ha d bee n tol d tha t the y had bee n o n the roc k face lon g befor e their time . The y wer e unabl e t o giv e any reaso n o r explanation . The y added tha t ther e wa s a devi l a t th e foot o f th e clif f an d the y wer e no t going pas t unles s absolutel y neces sary." The consensu s o f opinio n amon g the man y Ojibw a I hav e interviewe d is tha t th e Maymaygwaysh i wer e more t o b e avoide d tha n feared . Bu t there seem s t o hav e bee n a specia l fear associate d wit h thi s site , havin g something t o d o wit h a larg e reces s in th e roc k nea r th e mai n grou p o f paintings. Whit e resident s sa y tha t a Weyn-di-gow i s believe d t o inhabi t this "cave. " I t i s a n interestin g fac t that nowher e i n th e Shiel d countr y have I foun d evidenc e o f India n us e being mad e o f suc h cave s a s ther e are. Thi s contrast s wit h site s i n th e Alberta foothill s wher e I hav e re corded pictograph s i n tw o roc k shelters an d ha d report s o f others . The painting s o n nearb y India n Lake offe r n o startlin g novelties. They were likel y painte d fro m th e ledg e they stan d above , wherea s th e M a meigwess sit e mus t hav e bee n painted entirel y from th e water . Ther e is th e suggestio n o f a fishtai l o n th e two Maymaygwaysh i delineated , which tallie s wit h th e belie f o f som e southern Ojibw a tha t th e Rockme n lived unde r th e water . The Turtl e Rive r sites , sout h o f

Highway 17 , bot h a t th e secon d rapids belo w Bendin g Lake , on e above, the othe r below , were reporte d to m e b y m y fabulou s For t France s friend, Rosco e Richardson . Th e paintings woul d b e rathe r dul l i f i t were no t fo r th e handsom e turtle . Here a typica l distortio n add s a grotesque touch—apparentl y a cano e is emergin g fro m th e turtle' s body . The turtle , too , raise s th e interest ing questio n o f whethe r th e rive r go t its nam e fro m th e painting , o r th e painting it s subjec t fro m th e river' s name. The Cuttl e Lak e site s ar e s o clos e to Rain y Lak e tha t the y migh t easil y have bee n include d amon g th e border pictographs . Whe n A rt Colfe r dropped m e of f o n hi s way fro m For t Frances t o N y m Lake, Quetic o Park ,

Turtle River tortoise

69

early i n m y secon d summe r i n th e field, I alread y ha d some misgivings, for thoug h h e ha d taxie d alon g th e length o f the onl y clif f o n the lak e I had see n nothing , an d I was going in on th e strengt h o f vetera n timbe r cruiser B i l l Bergman' s memor y o f a site h e ha d notice d thirt y o r fort y years ago . I paddle d bac k an d fort h twic e along th e shor e befor e I notice d one little grou p on an obscure face . Look ing fo r a plac e thereafte r t o mak e a fire an d hea t a can of soup fo r lunch , I happene d t o loo k u p a t th e onl y angle fro m whic h I could have spotte d them—a mas s o f iro n stain s o n the rock hig h abov e th e water , normall y masked fro m vie w b y a smal l stan d

of trees . I scramble d u p th e fiftee n feet t o the ledge, pushe d throug h th e trees—and ther e wa s a beautifu l sight! U p t o thi s poin t ever y sit e ha d been easil y accessible fro m th e water . Here I ha d problems . First , ho w to build a scaffold t o reach th e paintings from th e ledge, withou t a n axe to cut poles o r rop e t o las h them . Second , how t o suppl y mysel f wit h wate r fo r tracing wit h n o containe r othe r tha n a smal l sou p tin! Here wer e th e first clea r example s of overlappin g I had seen. Here , too, was th e first, an d greatest, encroach ment o f th e slow-growin g Rinodina over a n extremel y stron g pigment . A n d her e I learne d tha t th e pigmen t

Cuttle Lak e site (see also page 61)

Cuttle Lake detail

could b e transparent; wher e the deer' s feet overla p th e cano e beneath , onl y the interpositio n o f lim e seepag e i n the on e cas e prove s whic h cam e firs t (see colou r plate , page 6 1 ) . Only a fe w o f th e symbol s wer e new: th e form s tha t on e migh t de scribe a s inverte d suns , an d th e mos t curious littl e demi-huma n centaur like abstraction . Two day s earlie r I ha d recorde d an equall y rewardin g site , o n th e narrows sout h o f Lowe r Manito u Lake som e twenty miles farther north . This ha d bee n recorde d b y Mclnne s some sevent y years befor e an d I hav e

Above: Mino r site, Cuttle Lake Below: Centaur-lik e abstrac t

71

Lower Manitou Narrows (see also page 61 )

Mclnnes' drawing , 189 0

72

reproduced hi s drawin g on thi s pag e for compariso n with wha t I saw . The centra l questio n raise d i s whether Mclnne s omitte d the strang e figure s o conspicuousl y absent i n hi s drawing, o r whethe r h e lacke d tim e to pu t i t i n afte r recordin g wha t h e considered mor e important . Th e square wit h th e headles s ma n is easily identified, an d th e viewe r wil l not e that there are onl y vagu e traces in my drawing o f th e chai n o f figure s Mclnnes show s t o th e right . Moving eastward , th e nex t hinter land sit e i s a mos t obscur e on e o n Lac de s Mill e Lacs . Almos t vanished, little ca n be see n excep t th e remnant s of a crud e littl e headles s huma n figure. Bu t Fre d Peters , a loca l resi dent wit h som e India n ancestry , ha d a stor y t o tel l abou t it s origin . Whe n a bo y wh o had gon e of f wit h anothe r lad faile d t o return , hi s fathe r wen t to th e conjure r whos e busines s i t wa s to locat e missin g things , o r persons , through hi s use o f the "shaking-tent. " " W e l l , " sai d Fre d "h e [th e con jurer] tol d what' s happened . Thos e boys i s no t dea d they' s living , bu t you'll neve r se e the m again . A fe w days after , thi s ma n wa s fishin g an d then h e see n th e drawing s o n th e rock. S o then h e though t th e bo y wa s in th e roc k there . The y stol e th e boys—Maymaygwayshiwuk d i d — canoe an d everything . A n d that, " Fred concluded , "i s prett y har d t o believe." Only twent y mile s southwes t o f Fort Willia m i s on e o f th e mos t indi vidual Shiel d site s o n record . A shor t winding strea m fro m Olive r Lak e takes on e int o tin y Picture d Lake , surely a mer e centur y ag o on e o f th e

Pictured Lake samples

most out-of-the-way spot s imaginable. The theor y tha t th e pictograph s wer e associated wit h importan t cano e routes break s dow n o n thi s exampl e completely. Here, excep t fo r th e Burntsid e Lake example , is the onl y roc k paint ing i n th e Shiel d wher e eye s an d mouth (o r nose ) ar e shown , o n a kind o f do g fac e tha t i s itsel f unique , and i s mad e mor e s o b y a tin y ma n with outstretche d hand s faintl y dis cernible betwee n th e ears . T o th e

right o n th e sam e fac e i s a circula r figure, wit h fee t bu t n o head . On Fac e I I i s the mos t remarkabl e painting o f a cano e I hav e ye t re corded, illustrate d below . I f w e could trus t proportion s a dugou t i s suggested. Mor e important , the heads , shoulders, an d elongate d torso s ar e clearly delineated , a s wel l a s a bo w and ster n paddle . O n thi s sam e fac e is th e nam e "simo " an d th e sam e vertical strok e betwee n reverse d brackets tha t we noted o n a Whitefis h

Bay site . I t i s a moo t questio n whether th e "simo " wa s painte d b y a semi-literat e coureur de hois livin g with th e loca l Indians , o r a n India n who ha d learne d i n hi s contac t wit h traders o r missionarie s s o t o rende r his ow n name . I n an y cas e th e for m of th e letters , fo r al l the backwar d S, is remarkabl y wel l executed . Finally ther e ar e th e serpen t an d the finger-smears . Agai n w e find eyes , in th e triangula r head. Wa s our hypothetical coureur de bois standin g b y with suggestions , o r di d h e perhap s paint al l these characters ? The Nipigon Country A t th e mout h o f th e swift , dee p Nipigon, almos t opposit e th e com munity o f R e d Rock , o n th e eas t shore o f th e rive r wher e i t i s alread y widening t o ente r Lak e Superio r i s the majo r pictograp h sit e o f th e area . Peter an d I reache d i t b y courtes y of a Grea t Lake s Timbe r tu g tha t charged an d hammere d dow n th e bulky Britis h Columbi a boo m logs , churning throug h tw o acre s o f boun -

cing pulpwoo d t o brin g us an d ou r canoe to the boom-beleaguere d shore . Scrambling u p a spik y deadfal l w e reached th e ledg e fro m whic h th e pictographs wer e painted , a har d stratum o f th e reddis h sedimentar y rock tha t outcrop s alon g thi s par t o f the Lak e Superio r Shore. Influenced, n o doubt , b y th e orderly arrangemen t o f th e roc k layers, th e symbol s appea r i n nea t succession alon g some fift y fee t abov e the ledge—extraordinaril y lik e a n arithmetician's nightmare . Th e squat ting figure tha t wa s painte d fro m th e shore belo w i s surel y a Maymay gwayshi; th e mor e s o a s Lak e N i p i gon Indian s informe d m e o f th e ol d belief i n an undergroun d channe l that led fro m underneat h thi s figure directly throug h t o Lak e Nipigon . This accounte d fo r th e Maymay gwayshi bein g see n u p i n G u l l Ba y with hug e trou t freshl y caugh t i n Lake Superior ! Notable here , too , ar e tw o ex amples o f th e reverse d bracket s en closing a vertica l bar . Anothe r

Nipigon Rive r Maymaygwayshi

example of this occurs far t o th e north on Wunnumi n Lak e i n a contem porary lichenoglyp h o f whic h Georg e Hamilton o f Land s an d Forest s sen t me colou r photographs . The pin-pointin g o f fou r o f th e Nipigon countr y site s I ow e t o Keit h Denis o f Por t Arthur , th e indefatig able historian-bushman and conservationist whos e cano e ha s bee n up ended ove r mor e portage s nort h o f Superior tha n anyon e else' s I kno w or hav e hear d of . I t wa s h e wh o gav e me m y firs t repor t o f th e Orien t Bay

site, an d confirme d th e report , b y Mallery ou t o f Mclnnes , o f a sit e o n Echo Rock , o n th e northwester n shore o f vas t Lak e Nipigon . I a m indebted t o him , too , fo r othe r site s remaining t o b e visite d i n the hinter land wes t o f Lake Nipigon , a s wel l a s one o n th e Superio r shor e sout h o f Agawa i n M i ca Bay . Site #33, onl y a mile sout h of what was onc e th e Princ e o f Wales ' fishin g lodge o n Orien t Bay , wa s a rea l puzzler. Besid e a handfu l o f wha t were obviousl y India n abstraction s i n

Echo Rock , Lak e Nipigo n

Kaiashk Ba y

red wer e th e fade d outline s o f a square-tail trout , blac k alon g th e dorsal outline , whit e alon g th e belly . I recorde d i t wit h reservations , con fused b y th e naturalis m o f th e colou r and proportions . I n m y repor t I summarized i t a s "influenced " b y European standards . A yea r later , through Keit h Denis , I talke d t o th e artist's niece , wh o wel l remembere d the paintin g i n it s prime— a hand some renditio n o f th e trou t i n ful l colour, tha t ha d bee n retouche d fro m year t o year . Th e artis t ha d n o India n blood, merel y summere d i n th e Ba y between 191 2 an d 1924 . Sinc e the n I hav e eye d an y colour but th e India n red wit h doubl e suspicion! 76

In th e summe r o f '5 9 throug h th e most welcom e co-operatio n o f th e District Foreste r a t Geraldton , Pete r and I wer e passenger s o n th e spacious, diesel-powere d Land s an d Forests work-boa t whos e bea t wa s Lake Nipigon . Headin g northwest w e crossed th e bi g lake t o Gibraltar-lik e Echo Rock , a grea t mas s o f granit e that pyramid s u p fro m th e shore , then drop s shee r t o th e lake . The pictograph s ar e weathere d al most t o th e disappearin g poin t eithe r by ic e actio n o r b y exfoliation . Th e centre o f interest , a s wel l a s th e leas t undecipherable, strongl y suggeste d t o me a n Indian' s impressio n of a Y o r k boat, wit h a mas t amidship , a sug gestion o f stays , an d tw o plainl y visible crewmen . A s th e reade r probably knows , Lak e Nipigo n Indians wer e i n contac t wit h th e French fu r traders , notabl y Radisson and Groseilliers , a s earl y a s th e mid seventeenth century . Th e evidenc e i s startling a t Gul l Bay , where I talke d with heavil y bearde d blue-eye d me n whose nativ e tongu e wa s Ojibwa . Just sout h o f G u l l (o r Kaiashk ) Bay th e shor e i s line d wit h thre e o r four mile s o f clif f averagin g twent y feet i n height . Norma n Esqueg a ra n us alon g thi s shor e i n hi s smal l fish boat t o recor d thre e smal l sites , al l illustrated o n these pages. Her e agai n I wa s o n Mclnnes ' trail . Ye t h e wa s either i n a hurry , jus t jottin g dow n sketches a s h e went , o r h e ha d no t developed the mor e careful rendering s of separat e group s characteristi c o f his R e d Roc k an d Lowe r Manito u and Dryberr y drawings. That th e Ech o Roc k boa t wa s i n tended fo r a larg e on e i s evidence d

here, fo r i n thes e two-ma n canoe s men wit h arm s upraise d i n th e same manne r ar e fa r large r i n pro portion t o th e canoe s tha n th e cre w of th e Ech o Roc k boat . I t i s jus t possible tha t a widel y travelle d N i p i gon Indian , seeing—le t u s say—th e newly launche d "Griffin " o n Lak e Huron wit h it s hairy-face d crew , thought h e wa s starin g a t a startlin g new manifestatio n o f th e Maymay gwayshi. Th e strang e thought s tha t passed throug h th e min d o f suc h a man o n suc h a n encounte r w e ca n never know ; but lik e al l men he woul d rationalize wha t h e sa w i n term s o f what h e kne w o r believed . A cas e migh t b e mad e fo r th e theory tha t th e comin g o f th e hair y European migh t hav e influence d th e aboriginal concep t o f th e Maymay gwayshi. Alon g th e borderland s wes t of Superio r thes e "rockmen " hav e hairy faces , an d agai n amon g th e Montagnais-Naskapi of northern Quebec. Th e northwester n Ojibw a spea k only o f fleshles s noses , an d th e M a n i toba Cre e o f dwarfs . Wha t spoil s th e picture i s Jenness' s referenc e t o th e

belief o f Parr y Islan d Ojibw a i n a smooth-face d Maymaygwayshi — though thei r bodie s wer e though t o f as hairy. The Northeast Superior Shore The prevailin g wind s blowin g across th e world' s larges t fresh-wate r sea pil e grea t wave s b y summe r an d

Kaiashk Ba y examples

The Agawa site, Lake Superior Provincial Park

Courtesy, the Telegram, Toronto

ice masse s b y winte r o n th e rock s that lin e a rugge d an d little-travelled shore. Ye t thi s wa s th e rout e o f th e fur brigade s a centur y an d a hal f ago ; and th e Puckasa w pits , recentl y ex cavated b y Norma n Emerso n o f th e University o f Toronto , testif y tha t men live d o n thes e shore s thousand s of year s ago . Wit h th e openin g o f Highway 1 7 flood s o f th e wilderness hungry ar e comin g north , lightin g their fire s wher e voyageur s an d Indians li t theirs tw o centurie s o r tw o millennia ago . Of fiv e possibl e pictograp h site s along thi s shor e onl y two hav e s o fa r been foun d an d onl y tha t a t Agaw a recorded. Recording th e Agaw a sit e wa s th e dramatic clima x o f m y secon d sum mer i n th e field . Fou r o f us drov e north fro m Saul t St e Mari e o n a Saturday mornin g i n mid-Septembe r to M i k e Kezek' s "spread " a t th e mouth of the Montrea l River: Gordo n Longley, Assistan t Distric t Forester , Dave Carter, Sault Star feature writer , his wif e A n n , and I . I n Mike' s sturd y lake cruise r w e watche d th e Lak e Superior shor e g o by : th e lon g smooth curv e o f sand-edge d Agaw a Bay—calm i n a n off-shor e wind—th e cluster o f rock y island s of f th e promontory t o the nort h behin d whic h Agawa Roc k la y hidden , an d t o th e west th e vas t swee p o f Superior , broken onl y b y th e lo w mas s o f Montreal Island . A t Agaw a eve n i n th e cal m th e water wa s restles s besid e th e slopin g ledge unde r th e shee r clif f an d M i k e anchored hi s boa t wel l away . W e commandeered a leak y punt fro m th e fish-camp o n a nearb y island , an d

paddled ashor e wit h on e oar , a piec e of plank , an d a bailin g can . Then , a s my diar y relates , " I stared . A hug e animal wit h creste d bac k an d horne d head. Ther e wa s n o mistakin g him . A n d there , a ma n o n a horse—an d there fou r suns—an d there , canoes . I fel t th e shiver s coursin g m y bac k from nap e t o tail—th e Schoolcraf t site! Inscriptio n Rock ! M y fourtee n months' searc h wa s over. " Soon the ledg e wa s aliv e with flash ing camer a bulb s an d bus y feet . Gor don too k charg e o f measurements , Dave too k rol l afte r rol l o f film, A n n carrie d things , whil e I plastere d pictograph afte r pictograp h wit h ricepaper an d traced , traced . Offshore , M i k e anxiousl y watche d th e ma noeuvrings o f Mishipizhi w i n th e form o f a n ugl y rock tha t loome d ou t of th e crysta l depth s uncomfortabl y close t o hi s anchorag e swing . We wer e shocke d b y th e crud e initials splashe d i n blac k pain t ove r the centra l figure; onl y recentl y I learned the y wer e th e wor k o f a fisherman's teen-ag e daughter . Bu t there wer e tw o consolations . Sh e ha d dated he r "work " 1937 , an d alread y the blac k wa s weatherin g int o oblivion, th e Indian' s re d showin g through beneath . We hav e ye t t o identif y th e Ching wauk wh o gav e Schoolcraf t th e bar k drawings an d interpretation s o f thi s site. It migh t have bee n Shinguaconse , widely know n warrio r i n th e 181 2 campaign, bu t mor e likel y Hatcher' s learned Indian , Shingvauk , "wh o un derstood pictography. " I f th e latter , we ca n mor e easil y understan d th e discrepancies betwee n hi s memor y drawing an d th e original , especiall y 79

"The fabulous night panther and great serpent"

Does symbol to righ t of horse signify a turtle?

where h e adde d detail s missin g in th e Agawa original . We offe r her e for compariso n wha t seem t o b e th e relevan t pictograph s on th e Agaw a sit e an d a reproductio n of Chingwauk' s drawing . Chingwauk spok e o f a south-shor e shaman-warrior name d Myeengun , "who wa s skille d i n th e Med a [miday]" an d thu s acquire d th e influenc e and prestig e tha t enable d hi m t o organize a wa r part y "whic h crosse d Lake Superio r i n canoes . . . . Th e results o f the expeditio n [ar e painted ] on th e fac e o f a roc k a t Wazhenau bikiniguning Augawon g . . . o r In scription Rock , o n th e nort h shore s of Lak e Superior , Canada . . . . Th e passage was mad e i n five canoes . . . . The firs t wa s le d b y Kishkemunasee , or th e Kingfisher , ( 6 ) . . . . The cross ing occupie d thre e days , depicte d b y the figure o f thre e sun s unde r a sk y and a rainbow , ( 7 ) . . . . Numbe r 8 is th e Mikenok , o r land-tortois e . . . which appear s t o impl y . . . reachin g land. Numbe r 9 i s the horse . . . . Th e Meda i s depicted o n his back crowne d with feather s an d holdin g u p hi s drum-stick . . . use d i n magi c rites . Number 1 0 i s th e Migazee , or eagle , the prim e symbo l o f courage . I n Number 1 1 h e record s th e ai d h e received fro m th e fabulou s nigh t panther . . . and i n Number 1 2 a lik e service i s rendere d t o th e credi t o f the grea t serpent. " There ar e severa l discrepancies tha t space prevent s m e fro m discussin g in

Symbols at site suggesting "four days over th e water"

Schoolcraft's reproduction of Chingwauk' s recollection on birch bar k of th e Agawa pictographs

Detail of canoe group: upper canoe is "led" by crane, third canoe by a flyingbird

detail. However , Copway' s brie f i n ventory interpret s a n uprigh t arch — often doubled—a s "th e sky, " an d th e inverted arc h a s "th e water. " I t i s no t too difficul t t o understan d Ching wauk's unconsciou s conversio n o f "four day s ove r th e water " t o "thre e days unde r th e sky. " O r perhap s i n Chingwauk's "book " th e arc h migh t serve fo r eithe r sk y o r wate r accord ing to th e context . Since th e openin g o f Highwa y 1 7 north o f th e So o th e Lak e Superio r Provincial Par k staf f ha s buil t a n access roa d an d stairwa y s o tha t th e public ma y reac h an d vie w th e sit e for themselve s b y land , a t leas t o n calmer day s whe n th e rock s ar e dry . Potential visitor s ar e advise d t o tak e time t o loo k carefully ; i t i s eas y t o walk pas t som e o f thes e painting s without noticin g them : especiall y when on e ha s hal f hi s attentio n d i verted b y Lak e Superio r roller s lap ping a t th e ledge . "Sant a Clau s an d his reindeer " (a s the y wer e first re ported t o me ) ar e rathe r fa r alon g and difficul t t o reach . Th e secon d version o f Mishipizhi w i s o n a ledg e that ca n b e reache d onl y b y water . I strongl y doub t whethe r th e dee r have an y connectio n with Myeengun' s paintings. Ther e is , indeed, a natural ism her e tha t w e mus t trave l al l th e way t o La c la Croix t o duplicate . Th e reclining deer , i n m y opinion , i s th e 82

Second version of Mishipizhiw

masterpiece i n this regard— a difficul t subject rendere d almos t delicatel y i n a clums y medium . Whateve r thi s group ma y mean , th e form s sho w a real deligh t i n the subjec t fo r it s ow n sake, an d th e styl e owe s nothin g t o other roc k paintings . Th e peculia r boat-like sleig h wit h on e occupan t again ha s n o paralle l i n othe r Shiel d paintings. The Agaw a hors e reproduce d i n line o n pag e 8 0 no t onl y indicate s that Myeengu n was a poo r horseman , but provide s a majo r datin g clue . I t is recorde d tha t th e first hors e arrive d in Quebe c i n 1647 , followe d b y four teen mor e i n 1665 , dubbe d b y th e Indians "moos e o f France. " Whe n did th e first militar y horses appea r i n the Grea t Lake s region ? O r ha d Myeengun bee n t o th e plains ? But fo r th e pictograph-hunte r th e burning questio n i s th e locatio n o f the sout h shor e site . Schoolcraf t places i t "o n th e bank s o f th e Nama bin, o r Car p River , abou t hal f a day' s march fro m it s mouth. " Thi s fits th e Carp Rive r i n Porcupin e Mountai n State Park , Michigan , wher e a seven mile lon g escarpmen t o f a sor t o f sandstone rear s mor e tha n 20 0 fee t above th e roug h littl e river . Othe r

Detail of Mishipizhiw, serpents, and canoe (disfiguring initials were not included i n painting )

Reclining deer (half-size)

Carp river s alon g th e sout h shor e seem less promising . The Eastern Hinterland The countr y borderin g th e Grea t Lakes i s bi g an d rough , an d site s tend t o thi n out . Inlan d th e lake s increase i n frequenc y a s th e countr y scales down ; bu t no t til l w e ge t int o the Gogama-Timagam i areas d o w e find th e thic k spatterin g o f lake s s o characteristic o f northwester n O n tario. In th e northwes t corne r o f thi s hinterland, o n th e ver y edg e o f th e Shield, I recorde d a modes t sit e a t Terrier Lake . " A poor sit e . . . tw o handprints, a possibl e human , a fe w dots an d lichen-spotte d abstractions, " my note s su m up . Lumbering ha s bee n goin g o n i n

the regio n for man y years , an d a de pressing numbe r o f sites , notabl y those a t Manitowik , Horwood , an d Lady Evely n lakes , hav e bee n drowned ou t b y lumbe r dams . F o r tunately on e o f th e majo r site s i s stil l accessible, th e Fair y Poin t picto graphs o n Lak e Missinaibi . This wa s th e sit e I ha d trie d t o sketch fro m th e cano e o n a tri p wit h my wife . Seventee n year s late r I wa s back fo r a mor e seriou s effort . Vinc e Creighton, wild-lif e authorit y wit h a strong urge fo r archaeology , was wit h me, an d Harr y Tuvi , th e loca l Land s and Forest s ranger . The wate r wa s eve n roughe r tha n I ha d see n i t o n th e previou s visit . According t o m y diar y Tuv i drov e u s close, "spatterin g spra y an d wallow ing i n the dee p troughs. A s we neare d the cliffsid e i t wa s obviousl y inhos pitable, bu t w e wen t clos e an d I jumped o n a wet , slopin g roc k wit h the rop e i n hand. A jer k o n th e rop e from th e boat—an d i t wa s le t go , o r go in . S o I wa s maroone d fo r fiv e minutes til l the y coul d manoeuvr e the boa t clos e enough fo r m e t o jum p back." Ou t o n th e railwa y year s be fore the y ha d warne d Iren e an d m e of frequen t drowning s off Fairy Point, of a bi g bul l moos e tha t ha d bee n "sucked down " at th e place . Whe n a brisk win d blow s acros s th e lon g southwest arm , buildin g u p bi g waves that bounce of f the roc k wal l t o mak e an ugl y cross-chop , th e tale s don' t sound s o tall . Faces V I an d I X ar e illustrate d here. O n th e latte r i t i s no t difficul t to identif y a caribou ; th e othe r animals ar e mor e debatable . Th e i n triguing creatur e wit h ope n mouth ,

Detail of Face DC Lake Missinaibi

Fairy Point, Face VI

single, curve d horn , an d somewha t reptilian bod y I woul d gues s t o b e a rendering o f Mishipizhiw . O n th e other fac e ther e i s littl e tha t ca n b e understood. Most o f th e symbol s show n o n these facing pages are mystifying , too . Is a feathe r head-dres s indicate d o n the huma n figure , o r ray s o f power ? The littl e moose show s a n attemp t (a s a sor t o f afterthought? ) t o rende r th e two farthe r legs . Th e whit e crosse s (not show n here ) displa y th e onl y white pigment outside of the Namakan site. O n Fac e V I I I ther e i s a curiou s little figure tha t remind s m e o f th e "centaur" o n pag e 71 . Th e figure with th e thre e tall y mark s a t th e to p suggests a horne d man , bu t unfortu nately i s to o vagu e fo r an y reliabl e impressions.

Fairy Point, Face IV

I hav e alread y mentione d Jac k Ennis, th e prospecto r wit h th e storie s of Viking s o n Lak e Superior . I me t him o n m y first paddl e i n t o Lak e Missinaibi, an d i t was he , o n learning that I wa s a n artist , wh o suggeste d that I loo k fo r th e painting s o n Fair y Point. O n a late r occasio n whe n w e had a fe w day s togethe r i n a minin g camp eas t o f Hero n Bay , the subjec t came u p o f th e dee p erosio n fissures in th e rock s alon g the Superio r shore . It wa s then h e tol d m e o f Indian traditions o f havin g seen "red-haire d me n in bi g canoe s wh o use d t o paddl e right int o th e crack s i n the rocks. " I suspec t tha t th e ide a o f re d hai r came fro m Jack' s urg e t o prov e th e Viking stories . I f on e ask s a n Ojibw a a leading question like " D i d the y hav e red hair?" , th e answe r i s al l to o

likely t o b e a courteou s affirmative , and i f th e interviewe r i s obviousl y naive a n India n wil l ge t som e quie t pleasure ou t o f agreein g wit h any thing h e come s ou t with . I n an y cas e I hav e foun d tha t th e Indian s I hav e interviewed ar e muc h les s concerne d than I wit h suc h details ; thei r verba l descriptions, lik e th e pictographs , take i t fo r grante d tha t th e audienc e will d o som e filling-in o n it s own . I hav e ye t t o fin d a n India n wh o i s not puzzle d b y th e nam e o f Lak e Missinaibi. Th e Ojibw a prefi x "miss" or "mish" mean s larg e o r great , bu t the las t tw o syllable s see m meaning less. It' s a lon g shot , o f course , bu t my ow n theor y i s tha t "Missinaibi " is a n abbreviatio n o f mu-zx-nupay-hi-gun, a wor d Cano n Sanderso n of R e d Lak e gav e m e a s th e bes t

Fairy Point, Face VIII

Ojibwa fo r a painte d pictograph . I n any case , s o man y thing s ca n happe n from th e tim e th e surveyo r ask s a local India n fo r th e nam e o f th e lak e to th e tim e whe n i t appear s i n prin t on a topographica l map , tha t th e wonder is that so many are intelligible . A n exampl e o f ho w easil y on e may jum p t o th e wron g conclusio n is provided b y th e nam e o f th e nearb y railway statio n an d Pos t Office , M i ssanabie. Th e assumptio n I mad e twenty year s ag o tha t thi s wa s a variant spellin g of Missinaibi was cor rected b y a n old-time r wh o recalle d that the plac e was name d afte r a Mis s Anabie, a popula r construction-cam p nurse durin g th e buildin g o f th e rail way. One woul d expect , i n th e vicinit y of suc h a larg e sit e a s tha t o n Fair y

Point, t o find othe r smalle r ones . I n nearby Littl e Missinaib i ther e ar e three such sites; and Manitowik Lake , where anothe r sit e ha s bee n drowne d out, i s onl y a shor t ho p t o th e south east. However, flying over the countr y from Chapleau , I coul d se e ver y fe w lakes wher e site s wer e eve n possible ; and i n fac t ove r th e pas t thre e year s no furthe r report s hav e com e in. The Littl e Missinaib i site s wer e re ported b y W. T. (Bill ) Hueston , then District Foreste r a t Chapleau , wh o took a stron g interes t i n them . M y diary refer s t o th e scal e ma p h e sen t me "o n whic h al l thre e site s wer e exactly pinpointed , s o ther e wa s n o

trouble bu t th e wind , whic h mad e Site #76 particularl y wet to wor k on." Site #7 4 wa s no t to o exciting . I t is interesting , though, t o compar e th e clumsy huma n figure o n i t wit h th e tiny Maymaygwaysh i typ e o n #7 5 underneath a n enigmati c abstrac t combination. The triangl e of hinterland enclosed between Whit e River, Saul t Ste Marie , and Sudbur y i s strangel y empt y o f pictograph sites , o r eve n rumour s o f such. M y wife an d I searche d vainl y for a petroglyp h sit e sout h o f Hig h Falls nea r th e Vermilli a Rive r o n a confusing serie s o f roc k ridge s jus t south o f tha t river . B i l l FIrinovitch , who wen t wit h us , ha d see n i t twice, while huntin g i n th e fall . Farther east , i n th e ver y hear t o f the easter n hinterlan d ar e th e Nint h Lake an d Scotia Lak e sites , which ar e illustrated o n th e opposit e page . Ninth Lake , o n th e Eas t Spanis h River i s a shor t air-ho p eas t o f Biscotasing, fo r severa l year s th e home o f Archie Belaney , the fantasti c character wh o a s a smal l bo y i n England wante d to be a n Indian when he gre w up—and did , as "Gre y O w l . " One ca n stil l hea r colourfu l storie s about hi m a t Bisc o wher e h e mad e his picturesqu e transitio n fro m whit e trapper t o "Indian. " The curren t wate r leve l a t Nint h Lake wa s s o lo w tha t th e ti p o f m y steel tape , whe n I stoo d i n the cano e stretching it up a t arm' s lengt h barely reached th e uppe r limi t o f th e picto graphs; an d toehold s wer e to o sli m for climbing . S o I coul d onl y measur e and sketc h th e paintings , an d ha d t o take m y photographs fro m a n oblique angle. Thi s i s th e sit e where , throug h

Little

Missinaibi siteo

fsymbols

Scotia Lake detail

no one' s faul t i n particular , I wa s stranded alon e fo r thirty-si x hours , with m y cano e fo r a shelter , a tar p for a bedroll , a smal l ti n o f sou p fo r meals, and—b y luck— a smal l bottl e of instan t coffee ! This site , an d on e o n th e Uppe r French Rive r tha t w e hav e ye t t o discuss, wer e bot h beautifull y pin pointed fo r m e b y A l Supple, wood s inspector fo r K . V . P . , a well-know n pulp an d pape r firm . The Scoti a Lak e sit e wa s reporte d as earl y a s th e fal l o f '57 , bu t i t wa s three year s late r befor e Pete r an d I , with Chuc k Thompso n a t th e con trols, fle w i n t o Cam p Friday , o n Lake Onaping , wher e w e me t ou r correspondent, Sti g Stromsholm . In -

Comparison of symbols

terviewing a n India n woma n who wa s working fo r him , I aske d he r i f sh e knew anythin g abou t th e Maymay gwayshi. "That' s a n anima l tha t comes ou t o f th e roc k wher e th e pictures are, " sh e tol d me . The Nint h Lak e sit e offer s u s a neat littl e grou p o f symbols : th e sor t of formalize d drawings—includin g the thunderbir d motif—tha t lea d on e to suspec t tha t the y migh t hav e bee n derived from quil l wor k o n moccasin s or baskets . I t i s interestin g t o com pare th e uppe r righ t symbo l wit h a rather simila r on e o n Painte d Nar rows, an d I hav e invented , t o sharpe n the similarity , a possibl e transitio n form. Ye t on e mus t b e suspiciou s o f such theoretica l ingenuities .

Ferris Lake pictographs

The Scoti a Lake sit e i s save d fro m a certai n monoton y o f rudimentar y forms—perhaps human—b y th e rayed head . I n Schoolcraft' s inventor y we fin d a "warrio r bol d a s th e sun " that is not dissimila r (p. 89) . It wa s earl y i n th e summe r o f '5 9 that Irene , Peter , Christopher , an d I pitched ou r ten t on th e desolat e shor e of Uppe r Grass y Lake , deep i n th e Gogama forest . Her e a disastrou s fir e had lef t onl y a fe w gaunt , weather bleached pin e stick s standin g abov e a tangl e o f deadfal l an d secon d growth. A stron g win d whippe d u p the fin e san d tha t onc e ha d bee n covered wit h fores t humus , til l ther e was san d o n ou r bedroll s an d eve n between ou r teeth . Acros s th e lak e lay a n Indian' s cabin , wit h th e morn ing's was h flappin g i n th e win d against a backgroun d o f scrub . Peter an d I pu t th e cano e int o th e water an d foun d on e littl e site; mostly tally mark s an d finger-draggings , bu t there wa s on e littl e Maymaygway shi. W e ha d hoped , drivin g in , t o 90

borrow a Lands an d Forest s boa t an d kicker a t Ronda , bu t th e onl y avail able on e ha d jus t broke n down . S o we decide d t o paddl e i n t o Ferri s Lake, variousl y describe d a s seven , nine, an d eleve n mile s away . I t turned ou t t o b e fifteen , followin g th e maddeningly tortuou s curve s o f a sluggish stream , o r crossin g swamp y lakes wher e shiftin g gras s island s made th e ma p useless . " A t last, " announce s m y diary , "Ferris Lake , an d dow n it s lengt h t o find th e site . A mos t peculia r one : little blocks of slat y schis t wit h figure s and symbols— a horse(? ) an d a dinosaur (! ) an d a huma n figur e o r two. Fortunatel y I coul d wor k fro m a ledg e an d recordin g wen t fast. " It wa s a wear y cre w tha t wave d to th e agin g Ojibw a coupl e outsid e the lon e cabi n o n Uppe r Grass y a s we paddle d pas t thei r plac e i n th e gathering darkness . Earl y th e nex t morning, whe n I wen t dow n t o th e lake t o wash , ther e wa s Thoma s Nephew, ou r neighbour , wearin g th e

Ferris Lake pictographs friendliest o f smiles . I ha d on e mor e site t o recor d o n thi s lake , an d aske d him t o g o along . "It wa s a jo y t o hav e a n India n i n the bow—a n unusuall y goo d canoe man, eve n fo r a n Indian . A n d I wa s lucky t o hav e hi m along , fo r mos t o f the sit e wa s expose d t o th e wave s an d we ha d a wil d tim e takin g tracing s and measurements . Whe n I ra n ou t of fil m i t wa s to o we t an d roug h t o try reloading . So , bac k t o camp — Nephew's sixty-nine-year-ol d stroke s as powerfu l a s a youn g man's , i n a quick rhyth m that tire d me. . . . Talk ing t o Nephe w I learne d tha t h e por tages seve n mile s an d paddle s twent y to Gogam a fo r Churc h services . He ha s los t al l knowledg e o f Ojibw a beliefs, apparentl y . . . kne w nothin g of th e Maymaygwayshi. " Until I succee d i n pin-pointin g a rumoured sit e o n Lak e Abitib i th e Gogama cluste r wil l remain the closes t

Diamond Lake site

to th e Quebe c boundary . Insid e Que bec, nea r Lak e Kippawa , I hav e a reliable repor t o f petroglyphs. Farthe r east, i n th e uppe r watershe d o f th e St. Mauric e River , Jacque s Belan d has reporte d a numbe r o f roc k paint ings. Doubtless , th e Shiel d woodland s of tha t provinc e contai n man y more . A definit e report , vi a Macfi e an d others, o f a sit e a t Diamon d Lak e took u s i n t o Lak e Timagam i a fe w days befor e w e di d the Gogam a sites . Peter an d I fle w i n t o Bea r Islan d where w e interviewe d eighty-year-old George Turner , so n o f th e forme r Hudson's Ba y Compan y factor , on e of th e mos t knowledgeabl e me n i n th e area, thoug h onl y par t Indian . Confirming th e Diamon d Lake site, he als o pin-pointe d thre e site s o n Lake Timagam i itself . Ou r Beave r dropped us of f a t Diamon d Lake jus t long enoug h t o d o a jo b o n it . Th e rock her e wa s a fine-texture d off white quartzite , a n idea l backgroun d for th e pictographs . Lak e Diamon d had bee n flooded, too , judgin g by th e one group that was largely underwater . A clums y heron , th e vestige s o f a possible Maymaygwayshi, an d a number o f stic k figure s appea r o n thi s site. Th e circl e wit h centr e marke d we hav e alread y see n a t Cuttl e Lake . Both Schoolcraf t an d Copwa y i n clude i t i n thei r inventories : th e former a s " a symbo l o f time, " th e latter a s "spirit! "

Site #80 , east of Elliot t Island, Upper Frenc h Rive r

George Turner' s Bea r Islan d sit e revealed onl y a barel y discernibl e triangle an d a fe w tall y marks . H e took u s i n hi s boa t t o anothe r islan d site; bu t al l w e foun d wa s wher e i t had been . Th e rock s tha t bor e th e paintings wer e gone . Thenc e w e headed int o th e northwes t ar m o f Timagami fo r on e o f th e surprise s o f the summer . I wa s puzzle d whe n w e turne d i n and lande d a t a nic e cam p sit e o n the wes t shore ; eve n mor e s o whe n George climbed out, walke d to a little cedar tha t gre w clos e t o th e water' s edge, go t dow n o n hi s hand s an d knees an d peere d throug h th e branches. I n a momen t h e turne d back t o u s a grinnin g face , an d beckoned. Thrustin g m y ow n fac e through th e branche s a t wate r level , with on e elbo w i n th e water , I sa w the India n painting—o n a littl e roc k plane o f a smal l boulder !

Voyageur Highway: East On th e voyageu r rout e alon g th e north shore s o f Lak e Superio r an d Huron an d u p th e Frenc h Rive r t o Lake Nipissin g on e woul d expec t t o find a fai r numbe r o f sites . T o dat e I hav e recorde d five, foun d anothe r at M i c a Ba y that Keit h Deni s tracke d down fo r me , an d hav e go t win d o f two more . Both th e Killarne y Ba y sit e o n Georgian Bay , and th e M i c a Ba y on e south o f Agawa hav e a unique featur e in common : th e us e o f yello w an d black alon g wit h th e usua l red . A t both site s som e symbol s hav e a non Indian look , especiall y thos e wher e black i s involved . A t Killarne y whit e pigment ha s bee n mixe d wit h bot h yellow an d black . The most tempting theory i s to sup pose tha t th e voyageurs—especiall y those wit h India n bloo d an d belief s —tried thei r han d a t roc k painting . Lumbermen ma y have , too ; fo r a t Willisville, jus t inlan d from Georgia n Bay, ther e ar e ta r paintings , clearl y non-Indian, o n Alligato r Rock . The Collin s Ba y sit e i s i n th e con ventional re d again , o n th e rock-lined inner passag e that th e voyageur s use d when Georgia n Ba y go t to o roug h for comfort . Her e i s a n anima l hea d

Northwest arm, Lake Timagam i

as bodiles s a s tha t o n th e Quetic o Lake site . Her e agai n i s ou r ubiquit ous—though somewha t battered — thunderbird, an d tall y marks, I should judge, rathe r tha n th e alternativ e canoe. Farther east , I ha d n o succes s i n finding "a n astonishin g serpent " re ferred t o i n Harmon' s Journal, pre sumed t o b e i n th e vicinit y o f Grondines Point . I n '5 9 I fle w ove r the area , a complex labyrinth of small islands an d shoals , al l seemin g t o shelve gentl y int o th e water . Eastward, th e voyageur s ascende d the Frenc h Rive r t o Lak e Nipissing , crossed tha t lake , an d portage d int o the Ottaw a watershed . I n al l tha t distance, s o far , I hav e recorde d onl y

Site near Killarney Bay

three site s an d hav e ye t t o receiv e definite report s o f an y others . Sit e #33, jus t abov e Recolle t Falls, faintl y displays a smal l huma n figure an d one othe r vagu e mark . Site s #8 1 an d #82 wer e recorde d throug h th e hos pitality—and original report—of Joh n and B i l l Kennedy . Bot h site s ar e a t the uppe r en d o f th e Frenc h River , not fa r wes t o f Frank s Ba y o n Lak e Nipissing. Th e painting s o n "Gibral tar," a s i t i s calle d locally , ar e badl y weathered, an d littl e ca n b e de ciphered bu t a fe w canoes . Sit e #80 , a bar e hal f mil e wes t o f Keyston e Lodge, i s i n clear , stron g pigment . Only th e thunderbird , turne d o n it s side, i s somewha t obscure d b y lichen . The stic k figure s remin d u s o f thos e

at Diamon d and Scoti a Lakes. Among the other s ar e a canoe , a pig-lik e bear, an d a likel y fish. Southeast Ontario Southward fro m Lak e Nipissin g the Shiel d formatio n reache s a s fa r as th e Sever n Rive r t o th e west , th e Kawartha Lake s i n th e centre , an d to th e eas t break s throug h th e St . Lawrence Lowland s t o for m th e Thousand Isles . I n al l this are a onl y three pictograp h site s hav e bee n re corded: on e grou p o f petroglyph s north o f Ston y Lak e b y Sweetma n i n 1955, an d tw o roc k paintin g sites , fifty mile s east , o n Lak e Mazinaw . A survey o f th e lake s i n thi s regio n would probabl y reveal an unsuspecte d proportion o f raised water level s fro m lumbering operation s tha t g o bac k i n some district s a ful l centur y an d more. Lingering reports o f rock paint ings i n th e Muskoka-Parr y Soun d

area s o fa r hav e bee n impossibl e t o localize. Th e on e clea r repor t I hav e is o f paintings o n a rock o n th e nort h shore o f Lak e Simco e that brok e of f and fel l int o th e wate r i n 1914 . The B o n Echo sit e o n Lak e M a z i naw, however , ampl y compensate s a t least i n exten t fo r othe r site s tha t may hav e vanishe d i n th e area . Th e air vie w o n th e opposit e pag e show s the koo-chi-ching, o r "Little-lake-at the-end-of-a-big-lake" o f Lak e M a z i naw, an d th e souther n en d o f th e main lake . The sand y spi t w e se e i s a part o f th e B o n Ech o property , for merly owne d b y Merril l Dennison , now a Provincia l Park . Th e hug e granite escarpmen t o n whic h th e paintings appea r i s visibl e o n th e right, averagin g 10 0 fee t i n height fo r a ful l mile . I n number s o f painting s as wel l a s fo r shee r bul k B o n Ech o has n o riva l i n Ontario . I n Jun e o f '58 I recorde d a hundre d an d thirty -

Lake Mazina w "Rabbit-man"

Courtesy, Ontario Department of Lands and Forests

five symbols , scattere d ove r twenty seven faces . Site #38 , o n Littl e Mazinaw , roughly a mile an d a half sout h o f th e main site , ha s thre e faces . The followin g page s illustrat e onl y about a fift h o f th e actua l painting s on th e site , al l easil y accessibl e b y canoe. O f thos e omitte d man y ar e either s o weathere d o r s o repetitiv e that th e viewe r woul d fin d the m o f minor interest . Handprint s ar e en tirely absent , canoe s ar e rare , an d the tendencie s towar d geometric types

of abstraction s s o marke d tha t we ar e tempted t o as k whethe r th e painting s are no t th e produc t o f a cultur e quit e distinct fro m thos e farthe r west . They seem older , too , i n s o fa r a s a larg e number hav e bee n weathere d t o near disappearance. Ther e ca n b e n o reasonable doub t tha t th e lake' s present nam e (variousl y spelle d i n early reference s a s "Massanog, " "Massinaw," etc. ) i s from th e Algon kian wor d fo r "picture, " "writing, " "painting," "book " ( mu-zi-nu-higun).

95

Lake Mazinaw , Face I T

Site #99, sout h o f Devil' s Bay , Lake o f th e Wood s

The colou r reproductio n o n th e opposite pag e i s fro m Fac e II , th e second mos t northerly , on e o f th e strongest i n colour, an d a s mystifying as any . Th e weir d centra l figur e i s surely n o nativ e animal , althoug h th e shoulder-neck are a i s to o badl y weathered fo r th e viewe r t o b e abl e to mak e ou t th e origina l outline . Th e strong suggestio n o f clove n hoof s i s unique. Not e th e smal l anima l be neath thi s one' s belly—no t identi fiable either , bu t fa r mor e typica l o f the othe r animal s o n th e site . 'Even th e canoe , i f w e s o interpre t the lowe r par t o f th e painting , i s

Lake Mazinaw site

Face VII

Face II

strikingly differen t fro m other s else where. A r e th e diagona l stroke s in tended fo r arms , o r paddles , o r something else ? A n d wha t abou t th e strange littl e anima l t o th e lowe r lef t (related perhap s t o th e larg e one) , for dorsa l spine s ar e quit e clea r alon g its back , appearin g als o o n th e intac t portion o f th e large r animal' s back ? Below, b y wa y o f contrast , i s a colour reproductio n o f th e biso n a t Site # 99 , o n Lak e o f th e Wood s a t the opposit e en d o f th e province . When i t come s t o th e huma n renderings above , w e ar e agai n a t a loss. A r e thes e a hare' s ear s o n thi s

strange smal l figure ? O r larg e feathers? I f i t i s Ojibw a i n origi n w e could mak e ou t a cas e fo r it s repre senting Nanabozho, legendar y her o and "demi-god, " traditionally a hare . Among th e northwester n Ojibw a h e changes hi s nam e t o Wey-zuh-kaychahk, th e Canad a jay , o r "Whiskey jack." Are othe r rabbi t ear s emergin g from th e "tectiform " to th e left ? Thi s strangely structure d form , uniqu e t o the Mazina w site , appear s agai n o n two other faces . Other figure s o n thi s pag e ar e no t unlike som e w e hav e see n farthe r west. On e i s reminiscen t o f th e mysterious Rout e Lak e pai r illus trated o n pag e 65 . The tin y figures a t the botto m o f th e pag e sugges t tw o "bird-men" i n a canoe , an d a turtle . A t th e to p lef t o f the opposit e pag e we hav e a n abstractio n whic h w e ar e also tempte d t o relat e t o th e "rabbit man" alread y viewed . The fac e illus trated belo w i t wa s mos t frustratin g to record , muc h o f i t bein g to o fain t to trac e directly . Th e renderin g her e suggests dorsa l spine s an d a horne d head, bu t thes e shoul d b e regarde d

with som e suspicion ; I ma y wel l her e have succumbe d t o m y ow n wishfu l thinking. Th e mor e familia r form s below cal l fo r littl e comment , bu t those i n th e botto m margi n ar e strange indeed . Th e on e migh t hav e been influence d b y a potter y design ; the othe r migh t be describe d a s "geo metricized tre e branches " fo r lac k o f a bette r guess . O n th e nex t pag e ar e stil l furthe r examples o f relativel y comple x ab stractions s o typica l o f thi s site . Along wit h thi s tendency i s an equally marked absenc e o f an y urg e t o naturalism, a tren d tha t seem s t o grow i n strengt h a s on e move s west . Recall tha t her e w e ar e o n th e southern peripher y o f th e Shiel d for mation an d thi s i s no t to o surprising. In historica l time s this was the borde r country betwee n th e nomadi c Algon kian hunter s o f th e Shiel d woodland s and th e corn-raisin g Iroquoian s o f the St . Lawrence-Grea t Lake s low lands. Regardles s o f the eb b an d flo w of prehistori c cultures , geograph y

Site #37, Fac e XXVIIIa

would alway s hav e exerte d a border land influenc e here . Beyond it s geographica l situatio n the Mazina w settin g itsel f mus t hav e exerted a powerfu l spel l o n an y human group to whom it was familiar . The aw e an d disquietud e associate d with fa r les s impressiv e site s i n th e north an d wes t i s clearl y indicate d by the lingerin g mythologica l associa tions. H o w muc h mor e woul d th e Mazinaw settin g have stimulate d such responses! F o r Christopher , Irene , an d m e i t was a soberin g experienc e merel y t o paddle alon g th e bas e o f thi s cliff , sensing th e dept h o f th e wate r be neath an d th e heigh t o f th e roc k above, wher e occasionall y juttin g crags eight y o r ninet y fee t overhea d seemed read y t o plung e dow n o n us —and undoubtedl y would fal l som e day. On e afternoo n w e wer e mor e than a littl e startle d t o se e th e wate r

Little Mazina w Lake , Face II I

nearby begi n a n inexplicabl e whirling motion, acceleratin g til l i t lifte d sud denly int o a miniatur e waterspout , then vanishin g a s quickl y a s i t ha d appeared. A tric k o f th e ai r currents , no doubt , wit h thermal s playin g around the clif f o n a hot summe r day ; but uncann y fo r al l that. Site #38 i s only a mil e sout h o f th e main Mazina w site , wit h onl y thre e small faces, on e o f which i s illustrated here. Ther e surel y wer e other s i n neighbouring lakes; but i t is a centur y or mor e sinc e lumberin g operation s began, an d i t i s altogethe r likel y tha t dams hav e drowne d ou t th e others . I have ha d onl y on e repor t o f anothe r site i n the region—i n the Gananoqu e Lakes area . This complete s th e roste r o f Shiel d sites s o fa r recorde d an d th e reade r will b e read y t o vie w the m fro m th e broader perspectiv e o f Kennet h K i d d in th e fina l page s o f ou r story .

Site #37 , Face XXI V

Anthropological Background K E N N E T HE

. KID D

Mclnnes, 1894

A NATION' S RESOURCE S includ e man y things . Whe n on e think s o f them , on e is mos t likel y t o thin k firs t o f al l of agricultural , mineral, and fores t resources , for thes e ar e primary ; an d then , secondly , o f manufacturin g an d industria l potential. Ther e is , however , beside s thes e a multitud e o f asset s whic h g o t o make u p th e tota l heritage , an d amon g the m on e ma y wel l coun t anthropo logical an d historica l legacies. Par t o f th e Canadia n heritag e i s th e comple x of India n roc k painting s lef t b y generation s o f woodlan d dweller s wh o inhabited th e countr y befor e th e whit e ma n arrive d o n it s shores , an d fo r some time thereafter . It i s indee d tru e tha t roc k painting s ar e no t limite d t o Ontario , t o Canada , nor eve n t o Nort h America . Th e cav e painting s o f Franc e an d Spai n and certai n othe r part s o f Europ e hav e bee n know n fo r man y years , while thos e o f Tassil i i n th e Sahar a deser t hav e recentl y bee n discovered , studied, an d admirabl y describe d b y Henr i Lhote . I n Siberia , numerou s site s have bee n foun d an d describe d b y th e Russia n archaeologist , Okladnikov . The Sout h Africa n roc k paintings , man y o f the m studie d b y th e lat e Abb e Breuil, ar e justl y famous, an d eac h yea r add s fres h discoverie s to thei r alread y large number . Ther e i s indee d n o continent , an d bu t fe w countries , whic h cannot clai m t o hav e som e example s o f thi s typ e o f recor d fro m it s past . I n North America , th e distributio n o f roc k painting s i s ver y great ; i n fact , fe w large area s which wer e suitabl e for makin g them wer e overlooke d or neglected . The firs t mentio n o f thes e America n painting s whic h ha s com e t o th e present writer' s attentio n appeare d i n th e Englis h periodica l Archaeologia in 1781 ; generally speaking , the y attracte d littl e attention , however , eithe r o n the par t o f th e antiquarian s o f th e day , o r o f th e man y traveller s wh o ha d th e opportunity o f seein g them . Th e firs t systemati c attemp t t o recor d roc k paint ings o n thi s continen t wa s undertake n b y Colone l Garric k Maller y i n th e United States . Hi s eight-hundred-pag e repor t t o th e Secretar y o f th e Smith sonian Institution , under th e aegi s o f th e Burea u o f America n Ethnology , an d containing th e result s o f hi s investigation s fro m 187 6 t o 1893 , form s th e bulk o f tha t Bureau' s tent h annua l report . Usin g th e ter m "pictograph " a s a generic designatio n t o cove r "picture-writing " i n ever y sor t o f medium — bark, wood , bone , rock , copper , hide , an d s o on ; whethe r painted , smeared , carved, scratched , pecked , o r pounded—h e mad e a n invaluabl e record, exten sively illustrated , o f th e example s o f whic h h e kne w personall y o r b y report . Though Maller y concentrate d upo n site s withi n th e border s o f th e Unite d States, h e include d wha t h e ha d learne d abou t othe r site s i n th e Americas , and eve n beyond , bu t th e onl y Canadia n roc k picture s actuall y illustrate d i n 102

his repor t wer e carving s o n th e shore s o f Fair y Lak e i n Nov a Scotia . A s fo r other record s o f Canadia n occurrences , a thoroug h searc h o f th e literatur e has no t ye t bee n made . Bu t i t i s know n tha t eve n befor e th e tur n o f th e century, som e site s her e an d ther e acros s Canad a ha d bee n noted ; roc k carvings an d roc k painting s ha d bot h bee n recorde d i n th e fa r wes t befor e 1900. I n Ontario , two men particularl y were aler t t o an d recorde d graphically the occurrenc e o f roc k paintings. On e o f these , Davi d Boyle , th e firs t directo r of th e Provincia l Museum , recorde d roc k painting s a t th e larg e sit e a t B o n Echo Lake , a s wel l a s thos e a t tw o smalle r site s nort h o f Lak e Timagami , on Diamond an d Lad y Evely n Lakes . The other man , a geologist named Mclnnes , made sketche s o f suc h site s a s h e foun d whil e examinin g roc k outcropping s on th e shore s o f th e Shiel d countr y lake s an d rivers , durin g th e cours e o f work don e i n northwester n Ontari o fo r th e Geologica l Survey . Neithe r ma n was a n artist , an d eac h ha d t o sketc h unde r th e exigencie s o f othe r work ; ye t despite som e inaccuracies , their record s ar e invaluable.

Drawing by David Boyle of detail on Face X (see page 94 )

The ide a fro m whic h th e presen t surve y stem s ha d it s beginning s i n 1946 , when M r . A. E. Kundert , o f Madison , Wisconsin , sen t t o th e Roya l Ontari o Museum a smal l numbe r o f colou r phot o transparencies , showin g rock paint ings h e ha d see n o n Lak e Mameigwes s i n th e Lakehea d are a o f Ontario . I n one o f the m coul d b e see n a n anima l whic h appeare d t o hav e a hum p o n it s back, suggestin g a bison . Biso n i n suc h heavil y wooded , lak e countr y woul d be a n interestin g phenomeno n indee d an d th e matte r arouse d th e writer' s curiosity. Thi s informatio n wa s followe d u p b y inquirie s addresse d t o tw o well-known student s o f th e histor y an d lor e o f th e Lakehea d are a t o se e wha t further evidenc e o f roc k painting s migh t b e o n recor d locally . M r . Sigur d 103

Olson, th e prominen t naturalist , author , an d conservationist , an d D r . Grac e Lee Nut e o f th e Minnesot a Historica l Societ y bot h replie d tha t the y kne w o f such occurrence s a t Hegma n Lake , Minnesota . Professo r Rober t C . Daile y of th e Departmen t o f Anthropolog y i n th e Universit y o f Toront o note d several occurrence s durin g field wor k in Quetico Park . The matte r la y fallo w fo r severa l years , an d i t wa s no t unti l th e Quetic o Foundation enable d th e write r t o mak e a tri p throug h Quetic o Par k fo r quit e a differen t purpos e tha t i t wa s revived . O n tha t trip , th e write r wa s abl e t o see fo r himsel f th e splendi d painting s o f moos e o n th e rock y ledge s o f Irvin g Island i n L ac la Croix , whic h convinced him that the y wer e worth y o f record ing. I n 195 7 th e projec t go t started . I n tha t year , th e Quetic o Foundatio n kindly provide d necessar y fund s t o carr y throug h th e wor k fo r on e summer , if a suitabl e recorde r coul d b e foun d an d i f th e Roya l Ontari o Museu m wer e agreeable t o supervisin g it . Thi s th e Museu m wa s happ y t o do , an d chos e M r . Selwy n Dewdney t o carr y ou t th e fiel d work . H e wa s a n excellen t choice , both becaus e o f hi s trainin g i n ar t an d becaus e o f hi s experienc e i n an d knowledge o f th e woodlan d countr y wher e h e woul d hav e t o work . H e ha d canoed extensivel y throug h i t i n hi s youth , kne w an d understoo d ho w t o fac e its problems , an d ha d a sympatheti c attitud e toward s th e nativ e inhabitants . Thus th e projec t wa s launched . The Wildernes s Researc h Cente r a t Basswoo d Lake , Minnesota , wa s als o interested i n th e project , an d i n eac h succeedin g yea r ha s generousl y len t it s support. Th e Ontari o Departmen t o f Land s an d Forest s assiste d i n man y ways, an d i t i s saf e t o sa y that , withou t it s help , muc h o f th e wor k coul d no t a sample page from the Museum

drawings,Crooked Lake site

have bee n accomplished . Its personne l passe d o n informatio n whic h cam e t o them concernin g th e locatio n o f sites , an d i n numerou s othe r way s it s facilities aide d i n th e recordin g programme . T o al l of thes e agencies , an d t o the man y individual s who helpe d alon g th e way , a deb t o f grea t gratitud e i s due, no t onl y fo r direc t aid , bu t als o fo r encouragemen t an d incidenta l sup port. Finally , th e Roya l Ontari o Museu m ha s happil y bee n abl e t o giv e increasing suppor t t o th e recordin g project. I t i s th e repositor y fo r th e repro ductions mad e b y M r . Dewdney, where student s wil l hav e acces s t o the m fo r study, s o far a s is consistent wit h thei r good preservation. Care ha s bee n take n t o mak e th e Museum' s record s a s comprehensiv e an d detailed a s possible . Blac k an d whit e lin e drawing s t o th e scal e o f on e inc h to th e foo t sho w th e dispositio n of al l discernible paintings o n eac h fac e o f a given site , th e elevatio n o f th e painting s abov e th e wate r o n th e dat e o f recording, th e specia l feature s o f th e sit e (liche n growth , cracks , etc.) , an d the exac t geographica l location . Colou r transparencie s o n fil e fo r th e grea t majority o f the site s recor d th e landscap e setting , relativ e variation s i n colour, and i n man y case s detaile d close-up s (u p t o . 5 metres ) recordin g liche n growth, lim e precipitates , flaking , an d pigmentation . I n additio n Dewdne y has execute d full-siz e wate r colou r copie s o f al l th e mor e significan t an d representative pictographs , man y o f whic h ar e reproduce d i n thi s boo k a s half-tone photo-engravings . Finally , note s on the site s themselves , ethnological material relate d t o th e sites , an d record s o f interview s wit h contemporar y Indians ar e als o o n file , providin g a wealt h o f supplementa l dat a fo r futur e study. This informatio n is available to responsible researchers . It wa s possibl e to includ e only a part o f this materia l in the presen t publica tion, but ever y effor t ha s bee n mad e t o cove r i t in as thoroug h an d representa tive a wa y a s th e limit s o f spac e woul d allow . Actuall y ther e i s a t leas t a brie f reference t o ever y recorde d site , an d onl y a hal f doze n o f th e mino r site s ar e left unrepresente d i n the illustrations. In Ontario , roc k painting s occu r i n th e countr y covere d b y th e Canadia n Shield. Outsid e o f tha t area , ther e appea r t o b e fe w outcropping s whic h wer e attractive fo r th e purpose . Th e Shiel d extend s i n a vas t horsesho e aroun d Hudson Bay , swinging south t o th e norther n shore s o f th e Grea t Lakes , the n northward, curvin g bot h int o th e Labrado r peninsul a an d int o th e region s west o f th e Bay . Roc k painting s hav e bee n foun d an d recorde d alon g it s extreme souther n borde r a t B o n Ech o Lak e i n Hasting s County , alon g th e French River , a t Espanola , Agaw a Bay , an d Lak e Nipigon . The y hav e als o been locate d a t man y point s i n Quetic o Par k an d alon g th e Rain y Rive r drainage. Nort h o f th e abov e places , the y hav e bee n foun d a t man y spot s deep i n th e Shiel d area , suc h a s Lak e Missinaibi , Vermilio n River , Lak e Mameigwess, Rout e Lake , Lak e Timagami , Diamon d Lake , Ferri s Lake , Deer Lake , an d Whit e Dog Portage. O n th e Unite d State s sid e o f th e border , and stil l o n th e Shield , o r o n it s fringes , site s hav e bee n locate d a t Hegma n Lake, an d o n th e Kawishiw i Rive r i n Minnesota, and i n the Fayett e Peninsul a in Lak e Michigan . Th e mos t prolifi c area s hav e bee n thos e alon g th e Rain y 105

River an d Lak e o f th e Woods , but thi s ma y b e du e t o mor e intensiv e stud y and t o th e fac t tha t i t i s muc h mor e o f a thoroughfar e an d therefor e bette r known. Quit e possibly, some district s no w sparsel y represente d i n th e collec tion o f reproduction s ma y ye t yiel d equall y abundan t results . Nort h o f point s where th e Shiel d cease s t o show , n o roc k painting s occur ; thi s are a include s much o f Ontari o immediatel y south o f Jame s Ba y an d Hudso n Bay. The Canadia n Shiel d countr y i s a lan d o f rocks , rivers , an d lakes , wit h perhaps somewha t mor e wate r tha n land . Th e elevatio n is generall y not great , although i n som e point s i t rise s t o a s muc h a s 400 0 fee t abov e se a level . Rapids an d waterfall s ar e ofte n impediment s t o navigation . Th e lan d i s covered wit h a dens e growt h o f mixe d coniferou s an d deciduou s forests , con sisting o f spruce , tamarack , jac k pine , bircn , an d poplar . Excep t i n th e southernmost reaches , alon g the Rain y Rive r drainage , an d i n th e district s of 106

Parry Sound , Muskoka, Nipissing , an d southward , n o hardwood s ar e present . The fores t i s inhabite d b y numerou s specie s o f animals , notabl y th e beaver , otter, mink , fisher, foxes , wolves , blac k bears , an d rabbits . Moos e ar e no w common, el k ar e absent , an d caribo u presen t onl y i n smal l herd s i n part s o f the area . Wildfow l ar e abundan t i n season , particularl y ducks , geese , loons , and other s whic h habituall y continue northwar d fo r th e breedin g season . Th e streams an d lake s aboun d i n fish o f man y species . Snakes , thoug h foun d occasionally, ar e no t ver y abundant ; the y ar e th e caus e o f muc h commen t when seen . To it s India n inhabitants , th e regio n mus t hav e bee n bot h a paradis e an d a sever e challenge . Despit e th e dens e forests , on e coul d trave l almos t any where b y water , usin g canoe s i n th e summe r an d snowshoe s an d toboggan s in th e winte r when the lake s an d river s were frozen . Foo d wa s usuall y reasonably abundan t i n th e for m o f fish an d gam e an d berries , bu t a t time s i t wa s hard t o find, an d hunge r wa s th e consequenc e fo r th e unluck y hunte r an d hi s dependents. Material s fo r wigwam s an d tipi s wer e everywhere , i n th e for m of birc h bar k an d poles , but the y wer e impermanent . Th e skin s o f animal s t o be use d a s lodg e covering s were harde r t o com e by , bu t coul d usuall y be ha d for th e effort ; the y wer e likewis e sough t fo r winte r clothing . Winter s wer e often bitterl y col d an d th e snow s deep ; summer s wer e hot , an d accompanie d by cloud s o f mosquitoe s an d othe r bitin g insect s whic h mad e lif e miserabl e for al l huma n inhabitants . Agricultur e unde r aborigina l condition s wa s i m practicable. Huntin g an d fishing wer e thu s th e onl y availabl e mean s o f subsistence i n mos t area s (apar t fro m a littl e berry-picking) , and th e forme r was subjec t t o thos e cycli c variation s i n th e gam e suppl y whic h periodicall y imposed sever e hardship s upo n th e inhabitants . I n thos e part s o f th e Shiel d country wher e the y coul d b e had , th e Indian s wer e mor e fortunat e i n having the additiona l support o f wil d ric e an d mapl e suga r t o hel p the m throug h th e lean months . This lan d o f shinin g waters an d gloom y forest wa s th e genera l environmen t in whic h th e painter s o f the roc k pictures were born, lived thei r lives , an d wen t finally t o thei r happ y huntin g ground . I t wa s b y tur n benig n an d cruel , beautiful an d harsh , ampl e an d niggardly , bu t alway s inscrutable . T o th e Indian's mind , ther e mus t hav e bee n force s a t wor k whos e natur e h e coul d but diml y surmise , an d i t wa s therefor e t o hi m th e par t o f wisdo m t o tr y t o keep i n their favour . Alternatively , som e o f thes e force s coul d b e harnessed , so t o speak , t o caus e injur y o r deat h t o others , o r b y suitabl e ritual s cajole d into assumin g a friendl y attitud e t o th e supplicant . Th e worl d wa s t o thes e people compose d no t onl y o f th e tangibl e an d th e visibl e bu t als o o f muc h which wa s invisible an d immaterial. The archaeologica l history of th e countr y nort h o f th e Grea t Lake s is onl y beginning t o b e understood , bu t numerou s student s ar e intereste d i n it s pre history. M r . Thomas E . Lee , formerl y o f th e Nationa l Museu m o f Canada , and D r . Emerso n F . Greenman , o f th e Universit y o f Michigan , hav e show n that ther e wer e huma n occupant s a t th e edg e o f th e ic e sheet s a s the y re 107

treated northwar d som e 8,00 0 t o 9,00 0 year s ago , an d tha t late r inhabitant s made an d use d pottery . Lon g befor e pottery-makin g becam e known , how ever, ther e wa s a group , a t leas t alon g the mor e souther n reache s o f th e area , who mad e extensiv e us e o f coppe r fo r tool s an d implements ; they ar e know n to u s a s th e O l d Copper Cultur e people , an d ar e believe d t o hav e endure d from 500 0 B.C . t o 150 0 B.C . Site s of this cultur e have bee n foun d i n numerou s places i n Wisconsin , Minnesota , an d a t Reflectio n Bay , Lak e Nipigon , an d elsewhere i n Ontario . Late r culture s wer e th e Earl y Woodland , whic h seem s to hav e com e t o a n en d betwee n 50 0 B.C . an d 10 0 B.C. ; i t wa s characterize d by buria l mounds , pottery , an d possibl y the us e o f tobacc o an d th e pipe ; an d the Middl e Woodlan d an d Lat e Woodland culture s whic h succeede d it . Ther e is muc h ye t t o b e learne d abou t these , a s wel l a s abou t th e earlie r cultures , and severa l students ar e engage d i n th e tas k o r hav e alread y contribute d t o it . Dr. R . S. MacNeish o f the Nationa l Museu m o f Canada, D r. Norman Emerson and D r . Robert C. Dailey o f the Universit y o f Toronto, D r. George I . Quimb y of th e Chicag o Natura l History Museum , an d Walte r A. Kenyon o f th e Roya l Ontario Museu m ar e som e o f th e investigator s o f th e numerou s problem s which stil l remain before th e prehistor y of the Shiel d countr y will becom e clear . (For furthe r reading , consult: Quimby , Indian Life in the Upper Great Lakes; MacNeish, Introduction to the Archaeology of Southeast Manitoba.) The brea k betwee n th e archaeologica l and th e ethnologica l cultures cam e of cours e wit h th e arriva l o n th e scen e o f th e firs t whit e men . Non e o f th e explorers mention , s o fa r a s thi s write r i s aware , th e presenc e o f potter y among th e Indian s who m the y me t i n th e Shiel d country , bu t i n mos t othe r respects th e Indians seem to have been living much as they had been doin g for a long time . Perhap s potter y wa s onl y use d i n place s wher e i t wa s convenien t to d o so , althoug h thi s doe s no t see m t o hav e bee n th e cas e i n prehistori c times. I n an y event , th e histori c Indian s wer e al l Algonkian-speaking , wit h the possibl e exception that there may hav e bee n som e Siouan-speakin g groups west o f Lak e Superior , an d al l may b e classe d i n th e ethnographi c grou p o f The Grass y Narrow s scrol l {see page 13)

Eastern Woodland s people . Precisel y wher e th e variou s India n group s wer e living when the countr y was first visited by white men it is now impossible to sa y with assurance , bu t i t woul d appea r tha t th e Ottawa s an d th e Nipissing s were living east of Georgian Bay and perhaps northward, whil e the Ojibw a occupie d virtually al l th e remainde r o f th e Ontari o portio n o f th e Shiel d a s wel l a s the souther n shore s o f Lak e Superior . Th e Cre e live d o n part s o f th e Shiel d in Quebec , Manitoba , and westward , bu t probabl y neve r hel d an y part s o f i t in Ontario . It i s known that durin g the histori c period there hav e bee n variou s movements o f peoples , probabl y no t o f grea t significanc e s o fa r a s roc k paintings ar e concerned , bu t deservin g o f note . Th e Ottawa , afte r muc h wandering, finally cam e t o settl e chiefl y o n Manitouli n Island , whil e th e Ojibwa move d int o th e territor y latel y vacate d b y them . Th e Ojibw a als o moved int o th e souther n peninsul a o f Ontario , whic h ha d onc e bee n th e homeland o f th e Huro n an d thei r kin , an d hav e occupie d thos e portion s o f the Shiel d whic h li e in that par t o f th e Province , as wel l a s som e othe r areas . A t th e tim e whe n thi s expansio n wa s takin g place , a branc h o f th e Ojibwa , living nea r th e fall s o f St . Mary' s River , an d fo r tha t reaso n know n t o th e French a s th e Saulteur s (o r Saulteaux) , bega n t o pus h westwar d ove r larg e portions o f th e presen t district s o f Kenor a an d Rain y Rive r an d eve n furthe r west. Th e cultura l difference s amon g thes e groups , however , i s slight . On e o f the mos t interestin g aspect s o f thei r life , fro m th e poin t o f vie w o f th e presen t discussion, i s th e existenc e amon g th e Ojibw a o f th e secre t societ y calle d th e Grand Medicin e Societ y o r Midaywiwin . Thi s organizatio n wa s extremel y important i n Ojibw a life , an d mos t me n strov e t o becom e member s o f i t a t some tim e durin g thei r lifetime . Thos e wh o becam e leader s o r Mida y wer e thought t o posses s grea t supernatura l power ; the y ha d lon g rituals t o remem ber, an d t o hel p the m t o d o s o the y frequentl y recorde d the m upo n roll s of birchbark. Picture s o f birds , animals , an d me n wer e scratche d int o th e inne r surface o f th e bar k t o serv e a s a reminde r o f th e variou s stage s i n th e ceremony an d o f th e sequenc e o f songs . I t wa s als o rathe r commo n fo r th e The Grassy Narrows scroll {see page 13 )

men t o scratc h symbol s o f thei r clan s upo n thei r wa r clubs , pip e stems , an d other persona l belongings , an d th e sam e symbol s wer e sometime s incise d upon their grav e markers . From wha t ha s alread y bee n said , i t i s clea r tha t th e India n occupatio n o f the Canadia n Shield countr y goe s a lon g wa y bac k i n time, an d tha t ther e ha s been a successio n o f people s livin g i n it . Tha t ther e wa s chang e an d move ments o f group s i s certain . Th e roc k painting s could , a t leas t i n theory , b e due i n whol e o r i n par t t o an y on e o f them . I n practice , i t seem s impossibl e that an y o f the painting s coul d hav e withstoo d the sever e weatherin g t o whic h they woul d hav e bee n subjecte d durin g th e time-spa n covere d b y th e perio d of huma n occupation . T o thi s writer , i t seem s improbabl e tha t the y coul d have laste d eve n sinc e Earl y Woodlan d times. I f thi s reasonin g holds , thos e now i n existenc e ar e mos t likel y th e wor k o f a peopl e o f Woodlan d culture , probably th e Lat e Woodlan d o f prehistori c an d Easter n Woodlan d o f earl y historic times. The roc k painting s i n Ontari o ar e drawing s o f variou s sort s usuall y mad e on th e smoot h surfac e o f granit e o r simila r roc k outcropping s alon g th e shores o f lake s an d rivers . Vertica l o r nearl y vertica l face s presente d th e most desirabl e situations , but thi s coul d b e affecte d b y th e presenc e o f lichens, fissures, an d s o on . Not al l smooth roc k face s wer e utilized , no r wer e al l thos e near stream s an d lakes ; th e choic e wa s seemingl y capriciou s bu t ma y hav e depended upo n factor s a t whic h w e ca n onl y guess . Eve n today , miscellaneou s little object s seemingl y purposel y lef t b y Indian s a t th e site s o f som e roc k paintings sugges t th e ide a o f offering s t o spirit s o f th e place ; i f thi s i s so , a n idea tha t th e plac e wa s th e abod e o f spirit s ma y hav e bee n on e o f th e con trolling factor s i n th e choic e o f sites . A s fo r lichen-covere d rocks , i t woul d seem natura l tha t th e Indian s woul d avoi d the m a s location s fo r thei r roc k paintings, bu t othe r consideration s ma y hav e dictate d otherwise . (Lichen s have probabl y destroyed man y roc k paintings, bu t ho w extensiv e suc h damag e may b e i t woul d b e impossibl e t o determine . Studie s ar e bein g mad e o n th e growth o f lichen, an d o n othe r matter s connecte d wit h them , whic h ma y thro w some ligh t on the problem. ) It i s conceivabl e tha t ther e i s som e patter n o r pla n t o th e genera l locatio n of roc k paintings , but , i f this i s true , i t ha s stil l t o b e worke d out . Wer e the y placed onl y a t th e abode s o f spirits ? Wer e the y scattere d haphazardl y i n remote a s wel l a s i n accessible places? Were they locate d onl y alon g importan t routes, o r alon g route s use d onl y a t certai n season s o r fo r certai n purposes ? The answer s t o these , an d t o man y othe r questions , stil l hav e t o b e found , but shoul d be interesting when discovered. If a naturall y smoot h roc k fac e wa s alway s chosen , i t woul d no t b e neces sary fo r th e artis t t o prepar e i t fo r paintin g in an y way . H e would , however , need t o selec t a fac e whic h h e coul d reac h fro m a cano e o r a t leas t fro m th e ice; tha t is , an almos t shee r clif f risin g fro m th e water . Failin g suc h a site , h e could an d ofte n di d choos e a fac e which , thoug h wel l abov e th e wate r level , 110

could stil l b e reache d fro m a ledge . Onl y a ver y fe w roc k painting s exis t i n Ontario wher e th e mean s o f acces s i s no t no w apparent . Havin g selecte d th e location, an d presumabl y mad e whateve r religiou s observance s ma y hav e been necessary , th e India n painte r stil l neede d t o mak e read y hi s pigments . This wa s seldo m an arduou s task , fo r th e Indian s wer e wel l awar e o f innumerable source s o f pigmen t an d wer e entirel y familia r wit h thei r preparatio n an d uses. The y employe d the m extensivel y i n earl y histori c time s an d almos t certainly i n prehistoric time s a s wel l t o pain t design s upo n thei r faces , arms , and bodies , an d sometime s upo n thei r belongings . Moreover , th e pigment s used i n roc k paintings—namely , th e tw o oxide s o f iron—wer e abundan t i n the area , an d it was onl y necessary t o gathe r the m an d crush them t o a powder. A whit e pigment , whos e compositio n is uncertain , wa s occasionall y used i n the roc k paintings; it may have bee n guano , o r a whit e earth. Th e iro n oxides , when mixe d wit h som e binder , were read y fo r use . Althoug h preliminar y tests have bee n mad e t o determin e th e natur e o f thi s binder , i t remain s unknown . More complicate d test s ma y revea l it s identity . A t an y rate , goo d binder s were certainl y available to th e Indians , an d beyon d a doub t the y use d on e o r more o f them, an d possibl y all. Gulls' egg s woul d serv e admirabl y and bears ' grease woul d likewis e suffice . Beave r tail s an d fis h roe , th e hoof s o f moos e and deer , coul d al l b e boile d t o mak e glue , an d fis h an d rabbi t skin s ma y have bee n utilize d also . A n y on e o f these , mixe d wit h re d ochr e o r whit e earth, woul d adher e wel l t o th e rock . Fro m th e examinatio n s o fa r made , i t appears tha t th e binde r leache s ou t i n time , leavin g th e pigmen t firml y attached t o th e microscopi c indentations an d convexitie s of th e roc k surface . The oxid e pigments wer e o f tw o colours , red an d yellow ; bu t sinc e the y wer e seldom pure , al l gradations betwee n thes e ma y b e foun d i n the paintings . Th e colours wer e i n som e case s applie d with th e ringers , a s Dewdne y ha s pointe d out o n p . 17 , bu t i t seem s likel y tha t brushes , probabl y mad e b y breakin g back th e fibre s o f smal l plant s lik e th e willo w woul d frequentl y serv e a s well . Whether brushe s mad e o f moos e o r dee r hai r wer e use d i s problematical , though the y coul d readil y hav e bee n made . Wit h suc h simpl e equipment — mineral pigments , greas e o r glue , finger s o r a simpl e brush , an d a cano e t o stand i n when the wor k was don e i n the summer—th e grea t panopl y o f Shiel d country roc k paintings must have been done . The roc k painting s stil l i n existence mirro r indirectl y som e aspect s o f thei r makers' attitude s t o thei r externa l worl d an d somethin g o f thei r thinking . They portra y certai n o f thei r gam e animals , suc h a s moos e an d bear ; an d th e canoes an d wigwam s show n illustrat e th e worl d o f thei r ow n creation . Ove r and abov e thes e aspects , th e painting s als o illustrat e som e o f th e creature s o f the native' s mind , i n th e shap e o f mythica l o r supernatura l being s lik e th e thunderbird, th e serpent , th e turtle , an d th e pipe-smokin g moose. A l l o f th e pictures wer e presumabl y place d o n th e rock s fo r som e purpose , th e mos t obvious bein g to conve y a message . I f the y wer e intende d a s messages , som e were probabl y addresse d t o th e attentio n o f othe r Indians ; som e t o th e 111

inhabitants o f the spiri t world. A ny which wer e not , strictl y speaking, messages may hav e bee n memorial s o f on e sor t o r another , illustration s o f myths , o r markers o f spots o f som e ritua l o r othe r significance . Thes e ar e bu t sugges tions o f th e purpose s whic h ma y hav e motivate d th e placin g o f th e roc k paintings wher e the y ar e foun d today . A s Dewdne y ha s mad e clear , the y hav e alread y yielde d muc h informatio n upon suc h matter s a s techniqu e an d ar t styles , an d show n tha t som e o f th e sites wer e use d mor e tha n once . Ther e i s stil l muc h tha t i s no t understood , however, an d th e remainin g question s pos e a challeng e t o furthe r study . W e should lik e t o kno w i f th e roc k painting s wer e al l made b y th e sam e people ; over wha t time-spa n the y wer e created ; th e significanc e o f th e variou s paint ings; th e meanin g o f th e conventionalize d symbols , an d man y mor e hidde n matters. Three generation s ago , Garric k Maller y wrot e tha t "th e interpretatio n o f the ancien t form s i s t o b e obtained , i f a t all , no t b y th e discover y o f an y hermeneutic key , bu t b y a n understandin g o f th e moder n forms , som e o f which fortunatel y ca n b e interprete d b y livin g men ; an d whe n thi s i s no t th e case th e mor e recen t form s ca n b e mad e intelligibl e a t leas t i n par t b y a thorough knowledg e o f th e histori c tribes , includin g thei r sociology , philo sophy, an d arts , suc h a s i s becomin g acquired , an d o f thei r sig n language " (Mallery, 1886 , p . 16) . Wha t Maller y wrot e the n stil l hold s toda y fo r th e Great Lake s roc k paintings , excep t tha t no w i t woul d b e extremel y difficul t to fin d livin g me n wh o coul d reliabl y interpret an y o f them . Bu t i t seem s tru e that a soun d knowledg e o f Ojibwa—o r i f on e prefers , centra l Algonkian — mythology, legends , ritua l practices , an d materia l cultur e woul d g o a lon g way toward s elucidatin g man y o f th e symbol s an d picture s o n th e rocks . Perhaps o f al l these aspect s o f culture , th e myth s an d legend s ar e th e mos t important, fo r ofte n supernatura l creature s ar e describe d i n them . Followin g these, a knowledg e o f th e practice s o f th e Midaywiwi n o r Gran d Medicin e Society, wit h it s accompanyin g mnemoni c record s o n birchbar k rolls , woul d be helpful . Bar k record s o f othe r sort s coul d als o suppl y som e clues . Th e sig n language ma y hav e som e utility , a s Maller y believe d i t would , fo r i t wa s widely use d an d understood ; i t shoul d b e examine d wit h th e interpretatio n o f the roc k paintings i n mind. Except i n th e cas e o f th e painting s a t Agaw a Rock , w e hav e n o first-han d interpretation o f th e meanings . Th e interpretatio n o f thes e depend s upo n copies mad e b y Indian s o n birchbar k fo r Henr y Schoolcraft , an d upo n th e verbal description s o f the m whic h th e Indian s gav e him . The y sugges t tha t each symbo l was intende d t o b e rea d b y itself , an d th e meaning s the n com bined an d modifie d s o a s t o mak e sense ; th e fou r disk s ove r th e tw o conve x lines a t Agaw a Roc k ar e take n t o indicat e a fou r days ' (o r suns' ) journe y over th e basi n o f the water . Thi s is i n marked distinctio n to th e bar k etchings , in whic h th e figures o r symbol s ar e arrange d i n horizonta l lines , an d th e "reading" o r interpretatio n i s intende d t o begi n a t th e righ t o r lef t an d pro 112

A shama n in a sweat lodge?

ceed i n eithe r direction . The idea s ar e thu s linke d i n a sequence . I n th e roc k paintings, i t appear s tha t the y shoul d b e considere d a s a unit , thoug h ther e may be mor e tha n on e uni t in a group . The afore-mentione d bar k roll s o f th e Midaywiwi n ofte n affor d importan t clues to th e identit y of the symbol s i n the rocks . Several of them , fo r example , show tree-lik e figure s whic h ar e interprete d a s th e "tre e o f medicine. " A similar figur e appear s i n Fac e I X a t Sit e 7 , alon g wit h a conventionalize d figure o f a ma n insid e a wigwam-lik e structure. Fro m a knowledg e o f Ojibw a culture i t i s possibl e t o conjectur e tha t thi s grou p wa s intende d t o sho w a shaman takin g a swea t bat h i n a swea t lodg e (whic h i s constructe d lik e a miniature wigwam) , fo r thi s ceremon y o f physica l an d spiritua l purification had t o b e gon e throug h befor e h e coul d undertak e a n importan t ritual , an d that h e woul d the n us e som e o f th e "tre e o f medicine. " O r again , on e find s 113

Thunderbird, Site # 3

in th e Mida y roll s figures o f birds, some o f whic h ar e describe d a s suc h power ful creature s a s th e gre y eagle , other s a s th e thunderbird . Bot h ma y b e show n naturalistically o r conventionally . Similar figures occu r o n th e roc k paintings , though th e conventionalize d form seem s to b e mor e common , and th e assump tion, perhap s no t warrante d i n al l cases , i s tha t th e thunderbir d i s meant . Unlike th e eagle , th e thunderbir d wa s a supernatura l creatur e wh o live d hig h in th e sk y beyond th e sigh t o f men , bu t mad e hi s presenc e know n by flapping his wings to caus e th e thunder , an d b y blinkin g hi s eye s t o caus e th e lightning . Still a thir d symbo l in th e roc k painting s ma y b e identifie d b y mean s o f th e bark rolls , an d thi s i s th e Grea t Lyn x o r Mishipizhiw . Mishipizhi w i s als o a supernatura l creature , highl y dangerous , wh o inhabit s th e rapid s o n som e streams; fo r instance , th e Manito u Rapid s on th e Rain y River , nea r Emo . H e appears i n som e o f th e bar k roll s a s a cat-lik e creatur e wit h larg e ear s o r horns an d a lon g tail . S o frequen t a moti f di d h e becom e i n Ojibw a ar t tha t he i s sometime s depicte d o n thei r wove n bags . Mishipizhi w undoubtedl y appears a t Sit e 3 6 i n the norma l form . Joh n Tanne r (James , A Narrative of the Captivity . . . of John Tanner, p . 335) , a n earl y autho r wh o live d mos t o f his lif e amon g th e Ojibwa , illustrate d th e Grea t L y n x a s a cat-lik e creatur e with spin y back, an d fro m thi s an d simila r evidence , w e ma y assum e tha t th e spiny-backed creatur e whic h look s lik e a horne d serpen t a t Sit e 8 i s als o intended fo r him . I t i s worth y o f not e her e tha t i n th e bar k rolls , line s radiating fro m a figure o f a ma n o r a n anima l are mean t t o impl y "power " i n that figure; henc e th e spine s o n th e bac k o f th e Grea t L y n x ma y b e a devic e for emphasizin g his great supernatura l power . B y comparin g the picture s i n th e roc k painting s on e b y on e wit h thos e o n the birchbar k roll s an d othe r record s referrin g t o th e Algonkian s o f th e Grea t Lakes area , i t shoul d b e possibl e t o identif y man y mor e o f them . A simila r study o f th e supernatura l being s i n th e mytholog y o f th e Algonkian s i s likel y to resul t i n further identifications . Even thoug h th e identit y o f on e o r mor e symbol s o r figures i n a roc k 114

Human figure from Blindfold Lake site

painting ma y hav e bee n established , th e significatio n o f th e grou p a s a whol e may stil l remai n t o b e solved . I t i s not , apparently , a simpl e procedur e o f adding on e identificatio n t o anothe r an d gettin g a sor t o f sentenc e a s a result . Alternative meaning s ma y b e possibl e fo r on e o r mor e o f th e figures, an d i t then become s a matte r o f choosin g between th e alternative s unti l on e ha s hi t upon a combination which make s sense . O f course, i n some cases , th e meanin g may b e fairl y obvious , bu t i n other s th e solutio n ma y b e extremel y difficult . Even th e Mida y bar k rolls , althoug h th e commones t o f Ojibw a record s an d the mos t generall y understood , ar e sai d t o b e sometime s quit e beyon d th e comprehension o f Ojibw a me n wh o hav e no t see n tha t particula r rol l before , as ha s bee n alread y noted . Likewise , th e roc k paintings—eve n th e mos t recent—may presen t difficultie s i n tota l interpretatio n whic h def y solution . 115

It i s thus possibl e t o compar e th e roc k painting s i n th e Shiel d countr y wit h the drawing s t o b e see n i n th e Mida y roll s an d othe r incise d bar k an d woo d records, an d wit h th e description s t o b e foun d i n th e myth s an d legend s o f the histori c occupants . B y the sam e token , the y ma y b e compare d wit h roc k paintings an d othe r pictoria l representation s fro m othe r areas , an d wit h th e descriptions i n non-Algonkia n mythologie s an d simila r sources . I t shoul d also b e born e i n mind that som e o f th e Algonkia n legend s an d myth s ma y b e based upo n roc k painting s fro m a n earlier , pre-Algonkia n occupation o f th e country, i n whic h cas e th e line s o f distinctio n might b e considerabl y blurred . This doe s not rul e out th e possibility , however , tha t som e o f the roc k paintings , if the y antedat e th e Algonkia n occupation , ma y hav e onl y a superficia l con nection wit h tha t occupation ; indeed , the y migh t wel l reflec t a quit e differen t set o f idea s an d a differen t galax y o f supernatura l being s an d b e execute d i n a differen t style . Such difference s i n styl e migh t b e demonstrate d b y on e o r othe r o f th e techniques describe d b y Dewdney , an d b y th e rathe r mechanica l proces s o f putting eac h recorde d symbo l o r figur e o n a n inde x card . Th e card s migh t then b e sorte d an d th e variou s symbol s groupe d togethe r i n suc h a wa y tha t there was a progression b y mino r change s fro m a mor e obviou s o r naturalisti c form (e.g . a moose ) t o a conventiona l o r abstrac t form . A procedur e o f thi s sort migh t hel p t o identif y som e symbol s no t no w understood , but , perhap s more important , i t migh t b e abl e t o revea l whethe r ther e i s a residu e o f sym bols whic h canno t b e connecte d stylisticall y wit h others . I f ther e ar e figure s o r symbols whic h canno t b e show n t o b e relate d t o an y o f thos e connecte d wit h Ojibwa life , ther e woul d b e a presumptio n tha t the y migh t b e attributabl e t o people o f anothe r culture . Whethe r suc h a cultur e wer e earlie r tha n th e Algonkian occupatio n woul d hav e t o b e prove n b y som e acceptabl e metho d of datin g stil l to be devised . After fou r seasons ' work, a good representation o f the kin d o f rock painting s left b y the Indian s o f the Grea t Lake s has bee n recorded , an d i s no w availabl e for study . I t wil l serve , i f n o mor e shoul d b e collected , t o illustrat e th e con dition, variety , an d geographica l rang e o f thi s menifestatio n o f aborigina l occupation o f the Canadia n Shield. A s a form o f expressio n th e roc k painting s are interestin g i n themselves . Bu t ove r an d abov e this , the y illuminat e som e aspects o f aborigina l lif e an d culture . Furthe r analysi s shoul d yiel d som e clues a s t o movement s o f peopl e withi n th e area , an d ma y thro w som e ligh t upon belief s hel d by thos e groups . Eve n thoug h muc h o f th e informatio n the y hold ma y remai n foreve r hidde n fro m us , th e searc h fo r i t i s alway s alluring , and eac h clu e found i s worthy of the effort .

116

Appendixes

Bibliography ARCHAEOLOGICAL REPORTS , Appendi x t o th e Repor t o f th e Ministe r o f Educatio n (Ontario) fo r th e years : 1893-4 , Rock Paintings, or Pedographs, Rock Paintings at Lake Massanog (Lak e Mazinaw) ; 1904 , Picture Writing; 1906 , Rock Paintings at Timagami District (Lad y Evely n an d Diamon d Lakes) ; 1907, Rock Paintings (mout h o f Nipigo n River). BEAUGRAND, H . , New Studies of Canadian Folklore (Montreal , 1904) . BOAS, FRANZ , Primitive Art (Ne w York , 1955) . BRAY, WILLIAM , "Observation s o n th e India n metho d o f picture-writin g b y William Bray , Esq. , i n a lette r t o th e Secretar y rea d Marc h 1 , 1781, " Archaeologia, VI , 1782 , 159-62 . BRINTON, DANIE L G . , The Lendpe and their legends; with the complete text and symbols of the Walum Olum, a new translation, and an inquiry into its authenticity (Philadelphia , 1885) . CHRISTENSEN, ERWI N O. , Primitive Art (Ne w York , 1955) . COATSWORTH, EMERSO N S. , The Indians of Quetico (Toronto , 1957) . COPWAY, GEORGE , The Traditional History and Characteristic Sketches of the Ojibway Nation (Boston , 1851) . DEWDNEY, SELWYN , "Stone-ag e ar t i n th e Canadia n Shield, " Canadian Art, X V I (3) , 1959 , 164-7 . "The Quetic o Pictographs, " The Beaver (Hudson' s Ba y Company , Winni peg), Summe r 1958 , 15-22 . HEWITT, J . N . B. , an d WILLIA M N . FENTON , "Som e mnemoni c pictograph s relating t o th e Iroquoi s Condolenc e Council, " Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences, 3 5 (10) , Oct . 15 , 1945 . HOFFMAN, W . J. , "Pictograph y an d shamanisti c rite s o f th e Ojibwa, " American Anthropologist, ser . 1 , I , 1888 , 209-29 . "The Midewiwi n o r 'Gran d Medicin e Society ' o f th e Ojibwa, " Smith sonian Institution , Burea u o f America n Ethnology , 7th Annual Report, 1891 (1892 ) (Washington , D.C. , 1892) . JACKSON, A . T. , "Picture-writin g o f Texa s Indians, " University of Texas Publication no. 3809, Anthropologica l Papers, II , 1938 . JAMES, EDWI N (ed.) , A Narrative of the Captivity and Adventures of John Tanner . . . (Ne w York , 1830 ; Minneapolis , 1956) . JOHNSON, TOWNLEY , "Facsimil e tracin g an d redrawin g o f rock-paintings, " South African Archaeological Bulletin, XII I (50) , 1958 , 67-9 . KEESING, FELI X M . , "Th e Menomin i Indian s o f Wisconsin . A stud y o f thre e centuries o f cultura l contac t an d change, " American Philosophical Society, memoirs X , 1939 .

118

KINIETZ, W . VERNON , "Birc h bar k record s amon g th e Chippewa, " Indiana Academy of Science, Proceedings, X L I X , 1939 , 38-40 . "The Indian s o f th e wester n grea t lakes , 1615-1760, " Occasional Contributions from the Museum of Anthropology (Universit y o f Michigan) , X , 1940 . Se e unde r Chippewa, 317-29 . KOHL, JOHANN , G . , Kitchi-gami (trans , fro m German , London , 1860 ; wit h Introduction b y R. W. Fridley, Minneapolis , 1956) . L E E , THOMA S E . , "Th e secon d Sheguianda h expedition , Manitouli n Island , Ontario," American Antiquity, X X I ( l ) , 1955 , 63-71 . LEECHMAN, DOUGLAS , "Som e pictograph s o f southeaster n Britis h Columbia, " Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada, 3r d ser , XLVIII , Sec . II , 1954 , 77-85. LEECHMAN, DOUGLAS , et ah, "Pictograph s i n Southwester n Alberta, " Annual Report (Nationa l Museum , Ottawa), 1953-4 . LHOTE, HENRI , The Search for the Tassili Frescoes (translate d b y A . H . Brod rick Hutchinson , London, 1959) . LYFORD, CARRI E A . , "Ojibw a craft s (Chippewa), " Indian Handcrafts, V (Law rence, Kansas , 1953) . MACFIE, JOH N A ., "The stories on the cliffs, " Sylva, X V ( 6 ) , 1959 , 17-20 . MACNEISH, RICHAR D S. , "A n introduction t o th e archaeolog y o f southeas t Mani toba," National Museum of Canada, Bulletin 157 (Ottawa , 1958) . MALLERY, GARRICK , "Pictograph s o f th e Nort h America n Indians : a preliminary paper," Smithsonia n Institution , Burea u o f America n Ethnology , 4th Annual Report, 1886 , 3-25 6 (Washington , D.C. , 1887) . "Picture-writing o f th e America n Indians, " ibid., 10th Annual Report, 1893, 3-80 7 (Washington , D.C. , 1894) . "Sign languag e amon g th e Nort h America n Indian s compare d wit h tha t among othe r people s an d deaf-mutes, " ibid., 1st Annual Report, 1879-1880 , 263-552 (Washington , D.C. , 1881) . MURDOCK, GEORG E P. , Ethnographic Bibliography of North America (Ne w Haven, 1960) . NATIONAL F I L M BOAR D O F CANAD A (Montreal) , "India n Roc k Paintings, " a filmstrip i n colour with manual. NELSON, N . C , "Sout h Africa n roc k pictures, " American Museum of Natural History, Guide Leaflet Series, 93 , 1937 . OKLADNIKOV, A . P. , Shishkinskie Pisanitsy. Pamyatni k Drevne y Kultur y Pribai kalia (Irkutsko e Knizhno e Izdatelstvo, 1959) . Naskalnye Risunki, Kamienyk h Ostrovov (Irkutsk , 1960) . OLSON, SIGUR D F . , "Painte d rocks, " National Parks Magazine (Washington) , X X X V (163) , 1961,4-7 . QUIMBY, GEORG E L , "Ne w evidenc e link s Chippew a t o prehistori c cultures, " Chicago Natural History Museum Bulletin, X X I X (1) , 1958 , 7-8 . Indian life in the Upper Great Lakes, 11,000 B.C. to A.D. 1800 (Chicago, 1960) . RADIN, PAUL , an d A . B . REAGAN , "Ojibw a myths an d tales, " Journal of American Folklore, X L I , 1928 , 61-146 . SAUNDERS, R . M . , "The firs t introductio n o f Europea n plant s an d animal s int o Canada," Canadian Historical Review, X V I ( 4 ) , 1935 , 388-406 . SCHOOLCRAFT, HENRY , The American Indians (Rochester , 1851) .

119

SMITH, HARLA N I. , A n Albu m o f Prehistori c Canadia n Art , Canadian Dept. of Mines Bulletin #37 (Victori a Memoria l Museu m Anthropologica l #8, 1923) . SOMMERS, ROGER , Prehistoric rock art of the Federation of Rhodesia & Nyasaland: Painting s an d description s b y Elizabet h Goodall , C . K . Cook e [and ] J. Desmon d Clar k (Salisbury , 1959) . SWEETMAN, PAU L W . , " A preliminar y repor t o n th e Peterboroug h petroglyphs, " Ontario History, xlvi i (3) , 1955 . VOEGELIN, ERMINI E W . , "Note s o n Ojibwa—Ottaw a pictography, " Indiana Academy of Science, Proceedings, L I , 1941 , 44-7 . WARREN, WILLIA M W . , "History o f th e Ojibways , base d upo n traditio n an d ora l statements," Minnesota Historical Collections, V , 1885 . WINCHELL, NEWTO N H . , The Aborigines of Minnesota . . . (St . Paul , 1911) . WINDELS, FERNAND , The Lascaux Cave Paintings (Ne w York , 1950) .

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Pictograph Sites SITES marke d b y (* ) ar e no t illustrate d i n thi s book . Site s marke d b y ( f ) ar

outside o f th e Canadia n Shield .

1957 1. Agne s Lake , sout h o f Narrows , Que tico Provincial Park , 23, 2 4 2. Agne s Lake, centre, Q.P.P., 25, 5 8 3. "Ahsi n Lake, " southwes t o f William s Lake, Q.P.P. , 2 4 4. *"Keewati n Lake," betwen Agnes an d Kawnipi, Q.P.P. , 2 4 5. La c l a Croix , Irvin g Island , Q.P.P. , 3, 24-9 , 8 2 6. *La c l a Croix , jus t wes t o f sit e # 5 , Q.P.P. 7. Crooke d Lake , Basswoo d River , Minn., 16 , 29-30 , 11 3 8. Dark y Lake, Q.P.P., 33,34,36,40,114 9. *Bur t Lake, Q.P.P. , 3 4 10. A n unname d lak e nort h o f Hurlbur t Lake, Q.P.P. , 3 4 11. * Agnes Lake , centra l wes t shore , Q.P.P., 3 4 1958 12. Cach e Bay , Q.P.P. , 16, 30 , 32 , 34 , 4 0 13. Norther n Light s Lake , Nelso n Bay , 14. Norther n Light s Lake , Trafalga r Bay, 3 2 15. Picture d Lake , southwes t o f For t William, 54 , 73 , 7 4 16. Hegma n Lake , Superio r Nationa l Forest, Minnesota, 16 , 36 , 3 8 17. Kawishiw i River , sout h o f Lak e Alice, S.N.F. , Minn., 3 7 18. Burntsid e Lake , wes t o f Ely , Minn. , 37, 7 3 19. *Islan d River, sout h of Isabell a Lake, S.N.F., Minn. , 36 , 3 7

e

20. *Net t Lake, Minnesot a (petroglyphs) , 34, 38 , 4 2 21. Lowe r Manito u Lake , wes t shor e o f Narrows, 71 , 7 2 22. Painte d Narrows, Rain y Lake , 16 , 40 , 89 23. Namaka n Narrows , nort h entrance , 38, 3 9 24. Namaka n Narrows , centre , 38, 3 9 25. Namaka n Lake , islan d i n eas t end , 38, 3 9 26. Cuttl e Lake , small site, 69, 7 0 27. Cuttl e Lake , larg e site , 10 , 11 , 69 , 70, 7 1 28. Southwes t o f Siou x Narrows , Lak e of th e Woods , 46, 48 , 4 9 29. Blindfol d Lake , 2, 46 , 5 5 30. * "Irene Lake," east of Kenor a 31. Norther n Twi n Lake, 4- 7 32. * Orient Bay , sout h o f Roya l Windso r Lodge, 75 , 7 6 33. * French River , eas t o f Recollec t Falls, 9 3 34. Nint h Lake , Eas t Spanis h River , 88 , 89 35. Fair y Point, Lake Missinaibi, 2 , 84-87 36. Agaw a Rock , Lak e Superio r Pro vincial Park , 10 , 14 , 16 , 17 , 79-82 , 113, 11 4 1959 37. Mazina w Lake , Bo n Ech o Provincia l Park, 22 , 94-10 0 38. Littl e Mazina w Lake , sout h o f Bo n Echo, 94 , 95 , 10 0 39. Collin s Inlet , Georgian Bay , 9 2

121

40. Diamon d Lake , Timagam i district , 91, 9 4 41. *Bea r Island , Lake Timagami, 91 , 9 2 42. Northwes t Arm, Lak e Timagami, 9 2 43. * Upper Grass y Lake , east end, 9 0 44. *Uppe r Grass y Lake , centre, 90, 9 1 45. Ferri s Lake, 9 0 46. * Terrier Lake, north o f Nakina , 8 4 47. Ech o Rock , Lak e Nipigon, 75 , 76 , 7 7 48. Gul l Ba y (I) , 76 , 7 7 49. Gul l Ba y (II) , 76 , 7 7 50. Gul l Ba y (III) , 76, 7 7 51. Re d Rock , mout h o f Nipigo n River , 16, 17 , 54 , 7 4 52. Mameigwes s Lake, 52, 67 , 68 , 6 9 53. ^India n Lake , 6 9 54. Carlin g Lake, Vermilion River , 6 5 55. Vincen t Lak e (I) , 65 , 6 6 56. Vincen t Lak e (II) , 65 , 6 6 57. *Schis t Lake, 6 6 58. Cochran e River , northwes t o f Dee r Lake, 57 , 5 8 59. Sharpston e Lake, 60, 6 1 60. Bloodvei n River , 52 , 57 , 58 , 5 9 61. Grass y Narrows , 6 2 62. Delane y Lake (I) , 6 2 63. Delane y Lake (II) , 6 2 64. Whit e Dog , Islingto n India n Reserve , 63 65. A n unname d lak e wes t o f Re x Lake , 62 66. Nea r portag e int o wes t en d o f Re x Lake, 6 2 67. Dryberr y Lake (I) , 6 7 68. Dryber y Lak e (II) , 6 7 69. Pictur e Roc k Island , Whitefis h Bay , 53, 54 , 5 5 70. Clif f Island , Sunset Channel, 4 2 71. *Sunse t Channe l (petroglyphs) , 35 , 42 72. Quetic o Lake (I) , Q.P.P. , 35 , 9 3 73. *Quetic o Lake (II) , Q.P.P. , 3 5 74. Littl e Missinaib i Lak e (I) , 8 8 75. Littl e Missinaib i Lak e (II) , 8 8

122

76. Littl e Missinaib i Lak e (III) , 8 8 77. Killarne y Bay, Georgia n Bay , 9 2 78. Scoti a Lake, 88, 89 , 90 , 9 4 1960 79. *fBurn t Bluff , I , Fayett e Peninsula , 105 80. *fBurn t Bluf f II , Fayett e Peninsula , 105 81. * Upper Frenc h River , wes t o f Key stone Lodge, 93 , 9 4 82. Uppe r Frenc h River , wes t o f Key stone Lodge, 93 , 9 4 83. *Pin e Point , La c de s Mill e Lacs , 72 , 73 84. *Turtl e River (I) , 6 9 85. Turtl e River (II) , 6 9 86. Re d Lake (Ont.) , 63 , 6 4 87. *Clif f Lake , 6 4 88. Rout e Lake (I) , 6 4 89. Rout e Lake (II) , 6 4 90. Rout e Lake (III) , 6 4 91. Hayte r Peninsula , Lak e o f th e Woods, 49 , 5 0 92. Devil' s Hole , Whitefis h Bay , Lak e of th e Woods , 51 , 5 2 93. Anni e Island , Whitefis h Bay , Lak e of th e Woods , 49 , 50 , 51 , 5 4 94. * Portage Bay, Lake of th e Woods , 4 2 95. Pictur e Roc k Point , Lak e o f th e Woods, 4 2 96. *Bal l Lake, English Rive r 97. *Shoa l Lak e (petroglyphs) , 34 , 4 2 98. Devil' s Bay , Whitefis h Bay , Lak e o f the Woods , 49 , 5 1 99. Whitefis h Bay , sout h o f Devil' s Bay , Lake of th e Woods , 49 , 52 , 5 3 100. Sabaskong-Obabiko n Channel , Lak e of th e Woods , 4 3 101. *Obabiko n Narrow s (lichenoglyphs) , 43 102. Painte d Roc k Island , sout h o f Aul neau Peninsula , Lak e o f th e Woods , 43, 4 4

Index abstraction, 18 , 20 , 44 , 55 , 58, 75 , 84 , 95 , 98 , 9 9 Agnes Lake , 23 , 24 , 3 4 Algonkian, 95 , 108 , 112 , 114,116 Altamira, 19 , 2 6 animal, 18 , 79 , 89 , 92 , 97 , 109 antelope, 25 archaeology, 4 6 Arctic, Canadian, 1 0 Armstrong, 55 , 6 5 artist, 16 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 58 , 86, 11 0 Assiniboine, 4 1 Aulneau Peninsula , 41, 4 3 Basswood Lake, Minn., 23 , 104 bear, 24, 44 , 48 , 63 , 94 , 10 7 beaver, 107 ; tails , II I Beland, Jacques , 91 Belaney, Archi e (Gre y Owl), 8 8 Beschel, Roland, 1 0 binder, 1 , 2 , 17 , 28 , 111 ; egg, 17 , 111 ; glue , 17 , 111; grease , 17 , 111 ; oil, 17 , 11 1 birchbark, picture-writin g on, 12 , 14 , 16 , 25 , 48 , 59, 60 , 63 , 109 , 112 , 114, 115 , 11 6 bird, 55 , 57 , 67 , 10 9 bird-men, 9 8 Biscotasing (Bisco), 8 8 bison o r buffalo , 52 , 58 , 68, 97 , 10 3 Boas, Franz, 19 , 2 0 Bolz, J . A., 39

Bon Ech o Provincia l Park , 94 boulder, paintin g on, 9 2 Boyle, David , 10 , 10 2 Breuil, l'Abbe , 10 2 British Columbia , 7 brush (painting) , 17 , 11 1 Bureau o f America n Eth nology, 10 2 Bushman, Sout h African, 1 9 Canadian Shiel d region , 4 , 2, 22 , 84 , 91 , 94 , 99 , 100, 105 , 106 , 110 , 11 6 carbon-dating, 2 8 caribou, 19 , 29 , 35 , 84 , 10 7 catfish, 4 8 cat-like creature, 11 4 cave paintings , Europe , 18 , 25; Altamira , 18 ; Las caux, 18 , 5 9 cervids (dee r family) , 19 , 88 Chapleau, 8 8 Chingwauk, 79 , 80 , 8 2 clam, 4 8 classification of symbols , 1 8 colour, 6 , 8 , 9 , 17 , 30 , 37 , 38, 39 , 43 , 49 , 53 , 67 , 76, 97 , 105 , 11 1 Copway, G. , 12, 26 , 82 , 9 1 Cree, 13 , 77 , 10 9 Creighton, Vincent , 8 4 cultures, 16 , 18 , 46 , 95 , 99 ; Old Copper , 64 , 108 ; Early Woodlan d Cop per, 108 , 110 ; Middl e Woodland Copper , 108; Easter n Woodlan d Copper, 109 , 110 ;

Late Woodlan d Copper , 108, 11 0 Dailey, Rober t C , 10 2 Dalgetty, Keith, 1 2 dating of pictographs, 10 , 1 1 deer, 19 , 25 , 64 , 71 , 82 , 11 1 Deer Lake, 14 , 5 7 Dennis, Keith, 75, 76 , 9 2 Densmore, Francis, 4 8 Devil's Gap, Kenora, 4 3 distortion, 20, 53 , 6 9 dog, 54 , 63 , 7 3 duck, 64 , 10 7 eagle, 48, 53 , 67 , 80 , 11 4 eagle-man, 58, 6 0 elk, 19 , 35 , 10 7 Ely, Minn. , 35 , 36 , 37 , 3 8 Emerson, Norman , 7 9 Emo, 11 4 English Rive r district , 13 , 62, 6 3 Eskimo, 5 4 Europe, 19 , 48 , 77 , 10 2 Fadden, W m , 43 , 46 , 48 , 49, 5 0 fantasy, 20, 4 0 Fayette Peninsula, 10 5 feldspar (mineral) , 3 8 finger-painting, 17 , 37 , 4 6 fires, 43 , 56 , 8 9 fish, 7 , 14 , 39 , 69 , 94 , 107 ; roe, 111 ; glue , 11 1 fisher, 10 7 Fisher, Francis , 13 , 6 3 Fort Frances, 13 , 35 , 40 , 6 9 Fort William, 73

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fox, 26 , 29 , 10 7 France, 10 2 French Lake, 7, 2 3 Gananoque Lakes , 10 0 Georgian Bay, 92, 10 9 glaciation, 3 8 glossary o f symbols : Schoolcraft, 91 ; Copway, 9 1 Gogama, 9 0 Gogama district , 2 , 84 , 90 , 91 Gogama-Timagami area , 8 8 goose, 10 7 Great Lake s region , 82 , 84 , 105,114 Greenland, 1 0 Greenman, Emerson , F. , 107 Grey Owl, see Belaney "Griffin," 7 7 Grondines Point , 9 3 gull's eggs, 11 1 hand smears , 24 ; hand prints, 26 , 34 , 53 , 54 62, 8 4 Harmon, Daniel W., 93 head-dress, 18 , 37 , 57 , 58 80, 8 6 heron, 8 9 Heron Bay, 8 6 High Falls, 8 8 Hoffman, 1 2 horse, 79, 80 , 8 2 Hubachek, Fran k B. , 12 36 Hudson Bay, 105 , 10 6 Hueston, W . T., 88 Huron, 10 9

, ,

,

Ignace, 5 2 interpretation o f picto graphs, 12 , 24 , 79 , 111 , 112 iron, 5 , 6 , 17 , 30 , 34 , 37 , 43, 70 , 11 1 James Bay, 10 6 jay, Canada , 98 Kawartha Lakes, 9 4 Kenora, 2 , 4 , 43 , 67 , 10 9

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Kenyon, Walter, 40, 10 8 kingfisher, 8 0 Kohl, J. G., 12, 2 5 Kundert, A. E., 10 2 Labrador, 10 5 Lac le Ronge , Sask. , 56 Lac Seul, 6 5 Lake Abitibi, 91 Lakehead (Canadian) , 10 2 Lake Huron, 77, 9 2 Lake Michigan, 10 5 Lake Nipigon , see Nipigo n country Lake Nipissing , 92 , 93 , 94 , 107 Lake Saganaga, 30 Lake Simcoe, 9 4 Lake Superior , 3 , 77 , 79 , 82, 92 , 108 , 109 ; eas t shore, 17 ; nort h shore , 13, 14 , 74 , 75 , 80 , 86 ; south shore, 75, 8 0 Lake Superio r Provincia l Park, 8 2 Lake Winnipe g watershed , 58 Lake o f th e Woods , 13 , 14 , 22, 35 , 38 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 45, 66 , 97 , 10 5 Lascaux, 19 , 26 , 5 9 Lawson, 1 ledge, 2 , 53 , 69 , 70 , 74 , 79 , 82 Lee, Thos. E. , 10 7 Lhote, Henri, 10 2 lichen, 4 , 5 , 6 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 16, 30 , 44 , 54 , 57 , 58 , 70, 84 , 93 , 105 , 11 0 lichenoglyph, 40 , 43 , 7 5 lime, 5 , 6 , 11 , 30 , 42 , 65 , 68, 71 , 10 5 Little Gran d Rapids , Man. , 62 lodge, 29 ; swea t o r steam , 4, 113 ; Miday , 44 Longfellow, 1 4 loon, 67 , 10 7 lynx, 14 , 11 4

magic, 59 , 6 0 Mallery, Colone l Garrick , 12, 42 , 75 , 11 2 Manitoba, 4 , 8 , 56 , 77 , 10 9 Manitoulin Island, 10 9 Maymaygwayshi, 13 , 14 , 24, 51 , 62 , 69 , 73 , 74 , 77, 88 , 89 , 90 , 9 1 Mclnnes, Wm. , 10 , 42 , 56 , 63, 67 , 71 , 72 , 74 , 75 , 102 medicine, 63 ; Gran d Medi cine Society , see Mi daywiwin; roc k medi cine, 14 ; tre e o f medi cine, 11 3 Michigan, 8 2 Miday, 13 , 44 , 60 , 10 9 Midaywiwin (Gran d Medi cine Society) , 60 , 63 , 109, 11 2 Minaki, 5 5 Minnesota, 8 , 12 , 22 , 29 , 33, 54 , 105 , 10 8 Minnesota Historica l Soci ety, 10 4 Mishipizhiw, 14 , 17 , 79 , 82 , 86, 11 4 Missanabie, origi n o f name , 87 monkey, 1 4 Montagnais-Naskapi, 7 7 moose, 7 , 19 , 24 , 25 , 30 , 32, 34 , 36 , 39 , 46 , 52 , 62, 64 , 68 , 86 , 104 , 107, 11 1 Museum, Roya l Ontario , 3 , 7, 13 , 39 , 40 , 46 , 56 , 104, 105 , 108 ; Chicag o Museum o f Natura l History, 108 ; Nationa l Museum o f Canada , 107, 10 8 Muskoka-Parry Soun d area , 94, 10 7 muzinuhigun, 87 , 9 5 Myeengun, 80 , 8 2 Mythological associations , 100, 11 6

Macfie, Joh n A., 56, 65 , 9 1 Mackenzie, Alexander , 3 0 MacNeish, R. S., 10 8 Madison, Wis., 10 2

Naskapi, 7 7 naturalism, 20 , 24 , 54 , 76 , 82, 9 9

Neeland, R. H., 6 8 Neguagon Reserve , 2 4 Nipigon country, 22 , 51 , 58 , 63, 65 , 66 , 74 , 75 , 76 , 77, 105 , 10 8 Nipissing (tribe) , 10 9 North America, 17 , 10 2 Norwood, Joseph, 3 8 Nova Scotia, 10 2 Nute, Grace Lee, 38, 10 2 Nym Lake, 69

Oberholtzer, Ernest, 35 offerings, 2 , 14 , 42 , 46 , 49 , 53, 11 0 Ogopogo, 4 3 Ojibwa, 12 , 14 , 25 , 37 , 41 , 49, 56 , 59 , 69 , 77 , 87 , 90, 91 , 109 , 112 , 114 , 115, 11 6 Okladnikov, A. P., 46, 10 2 Olson, Sigurd, 36, 10 2 Ontario, 8 , 22 , 102 , 105 , 106, 109 , 11 1 Ontario Departmen t o f Lands an d Forests , 3 , 7, 8 , 53 , 90 , 10 4 Ottawa (tribe) , 10 9 Ottawa watershed, 9 3 otter, 10 7 Ottertail, Chas., 24 overhang, 6 , 23, 33 , 35 , 5 2 overpainting, 57 , 58 , 6 8 panther, 8 0 parklands, 58 Patricia district, 2 2 pelican, 3 0 Peters, Fred , 7 2 petroglyphs (roc k carvings) , 32, 34 , 35 „ 38, 40 , 42 , 88, 91 , 9 4 pickerel (U.S . "walleye") , 68 Pickle Crow, 65 pigment, 10 , 11 , 28 , 37 , 40 , 55, 57 , 63 , 70 , 93 , 105 , 111 pipe, man smoking, 25 Plains Indians, 1 9 porcupine, 58

Porcupine Mountai n Stat e Park, Mich., 8 2 Port Arthur, 75 pottery, 16 , 99, 10 8 prairies, 40 prayer sticks , 14 , 49 , 50 , 53 projection, psychological , 68 Puckasaw, 7 9 Quebec, Provinc e of , 8 , 22 , 77, 10 9 Queen's University , 1 0 Quetico Foundation, 3, 10 4 Quetico Provincia l Park , 3 , 7, 8 , 12 , 23 , 24 , 29 , 30 , 35, 40, 58 , 69 , 10 4 Quetico-Superior region , 22 , 38 rabbit o r hare , 34 , 97 , 98 , 107 rabbit-man, 98 rabbit-skin glue, 11 1 Radisson an d Groseilliers , 76 Rainy Lake , 13 , 14 , 40 , 4 2 Rainy River , 105 , 106 , 109 , 114 Ranier, Minn., 3 5 Red Lak e (Ont.) , 2 , 37 , 56 , 57, 63 , 8 7 reindeer, 8 2 rock: gabbro , 37 ; granite , 11, 25 , 29 , 30 , 36 , 48 , 51, 55 , 62 , 76 , 94 , 110 ; quartzite, 91 ; schist , 38, 90 ; sandstane , 82 ; sedimentary, 7 4 surface of , 110 ; natur e of, 1 6 rock shelters, 69 Rogers, Edwar d S., 5 6 Rogers, Jea n H., 5 6 Ronda, 9 0 Sabaskong Bay , 43, 5 1 Sahara Desert, 10 2 St. Lawrence-Grea t Lake s lowlands, 9 9

St. Lawrence lowlands, 9 4 St. Thomas, 68 Sanderson, Cano n Maurice, 13, 87 Saskatchewan, 8 , 5 6 Sault St e Mari e (th e Soo) , 14, 79, 8 8 Saulteaux (Saulteurs , Soto) , 13, 10 9 Schoolcraft, Henry , 10 , 12 , 14, 26 , 79 , 91 , 11 2 seepage, 46, 7 1 serpent or snake, 38 , 43 , 44 , 48, 67 , 74 , 80 , 93 , 107 , 111, 11 4 Severn River, 94 shaman, 14 , 30 , 60 , 80 , 11 3 Sheppard, Robert, 63 Siberia, 19 , 46, 10 2 Sioux, 29, 10 8 Sioux Lookout, 55, 56 , 6 5 Sioux Narrows, 43, 46 , 5 3 site, choice of, 110 , 11 1 South Africa, 19 , 10 2 Spain, 10 2 spatial organization , (com position & design), 1 6 sturgeon, 30 , 44 , 6 4 style, 82, 112 , 11 6 subject matte r o f picto graphs, 18 , 2 0 Sudbury, 8 8 Superior Nationa l Forest , 36, 3 7 Sweetman, Pau l W., 9 4 Switzerland, 1 0 symmetry, 20 , 4 6 Tanner, John, 11 4 tectiform, 50 , 9 8 Thousand Islands, 9 4 thunderbird, 24 , 51 , 89 , 93 , 111, 114 ; nest, 51 tobacco, 49 , 6 5 Toronto, 28 Tower Reserve, Minn. , 3 7 trout, 64, 74 , 7 5 Trygg, W m, 36, 3 7 Turner, George, 91, 9 2 turtle, 43, 62 , 69 , 80 , 11 1 United States , 12 , 35 , 102 , 105

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University of Michigan , 107 University o f Toronto , 79 , 102 Verendrye, Pierr e Gaultier , Sieur de la, 48 Vikings, 1 3 Warren, Wm. W. , 12

126

water level , 6 , 36 , 39 , 45 63, 88 , 9 4 waterside rocks, 1 3 weathering an d erosion , 6 17, 53 , 57 , 62 , 65 , 76 79, 86 , 93 , 95 , 11 0 Weyndiow, 6 9 Weyzuhkaychahk ("Whis key Jack"), 9 8

, , , -

Whitefish Bay , 41 , 53 , 46 , 49, 5 3 White River, 88 Wilderness Researc h Cen ter, Quetico-Superior , 12, 36 , 10 4 Willisville, 9 2 Wisconsin, 10 8 wolf, 10 7

Acknowledgments IN ADDITIO N t o th e genera l an d specia l acknowledgement s mad e herei n M r . Dewdne y is anxious to record the following : "Above al l I shoul d lik e t o recor d th e invaluabl e ai d i n trackin g dow n ethnological clue s furnishe d b y th e lat e Chie f Jame s Horto n o f Manito u Rapids. A gentl e ma n o f unfailin g courtes y an d unpretentiou s dignity , greatl y gifted a s a telle r o f Ojibw a tales , hi s deat h wa s a n incalculabl e loss. O f othe r Ojibwa wh o generousl y share d wit h m e th e lor e o f thei r forefathers , I shoul d particularly lik e t o mentio n Messrs . Norva l Morrisea u an d Thoma s Paish k of R e d Lake , M r . Jac k Bush y o f Ignace , an d M r . Charle s Frida y o f Sein e River. I a m als o especiall y indebted t o Dr . C. L. Hannay o f London , Ontario , whose super b photograph s o f th e Grass y Narrow s scrol l mad e i t possibl e for m e to reproduce i t in accurate detail . "To th e man y othe r friend s wh o hav e cheerfull y provide d hospitality , transportation, clues , directions , an d helpfu l information , bot h i n th e fiel d and b y correspondence , m y persona l thanks . Withou t th e hel p o f each , thi s book woul d hav e bee n th e poorer. "

M R . KID D wishe s especiall y to than k D r . an d M r s . E. S . Roger s fo r makin g numerous suggestion s concernin g his manuscript . Dr. V . B. Meen als o rea d th e manuscrip t an d offere d helpfu l advice .

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